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stefanbschneider

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[ "Cooling may be designed to reduce the ambient temperature within the case of a computer, such as by exhausting hot air, or to cool a single component or small area (spot cooling). Components commonly individually cooled include the CPU, Graphics processing unit (GPU) and the northbridge.\n", "Computer cooling is required to remove the waste heat produced by computer components, to keep components within permissible operating temperature limits. Components that are susceptible to temporary malfunction or permanent failure if overheated include integrated circuits such as central processing units (CPUs), chipset, graphics cards, and hard disk drives.\n", "Another growing trend due to the increasing heat density of computer, GPU, FPGA, and ASICs is to immerse the entire computer or select components in a thermally, but not electrically, conductive liquid. Although rarely used for the cooling of personal computers, liquid immersion is a routine method of cooling large power distribution components such as transformers. It is also becoming popular with data centers. Personal computers cooled in this manner may not require either fans or pumps, and may be cooled exclusively by passive heat exchange between the computer hardware and the enclosure it is placed in. A heat exchanger (i.e. heater core or radiator) might still be needed though, and the piping also needs to be placed correctly. \n", "Components are often designed to generate as little heat as possible, and computers and operating systems may be designed to reduce power consumption and consequent heating according to workload, but more heat may still be produced than can be removed without attention to cooling. Use of heatsinks cooled by airflow reduces the temperature rise produced by a given amount of heat. Attention to patterns of airflow can prevent the development of hotspots. Computer fans are widely used along with heatsink fans to reduce temperature by actively exhausting hot air. There are also more exotic cooling techniques, such as liquid cooling. All modern day processors are designed to cut out or reduce their voltage or clock speed if the internal temperature of the processor exceeds a specified limit.\n", "However since the early 1990s high-performance CPUs such as found in typical desktop computers have required active cooling. This also includes secondary processors, such as graphics processors which also consume a large amount of power. The most common and inexpensive method of active cooling is to mount one or more conventional fans directly on the processors in conjunction with a large heat sink, and possibly one or more others elsewhere in the case of the computer to increase the overall airflow. Much larger computers have sometimes relied on more sophisticated active cooling techniques such as water or refrigerant -based methods.\n", "Because high temperatures can significantly reduce life span or cause permanent damage to components, and the heat output of components can sometimes exceed the computer's cooling capacity, manufacturers often take additional precautions to ensure that temperatures remain within safe limits. A computer with thermal sensors integrated in the CPU, motherboard, chipset, or GPU can shut itself down when high temperatures are detected to prevent permanent damage, although this may not completely guarantee long-term safe operation. Before an overheating component reaches this point, it may be \"throttled\" until temperatures fall below a safe point using dynamic frequency scaling technology. Throttling reduces the operating frequency and voltage of an integrated circuit or disables non-essential features of the chip to reduce heat output, often at the cost of slightly or significantly reduced performance. For desktop and notebook computers, throttling is often controlled at the BIOS level. Throttling is also commonly used to manage temperatures in smartphones and tablets, where components are packed tightly together with little to no active cooling, and with additional heat transferred from the hand of the user.\n", "While originally limited to mainframe computers, liquid cooling has become a practice largely associated with overclocking in the form of either manufactured kits, or in the form of do-it-yourself setups assembled from individually gathered parts. The past few years have seen an increase in the popularity of liquid cooling in pre-assembled, moderate to high performance, desktop computers. Sealed (\"closed-loop\") systems incorporating a small pre-filled radiator, fan, and waterblock simplify the installation and maintenance of water cooling at a slight cost in cooling effectiveness relative to larger and more complex setups.\n" ]

[ "There is still debate about the causes of all mass extinctions. In general, large extinctions may result when a biosphere under long-term stress undergoes a short-term shock. An underlying mechanism appears to be present in the correlation of extinction and origination rates to diversity. High diversity leads to a persistent increase in extinction rate; low diversity to a persistent increase in origination rate. These presumably ecologically controlled relationships likely amplify smaller perturbations (asteroid impacts, etc.) to produce the global effects observed.\n", "Mass extinctions are thought to result when a long-term stress is compounded by a short-term shock. Over the course of the Phanerozoic, individual taxa appear to be less likely to become extinct at any time, which may reflect more robust food webs as well as less extinction-prone species and other factors such as continental distribution.\n", "An extinction event (also known as a mass extinction or biotic crisis) is a widespread and rapid decrease in the biodiversity on Earth. Such an event is identified by a sharp change in the diversity and abundance of multicellular organisms. It occurs when the rate of extinction increases with respect to the rate of speciation. Estimates of the number of major mass extinctions in the last 540 million years range from as few as five to more than twenty. These differences stem from the threshold chosen for describing an extinction event as \"major\", and the data chosen to measure past diversity.\n", "A mass mortality event (MME) is an incident that kills a vast number of individuals of a single species in a short period of time. The event may put a species at risk of extinction or upset an ecosystem. This is distinct from the mass die-off associated with short lived and synchronous emergent insect taxa which is a regular and non-catastrophic occurrence.\n", "According to a 1998 survey of 400 biologists conducted by New York's American Museum of Natural History, nearly 70% believed that the Earth is currently in the early stages of a human-caused mass extinction, known as the Holocene extinction. In that survey, the same proportion of respondents agreed with the prediction that up to 20% of all living populations could become extinct within 30 years (by 2028). A 2014 special edition of \"Science\" declared there is widespread consensus on the issue of human-driven mass species extinctions.\n", "BULLET::::- Extinction event – widespread and rapid decrease in the amount of life on Earth. Such an event is identified by a sharp reduction in the diversity and abundance of macroscopic life. Also known as a mass extinction or biotic crisis.\n", "Mass extinctions have sometimes accelerated the evolution of life on Earth. When dominance of particular ecological niches passes from one group of organisms to another, it is rarely because the new dominant group is \"superior\" to the old and usually because an extinction event eliminates the old dominant group and makes way for the new one.\n" ]

[ "Because of opposition from the British government, a more explicit racial policy was avoided in the legislation, with the control mechanism for people deemed undesirable being a dictation test, which required a person seeking entry to Australia to write out a passage of fifty words dictated to them in any European language, not necessarily English, at the discretion of an immigration officer. The test was not designed to allow immigration officers to evaluate applicants on the basis of language skills, rather the language chosen was always one known beforehand that the person would fail.\n", "This was similar to tests previously used in Western Australia, New South Wales and Tasmania. It enabled immigration officials to exclude individuals on the basis of race without explicitly saying so. After 1903 the passage chosen was not important in itself as it was already decided the person could not enter Australia and so failure was inevitable. Although the test could theoretically be given to any person arriving in Australia, in practice it was given selectively on the basis of race, and others considered undesirables. Between 1902 and 1909, 52 people passed the test out of 1,359 who were given it.\n", "The White Australia policy, or at least the ideas behind it, had been very strong since long before Federation. Although the \"Immigration Restriction Act 1901\" was established to prevent non-white people from migrating to Australia, significant numbers of foreign citizens, particularly Chinese people who migrated during the Victorian gold rush, were already living in Australia, and many politicians were keen to prevent them from having any political influence. Politicians also wanted to prevent Indigenous people from voting. Although Indigenous men had the right to vote everywhere except Western Australia and Queensland, and Indigenous women also had the right to vote in South Australia, this was not because it had explicitly been given to them, but because it had not explicitly been denied to them.\n", "Given the relentless and revolutionary assault on their historic national identity, white Australians now face a life-or-death struggle to preserve their homeland. Whether effective resistance to their displacement and dispossession can be mounted is another question. Unlike other racial, ethnic or religious groups well-equipped to practice the politics of identity, white Australians lack a strong, cohesive sense of ethnic solidarity. As a consequence, ordinary Australians favouring a moratorium on non-white immigration cannot count on effective leadership or support from their co-ethnics among political, intellectual and corporate elites. On the contrary, our still predominantly Anglo-Australian rulers are indifferent; some profit from, and others actually take pride in their active collaboration with the Third World colonization of Australia. None of the major parties, indeed, not one member of the Commonwealth Parliament, offers citizens the option of voting to defend and nurture Australia's Anglo-European identity. The problem, in short, is clear: The Australian nation is bereft of a responsible ruling class.\n", "User consultation undertaken by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) for the purpose of planning the 2011 census in England and Wales found that most of the respondents from all ethnic groups that took part in the testing felt comfortable with the use of the terms \"Black\" and \"White\". However, some participants suggested that these colour terms were confusing and unacceptable, did not adequately describe an individual's ethnic group, did not reflect his or her true skin colour, and were stereotypical and outdated terms. The heading \"Black or Black British\", which was used in 2001, was changed to \"Black/African/Caribbean/Black British\" for the 2011 census. As with earlier censuses, individuals who did not identify as \"Black\", \"White\" or \"Asian\" could instead write in their own ethnic group under \"Other ethnic group\". Persons with multiple ancestries could indicate their respective ethnic backgrounds under a \"Mixed or multiple ethnic groups\" tick box and write-in area.\n", "In 1901, the Australian federal government adopted the White Australia policies, initiated with the Immigration Restriction Act 1901, which generally excluded Asian peoples, especially the Chinese and the Melanesians. Historian C. E. W. Bean said that Australian racialist exclusion was \"a vehement effort to maintain a high, Western standard of economy, society, and culture (necessitating, at that stage, however it might be camouflaged, the rigid exclusion of Oriental peoples)\". In 1913, the film, \"Australia Calls\" (1913) depicted an invasion of Australia by \"Mongolians\" defeated by ordinary Australians with resistance and guerrilla warfare.\n", "Academic Joseph Pugliese is among writers who have applied whiteness studies to an Australian context, discussing the ways that Indigenous Australians were marginalized in the wake of British colonization of Australia, as whiteness came to be defined as central to Australian identity. Pugliese discusses the 20th-century White Australia policy as a conscious attempt to preserve the \"purity\" of whiteness in Australian society. Likewise Stefanie Affeldt considers whiteness \"a concept not yet fully developed at the time the first convicts and settlers arrived down under\" which, as a social relation, had to be negotiated and was driven forward in particular by the labour movement. Eventually, with the Federation of Australia, \"[o]verlaying social differences, the shared membership in the 'white race' was the catalyst for the consolidation of the Australian colonies as the Commonwealth of Australia\".\n" ]

[ "In the Philippines, the term \"snap election\" usually refers to the 1986 presidential election, where President Ferdinand Marcos called elections earlier than scheduled, in response to growing social unrest. Marcos was declared official winner of the election but was eventually ousted when it was alleged that he cheated in the elections.\n", "Early or \"snap\" elections have occurred at least three times in New Zealand's history: in 1951, 1984 and 2002. Early elections often provoke controversy, as they potentially give governing parties an advantage over opposition candidates. Note that of the three elections in which the government won an increased majority, two involved snap elections (1951 and 2002 – the other incumbent-boosting election took place in 1938). The 1984 snap election backfired on the government of the day: many believe that the Prime Minister, Robert Muldoon, called it while drunk. \"See Snap election, New Zealand.\" The 1996 election took place slightly early (on 12 October) to avoid holding a by-election after the resignation of Michael Laws.\n", "Since the power to call snap elections usually lies with the incumbent, they usually result in increased majorities for the party already in power having been called at an advantageous time. However, snap elections can also backfire on the incumbent resulting in a decreased majority or even the opposition winning or gaining power. As a result of the latter cases there have been occasions in which the consequences have been the implementation of fixed term elections.\n", "In Japan, a snap election is called when a Prime Minister dissolves the lower house of the Diet of Japan. The act is based on Article 7 of the Constitution of Japan, which can be interpreted as saying that the Prime Minister has the power to dissolve the lower house after so advising the Emperor. Almost all general elections of the lower house have been snap elections since 1947, when the current constitution was enacted. The only exception was 1976 election, when the Prime Minister Takeo Miki was isolated within his own Liberal Democratic Party. The majority of LDP politicians opposed Miki's decision not to dissolve the lower house until the end of its 4-year term.\n", "Former Premier, Ralph T. O'Neal, had warned of the possibility of the Government calling a snap election. President of the opposition Virgin Islands Party, Carvin Malone, had predicted an election on 6 or 13 July 2015. Although it became common parlance to refer to the election as a \"snap\" election in local media, it is not entirely clear that it was. The ruling party announced candidates for an \"upcoming election\" over a month prior to dissolution of the House, and all parties claimed that they had anticipated the announcement.\n", "In Canada, snap elections at the federal level are not uncommon. During his 10 years as Prime Minister, Jean Chrétien recommended to the Governor General to call two snap elections, in 1997 and 2000, winning both times. Wilfrid Laurier and John Turner, meanwhile, both lost their premierships in snap elections they themselves had called (in 1911 and 1984, respectively). The most notable federal snap election is that of 1958, where Prime Minister John Diefenbaker called an election just nine months after the previous one and transformed his minority government into the largest majority in the history of Canada up to that date.\n", "The conditions for when a snap election can be called have been significantly restricted by the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 to occasions when the government loses a confidence motion or when a two-thirds supermajority of MPs vote in favour. Prior to this, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom had the de facto power to call an election at will by requesting a dissolution from the monarch – the limited circumstances where this would not be granted were set out in the Lascelles Principles. There was no fixed period for holding elections, although between 1997 and 2015 there was a convention that the government should hold elections on the same date as local elections on the first Thursday of May. Since World War II, only the 2015 general election was held on the latest possible date (7 May 2015), due to being the first general election at the end of a fixed-term Parliament.\n" ]

[ "The Government of Nazi Germany was a dictatorship run according to the \"Führerprinzip\". As the successor to the government of the Weimar Republic, it inherited the government structure and institutions of the previous state. Although the Weimar Constitution technically remained in effect until Germany's surrender in 1945, there were no actual restraints on the exercise of state power. In addition to the already extant government of the Weimar Republic, the Nazi leadership created a large number of different organizations for the purpose of helping them govern and remain in power. They rearmed and strengthened the military, set up an extensive state security apparatus and created their own personal party army, which in 1940 became known as the Waffen-SS.\n", "The ruling Nazi Party of 1933–1945 Germany envisaged the ultimate establishment of a world government under the complete hegemony of the Third Reich. In its move to overthrow the post-World War I Treaty of Versailles Germany had already withdrawn itself from the League of Nations, and it did not intend to join a similar internationalist organization ever again. In his desire and stated political aim of expanding the living space (\"Lebensraum\") of the German people by destroying or driving out \"lesser-deserving races\" in and from other territories dictator Adolf Hitler may have devised an ideological system of self-perpetuating expansionism, in which the expansion of a state's population would require the conquest of more territory which would, in turn, lead to a further growth in population which would then require even more conquests. In 1927, Rudolf Hess relayed to Walter Hewel Hitler's belief that world peace could only be acquired \"when one power, the racially best one, has attained uncontested supremacy\". When this control would be achieved, this power could then set up for itself a world police and assure itself \"the necessary living space... The lower races will have to restrict themselves accordingly\".\n", "After the Nazis came to power in Germany, they reformed the administrative system by transforming the former German provinces and states into their Gau system in 1935 as a part of their Gleichschaltung policy.\n", "Meanwhile, authoritarian regimes emerged in several countries in Europe and South America, in particular the Third Reich in Germany. Germany elected Adolf Hitler, who imposed the Nuremberg Laws, a series of laws which discriminated against Jews and other ethnic minorities. Weaker states such as Ethiopia, China, and Poland were invaded by expansionist world powers, the last of these attacks leading to the outbreak of the World War II on September 1, 1939, despite calls from the League of Nations for worldwide peace. World War II helped end the Great Depression when governments spent money for the war effort. The 1930s also saw a proliferation of new technologies, especially in the fields of intercontinental aviation, radio, and film.\n", "The states of the Weimar Republic were effectively abolished after the establishment of Nazi Germany in 1933 by a series of \"Reichsstatthalter\" decrees between 1933 and 1935, and autonomy was replaced by direct rule of the National Socialist German Workers' Party in the \"Gleichschaltung\" process. The states continued to formally exist as \"de jure\" rudimentary bodies, but from 1934 were superseded by \"de facto\" Nazi provinces called \"Gaue\". Many of the states were formally dissolved at the end of World War II by the Allies, and ultimately re-organised into the modern states of Germany.\n", "In 1930, Germany was formally a multi-party parliamentary democracy, led by President Paul von Hindenburg (1925–1934). However, beginning in March 1930, Hindenburg only appointed governments without a parliamentary majority which systematically governed by emergency decrees, circumventing the democratically elected Reichstag. \n", "Régime change hit Germany in January 1933 and the Hitler government lost little time in imposing one-party government. The same year Stieler von Heydekampf became a Nazi Party member. He was then, in 1935, appointed a Wehrwirtschaftsführer (literally \"military economic leader\"), a quasi-military honour given by government to senior industry figures expected to be supportive in any future military rearmament programme.\n" ]

[ "The British were reluctant administrators and continued pressure was applied to them from New Zealand and from European residents of the islands to pass the Cook Islands over to New Zealand. The first British Resident was Frederick Moss, a New Zealand politician who tried to help the local chiefs form a central government. In 1898 another New Zealander, Major W.E. Gudgeon, a veteran of the New Zealand Wars, was made British Resident with the aim of paving the way for New Zealand to take over from Britain as part of the expansionist ambitions of New Zealand's Prime Minister, Richard Seddon. This was not favored by Makea Takau who preferred the idea of being annexed to Britain. One of the results of the British annexation was freedom of religion and a new influx of missionaries from different denominations. The first Roman Catholic church was dedicated in 1896.\n", "The government's most significant policies concerned attempts to create a distinct New Zealand identity, both internally and in the world. For most of its history, New Zealand had been, economically, culturally and politically, highly dependent on Britain. This began to change during World War II, when it became clear that Britain was no longer able to defend its former colonies in the Pacific. As Britain began to turn away from what was left of its former Empire and towards Europe, New Zealanders became less inclined to think of themselves as British. Initially the country turned instead to the United States, and so entered into the ANZUS pact with the US and Australia, and aided the US in the Vietnam War. However, by the early 1970s many New Zealanders felt the need for genuine national independence, a feeling strengthened when Britain joined the European Economic Community in 1973, causing serious problems for New Zealand trade. Most of this government's policies can be seen in this light.\n", "New Zealand was a sovereign Dominion under the New Zealand monarchy, as per the Statute of Westminster 1931. It quickly entered World War II, officially declaring war on Germany on 3 September 1939, just hours after Britain. Unlike Australia, which had felt obligated to declare war, as it also had not ratified the Statute of Westminster, New Zealand did so as a sign of allegiance to Britain, and in recognition of Britain's abandonment of its former appeasement policy, which New Zealand had long opposed. This led to then Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage declaring two days later:\n", "The annexation of New Zealand by Britain meant that Britain now controlled New Zealand's foreign policy. Subsidised large-scale immigration from Britain and Ireland began, and miners came for the gold rush around 1850-60. In the 1860s, the British sent 16,000 soldiers to contain the New Zealand wars in the North Island. The colony shipped gold and, especially, wool to Britain. From the 1880s the development of refrigerated shipping allowed the establishment of an export economy based on the mass export of frozen meat and dairy products to Britain. In 1899-1902 New Zealand made its first contribution to an external war, sending troops to fight on the British side in the Second Boer War. The country changed its status from colony to dominion with internal self governance in 1907.\n", "From the 1890s the New Zealand Parliament enacted a number of progressive initiatives, including women's suffrage and old age pensions. After becoming a self-governing dominion with the British Empire in 1907, the country remained an enthusiastic member of the empire, and over 100,000 New Zealanders fought in World War I as part of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force. After the war, New Zealand signed the Treaty of Versailles (1919), joined the League of Nations, and pursued an independent foreign policy, while its defence was still controlled by Britain.\n", "In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a Dominion within the British Empire, reflecting its self-governing status. In 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster, confirming that the British Parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand.\n", "New Zealand became a separate British Crown colony in 1841 and received responsible government with the Constitution Act in 1852. New Zealand chose not to take part in Australian Federation and became the Dominion of New Zealand on 26 September 1907, Dominion Day, by proclamation of King Edward VII. Dominion status was a public mark of the political independence that had evolved over half a century through responsible government.\n" ]

[ "At the beginning of the Meiji period the Japanese government, wanting to protect its image and make a good impression on the West and to avoid ridicule, outlawed tattoos, and irezumi took on connotations of criminality. Nevertheless, fascinated foreigners went to Japan seeking the skills of tattoo artists, and traditional tattooing continued underground. Tattooing was legalized by the occupation forces in 1948, but has retained its image of criminality. For many years, traditional Japanese tattoos were associated with the yakuza, Japan's notorious mafia, and many businesses in Japan (such as public baths, fitness centers and hot springs) still ban customers with tattoos.\n", "Tattooing for spiritual and decorative purposes in Japan is thought to extend back to at least the Jōmon or Paleolithic period and was widespread during various periods for both the Japanese and the native Ainu. Chinese texts from before 300 AD described social differences among Japanese people as being indicated through tattooing and other bodiapanese. Chinese texts from the time also described Japanese men of all ages as decorating their faces and bodies with tattoos.\n", "Although tattoos have gained popularity among the youth of Japan due to Western influence, there is still a stigma on them among the general consensus. Unlike the US, even finding a tattoo shop in Japan may prove difficult, with tattoo shops primarily placed in areas that are very tourist or US military friendly. According to Kunihiro Shimada, the president of the Japan Tattoo Institute, \"Today, thanks to years of government suppression, there are perhaps 300 tattoo artists in Japan.\"\n", "Cliff Raven Ingram (August 24, 1932 – November 28, 2001) was one of a handful of tattoo artists (along with Sailor Jerry Collins and Don Ed Hardy) who pioneered the adoption of the Japanese tattoo aesthetic in the United States. Born in Indiana as \"Clifford H. Ingram,\" Cliff later shortened his first name and adopted his business name of \"Raven\" as his legal middle name, largely to facilitate mail delivery.\n", "Even as Japanese hung Sambo signs throughout the city, they were undeniably attracted to black music and style. Before hip hop, the Japanese had embraced jazz, rock n roll and funk. It is important to note however, despite the seemingly racist tendencies toward Africans and the simultaneous embrace of black culture, the Japanese have a very different construction of racial ideology then the US. Whereas the white versus black dichotomy typifies the racial system in the US, the Japanese construct their identities in terms of nationalism. Rather than identifying strongly with a color, Japanese tradition speaks to a homogeneous society that places foreigners in the \"other category.\" Because of this context, \"jiggers\" and the young teens who wear blackface rebel by embracing individual identities that are different from the norm.\n", "The Government of Meiji Japan, formed in 1868, banned the art of tattooing altogether, viewing it as barbaric and lacking respectability. This subsequently created a subculture of criminals and outcasts. These people had no place in \"decent society\" and were frowned upon. They could not simply integrate into mainstream society because of their obvious visible tattoos, forcing many of them into criminal activities which ultimately formed the roots for the modern Japanese mafia, the Yakuza, with which tattoos have become almost synonymous in Japan.\n", "Japanese art has been an influence on hip hop culture as well. Takashi Murakami paints Japanese cultural objects and icons repetitiously and markets them on all sorts of products including keychains, mouse pads, T-shirts and Louis Vuitton handbags. He is responsible for Kanye West's Graduation and Kids See Ghosts album covers.\n" ]

[ "Other symptoms can include blistering, swelling (edema), pruritus (itching), peeling skin, rash, nausea, fever, chills, and fainting (syncope). Also, a small amount of heat is given off from the burn, caused by the concentration of blood in the healing process, giving a warm feeling to the affected area. Sunburns may be classified as superficial, or partial thickness burns. Blistering is a sign of second degree sunburn.\n", "Common side effects are peeling, itching, redness, dryness, burning, and dermatitis. Benzoyl peroxide bleaches hair, clothes, towels, bedclothing, and the like. Prolonged exposure to natural or artificial sun light (UV rays) is not recommended because the gel may cause photosensitivity. Irritation due to benzoyl peroxide can be reduced by avoiding harsh facial cleansers and wearing sunscreen prior to sun exposure.\n", "Once affected, the symptoms may not show for several days. The symptoms can be severe burning, itching, swelling and pain in the affected areas. The areas exposed to sunlight may have the appearance of a sunburn - where clothing is worn the skin is protected. There is no known reaction to moonlight, but reflections from windows and mirrors of sunlight can still cause damage.\n", "Sunburn causes an inflammation process, including production of prostanoids and bradykinin. These chemical compounds increase sensitivity to heat by reducing the threshold of heat receptor (TRPV1) activation from to . The pain may be caused by overproduction of a protein called CXCL5, which activates nerve fibres.\n", "Heat urticaria presents within five minutes after the skin has been exposed to heat above 43 degrees Celsius (109.4 degrees Fahrenheit), with the exposed area becoming burned, stinging, and turning red, swollen, and indurated.\n", "Additionally, since sunburn is a type of radiation burn, it can initially hide a severe exposure to radioactivity resulting in acute radiation syndrome or other radiation-induced illnesses, especially if the exposure occurred under sunny conditions. For instance, the difference between the erythema caused by sunburn and other radiation burns is not immediately obvious. Symptoms common to heat illness and the prodromic stage of acute radiation syndrome like nausea, vomiting, fever, weakness/fatigue, dizziness or seizure can add to further diagnostic confusion.\n", "Minor sunburns typically cause nothing more than slight redness and tenderness to the affected areas. In more serious cases, blistering can occur. Extreme sunburns can be painful to the point of debilitation and may require hospital care.\n" ]

[ "Internet researcher Annette Markham (1998) observes that text-based interviewing can take much longer than face-to-face, phone or Skype interviews because typing takes longer than talking. Textual methods require users to verbalize conventional aspects of polite conversation, such as nodding or smiling, which requires added effort and time.\n", "While extracting private information by watching somebody typing on a keyboard might seem to be an easy task, it becomes extremely challenging if it has to be automated. However, an automated tool is needed in the case of long-lasting surveillance procedures or long user activity, as a human being is able to reconstruct only a few characters per minute. The paper \"ClearShot: Eavesdropping on Keyboard Input from Video\" presents a novel approach to automatically recovering the text being typed on a keyboard, based solely on a video of the user typing.\n", "BULLET::::- Court reporter, a person whose occupation is to transcribe spoken or recorded speech into written form to produce official transcripts of court hearings, depositions and other official proceedings.\n", "A transcription service is a business service which converts speech (either live or recorded) into a written or electronic text document. Transcription services are often provided for business, legal, or medical purposes. The most common type of transcription is from a spoken-language source into text such as a computer file suitable for printing as a document such as a report. Common examples are the proceedings of a court hearing such as a criminal trial (by a court reporter) or a physician's recorded voice notes (medical transcription). Some transcription businesses can send staff to events, speeches, or seminars, who then convert the spoken content into text. Some companies also accept recorded speech, either on cassette, CD, VHS, or as sound files. For a transcription service, various individuals and organisations have different rates and methods of pricing. That can be per line, per word, per minute, or per hour, which differs from individual to individual and industry to industry. Transcription companies primarily serve private law firms, local, state and federal government agencies and courts, trade associations, meeting planners and nonprofits.\n", "Voice writing is a method used for court reporting, medical transcription, and closed captioning. Using the voice writing method, a court reporter speaks directly into a stenomask or speech silencer—a hand-held mask containing one or two microphones and voice-dampening materials. As the reporter repeats the testimony into the recorder, the mask prevents the reporter from being heard during testimony. Voice writers record everything that is said by judges, witnesses, attorneys, and other parties to a proceeding, including gestures and emotional reactions, and either provide real-time feed or prepare transcripts afterwards.\n", "Real-time transcription is the general term for transcription by court reporters using real-time text technologies to deliver computer text screens within a few seconds of the words being spoken. Specialist software allows participants in court hearings or depositions to make notes in the text and highlight portions for future reference.\n", "Candidates take the Reading and Use of English, Writing and Listening papers on the same day. The Speaking paper may be taken on the same day, but is more usually taken a few days before or after the other papers.\n" ]

[ "In 2007, John Ortved wrote an article for \"Vanity Fair\" titled \"Simpson Family Values\". Producers of the show, including Groening, Brooks and Simon, chose not to cooperate in the project. Ortved believes that the reason was because \"were upset [that] the myth of \"The Simpsons\" would be challenged.\" Shortly after the article was published, an agent suggested that Ortved write a full book. The producers again decided not to participate, and, according to Ortved, Brooks asked current and former \"Simpsons\" employees not to talk to Ortved. However, the book does include portions of interviews that several figures did with other sources. Ortved did interview a number of sources for the book, including Hank Azaria, a cast member of the show since the second season, Fox Broadcasting Company owner Rupert Murdoch and former writer Conan O'Brien.\n", "Fox cartoon series have been the subject of controversy; most notably, \"The Simpsons\", \"American Dad!\" and \"Family Guy\", for their approach to comedy and for the coarse language and jokes that some have said are too raunchy for network TV. These shows have been some of the most risqué material aired on FOX. Fox has also been accused by some groups of corrupting children with cartoons ostensibly for teens and adults. In Venezuela, \"The Simpsons\" and \"Family Guy\" have been taken off the air due to their content. In Russia, \"Family Guy\" and \"The Simpsons\" were subject to lawsuits regarding their content, although in Russia other animated series like \"South Park\" were more controversial.\n", "\"The Simpsons\" was co-developed by Groening, James L. Brooks, and Sam Simon, a writer-producer with whom Brooks had worked on previous projects. Groening and Simon, however, did not get along and were often in conflict over the show; Groening once described their relationship as \"very contentious\". Groening said his goal in creating the show was to offer the audience an alternative to what he called \"the mainstream trash\" that they were watching. Brooks negotiated a provision in the contract with the Fox network that prevented Fox from interfering with the show's content. Fox was nervous about the show because they were unsure if it could sustain the audience's attention for the duration of the episode. They proposed doing three seven-minute shorts per episode and four specials until the audience adjusted, but in the end, the producers gambled by asking Fox for 13 full-length episodes.\n", "Because the Fox network was new to the world of television production, a bureaucracy had not yet been established. This enabled the show to take risks and the freedom to try things that the major networks would never permit. The series landed an initial twenty-six episode commitment deal, unheard of for a television comedy. \"The Tracey Ullman Show\" debuted on 5 April 1987. Describing the show proved difficult. Creator Ken Estin dubbed it a \"skitcom\". A variety of diverse original characters were created for her to perform. Extensive makeup, wigs, teeth, and body padding were utilised, sometimes rendering her unrecognisable. One original character created by Ullman back in Britain was uprooted for the series: long-suffering British spinster Kay Clark.\n", "\"The Simpsons\" was co-developed by Groening, Brooks, and Sam Simon, a writer-producer with whom Brooks had worked on previous projects. Groening said his goal was to offer the audience an alternative to what he called \"the mainstream trash\". Brooks negotiated a provision in the contract with the Fox network that prevented Fox from interfering with the show's content. Fox network was unsure if the show could sustain the audience's attention for the duration of the episode. They proposed doing three seven-minute shorts per episode and four specials until the audience adjusted, but the producers gambled by asking Fox for 13 full-length episodes.\n", "The PTC has targeted Fox, criticizing the network for failing to include \"S\" (sexual content) and \"V\" (violence) descriptors in content ratings for some \"Family Guy\" episodes. The Council has cautioned parents that due to the animation style, children could get attracted to the adult show. In order to prevent child viewing, the PTC has objected to Fox scheduling \"Family Guy\" during early prime time hours. Additionally, the Council has asked \"Family Guy\" sponsors such as Wrigley Company and Burger King to stop advertising during the show as their products appeal to kids. \n", "Fox ordered thirteen episodes. Immediately after, however, Fox feared the themes of the show were not suitable for the network and Groening and Fox executives argued over whether the network would have any creative input into the show. With \"The Simpsons\", the network has no input. Fox was particularly disturbed by the concept of suicide booths, Doctor Zoidberg, and Bender's anti-social behavior. Groening explains, \"When they tried to give me notes on \"Futurama\", I just said: 'No, we're going to do this just the way we did \"Simpsons\".' And they said, 'Well, we don't do business that way anymore.' And I said, 'Oh, well, that's the only way I do business.'\" The episode \"I, Roommate\" was produced to address Fox's concerns, with the script written to their specifications. Fox strongly disliked the episode, but after negotiations, Groening received the same independence with \"Futurama\".\n" ]

[ "Obama increased taxes on high-income taxpayers via: a) expiration of the Bush income tax cuts for the top 1–2% of income earners starting with 2013; and b) payroll tax increases on roughly the top 5% of earners as part of the ACA. This increased the average tax rate paid by the top 1% (incomes above $443,000 in 2015) from 28% in 2012 to 34% in 2013. According to the CBO, after-tax income inequality improved, by lowering the share of after-tax income received by the top 1% from 16.7% in 2007 to 15.1% in 2012 and to 12.4% in 2013.\n", "Obama responded with an explanation of how his tax plan would affect a small business in this bracket. Obama said, \"If you're a small business, which you would qualify, first of all, you would get a 50 percent tax credit so you'd get a cut in taxes for your health care costs. So you would actually get a tax cut on that part. If your revenue is above 250, then from 250 down, your taxes are going to stay the same. It is true that, say for 250 up — from 250 to 300 or so, so for that additional amount, you'd go from 36 to 39 percent, which is what it was under Bill Clinton.\"\n", "BULLET::::- President Obama raised income tax rates on the top 1% via partial expiration of the Bush tax cuts in January 2013. He also raised payroll taxes on the top 5% as part of the Affordable Care Act at that time. Despite these tax increases, average monthly job creation increased from 179,000 in 2012 to 192,000 in 2013 and 250,000 in 2014.\n", "Obama's plan is to cut income taxes overall, which he states would reduce revenues to below the levels that prevailed under Ronald Reagan (less than 18.2 percent of GDP). Obama argues that his plan is a net tax cut, and that his tax relief for middle-class families is larger than the revenue raised by his tax changes for families over $250,000. Obama plans to pay for the tax changes while bringing down the budget deficit by cutting unnecessary spending.\n", "BULLET::::- According to a September 2016 analysis by the conservative Tax Foundation, Trump's tax plan would reduce federal revenue by around $4.4 to $5.9 trillion over 10 years. The $1.5 trillion gap is because the Trump campaign has not clarified some aspects of the tax plan and have provided contradictory explanations. While the tax plan would reduce taxes across the spectrum, it does so the most for the richest Americans.\n", "The bottom 99% also saw an average federal tax rate increase by one percentage point from 2012 to 2013, mainly due to the expiration of the Obama payroll tax cuts, which were in place in 2011 and 2012. However, for income groups in the bottom 99%, the average federal tax rate remained at or below the 2007 level. \"Politifact\" rated the claim that Obama had cut taxes for middle-class families and small businesses as \"Mostly True\" in 2012.\n", "The conservative Tax Foundation estimated in January 2016 that, in the long term, the plan would decrease economic growth by 1%, wages by 0.8% and jobs by 311,000. The Tax Foundation estimates an increase in revenues of $498 billion, but applied dynamic scoring analysis to that figure and reduced it to $191 billion due to weaker economic growth. The Clinton campaign \"said the Tax Foundation's analysis is misleading and doesn't take into account her tax relief for businesses and individuals, nor her investments that would promote growth.\"\n" ]

[ "The small intestine is normally in length. As the Y-connection is moved further down the gastrointestinal tract, the amount available to fully absorb nutrients is progressively reduced, traded for greater effectiveness of the operation. The Y-connection is formed much closer to the lower (distal) end of the small intestine, usually from the lower end, causing reduced absorption (malabsorption) of food: primarily of fats and starches, but also of various minerals and the fat-soluble vitamins. The unabsorbed fats and starches pass into the large intestine, where bacterial actions may act on them to produce irritants and malodorous gases. These larger effects on nutrition are traded for a relatively modest increase in total weight loss.\n", "Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through either diffusion or active transport. The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed. The inner wall, or mucosa, of the small intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelial tissue. Structurally, the mucosa is covered in wrinkles or folds called plicae circulares, which are considered permanent features in the wall of the organ. They are distinct from rugae which are considered non-permanent or temporary allowing for distention and contraction. From the plicae circulares project microscopic finger-like pieces of tissue called villi (Latin for \"shaggy hair\"). The individual epithelial cells also have finger-like projections known as microvilli. The functions of the plicae circulares, the villi, and the microvilli are to increase the amount of surface area available for the absorption of nutrients, and to limit the loss of said nutrients to intestinal fauna.\n", "While the first part of the large intestine is responsible for the absorption of water and other substances from the chyme, the main function of the descending colon is to store waste until it can be removed from the body in solid form, when a person has a bowel movement.\n", "Food then moves on to the jejunum. This is the most nutrient absorptive section of the small intestine. The liver regulates the level of nutrients absorbed into the blood system from the small intestine. From the jejunum, whatever food that has not been absorbed is sent to the ileum which connects to the large intestine. The first part of the large intestine is the cecum and the second portion is the colon. The large intestine reabsorbs water and forms fecal matter.\n", "In some families there are openings in the dorsal surface of the oesophagus connecting to the external surface, through which water from the food can be squeezed, helping to concentrate it. Digestion occurs in the intestine, with food material being pulled through by cilia, rather than by muscular action.\n", "No stomach is present, with the pharynx connecting directly to a muscleless intestine that forms the main length of the gut. This produces further enzymes, and also absorbs nutrients through its single-cell-thick lining. The last portion of the intestine is lined by cuticle, forming a rectum, which expels waste through the anus just below and in front of the tip of the tail. Movement of food through the digestive system is the result of body movements of the worm. The intestine has valves or sphincters at either end to help control the movement of food through the body.\n", "Cilia pull the food through the mouth in a stream of mucus and through the oesophagus, where it is partially digested by enzymes from a pair of large pharyngeal glands. The oesophagus, in turn, opens into a stomach, where enzymes from a digestive gland complete the breakdown of the food. Nutrients are absorbed through the linings of the stomach and the first part of the intestine. The intestine is divided in two by a sphincter, with the latter part being highly coiled and functioning to compact the waste matter into faecal pellets. The anus opens just behind the foot.\n" ]

[ "Highly viscous lavas do not usually flow as liquid, and usually form explosive fragmental ash or tephra deposits. However, a degassed viscous lava or one which erupts somewhat hotter than usual may form a lava flow.\n", "Lava flows from stratovolcanoes are generally not a significant threat to humans and animals because the highly viscous lava moves slowly enough for everyone to flee out of the path of flow. The lava flows are more of a threat to property. However, not all stratovolcanoes erupt viscous and sticky lava. Nyiragongo is very dangerous because its magma has an unusually low silica content, making it quite fluid. Fluid lavas are typically associated with the formation of broad shield volcanoes such as those of Hawaii, but Nyiragongo has very steep slopes down which lava can flow at up to . Lava flows could melt down ice and glaciers that accumulated on the volcano's crater and upper slopes, generating massive lahar flows. Rarely, generally fluid lava could also generate massive lava fountains, while lava of thicker viscosity can solidify within the vent, creating a block which can result in highly explosive eruptions.\n", "The floor is lava (also known as hot lava) is a game in which players pretend that the floor or ground is made of lava (or any other lethal substance, such as acid or quicksand), and thus must avoid touching the ground, as touching the ground would \"kill\" the player who did so. The players stay off the floor by standing on furniture or the room's architecture. The players generally may not remain still, and are required to move from one piece of furniture to the next. The game can be played with a group or alone for self amusement. There may even be a goal, to which the players must race. The game may also be played outdoors in playgrounds or similar areas. Players can also set up obstacles such as nice padded chairs to make the game more challenging. This is a variation of an obstacle course.\n", "\"Sticky Sticky\" is a song by South Korean girl group Hello Venus. It was released on November 6, 2014 under Fantagio and is the group's fourth single overall. It is the first release to feature new members Seoyoung and Yeoreum following the departures of Yooara and Yoonjo after Pledis Entertainment and Fantagio had ended their partnership in July 2014.\n", "A lava balloon is a gas-filled bubble of lava that floats on the sea surface. It can be up to several metres in size. When it emerges from the sea, it is usually hot and often steaming. After floating for some time it fills with water and sinks again.\n", "The base of a lava flow may show evidence of hydrothermal activity if the lava flowed across moist or wet substrates. The lower part of the lava may have vesicles, perhaps filled with minerals (amygdules). The substrate upon which the lava has flowed may show signs of scouring, it may be broken or disturbed by the boiling of trapped water, and in the case of soil profiles, may be baked into a brick-red terracotta.\n", "\"Hot Lava\" is an adventure video game in the first-person perspective. In the game, the player control the character as they jump, leap, wall run and swing from object to object. Some of the objects include tables, couches, and chairs.\n" ]

[ "The final liquor is treated by blowing carbon dioxide through it. This precipitates dissolved calcium and other impurities. It also volatilizes the sulfide, which is carried off as HS gas. Any residual sulfide can be subsequently precipitated by adding zinc hydroxide. The liquor is separated from the precipitate and evaporated using waste heat from the reverberatory furnace. The resulting ash is then redissolved into concentrated solution in hot water. Solids that fail to dissolve are separated. The solution is then cooled to recrystallize nearly pure sodium carbonate decahydrate.\n", "When the aged liquor is heated, it vaporizes, and the vaporized steam is cooled by the cold water in the upper parts of the \"soju gori\". This causes the vaporized alcohol to be condensed and trickle down through the pipe.\n", "Pouring sparkling wine while tilting the glass at an angle and gently sliding in the liquid along the side will preserve the most bubbles, as opposed to pouring directly down to create a head of \"mousse\", according to a study, \"On the Losses of Dissolved CO during Champagne serving\", by scientists from the University of Reims. Colder bottle temperatures also result in reduced loss of gas. Additionally, the industry is developing Champagne glasses designed specifically to reduce the amount of gas lost.\n", "The method was tested on 96% spirit vodka. In this method, melted wax (stearic acid) is stirred, and the alcoholic drink is poured in. The solution dissipates and becomes drops containing alcohol and wax. The drops that solidify constitute alcohol powder.\n", "The liquid being distilled is a mixture of mainly water and alcohol, along with smaller amounts of other by-products of fermentation (called congeners), such as aldehydes and esters. Alcohol (ethanol) has a normal boiling point of 78.4 °C (173.12 °F), compared with pure water, which boils at 100 °C (212 °F). As alcohol has a lower boiling point, it is more volatile and evaporates at a higher rate than water. Therefore, the concentration of alcohol in the vapour phase above the liquid is higher than in the liquid itself.\n", "When a gas is heated, its volume increases. It will displace cooler gases as it expands. If this is done in a partially enclosed space, and the vessel allowed to be full of hot gas, when the heat is taken away, the gases cool and as they do, the amount of liquids that the gas can hold will decrease. Therefore, most of the moisture and alcohol held in the gas will condense. As the gas cools, it decreases in volume, and the pressure drops. Thus when the flaming alcohol in a backdraft is covered with a pint glass over a saucer, the dense, cold air is replaced with less dense, warm air with a lot of alcohol vapour held in it. As the oxygen flow to the fire is restricted, the remaining oxygen is used up and the fire in the pint glass goes out, removing the heat source. The alcohol-laden warm air now in the glass cools and begins to create a pressure difference. The air outside the pint glass forces its way into the partially evacuated pint glass and is responsible for pushing any liquid at the outside bottom of the pint glass further inside (as the seal of the glass and the saucer is not perfect) as it begins to equalise the pressure difference. Once the majority of the liquid is inside the upside down pint glass, sometimes further air can be seen to bubble up into the glass. At some point an equilibrium will occur, where the pressure difference between inside and outside of the glass is equal to the pressure of the column of liquid held up inside, and this will hold the liquid inside the glass. Sometimes, when a good seal is made, the pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the glass exerts a great enough force that when the glass is lifted, the saucer will remain stuck to its underside.\n", "Irish whiskey and at least one level teaspoon of sugar are poured over black coffee and stirred in until fully dissolved. Thick cream is carefully poured over the back of a spoon initially held just above the surface of the coffee and gradually raised a little until the entire layer is floated.\n" ]

[ "Microplastics pollution are a concern if plastic waste is improperly dumped. If plastic straws are improperly disposed of, they can be transported via water into soil ecosystems, and others, where they break down into smaller, more hazardous pieces than the original plastic straw.\n", "Plastic drinking straw production contributes a small amount to petroleum consumption, and the used straws become a small part of global plastic pollution when discarded, most after a single use. One anti-straw advocacy group has estimated that about 500 million straws are used daily in the United States alone – an average 1.6 straws per capita per day. This statistic has been criticized as inaccurate, because it was approximated by Milo Cress, who was 9 years old at the time, after surveying straw manufacturers. This figure has been widely cited by major news organizations. In 2017 the market research firm Fredonia Group estimated the number to be 390 million. \n", "In the first half of 2018, three towns in Massachusetts banned petrochemical plastic straws directly in the case of Provincetown, and as part of broader sustainable food packaging laws in Andover and Brookline. The city of Seattle implemented a ban on non-compostable disposable straws on July 1, 2018.\n", "Today, the disposal of wastes by land filling or land spreading is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, whether they are residential wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill site, residual materials from materials recovery facilities (MRFs), residue from the combustion of solid waste, compost, or other substances from various solid waste processing facilities. A modern sanitary landfill is not a dump; it is an engineered facility used for disposing of solid wastes on land without creating nuisances or hazards to public health or safety, such as the problems of insects and the contamination of ground water.\n", "BULLET::::1. Landfills: Dumping e-waste into landfills that are not designed to contain e-waste can lead to contamination of surface and groundwater because the toxic chemicals can leach from landfills into the water supply.\n", "Bins need holes or mesh for aeration. Some people add a spout or holes in the bottom for excess liquid to drain into a tray for collection. The most common materials used are plastic: recycled polyethylene and polypropylene and wood. Worm compost bins made from plastic are ideal, but require more drainage than wooden ones because they are non-absorbent. However, wooden bins will eventually decay and need to be replaced.\n", "Current solutions to dealing with the amount of plastic being thrown away include burning the plastics and dumping them into large fields or landfills. Burning plastics leads to significant amounts of air pollution, which is harmful to human and animal health. When dumped into fields or landfills, plastics can cause changes in the pH of the soil, leading to soil infertility. Furthermore, plastic bottles and plastic bags that end up in landfills are frequently consumed by animals, which then clogs their digestive systems and leads to death.\n" ]

[ "The polarity, dipole moment, polarizability and hydrogen bonding of a solvent determines what type of compounds it is able to dissolve and with what other solvents or liquid compounds it is miscible. Generally, polar solvents dissolve polar compounds best and non-polar solvents dissolve non-polar compounds best: \"like dissolves like\". Strongly polar compounds like sugars (e.g. sucrose) or ionic compounds, like inorganic salts (e.g. table salt) dissolve only in very polar solvents like water, while strongly non-polar compounds like oils or waxes dissolve only in very non-polar organic solvents like hexane. Similarly, water and hexane (or vinegar and vegetable oil) are not miscible with each other and will quickly separate into two layers even after being shaken well.\n", "Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents, forming polar bonds or hydrogen bonds. As an example, all alcoholic beverages are aqueous solutions of ethanol. On the other hand, non-polar solutes dissolve better in non-polar solvents. Examples are hydrocarbons such as oil and grease that easily mix with each other, while being incompatible with water.\n", "When one substance is dissolved into another, a solution is formed. This is opposed to the situation when the compounds are insoluble like sand in water. In a solution, all of the ingredients are uniformly distributed at a molecular level and no residue remains. A solvent-solute mixture consists of a single phase with all solute molecules occurring as \"solvates\" (solvent-solute complexes), as opposed to separate continuous phases as in suspensions, emulsions and other types of non-solution mixtures. The ability of one compound to be dissolved in another is known as solubility; if this occurs in all proportions, it is called miscible.\n", "Solubilization is distinct from dissolution because the resulting fluid is a colloidal dispersion involving an association colloid. This suspension is distinct from a true solution, and the amount of the solubilizate in the micellar system can be different (often higher) than the regular solubility of the solubilizate in the solvent.\n", "The solvents do not form a unified solution together because they are immiscible. When the funnel is allowed to sit after being shaken, the liquids form distinct physical layers, with the less dense liquid floating and more dense sinking. A mixture of solutes is thus separated into two physically separate solutions, each enriched in different solutes.\n", "The solubility is highest in polar solvents (such as water) or ionic liquids, but tends to be low in nonpolar solvents (such as petrol/gasoline). This is principally because the resulting ion–dipole interactions are significantly stronger than ion-induced dipole interactions, so the heat of solution is higher. When the oppositely charged ions in the solid ionic lattice are surrounded by the opposite pole of a polar molecule, the solid ions are pulled out of the lattice and into the liquid. If the solvation energy exceeds the lattice energy, the negative net enthalpy change of solution provides a thermodynamic drive to remove ions from their positions in the crystal and dissolve in the liquid. In addition, the entropy change of solution is usually positive for most solid solutes like ionic compounds, which means that their solubility increases when the temperature increases. There are some unusual ionic compounds such as cerium(III) sulfate, where this entropy change is negative, due to extra order induced in the water upon solution, and the solubility decreases with temperature.\n", "By contrast, substances are said to be immiscible if there are certain proportions in which the mixture does not form a solution. For example, oil is not soluble in water, so these two solvents are immiscible, while butanone (methyl ethyl ketone) is significantly soluble in water, these two solvents are also immiscible because they are not soluble in all proportions.\n" ]

[ "A problem is that without the back light the screen looks very dark and it's hard to see the image, so the backlight must run continuously except when it's not necessary to look at the screen (for example, when using the console as an MP3 player).\n", "Other display technologies do not flicker noticeably, so the frame rate is less important. LCD flat panels do not \"seem\" to flicker at all, as the backlight of the screen operates at a very high frequency of nearly 200 Hz, and each pixel is changed on a scan rather than briefly turning on and then off as in CRT displays. However, the nature of the back-lighting used can induce flicker – LEDs cannot be easily dimmed, and therefore use pulse-width modulation to create the illusion of dimming, and the frequency used can be perceived as flicker by sensitive users.\n", "Using smartphones late at night can disturb sleep, due to the blue light and brightly lit screen, which affects melatonin levels and sleep cycles. In an effort to alleviate these issues, several apps that change the color temperature of a screen to a warmer hue based on the time of day to reduce the amount of blue light generated have been developed for Android, while iOS 9.3 integrated similar, system-level functionality known as \"Night Shift\". Amazon released a feature known as \"blue shade\" in their Fire OS \"Bellini\" 5.0 and later. It has also been theorized that for some users, addicted use of their phones, especially before they go to bed, can result in \"ego depletion\". Many people also use their phones as alarm clocks, which can also lead to loss of sleep.\n", "In the professional lighting industry, changes in intensity are called \"fades\" and can be \"fade up\" or \"fade down\". Dimmers with direct manual control had a limit on the speed they could be varied at but this problem has been largely eliminated with modern digital units (although very fast changes in brightness may still be avoided for other reasons like lamp life).\n", "Many smartphone addiction activists (such as Tristan Harris) recommend turning one's phone screen to grayscale mode, which helps reduce time spent on mobile phones by making them boring to look at. Other phone settings alterations for mobile phone non-use included turning on airplane mode, turning off cellular data and/ or WiFi, turning off the phone, removing specific apps, and factory resetting.\n", "In LCD screens, the LCD itself does not flicker, it preserves its opacity unchanged until updated for the next frame. However, in order to prevent accumulated damage LCD displays quickly alternate the voltage between positive and negative for each pixel, which is called 'polarity inversion'. Ideally, this wouldn't be noticeable because every pixel has the same brightness whether a positive or a negative voltage is applied. In practice, there is a small difference, which means that every pixel flickers at about 30 Hz. Screens that use opposite polarity per-line or per-pixel can reduce this effect compared to when the entire screen is at the same polarity, sometimes the type of screen is detectable by using patterns designed to maximize the effect.\n", "BULLET::::- As of 2012, most implementations of LCD backlighting use pulse-width modulation (PWM) to dim the display, which makes the screen flicker more acutely (this does not mean visibly) than a CRT monitor at 85 Hz refresh rate would (this is because the entire screen is strobing on and off rather than a CRT's phosphor sustained dot which continually scans across the display, leaving some part of the display always lit), causing severe eye-strain for some people. Unfortunately, many of these people don't know that their eye-strain is being caused by the invisible strobe effect of PWM. This problem is worse on many LED-backlit monitors, because the LEDs switch on and off faster than a CCFL lamp.\n" ]

[ "On 12 November 2015, NASA scientists reported that human-made carbon dioxide (CO) continues to increase above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years: currently, about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels remains in the atmosphere and is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans.\n", "BULLET::::- NASA scientists report that human-made carbon dioxide (CO) continues to increase above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years: currently, about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels remains in the atmosphere and is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans.\n", "BULLET::::- November 12 – NASA scientists report that human-made carbon dioxide (CO) continues to increase above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years: currently, about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels remains in the atmosphere and is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans.\n", "Carbon dioxide is believed to have played an important effect in regulating Earth's temperature throughout its 4.7 billion year history. Early in the Earth's life, scientists have found evidence of liquid water indicating a warm world even though the Sun's output is believed to have only been 70% of what it is today. It has been suggested by scientists that higher carbon dioxide concentrations in the early Earth's atmosphere might help explain this faint young sun paradox. When Earth first formed, Earth's atmosphere may have contained more greenhouse gases and concentrations may have been higher, with estimated partial pressure as large as , because there was no bacterial photosynthesis to reduce the gas to carbon compounds and oxygen. Methane, a very active greenhouse gas which reacts with oxygen to produce and water vapor, may have been more prevalent as well, with a mixing ratio of 10 (100 parts per million by volume).\n", " After water vapour (concentrations of which humans have limited capacity to influence) carbon dioxide is the most abundant and stable greenhouse gas in the atmosphere (methane rapidly reacts to form water vapour and carbon dioxide). Atmospheric carbon dioxide has increased from about 280 ppm in 1750 to 383 ppm in 2007 and is increasing at an average rate of 2 ppm pr year. The world's oceans have previously played an important role in sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide through solubility and the action of phytoplankton. This, and the likely adverse consequences for humans and the biosphere of associated global warming, increases the significance of investigating policy mechanisms for encouraging biosequestration.\n", "On 12 November 2015, NASA scientists reported that human-made carbon dioxide () continues to increase, reaching levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years: currently, the rate carbon dioxide released by the burning of fossil fuels is about double the net uptake by vegetation and the ocean.\n", "The International Panel on Climate Change has shown that the natural ecosystems can absorb approximately two tonnes of carbon dioxide per person per year. At the moment the world, through the burning of fossil fuels and the clearing of forests is emitting 6.8 tonnes of carbon dioxide per person per year, with the result that over the last century the concentration of carbon dioxide has gone from 280 parts per million to 380 parts per million, a change equivalent to that seen since the depths of the last Ice Age. While in Europe the average rate of emissions is currently about 10 tonnes per person, and the average in the US is over 20 tonnes, for Australia as a whole produces about 26 tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions per person.\n" ]

[ "The clitoris ( or ) is a female sex organ present in mammals, ostriches and a limited number of other animals. In humans, the visible portion - the glans - is at the front junction of the labia minora (inner lips), above the opening of the urethra. Unlike the penis, the male homologue (equivalent) to the clitoris, it usually does not contain the distal portion (or opening) of the urethra and is therefore not used for urination. The clitoris also usually lacks a reproductive function. While few animals urinate through the clitoris or use it reproductively, the spotted hyena, which has an especially large clitoris, urinates, mates, and gives birth via the organ. Some other mammals, such as lemurs and spider monkeys, also have a large clitoris.\n", "The clitoris is the human female's most sensitive erogenous zone and generally the primary anatomical source of human female sexual pleasure. In humans and other mammals, it develops from an outgrowth in the embryo called the genital tubercle. Initially undifferentiated, the tubercle develops into either a penis or a clitoris during the development of the reproductive system depending on exposure to androgens (which are primarily male hormones). The clitoris is a complex structure, and its size and sensitivity can vary. The glans (head) of the human clitoris is roughly the size and shape of a pea, and is estimated to have about 8,000 sensory nerve endings.\n", "Clitoromegaly (or macroclitoris) is an abnormal enlargement of the clitoris that is mostly congenital or acquired, though deliberately induced clitoris enlargement as a form of female genital body modification is achieved through various uses of anabolic steroids, including testosterone, and may also be referred to as \"clitoromegaly.\" Clitoromegaly is not the same as normal enlargement of the clitoris seen during sexual arousal.\n", "The clitoris develops from a phallic outgrowth in the embryo called the genital tubercle. Initially undifferentiated, the tubercle develops into either a clitoris or penis during the development of the reproductive system depending on exposure to androgens (which are primarily male hormones). The clitoris forms from the same tissues that become the glans and shaft of the penis, and this shared embryonic origin makes these two organs homologous (different versions of the same structure).\n", "The clitoris is homologous to the penis; that is, they both develop from the same embryonic structure. While researchers such as Geoffrey Miller, Helen Fisher, Meredith Small and Sarah Blaffer Hrdy \"have viewed the clitoral orgasm as a legitimate adaptation in its own right, with major implications for female sexual behavior and sexual evolution,\" others, such as Donald Symons and Stephen Jay Gould, have asserted that the clitoris is vestigial or nonadaptive, and that the female orgasm serves no particular evolutionary function. However, Gould acknowledged that \"most female orgasms emanate from a clitoral, rather than vaginal (or some other), site\" and stated that his nonadaptive belief \"has been widely misunderstood as a denial of either the adaptive value of female orgasm in general, or even as a claim that female orgasms lack significance in some broader sense\". He explained that although he accepts that \"clitoral orgasm plays a pleasurable and central role in female sexuality and its joys,\" \"[a]ll these favorable attributes, however, emerge just as clearly and just as easily, whether the clitoral site of orgasm arose as a spandrel or an adaptation\". He said that the \"male biologists who fretted over [the adaptionist questions] simply assumed that a deeply vaginal site, nearer the region of fertilization, would offer greater selective benefit\" due to their Darwinian, \"summum bonum\" beliefs about enhanced reproductive success.\n", "Puppo's belief that there is no anatomical relationship between the vagina and clitoris is contrasted by the general belief among researchers that vaginal orgasms are the result of clitoral stimulation; they maintain that clitoral tissue extends, or is at least likely stimulated by the clitoral bulbs, even in the area most commonly reported to be the G-spot. \"My view is that the G-spot is really just the extension of the clitoris on the inside of the vagina, analogous to the base of the male penis,\" said researcher Amichai Kilchevsky. Because female fetal development is the \"default\" direction of fetal development in the absence of substantial exposure to male hormones and therefore the penis is essentially a clitoris enlarged by such hormones, Kilchevsky believes that there is no evolutionary reason why females would have two separate structures capable of producing orgasms and blames the porn industry and \"G-spot promoters\" for \"encouraging the myth\" of a distinct G-spot.\n", "The G-spot having an anatomical relationship with the clitoris has been challenged by Vincenzo Puppo, who, while agreeing that the clitoris is the center of female sexual pleasure, disagrees with Helen O'Connell and other researchers' terminological and anatomical descriptions of the clitoris. He stated, \"Clitoral bulbs is an incorrect term from an embryological and anatomical viewpoint, in fact the bulbs do not develop from the phallus, and they do not belong to the clitoris.\" He says that \"clitoral bulbs\" \"is not a term used in human anatomy\" and that \"vestibular bulbs\" is the correct term, adding that gynecologists and sexual experts should inform the public with facts instead of hypotheses or personal opinions. \"[C]litoral/vaginal/uterine orgasm, G/A/C/U spot orgasm, and female ejaculation, are terms that should not be used by sexologists, women, and mass media,\" he said, further commenting that the \"anterior vaginal wall is separated from the posterior urethral wall by the urethrovaginal septum (its thickness is 10–12 mm)\" and that the \"inner clitoris\" does not exist. \"The female perineal urethra, which is located in front of the anterior vaginal wall, is about one centimeter in length and the G-spot is located in the pelvic wall of the urethra, 2–3 cm into the vagina,\" Puppo stated. He believes that the penis cannot come in contact with the congregation of multiple nerves/veins situated until the angle of the clitoris, detailed by Georg Ludwig Kobelt, or with the roots of the clitoris, which do not have sensory receptors or erogenous sensitivity, during vaginal intercourse. He did, however, dismiss the orgasmic definition of the G-spot that emerged after Ernst Gräfenberg, stating that \"there is no anatomical evidence of the vaginal orgasm which was invented by Freud in 1905, without any scientific basis\".\n" ]

[ "Some indications of possible cellphone surveillance occurring may include a mobile phone waking up unexpectedly, using a lot of the CPU when on idle or when not in use, hearing clicking or beeping sounds when conversations are occurring and the circuit board of the phone being warm despite the phone not being used.\n", "In most studies, a majority of cell phone users report experiencing occasional phantom vibrations or ringing, with reported rates ranging from 27.4% to 89%. Once every two weeks is a typical frequency for the sensations, though a minority experience them daily. Most people are not seriously bothered by the sensations.\n", "Often an irregular noise is heard in the telephone receivers before the frequency jumps to the next lower value. However this is a subsidiary phenomenon, the main effect being the regular frequency demultiplication.\n", "Nokia and the University of Cambridge demonstrated a bendable cell phone called the Morph. Some phones have an electromechanical transducer on the back which changes the electrical voice signal into mechanical vibrations. The vibrations flow through the cheek bones or forehead allowing the user to hear the conversation. This is useful in the noisy situations or if the user is hard of hearing.\n", "Some users of the iPhone 4S reported the random appearance of echoes during phone calls made with earphones in the initial release of iOS 5. The other party in the call was sometimes unable to hear the conversation due to this problem.\n", "Most of the \"Hearables\" seen to date are Bluetooth devices that use phones or PCs as the central computing unit. Vinci smart headphones, announced in 2016, incorporated a dual-core CPU, local storage, WiFi and 3G connectivity that allow users to use without a phone.\n", "This was once more important because outside broadcasts were carried over 'music circuits' that used telephone lines, with clicks from Strowger and other electromechanical telephone exchanges. It now finds fresh relevance in the measurement of noise on computer 'Audio Cards' which commonly suffer clicks as drives start and stop.\n" ]

[ "Some commentators have attacked CNN for the debate, calling it biased and poorly handled. Their accusations include claims that the final audience question was planted, that moderator Wolf Blitzer was overly favorable to Hillary Clinton, and that the use of James Carville, a long-time adviser to the Clintons, as a debate commentator was biased. \n", "An important aspect of media bias is framing. A frame is the arrangement of a news story, with the goal of influencing audience to favor one side or the other. The ways in which stories are framed can greatly undermine the standards of reporting such as fairness and balance. Many media outlets are known for their outright bias. Some outlets, such as MSNBC, and CNN are known for their liberal views, while others, such as Breitbart and Fox News Channel, are known for their conservative views. How biased media frame stories can change audience reactions. Filter bubbles are an extent to framing. Filter bubbles are what companies such as Facebook and Google use to filter out the content that user might not agree with or find disturbing.\n", "At times, the allegations of bias have led to back and forth conflicts between Fox News commentators and political and media figures. For example, in 2009 the Fox News Channel engaged in a verbal conflict with the Obama administration while ABC News, NBC News, MSNBC, CBS News, HLN and CNN focuses on positive reporting on the presidency of Barack Obama, and with that, Disney-owned FX (at the time, it was owned by News Corporation), WarnerMedia-owned HBO (at the time, HBO's parent company was called Time Warner), Viacom-owned MTV and Comcast-owned G4 are all focusing on video games, music and entertainment programing..\n", "Studies reporting perceptions of bias in the media are not limited to studies of print media. A joint study by the Joan Shorenstein Center on Press, Politics and Public Policy at Harvard University and the Project for Excellence in Journalism found that people see media bias in television news media such as CNN. Although both CNN and Fox were perceived in the study as not being centrist, CNN was perceived as being more liberal than Fox. Moreover, the study's findings concerning CNN's perceived bias are echoed in other studies. There is also a growing economics literature on mass media bias, both on the theoretical and the empirical side. On the theoretical side the focus is on understanding to what extent the political positioning of mass media outlets is mainly driven by demand or supply factors. This literature is surveyed by Andrea Prat of Columbia University and David Stromberg of Stockholm University.\n", "In a survey released by the Pew Research Center in April 2007, viewers who watch both \"The Colbert Report\" and \"The Daily Show\" tend to be more knowledgeable about news than audiences of other news sources. Approximately 54% of \"The Colbert Report\" and \"The Daily Show\" viewers scored in the high knowledge range, followed by Jim Lehrer's program at 53% and Bill O'Reilly's program at 51%, significantly higher than the 34% of network morning show viewers. The survey shows that changing news formats have not made much difference on how much the public knows about national and international affairs, but adds that there is no clear connection between news formats and what audiences know. The Project for Excellence in Journalism released a content analysis report suggesting that \"The Daily Show\" comes close to providing the complete daily news.\n", "As some of the most highly available channels, FNC, CNN, and MSNBC are sometimes referred to as the \"big three\" with Fox News having the highest viewership and ratings. While the networks are usually referred to as 24-hour news networks, reruns of news programs and analysis or opinion programming are played throughout the night, with the exception of breaking news.\n", "Due to the channel's tradition of airing rolling news coverage, HLN had become popular with people who may not have time to watch lengthy news reports, and as a fast source of news for public locations like airports, bars, and many other places. Supermarkets that carried the discontinued CNN Checkout Channel service were offered a feed of Headline News to broadcast on its televisions.\n" ]

[ "There are also rockets that record short digital videos. There are two widely used ones used on the market, both produced by Estes: the Astrovision and the Oracle. The Astrocam shoots 4 (advertised as 16, and shown when playing the video, but in real life 4) seconds of video, and can also take three consecutive digital still images in flight, with a higher resolution than the video. It takes from size B6-3 to C6-3 Engines. The Oracle is a more costly alternative, but is able to capture all or most of its flight and recovery. In general, it is used with \"D\" motors. The Oracle has been on the market longer than the Astrovision, and has a better general reputation. However, \"keychain cameras\" are also widely available and can be used on almost any rocket without significantly increasing drag.\n", "Mercury and Venus are believed to have no satellites chiefly because any hypothetical satellite would have suffered deceleration long ago and crashed into the planets due to the very slow rotation speeds of both planets; in addition, Venus also has retrograde rotation.\n", "Unlike the other on-board instruments, the operation of the cameras for visible light is not autonomous, but rather it is controlled by an imaging parameter table contained in one of the on-board digital computers, the Flight Data Subsystem (FDS). More recent space probes, since about 1990, usually have completely autonomous cameras.\n", "In order to solve these problems, new missions to other planets plan to use a process similar to stereoscopy in order to get a more accurate depiction of the surface on another planet. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is one of the mission that attempts to do this. This process uses two images of one location taken from two separate lens on a camera, much in the same way humans do with their eyes. By using two images, they can get a 3-dimensional perspective of objects on the surface like we do.\n", "The \"Curiosity\" rover's hazcams are sensitive to visible light and return black and white images of resolution 1024 × 1024 pixels. These images are used by the rovers' internal computer to autonomously navigate around hazards. Due to their positioning on both sides of the rovers, simultaneous images taken by either both front or both rear cameras can be used to produce a 3D map of the immediate surroundings. As the cameras are fixed (i.e. can not move independently of the rover), they have a wide field of view (approximately 120° both horizontally and vertically) to allow a large amount of terrain to be visible.\n", "Unlike the other onboard instruments, the operation of the cameras for visible light is not autonomous, but rather it is controlled by an imaging parameter table contained in one of the on-board digital computers, the Flight Data Subsystem (FDS). Since the 1990s, most space probes have had completely autonomous cameras.\n", "Prior to the landing, NASA and Microsoft released \"Mars Rover Landing\", a free downloadable game on Xbox Live that uses Kinect to capture body motions, which allows users to simulate the landing sequence.\n" ]

[ "American media portrayed the Japanese negatively as well. While attacks on Germans were generally focused on high-level Nazi officials such as Hitler, Himmler, Goebbels, and Göring, the Japanese were targeted more broadly. Portrayals of the Japanese ranged from showing them being vicious and feral, as on the cover of Marvel Comic's Mystery Comics no. 32, to mocking their physical appearance and speech patterns. In the Loony Tune's cartoon \"Tokio Jokio\" (aired May 13, 1943), the Japanese people are all shown to be dim-witted, obsessed with being polite, cowardly, and physically short with buckteeth, big lips, squinty eyes, and glasses. The entire cartoon is also narrated in broken English, with the letter \"R\" often replacing \"L\" in pronunciation of words, a common stereotype. Japanese slurs were commonly used, such as \"Jap,\" \"monkey face,\" and \"slanty eyes.\" These stereotypes are also seen in Theodor Geisel's comics created during the Second World War.\n", "The relations between Germany and Japan (, ) were officially established in 1861 with the first ambassadorial visit to Japan from Prussia (which predated the formation of the German Empire in 1866/1870). Japan modernized rapidly after the Meiji Restoration of 1867, often using German models through intense intellectual and cultural exchange. After 1900 Japan aligned itself with Britain, and Germany and Japan were enemies in World War I. Japan declared war on the German Empire in 1914 and seized key German possessions in China and the Pacific.\n", "But there was another western nation which did value the Japanese - Nazi Germany. Indeed, Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan wanted to form an alliance. A formal treaty of alliance was signed between Germany, Japan and Italy on 27 September 1940. Japan used the moment to move into northern Indo-China. This had been a French colony but the Germans had just overrun France so for the Japanese it was ripe for the picking. Japan wanted to create \"a greater East Asia co-prosperity sphere\". The slogan was \"Asia for the Asians\" - in essence the locals were swapping one colonial master for another. In Washington the American government, nervous about Japanese colonial intentions, announced that fuel sales to Japan would be suspended if Japan did not reconsider her aggressive actions. With no fuel resources of its own Japan believed it could now either give up its imperial ambitions, or fight the Americans. They attacked Pearl Harbor and, moments after, attacked Hong Kong.\n", "On August 23, 1914, the Empire of Japan declared war on Germany, in part due to the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, and Japan became a member of the Entente powers. The Imperial Japanese Navy made a considerable contribution to the Allied war effort; however, the Imperial Japanese Army was more sympathetic to Germany, and aside from the seizure of Tsingtao, resisted attempts to become involved in combat. The overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II and the establishment of a Bolshevik government in Russia led to a separate peace with Germany and the collapse of the Eastern Front. The spread of the anti-monarchial Bolshevik revolution eastward was of great concern to the Japanese government. Vladivostok, facing the Sea of Japan was a major port, with a massive stockpile of military stores, and a large foreign merchant community.\n", "Although less powerful than Germany, Imperial Japan is a nuclear power keeping the Reich at bay with the implicit threat of mutually assured destruction. Moreover, Japan has its own subordinate rulers (only the Emperor of Manchukuo is mentioned) by the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Despite having \"an ocean of slave labor\" at its disposal, Japan now concentrates upon developing high technologies. Despite the Germano–Nipponese alliance, the Nazis consider the Japanese racially inferior and lacking in creativity, with propaganda pointing to a perceived decrease in Japan's technological advances as proof of this. Even so, Japanese tourists, students, and restaurants are a common sight within the Reich.\n", "In Japan, during the Meiji period (1868–1912), many Germans came to work in Japan as advisors to the new government. Despite Japan’s isolationism and geographic distance, there have been a few , since Germany's and Japan's fairly parallel modernization made Germans ideal \"O-yatoi gaikokujin\". (See also Germany–Japan relations)\n", "As such, some historians consider that this point could be listed among the many causes of conflict and which led to Japanese actions later on. They argue that the rejection of the racial equality clause proved to be an important factor in turning Japan away from cooperation with the West and toward nationalistic policies. In 1923, the Anglo-Japanese Alliance expired, which gradually resulted in a closer relationship of Japan to Germany and Italy. However, Prussian militarism was already entrenched in the Imperial Japanese Army, many members of the Army had expected Germany to win the war, and Germany had approached Japan for a separate peace in 1916. The rapprochement towards Germany did not occur until the mid-1930s, a time when Germany had greater ties with Nationalist China.\n" ]

[ "The Allies staged elaborate deceptions for D-Day (see Operation Fortitude), giving the impression that the landings would be at Calais. Although Hitler himself expected a Normandy invasion for a while, Rommel and most Army commanders in France believed there would be two invasions, with the main invasion coming at the Pas-de-Calais. Rommel drove defensive preparations all along the coast of Northern France, particularly concentrating fortification building in the River Somme estuary. By D-Day on 6 June 1944 nearly all the German staff officers, including Hitler's staff, believed that Pas-de-Calais was going to be the main invasion site, and continued to believe so even after the landings in Normandy had occurred.\n", "The Operation Neptune commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, initially planned to begin the Normandy landings on 5 June, due to the coincidence of a full moon and low tide. However, after extensive debate, Hogben and his colleagues convinced Eisenhower to launch the invasion on 6 June instead, to avoid storm conditions that could potentially have crippled the Allied fleet. After the success of the D-Day landings, Hogben received the Bronze Star Medal for his meteorological advice.\n", "Having succeeded in opening up an offensive front in southern Europe, gaining valuable experience in amphibious assaults and inland fighting, Allied planners returned to the plans to invade Northern France. Now scheduled for 5 June 1944, the beaches of Normandy were selected as landing sites, with a zone of operations extending from the Cotentin Peninsula to Caen. Operation Overlord called for the British Second Army to assault between the River Orne and Port en Bessin, capture the German-occupied city of Caen and form a front line from Caumont-l'Éventé to the south-east of Caen, in order to acquire airfields and protect the left flank of the United States First Army while it captured Cherbourg. Possession of Caen and its surroundings would give Second Army a suitable staging area for a push south to capture the city of Falaise, which could then be used as a pivot for an advance on Argentan, the Touques River and then towards the Seine River. Overlord would constitute the largest amphibious operation in military history. After delays, due to both logistical difficulties and poor weather, the D-Day of Overlord was moved to 6 June 1944. Eisenhower and Bernard Montgomery, commander of 21st Army Group, aimed to capture Caen within the first day, and liberate Paris within 90 days.\n", "The Allied story for FUSAG was that the army group, based in south-east England, would invade the Pas-de-Calais region several weeks after a smaller diversionary landing in Normandy. In reality, the main invasion force would land in Normandy on D-Day. As D-Day approached, the LCS moved on to planning tactical deceptions to help cover the progress of the real invasion forces. As well as naval operations, the LCS also planned operations involving paratroopers and ground deceptions. The latter would come into effect once landings were made but the former (involving naval, air and special forces units) were used to cover the approach of the true invasion fleet.\n", "Victory in Normandy stemmed from several factors. German preparations along the Atlantic Wall were only partially finished; shortly before D-Day Rommel reported that construction was only 18 per cent complete in some areas as resources were diverted elsewhere. The deceptions undertaken in Operation Fortitude were successful, leaving the Germans obliged to defend a huge stretch of coastline. The Allies achieved and maintained air superiority, which meant that the Germans were unable to make observations of the preparations underway in Britain and were unable to interfere via bomber attacks. Transport infrastructure in France was severely disrupted by Allied bombers and the French Resistance, making it difficult for the Germans to bring up reinforcements and supplies. Much of the opening artillery barrage was off-target or not concentrated enough to have any impact, but the specialised armour worked well except on Omaha, providing close artillery support for the troops as they disembarked onto the beaches. The indecisiveness and overly complicated command structure of the German high command was also a factor in the Allied success.\n", "The Allied victory in Normandy stemmed from several factors. German preparations along the Atlantic Wall were only partially finished; shortly before D-Day Rommel reported that construction was only 18 per cent complete in some areas as resources were diverted elsewhere. The deceptions undertaken in Operation Fortitude were successful, leaving the Germans obliged to defend a huge stretch of coastline. The Allies achieved and maintained air supremacy, which meant that the Germans were unable to make observations of the preparations underway in Britain and were unable to interfere via bomber attacks. Infrastructure for transport in France was severely disrupted by Allied bombers and the French Resistance, making it difficult for the Germans to bring up reinforcements and supplies. Some of the opening bombardment was off-target or not concentrated enough to have any impact, but the specialised armour worked well except on Omaha, providing close artillery support for the troops as they disembarked onto the beaches. Indecisiveness and an overly complicated command structure on the part of the German high command were also factors in the Allied success.\n", "The next major Allied operation came on September 17. Devised by British General Bernard Montgomery, its primary objective was the capture of several bridges in the Netherlands. Fresh off of their successes in Normandy, the Allies were optimistic that an attack on the Nazi-occupied Netherlands would force open a route across the Rhine and onto the North German Plain. Such an opening would allow Allied forces to break out northward and advance toward Denmark and, ultimately, Berlin.\n" ]

[ "Equivalently, it may be thought of as the energy stored in the electric field. For instance, if one were to hold two like charges a certain distance away from one another and then release them, the charges would move away with kinetic energy equal to the energy stored in the configuration. As an analogy, if one were to lift up a mass to a certain height in a gravitational field, the work it took to do so is equal to the energy stored in that configuration, and the kinetic energy of the mass upon contact with the ground would be equal to the energy of the configuration beforehand.\n", "In order to get an estimate of the critical speed, we use the fact that the condition for which this kinematic solution is valid corresponds to the case where there is no net energy exchange with the surroundings, so by considering the kinetic and potential energy of the system, we should be able to derive the critical speed.\n", "The speed, and thus the kinetic energy of a single object is frame-dependent (relative): it can take any non-negative value, by choosing a suitable inertial frame of reference. For example, a bullet passing an observer has kinetic energy in the reference frame of this observer. The same bullet is stationary to an observer moving with the same velocity as the bullet, and so has zero kinetic energy. By contrast, the total kinetic energy of a system of objects cannot be reduced to zero by a suitable choice of the inertial reference frame, unless all the objects have the same velocity. In any other case, the total kinetic energy has a non-zero minimum, as no inertial reference frame can be chosen in which all the objects are stationary. This minimum kinetic energy contributes to the system's invariant mass, which is independent of the reference frame.\n", "The total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified into potential energy, kinetic energy, or combinations of the two in various ways. Kinetic energy is determined by the movement of an object – or the composite motion of the components of an object – and potential energy reflects the potential of an object to have motion, and generally is a function of the position of an object within a field or may be stored in the field itself.\n", "The electrostatic potential energy of a system containing only one point charge is zero, as there are no other sources of electrostatic potential against which an external agent must do work in moving the point charge from infinity to its final location.\n", "The energy is −29.6MJ/kg: the potential energy is −59.2MJ/kg, and the kinetic energy 29.6MJ/kg. Compare with the potential energy at the surface, which is −62.6MJ/kg. The extra potential energy is 3.4MJ/kg, the total extra energy is 33.0MJ/kg. The average speed is 7.7km/s, the net delta-v to reach this orbit is 8.1km/s (the actual delta-v is typically 1.5–2.0km/s more for atmospheric drag and gravity drag).\n", "An object can have potential energy by virtue of its electric charge and several forces related to their presence. There are two main types of this kind of potential energy: electrostatic potential energy, electrodynamic potential energy (also sometimes called magnetic potential energy).\n" ]

[ "Every year there are four major projects that each student will participate in. The first is the Faire, which is a school-wide reenactment of an historical age. These periods include the Renaissance, the Age of Enlightenment, the Victorian era, the Middle Ages, and recently the 20th century. During this time, each student is responsible to research one character from this era, and portrays that person as closely as possible to historical fact. In this way, students not only learn in-depth information about important historical figures, but they also teach anyone whom they meet on the Faire days. Upon completion of the Faire, students are required to write a research paper on their character, in order to cement their knowledge of that time period, and to teach basic writing skills. During this time freshman students are taught how to build work citation pages, as all grades are expected to cite all sources, and quotes.\n", "The school's philosophy includes \"stage not age\", i.e. pupils are able to study subjects and take exams when they are ready for them rather than at a set age. As an Academy, the school day was extended from ending at 3 p.m. to 3.40. This enabled them to condense Key Stage 3 from 3 years study to 2, allowing up to 3 years for GCSE studies.\n", "Year 11 and 12 students must choose from: Agriculture, Ancient history, Biology, Business studies, Chemistry, Chinese (Beginners or Continuers), Community & Family Studies, Drama, Economics, Engineering studies, English (Studies, Standard, Advanced or Extension), Food Technology, Geography, Information Processes & Technology, Industrial Technology (Furniture & Timber Products Industries or Graphics Industries), Investigating Science, Legal Studies, Mathematics (Standard, Advanced or Extension), Modern History, Music 1, Personal Development Health PE, Physics,\n", "In the early years of the school’s history, the course of studies for high school students included four years of religion, four years of English, three years of social studies, two to four years of mathematics, three or four years of science and two years of Latin. In the 1930s, bookkeeping and typing were introduced. In 1952, shorthand and secretarial training were added. The new building also made the introduction of home economics and industrial arts possible.\n", "Pupils in years 7 and 8 also study modern languages, art, music, drama, food technology, graphic design, history and geography. These are offered as options in years 9, 10 and 11, along with public services, health and social care, and travel and tourism.\n", "Students are educated in subjects such as mathematics, history, geography, Hindi, English writing/reading, physics, chemistry, business, accounting, biology, etc. Older students attend workshops in writing, public speaking, and debate. Students are able to engage in sports such as volleyball, basketball, and soccer. Finally, students learn the importance of volunteerism, feminism, leadership, and personal/emotional development. \n", "From year 8, students are able to select a certain number of their subjects based on their personal interests and aspirations. Examples of subject choices include Commerce, Photography, Drama, Multi-media and Film, Conspiracies in History, Law and You, Travel and Tourism, Architectural Design, Japanese Language, French Language, Timber Technology, Engineering, Electronics, Aboriginal Studies, Drama, Life and the Universe, Metal Technology, Child Studies, Marine and Aquaculture Technology, and European Language and Culture. \n" ]

[ "Another thing that concerns wiring and rewiring is the neurological phenomenon of synesthesia. There are over 60 known types of synesthesia. An example would be a synesthesiat hearing a sound and colors flooding their vision or someone reading a passage of words and each letter evokes a different color or a different smell or a different taste. Certain sounds cause the person to feel certain things in turn, or see spots of color dance across their vision. Neurologists agree that this occurs of faulty wiring in the brain, that \"neuron circuits that process a sense accidentally strum circuits of another sense, causing both to go off simultaneously\". It is debated how this happens. As a child, one possesses more neurons than necessary and the unnecessary ones are pruned away and die when not used. Some believe that synesthesia is a result of poor pruning.\n", "Understanding how the brain can re-wire itself has allowed Merzenich, Tallal, and other colleagues to develop strategies intended to remediate individuals with any speech, language, and reading deficits. Through research in experience dependent learning with non-human primates, neurophysiologists including Merzenich have demonstrated that neuroplasticity remains through adulthood.\n", "Reentry is a neural structuring of the brain, specifically in humans, which is characterized by the ongoing bidirectional exchange of signals along reciprocal axonal fibers linking two or more brain areas. It is hypothesized to allow for widely distributed groups of neurons to achieve integrated and synchronized firing, which is proposed to be a requirement for consciousness, as outlined by Gerald Edelman and Giulio Tononi in their book \"A Universe of Consciousness\".\n", "Since the root of the problem is neurological, doctors have explored sensorimotor retraining activities to enable the brain to \"rewire\" itself and eliminate dystonic movements. The work of several doctors such as Nancy Byl and Joaquin Farias has shown that sensorimotor retraining activities and proprioceptive stimulation can induce neuroplasticity, making it possible for patients to recover substantial function that was lost due to Cervical Dystonia, oromandibular dystonia and dysphonia.\n", "At the beginning of the connectome project, it was thought that the connections between neurons were unchangeable once established and that only individual synapses could be altered. However, recent evidence suggests that connectivity is also subject to change, termed neuroplasticity. There are two ways that the brain can rewire: formation and removal of synapses in an established connection or formation or removal of entire connections between neurons. Both mechanisms of rewiring are useful for learning completely novel tasks that may require entirely new connections between regions of the brain. However, the ability of the brain to gain or lose entire connections poses an issue for mapping a universal species connectome.\n", "Since the root of the problem is neurological, doctors have explored sensorimotor retraining activities to enable the brain to \"rewire\" itself and eliminate dystonic movements. The work of several doctors such as Nancy Byl and Joaquin Farias has shown that sensorimotor retraining activities and proprioceptive stimulation can induce neuroplasticity, making it possible for patients to recover substantial function that was lost due to Cervical Dystonia, hand dystonia, blepharospasm, oromandibular dystonia, dysphonia and musicians' dystonia.\n", "Articulatory suppression is the process of inhibiting memory performance by speaking while being presented with an item to remember. Most research demonstrates articulatory suppression by requiring an individual to repeatedly say an irrelevant speech sound out loud while being presented with a list of words to recall shortly after. The individual experiences four stages when repeating the irrelevant sound: the intention to speak, programming the speech, articulating the sound or word, and receiving auditory feedback.\n" ]

[ "The Indian subcontinent has a history of earthquakes. The reason for the intensity and high frequency of earthquakes is the Indian plate driving into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year. The following is a list of major earthquakes which have occurred in India, including those with epicentres outside India that caused significant damage or casualties in the country.\n", "The October 28 and 29 earthquakes occurred in the Sulaiman fold-and-thrust belt, a region where geologically young (Tertiary) sedimentary rocks have been folded and squeezed by forces associated with the Indian-Eurasian collision. The earthquakes are located approximately 80 km east of the 650-km-long Chaman fault, which is a major left-lateral strike-slip fault that accommodates a significant amount of the slip across the plate boundary. The occurrence of the earthquakes suggests that other left-lateral strike-slip faults are present beneath the fold-and-thrust belt and that they accommodate some of the relative motion of the Indian and Eurasian plates.\n", "The Philippine Fault System from which almost all of the recorded strong earthquakes in the Philippines emanated, traverses eastern Uson. As a result, strong seismic activity in the form of frequent earthquakes can be experienced. Link to PHIVOLCS website\n", "Because the location does not lie on a plate boundary, there was some debate as to what caused the earthquake. One suggestion is the existence of fault webs. The Indian sub-continent crumples as it pushes against Asia and pressure is released. It is possible that this pressure is released along fault lines. Another argument is that reservoir construction along the Terna was responsible for increasing pressure on fault lines. Killari, where the epicenter of the quake is believed to have been, had a large crater, which remains in place to date.\n", "Earthquakes in Indian subcontinent occur due to the north-eastward movement of the Indian Plate and its interaction with the neighboring Eurasian Plate in the north. Most of earthquakes occur in the plate boundary regions; however, a few damaging earthquakes have occurred in the plate interior regions as well. A few damaging earthquakes in the plate-boundary regions include the following: 1897 Shillong plateau, 1905 Kangra, 1934 Nepal-Bihar, 1950 Chayu-Upper Assam, 2004 Sumatra-Andaman, 2005 Kashmir and 2015 Gorkha earthquakes. In the plate interior regions, damaging earthquakes occurred in 1993 at Killari, Maharashtra, in 1997 at Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, and in 2001 in Kachchh, Gujarat.\n", "Iran suffers from frequent earthquakes, with minor quakes occurring almost daily. This earthquake occurred as a result of stresses generated by movement of one tectonic plate, the Arabian plate, moving northward against another, the Eurasian plate, at approximately per year. The Earth's crust deforms in response to the plate motion in a broad zone spanning the width of Iran and extending north into Turkmenistan. Earthquakes occur as the result of reverse faulting and strike-slip faulting in the zone of deformation.\n", "The Indian subcontinent has a history of devastating earthquakes. The major reason for the high frequency and intensity of the earthquakes is that the Indian plate is driving into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year. Geographical statistics of India show that almost 54% of the land is vulnerable to earthquakes. A World Bank & United Nations report shows estimates that around 200 million city dwellers in India will be exposed to storms and earthquakes by 2050. National Disaster Management Authority says that 60% of Indian landmass is prone to earthquake and 8% susceptible to cyclone risks.\n" ]

[ "A loan shark is a person who offers loans at extremely high interest rates, has strict terms of collection upon failure, and operates outside off the street (outside of local authority). The term usually refers to illegal activity, but may also refer to predatory lending with extremely high interest rates such as payday or title loans.\n", "The research by the government and other agencies estimates that 165,000 to 200,000 people are indebted to loan sharks in the United Kingdom. Illicit loan sharking is treated as a high-level crime (felony) by law enforcement, due to its links to organized crime and the serious violence involved. Payday loans with high interest rates are legal in many cases, and have been described as \"legal loan sharking\" (in that the creditor is legally registered, pays taxes and contributions, and can reclaim remittance if taking the case to adjudication; likewise there is no threat of harm to the debtor).\n", "An angry loan shark has a tendency of getting excessively violent with anyone who doesn't have his money. His mob boss disapproves of his actions, warning him to tone things down or else. As expected, things only get worse.\n", "A business loan is a loan specifically intended for business purposes. As with all loans, it involves the creation of a debt, which will be repaid with added interest. There are a number of different types of business loans, including bank loans, mezzanine financing, asset-based financing, invoice financing, microloans, business cash advances and cash flow loans.\n", "The making of usurious loans is often called loan sharking. That term is sometimes also applied to the practice of making consumer loans without a license in jurisdictions that requires lenders to be licensed.\n", "House Shark is a 2017 American horror comedy film written and directed by Ron Bonk. The film stars Trey Harrison as Frank, a former cop who finds that a dangerous shark has invaded his home, and enlists the help of a former real estate agent named Abraham and a \"house shark\" expert named Zachary to confront the threat.\n", "An unintended consequence of poverty alleviation initiatives can be that loan sharks borrow from formal microfinance lenders and lend on to poor borrowers. Loan sharks sometimes enforce repayment by blackmail or threats of violence. Historically, many \"moneylenders\" skirted between legal and criminal activity. In the recent western world, loan sharks have been a feature of the criminal underworld.\n" ]

[ "Results from another recent study suggest that fetuses were able to form both short and long term memories. This conclusion was drawn from the fact that habituation rates (number of stimuli needed to habituate) were higher in babies in the neonatal stage that had not previously undergone fetal stimulations when compared to those who had: therefore demonstrating the memory of the stimulus in its fetal stage being carried into the neonatal stage.\n", "Much research and literature has shown that endocrine, neurological and most other diseases a mother or father carries can have adverse effects on a fetus's development. The majority of the research done regarding fetal brain development, and consequently its memory after birth, has focused on one condition or state and two main diseases: intrauterine hypoxia, hypothyroidism and rubella.\n", "Despite the neurosensory, mental and educational problems studied in school age and adolescent children born extremely preterm, the majority of preterm survivors born during the early years of neonatal intensive care are found to do well and to live fairly normal lives in young adulthood. Young adults born preterm seem to acknowledge that they have more health problems than their peers, yet feel the same degree of satisfaction with their quality of life.\n", "There is also evidence that birth complications and other factors around the time of birth (perinatal) can have serious implications on intellectual development. For example, a prolonged period of time without access to oxygen during the delivery can lead to brain damage and mental retardation. Also, low birth weights have been linked to lower intelligence scores later in lives of the children. There are two reasons for low birth weight, either premature delivery or the infant's size is just lower than average for its gestational age; both contribute to intellectual deficits later in life. A meta analysis of low birth weight babies found that there is a significant relationship between low birth weight and impaired cognitive abilities; however, the relationship is small, and they concluded that, although it may not be relevant at an individual level, it may instead be relevant at a population level. Other studies have also found that the correlations are relatively small unless the weight is extremely low (less than 1,500 g) – in which case the effects on intellectual development are more severe and often result in mental retardation.\n", "The Mental and Social Life of Babies is a 1982 book by Kenneth Kaye. Integrating a contemporary burgeoning field of research on infant cognitive and social development in the first two years of life with his own laboratory's studies at the University of Chicago, Kaye offered an \"apprenticeship\" theory. Seen as an empirical turning point in the investigation of processes in early human development, the book's reviews welcomed its reliance on close (second by second) process studies of a large sample of infants and mothers (50) recorded longitudinally (birth to 30 months). It was republished in England, Japan, Spain, Italy, and Argentina.\n", "The study aims to understand how biological and environmental factors interact with a baby's early life experiences and the outcomes this has later in life. The study will cover five main research themes:\n", "Medical information on the mothers and babies were gathered throughout the study and follow-up of their progress continued until the child reached at least two and a half years of age. Two outcomes were considered. The first, at 12 months, was death or need for a ventricular shunt. The second, measured at 30 months, was a composite score of standardized tests for mental and motor development.\n" ]

[ "Death Valley's Badwater Basin is the point of the lowest elevation in North America, at below sea level. This point is east-southeast of Mount Whitney, the highest point in the contiguous United States, with an elevation of 14,505 feet (4,421 m). On the afternoon of July 10, 1913, the United States Weather Bureau recorded a high temperature of 134 °F (56.7 °C) at Furnace Creek in Death Valley. This temperature stands as the highest ambient air temperature ever recorded at the surface of the Earth.\n", "BULLET::::- The Death Valley in the United States, behind both the Pacific Coast Ranges of California and the Sierra Nevada range, is the driest place in North America and one of the driest places on the planet. This is also due to its location well below sea level which tends to cause high pressure and dry conditions to dominate due to the greater weight of the atmosphere above.\n", "At below sea level at its lowest point, Badwater Basin on Death Valley's floor is the second-lowest depression in the Western Hemisphere (behind Laguna del Carbón in Argentina), while Mount Whitney, only to the west, rises to . This topographic relief is the greatest elevation gradient in the contiguous United States and is the terminus point of the Great Basin's southwestern drainage. Although the extreme lack of water in the Great Basin makes this distinction of little current practical use, it does mean that in wetter times the lake that once filled Death Valley (Lake Manly) was the last stop for water flowing in the region, meaning the water there was saturated in dissolved materials. Thus the salt pans in Death Valley are among the largest in the world and are rich in minerals, such as borax and various salts and hydrates. The largest salt pan in the park extends from the Ashford Mill Site to the Salt Creek Hills, covering some of the valley floor. The best known playa in the park is the Racetrack, known for its moving rocks.\n", "The mean annual temperature of Death Valley is about , due in part to its relatively low elevation; July temperatures exceed on average. Based on plant data, summer temperatures at Lake Manly during the Pleistocene were about 6–8 °C (11–14 °F) lower than present day; \"Yucca whipplei\" was found at altitudes too cold for its development, suggesting that middle altitudes winters were milder 12,000–10,000 years ago. Winter water temperatures may have dropped below however, occasionally falling below with a maxima of during the latest lake stage. The \"Blackwelder\" stage had higher maximum temperatures. Maximum temperatures were depressed by 4–15 °C (7–27 °F) during summers in the last highstand; Blackwelder highstand temperatures reached , however.\n", "The elevation of the land surface of the Earth varies from the low point of −418 m (−1,371 ft) at the Dead Sea, to a 2005-estimated maximum altitude of 8,848 m (29,028 ft) at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is 686 m (2,250 ft).\n", "Death Valley is extremely dry because it sits in the rain shadow of four major mountain ranges (including the Sierra Nevada and Panamint Range). Moisture moving inland from the Pacific Ocean must pass eastward over multiple mountains to reach Death Valley; as air masses are forced upwards by each range, the air cools and moisture condenses to fall as rain or snow on the western slopes. When the air masses ultimately reach Death Valley, most of the moisture has already been \"squeezed out\" and there is little left to fall as precipitation.\n", "The highest range within the park is the Panamint Range with Telescope Peak being its highest point at . The Death Valley region is a transitional zone in the northernmost part of the Mojave Desert and consists of five mountain ranges removed from the Pacific Ocean. Three of these are significant barriers: the Sierra Nevada, the Argus Range, and the Panamint Range. Air masses tend to lose moisture as they are forced up over mountain ranges, in what climatologists call a rainshadow effect.\n" ]

[ "\"Feel Something\" is a futurepop song written by Miller, Justin Tranter, Kennedi Lykken, and Mike Sabath and produced by Mike Sabath. Miller talked about the song: \"When you're experiencing pain of any kind, all you want is for it to go away. But weirdly that pain is kind of what makes you feel like a real person, so when nothing is going wrong but it's also not going right and you’re just in the middle, you feel empty. And that's almost worse. That's what I wrote this song about.\"\n", "Can You Feel Anything When I Do This? is a collection of science fiction short stories by American writer Robert Sheckley, published in December 1971 by Doubleday. It was also published by Pan Books under title The Same To You Doubled.\n", "\"That Feeling, You Can Only Say What It Is in French” is a horror short story by American writer Stephen King. It was originally published in the June 22, 1998 issue of \"The New Yorker\" magazine. In 2002, it was collected in King's collection \"Everything's Eventual\". It focuses on a married woman in a car ride on vacation constantly repeating the same events over and over, each event ending with the same gruesome outcome.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Feeling...\" — A term most commonly used by youths to call someone who one thinks is trying to act or be something they're not. Usually preceded by a noun or adjective, for example \"feeling close\" (or \"F.C.\"), someone who acts like they're close to another when the other person hardly knows them or doesn't know them at all.\n", "In \"Déjà pensé\", a completely new thought sounds familiar to the person and he feels as he has thought the same thing before at some time.This feeling can be caused by seizures which occur in certain parts of the temporal lobe and possibly other areas of the brain as well.\n", "The sense of touch, or tactile perception, is what allows organisms to feel the world around them. The environment acts as an external stimulus, and tactile perception is the act of passively exploring the world to simply sense it. To make sense of the stimuli, an organism will undergo active exploration, or haptic perception, by moving their hands or other areas with environment-skin contact. This will give a sense of what is being perceived, and give information about size, shape, weight, temperature, and material. Tactile stimulation can be direct in the form of bodily contact, or indirect through the use of a tool or probe. Direct and indirect send different types messages to the brain, but both provide information regarding roughness, hardness, stickiness, and warmth. The use of a probe elicits a response based on the vibrations in the instrument rather than direct environmental information. Tactual perception gives information regarding cutaneous stimuli (pressure, vibration, and temperature), kinaesthetic stimuli (limb movement), and proprioceptive stimuli (position of the body). There are varying degrees of tactual sensitivity and thresholds, both between individuals and between different time periods in an individual's life. It has been observed that individuals have differing levels of tactile sensitivity between each hand. This may be due to callouses forming on the skin of the most used hand, creating a buffer between the stimulus and the receptor. Alternately, the difference in sensitivity may be due to a difference in the cerebral functions or ability of the left and right hemisphere. Tests have also shown that deaf children have a greater degree of tactile sensitivity than that of children with normal hearing ability, and that girls generally have a greater degree of sensitivity than that of boys.\n", "When touched upon the soles of the feet, for example, it feels in addition to the common sensation of touch a sensation on which we have imposed a special name, \"tickling.\" This sensation belongs to us and not to the hand... A piece of paper or a feather drawn lightly over any part of our bodies performs intrinsically the same operations of moving and touching, but by touching the eye, the nose, or the upper lip it excites in us an almost intolerable titillation, even though elsewhere it is scarcely felt. This titillation belongs entirely to us and not to the feather; if the live and sensitive body were removed it would remain no more than a mere word.\n" ]

[ "Several studies have examined whether certain types of alcohol cause worse hangovers. All four studies concluded that darker liquors, which have higher congeners, produced worse hangovers. One even showed that hangovers were worse \"and\" more frequent with darker liquors. In a 2006 study, an average of 14 standard drinks (330 ml each) of beer was needed to produce a hangover, but only 7 to 8 drinks was required for wine or liquor (note that one standard drink has the same amount of alcohol regardless of type). Another study ranked several drinks by their ability to cause a hangover as follows (from low to high): distilled ethanol diluted with fruit juice, beer, vodka, gin, white wine, whisky, rum, red wine and brandy.\n", "Several factors which do not in themselves cause alcohol hangover are known to influence its severity. These factors include personality, genetics, health status, age, sex, associated activities during drinking such as smoking, the use of other drugs, physical activity such as dancing, as well as sleep quality and duration.\n", "Wine, beer, distilled spirits and other alcoholic drinks contain ethyl alcohol and alcohol consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the wine, beer or spirits and the timespan that the consumption took place, the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription, over-the-counter or street drugs, among other factors. Alcohol in carbonated drinks is absorbed faster than alcohol in non-carbonated drinks.\n", "The short-term effects of alcohol (also known formally as ethanol) consumption – due to drinking beer, wine, distilled spirits or other alcoholic beverages – range from a decrease in anxiety and motor skills and euphoria at lower doses to intoxication (drunkenness), stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia (memory \"blackouts\"), and central nervous system depression at higher doses. Cell membranes are highly permeable to alcohol, so once alcohol is in the bloodstream, it can diffuse into nearly every cell in the body.\n", "In addition to ethanol and water, most alcoholic drinks also contain congeners, either as flavoring or as a by-product of fermentation and the wine aging process. While ethanol is by itself sufficient to produce most hangover effects, congeners may potentially aggravate hangover and other residual effects to some extent. Congeners include substances such as amines, amides, acetones, acetaldehydes, polyphenols, methanol, histamines, fusel oil, esters, furfural, and tannins, many but not all of which are toxic. One study in mice indicates that fusel oil may have a mitigating effect on hangover symptoms, while some whiskey congeners such as butanol protect the stomach against gastric mucosal damage in the rat. Different types of alcoholic beverages contain different amounts of congeners. In general, dark liquors have a higher concentration while clear liquors have a lower concentration. Whereas vodka has virtually no more congeners than pure ethanol, bourbon has a total congener content 37 times higher than that found in vodka.\n", "Wine contains ethyl alcohol, the same chemical that is present in beer and distilled spirits and as such, wine consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the wine and the timespan that the consumption took place, the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription, over-the-counter or street drugs, among other factors. Drinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03%-0.12% typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria, increased self-confidence and sociability, decreased anxiety, a flushed, red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes lethargy, sedation, balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC from 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g. slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, vomiting, and death may occur due to inhalation of vomit (pulmonary aspiration) while unconscious and respiratory depression (potentially life-threatening). A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes a coma (unconsciousness), life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning. As with all alcoholic drinks, drinking while driving, operating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident; many countries have penalties against drunk driving.\n", "Distilled spirits contain ethyl alcohol, the same chemical that is present in beer and wine and as such, spirit consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the spirits and the timespan that the consumption took place, the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription, over-the-counter or street drugs, among other factors. Drinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03%-0.12% typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria, increased self-confidence, and sociability, decreased anxiety, a flushed, red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes lethargy, sedation, balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC from 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g., slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, vomiting, and respiratory depression (potentially life-threatening). Death may occur due to inhalation of vomit (pulmonary aspiration) while unconscious. A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes a coma (unconsciousness), life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning. As with all alcoholic beverages, driving under the influence, operating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident; as such many countries have penalties for drunk driving.\n" ]

[ "Implements commonly used for cutting are the knife and saw, or in medicine and science the scalpel and microtome. However, any sufficiently sharp object is capable of cutting if it has a hardness sufficiently larger than the object being cut, and if it is applied with sufficient force. Even liquids can be used to cut things when applied with sufficient force (see water jet cutter).\n", "Knife cuttings are fashioned by putting several layers of paper on a relatively soft foundation consisting of a mixture of tallow and ashes. Following a pattern, the artist cuts the motif into the paper with a sharp knife which is usually held vertically. Skilled crafters can even cut out different drawings freely without stopping.\n", "Knife is the cutting die for envelope or wrapper blanks. It is called a \"knife\" rather than a \"die\" because the latter is an object that makes an embossed printed impression of the stamp or indicium on the envelope. Traditionally, a knife would normally be made of forged steel. It was placed on a stack of paper with the sharp edge against the paper. The press head forced the cutting edge all the way through the stack of paper. The cut blanks were removed from the knife and the process repeated. Not only could it cut out the odd shape of an envelope, but a knife could be used to cut out shapes of airmail stickers or gummed labels in the shape of stars or circles. The variety of shapes a knife could cut would be infinite.\n", "Knife sharpening is the process of making a knife or similar tool sharp by grinding against a hard, rough surface, typically a stone, or a flexible surface with hard particles, such as sandpaper. Additionally, a leather razor strop, or strop, is often used to straighten and polish an edge. See simple sharpening tutorial.\n", "An electric carving knife, commonly known as electric knife, is an electrical kitchen device used for slicing foods. The device consists of two serrated blades that are clipped together. When the appliance is switched on, the blades continuously move lengthways to provide the sawing action. They were popular in the United Kingdom in 1970s.\n", "The basic method involves repeatedly striking the spine of the knife to force the middle of the blade into the wood. The tip is then struck, to continue forcing the blade deeper, until a split is achieved.\n", "Knife making is the process of manufacturing a knife by any one or a combination of processes: stock removal, forging to shape, welded lamination or investment cast. Typical metals used come from the carbon steel, tool, or stainless steel families. Primitive knives have been made from bronze, copper, brass, iron, obsidian, and flint.\n" ]

[ "The underwater world is still mostly unknown. The main reason for it is the difficulty to gather information in situ, to experiment, and even to reach certain places. But the ocean nonetheless is of a crucial importance for scientists, as it covers about 71% of the planet.\n", "As space activity becomes increasingly integrated into every aspect of life here on earth, the SEA intends to show how this new focus on exploration will provide myriad advances in science and technology, untold economic opportunity and serve as an inspiration to our nation's youth. Given those benefits and the many more that lie in store, this new program of human space exploration beyond low earth orbit is a vital link to the future of the United States and the world.\n", "The sea around the islands wouldn't receive much attention until the 1990s, because diving was not yet regarded as a true scientific tool in Brazil. It was in the archipelago that such reality began to change.\n", "The exploration of space will go ahead, whether we join it or not, and it is one of the greatest adventures of all time ... We set sail on this new sea because there is new knowledge to be gained and new rights to be won, and they must be won and used \"for all people\" ... We choose to go to the moon. We choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard ...\n", "Half the Earth’s surface is covered by oceans over 3,000 metres deep, making them the biggest ecosystem on the planet. Nevertheless, due to the limitations of the technology available until just recently, the oceans remain something of a mystery. Indeed, it is often said that we know more about the Moon or Mars than Earth’s oceans.\n", "With increasing ocean exploration over the last two decades has come the realisation that humans have had an extensive impact on the world’s oceans, not just close to our shores, but also reaching down into the deep sea. From destructive fishing practices and exploitation of mineral resources to pollution and litter, evidence of human impact can be found in virtually all deep-sea ecosystems. In response, the international community has set a series of ambitious goals aimed at protecting the marine environment and its resources for future generations. Three of these initiatives, decided on by world leaders during the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg), are to achieve a significant reduction in biodiversity loss by 2010, to introduce an ecosystems approach to marine resource assessment and management by 2010, and to designate a network of marine protected areas by 2012. A crucial requirement for implementing these is the availability of high-quality scientific data and knowledge, as well as effective science-policy interfaces to ensure the policy relevance of research and to enable the rapid translation of scientific information into science policy.\n", "For reasons such as lack of mobility, lack of self-sufficiency, shifting focus to space travel and transition to surface-based saturation systems, the interest in underwater habitats decreased, resulting in a noticeable decrease in major projects after 1970. In the mid eighties, the Aquarius habitat was built in the style of Sealab and Helgoland and is still in operation today.\n" ]

[ "ISIS was founded on a belief that scientists have an obligation to participate actively in solving major problems of national and international security. ISIS focuses primarily on four parts: 1) prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and related technology to other nations and terrorists, 2) lead to greater transparency of nuclear activities worldwide, 3) reinforce the international non-proliferation regime, and 4) cut down nuclear arsenals. Furthermore, ISIS seeks to build stable foundations for various efforts to reduce the threat posed by nuclear weapons to U.S. and international security by integrating technical, scientific and policy research. As the effectiveness of ISIS was appreciated and recognized in the Global “Go-To Think Tanks” rankings, ISIS consistently places in the top 25 Science and Technology Think Tanks in the world and in 2015 placed as one of the top United States and foreign policy think tanks in the world.\n", "A 2014 interview with Fuller quotes him as follows: \"I think the United States is one of the key creators of [ISIS]. The United States did not plan the formation of ISIS, but its destructive interventions in the Middle East and the war in Iraq were the basic causes of the birth of ISIS.\n", "From January 2014 onwards, the rise of ISIS (or as it is also known, ISIL), a major belligerent in the Syrian Civil War, has transformed the insurgency into a regional war that includes Syria, Iran and a large coalition of Western and Islamic forces led by the United States.\n", "ISIS is believed to actively use malicious programs on computers and mobile devices such as cell phones in order to create social media floods, creating the perception that ISIS has more support and is bigger than it actually is around the world.\n", "By 2014, ISIL was increasingly being viewed as a militia in addition to a terrorist group and a cult. As major Iraqi cities fell to ISIL in June 2014, Jessica Lewis, a former US Army intelligence officer at the Institute for the Study of War, described ISIL at that time as\n", "ISIL's claims to territory have brought it into armed conflict with many governments, militias and other armed groups. International rejection of ISIL as a terrorist entity and rejection of its claim to even exist have placed it in conflict with countries around the world.\n", "In light of the increased power of ISIL, Ebadi communicated in April 2015 that she believes the Western world should spend money funding education and an end to corruption rather than fighting with guns and bombs. She reasons that because the Islamic State stems from an ideology based on a \"wrong interpretation of Islam,\" physical force will not end ISIS because it will not end its beliefs.\n" ]

[ "Edward Snowden's asylum in Russia is part of the aftermath from the global surveillance disclosures made by Edward Snowden. On June 23, 2013, Snowden flew from Hong Kong to Moscow's Sheremetyevo Airport. Noting that his U.S. passport had been cancelled, Russian authorities restricted him to the airport terminal. On August 1, after 39 days in the transit section, Snowden left the airport. He was granted temporary asylum in Russia for one year. On August 7, 2014, six days after Snowden's one-year temporary asylum expired, his Russian lawyer announced that Snowden had received a three-year residency permit. It allowed him to travel freely within Russia and to go abroad for up to three months. Snowden was not granted permanent political asylum, which would require a separate process.\n", "On June 23, 2013, Snowden landed at Moscow's Sheremetyevo Airport. WikiLeaks said he was on a circuitous but safe route to asylum in Ecuador. Snowden had a seat reserved to continue to Cuba but did not board that onward flight, saying in a January 2014 interview that he intended to transit through Russia but was stopped en route. He asserted \"a planeload of reporters documented the seat I was supposed to be in\" when he was ticketed for Havana, but the U.S. cancelled his passport. He said the U.S. wanted him to stay in Moscow so \"they could say, 'He's a Russian spy.'\" Greenwald's account differed on the point of Snowden being already ticketed. According to Greenwald, Snowden's passport was valid when he departed Hong Kong but was revoked during the hours he was in transit to Moscow, preventing him from obtaining a ticket to leave Russia. Greenwald said Snowden was thus forced to stay in Moscow and seek asylum.\n", "In October 2013, Snowden said that before flying to Moscow, he gave all the classified documents he had obtained to journalists he met in Hong Kong, and kept no copies for himself. In January 2014, he told a German TV interviewer that he gave all of his information to American journalists reporting on American issues. During his first American TV interview, in May 2014, Snowden said he had protected himself from Russian leverage by destroying the material he had been holding before landing in Moscow.\n", "The Russian newspaper \"Kommersant\" nevertheless reported that Snowden was living at the Russian consulate shortly before his departure from Hong Kong to Moscow. Ben Wizner, a lawyer with the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and legal adviser to Snowden, said in January 2014, \"Every news organization in the world has been trying to confirm that story. They haven't been able to, because it's false.\" Likewise rejecting the \"Kommersant\" story was Anatoly Kucherena, who became Snowden's lawyer in July 2013 when Snowden asked him for help in seeking temporary asylum in Russia. Kucherena said Snowden did not communicate with Russian diplomats while he was in Hong Kong. In early September 2013, however, Russian president Vladimir Putin said that, a few days before boarding a plane to Moscow, Snowden met in Hong Kong with Russian diplomatic representatives.\n", "On June 23, 2013, Snowden landed at Moscow's Sheremetyevo Airport aboard a commercial Aeroflot flight from Hong Kong. On August 1, after 39 days in the transit section, he left the airport and was granted temporary asylum in Russia for one year. A year later, his temporary asylum having expired, Snowden received a three-year residency permit allowing him to travel freely within Russia and to go abroad for up to three months. He was not granted permanent political asylum. In January 2017, a spokesperson for the Russian foreign ministry wrote on Facebook that Snowden's asylum, which was due to expire in 2017, was extended by \"a couple more years\". Snowden's lawyer Anatoly Kucherena said the extension was valid until 2020.\n", "In May 2014, NBC's Brian Williams presented the first interview for American television. In June, \"The Washington Post\" reported that during his first year of Russian asylum, Snowden had received \"tens of thousands of dollars in cash awards and appearance fees from privacy organizations and other groups,\" fielded inquiries about book and movie projects, and was considering taking a position with a South African foundation that would support work on security and privacy issues. \"Any moment that he decides that he wants to be a wealthy person,\" said Snowden's attorney Ben Wizner, \"that route is available to him,\" although the U.S. government could attempt to seize such proceeds.\n", "Snowden met with Barton Gellman of \"The Washington Post\" six months after the disclosure for an exclusive interview spanning 14 hours, his first since being granted temporary asylum. Snowden talked about his life in Russia as \"an indoor cat,\" reflected on his time as an NSA contractor, and discussed at length the revelations of global surveillance and their reverberations. Snowden said, \"In terms of personal satisfaction, the mission's already accomplished ... I already won. As soon as the journalists were able to work, everything that I had been trying to do was validated.\" He commented \"I am not trying to bring down the NSA, I am working to improve the NSA ... I am still working for the NSA right now. They are the only ones who don't realize it.\" On the accusation from former CIA and NSA director Michael Hayden that he had defected, Snowden stated, \"If I defected at all, I defected from the government to the public.\" In 2014, Snowden said that he lives \"a surprisingly open life\" in Russia and that he is recognized when he goes to computer stores.\n" ]

[ "In the United Kingdom, there are two sources of supplementary nurses - nurse banks and nursing agencies. The former provides nurses paid on as \"hours as required\" basis and is often contracted to fill planned or unplanned shortfalls in staffing. Agency nurses, on the other hand, are employed through third-party agencies. Recent studies show that it has become common practice in the United Kingdom to use bank and agency nurses to fill vacant shifts in hospitals that cannot be filled by permanent staff. By 2002 to 2003, it was already reported that the National Health Service has spent £628 million on agency nursing. There are sources that cite how nurses employed through agencies tend to enjoy greater rewards and higher pay than those with institutional contracts.\n", "Nurses are normally well trained before being eligible for working with a hospital, but support workers are a problem. Some hospitals hire skill-less “underground” labors and after giving them some simple training use them as hospital support workers. These workers, mostly originating from rural areas, are poorly paid by those hospitals.\n", "In 2016, several publications appeared in the media, claiming nurses depend on food banks and payday loans to survive. In October 2016, Western Circle published research, claiming that the sector of NHS Nurses are heavily dependent on payday loan. According to the research, the number of nurses using payday loans has doubled in 3 years, since 2013. This research brought the matter of the low wages nurses received in the UK to the attention of media outlets. The claims were that nurses' salaries were frozen for more than 6 years and in some cases, resulted in financial distress, clearly as wages have not kept pace with the cost of living increases in this time. The lack of pay increases for, particularly nurses within the NHS continues to be an important topic of public discussion in the UK.\n", "The salary of a paramedic in the US varies. The mean average is $30,000, with the lowest 10% earning under $20,000 and the top 10% earning over $50,000, considerably less than the salaries of paramedics in Canada. Factors such as education and location of the paramedic's practice influence the salary. Paramedic supervisors and managers may make between $60,000- $80,000, depending on location.\n", "This is because fee-for-service hospitals have a positive contribution margin for almost all elective cases mostly due to a large percentage of OR costs being fixed. For USA hospitals not on a fixed annual budget, contribution margin per OR hour averages one to two thousand USD per OR hour.\n", "This is because fee-for-service hospitals have a positive contribution margin for almost all elective cases mostly due to a large percentage of OR costs being fixed. For USA hospitals not on a fixed annual budget, contribution margin per OR hour averages one to two thousand USD per OR hour.\n", "In 1892, Congress passed a law which allowed for a pension of $12 per month for all nurses who had been hired and paid by the Government. However, most volunteer nurses still were not awarded pensions, at least as of 1910.\n" ]

[ "If water enters the airways of a conscious person, the person will try to cough up the water or swallow it, often inhaling more water involuntarily. When water enters the larynx or trachea, both conscious and unconscious persons experience laryngospasm, in which the vocal cords constrict, sealing the airway. This prevents water from entering the lungs. Because of this laryngospasm, in the initial phase of drowning, water generally enters the stomach and very little water enters the lungs. Though laryngospasm prevents water from entering the lungs, it also interferes with breathing. In most persons, the laryngospasm relaxes some time after unconsciousness and water can then enter the lungs causing a \"wet drowning\". However, about 7–10% of people maintain this seal until cardiac arrest. This has been called \"dry drowning\", as no water enters the lungs. In forensic pathology, water in the lungs indicates that the person was still alive at the point of submersion. Absence of water in the lungs may be either a dry drowning or indicates a death before submersion.\n", "BULLET::::- Fluid obstruction: Fluids, usually vomit, can collect in the pharynx, effectively causing the person to drown. The loss of muscular control which causes the tongue to block the throat can also lead to the stomach contents flowing into the throat, called \"passive regurgitation\". Fluid which collects in the back of the throat can also flow down into the lungs. Another complication can be stomach acid burning the inner lining of the lungs, causing aspiration pneumonia.\n", "This stage was introduced in many protocols as it was found that many people were too quick to undertake potentially dangerous interventions, such as abdominal thrusts, for items which could have been dislodged without intervention. Also, if the choking is caused by an irritating substance rather than an obstructing one, and if conscious, the patient should be allowed to drink water on their own to try to clear the throat. Since the airway is already closed, there is very little danger of water entering the lungs. Coughing is normal after most of the irritant has cleared, and at this point the patient will probably refuse any additional water for a short time.\n", "Choking (also known as foreign body airway obstruction) is a life-threatening medical emergency characterized by the blockage of air passage into the lungs secondary to the inhalation or ingestion of food or another object.\n", "Often the victim has the mouth forced or wedged open, the nose closed with pincers and a funnel or strip of cloth forced down the throat. The victim has to drink all the water (or other liquids such as bile or urine) poured into the funnel to avoid drowning. The stomach fills until near bursting and is sometimes beaten until the victim vomits and the torture begins again.\n", "BULLET::::- Dehydration from prolonged exposure to hypertonic salt water—or, less frequently, salt water aspiration syndrome where inhaled salt water creates foam in the lungs that restricts breathing—can cause loss of physical control or kill directly without actual drowning. Hypothermia and dehydration also kill directly, without causing drowning, even when the person wears a life vest.\n", "Generally, in the early stages of drowning a person holds their breath to prevent water from entering their lungs. When this is no longer possible a small amount of water entering the trachea causes a muscular spasm that seals the airway and prevents further passage of water. If the process is not interrupted, loss of consciousness due to hypoxia is followed rapidly by cardiac arrest.\n" ]

[ "Many insects are distasteful to predators and excrete irritants or secrete poisonous compounds that cause illness or death when ingested. Secondary metabolites obtained from plant food may also be sequestered by insects and used in the production of their own toxins. One of the more well-known examples of this is the monarch butterfly, which sequesters poison obtained from the miilkweed plant. Among the most successful insect orders employing this strategy are beetles (Coleoptera), grasshoppers (Orthoptera), and moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera). Insects also biosynthesize unique toxins, and while sequestration of toxins from food sources is claimed to be the energetically favorable strategy, this has been contested. Passion-vine associated butterflies in the tribe Heliconiini (sub-family Heliconiinae) either sequester or synthesize \"de novo\" defensive chemicals, but moths in the genus \"Zygaena\" (family Zygaenidae) have evolved the ability to either synthesize or sequester their defensive chemicals through convergence. Some coleopterans sequester secondary metabolites to be used as defensive chemicals but most biosynthesize their own \"de novo\". Anatomical structures have developed to store these substances, and some are circulated in the hemolyph and released associated with a behavior called reflex bleeding.\n", "It turns out that many species of insects are toxic or distasteful when they have fed on plants that contain chemicals of particular classes, but not when they have fed on plants that lack those chemicals. For instance, some milkweed butterflies feed on milkweeds (\"Asclepias\") which contain the cardiac glycoside oleandrin; this makes them poisonous to most predators. These insects are often aposematically coloured and patterned. When feeding on innocuous plants, they are harmless and nutritious, but a bird that has sampled a toxic specimen even once is unlikely to risk tasting harmless specimens with the same aposematic coloration. Such acquired toxicity is not limited to insects: many groups of animals have since been shown to obtain toxic compounds through their diets, making automimicry potentially widespread. Even if toxic compounds are produced by metabolic processes with an animal, there may still be variability in the amount that animals invest in them, so scope for automimicry remains even when dietary plasticity is not involved. Whatever the mechanism, palatability may vary with age, sex, or how recently they used their supply of toxin.\n", "Many species of insects are toxic or distasteful when they have fed on certain plants that contain chemicals of particular classes, but not when they have fed on plants that lack those chemicals. For instance, some species of the subfamily Danainae feed on various species of the Asclepiadoideae in the family Apocynaceae, which render them poisonous and emetic to most predators. Such insects frequently are aposematically coloured and patterned. When feeding on innocuous plants however, they are harmless and nutritious, but a bird that once has sampled a toxic specimen is unlikely to eat harmless specimens that have the same aposematic coloration. When regarded as mimicry of toxic members of the same species, this too may be seen as automimicry.\n", "Since it is impossible to entirely eliminate pest insects from the human food chain, insects are inadvertently present in many foods, especially grains. Food safety laws in many countries do not prohibit insect parts in food, but rather limit their quantity. According to cultural materialist anthropologist Marvin Harris, the eating of insects is taboo in cultures that have other protein sources such as fish or livestock.\n", "Due to high densities of these insects in Western Europe, some researchers have also proposed their possible utilization as human food. These insects contain 69% proteins on dry weight with excellent amino acid profile and digestibility. Aman Paul and his co-workers indicated that before introducing these insects for human food, it is necessary to do a thorough examination of any possible toxic and/or allergic conditions that could arise from their consumption.\n", "Stercorarian trypanosomes infect insects, most often the triatomid kissing bug, by developing in the posterior gut followed by release into the feces and subsequent depositing on the skin of the host. The organism then penetrates and can disseminate throughout the body. Insects become infected when taking a blood meal.\n", "\"Retortamonas\" trophozoites have been found to feed on the intestinal bacteria of a wide variety of vertebrates including mammalian, avian, and amphibian hosts, as well as invertebrates, such as insects. Recent evidence however, suggests that species infecting insects are in fact \"Chilomastix.\"\n" ]

[ "Following the approval of the asteroid sample-return project MUSES-C, a rover was proposed to be mounted on the asteroid explorer, and development of MINERVA began in 1997. Completed in February 2003, MINERVA was Japan's first space rover, and the first asteroid rover in the world.\n", "The first Japanese asteroid probe, Hayabusa, returned to Earth on 13 June, having landed on 25143 Itokawa in an effort to collect samples. It was also the world's first successful sample return mission from an asteroid.\n", "BULLET::::- The spacecraft was originally intended to launch in July 2002 to the asteroid 4660 Nereus (the asteroid (10302) 1989 ML was considered as an alternative target). However, a July 2000 failure of Japan's M-5 rocket forced a delay in the launch, putting both Nereus and 1989 ML out of reach. As a result, the target asteroid was changed to , which was soon thereafter named for Japanese rocket pioneer Hideo Itokawa.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hayabusa\" was to deploy a small rover supplied by NASA and developed by JPL, called Muses-CN, onto the surface of the asteroid, but the rover was canceled by NASA in November 2000 due to budget constraints.\n", "The \"Hayabusa2\" mission includes four rovers with various scientific instruments. On 21 September 2018, the first two of these rovers, which hop around the surface of the asteroid, were released from \"Hayabusa2\". This marks the first time a mission has completed a successful landing on a fast-moving asteroid body.\n", "NASA proposed the Asteroid Redirect Mission (or \"Asteroid Initiative\"), an unmanned robotic mission, to \"retrieve\" a near-Earth asteroid with a size of about and a mass of around 500 tons (comparable in mass to the ISS). The asteroid would be moved into a high lunar orbit or orbit around EML2 (halo orbit, Lissajous orbit) for research and exploration purposes. Under consideration for moving the asteroid are grabbing the asteroid and using solar electric propulsion to \"directly\" move it, as well as gravity tractor technology.\n", "In addition, \"Hayabusa\" was the first spacecraft designed to deliberately land on an asteroid and then take off again (\"NEAR Shoemaker\" made a controlled descent to the surface of 433 Eros in 2000, but it was not designed as a lander and was eventually deactivated after it arrived). Technically, \"Hayabusa\" was not designed to \"land\"; it simply touches the surface with its sample capturing device and then moves away. However, it was the first craft designed from the outset to make physical contact with the surface of an asteroid. Junichiro Kawaguchi of the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science was appointed to be the leader of the mission.\n" ]

[ "It can be used for personal audio, either to have sounds audible to only one person, or that which a group wants to listen to. The navigation instructions for example are only interesting for the driver in a car, not for the passengers. Another possibility are future applications for true stereo sound, where one ear does not hear what the other is hearing.\n", "Initially implemented for listening to music and radio, vehicle audio is now part of car telematics, telecommunication, in-vehicle security, handsfree calling, navigation, and remote diagnostics systems. The same loudspeakers may also be used to minimize road and engine noise with active noise control, or they may be used to augment engine sounds, for instance making a smaller engine sound bigger.\n", "Although modern headphones have been particularly widely sold and used for listening to stereo recordings since the release of the Walkman, there is subjective debate regarding the nature of their reproduction of stereo sound. Stereo recordings represent the position of horizontal depth cues (stereo separation) via volume and phase differences of the sound in question between the two channels. When the sounds from two speakers mix, they create the phase difference the brain uses to locate direction. Through most headphones, because the right and left channels do not combine in this manner, the illusion of the phantom center can be perceived as lost. Hard panned sounds are also heard only in one ear rather than from one side.\n", "When wearing stereo headphones, people with unilateral hearing loss can hear only one channel, hence the panning information (volume and time differences between channels) is lost; some instruments may be heard better than others if they are mixed predominantly to one channel, and in extreme cases of sound production, such as complete stereo separation or stereo-switching, only part of the composition can be heard; in games using 3D audio effects, sound may not be perceived appropriately due to coming to the disabled ear. This can be corrected by using settings in the software or hardware—audio player, OS, amplifier or sound source—to adjust balance to one channel (only if the setting downmixes sound from both channels to one), or there may be an option to outright downmix both channels to mono. Such settings may be available via the device or software's accessibility features.\n", "Limited-range drivers, also used alone, are typically found in computers, toys, and clock radios. These drivers are less elaborate and less expensive than wide-range drivers, and they may be severely compromised to fit into very small mounting locations. In these applications, sound quality is a low priority. The human ear is remarkably tolerant of poor sound quality, and the distortion inherent in limited-range drivers may enhance their output at high frequencies, increasing clarity when listening to spoken word material.\n", "A personal stereo, or personal cassette player, is a portable audio player using an audiocassette player, battery power and in some cases an AM/FM radio. This allows the user to listen to music through headphones while walking, jogging or relaxing. Personal stereos typically have a belt clip or a shoulder strap so a user can attach the device to a belt or wear it over his or her shoulder. Some personal stereos came with a separate battery case.\n", "The automobile sound system may be part of an active noise control system which reduces engine and road noise for the driver and passengers. One or more microphones are used to pick up sound from various places on the vehicle, especially the engine compartment, underside or exhaust pipes, and these signals are handled by a digital signal processor (DSP) then sent to the loudspeakers in such a way that the processed signal reduces or cancels out the outside noise heard inside the car. An early system focused only on engine noise was developed by Lotus and licensed for the 1992 Nissan Bluebird models sold in Japan. Lotus later teamed with Harman in 2009 to develop a more complete noise reduction system, including road noise, tire noise, and chassis vibrations. One benefit of active noise control is that the car can weigh less, with less sound-deadening material used, and without a heavy balance shaft in the engine. Removing the balance shaft also increases fuel efficiency. The 2013 Honda Accord used an active noise control system, as did the 2013 Lincoln luxury line and the Ford C-Max and Fusion models. Other operating data may also play a part in the DSP, data such as the engine's speed in revolutions per minute (RPM) or the car's highway speed. A multiple source reduction system may reach as much as 80% of noise removed.\n" ]

[ "A horse archer is a cavalryman armed with a bow, able to shoot while riding from horseback. Archery has occasionally been used from the backs of other riding animals. In large open areas, it was a highly successful technique for hunting, for protecting the herds, and for war. It was a defining characteristic of the Eurasian nomads during antiquity and the medieval period, as well as the Iranian peoples, (Alans, Scythians, Sarmatians, Parthians, Sassanid Persians) and Indians in antiquity, and by the Hungarians, Mongols and the Turkic peoples during the Middle Ages.\n", "Since using a bow requires the rider to let go of the reins with both hands, horse archers need superb equestrian skills if they are to shoot on the move. The natives of large grassland areas used horse archery for hunting, for protecting their herds, and for war. Horse archery was for many groups a basic survival skill, and additionally made each able-bodied man, at need, a highly-mobile warrior. The buffalo hunts of the North American prairies may be the best-recorded examples of bowhunting by horse archers.\n", "Since using a bow requires a horseman to let go of the reins with both hands, horse archers need superb equestrian skills if they are to shoot on the move. Horse archery is typically associated with Eurasian nomads of the Eurasian steppe. Such were the Scythians and Sarmatians and later the Parthians, Hungarians, and Turks. Scythians were well known for their tactic of the Parthian shot, but evidently it was the Parthians who give it its name. In this tactical manoeuvre the horsemen would make a feigned retreat and progress away from the pursuing enemy while turning his upper body and shooting backwards at the pursuer, guiding his horse with his voice and the pressure of his legs.\n", "The Roman Empire and its military also had an extensive use of horse archers after their conflict with eastern armies that relied heavily on mounted archery in the 1st century BC. They had regiments such as the Equites Sagittarii, who acted as Rome's horse archers in combat. The Crusaders used conscripted cavalry and horse archers known as the Turcopole, made up of mostly Greek and Turks.\n", "Camel archers are marksmen wielding bows mounted on camels. Most commonly they are considered a part and form of Arab archery. They took their popularity in the Crusades, used in Arabia, Asian and Eurasian countries. Saladin, the leader of Arabia from 1174 to 1193, was known, or rather believed to use camels as a substitute for other ways of transport, such as the more common horse.\n", "Early horse archery, depicted on the Assyrian carvings, involved two riders, one controlling both horses while the second shot. Heavy horse archers first appeared in the Assyrian army in the 7th century BC after abandoning chariot warfare and formed a link between light skirmishing cavalrymen and heavy cataphract cavalry. The heavy horse archers usually had mail or lamellar armour and helmets, and sometimes even their horses were armoured.\n", "Some of the earliest examples of horses being ridden in warfare were horse-mounted archers or spear-throwers, dating to the reigns of the Assyrian rulers Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III. However, these riders sat far back on their horses, a precarious position for moving quickly, and the horses were held by a handler on the ground, keeping the archer free to use the bow. Thus, these archers were more a type of mounted infantry than true cavalry. The Assyrians developed cavalry in response to invasions by nomadic people from the north, such as the Cimmerians, who entered Asia Minor in the 8th century BC and took over parts of Urartu during the reign of Sargon II, approximately 721 BC. Mounted warriors such as the Scythians also had an influence on the region in the 7th century BC. By the reign of Ashurbanipal in 669 BC, the Assyrians had learned to sit forward on their horses in the classic riding position still seen today and could be said to be true light cavalry. The ancient Greeks used both light horse scouts and heavy cavalry, although not extensively, possibly due to the cost of keeping horses.\n" ]

[ "It is essentially a grate, which allows excess and waste liquids to be drained away, and either collected in a pan under the grate, or drained away through a hose that carries the waste water and tea to a bucket or other drain. \n", "Water is typically drawn from the pool via a rectangular aperture in the wall, connected through to a device fitted into one (or more) wall/s of the pool. The internals of the skimmer are accessed from the pool deck through a circular or rectangle lid, about one foot in diameter. If the pool's water pump is operational water is drawn from the pool over a floating hinged weir (operating from a vertical position to 90 degrees angle away from the pool, in order to stop leaves and debris being back-flooded into the pool by wave action), and down into a removable \"skimmer basket\", the purpose of which is to entrap leaves, dead insects and other larger floating debris.\n", "A sump pump is a pump used to remove water that has accumulated in a water-collecting sump basin, commonly found in the basements of homes. The water may enter via the perimeter drains of a basement waterproofing system, funneling into the basin or because of rain or natural ground water, if the basement is below the water table level.\n", "A fountain consists of a motor that powers a rotating impeller. The impeller pumps water from the first few feet of the water and expels it into the air. This process utilizes air-water contact to transfer oxygen. As the water is propelled into the air, it breaks into small droplets. Collectively, these small droplets have a large surface area through which oxygen can be transferred. Upon return, these droplets mix with the rest of the water and thus transfer their oxygen back to the ecosystem.\n", "In modern fountains a water filter, typically a media filter, removes particles from the water—this filter requires its own pump to force water through it and plumbing to remove the water from the pool to the filter and then back to the pool. The water may need chlorination or anti-algal treatment, or may use biological methods to filter and clean water.\n", "The water is distributed in a slender trickle issuing from the center of the dome and falls down into a basin that is protected by a grille. To make distribution easier, two tin-plated, iron cups attached to the fountain by a small chain were at the drinker's desire, staying always submerged for cleanliness. These cups were removed in 1952 \"for Hygiene reasons\" by demand of the Council of Public Hygiene of the old Department of the Seine.\n", "The fountain can spout (almost) as high above the upper container as the water falls from the basin into the lower container. For maximum effect, place the upper container as closely beneath the basin as possible and place the lower container a long way beneath both.\n" ]

[ "Addicts often believe that being in control of others is how to achieve success and happiness in life. People who follow this rule use it as a survival skill, having usually learned it in childhood. As long as they make the rules, no one can back them into a corner with their feelings.\n", "People who suffer from an addictive personality spend excessive time on a behavior or with an item, not as a hobby but because they feel they have to. Addiction can be defined when the engagement in the activity or experience affects the person’s quality of life in some way. In this way, many people who maintain an addictive personality isolate themselves from social situations in order to mask their addiction.\n", "Addicts often believe that being in control is how to achieve success and happiness in life. People who follow this rule use it as a survival skill, having usually learned it in childhood. As long as they make the rules, no one can back them into a corner with their feelings.\n", "Individuals who can be considered addicted to shopping are observed to exhibit repetitive and obsessive urges to go buy items especially when in the vicinity of an environment that supports this venture such as a mall. In this locations, they mostly purchase things that are cheap and of low value mainly just to satisfy the urge to spend. Normally, these items end up being returned to the shop they were brought from or just disposed of entirely after a while. However, according to Zadka and Olajossy, this rarely works as these individuals are known to have low self-esteem.\n", "Burke and Fiksenbaum refer to Schaufeli, Taris, and Bakker (2007) when they made a distinction between an individual good workaholics and bad workaholics. A good workaholic will score higher on measures of work engagement and a bad workaholic will score higher on measures of burnout. They also suggest why this is – some individuals work because they are satisfied, engaged, and challenged and to prove a point. On the other hand, the opposite kind work hard because they are addicted to work; they see that the occupation makes a contribution to finding an identity and purpose.\n", "A workaholic is a person who works compulsively. While the term generally implies that the person enjoys their work, it can also alternately imply that they simply feel compelled to do it. There is no generally accepted medical definition of such a condition, although some forms of stress, impulse control disorder, obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder can be work-related.\n", "An addictive behavior is a behavior, or a stimulus related to a behavior (e.g., sex or food), that is both rewarding and reinforcing, and is associated with the development of an addiction. Addictions involving addictive behaviors are normally referred to as behavioral addictions.\n" ]

[ "With some exceptions, most calculators do not operate on real numbers. Instead, they work with finite-precision approximations called floating-point numbers. In fact, most scientific computation uses floating-point arithmetic. Real numbers satisfy the usual rules of arithmetic, but floating-point numbers do not.\n", "Most pocket calculators have a square root key. Computer spreadsheets and other software are also frequently used to calculate square roots. Pocket calculators typically implement efficient routines, such as the Newton's method (frequently with an initial guess of 1), to compute the square root of a positive real number. When computing square roots with logarithm tables or slide rules, one can exploit the identities\n", "The Inverse Symbolic Calculator is an online number checker established July 18, 1995 by Peter Benjamin Borwein, Jonathan Michael Borwein and Simon Plouffe of the Canadian Centre for Experimental and Constructive Mathematics (Burnaby, Canada). A user will input a number and the Calculator will use an algorithm to search for and calculate closed-form expressions or suitable functions that have roots near this number. Hence, the calculator is of great importance for those working in numerical areas of experimental mathematics.\n", "Most pocket calculators do all their calculations in BCD rather than a floating-point representation. BCD is common in electronic systems where a numeric value is to be displayed, especially in systems consisting solely of digital logic, and not containing a microprocessor. By employing BCD, the manipulation of numerical data for display can be greatly simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit. This matches much more closely the physical reality of display hardware—a designer might choose to use a series of separate identical seven-segment displays to build a metering circuit, for example. If the numeric quantity were stored and manipulated as pure binary, interfacing to such a display would require complex circuitry. Therefore, in cases where the calculations are relatively simple, working throughout with BCD can lead to a simpler overall system than converting to and from binary.\n", "Some graphing calculators have a computer algebra system (CAS), which means that they are capable of producing symbolic results. These calculators can manipulate algebraic expressions, performing operations such as factor, expand, and simplify. In addition, they can give answers in exact form without numerical approximations. Calculators that have a computer algebra system are called symbolic or CAS calculators. Examples of symbolic calculators include the HP 50g, the HP Prime, the TI-89, the TI-Nspire CAS and TI-Nspire CX CAS and the Casio ClassPad series.\n", "BULLET::::- RPL (only on HP 49/50 series in \"exact mode\"): calculator treats numbers entered without decimal point as integers rather than floats; integers are of arbitrary precision only limited by the available memory.\n", "Commonly in secondary schools' mathematics education, the real numbers are constructed by defining a number using an integer followed by a radix point and an infinite sequence written out as a string to represent the fractional part of any given real number. In this construction, the set of any combination of an integer and digits after the decimal point (or radix point in non-base 10 systems) is the set of real numbers. This construction can be rigorously shown to satisfy all of the real axioms after defining an equivalence relation over the set that defines 1 = 0.999... as well as for any other nonzero decimals with only finitely many nonzero terms in the decimal string with its trailing 9s version. With this construction of the reals, all proofs of the statement \"1 = 0.999...\" can be viewed as implicitly assuming the equality when any operations are performed on the real numbers.\n" ]

[ "Peak minerals marks the point in time when the largest production of a mineral will occur in an area, with production declining in subsequent years. While most mineral resources will not be exhausted in the near future, global extraction and production is becoming more challenging. Miners have found ways over time to extract deeper and lower grade ores with lower production costs. More than anything else, declining average ore grades are indicative of ongoing technological shifts that have enabled inclusion of more 'complex' processing – in social and environmental terms \"as well as\" economic – and structural changes in the minerals exploration industry and these have been accompanied by significant increases in identified Mineral Reserves.\n", "Geologists involved in mining and mineral exploration use geologic modelling to determine the geometry and placement of mineral deposits in the subsurface of the earth. Geologic models help define the volume and concentration of minerals, to which economic constraints are applied to determine the economic value of the mineralization. Mineral deposits that are deemed to be economic may be developed into a mine.\n", "The purpose of the study of economic geology is to gain understanding of the genesis and localization of ore deposits plus the minerals associated with ore deposits. Though metals, minerals and other geologic commodities are non-renewable in human time frames, the impression of a fixed or limited stock paradigm of scarcity has always led to human innovation resulting in a replacement commodity substituted for those commodities which become too expensive. Additionally the fixed stock of most mineral commodities is huge (e.g., copper within the earth's crust given current rates of consumption would last for more than 100 million years. Nonetheless, economic geologists continue to successfully expand and define known mineral resources.\n", "Geologists are involved in the study of ore deposits, which includes the study of ore genesis and the processes within the Earth's crust that form and concentrate ore minerals into economically viable quantities.\n", "The abundance and diversity of minerals is controlled directly by their chemistry, in turn dependent on elemental abundances in the Earth. The majority of minerals observed are derived from the Earth's crust. Eight elements account for most of the key components of minerals, due to their abundance in the crust. These eight elements, summing to over 98% of the crust by weight, are, in order of decreasing abundance: oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium. Oxygen and silicon are by far the two most important – oxygen composes 47% of the crust by weight, and silicon accounts for 28%.\n", "Metals are often extracted from the Earth by means of mining ores that are rich sources of the requisite elements, such as bauxite. Ore is located by prospecting techniques, followed by the exploration and examination of deposits. Mineral sources are generally divided into surface mines, which are mined by excavation using heavy equipment, and subsurface mines. In some cases, the sale price of the metal/s involved make it economically feasible to mine lower concentration sources.\n", "Mining geology consists of the extractions of mineral resources from the Earth. Some resources of economic interests include gemstones, metals such as gold and copper, and many minerals such as asbestos, perlite, mica, phosphates, zeolites, clay, pumice, quartz, and silica, as well as elements such as sulfur, chlorine, and helium.\n" ]

[ "In the United Kingdom, the democratic socialist tradition was represented in particular by William Morris's Socialist League and in the 1880s by the Fabian Society and later the Independent Labour Party founded by Keir Hardie in the 1890s, of which writer George Orwell would later be a prominent member. In the early 1920s, the guild socialism of G. D. H. Cole attempted to envision a socialist alternative to Soviet-style authoritarianism while council communism articulated democratic socialist positions in several respects, notably through renouncing the vanguard role of the revolutionary party and holding that the system of the Soviet Union was not authentically socialist.\n", "Socialism had been gaining momentum among working class citizens of the world since the 19th century. These culminated in the early 20th century when several states and colonies formed their own communist parties. Many of the countries involved had hierarchical structures with monarchic governments and aristocratic social structures with an established nobility. Socialism was undesirable within the circles of the ruling classes (which had begun to include industrial business leaders) in the late 19th/early 20th century states; as such, communism was repressed. Its champions suffered persecution while people were discouraged from adopting it. This had been the practice even in states which identified as exercising a multi-party system.\n", "By the early 20th century, myriad socialist tendencies (e.g. anarcho-syndicalism, social democracy and Bolshevism) had arisen based on different interpretations of current events. Governments also began placing restrictions on market operations and created interventionist programs, attempting to ameliorate perceived market shortcomings (e.g. Keynesian economics and the New Deal). Starting with the 1917 Russian Revolution, Communist states increased in numbers and a Cold War started with the developed capitalist nations. Following the Revolutions of 1989, many of these Communist states adopted market economies. The notable exceptions to this trend have been North Korea, Cuba and Venezuela, the latter instituting a philosophy referred to as \"socialism of the 21st century\".\n", "The history of socialism has its origins in the 1789 French Revolution and the changes which it wrought, although it has precedents in earlier movements and ideas. \"The Communist Manifesto\" was written by Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels in 1848 just before the Revolutions of 1848 swept Europe, expressing what they termed \"scientific socialism\". In the last third of the 19th century, social democratic parties arose in Europe, drawing mainly from Marxism. The Australian Labor Party was the world's first elected socialist party when it formed government in the Colony of Queensland for a week in 1899.\n", "An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the Petrograd Soviet, wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called \"Soviets\". The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country, instead of resolving it. Eventually, the October Revolution, led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the Soviets, leading to the creation of the world's first socialist state.\n", "The historical origins of left communism can be traced to the period before the First World War, but it only came into focus after 1918. All left communists were supportive of the October Revolution in Russia, but retained a critical view of its development. However, some would in later years come to reject the idea that the revolution had a proletarian or socialist nature, asserting that it had simply carried out the tasks of the bourgeois revolution by creating a state capitalist system.\n", "Although socialism is commonly conflated with Marxism–Leninism and its various variants such as Stalinism and Maoism, there have also been several anarchist and socialist societies that followed democratic socialist principles, encompassing anti-authoritarian, democratic anti-capitalism. The most notable examples are the Paris Commune, the various soviet republics in the post-World War I period and the early Soviet Russia before the abolition of soviets, Revolutionary Catalonia as noted by George Orwell and more recently Rojava. Other examples include the kibbutz in modern-day Israel, Marinaleda in Spain, the Zapatistas in Chiapas and to some extent the workers' self-management within Yugoslavia and modern Cuba.\n" ]

[ "Songwriters can be employed to write either the lyrics or the music directly for or alongside a performing artist, or they present songs to A&R, publishers, agents and managers for consideration. Song pitching can be done on a songwriter's behalf by their publisher or independently using tip sheets like \"RowFax\", the \"MusicRow\" publication and \"SongQuarters\". Skills associated with song-writing include entrepreneurism and creativity.\n", "In a 2002 interview with \"The Guardian\", Chapman reflected that writing hit songs was an art to which many aspired but few achieved: \"It's always a gamble. We'd written something like eight top 10 hits for Sweet when we heard that they'd entered the studio to record their own songs. After that, it was over for them. The bottom line is this – writing songs might be easy to do, but it's incredibly hard to do well.\"\n", "The old-style apprenticeship approach to learning how to write songs is being supplemented by university degrees and college diplomas and \"rock schools\". Knowledge of modern music technology (sequencers, synthesizers, computer sound editing), songwriting elements and business skills are now often necessary requirements for a songwriter. Several music colleges offer songwriting diplomas and degrees with music business modules. Since songwriting and publishing royalties can be substantial sources of income, particularly if a song becomes a hit record; legally, in the US, songs written after 1934 may be copied only by the authors. The legal power to grant these permissions may be bought, sold or transferred. This is governed by international copyright law.\n", "For songwriting, Preven keeps a notebook with her and \"always jots down poetry and prose entries.\" She then goes back through them in the studio to try and see if anything in the journal can be matched with a melody she is working on to become lyrics. She finds that hit songs are often those that sound similar to other songs, but she rejects trying to \"genetically engineer\" a song formally, holding that such songs \"end up sounding like a ransom note.\"\n", "Songs are written either traditionally or by Fiona Mackenzie, Jennifer Wrigley, Hazel Wrigley, or Sandy Brechin. The other artists in the band are Sandy Brechin (accordion), Jennifer Wrigley (fiddle, hardanger fiddle), Jim Walker (drums, percussion), Niall Muir (bass guitar, backing vocals), Aaron Jones (bass guitar, bazouki, cittern), Hazel Wrigley (guitar, piano, fender rhodes, mandolin).\n", "This is a list of songs written by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller, in most cases as a songwriting duo. The pair also collaborated with other songwriters, and also on rare occasions wrote songs as individuals with other writers.\n", "In his 2006 book, \"The Art of Writing A Hit Song: The Urban Experience\", Jack breaks down the process of creating and developing a hit song in seven formulated steps. He also offers online songwriting courses through The Jack Knight Songwriters Academy, which employs an intense curriculum to prepare up and coming songwriters for the mainstream media.\n" ]

[ "On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine formally dissolved the USSR, and then constituted the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Soviet President Gorbachev resigned on 25 December 1991; the next day, the Supreme Soviet dissolved itself, officially dissolving the USSR on 26 December 1991. During the next 18 months, inter-republican political efforts to transform the Army of the Soviet Union into the CIS military failed; eventually, the forces stationed in the republics formally became the militaries of the respective republican governments.\n", "On 26 December 1991, the USSR was self-dissolved by the \"Council of the Republics\" of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, the first house of Soviet legislature (the second house, the \"Council of the Union\", was without a quorum).\n", "On August 24, 1991, Gorbachev dissolved the Central Committee of the CPSU, resigned as the party's general secretary, and dissolved all party units in the government. (It was on the very same day that the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine was enacted by the Supreme Council of Ukraine, signalling the beginning of the end of the USSR as a whole, as Ukraine declared independence on that day.) Five days later, the Supreme Soviet indefinitely suspended all CPSU activity on Soviet territory, effectively ending Communist rule in the Soviet Union and dissolving the only remaining unifying force in the country. Gorbachev established a State Council of the Soviet Union on 5 September, designed to bring him and the highest officials of the remaining republics into a collective leadership, able to appoint a premier of the Soviet Union; it never functioned properly, though Ivan Silayev \"de facto\" took the post through the Committee on the Operational Management of the Soviet Economy and the Interstate Economic Committee and tried to form a government though with rapidly reducing powers.\n", "On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus signed the Belavezha Accords, which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. Doubts remained about the authority of the Belavezha Accords to dissolve the Union, but on 21 December 1991, representatives of every Soviet republic except Georgia—including those that had signed the Belavezha Accords—signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which confirmed the dissolution of the USSR and reiterated the establishment of the CIS. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev yielded, resigning as the president of the USSR and declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers vested in the Soviet presidency over to Yeltsin, the president of Russia.\n", "On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (formerly Byelorussia), signed the Belavezha Accords, which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. While doubts remained over the authority of the accords to do this, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except Georgia signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which confirmed the accords. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as the President of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that had been vested in the presidency over to Yeltsin. That night, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the Russian tricolor was raised in its place.\n", "The dissolution of the Soviet Union is the process of internal collapse of the Soviet Union which started in the second half of 1980s with a series of national unrests and ended on 26 December 1991, when the Soviet Union was voted out of existence, following the Belavezha Accords. This officially granted self-governing independence to the Republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). It was a result of the declaration number 142-Н of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. The declaration acknowledged the independence of the former Soviet republics and created the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), although five of the signatories ratified it much later or did not do so at all. On the previous day, 25 December, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev, the eighth and final leader of the USSR, resigned, declared his office extinct and handed over its powers—including control of the Soviet nuclear missile launching codes—to Russian President Boris Yeltsin. That evening at 7:32 p.m., the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin for the last time and replaced with the pre-revolutionary Russian flag.\n", "The dissolution of the Soviet Union' was a process of systematic disintegration, which occurred in the economy, social structure and political structure. It resulted in the abolition of the Soviet Federal Government (\"the Union center\") and independence of the USSR's republics on 26 December 1991. The process was caused by a weakening of the Soviet government, which led to disintegration and took place from about 19 January 1990 to 26 December 1991. The process was characterized by many of the republics of the Soviet Union declaring their independence and being recognized as sovereign nation-states.\n" ]

[ "It is designed for children 2 years of age and older. Flintstones Complete has a high supplementation of iron, iodine, vitamin D and vitamin E. Vitamin D is necessary for the maintenance and growth of bones in children. Vitamin D deficiency is a concern for infants, especially in the Northern Hemisphere. This is because infants often have very limited exposure to sunlight, which is the main source of endogenous Vitamin D production. Vitamin D deficiency can result in rickets, a disease in which bones become soft and pliable. Vitamin E is a potent anti-oxidant in the body. Vitamin E deficiencies leads to neuromuscular, vascular and reproductive abnormalities.\n", "Elderly people have a higher risk of having a vitamin D deficiency due to a combination of several risk factors, including: decreased sunlight exposure, decreased intake of vitamin D in the diet, and decreased skin thickness which leads to further decreased absorption of vitamin D from sunlight.\n", "Iron supplements, also known as iron salts and iron pills, are a number of iron formulations used to treat and prevent iron deficiency including iron deficiency anemia. For prevention they are only recommended in those with poor absorption, heavy menstrual periods, pregnancy, hemodialysis, or a diet low in iron. Prevention may also be used in low birth weight babies. They are taken by mouth, injection into a vein, or injection into a muscle. While benefits may be seen in days up to two months may be required until iron levels return to normal.\n", "The intake of calcium in elder people is quite low, and this problem is worsened by a reduced capability to ingest it. This, attached to a decrease in the absorption of vitamin D concerning metabolism, are also factors that contributes to a diagnosis of osteoporosis type II.\n", "In those who are otherwise healthy, there is little evidence that supplements have any benefits with respect to cancer or heart disease. Vitamin A and E supplements not only provide no health benefits for generally healthy individuals, but they may increase mortality, though the two large studies that support this conclusion included smokers for whom it was already known that beta-carotene supplements can be harmful. A 2018 meta-analysis found no evidence that intake of vitamin D or calcium for community-dwelling elderly people reduced bone fractures.\n", "Secondary vitamin A deficiency is associated with chronic malabsorption of lipids, impaired bile production and release, and chronic exposure to oxidants, such as cigarette smoke, and chronic alcoholism. Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin and depends on micellar solubilization for dispersion into the small intestine, which results in poor use of vitamin A from low-fat diets. Zinc deficiency can also impair absorption, transport, and metabolism of vitamin A because it is essential for the synthesis of the vitamin A transport proteins and as the cofactor in conversion of retinol to retinal. In malnourished populations, common low intakes of vitamin A and zinc increase the severity of vitamin A deficiency and lead physiological signs and symptoms of deficiency. A study in Burkina Faso showed major reduction of malaria morbidity with combined vitamin A and zinc supplementation in young children.\n", "BULLET::::- Adequate calcium and regular exercise may help to achieve strong bones in children and adolescents and may reduce the risk of osteoporosis in older adults. An adequate intake of vitamin D is also necessary\n" ]

[ "Central to the success of the Europeans was the use of firearms. However, the advantages afforded by firearms have often been overstated. Prior to the late 19th century, firearms were often cumbersome muzzle-loading, smooth-bore, single shot muskets with flint-lock mechanisms. Such weapons produced a low rate of fire, while suffering from a high rate of failure and were only accurate within . These deficiencies may have initially given the Aborigines an advantage, allowing them to move in close and engage with spears or clubs. Yet by 1850 significant advances in firearms gave the Europeans a distinct advantage, with the six-shot Colt revolver, the Snider single shot breech-loading rifle and later the Martini-Henry rifle, as well as rapid-fire rifles such as the Winchester rifle, becoming available. These weapons, when used on open ground and combined with the superior mobility provided by horses to surround and engage groups of Aborigines, often proved successful. The Europeans also had to adapt their tactics to fight their fast-moving, often hidden enemies. Tactics employed included night-time surprise attacks, and positioning forces to drive the natives off cliffs or force them to retreat into rivers while attacking from both banks.\n", "Along with advancements in communication, Europe also continued to advance in military technology. European chemists made new explosives that made artillery much more deadly. By the 1880s, the machine gun had become a reliable battlefield weapon. This technology gave European armies an advantage over their opponents, as armies in less-developed countries were still fighting with arrows, swords, and leather shields (e.g. the Zulus in Southern Africa during the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879).. Some exceptions of armies that managed to get nearly on par with the European expeditions and standards include the Ethiopian armies at the Battle of Adwa, the Chinese Ever Victorious Army and the Japanese Imperial Army of Japan, but these still relied heavily on weapon imports from Europe and often on European military advisors and adventurers.\n", "Central to the success of the Europeans was the use of firearms, but the advantages this afforded have often been overstated. Prior to the 19th century, firearms were often cumbersome muzzle-loading, smooth-bore, single shot weapons with flint-lock mechanisms. Such weapons produced a low rate of fire, whilst suffering from a high rate of failure and were only accurate within . These deficiencies may have given the Aborigines some advantages, allowing them to move in close and engage with spears or clubs. However, by 1850 significant advances in firearms gave the Europeans a distinct advantage, with the six-shot Colt revolver, the Snider single shot breech-loading rifle and later the Martini-Henry rifle as well as rapid-fire rifles such as the Winchester rifle, becoming available. These weapons, when used on open ground and combined with the superior mobility provided by horses to surround and engage groups of Indigenous Australians, often proved successful. The Europeans also had to adapt their tactics to fight their fast-moving, often hidden enemies. Strategies employed included night-time surprise attacks, and positioning forces to drive the Aborigines off cliffs or force them to retreat into rivers while attacking from both banks.\n", "The quality gap between locally manufactured guns and European arms continued to widen as new rapid advances in technology and mass production in Europe quickly outstripped the pace of developments in Asia. Important developments were the invention of the flintlock musket and mass production of cast-iron cannon in Europe. The flintlock was much faster, more reliable and more user-friendly than the unwieldy matchlock, which required one hand to hold the barrel, and another to adjust the match and pull the trigger.\n", "Andrade goes on to question whether or not Europeans would have developed large artillery pieces in the first place had they faced the more formidable Chinese style walls, coming to the conclusion that such exorbitant investments in weapons unable to serve their primary purpose would not have been ideal. Yet Chinese walls do not fully explain the divergence in gun development as European guns grew not only bigger, but more effective as well. By 1490 the European gun had achieved the basic form it would take for the next three centuries, during which it would dominate the fields of warfare. The Classic Gun had arrived, and in the 1510s and 1520s when the Chinese encountered European firearms, they fully recognized they were superior to their own.\n", "At the beginning of the 18th century, Europe had not yet dominated in the world economy on account of the fact that its military did not match that of Asia or of the Middle East. However, through organizing its economics and improving technology in industry, European countries took the lead as the most powerful nations in the late 18th century and remained in this position until late in the 20th century.\n", "Chase's argument has also been criticized by Stephen Morillo for its reliance on a simple cause and effect analysis. Alternatively Morillo suggests that the major difference between Chinese and European weapon development was economic. Within Morillo's framework, European weapons were more competitive due to private manufacturing whereas Chinese weapons were manufactured according to government specifications. Although generally true, Peter Lorge points out that gun specifications were widespread in China, and ironically the true gun was first developed during the Song dynasty, when guns were the exclusive enterprise of the government, suggesting that the economics of production were less influential on gun development than assumed. In contrast, less innovation occurred during the Ming dynasty when most of production was shifted to the domain of private artisans. Andrade concludes that although the Chase hypothesis should not be discarded outright, it does not offer a full explanation for the stagnation of firearm development in China.\n" ]

[ "Bridge is an accessory to connect an Ethernet network to MoCA. It supports Ethernet (10/100/Gbit) and MoCA 2.0 (up to 450Mbit/s) connections. The Bridge is most often used to connect a whole-home TiVo DVR + Mini network to the household WAN/LAN router. It can also be used to add MoCA networking to TiVo DVRs that do not include it, such as the two-tuner Premiere and the Roamio.\n", "A bridge can be used to connect networks, typically of different types. A wireless Ethernet bridge allows the connection of devices on a wired Ethernet network to a wireless network. The bridge acts as the connection point to the Wireless LAN.\n", "Wireless bridging can connect a wired network to a wireless network. A bridge differs from an access point: an access point typically connects wireless devices to one wired network. Two wireless bridge devices may be used to connect two wired networks over a wireless link, useful in situations where a wired connection may be unavailable, such as between two separate homes or for devices which do not have wireless networking capability (but have wired networking capability), such as consumer entertainment devices; alternatively, a wireless bridge can be used to enable a device which supports a wired connection to operate at a wireless networking standard which is faster than supported by the wireless network connectivity feature (external dongle or inbuilt) supported by the device (e.g. enabling Wireless-N speeds (up to the maximum supported speed on the wired Ethernet port on both the bridge and connected devices including the wireless access point) for a device which only supports Wireless-G).\n", "The bridge's cables are arranged on multiple vertical planes in a slight modification to the harp (parallel) stay arrangement. Main span cables are paired to anchor into the tower in a vertical plane while side span cables pair up to anchor in a horizontal plane such that four cables anchor in each tower at approximately the same elevation.\n", "A network bridge is a computer networking device that creates a single aggregate network from multiple communication networks or network segments. This function is called network bridging. Bridging is distinct from routing. Routing allows multiple networks to communicate independently and yet remain separate, whereas bridging connects two separate networks as if they were a single network. In the OSI model, bridging is performed in the data link layer (layer 2). If one or more segments of the bridged network are wireless, the device is known as a wireless bridge. \n", "The bridge has an emergency layby equipped with SOS phone. Traffic CCTV and Variable Message Sign (VMS) are installed at all locations along the bridge. The bridge carries a Tenaga Nasional 132kV power cable.\n", "The concept of Bridge WIM was first proposed by Moses in the United States. It fell into disuse but re-emerged in Europe in the 1990's. The disadvantage of Bridge WIM is that it requires a bridge to be present at the location of interest. An advantage is that it is portable - the same system can be moved between bridges in a matter of hours. The concept of Bridge WIM is that the bridge flexes under the weight of the passing truck. Truck axle weights are found by minimizing the sum of squared differences between the theoretical and measured responses. Strain transducers are generally used to measure the bridge response but other responses are possible including deflection. Users of Bridge WIM claim similar levels of accuracy to the best of the other WIM technologies though there are few tests that provide direct comparisons. Since it was first developed, many innovations have been proposed to improve accuracy. One of the more complex is a dynamic version known as Moving Force Identification though this poses practical challenges for calibration. One of the more significant other innovations is the development of Nothing-On-Road (NOR) or Free-of-Axle-detector (FAD) systems which allow installation to take place without access to the road surface.\n" ]

[ "Fire glass leaves no trace of ash, soot, grease or discernible odor when used as a medium. Flames produced using natural gas do not produce any smoke, produce less toxic gases and leave no trace of residual pollutants such as tar within the home. The combination is considered an eco-friendly burning solution. Additionally, fire glass is often made from recycled glass, making for a \"green\" fire media option.\n", "Fire glass is tempered glass manufactured as a medium to retain and direct heat in fireplaces and gas fire pits. Fire glass does not burn, but retains heat and refracts light as a result of burning gas. Fire glass, like artificial logs and stones, is additionally used to obscure the gas plumbing inherent in gas fireplaces or stoves.\n", "In a similar vein, when a glass rod was put lightly in contact with dried woodchips, the rod would burn the wood and cause it to smoke, or if pressed against a woodchip, it would quickly burn through the chip, leaving behind a charred hole. All the while the glass rod remained cool, with the heating confined to the tip. When a glass rod is pressed lightly against a glass plate, it etches the glass plate, while if it is pressed, it bores right through the plate. Microscopic examinations showed that the debris given off includes finely powdered glass and globules of molten glass.\n", "Fireman knock-out glazing panels are often required for venting and emergency access from the exterior. Knock-out panels are generally fully tempered glass to allow full fracturing of the panel into small pieces and relatively safe removal from the opening.\n", "The glass-enclosed central stacks (not accessible to the public) can be flooded with a mix of Halon 1301 and Inergen fire suppressant gas if fire detectors are triggered. A previous system using carbon dioxide was removed for personnel safety reasons.\n", "Only safe tempered glass, the strength of which is a lot higher than the strength of ordinary glass, is used in production of heatable glass. When the hardened glass is destroyed there are safe splittings. Also the current-carrying coating loses its integrity and the automatic fuse, which turns off the power supply of the glass, is activated. The electrodes are placed inside the lamination and no one can reach them without destruction of the product.\n", "Heat-strengthened glass can take a strong direct hit without shattering, but has a weak edge. By simply tapping the edge of heat-strengthened glass with a solid object, it is possible to shatter the entire sheet. \n" ]

[ "Attribute-based encryption (ABE) can be used for log encryption. Instead of encrypting each part of a log with the keys of all recipients, it is possible to encrypt the log only with attributes which match recipients' attributes. This primitive can also be used for broadcast encryption in order to decrease the number of keys used.\n", "Encryption is a method in which data is rendered hard to read by an unauthorized party. Since encryption methods are created to extremely hard to break, many communication methods either use deliberately weaker encryption than possible, or have backdoors inserted to permit rapid decryption. In some cases government authorities have required backdoors be installed in secret. Many methods of encryption are also subject to \"man in the middle\" attack whereby a third party who can 'see' the establishment of the secure communication is made privy to the encryption method, this would apply for example to the interception of computer use at an ISP. Provided it is correctly programmed, sufficiently powerful, and the keys not intercepted, encryption would usually be considered secure. The article on key size examines the key requirements for certain degrees of encryption security.\n", "Encryption, as defined above, refers to a subset of cryptographic techniques for the protection of information and computation. The normative value of encryption, however, is not fixed but varies with the type of cryptographic method that is used or deployed and for which purposes. Traditionally, encryption (cypher) techniques were used to ensure the confidentiality of communications and prevent access to information and communications by others than intended recipients. Cryptography can also ensure the authenticity of communicating parties and the integrity of communications contents, providing a key ingredient for enabling trust in the digital environment.\n", "Encryption software is software that uses cryptography to prevent unauthorized access to digital information. Cryptography is used to protect digital information on computers as well as the digital information that is sent to other computers over the Internet.\n", "It is possible to construct a dynamic encryption system, from known ciphers (such as AES, DES, etc.), such that all encryption algorithms generated from this system are at least as secure as the static underlying cipher.\n", "Attribute-based encryption is a type of public-key encryption in which the secret key of a user and the ciphertext are dependent upon attributes (e.g. the country in which he lives, or the kind of subscription he has). In such a system, the decryption of a ciphertext is possible only if the set of attributes of the user key matches the attributes of the ciphertext.\n", "Attribute-based encryption is a type of public-key encryption in which the secret key of a user and the ciphertext are dependent upon attributes (e.g. the country in which he lives, or the kind of subscription he has). In such a system, the decryption of a ciphertext is possible only if the set of attributes of the user key matches the attributes of the ciphertext.\n" ]

[ "Philippe is best known for his role in the 2004 Haiti Rebellion which overthrew the government of Jean-Bertrand Aristide due to, in part, allegations of election fraud in the 2000 parliamentary elections and other issues. Philippe's involvement can be traced back to 2000 when he was forced to flee to the Dominican Republic after taking part in a failed coup attempt against the first administration of Rene Preval. He had been a police chief in Cap-Haïtien when he was accused again of masterminding another coup attempt against the Aristide government in December 2001, which he denies any involvement in but proof would point otherwise. Throughout 2001-2004 Philippe is said to have worked the rebels that were running a \"contra\" war in the Plateau Central assassinating Lavalas officials and family members. When unrest/insurgency turned to rebellion in 2004, Philippe publicly announced that he was joining with coup forces and quickly took a leadership role, which he shared with co-leader Louis-Jodel Chamblain, who is considered a notorious war criminal by some. After Aristide was removed from the country in a US registered plane, Philippe and his army put down their guns in favor of the UN peacekeeping force. He has also been accused of drug dealing, and Aristide supporter group claim he is a covert CIA spy, recruited by an agent in Haiti to start the coup. It has been reported that he had secret meetings with opposition groups of Aristide in the Dominican Republic and also with a CIA agent.\n", "Returning to France in 1819, he resumed the struggle against the ultra-royalist party with such temerity that he was condemned to one year's imprisonment in 1821 and fifteen months imprisonment in 1827. After the revolution of July 1830 he refused a pension of 6000 francs offered to him by King Louis Philippe, on the ground that he wished to retain his independence even in his relations with a government which he had helped to establish.\n", "On reaching France, Sonthonax countered by accusing Louverture of royalist, counter-revolutionary, and pro-independence tendencies. Louverture knew that he had asserted his authority to such an extent that the French government might well suspect him of seeking independence. At the same time, the French Directoire government was considerably less revolutionary than it had been. Suspicions began to brew that it might reconsider the abolition of slavery. In November 1797, Louverture wrote again to the Directoire, assuring them of his loyalty but reminding them firmly that abolition must be maintained.\n", "The second Philippe government was formed following scandal among ministers during the first Philippe government. La République En Marche! (REM) allies Democratic Movement (MoDem) were facing scandal following allegations that the party used EU funds to pay party workers. Armed Forces Minister Sylvie Goulard was the first to step down, resigning on 20 June 2017. The following day, Minister of Justice François Bayrou and European Affairs Minister, Marielle de Sarnez stepped down. Richard Ferrand, Minister of Territorial Cohesion, stepped down on 19 June 2017 following \"Le Canard Enchaîné\" publishing allegations of nepotism on 24 May 2017. Macron defended Ferrand despite the allegations and public polling showing that 70% of respondents wanted Ferrand to step down. On 1 July 2017, a regional prosecutor announced that authorities had launched a preliminary investigation into Ferrand. Ferrand responded to the allegations saying everything was \"legal, public and transparent\". He was one of the founding members of La République En Marche! and is currently serving as President of the National Assembly.\n", "Despite his popularity with many Parisians at the beginning of his reign, Louis-Philippe almost immediately faced fierce opposition from those who wanted to replace the monarchy with a republic and press for radical social reforms; opposition was strongest among students, the working class and members of the new socialist movement. The first riot took place in December 1830, after the trial of the ministers of King Charles X; the crowd was furious that they were given life sentences instead of the death penalty. More riots took place in 1831 to protest a memorial service held at the church of Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois for the Duke of Berry, a prominent monarchist who had been assassinated on 14 February 1820 during the reign of King Louis XVIII. The interior of the church was pillaged, and the next day, the rioters attacked the church of Notre-Dame de Bonne-Nouvelle and the palace of the archbishop of Paris, next to the cathedral of Notre-Dame. The archbishop's residence was badly damaged and ultimately demolished.\n", "Louis-Philippe's regime was finally overthrown in the French Revolution of 1848, though the subsequent French Second Republic was short-lived. In the 1848 Revolution, Friedrich Engels published a retrospective in which he analyzed the tactical errors which led to the failure of the 1832 uprising, and drew lessons for the 1848 revolt. The main strategic deficit, he argued, was the failure to march immediately on the centre of power, the Hôtel de Ville.\n", "In 1792, during the French Revolution, he changed his name to Philippe Égalité. Louis Philippe d'Orléans was a cousin of Louis XVI and one of the wealthiest men in France. He actively supported the Revolution of 1789, and was a strong advocate for the elimination of the present absolute monarchy in favor of a constitutional monarchy. He voted for the death of king Louis XVI; however, he was himself guillotined in November 1793 during the Reign of Terror. His son Louis Philippe d'Orléans became King of the French after the July Revolution of 1830. After him, the term Orléanist came to be attached to the movement in France that favored a constitutional monarchy.\n" ]

[ "One early way of producing random numbers was by a variation of the same machines used to play keno or select lottery numbers. These mixed numbered ping-pong balls with blown air, perhaps combined with mechanical agitation, and used some method to withdraw balls from the mixing chamber (). This method gives reasonable results in some senses, but the random numbers generated by this means are expensive. The method is inherently slow, and is unusable for most computing applications.\n", "Provided that the random numbers picked in step 2 above are truly random and unbiased, so will the resulting permutation be. Fisher and Yates took care to describe how to obtain such random numbers in any desired range from the supplied tables in a manner which avoids any bias. They also suggested the possibility of using a simpler method — picking random numbers from one to \"N\" and discarding any duplicates—to generate the first half of the permutation, and only applying the more complex algorithm to the remaining half, where picking a duplicate number would otherwise become frustratingly common.\n", "Doing a Fisher–Yates shuffle involves picking uniformly distributed random integers from various ranges. Most random number generators, however — whether true or pseudorandom — will only directly provide numbers in a fixed range from 0 to RAND_MAX, and in some libraries, RAND_MAX may be as low as 32767. A simple and commonly used way to force such numbers into a desired range is to apply the modulo operator; that is, to divide them by the size of the range and take the remainder. However, the need in a Fisher–Yates shuffle to generate random numbers in every range from 0–1 to 0–\"n\" pretty much guarantees that some of these ranges will not evenly divide the natural range of the random number generator. Thus, the remainders will not always be evenly distributed and, worse yet, the bias will be systematically in favor of small remainders.\n", "Numbers juggling is the art and sport of keeping as many objects aloft as possible. 7 or more balls or rings, or 5 or more clubs is generally considered the threshold for numbers. Traditionally, the goal has been to \"qualify\" a number, that is, to get the pattern around twice such that each object has been thrown and caught twice. A newer generation of jugglers tends to value a \"flash\", which is to throw and catch each object only once. Since a flash is much less difficult than a qualifying run, there will be numbers flashed but not yet qualified. For example, the current world records are: Balls/Beanbags − 11 qualified, 14 flashed; Rings − 10 qualified, 13 flashed; and Clubs/Sticks − 8 clubs qualified, 9 sticks flashed, 9 clubs flashed.\n", "Number Scrabble (also known as Pick15 or 3 to 15) is a mathematical game where players take turns to select numbers from 1 to 9 without repeating any numbers previously used, and the first player to amass a personal total of exactly 15 wins the game. The game is isomorphic to tic-tac-toe, as can be seen if the game is mapped onto a magic square.\n", "The problem of ensuring randomness using mechanical means was hard to resolve. In the early 1930s, Robert McKay proposed an ingenious machine containing a chamber with 52 balls of different diameters (for each player, there were 13 balls with the same size). Like in a lottery machine, the balls would be shaken and randomly chosen by driving them one by one into a wheel with 52 slots. This wheel would then rotate, slot by slot, and a rod in contact with the ball would \"detect\" its diameter. A distribution mechanism could then use the diameter information and take the appropriate action to deal the card to the correct player.\n", "Balls typically have numbers all over their outer edges. The numbers on balls used in number lottery games (except the EZ2 Lotto), are read on the spot without the need of touching them. In the digit lottery games and the EZ2 Lotto with top drawing Mega Gems, the balls are adjusted to clearly show the numbers drawn. Because of the nature of the Power Lotto Mega Gem, each of the methods mentioned were applied in each of the machine's two chambers.\n" ]

[ "Hawking achieved commercial success with several works of popular science in which he discusses his own theories and cosmology in general. His book \"A Brief History of Time\" appeared on the British \"Sunday Times\" best-seller list for a record-breaking 237 weeks. Hawking was a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS), a lifetime member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, and a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States. In 2002, Hawking was ranked number 25 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.\n", "However, Hawking has also expressed dissatisfaction regarding the impact on his notoriety caused by his appearance in the episode. In a debate with physicist Brian Cox in \"The Guardian\", Hawking was asked what the most common misconception about his work was. He replied, \"People think I'm a \"Simpsons\" character.\" Writing for \"The Daily Telegraph\", Peter Hutchison argued that Hawking \"feels he is sometimes not properly recognised for his contribution to our understanding of the universe.\" In his book \"The book is dead: long live the book\", Sherman Young wrote that most people know Hawking from his appearance on \"The Simpsons\", rather than from anything he has written.\n", "Hawking was an atheist and believed that \"the universe is governed by the laws of science\". He stated: \"There is a fundamental difference between religion, which is based on authority, [and] science, which is based on observation and reason. Science will win because it works.\" In an interview published in \"The Guardian\", Hawking regarded \"the brain as a computer which will stop working when its components fail\", and the concept of an afterlife as a \"fairy story for people afraid of the dark\". In 2011, narrating the first episode of the American television series \"Curiosity\" on the Discovery Channel, Hawking declared:\n", "Physicist Marcelo Gleiser, reviewing the book for NPR, writes: \"Stephen Hawking is one of those rare luminaries whose life symbolizes the best humanity has to offer ... [his book is one] every thinking person worried about humanity's future should read ... If there is a unifying theme across the book, it is Hawking's deep faith in science's ability to solve humanity's biggest problems ... His answers to the big questions illustrate his belief in the rationality of nature and on our ability to uncover all its secrets. His optimism permeates every page ... Although Hawking touches on the origin of the universe, the physics of black holes and some of his other favorite topics, his main concern in this book is not physics. It's humanity and its collective future ... Focusing his attention in the book on three related questions — the future of our planet, colonization of other planets, and the rise of artificial intelligence — he charts his strategy to save us from ourselves ... Only science, Hawking argues, can save us from our mistakes ... Hawking believes that humanity's evolutionary mission is to spread through the galaxy as a sort of cosmic gardener, sowing life along the way. He believes ... that we will develop a positive relation with intelligent machines and that, together, we will redesign the current fate of the world and of our species.\"\n", "Hawking is a BBC television film about Stephen Hawking's early years as a PhD student at Cambridge University, following his search for the beginning of time, and his struggle against motor neuron disease. It stars Benedict Cumberbatch as Hawking and premiered in the UK in April 2004.\n", "Hawking also maintained his public profile, including bringing science to a wider audience. A film version of \"A Brief History of Time\", directed by Errol Morris and produced by Steven Spielberg, premiered in 1992. Hawking had wanted the film to be scientific rather than biographical, but he was persuaded otherwise. The film, while a critical success, was not widely released. A popular-level collection of essays, interviews, and talks titled \"Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays\" was published in 1993, and a six-part television series \"Stephen Hawking's Universe\" and a companion book appeared in 1997. As Hawking insisted, this time the focus was entirely on science.\n", "Hawking's first year as a doctoral student was difficult. He was initially disappointed to find that he had been assigned Dennis William Sciama, one of the founders of modern cosmology, as a supervisor rather than noted Yorkshire astronomer Fred Hoyle, and he found his training in mathematics inadequate for work in general relativity and cosmology. After being diagnosed with motor neurone disease, Hawking fell into a depressionthough his doctors advised that he continue with his studies, he felt there was little point. His disease progressed more slowly than doctors had predicted. Although Hawking had difficulty walking unsupported, and his speech was almost unintelligible, an initial diagnosis that he had only two years to live proved unfounded. With Sciama's encouragement, he returned to his work. Hawking started developing a reputation for brilliance and brashness when he publicly challenged the work of Fred Hoyle and his student Jayant Narlikar at a lecture in June 1964.\n" ]

[ "On 8 May 2018 the United States officially withdrew from the agreement after Trump signed a Presidential Memorandum ordering the reinstatement of harsher sanctions. In his May 8 speech Trump called the Iran deal \"horrible\" and said the United States would \"work with our allies to find a real, comprehensive, and lasting solution\" to prevent Iran from developing nuclear arms. The IAEA has continued to assess that Iran has been in compliance with JCPOA and that it had \"no credible indications of activities in Iran relevant to the development of a nuclear explosive device after 2009\" Other parties to the deal stated that they will work to preserve the deal even after the US withdrawal.\n", "On 14 July 2015, the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPA, or the Iran deal) was agreed upon between Iran and a group of world powers: the P5+1 (the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council—the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, France, and China—plus Germany) and the European Union. The Obama administration agreed to lift sanctions on Iran that had devastated their economy for years, in return Iran promised to give up their nuclear capabilities and allow workers from the UN to do facility checks whenever they so please. President Obama urged US Congress to support the nuclear deal reminding politicians that were wary that if the deal fell through, the US would reinstate their sanctions on Iran.\n", "In October 2017, Sanders said that \"the worst possible thing\" the United States could do was undermine the Iran nuclear deal if it was \"genuinely concerned with Iran's behavior in the region\" and that the president's comments against the deal had isolated the US from foreign allies that had retained their commitment to the agreement.\n", " – President Barack Obama said a \"historic understanding\" had been reached with Iran, and pointed out that the deal with Iran is a good deal if the deal could meet core objectives of the United States. 150 Democratic House members signaled that they supported reaching a deal, enough to sustain a Presidential Veto. A majority of Congress including all Republicans and some Democrats opposed the deal.\n", "On 8 May 2018, U.S. President Donald Trump announced that the United States would withdraw from the Iran nuclear deal. Following the U.S. withdrawal, the EU enacted an updated blocking statute on 7 August 2018 to nullify US sanctions on countries trading with Iran. U.S. sanctions came into effect in November 2018 intended to force Iran to dramatically alter its policies in the region, including its support for militant groups in the region and its development of ballistic missiles.\n", "Benjamin Netanyahu, who called the Iran nuclear deal a \"historic mistake\", told President Barack Obama that Israel was under increased threat because of the deal and said in a statement, “In the coming decade, the deal will reward Iran, the terrorist regime in Tehran, with hundreds of billions of dollars. This cash bonanza will fuel Iran’s terrorism worldwide, its aggression in the region and its efforts to destroy Israel, which are ongoing.” Many conservatives in the United States claimed the deal would usher a financial windfall for Iranian sponsored groups in the Middle East that pose a threat to Israel including Hezbollah and Hamas. In addition the lack of focus on Iran's ballistic missile program and the lifting of weapons embargoes was also viewed as a peril for Israel. President Donald Trump criticized what he viewed as the deal's \"near total silence on Iran's missile programs.”\n", "The \"National Review\" wrote that the U.S. administration's unwillingness to acknowledge any Iranian noncompliance had left the Iranians in control, and that the deal was undermining international security by emboldening Iran to act as a regional hegemon, at the expense of U.S. influence and credibility.\n" ]

[ "Photon radiation is called gamma rays if produced by a nuclear reaction, subatomic particle decay, or radioactive decay within the nucleus. It is otherwise called x-rays if produced outside the nucleus. The generic term photon is therefore used to describe both.\n", "Gamma (γ) radiation consists of photons with a wavelength less than 3x10 meters (greater than 10 Hz and 41.4 keV). Gamma radiation emission is a nuclear process that occurs to rid an unstable nucleus of excess energy after most nuclear reactions. Both alpha and beta particles have an electric charge and mass, and thus are quite likely to interact with other atoms in their path. Gamma radiation, however, is composed of photons, which have neither mass nor electric charge and, as a result, penetrates much further through matter than either alpha or beta radiation.\n", "A gamma ray, or gamma radiation (symbol γ or formula_1), is a penetrating electromagnetic radiation arising from the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei. It consists of the shortest wavelength electromagnetic waves and so imparts the highest photon energy. Paul Villard, a French chemist and physicist, discovered gamma radiation in 1900 while studying radiation emitted by radium. In 1903, Ernest Rutherford named this radiation \"gamma rays\" based on their relatively strong penetration of matter; he had previously discovered two less penetrating types of decay radiation, which he named alpha rays and beta rays in ascending order of penetrating power.\n", "Gamma rays were first thought to be particles with mass, like alpha and beta rays. Rutherford initially believed that they might be extremely fast beta particles, but their failure to be deflected by a magnetic field indicated that they had no charge. In 1914, gamma rays were observed to be reflected from crystal surfaces, proving that they were electromagnetic radiation. Rutherford and his co-worker Edward Andrade measured the wavelengths of gamma rays from radium, and found that they were similar to X-rays, but with shorter wavelengths and (thus) higher frequency. This was eventually recognized as giving them more energy per photon, as soon as the latter term became generally accepted. A gamma decay was then understood to usually emit a gamma photon.\n", "The gamma ray may transfer its energy directly to one of the most tightly bound electrons, causing that electron to be ejected from the atom, a process termed the photoelectric effect. This should not be confused with the internal conversion process, in which no gamma-ray photon is produced as an intermediate particle.\n", "In gamma-ray astronomy, gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are extremely energetic explosions that have been observed in distant galaxies. They are the brightest electromagnetic events known to occur in the universe. Bursts can last from ten milliseconds to several hours. After an initial flash of gamma rays, a longer-lived \"afterglow\" is usually emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, microwave and radio).\n", "The convention that EM radiation that is known to come from the nucleus, is always called \"gamma ray\" radiation is the only convention that is universally respected, however. Many astronomical gamma ray sources (such as gamma ray bursts) are known to be too energetic (in both intensity and wavelength) to be of nuclear origin. Quite often, in high energy physics and in medical radiotherapy, very high energy EMR (in the 10 MeV region)—which is of higher energy than any nuclear gamma ray—is not called X-ray or gamma-ray, but instead by the generic term of \"high energy photons.\"\n" ]

[ "Supervolcano is a 2005 British-Canadian disaster television film that originally aired on 13 March 2005 on BBC One, and released by the BBC on 10 April 2005 on the Discovery Channel. It is centered on the speculated and potential eruption of the volcanic caldera of Yellowstone National Park. Its tagline is \"Scientists know it as the deadliest volcano on Earth. You know it...as Yellowstone.\"\n", "The loosely defined term \"supervolcano\" has been used to describe volcanic fields that produce exceptionally large volcanic eruptions. Thus defined, the Yellowstone Supervolcano is the volcanic field which produced the latest three supereruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot; it also produced one additional smaller eruption, thereby creating the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake 174,000 years ago. The three supereruptions occurred 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and approximately 630,000 years ago, forming the Island Park Caldera, the Henry's Fork Caldera, and Yellowstone calderas, respectively. The Island Park Caldera supereruption (2.1 million years ago), which produced the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff, was the largest, and produced 2,500 times as much ash as the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption. The next biggest supereruption formed the Yellowstone Caldera (~ 630,000 years ago) and produced the Lava Creek Tuff. The Henry's Fork Caldera (1.2 million years ago) produced the smaller Mesa Falls Tuff, but is the only caldera from the Snake River Plain-Yellowstone hotspot that is plainly visible today.\n", "Although fascinating, the new findings do not imply increased geologic hazards at Yellowstone, and certainly do not increase the chances of a 'supereruption' in the near future. Contrary to some media reports, Yellowstone is not 'overdue' for a supereruption.\n", "In 2005, a BBC/Discovery docudrama entitled Supervolcano was released on cable television. The drama imagines the reaction of the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory to a super eruption at the Yellowstone Caldera. Producer Ailsa Orr credits YVO scientists as inspiration for the film's three primary characters. The YVO Scientist-in-Charge reflected on the hype associated with volcanism at Yellowstone in a 2005 magazine article.\n", "The last full-scale eruption of the Yellowstone Supervolcano, the Lava Creek eruption which happened approximately 640,000 years ago, ejected approximately of rock, dust and volcanic ash into the sky.\n", "Wendy Reiss, the undersecretary of FEMA, visits and asks Rick about the worst-case scenario if Yellowstone does release a super eruption. He shows her a model, revealing devastating results of the ash fall over the US.\n", "The USGS are swarmed with calls, to which all say that the eruption is not imminent. Rick and Ken argue about Ken's appearance on TV, which Rick passes off as Ken creating a mass panic in order to sell his book. Their argument is interrupted by Fiona Lieberman, Rick's wife and Ken's sister. She reflects that Rick is cautious of what he says in public due to the press convincing people Yellowstone was going to erupt due to the discovery of a bulge in Yellowstone Lake some years before.\n" ]

[ "Anime culture in the United States began as a niche community that had a grassroots foundation built by groups of fans on the local level. Some of the earliest televised anime to air in the United States were \"Astro Boy\", \"Speed Racer\", and \"Gigantor\", which gained popularity with many American audiences during the late 1960s. Anime shows that aired in the United States up until the 1980s were usually heavily altered and localized, such as \"Science Ninja Team Gatchaman\" becoming \"Battle of the Planets\" in the 1970s, and the mecha show \"Macross\" becoming \"Robotech\" in the 1980s. Takara's \"Diaclone\" and \"Microman\" mecha toylines also became the basis for the \"Transformers\" franchise in the 1980s.\n", "Through the last two decades the introduction of anime into American mainstream culture has furthered its popularity. Such famous titles as \"Sailor Moon\", \"Dragon Ball Z\", and most importantly \"Pokémon\" have influenced anime's appeal to young Americans. \"Anime already makes up an estimated 60% of all broadcast animation across the world.\" \"ICv2 estimates the size of the North American anime market at $275-300 million\" (in retail dollars).\" To compete with its Japanese competitors, many production companies in the US have adjusted their style to one inspired by anime to hold onto their viewers. An important example that has sparked much controversy in the animation world would be \"\". A popular show on Nickelodeon, the characters have a distinct anime style, even the expressions and mannerism drawn evoke that of anime style. \"Teen Titans\" on Cartoon Network is yet another example of anime's influence on cartoons, as well as a popular comic strip turned cartoon called \"The Boondocks\". In recent years there has also been development of Anime developed in the United States in collaboration with Japan, examples would be the Netflix original series Neo Yokio and Castlevania (TV series) based off the video game series.\n", "Following the launch of Toonami on Cartoon Network and later Adult Swim, anime saw a giant rise in the North American market. Kid-friendly anime such as \"Pokémon\", \"Yu-Gi-Oh!\", \"Digimon\", \"Doraemon\", \"Bakugan\", \"Beyblade\", and the 4Kids Entertainment adaptation of \"One Piece\" have all received varying levels of success. This era also saw the rise of anime-influenced animation, most notably \"\" and its sequel \"The Legend of Korra\", \"Ben 10\", \"Chaotic\", \"Samurai Jack\", \"The Boondocks\", \"RWBY\" and \"Teen Titans\".\n", "The beginning of 1980 saw the introduction of Japanese anime series into the American culture. In the 1990s, Japanese animation slowly gained popularity in America. Media companies such as Viz and Mixx began publishing and releasing animation into the American market. The 1988 film \"Akira\" is largely credited with popularizing anime in the Western world during the early 1990s, before anime was further popularized by television shows such \"Pokémon\" and \"Dragon Ball\" in the late 1990s. The growth of the Internet later provided Western audiences an easy way to access Japanese content. This is especially the case with net services such as Netflix and Crunchyroll. As a direct result, various interests surrounding Japan has increased.\n", "According to Mike Tatsugawa, the founder and CEO of the Society for the Promotion of Japanese Animation, the first milestone for anime in the U.S. was in the 1980s with the advent of the Internet. With the Internet, fans were able to more easily communicate with each other and thus better able to exchange fan-subtitled tapes and higher quality versions of anime. Some experts, such as Susan Napier, a Professor of Japanese Language and Literature, say that \"Akira\" marked the first milestone. However, most experts agree that the next milestone was in 1992 when U.S. Renditions, a film importer, released the first English-subtitled anime videotape that year, entitled \"Gunbuster\". According to Tatsugawa, the success of \"Gunbuster\" triggered a flurry of releases.\n", "Anime of the 2000s would include \"Bleach\", \"One Piece\", \"\", \"Sonic X\", \"Tokyo Mew Mew\", \"Ojamajo Doremi\", \"Gurren Lagann\", and \"Kodai Ōja Kyōryū Kingu\". Most of these anime shows mentioned here would also go on to relative success in North America and Europe in the 2000s. For example, \"Tokyo Mew Mew\" became \"Mew Mew Power\" while \"Ojamajo Doremi\" became \"Magical Doremi\".\n", "The 1990s, was the period in which anime reached mainstream popularity in the U.S. market and the terms \"anime\" and \"manga\" became commonly well known (ultimately replacing the former majorly known term \"Japanimation\"). Companies such as FUNimation Productions, Bandai Entertainment, 4Kids Entertainment, Central Park Media, Media Blasters, Saban Entertainment, Viz Video, Pioneer LDC and ADV Films began licensing anime in the United States.\n" ]

[ "In October 1863, Clem was captured in Georgia by Confederate cavalrymen while detailed as a train guard. The Confederates confiscated his U.S. uniform which reportedly upset him terribly—including his cap which had three bullet holes in it. He was included in a prisoner exchange a short time later, but the Confederate newspapers used his age and celebrity status for propaganda purposes, to show \"what sore straits the Yankees are driven, when they have to send their babies out to fight us.\" After participating with the Army of the Cumberland in many other battles, serving as a mounted orderly, he was discharged in September 1864. Clem was wounded in combat twice during the war.\n", "As the war progressed, the image began to shift from the \"ragged rebel\" look to a well-uniformed Army in the Eastern and Western theaters. In the last 12 months of fighting, these Confederate forces were well-uniformed, the best they had ever appeared in terms of consistency, wearing clothing made of imported blue-gray cloth, either manufactured locally or bought ready-made under contract from British manufacturers, such as Peter Tait of Limerick, Ireland who became a major supplier of uniforms for the Confederacy.\n", "The Grand Army of the Republic, the United Confederate Veterans, Sons of Confederate Veterans (SCV), and the United Daughters of the Confederacy (UDC), among others, evoked sad memories of Civil War prisoners portraying Wirz either a villain, or a martyr-hero, thus further contributing to the disputation. From 1899 to 1916, sixteen states erected monuments dedicated to the Camp Sumter's prisoners. In response, the United Daughters of the Confederacy initiated a construction of a monument honoring Henry Wirz in Andersonville, Georgia. Every year the UDC and SCV hold a memorial service at the monument. Until recently, SCV annually marched to Wirz's memorial in Andersonville along with supporters of a congressional pardon for him. The SCV posthumously awarded Wirz their Confederate Medal of Honor, created in 1977.\n", "During the American Civil War of 1861–1865, McGehee supported the Union. However, he also sold clothes made in his textile factory to the Confederate States Army. The mansion at his Bowling Green Plantation was burned down by United States Colored Troops in 1864. His wife wrote about the incident in \"Army & Navy Herald,\" a Confederate newspaper.\n", "Apparently Confederate pickets failed to respond to the presence of the Union raiding party because they assumed that the Union soldiers were a party of Wright's Cavalry that recently passed through the area were returning for some reason. It was often difficult to distinguish Union soldiers from Confederates during this period of the war. Some Confederates in Arkansas were wearing clothing manufactured at Confederate depots made out of English army cloth. Confederates had received a supply of British cloth through the Union blockade to Confederate depots in Texas, and a supply of uniforms made from this cloth had been forwarded to Arkansas. Jackets made from this material were hard to distinguish from Federal infantry and mounted service jackets. To add to the confusion, some Confederate units, such as Confederate General Joe Shelby's Missouri Cavalry Brigade had become known for dressing in captured Union uniforms.\n", "The Confederate victors of Marks Mills robbed the survivors of every valuable item they possessed, including hats, boots, watches, money and in some cases, the clothes on their backs. Overall, they were very roughly handled by their captors, according to Captain Swiggett. They were force-marched to the rebel prison at Camp Ford in Tyler, Texas, where dozens of them perished from disease over the next 12 months. Conditions at Camp Ford were primitive. Although a good spring provided cool clean water, and while the Confederate guards slaughtered cattle to supply the prisoners fresh beef regularly, the prisoners had no shelter from the sun or rain except improvised huts or blankets, and as the numbers of prisoners rose, the sanitary conditions declined precipitously, leading to many deaths from exposure, chronic diarrhea and disease. A number of the 36th Iowa's officers escaped. Captain Swiggett twice escaped but was recaptured on both occasions and was rewarded for his bad behavior by being one of the last prisoners exchanged.\n", "The Roswell Mills are best known for their role in producing supplies for the Confederacy during the Civil War. They made \"Roswell Gray\" fabric to be sewed into Confederate military uniforms. Because it was of great importance to the South’s military supply chain, General Gerrard, a Union official working under the purview of General Sherman, seized the mill on July 5, 1864. Confederate forces burned down the bridge that spanned Vickery Creek before he could get to it.\n" ]

[ "Many physicians also recommend changes in diet to treat chronic headaches. Many chronic headache sufferers fail to recognize foods or beverages as headache factors, because the consumption may not consistently cause headaches or the headaches may be delayed. Many of the chemicals in certain foods can cause chronic headaches, including caffeine, nitrites, nitrates, tyramine, and alcohols. Some of the foods and beverages that chronic headache sufferers are advised to avoid include caffeinated beverages, chocolate, processed meats, cheese and fermented dairy products, fresh yeast-risen baked goods, nuts, and alcohol as well as certain fruits and vegetables. Additionally, people may have differing dietary triggers on an individualized basis, because not all foods affect people the same way. Different medical professionals suggest different ways of testing or changing diets. Some may suggest eliminating a few of the potentially headache-causing foods at a time for a short period of time, while others suggest removing all the threatening foods from a person's diet and slowly adding a couple back at a time. Yet, others may not suggest diet modification at all. The treatment of chronic headaches through changes in diet is based on personal opinion, and, therefore, controversial.\n", "Gastrointestinal disorders may cause headaches, including Helicobacter pylori infection, celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, gastroparesis, and hepatobiliary disorders. The treatment of the gastrointestinal disorders may lead to a remission or improvement of headaches.\n", "Headaches can be attributed to many different substances. Some of these include alcohol, NO, carbon monoxide poisoning, cocaine, caffeine and monosodium glutamate. Chronic use of certain medications used to treat headaches can also start causing headaches, known as medication overuse headaches. Headaches may also be a symptom of medication withdrawal.\n", "Like other types of pain, headaches can serve as warning signals of more serious disorders. This is particularly true for headaches caused by inflammation, including those related to meningitis as well as those resulting from diseases of the sinuses, spine, neck, ears, and teeth.\n", "A number of different causes contribute to this class of headache. Several common chemicals may be the culprit. Nitrite compounds dilate blood vessels, causing dull and pounding headaches with repeat exposure. Nitrite is found in dynamite, heart medicine and it is a chemical used to preserve meat (ergo these being known as \"nitrite\" or \"hot dog\" headaches). Eating foods prepared with monosodium glutamate (MSG) may thus result in headache. Acetaldehyde from alcohol may also cause a headache either acutely or after a number of hours (hangover).\n", "A headache-prone CNS may have resulted from interactions with other organisms in two ways. The first possibility is that migraine offers an advantage to the organism in fighting infection by increasing blood flow to the brain. The second possibility is that certain pathogens evolved to cause headache as a way of speeding their transmission to other organisms. Finally, migraine may benefit neither the host nor the pathogen, but may simply be the result of certain infections. This last explanation is concordant with the apparent negative impact of migraine on human fitness.\n", "Medication overuse headache (MOH), also known as rebound headache usually occurs when analgesics are taken frequently to relieve headaches. Rebound headaches frequently occur daily, can be very painful and are a common cause of chronic daily headache. They typically occur in patients with an underlying headache disorder such as migraine or tension-type headache that \"transforms\" over time from an episodic condition to chronic daily headache due to excessive intake of acute headache relief medications. \n" ]

[ "Spaceflight osteopenia is the bone loss associated with human spaceflight. After a 3–4 month trip into space, it takes about 2–3 years to regain lost bone density. New techniques are being developed to help astronauts recover faster. Research in the following areas holds the potential to aid the process of growing new bone:\n", "The apex of the conical meniscus cannot become infinitely small. A singularity develops when the hydrodynamic relaxation time formula_16 becomes larger than the charge relaxation time formula_17. The undefined symbols stand for characteristic length formula_18 and vacuum permittivity formula_19. Due to intrinsic varicose instability, the charged liquid jet ejected through the cone apex breaks into small charged droplets, which are radially dispersed by the space-charge.\n", "Bone remodels in response to stress in order to maintain constant strain energy per bone mass throughout. To do this, it grows more dense in areas experiencing high stress, while resorbing density in areas experiencing low stress. On Mars, where gravity is about one-third that of earth, the gravitational forces acting on astronauts' bodies would be much lower, causing bones to decrease in mass and density.\n", "The muscle volume can decrease up to 20% over a six-month mission, and the bone density can decrease at a rate of approximately 1.4% at the hip in a month's time. A study done by Fitts and Trappe examined the effects of prolonged space flight (defined as approximately 180 days) on human skeletal muscle using muscle biopsies. Prolonged weightlessness was shown to cause significant loss in the mass, force, and power production in the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles. Many countermeasures to these effects exist, but thus far they are not sufficient to compensate for the detrimental effects of space travel and astronauts need extensive rehabilitation upon their return to Earth.\n", "Spaceflight osteopenia refers to the characteristic bone loss that occurs during spaceflight. Astronauts lose an average of more than 1% bone mass per month spent in space. There is concern that during long duration flights, excessive bone loss and the associated increase in serum calcium ion levels will interfere with execution of mission tasks and result in irreversible skeletal damage.\n", "Studies have shown that once a human reaches adulthood, bone density steadily decreases with age, to which loss of trabecular bone mass is a partial contributor. Loss of bone mass is defined by the World Health Organization as osteopenia if bone mineral density (BMD) is one standard deviation below mean BMD in young adults, and is defined as osteoporosis if it is more than 2.5 standard deviations below the mean. A low bone density greatly increases risk for stress fracture, which can occur without warning in those at risk. The resulting low-impact fractures from osteoporosis most commonly occur in the upper femur, which consists of 25-50% trabecular bone depending on the region, in the vertebrae which are about 90% trabecular, or in the wrist.\n", "It is believed that the reduction of human bone density in prehistoric times reduced the agility and dexterity of human movement. Shifting from hunting to agriculture has caused human bone density to reduce significantly.\n" ]

[ "Current measurements suggest the Andromeda Galaxy is approaching us at . In 3 to 4 billion years, there may be an Andromeda–Milky Way collision, depending on the importance of unknown lateral components to the galaxies' relative motion. If they collide, the chance of individual stars colliding with each other is extremely low, but instead the two galaxies will merge to form a single elliptical galaxy or perhaps a large disk galaxy over the course of about a billion years.\n", "The future of the Andromeda and Milky Way galaxies may be interlinked: in about five billion years, the two could potentially begin an Andromeda–Milky Way collision that would spark extensive new star formation.\n", "Over the past 2 billion years, star formation throughout Andromeda's disk is thought to have decreased to the point of near-inactivity. There have been interactions with satellite galaxies like M32, M110, or others that have already been absorbed by Andromeda Galaxy. These interactions have formed structures like Andromeda's Giant Stellar Stream. A galactic merger roughly 100 million years ago is believed to be responsible for a counter-rotating disk of gas found in the center of Andromeda as well as the presence there of a relatively young (100 million years old) stellar population.\n", "The Andromeda Galaxy is currently approximately 2.5 million light years away from our galaxy, the Milky Way Galaxy, and they are moving towards each other at approximately 300 kilometers (186 miles) per second. Approximately five billion years from now, or 19 billion years after the Big Bang, the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy will collide with one another and merge into one large galaxy based on current evidence. Up until 2012, there was no way to know whether the possible collision was definitely going to happen or not. In 2012, researchers came to the conclusion that the collision is definite after using the Hubble Space Telescope between 2002 and 2010 to track the motion of Andromeda. This results in the formation of \"Milkomeda\" (also known as \"Milkdromeda\").\n", "The estimated distance of the Andromeda Galaxy from our own was doubled in 1953 when it was discovered that there is another, dimmer type of Cepheid. In the 1990s, measurements of both standard red giants as well as red clump stars from the \"Hipparcos\" satellite measurements were used to calibrate the Cepheid distances.\n", "New images from NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope shed light on the Andromeda Galaxy's violent past. The images show that one of the latter's satellite galaxies, M32, blasted through one of the Andromeda Galaxy's spiral arms a few million years ago. Infrared pictures of the galaxy's two spiral arms demonstrate that they and the prominent star-forming ring are separate structures. The images also show a hole where the rings seem to split into arcs. This hole is where astronomers believe M32 punched through Andromeda's galactic disk.\n", "After this, most of the Galactic Empire had left our galaxy, leaving only a scattered few. This departure from the galaxy, leaving it to Vanamonde, was because contact had been made with a \"very strange and very great\" intelligent, extraterrestrial species, which called them urgently to the other side of the universe.\n" ]

[ "One significant source of slang were the prisoner of war camps run by the Japanese, where Diggers sometimes ended up. These were the sources of many particularly strong expressions, such as \"white nip\" for a prisoner who collaborated with the Japanese, and \"japs\", \"nips\", \"jeeps\", \"little yellow men\", and \"little yellow bastards\" for the Japanese themselves. In the camps, \"kippers\" were the British POWs, and \"cheese-eaters\" the Dutch. The urinals were \"pissaphones\" and the stew served to prisoners was \"Danube\", a contraction of the rhyming slang \"Blue Danube\".\n", "One part of the Nazi camp slang was German language terminology for people, things and events in the camps, where many ordinary German words acquired specific meanings and associations. Another was \"ad hoc\" slang based on the various native languages of inmates from different countries.\n", "In Britain, this was additionally popularised as an adjective from the experiences of thousands of U.S., British, and other English-speaking combat personnel, primarily airmen, who were captured in the European Theater of Operations during World War II. These Allied prisoners of war were given ersatz goods such as \"Ersatzkaffee\", an inferior \"Getreidekaffee\" or \"grain coffee\" as a coffee substitute by their German captors.\n", "British soldiers employed a variety of epithets for the Germans. \"Fritz\", a German pet form of Friedrich, was popular in both World War I and World War II, with \"Jerry\", short for \"German\", but also modeled on the English name, favoured in the latter.\n", "BULLET::::- Jerry, Gerry: Rhyming slang (Jerry the German), primarily used in the first and second World Wars by the British, but also other English speakers. Based on the common given nickname Jerry, short for Jeremiah, Gerald, and other similar-sounding names.\n", "There were many other Digger slang words and phrases coined during the Second World War. Two of the most notable are \"wheelbarrow\" for a conscript (because he had to be pushed) and \"doover\", a general name for just about anything at all. Others include \"snarlers\", who were soldiers from the Middle East who were \"SNLR\" (\"Services No Longer Required\") and sent home on \"three P boats\" (troopships that contained \"pox, prisoners, and provosts\").\n", "The German term Prominenten was used in World War II to describe high-profile prisoners from various countries that were imprisoned in for example the POW camp for officers Colditz (Oflag IV-C) or the Nazi concentration camps Sachsenhausen and Dachau for possible use as hostages. These prisoners had among them former statesmen, politicians, political dissidents and priests as well as prisoners of war related, or believed to be related, to allied politicians and royalties. The Colditz POW's were liberated On 14April 1945 by the U.S. Army whereas the prisoners from Sachsenhausen and Dachau where liberated from their SS-guards by in turn by troops from the Wehrmacht and shortly thereafter by units from the 42nd Infantry Division and the 45th Infantry Division after the Transport of concentration camp inmates to Tyrol.\n" ]

[ "The port can charge the battery and power the phone while it is connected to, for example, a hands-free solution in a car. The FastPort became the only way to get external power to the phones. Chargers comes in several varieties, from 12/24 volt DC to use in cars, to 100-250 volt AC to use elsewhere. Some charger-models can only charge the phone (the cable is attached at the middle), in others all the connector pins through to the plug end, thus supporting data/signal transfer while the phone is being charged.\n", "Conductive charging requires a physical connection between the electronic device's battery and the power supply. The need for a metal-to-metal connection between the charger and the device requiring charging is one of the main drawbacks of this method. To accomplish this without the use of physical cords connected to wall outlets, special attachments are made from electronic devices which are fitted with technology that can detect when the device makes connection with the power source, often a charging base. Conduction based wireless accessories may include changeable backs for cellular phones, special sleeves and attachable clips.\n", "BULLET::::- Inconvenience – When a mobile device is connected to a cable, it can be moved around (albeit in a limited range) and operated while charging. In most implementations of inductive charging, the mobile device must be left on a pad to charge, and thus can't be moved around or easily operated while charging. With some standards, charging can be maintained at a distance, but only with nothing present in between the transmitter and receiver.\n", "The charger is a small box, usually powered by a battery. It contains an electronic circuit that steps the battery voltage up to the high voltage needed for charging. The box has a fixture that requires one to press the end of the dosimeter on the charging electrode. Some chargers include a light to illuminate the measurement electrode, so that measurement, logging and recharging can occur with one routine motion.\n", "Some mobile phone companies have used the extra pin \"X\" to enforce the use of their own battery chargers. Verizon Wireless is the first company to require first-party battery chargers, having colluded with Motorola to put an arbitrary 1.4 volts on pin X. This voltage violates the USB-IF standards, as pin X should either be tied to ground or not connected at all. Without this connection, the phone will refuse to charge, displaying \"unauthorized charger\" despite receiving the proper current. The phone will charge while connected to a personal computer only if the PC is running a special device driver.\n", "Conductive power transfer uses a conductor to connect two electronic devices in order to transfer energy. It is therefore not a form of wireless power transfer, which explicitly does not use conductors. In the area of cellular phone chargers, phones are equipped with an attachment such as a sleeve which, when placed on the charging board, transfers energy to the phone's battery.\n", "The charge control consists of a pressure switch built into the cell, which disconnects the charging current when the internal cell pressure rises above a certain limit (usually 200 to 300 psi or 1.4 to 2.1 MPa). This prevents overcharging and damage to the cell.\n" ]

[ "A meat slicer, also called a slicing machine, deli slicer or simply a slicer, is a tool used in butcher shops and delicatessens to slice meats, sausages, cheeses and other deli products. Older models of meat slicer may be operated by crank, while newer ones generally use an electric motor. While the slicer is traditionally a commercial apparatus, domestic use versions are also marketed.\n", "A steak sandwich is a sandwich prepared with steak that has been broiled, fried, grilled, barbecued or seared using steel grates or gridirons, then served on bread or a roll. Steak sandwiches are sometimes served with toppings of cheese, onions, mushrooms, peppers, tomatoes, and in some instances fried eggs, coleslaw, and french fries.\n", "A \"meat slicer\", also called a \"slicing machine\", \"deli slicer\" or simply a \"slicer\", is a tool used in butcher shops and delicatessens to slice meats and cheeses. The first meat slicer was invented by Wilhelm van Berkel (Wilhelmus Adrianus van Berkel) in Rotterdam in 1898. Older models of meat slicer may be operated by crank, while newer ones generally use an electric motor.\n", "Minced cutlet (котлета рубленая, \"kotleta rublenaya\"), or, since the late 19th century, simply \"cutlet\", is a staple of Russian cuisine. It is similar to a Salisbury steak, with the main difference being pure beef is rarely employed, usually pork or a beef-pork mixture is used. The meat is seasoned with salt and pepper, mixed with finely chopped onion (optionally fried), garlic, and a binder (eggs and breadcrumbs soaked in milk), divided into oval-shaped patties, lightly breaded and shallow-fried in a half-inch of vegetable oil. The transliterated Japanese dish, \"menchi katsu\", is always deep-fried and heavily breaded, being essentially a mincemeat croquette, while the Russian version is always shallow-fried.\n", "NAMP was best known, however, for \"The Meat Buyer's Guide\", intended for butchers and commercial meat purchasers, which was a recognized reference for cutting and grading meat. It was published annually. NAMP maintains a standard numbering system for cuts of meat. \n", "BULLET::::- Price-pack/Bonus packs deal: The packaging offers a consumer a certain percentage more of the product for the same price (for example, 25 percent extra). This is another type of deal “in which customers are offered more of the product for the same price”. For example, a sales company may offer their consumers a bonus pack in which they can receive two products for the price of one. In these scenarios, this bonus pack is framed as a gain because buyers believe that they are obtaining a free product. The purchase of a bonus pack, however, is not always beneficial for the consumer. Sometimes consumers will end up spending money on an item they would not normally buy had it not been in a bonus pack. As a result, items bought in a bonus pack are often wasted and is viewed as a “loss” for the consumer.\n", "In Indian cuisine, a cutlet specifically refers to mashed vegetables (potato, carrot, beans) or cooked meat (mutton, beef, fish or chicken) stuffing that is fried with a batter/covering. The meat itself is cooked with spices - onion, cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, coriander (cilantro), green chillies, lemon and salt. This is then dipped in an egg mix or Corn starch and then in Bread crumbs (also see breaded cutlet), and fried in ghee or vegetable oil. Mostly chicken and mutton cutlets are very popular snacks in the city of Kolkata.\n" ]

[ "Christianity had a significant impact on education and science and medicine as the church created the bases of the Western system of education, and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Many clerics throughout history have made significant contributions to science and Jesuits in particular have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science. The Civilizing influence of Christianity includes social welfare, founding hospitals, economics (as the Protestant work ethic), politics, architecture, literature and family life.\n", "Since the Renaissance era, with western colonialism, Christianity has expanded throughout the world. Today there are more than two billion Christians worldwide, and Christianity has become the world's largest religion.\n", "Christianity had a significant impact on education and science and medicine as the church created the bases of the Western system of education, and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Many clerics throughout history have made significant contributions to science and Jesuits in particular have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science. The cultural influence of Christianity includes social welfare, founding hospitals, economics (as the Protestant work ethic), natural law (which would later influence the creation of international law), politics, architecture, literature, personal hygiene, and family life. Christianity played a role in ending practices common among pagan societies, such as human sacrifice, slavery, infanticide and polygamy.\n", "Christianity had a significant impact on education and science and medicine as the church created the bases of the Western system of education, and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Many clerics throughout history have made significant contributions to science and Jesuits in particular have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science. The cultural influence of Christianity includes social welfare, founding hospitals, economics (as the Protestant work ethic), natural law (which would later influence the creation of international law), politics, architecture, literature, personal hygiene, and family life. Christianity played a role in ending practices common among pagan societies, such as human sacrifice, slavery, infanticide and polygamy. \n", "The early followers of Jesus, including Saints Paul and Peter carried this new theology concerning Jesus throughout the Roman Empire and beyond, sowing the seeds for the development of the Catholic Church, of which Saint Peter is remembered as the first Pope. Catholicism, as we know it, emerged slowly. Christians often faced persecution during these early centuries, particularly for their refusal to join in worshiping the emperors. Nevertheless, carried through the synagogues, merchants and missionaries across the known world, the new internationalist religion quickly grew in size and influence. Its unique appeal was partly the result of its values and ethics.\n", "During the 20th century, the church grew substantially and became an international organization, due in part to the spread of missionaries around the globe. In 2000, the church reported 60,784 missionaries and global church membership stood at just over 11 million. Worldwide membership surpassed 13 million in 2007 and reached 14 million in July 2010, with about six million of those within the United States. However, it is estimated based on demographic studies that only one-third of the total worldwide membership (about 4.5 million people as of 2014) are regularly attending churchgoers. The church cautions against overemphasis of growth statistics for comparison with other churches because relevant factors—including activity rates and death rates, methodology used in registering or counting members, what factors constitute membership, and geographical variations—are rarely accounted for in the comparisons.\n", "Christianity has had a significant impact on education, as the church created the bases of the Western system of education, and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world; as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Historically, Christianity has often been a patron of science and medicine. It has been prolific in the foundation of schools, universities, and hospitals, and many Catholic clergy; Jesuits in particular, have been active in the sciences throughout history and have made significant contributions to the development of science. Protestantism also has had an important influence on science. According to the Merton Thesis, there was a positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism on the one hand, and early experimental science on the other. The civilizing influence of Christianity includes social welfare, founding hospitals, economics (as the Protestant work ethic), politics, architecture, literature, personal hygiene, and family life.\n" ]

[ "As the centre of trade gravitated towards Amsterdam, Haarlem declined in the 18th century. The Golden age had created a large upper middle class of merchants and well-to-do small business owners. Taking advantage of the reliability of the trekschuit connection between Amsterdam and Haarlem, many people had a business address in Amsterdam and a weekend or summer home in Haarlem. Haarlem became more and more a bedroom community as the increasingly dense population of Amsterdam caused the canals to smell in the summer. Many well-to-do gentlemen moved their families to summer homes in the Spring and commuted between addresses. Popular places for summer homes were along the Spaarne in southern Haarlem. Pieter Teyler van der Hulst and Henry Hope built summer homes there, as well as many Amsterdam merchants and councilmen. Today, it is still possible to travel by boat along the Spaarne and this has turned into a popular form of tourism in the summer months. In the 18th century Haarlem became the seat of a suffragan diocese of the Old Catholic Church of Utrecht.\n", "The 17th century is considered Amsterdam's \"Golden Age\", during which it became the wealthiest city in the western world. Ships sailed from Amsterdam to the Baltic Sea, North America, and Africa, as well as present-day Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, and Brazil, forming the basis of a worldwide trading network. Amsterdam's merchants had the largest share in both the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company. These companies acquired overseas possessions that later became Dutch colonies.\n", "The 17th century was Amsterdam's Golden Age. Ships from the city sailed to North America, Indonesia, Brazil, and Africa and formed the basis of a worldwide trading network. Amsterdam's merchants financed expeditions to the four corners of the world and they acquired the overseas possessions which formed the seeds of the later Dutch colonies. The most influential of these merchant groups was the Dutch East India Company, founded 1602, which became the first multi-national corporation to issue stocks to finance its business. By allowing for sailors to invest in the cargo that they transported, it created an incentive for individual laborers to be vested in the goods they carried and tightened allegiances to corporations outcomes where before they sailor was a migratory agent. Rembrandt painted in this century, and the city expanded greatly around its canals during this time. Amsterdam was the most important point for the transshipment of goods in Europe and it was the leading financial centre of the world (a position later taken over by London).\n", "Amsterdam and Rotterdam operated as important cosmopolitan centres where merchant ships from many parts of the world brought people of various customs and beliefs. This flourishing commercial activity encouraged a culture relatively tolerant of the play of new ideas, to a considerable degree sheltered from the censorious hand of ecclesiastical authority (though those considered to have gone \"too far\" might have gotten persecuted even in the Netherlands). Not by chance were the philosophical works of both Descartes and Spinoza developed in the cultural and intellectual background of the Dutch Republic in the 17th century. Spinoza may have had access to a circle of friends who were unconventional in terms of social tradition, including members of the Collegiants. One of the people he knew was Niels Stensen, a brilliant Danish student in Leiden; others included Albert Burgh, with whom Spinoza is known to have corresponded.\n", "The 18th and early 19th centuries saw a decline in Amsterdam's prosperity. The wars of the Dutch Republic with the United Kingdom and France took their toll on Amsterdam. During the Napoleonic wars, Amsterdam's fortunes reached their lowest point; however, with the establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815, things slowly began to improve. In Amsterdam, new developments were started by people like Samuel Sarphati who found their inspiration in Paris.\n", "The European economic centre shifted from the Mediterranean to Western Europe. The city of Antwerp, part of the Duchy of Brabant, became \"the centre of the \"entire\" international economy\", and the richest city in Europe at this time. Centred in Antwerp first and then in Amsterdam, \"Dutch Golden Age\" was tightly linked to the Age of Discovery. Francesco Guicciardini, a Venetian envoy, stated that hundreds of ships would pass Antwerp in a day, and 2,000 carts entered the city each week. Portuguese ships laden with pepper and cinnamon would unload their cargo. With many foreign merchants resident in the city and governed by an oligarchy of banker-aristocrats forbidden to engage in trade, the economy of Antwerp was foreigner-controlled, which made the city very international, with merchants and traders from Venice, Ragusa, Spain and Portugal and a policy of toleration, which attracted a large Orthodox Jewish community. The city experienced three booms during its golden age, the first based on the pepper market, a second launched by New World silver coming from Seville (ending with the bankruptcy of Spain in 1557), and a third boom, after the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, in 1559, based on the textiles industry.\n", "In the 17th century, the economic elite of Amsterdam moved with William of Orange to England, where they helped to restart the English international trade, leaving behind in Amsterdam the more religious, and less competitive, burghers.\n" ]

[ "Manufacturers do not support recharging of disposable alkaline batteries, and warn that it may be dangerous. Despite this advice, alkaline batteries have been recharged, and chargers have been available. The capacity of a recharged alkaline battery declines with number of recharges, until it becomes unusable after typically about ten cycles.\n", "Unlike rechargeable alkaline batteries, NiMH batteries can endure anywhere from a few hundred to a thousand (or more) deep discharge cycles, resulting in a long useful life; their limitation is now more usually by age rather than cycles. Capacity of NiMH batteries is close to that of alkaline batteries. Unlike all alkaline batteries (rechargeable or otherwise), internal resistance is low. This makes them well suited for high current capacity applications. Self-discharge rates are comparable, at least up to six months.\n", "When not under load or charge, a Ni–Cd battery will self-discharge approximately 10% per month at 20 °C, ranging up to 20% per month at higher temperatures. It is possible to perform a trickle charge at current levels just high enough to offset this discharge rate; to keep a battery fully charged. However, if the battery is going to be stored unused for a long period of time, it should be discharged down to at most 40% of capacity (some manufacturers recommend fully discharging and even short-circuiting once fully discharged), and stored in a cool, dry environment.\n", "Ni–Cd batteries may suffer from a \"memory effect\" if they are discharged and recharged to the same state of charge hundreds of times. The apparent symptom is that the battery \"remembers\" the point in its charge cycle where recharging began and during subsequent use suffers a sudden drop in voltage at that point, as if the battery had been discharged. The capacity of the battery is not actually reduced substantially. Some electronics designed to be powered by Ni–Cd batteries are able to withstand this reduced voltage long enough for the voltage to return to normal. However, if the device is unable to operate through this period of decreased voltage, it will be unable to get enough energy out of the battery, and for all practical purposes, the battery appears \"dead\" earlier than normal.\n", "Older rechargeable batteries self-discharge relatively rapidly, and require charging before first use; some newer low self-discharge NiMH batteries hold their charge for many months, and are typically sold factory-charged to about 70% of their rated capacity.\n", "The limited self-discharge characteristics of vanadium redox batteries make them useful in applications where the batteries must be stored for long periods of time with little maintenance while maintaining a ready state. This has led to their adoption in some military electronics, such as the sensor components of the GATOR mine system. Their ability to fully cycle and stay at 0% state of charge makes them suitable for solar + storage applications where the battery must start each day empty and fill up depending upon the load and weather. Lithium ion batteries, for example, are typically damaged when they are allowed to discharge below 20% state of charge, so they typically only operate between about 20% and 100%, meaning they are only using 80% of their nameplate capacity.\n", "The active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on each charge and discharge cycle; active material may be lost due to physical changes of volume, further limiting the number of times the battery can be recharged. Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be charged before first use. Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be used when purchased, and have only 15% discharge in a year.\n" ]

[ "The comedian says that Pai has also proposed \"laughably lacking\" alternatives to net neutrality. One alternative stipulated that ISPs simply include a voluntary statement in their terms of service indicating that they would not throttle or block content, which Oliver says would \"make net neutrality as binding as a proposal on \"The Bachelor\"\". Pai's other rationales for reclassifying ISPs was that the new rules already resulted in decreased investment in broadband networks. Brian Schatz, a Democratic U.S. Senator representing Hawaii and the ranking member of the Senate Commerce Subcommittee on Communications, Technology, Innovation, and the Internet, said that Pai's claim of decreased investment was untrue. Oliver then quotes a 2014 phone call from Francis J. Shammo, the chief financial officer of Verizon, in which the latter says that the new net-neutrality rules did not affect Verizon's business. Oliver says, \"that doesn't really sound like net neutrality was jeopardizing investment at all\". He states that Pai's actions to eliminate Title II are like \"pouring [a gallon of coffee] into your hands and trusting that you don't get burnt\". At this point, Oliver holds up a Reese's mug that is even larger than Pai's mug and says, \"I'm drinking the blood of smaller mugs\".\n", "Opponents argue that net neutrality regulations prevent service providers from providing more affordable Internet access to those who can't afford it. A concept known as \"zero-rating\", ISPs would be unable to provide Internet access for free or at a reduced cost to the poor under net neutrality rules.\n", "Yahoo! and Microsoft argue that net neutrality law is necessary because without such a law, ISPs will destroy the free and open nature of the Internet and also create a tiered, dollar-driven net that favours the wealthiest corporations over everyone else.\n", "With net neutrality, ISPs may not intentionally block, slow down, or charge money for specific online content. Without net neutrality, ISPs may prioritize certain types of traffic, meter others, or potentially block traffic from specific services, while charging consumers for various tiers of service.\n", "In the United States, however, during the Obama-era administration, under the Federal Communications Commission's (FCC) 15-24 policy, there were three bright-line rules in place to protect net neutrality: no blocking, no throttling, no paid prioritization. On 14 December 2017, the FCC voted 3-2 to remove these rules, allowing ISPs to block, throttle and give fast-lane access to content on their network.\n", "Some ISPs, such as Comcast, oppose blocking or throttling, but have argued that they are allowed to charge websites for faster data delivery. AT&T has made a broad commitment to net neutrality, but has also argued for their right to offer websites paid prioritization and in favor of its current sponsored data agreements.\n", "Some opponents of net neutrality argue that under the ISP market competition, paid-prioritization of bandwidth can induce optimal user welfare. Although net neutrality might protect user welfare when the market lacks competition, they argue that a better alternative could be to introduce a neutral \"public option\" to incentivize competition, rather than enforcing existing ISPs to be neutral.\n" ]

[ "Dark slope streaks are albedo features. They appear to the eye as a brightness difference between the streak and the lighter-toned background slope. Usually no topographic relief is visible to distinguish the streak from its surroundings, except in the very highest resolution (<1 m/pixel) images. In many cases, the original surface texture of the slope is preserved and continuous across the streak, as though unaffected by events involved in dark streak formation (pictured left). The overall effect is equivalent in appearance to a partial shadow cast down the sloping surface. These observations indicate that whatever process forms the streaks, it affects only the very thinnest layer at the surface. Slope streaks are only about 10% darker than their surroundings but often appear black in images because the contrast has been enhanced (stretched).\n", "Another special case is that of forward (or backwards) camera movement, typically with the camera focused on the distance. The streaks in the resulting image converge on the central point, giving a suggestion as if it is at the end of a long tunnel. A similar effect can be achieved by changing the focal length of a zoom lens during the exposure.\n", "The basic idea is that the illumination pattern is imaged onto a geometrically congruent cutoff pattern (essentially a multiplicity of knife edges) with focusing optics, while density gradients lying between the illumination pattern and the cutoff pattern are imaged, typically by a camera system. As in classical schlieren, the distortions produce regions of brightening or darkening corresponding to the position and direction of the distortion, because they redirect rays either away from or onto the opaque part of the cutoff pattern. While in classical schlieren, distortions over the whole beam path are visualized equally, in focusing schlieren, only distortions in the object field of the camera are clearly imaged. Distortions away from the object field become blurred, so this technique allows some degree of depth selection. It also has the advantage that a wide variety of illuminated backgrounds can be used, since collimation is not required. This allows construction of projection-based focusing schlieren systems, which are much easier to build and align than classical schlieren systems. The requirement of collimated light in classical schlieren is often a substantial practical barrier for constructing large systems due to the need for the collimating optic to be the same size as the field of view. Focusing schlieren systems can use compact optics with a large background illumination pattern, which is particularly easy to produce with a projection system. For systems with large demagnification, the illumination pattern needs to be around twice larger than the field of view to allow defocusing of the background pattern.\n", "In photography, a rectilinear lens is a photographic lens that yields images where straight features, such as the walls of buildings, appear with straight lines, as opposed to being curved. In other words, it is a lens with little or no barrel or pincushion distortion. At particularly wide angles, however, the rectilinear perspective will cause objects to appear increasingly stretched and enlarged as they near the edge of the frame. These types of lenses are often used to create forced perspective effects.\n", "In photography, lens flare is a defect where various circles can appear around highlights, and with ghosts throughout a photo, due to undesired light, such as reflection and scattering off elements in the lens.\n", "Motion compensation photography (also known as ballistic synchro photography or smear photography when used to image high-speed projectiles) is a form of streak photography. When the motion of the film is opposite to that of the subject with an inverting (positive) lens, and synchronized appropriately, the images show events as a function of time. Objects remaining motionless show up as streaks. This is the technique used for finish line photographs. At no time is it possible to take a still photograph that duplicates the results of a finish line photograph taken with this method. A still is a photograph \"in\" time, a streak/smear photograph is a photograph \"of\" time. When used to image high-speed projectiles the use of a slit (as in streak photography) produce very short exposure times ensuring higher image resolution. The use for high-speed projectiles means that one still image is normally produced on one roll of cine film. From this image information such as yaw or pitch can be determined. Because of its measurement of time variations in velocity will also be shown by lateral distortions of the image.\n", "Ring flashes are commonly used in macro (close-up) photography. When the subject is very close to the camera, the distance of the flash from the optical axis becomes significant. For objects close to the camera, the size of the ring flash is significant and so the light encounters the subject from many angles in the same way that it does with a conventional flash with soft box. This has the effect of further softening any shadows.\n" ]

[ "The evolved red giant star is losing mass, since radiation pressure overcomes the low gravity on the surface. The outflow of matter is captured by the gravitational field of the white dwarf and falls on its surface in the end. At least during the active phase an accretion disk forms around the white dwarf.\n", "Due to opacity effects, as metallicity of the interstellar gas increases both the maximum and minimum masses a star can have will decrease. For the latter case, it's expected that an object with a mass of 0.04 solar masses (40 times the mass of Jupiter), that currently would become a brown dwarf unable to fuse hydrogen, could do so ending in the main sequence with a surface temperature of 0 °C (273 K, thus \"frozen\"), much cooler than the dimmest red dwarfs of today, and ice clouds forming in its atmosphere. The luminosity of these objects would be more than a thousand times lower than the faintest stars currently existing and their lifetimes would also be sensibly longer.\n", "The largest star in the Cygnus OB3 association has a mass 40 times that of the Sun. As more massive stars evolve more rapidly, this implies that the progenitor star for Cygnus X-1 had more than 40 solar masses. Given the current estimated mass of the black hole, the progenitor star must have lost over 30 solar masses of material. Part of this mass may have been lost to HDE 226868, while the remainder was most likely expelled by a strong stellar wind. The helium enrichment of HDE 226868's outer atmosphere may be evidence for this mass transfer. Possibly the progenitor may have evolved into a Wolf–Rayet star, which ejects a substantial proportion of its atmosphere using just such a powerful stellar wind.\n", "The substellar mass in orbit around the white dwarf is a star that lost all of its gas to the white dwarf. What remains is an object with a mass of 0.05 solar masses (), which is too small to continue fusion, and does not have the composition of a super-planet, brown dwarf, or white dwarf. There is no category for such a stellar remnant.\n", "The equation of state for degenerate matter is \"soft\", meaning that adding more mass will result in a smaller object. Continuing to add mass to what is now a white dwarf, the object shrinks and the central density becomes even larger, with higher degenerate-electron energies. The star's radius has now shrunk to only a few thousand kilometers, and the mass is approaching the theoretical upper limit of the mass of a white dwarf, the Chandrasekhar limit, about 1.4 times the mass of the Sun ().\n", "The white dwarf in the V445 Puppis system has an estimated mass of more than 1.3 times the mass of the Sun, and this mass is increasing because of recurring helium shell flashes from accreted material. As the mass of the white dwarf approaches the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.38 solar masses, it will likely explode as a Type Ia supernova.\n", "After fusing helium in its core to carbon, the Sun will begin to collapse again, evolving into a compact white dwarf star after ejecting its outer atmosphere as a planetary nebula. The predicted final mass is 54.1% of the present value, most likely consisting primarily of carbon and oxygen.\n" ]

[ "A constituent state is a state entity that constitutes a part of a sovereign state. A constituent state holds regional jurisdiction over a defined administrative territory, within a sovereign state. Government of a constituent state is a form of regional government. Throughout history, and also in modern political practice, most constituents states are parts of complex states, like federations or confederations. Constituent state can have republican or monarchical form of government. Those of republican form are usually called \"states\" or autonomous states, \"republics\" or autonomous republics, and also cantons. Those that have monarchical form of government are often defined by traditional hierarchical rank of their ruler (usually a principality, or an emirate).\n", "States may be classified by political philosophers as sovereign if they are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. Other states are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony where ultimate sovereignty lies in another state. Many states are federated states which participate in a federal union. A federated state is a territorial and constitutional community forming part of a federation. (Compare confederacies or confederations such as Switzerland.) Such states differ from sovereign states in that they have transferred a portion of their sovereign powers to a federal government.\n", "In some nations, a province (or its equivalent) is a first-level administrative unit of sub-national government—as in the Netherlands—and a large constituent autonomous area, as in Argentina, Canada, South Africa, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It can also be a constituent element of a federation, confederation, or republic. For example, in the United States, no state may secede from the federal Union without the permission of the federal government.\n", "In many federations and confederations, the province or state is not clearly subordinate to the national or central government. Rather, it is considered to be sovereign in regard to its particular set of constitutional functions. The central- and provincial-government functions, or areas of jurisdiction, are identified in a constitution. Those that are not specifically identified are called \"residual powers.\" In a decentralized federal system (such as the United States and Australia) these residual powers lie at the provincial or state level, whereas in a centralized federal system (such as Canada) they are retained at the federal level.\n", "Administrative units that are not federated or confederated but enjoy a greater degree of autonomy or self-government than other territories within the same country can be considered constituent states of that country. This relationship is by some authors called a federacy. Autonomous republics like Karakalpakstan in Uzbekistan\n", "Constituent states united in a federal union under a federal government are more specifically known as federated states. There are numerous historical examples for constituent states within various federations. In modern political practice, among most notable examples are U.S. states and constituent entities of the Russian Federation.\n", "A federal state has a central structure with at most a small amount of territory mainly containing the institutions of the federal government, and several regions (called \"states\", \"provinces\", etc.) which compose the territory of the whole state. Sovereignty is divided between the centre and the constituent regions. The constitutions of Canada and the United States establish federal states, with power divided between the federal government and the provinces or states. Each of the regions may in turn have its own constitution (of unitary nature).\n" ]

[ "The Imperial Russian Army had hunter-commando units, formed by a decree of Emperor Alexander III in 1886, which saw action in World War I prior to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Also during World War I, General Aleksei Brusilov became one of the first senior commanders to utilize the tactics of fast-action shock troops for assaults following concentrated accurate artillery fire in what would be later be known as the Brusilov Offensive of 1916. Such tactics, considered revolutionary at the time, would later inspire people like Prussian Captain Willy Rohr in the development of the Prussian Stormtroopers (founded in 1915).\n", "Despite a certain degree of standardisation, the tachanka's armament was, in most cases, improvised. In Russia, the PM M1910 heavy machine gun was often used. The Polish cavalry of the Polish-Soviet War often used all kinds of machine guns available, including the Maxim, Schwarzlose MG M.07/12, Hotchkiss machine gun and Browning machine gun. The late models of standardised tachankas of the Polish Army were all equipped with Ckm wz.30, a Polish modification of the M1917 Browning machine gun which was also suitable for anti-air fire.\n", "German field guns had proven too heavy to accompany the infantry in the assault and the Germans resorted to a variety of solutions in an effort to find something that could help the infantry deal with bunkers and other obstacles. Enormous numbers of Russian 7.62 cm Model 1910 Putilov fortress guns had been captured early in the war and Krupp was told to adapt them for use as infantry guns. They mounted the barrel and breech of the Russian guns on a new solid box-trail carriage with two narrow seats behind the gunshield, facing to the rear. The gun retained its extraordinary depression of -18.6°, which was a legacy of its original purpose to fire down into fortress ditches, although its limited elevation prevented it from ranging past without digging in the trail. It used captured Russian canister ammunition for short-range engagements, but Rheinmetall manufactured its HE shell.\n", "In Russian service they saw action on the Eastern Front, during the Russian Civil War and the subsequent Polish-Bolshevik War. Some were captured by Poland during that conflict, although nothing is known of any use by them. In June, 1941 the Red Army still possessed 25 of these guns.\n", "The tactic was used as an expedient by the Red Army during World War II. Tank desant troops () were infantry trained in the tactic in order to offer small-arms support in suppression of enemy anti-tank weapons or enemy infantry using anti-tank grenades. After the war, T-55 and T-62 tanks were built with hand-holds for this purpose. In northern areas during winter, similar tactics were used by Soviet infantry riding the skids of aerosani or towed behind them on skis. Nowadays, this tactic is very rare (outside of dire emergencies) in well-equipped armed forces, with front-line troops usually riding in armoured personnel carriers or infantry fighting vehicles.\n", "During the First World War, many combatants faced the deadlock of trench warfare. On the Western Front in 1915, the Germans formed a specialized unit called the Rohr Battalion to develop assault tactics. During the Brusilov Offensive of 1916, the Russian general Aleksei Brusilov developed and implemented the idea of shock troops to attack weak points along the Austrian lines to effect a breakthrough, which the main Russian Army could then exploit. The Russian Army also deployed hunter commando units who are specially trained forces of Russian army formed in 1886 and were used to protect against ambushes, to perform reconnaissance and for low-intensity fights in no-man's-land.\n", "Combat experience in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 had convinced the Japanese of the utility of machine guns to provide covering fire for advancing infantry. This was reinforced by the first-hand observations of European combat tactics by Japanese military attachés during the First World War, and the Army Technical Bureau was tasked with the development of a lightweight machine gun, which could be easily transportable by an infantry squad. The resultant “Type 11 light machine gun” (named after the 11th year of the reign of Emperor Taishō, or 1922) was the first light machine gun to be mass-produced in Japan and the oldest Japanese light machine gun design to see service in the Pacific War. It was superseded by the Type 96 light machine gun in 1936.\n" ]

[ "Many domesticated birds, such as the domestic chicken and domestic duck, have lost the ability to fly for extended periods, although their ancestral species, the red junglefowl and mallard, respectively, are capable of extended flight. A few particularly bred birds, such as the Broad Breasted White turkey, have become totally flightless as a result of selective breeding; the birds were bred to grow massive breast meat that weighs too much for the bird's wings to support in flight.\n", "This method was unsuccessful in a 1969 study attempting to control \"Triatoma infestans\" in chicken houses because even though some bugs that fed on the treated birds did die, so did the birds, and the birds that survived produced fewer eggs.\n", "The average chicken may live for five to ten years, depending on the breed. The world's oldest known chicken was a hen which died of heart failure at the age of 16 years according to the Guinness World Records.\n", "The chicken is one of the most widespread domesticated species and one of the human world's largest sources of protein. Although the chicken was domesticated in South-East Asia, archaeological evidence suggests that it was not kept as a livestock species until 400 BCE in the Levant. Prior to this, chickens had been associated with humans for thousands of years and kept for cock-fighting, rituals, and royal zoos, so they were not originally a prey species. The chicken was not a popular food in Europe until only one thousand years ago.\n", "Throughout the 20th century, modern veterinary practices and the advent of radio telemetry (transmitters attached to free-flying birds) increased the average lifespan of falconry birds and allowed falconers to pursue quarry and styles of flight that had previously resulted in the loss of their hawk or falcon.\n", "Today, more than 1,532 passenger pigeon skins (along with 16 skeletons) are in existence, spread across many institutions all over the world. It has been suggested that the passenger pigeon should be revived when available technology allows it (a concept which has been termed \"de-extinction\"), using genetic material from such specimens. In 2003, the Pyrenean ibex (\"Capra pyrenaica pyrenaica\", a subspecies of the Spanish ibex) was the first extinct animal to be cloned back to life; the clone lived for only seven minutes before dying of lung defects. A hindrance to cloning the passenger pigeon is the fact that the DNA of museum specimens has been contaminated and fragmented, due to exposure to heat and oxygen. American geneticist George M. Church has proposed that the passenger pigeon genome can be reconstructed by piecing together DNA fragments from different specimens. The next step would be to splice these genes into the stem cells of rock pigeons (or band-tailed pigeons), which would then be transformed into egg and sperm cells, and placed into the eggs of rock pigeons, resulting in rock pigeons bearing passenger pigeon sperm and eggs. The offspring of these would have passenger pigeon traits, and would be further bred to favor unique features of the extinct species. Reviving the passenger pigeon may help conserve woodland biodiversity in the eastern US.\n", "The adult chicken has also made significant contributions to the advancement of science. By inoculating chickens with cholera bacteria (Pasteurella multocida) from an overgrown, and thereby attenuated, culture Louis Pasteur produced the first lab-derived attenuated vaccine (1860s). Great advances in immunology and oncology continued to characterize the 20th century, for which we indebted to the chicken model.\n" ]

[ "In California, the words \"town\" and \"city\" are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code Secs. 34500–34504). There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a charter that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as \"City of (Name)\" or \"Town of (Name).\" Government Code Sections 34500–34504 applies to cities organized as general law cities, which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as \"City of (Name)\" or \"Town of (Name).\"\n", "In the systems of local government in some U.S. states, a general-law municipality, general-law city, or statutory city is a municipality whose government structure and powers are defined by the general law of its state. This is contrast to a charter city or home-rule city, whose government structure and powers are defined by a municipal charter.\n", "The state is divided into counties, cities, towns, and villages. Cities, towns and villages are municipal corporations with their own governments that provide most local government services. Whether a municipality is defined as a city, town, or village is dependent not on population or land area, but rather on the form of government selected by the residents and approved by the state legislature. Each such government is granted varying home rule powers as provided by the New York Constitution. New York has various corporate entities that serve single purposes that are also local governments, such as school and fire districts.\n", "A city-state is a sovereign state, also described as a type of small independent country, that usually consists of a single city and its dependent territories. Historically, this included cities such as Rome, Athens, Carthage, and the Italian city-states during the Renaissance. , only a handful of sovereign city-states exist, with some disagreement as to which are city-states. A great deal of consensus exists that the term properly applies currently to Monaco, Singapore, and Vatican City. City states are also sometimes called microstates which however also includes other configurations of very small countries, not to be confused with micronations.\n", "Out of 53 cities in the Commonwealth, there are now eleven that are legally cities and have city councils, but retained \"Town of\" in their names. This distinction derives from provisions of state law that reference the town meeting form of government and that provide for greater self-governance authority for the class of communities governed by a form of chief executive and council which are referred to as cities in state law.\n", "State governments are sovereign entities which use their powers of taxation both to match federal grants, and provide for local transportation needs. Different states have different systems for dividing responsibility for funding and maintaining road and transit networks between the state department of transportation, counties, municipalities, and other entities. Typically cities or counties are responsible for local roads, financed with block grants and local property taxes, and the state is responsible for major roads that receive state and federal designations. Many mass transit agencies are quasi-independent and subsidized branches of a state, county, or city government.\n", "Different states use a variety of terms for their incorporated places. The designations \"city\", \"town\", \"village\", and \"borough\" are most frequent, but one or more places in Kentucky, Montana, Nevada, and Tennessee have place-type governments (usually consolidated ones) that do not have any of these designations. New Jersey is the only state that has all four kinds of incorporated places. Only two other states (Connecticut and Pennsylvania) include \"boroughs\" as incorporated places. Eleven U.S. states have only \"cities\", and the remainder of the states have various combinations of \"cities\", \"towns\", and \"villages\". \n" ]

[ "Full recovery of donor heart function often takes place over hours or days, during which time considerable damage can occur. Other deaths to patients can occur from preexisting conditions. For example, in pulmonary hypertension the patient's right ventricle has often adapted to the higher pressure over time and, although diseased and hypertrophied, is often capable of maintaining circulation to the lungs. Barnard designed the idea of the heterotopic (or \"piggy back\" transplant) in which the patient's diseased heart is left in place while the donor heart is added, essentially forming a \"double heart\". Barnard performed the first such heterotopic heart transplant in 1974.\n", "Some respiratory patients may also have severe cardiac disease which would necessitate a heart transplant. These patients can be treated by a surgery in which both lungs and the heart are replaced by organs from a donor or donors.\n", "On 13 February 2011, Copeland and his team at the UC San Diego Center for Transplantation, performed the rare \"piggyback\" heart operation again, resulting in a man having two beating hearts in his chest. Termed a heterotopic heart transplantation, recipient Smith received a donor heart while still keeping his own diseased heart. The alternative option, which would have required two operations, was to offer a Left ventricular assist device (LVAD) as a bridge-to-transplantation.\n", "The success rate of heart–lung transplants has improved significantly in recent years. The British National Health Service states that the survival rate is now around 85%, one year after the transplant was performed.\n", "Of the twelve hundred procedures performed at University of Pittsburgh Medical Center since 1980, only fifteen to twenty fell into this category. Although many heart transplant recipients must wait several months, even years for a donor heart, after only two weeks on the heart transplant waiting list, a donor heart became available. Although the donor heart was less than perfect as it exhibited signs of a cardiovascular disease, Kim chose, in his words, ”to take a chance”.\n", "Approximately 3,500 heart transplants are performed every year in the world, more than half of which occur in the US. Post-operation survival periods average 15 years. Heart transplantation is not considered to be a cure for heart disease; with that being said, it still is a life-saving treatment intended to improve the quality, and hopefully also both the overall total duration of time and the extent of time afterwards in a more active state, of life for the recipients.\n", "BULLET::::- The first successful human heart-lung transplant was performed. A team at the Stanford University Medical Center, led by Dr. Bruce Reitz, used a new technique that retained a portion of the recipient's right atrium. The recipient was Mary Gohlke, a 45-year-old woman from Mesa, Arizona, with end-stage primary pulmonary hypertension. The donor was a 15-year-old boy who had died from severe head trauma two days earlier\n" ]

[ "There is also the question as to whether having children really is such a positive contribution to the world in an age when there are many concerns about overpopulation, pollution and depletion of non-renewable resources. Some critics counter that such analyses of having children may understate its potential benefits to society (e.g. a greater labor force, which may provide greater opportunity to solve social problems) and overstate the costs. That is, there is often a need for a non-zero birth rate.\n", "Brazil displayed a remarkable reduction in the rates of child stunting under age 5, from 37% in 1974, to 7.1% in 2007. This happened in association with impressive social and economic development that reduced the numbers of Brazilians living in extreme poverty (less than $1.25 per day) from 25.6% in 1990 to 4.8% in 2008. The successful reduction in child malnutrition in Brazil can be attributed to strong political commitment that led to improvements in the water and sanitation system, increased female schooling, scale-up of quality maternal and child health services, increased economic power at family level (including successful cash transfer programs), and improvements in food security throughout the country.\n", "Intrusive fears of harming immediate children can last longer than the postpartum period. A study of 100 clinically depressed women found that 41% had obsessive fears that they might harm their child, and some were afraid to care for their children. Among non-depressed mothers, the study found 7% had thoughts of harming their child—a rate that yields an additional 280,000 non-depressed mothers in the United States with intrusive thoughts about harming their children.\n", "A 2014 report by the FYA found that people under the age of 24 were likely to be worse off than their parents, with a 30% unemployment rate and more university debt and spending most income on housing.\n", "The counter-argument is that in many poor countries people get far more children than they can reasonably feed, support and provide with a decent life under the circumstances. If people had fewer children with the aid of contraception, then it would put much less pressure on already scarce resources and enable a better life for the living.\n", "However, in 2013, child poverty reached record high levels in the United States, with 16.7 million children, more than 20%, living in food insecure households. 47 million Americans depend on food banks, more than 30% above 2007 levels. Households headed by single mothers are most likely to be affected. Worst affected are the District of Columbia, Oregon, Arizona, New Mexico and Florida, while North Dakota, New Hampshire, Virginia, Minnesota and Massachusetts are the least affected.\n", "There is no clear social impact case for or against conceiving a child. Individually, for most people, bearing a child or not has no measurable impact on person well-being. A review of the economic literature on life satisfaction shows that certain groups of people are much happier without children:\n" ]

[ "A red dot sight is a common classification for a type of non-magnifying reflector (or reflex) sight for firearms, and other devices that require aiming, that gives the user an aimpoint in the form of an illuminated red dot. A standard design uses a red light-emitting diode (LED) at the focus of collimating optics which generates a dot style illuminated reticle that stays in alignment with the weapon the sight is attached to regardless of eye position (nearly parallax free). They are considered to be fast acquisition and easy to use gun sights for target shooting, hunting, and in police and military applications. Aside from firearm applications, they are also used on cameras and telescopes. On cameras they are used to photograph flying aircraft, birds in flight, and other distant, quickly moving subjects. Telescopes have a narrow field of view and therefore are often equipped with a secondary \"finder scope\" such as a red dot sight.\n", "Red dot sights place the target and the reticle on nearly the same optical plane, allowing a single point of focus. This makes them fast acquisition and easy to use sights, allowing the user to keep their attention on the field of view in front of them. They are common in speed shooting sports such as IPSC. Military units and police forces have also adopted them. Red dot sights are also popular among paintball and airsoft players for similar reasons.\n", "The most common reticles used today in red dot sights both for handguns and rifles are small dots covering between 0.6 to 1.6 mil (2 to 5 moa ). The choice of red dot reticle size depends on the user needs. A larger and brighter red dot makes for faster target acquisition, but may obscure the target and thereby inhibit precise aiming, while a smaller and dim dot allows for more precise but slower aiming. The 1.6 mil (5 moa) dot is small enough not to obscure most handgun targets, and large enough for most competition shooters to quickly acquire a proper sight picture. Red dots for rifles typically have a smaller dot, often 0.6 to 0.8 mil (2 to 3 moa). When red dot sights started to appear at the practical shooting competition circuit in the 1990s, reticle sizes of up to 3, 4.5 or even 6 mil (10, 15 or 20 moa) were common in order to compensate for the lack of bright illumination. However, as red dot technology and production quality has advanced, the market trend in all types of sport shooting has gone towards the smaller dots used today.\n", "Like other reflector sights, the collimated image of the red dot is truly parallax free only at infinity, with an error circle equal to the diameter of the collimating optics for any target at a finite distance. This is compensated for by keeping the dot in the middle of the optical window (sighting down the sight's optical axis). Some manufacturers modify the focus of the LED/optical collimator combination, making models with the optical collimator set to focus the dot at a finite distance. These have a maximum amount of parallax due to eye movement, equal to the size of the optical window, at close range, diminishing to a minimal amount at the set distance (somewhere around a desired target range of 25–50 yards).\n", "BULLET::::- Three-dot: On semi-automatic handguns, the most common type of enhancement is a bright white dot painted on the front sight near the top of the blade, and a dot on each side of the rear sight notch. In low lighting conditions the front sight dot is centered horizontally between the rear sight dots, with the target placed above the middle (front) dot. Some sight vendors offer differently colored dots for the front and rear sights.\n", "Sights that use dot reticles are almost invariably measured in minutes of arc, sometimes called \"minutes of angle\" or \"moa\". Moa is a convenient measure for shooters using English units, since 1 moa subtends approximately at a distance of , which makes moa a handy unit to use in ballistics. The 5 moa (1.5 milliradian) dot is small enough not to obscure most targets, and large enough to quickly acquire a proper \"sight picture\". For many types of action shooting, a larger dot has traditionally been preferred; 7, 10, 15 or even 20 moa (2, 3, 4.5 or 6 mil) have been used; often these will be combined with horizontal and/or vertical lines to provide a level reference.\n", "Another example of devices that show the PIP are red dot sights like the M68 Aimpoint. Such sights, like on a HUD's, are collimated reflector sights, so the dot always appears over the weapon's impact point, regardless of the shooter's eye position. Red dot sights do not use internal computers and must be manually zeroed for maximum accuracy.\n" ]

[ "Early on, manning a castle was a feudal duty of vassals to their magnates, and magnates to their kings, however this was later replaced with paid forces. A garrison was usually commanded by a constable whose peacetime role would have been looking after the castle in the owner's absence. Under him would have been knights who by benefit of their military training would have acted as a type of officer class. Below them were archers and bowmen, whose role was to prevent the enemy reaching the walls as can be seen by the positioning of arrowslits.\n", "To regain the castle, the Goodies fight the Town Planner and his clerks by archery, swordsmanship and jousting (with the Goodies riding their trandem, instead of a horse). The Goodies and their also fight other medieval contests and, surprisingly, the Goodies end up winning the 'battle' — so they are able to hold on to the castle for Tim's relatives.\n", "The game allows players to build outlandish medieval siege engines to pit against castles or armies. Players select from a collection of mechanical parts that can be connected together to build a machine. Each level has a goal, such as \"destroy the windmill\" or \"kill 100 soldiers\". Although the goals are relatively simple, the wide variety of possible approaches allows for experimentation.\n", "The castle folk (, or \"civis\") formed a class of freemen who were obliged to provide well-specified services to a royal castle and its \"ispán\", or count, in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary. They were peasants living in villages formed in the lands pertaining to the royal castle. They tilled their estates collectively.\n", "In the game, the player takes on the role of a lord who rules over a medieval castle. With his available resources, the player places buildings or features, including many different kinds of food production, industry, civil, or military buildings and defences. Available peasants automatically choose jobs whenever a building requires one, so player micromanagement is minimal, he mostly needs to set up the various buildings in an efficient way while providing safety for his peasants. Military units are directly controlled individually or in groups, sometimes quite large with sieges or battles involving many hundreds on each side. One new addition to the original stronghold is the inclusion of estates, that a player can \"buy\" with his accumulated honor (gained by popularity, holding feasts, dances, jousting, etc.). Estates are semi-independent villages (without castle fortifications) that produce their own goods that the owner can send through carts to his castle or his allies. \n", "The players must take up control of four medieval lords who are fighting for control of the land; they have to battle through eight different castles, and try to gain control of each one. When one of the lords wins a battle, he shall receive a medal - and once he has won three medals, he will gain control of the current castle (which means that they can be up to six rooms long) and the game will proceed to the next castle. The gameplay is also similar to that of Hudson Soft's \"Bomberman\" series, the initial title of which was adapted by Irem for the arcade in 1991; the lords start out in the four corners of the screen and can only be killed by bombs, but a strike from the whips will temporarily stun them. The objective is to trap the other lords with bombs and kill them or otherwise force them to walk into the path of an exploding bomb - and treasure chests are numerous in each room, and can be broken with the whip. Each treasure chest contains a powerup (such as speed shoes, boomerangs, extra bombs, larger bombs, and more); the game's name is also a reference to the fact that it is a parody of Konami's \"Castlevania\" series or \"Akumajō Dracula\" as it was originally known in Japan.\n", "Castle-guard was an arrangement under the feudal system, by which the duty of finding knights to guard royal castles was imposed on certain manors, knight's fees or baronies. The greater barons provided for the guard of their castles by exacting a similar duty from their sub-enfeoffed knights. The obligation was commuted very early for a fixed money payment, a form of scutage known as \"castle-guard rent\", which lasted into modern times. Castle-guard was a common form of feudal tenure, almost ubiquitous, on the Isle of Wight where all manors were held from the Lord of the Isle of Wight, seated at Carisbrook Castle.\n" ]

[ "Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology—studies cell fate and tissue development. It examines various types of stem cells to generate neurological disease models, to discover and test drugs, and to develop replacement therapies for neurodegenerative diseases and disorders.\n", "More specifically the way that stem cell research has been involved in neuroscience is through the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and brain tumors. In these cases scientists are using neural stem cells to regenerate tissue and to be used as carriers for gene therapy. In general, neuroethics revolves around a cost benefit approach to find techniques and technologies that are most beneficial to patients. There has been progress in certain fields that have been shown to be beneficial when using stem cells to treat certain neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease.\n", "There have been significant developments in stem cell research activity during this period. In 1997, Dr. John Dick, a molecular biologist at the University of Toronto, was the first to discover the existence of cancer stem cells. The Stem Cell Network was established in 2001 with headquarters at the University of Ottawa, and brings together more than 80 leading scientists, clinicians and engineers from Canadian universities and hospitals. Researchers study cellular therapeutics and their pharmacological applications as well as related technologies, public policy, ethical, legal and social issues with the goal of effectively treating cancer, heart and lung disease, macular degeneration, stroke, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, Parkinson's disease, muscle degeneration, hemophilia and type 1 diabetes. It is hoped that research will lead to clinical applications for these afflictions by 2015. Stem cell research is also undertaken at the McEwen Centre for Regenerative Medicine established in 2003 in Toronto as part of the University Health Network in 2003. In 2010, the McMaster University Stem Cell and Cancer Research Institute announced that it had developed a technique for transforming skin cells into multiple blood cell types. This discovery may have applications for the treatment of leukemia, for it is anticipated that a patient with the disease may be able to receive therapeutic blood transfusions derived from his or her own skin cells, thus eliminating problems related to compatibility that are associated with treatment that involves biological material from others.\n", "Stem cells are cells in the body that can divide indefinitely in a culture and can be formulated into specialized cells. In biological research, these cells have become a subject of extensive research. With these cells, scientists will be able to better understand how these cells are differentiated by the process of turning on and off genes. Through this research, scientists will be able to better understand certain diseases such as cancer and how these diseases arise.\n", "The Canadian Stem Cell Foundation is an independent, non-profit organization established in 2008 and situated in Ottawa, Ontario. Stem Cell science is a Canadian innovation through the discovery of stem cells by Drs. James Till and Ernest McCulloch. It is globally known as the leading organization for stem cell research and support in the study of treatments and cures for diseases such as cancer, diabetes, blindness and stroke.\n", "Stem Cell Research is a peer-reviewed open access scientific journals of cell biology. The journal was established in 2007, and is currently published 8 times per year by Elsevier. The current editor-in-chief is Thomas Zwaka (Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai).\n", "As stem cell research continues, scientists will need a database to store and share their information and research. Three key components are necessary for this database to be effective: cell type-specific gene expression profiles, anatomical and developmental relationships between cells and tissues and signals important for development and differentiation of stem cells to mature cell types.\n" ]

[ "It served as the official residence of the Hawaiian monarch until the 1893 overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Therein not only Liliuokalani, but, Queen Kapiolani and other royal retainers were evicted from the palace after the overthrow.\n", "After Kalākaua's death and the accession of Queen Liliʻuokalani, Iaukea was reappointed colonel of the queen's personal military staff, and as agent of the Crown Lands. The monarchy was overthrown on January 17, 1893, by the Committee of Safety, with the support of United States Minister John L. Stevens, and the landing of American forces from the USS \"Boston\". After a brief transition under the Provisional Government, the oligarchical Republic of Hawaii was established on July4, 1894, with Sanford B. Dole as president.\n", "On January 17, 1893, the monarchy was overthrown and Queen Liliʻuokalani was deposed by the Committee of Safety with the covert support of United States Minister John L. Stevens and the landing of American forces from the USS \"Boston\". After a brief transition under the Provisional Government, the oligarchical Republic of Hawaii was established on July 4, 1894, with Sanford B. Dole as president. During this period, the defacto government was composed largely of residents of American and European ancestry, although a few Native Hawaiians including Kūnuiākea served in political roles. He became a member of the Constitutional Convention charged with drafting a new constitution for the Republic and was one of the five Native Hawaiian signatories of the document.\n", "The House of Kamehameha \"(Hale O Kamehameha)\", or the Kamehameha dynasty, was the reigning Royal Family of the Kingdom of Hawaii, beginning with its founding by Kamehameha I in 1795 and ending with the death of Kamehameha V in 1872 and Lunalilo in 1874. The kingdom would continue for another 21 years until its overthrow in 1893 with the fall of the House of Kalakaua.\n", "Following the proroguing of the legislature and the unsuccessful attempts of the queen to promulgate a new constitution, the monarchy was overthrow on January 17, 1893. After a brief transition under the Provisional Government, the oligarchical Republic of Hawaii was established on July 4, 1894. During this period, the de facto government, which was composed largely of residents of American and European ancestry, sought to annex the islands to the United States against the wish of the Native Hawaiians who wanted to remain an independent nation and for the monarchy to continue.\n", "Following the proroguing of the legislature and the unsuccessful attempts of the queen to promulgate a new constitution, the monarchy was overthrown on January 17, 1893. After a brief transition under the Provisional Government, the oligarchical Republic of Hawaii was established on July 4, 1894. During this period, the de facto government, which was composed largely of residents of American and European ancestry, sought to annex the islands to the United States against the wish of the Native Hawaiians who wanted to remain an independent nation and for the monarchy to continue. \n", "On January 17, 1893, Queen Liliuokalani was overthrown and replaced by a provisional government composed of members of the Committee of Safety. The United States Minister to the Kingdom of Hawaii (John L. Stevens) conspired with U.S. citizens to overthrow the monarchy. After the overthrow, Lawyer Sanford B. Dole, a citizen of Hawaii, became President of the Republic when the Provisional Government of Hawaii ended on July 4, 1894. Controversy ensued in the following years as the Queen tried to regain her throne. The administration of President Grover Cleveland commissioned the Blount Report, which concluded that the removal of Liliuokalani had been illegal. The U.S. government first demanded that Queen Liliuokalani be reinstated, but the Provisional Government refused.\n" ]

[ "The pike was a long weapon, varying considerably in size, from long. It was approximately in weight, with sixteenth-century military writer Sir John Smythe recommending lighter rather than heavier pikes. It had a wooden shaft with an iron or steel spearhead affixed. The shaft near the head was often reinforced with metal strips called \"cheeks\" or langets. When the troops of opposing armies both carried the pike, it often grew in a sort of arms race, getting longer in both shaft and head length to give one side's pikemen an edge in combat. The extreme length of such weapons required a strong wood such as well-seasoned ash for the pole, which was tapered towards the point to prevent the pike from sagging on the ends, although drooping or slight flection of the shaft was always a problem in pike handling. It is a common mistake to refer to a bladed polearm as a pike; such weapons are more generally halberds, glaives or voulges.\n", "Pikes live on today only in ceremonial roles, being used to carry the colours of an infantry regiment and with the Company of Pikemen and Musketeers of the Honourable Artillery Company, or by some of the infantry units on duty during their rotation as guard for the President of the Italian Republic at the Quirinale, in Rome.\n", "A pike is a pole weapon, a very long thrusting spear formerly used extensively by infantry. Pikes were used regularly in European warfare from the Late Middle Ages to the early 18th century, and were wielded by foot soldiers deployed in close quarters, until their replacement by the bayonet. The pike found extensive use with Landsknecht armies and Swiss mercenaries, who employed it as their main weapon and used it in pike square formations. A similar weapon, the sarissa, was also used by Alexander the Great's Macedonian phalanx infantry to great effect. Generally, a spear becomes a pike when it is too long to be wielded with one hand in combat.\n", "The pike, being unwieldy, was typically used in a deliberate, defensive manner, often alongside other missile and melee weapons. However, better-trained troops were capable of using the pike in an aggressive attack with each rank of pikemen being trained to hold their pikes so that they presented enemy infantry with four or five layers of spearheads bristling from the front of the formation.\n", "A common end date for the use of the pike in infantry formations is 1700, although such armies as the Prussian and Austrian had already abandoned the pike by that date. Other armies, such as the Swedish and the Russian, continued to use it for several decades afterward (the Swedes of King Charles XII in particular using it to great effect until the 1720s and 1730s). During the American Revolution, pikes called \"trench spears\" made by local blacksmiths saw limited use until enough bayonets could be procured for general use by both Continental Army and attached militia units.\n", "The use of massed pikes by Spanish armies began in the Granada War (1482–92). During the Italian Wars, under the direction of the Spanish general Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, called \"the great captain\", the system of combined groups of pikemen, arquebusiers and swordsmen developed. The conflicts at the end of the 15th century and early 16th century evolved into a tactically unique combination of combined arms centered around armored infantry. To counter the French heavy cavalry, a colonelcy could theoretically have up to 6,000 men, but by 1534 this had been reduced to the tercio with a maximum of 3,000.\n", "Civilian pikeman played a similar role, though outnumbered and outgunned, in the 1798 Rising in Ireland four years later. Here, especially in the Wexford Rebellion and in Dublin, the pike was useful mainly as a weapon by men and women fighting on foot against cavalry armed with guns.\n" ]

[ "With the DVC system, the car’s bodywork moves independently from the wheels and engine. The DVC system automatically adjusts the tilt angle of the vehicle to the speed and acceleration of the vehicle in such a way that it always is in balance. It was designed as a proactive instead of a reactive system, meaning a Carver tilts before cornering, much like when an airplane tilts to one side in order to turn in that direction.\n", "BULLET::::- Reverse (R): This engages reverse gear within the transmission, permitting the vehicle to be driven backward, and operates a switch to turn on the white backup lights for improved visibility (the switch may also activate a beeper on delivery trucks or other large vehicles to audibly warn other drivers and nearby pedestrians of the driver's reverse movement). To select reverse in most transmissions, the driver must come to a complete stop, depress the shift-lock button (or move the shift lever toward the driver in a column shifter, or move the shifter sideways along a notched channel in a console shifter) and select reverse. The driver should avoid engaging reverse while the vehicle is moving forwards, and likewise avoid engaging any forward gear while travelling backwards. On transmissions with a torque converter, doing so at very low speed (walking pace) is not harmful, but causes unnecessary wear on clutches and bands, and a sudden deceleration that not only is uncomfortable, but also uncontrollable since the brakes and the throttle contribute in the same direction. This sudden acceleration, or jerk, can still be felt when engaging the gear at standstill, but the driver normally suppresses this by holding the brakes. Travelling slowly in the right direction while engaging the gear minimizes the jerk further, which is actually beneficial to the wearing parts of the transmission. Electronically controlled transmissions may behave differently, as engaging a gear at speed is essentially undefined behaviour. Some modern transmissions have a safety mechanism that will resist putting the car in reverse when the vehicle is moving forward; such a mechanism may consist of a solenoid-controlled physical barrier on either side of the reverse position, electronically engaged by a switch on the brake pedal, so that the brake pedal needs to be depressed in order to allow the selection of reverse. Some electronic transmissions prevent or delay engagement of reverse gear altogether while the car is moving.\n", "Under M mode, sequential gear shifts can be made by changing the gear to M+ and M-. Under M mode, the gear selected will be displayed as one of M1/M2/M3/M4/M5/M6 on the dashboard. Under M mode, the gear will not change even if the engine RPM reaches redline, which will probably lead to engine damage. However, the user is prevented from excessively up-shifting to a gear that exceeds the maximum revolution possible for the engine, or excessively downshifting to a gear that may lead the engine to stall. When the car is braked to a complete stop, the M1 gear is automatically selected.\n", "The three-point turn (sometimes called a Y-turn, K-turn, or broken U-turn) is the standard method of turning a vehicle around to face the opposite direction in a limited space, using forward and reverse gears. This is typically done when the road is too narrow for a U-turn.\n", "More commonly, reversing is used as an intermediate step, to complete a three point turn, J-turn, parallel park, or similar maneuver. These moves are used with the goal of positioning the vehicle in a specific way under certain space restrictions, that would not be possible to achieve whilst moving forward.\n", "From this false park position, slight movements in the vehicle, vibration, or the build up of hydraulic pressure in the transmission can then cause the vehicle to reengage powered reverse after a delay from a few seconds to longer periods of time (what is called a \"self shift\"). This will cause the vehicle to suddenly and without warning move backwards unexpectedly under engine power.\n", "Newer versions of the system allow parallel or reverse parking. When parallel parking with the system, drivers first pull up alongside the parking space. They move forward until the vehicle's rear bumper passes the rear wheel of the car parked in front of the open space. Then, shifting to reverse automatically activates the backup camera system, and the car's rear view appears on dash navigation/camera display. The driver's selection of the parallel park guidance button on the navigation/camera touchscreen causes a grid to appear (with green or red lines, a flag symbol representing the corner of the parking spot, and adjustment arrows).\n" ]

[ "While a high level of testosterone is often associated with an increase in aggression, this is not a noticeable effect in most trans men. HRT doses of testosterone are much lower than the typical doses taken by steroid-using athletes, and create testosterone levels comparable to those of most cisgender men. These levels of testosterone have not been proven to cause more aggression than comparable levels of estrogen. It is assumed that the effect of the start of physical treatment is such a relief, and decreases pre-existing aggression so much, that the overall level of aggression actually decreases.\n", "Studies of testosterone levels of male athletes before and after a competition revealed that testosterone levels rise shortly before their matches, as if in anticipation of the competition, and are dependent on the outcome of the event: testosterone levels of winners are high relative to those of losers. No specific response of testosterone levels to competition was observed in female athletes, although a mood difference was noted. In addition, some experiments have failed to find a relationship between testosterone levels and aggression in humans.\n", "Recently some studies have been influenced by an evolutionary psychology perspective. This includes studies on testosterone changes in sports which at least for males are similar to those in status conflicts in non-human primates with testosterone levels increasing and decreasing as an individual's status changes. A decreased testosterone level may decrease dominant and competitive behaviors which when the status conflicts involved fighting may have been important for preventing physical injury to the loser as further competition is avoided. Testosterone levels also increase before sports competitions, in particular if the event is perceived as real challenge as compared to not being important. Testosterone may also be involved in the home advantage effect which has similarities to animal defense of their home territory. In some sports there is a marked overrepresentation of left-handedness which has similarities to left-handed likely having an advantage in close combat which may have evolutionary explanations.\n", "Even though hyperandrogenism is not common in men, there have been studies done to look at the effects of high levels of testosterone in males. A study has shown that even though many of the male participants did not have behavior changes due to the increased levels of testosterone, there were cases where the participants had instances of uncharacteristic aggression. High levels of testosterone in males have not been seen to have a direct impact on their personality, but within those studies, there have been cases of sudden aggression within the male participants.\n", "BULLET::::- There is no physiological basis for the belief that having sex in the days leading up to a sporting event or contest is detrimental to performance. In fact it has been suggested that sex prior to sports activity can elevate male testosterone level, which could potentially enhance performance.\n", "Pubertal development also affects circulatory and respiratory systems as an adolescents' heart and lungs increase in both size and capacity. These changes lead to increased strength and tolerance for exercise. Sex differences are apparent as males tend to develop \"larger hearts and lungs, higher systolic blood pressure, a lower resting heart rate, a greater capacity for carrying oxygen to the blood, a greater power for neutralizing the chemical products of muscular exercise, higher blood hemoglobin and more red blood cells\".\n", "According to a study, girls who participate in girls-only activities are far less likely to experience a teenage pregnancy and less likely to be sexually active in general. Participating in competitive sports has also shown to have an effect for girls. A study published in 1999 found that female adolescents who participated in sports were less likely than their non-athletic peers to engage in sexual activity and/or report a pregnancy. Males interested in arts are also less likely to be involved in a pregnancy situation. It is unclear whether these correlations are causal or the reflection of the underlying bias of the considered population. The study that reported these findings did not take into account the sexual orientation of the subjects.\n" ]

[ "Overdose is a method of suicide which involves taking medication in doses greater than the indicated levels, or in a combination that will interact either to cause harmful effects or increase the potency of one or other of the substances.\n", "A drug overdose (or simply overdose or OD) is the ingestion or application of a drug or other substance in quantities greater than are recommended. Typically it is used for cases when a risk to health will potentially result. An overdose may result in a toxic state or death.\n", "The word \"overdose\" implies that there is a common safe dosage and usage for the drug; therefore, the term is commonly only applied to drugs, not poisons, even though some poisons are harmless at a low enough dosage. Drug overdose is caused to commit suicide, the result of intentional or unintentional misuse of medication. Intentional misuse leading to overdose can include using prescribed or unprescribed drugs in excessive quantities in an attempt to produce euphoria.\n", "An overdose produces symptoms similar to alcohol poisoning and is a medical emergency due to the sedative/depressant properties which manifest in overdose as potentially lethal respiratory depression. The oral in rats is 1 g/kg. The subcutaneous LD in mice is 2.1 g/kg.\n", "A large overdose can cause asphyxia and death by respiratory depression if the person does not receive medical attention immediately. Overdose treatment includes the administration of naloxone. The latter completely reverses morphine's effects, but may result in immediate onset of withdrawal in opiate-addicted subjects. Multiple doses may be needed.\n", "Reports of overdose in medical literature are generally from abuse, and often involve other drugs as well. Symptoms include vomiting, excessive sweating, coma, periods of stopped breathing, seizures, agitation, loss of psychomotor skills, and coma. Overdose can lead to death due to respiratory depression. People who overdose may die from asphyxiation from their own vomit. People that have overdosed or suspected of overdosing may need to be made to vomit, be intubated, or/and put on a respirator.\n", "The most common effects of overdose are drowsiness and tachycardia. Rare but potentially critical complications are cardiac arrest, abnormal heart rhythms, severe low blood pressure, seizures, and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Life-threatening overdose is rare, however, as the median lethal dose is about 338 milligrams/kilogram in mice and 425 mg/kg in rats. The potential harm is increased when central nervous system depressants and antidepressants are also used; deliberate overdose often includes alcohol among other drugs.\n" ]

[ "Initially the KKK presented itself as another fraternal organization devoted to betterment of its members. The KKK's revival was inspired in part by the movie \"Birth of a Nation\", which glorified the earlier Klan and dramatized the racist stereotypes concerning blacks of that era. The Klan focused on political mobilization, which allowed it to gain power in states such as Indiana, on a platform that combined racism with anti-immigrant, anti-Semitic, anti-Catholic and anti-union rhetoric, but also supported lynching. It reached its peak of membership and influence about 1925, declining rapidly afterward as opponents mobilized.\n", "In the late 1910s, the Ku Klux Klan was first revived in Atlanta. It gradually expanded into northern and midwestern cities, where anxieties about migration, immigration, and social changes had heightened because of rapid industrialization and movement of peoples. The KKK promoted itself as a fraternal organization, among many that had been started since the late 19th century. In this period, it was primarily opposed to Catholic and Jewish immigrants, but kept some of its racist background. A chapter was started in Orleans. A 1918 photograph shows children at the old Opera House, a number of them dressed in KKK hoods, and others in blackface.\n", "A rapid pace of change across the country, especially in growing cities, combined with new waves of immigration and migration of rural whites and blacks to cities, all contributed to a volatile social environment and the rise of a second Ku Klux Klan (KKK) in the South and Midwest after 1915. In many areas it represented itself as a fraternal group to give aid to a community. Feldman (1999) has shown that the second KKK was not a mere hate group; it showed a genuine desire for political and social reform on behalf of poor whites. For example, Alabama Klansmen such as Hugo Black were among the foremost advocates of better public schools, effective Prohibition enforcement, expanded road construction, and other \"progressive\" measures to benefit poor whites. By 1925, the Klan was a powerful political force in the state, as urban politicians such as J. Thomas Heflin, David Bibb Graves, and Hugo Black manipulated the KKK membership against the power of the \"Big Mule\" industrialists and especially the Black Belt planters who had long dominated the state.\n", "Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is the name of three entirely different organizations (1860s, 1920s, post 1960) that used the same nomenclature and costumes but had no direct connection. The KKK of the 1920s was a purification movement that rallied against crime, especially violation of prohibition, and decried the growing \"influence\" of \"big-city\" Catholics and Jews, many of them immigrants and their descendants from Ireland as well as Southern and Eastern Europe. Its membership was often exaggerated but possibly reached as many as 4 million men, but no prominent national figure claimed membership; no daily newspaper endorsed it, and indeed most actively opposed the Klan. Membership was verily evenly spread across the nation's white Protestants, North, West, and South, urban and rural. Historians in recent years have explored the Klan in depth. The KKK of the 1860s and the current KKK were indeed violent. However, historians discount lurid tales of a murderous group in the 1920s. Some crimes were probably committed in Deep South states but were quite uncommon elsewhere. The local Klans seem to have been poorly organized and were exploited as money-making devices by organizers more than anything else. (Organizers charged a $10 application fee and up to $50 for costumes.) Nonetheless, the KKK had become prominent enough that it staged a huge rally in Washington DC in 1925. Soon afterward, the national headlines reported rape and murder by the KKK leader in Indiana, and the group quickly lost its mystique and nearly all its members.\n", "In an early 20th-century revival, the Ku Klux Klan recruited new members as a fraternal organization, opposing new immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, and becoming influential in rapidly industrializing urban areas in the Midwest and West, as well as in the South. It had numerous members in Pekin and other Illinois cities. It was during this period that leading Klansmen took over ownership of the city newspaper, the \"Pekin Daily Times\"; they used it as an organ of Klan propaganda. They sold off the paper within a few years.\n", "The KKK was a nationwide organization that grew rapidly from 1921 to 1925, then collapsed just as fast. It had millions of members, but the organizational structure was in oriented entirely toward recruiting new members, collecting their initiation fees and selling costumes, so that the actual organizations seldom achieved very much. The Klan signed up millions of white Protestant men on the basis that American society needed a moral purification against the immoral power of the Catholic Church, Jews, organized crime, speakeasies, and local adulterers. Liberal and Catholic elements fought against the Klan primarily inside the Democratic Party, where a motion to repudiated it by name was defeated by one vote at the national convention of 1924. Though members of the KKK swore to uphold American values and Christian morality, and at the local level some Protestant ministers became involved, no Protestant denomination officially endorsed the KKK. Across the country, the Klan had strength in cities, towns and rural areas. Its high visibility made its intended targets of Catholics, Jews and blacks highly uncomfortable, and many local and state elections were bitterly fought around the role of the Klan. Historians in recent decades have totally revised the traditional interpretation of the second KKK as a terrorist group, or based on frustrated marginal elements. Using newly discovered minutes of local chapters they now portray the Klansmen as ordinary Americans, primarily middle class. They were local activists and joiners who thought the nation was seriously threatened by an evil conspiracy. Scholars found the Klan was \"composed of average citizens drawn from the broader middle-class.\" It \"had been not a form of racial and religious terror but rather a means of mainstream political activism.\"\n", "In the mid-1920s, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) reached its peak membership in the South and Midwest after a revival beginning around 1915. Its growth was due in part to tensions from rapid industrialization and social change in many growing cities; in the Midwest and West, its growth was related to the competition of waves of new immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe. The KKK was strong in the Florida cities of Jacksonville and Tampa; Miami's chapter was influential enough to hold initiations at the Miami Country Club. The Klan also flourished in smaller towns of the South where racial violence had a long tradition dating back to the Reconstruction era. An editor of \"The Gainesville Daily Sun\" admitted that he was a member of the Klan in 1922, and praised the organization in print.\n" ]

[ "Some governments, such as those of Burma, Iran, North Korea, the Mainland China, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates restrict access to content on the Internet within their territories, especially to political and religious content, with domain name and keyword filters.\n", "The international channels and associated websites are run by BBC Studios. As a result, not all of them are the same and some channels have less extensive websites than other services. CBeebies channels in Asia, Australia, Poland, South Africa and the USA all have their own international variant.\n", "Governments are also getting online. Some countries, such as those of Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Myanmar, the People's Republic of China, and Saudi Arabia use filtering and censoring software to restrict what people in their countries can access on the Internet. In the United Kingdom, they also use software to locate and arrest various individuals they perceive as a threat. Other countries including the United States, have enacted laws making the possession or distribution of certain material such as child pornography illegal but do not use filtering software. In some countries Internet service providers have agreed to restrict access to sites listed by police.\n", "Websites can have many functions and can be used in various fashions; a website can be a personal website, a corporate website for a company, a government website, an organization website, etc. Websites are typically dedicated to a particular topic or purpose, ranging from entertainment and social networking to providing news and education. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web, while private websites, such as a company's website for its employees, are typically part of an intranet.\n", "Websites can have many functions and can be used in various fashions; a website can be a personal website, a corporate website for a company, a government website, an organization website, etc. Websites are typically dedicated to a particular topic or purpose, ranging from entertainment and social networking to providing news and education. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web, while private websites, such as a company's website for its employees, are typically a part of an intranet.\n", "No longer an international phenomenon, the Internet has become quite different for its users in different countries. One reason for differentiation across nations is that users want information presented in their local language and context. Advertisers likewise want to present information to interested audiences, which tend to be geographically specific (58–63).\n", "The U.S. is the only country that has a government-specific top-level domain in addition to its country-code top-level domain. This is a result of the origins of the Internet as a U.S. federal government-sponsored research network. Other countries typically delegate a second-level domain for this purpose; for example, .gc.ca is the second-level domain for the Government of Canada and all subdomains.\n" ]

[ "Machineguns used in fixed defensive positions sometimes use water cooling to extend barrel life through periods of rapid fire, but the weight of the water and pumping system significantly reduces the portability of water-cooled firearms.\n", "The use of guns using blank cartridges to eject water from the barrel at high velocity was well known as a means of disrupting relatively small and thin-skinned targets with a relatively low probability of causing detonation or ignition. They were, however, easily defeated by the use of more robust cases, such as those made from structural steel tubes. The replacement of the copper liner of conventional shaped charges first by gelled water, then by low melting point salts with high proportions of water of crystallisation and finally with thin-walled plastic containers of water, provided a simple means of generating jets of water of much higher velocity and with correspondingly enhanced penetrating power and disruptive capability than was possible using gun barrel technology. Concomitant experiments demonstrated that, in contrast to metal-lined charges, shaped charges projecting liquids still functioned with their cavities filled rather than just lined with water.\n", "This type of multipurpose machine gun would be further developed, and later given names such as \"universal machine gun\", and later \"general-purpose machine gun\", and would eventually supplant the water-cooled designs. These later designs used quick-change barrel replacement to reduce overheating, which further reduced the weapon's weight, but at the cost of increasing the soldier's load due to the extra barrels. Some earlier designs like the Vickers had this feature, but it was mainly for barrel wear, as they normally used water cooling. It was in the 1920s and 1930s that quick barrel replacement for cooling purposes became more popular in weapons such as the ZB vz. 30, the Bren, the MG34 and the MG42.\n", "Most proposed advances in gun technology are based on the assumption that the solid propellant as a stand-alone propulsion system is no longer capable of delivering the required muzzle energy. This requirement has been underscored by the appearance of the Russian T-90 main battle tank. Even the elongation of current gun tubes, such as the new German 120 mm L/55, which was introduced by Rheinmetall is considered only an interim solution as it does not offer the required increase in muzzle velocity. Even advanced kinetic energy ammunition such as the United States' M-829A3 is considered only an interim solution against future threats. To that extent the solid propellant is considered to have reached the end of its usefulness, although it will remain the principal propulsion method for at least the next decade until newer technologies mature. To improve on the capabilities of a solid propellant weapon the electrothermal-chemical gun may see production as early as 2016.\n", "During the 1980s, the motorized water gun was perhaps at its most prolific. Companies such as Entertech and Larami created water guns modeled after guns popularized in movies such as \"Rambo\". At the heart of these devices was a small motor and crank shaft that converted a rotary motion into a forward-backwards pumping motion to drive a small pump akin to those found in the small spray bottle-type squirt pistols. Stream performance was often not improved, but the motor removed the need to pump, which made the toys popular. The greatest fallbacks was that they wore out batteries quickly and that many trigger action blasters could outdo them, making motorized blasters the lowest class. However, their main strength—and consequent reason for dismissal—was their realistic styling. After some of these realistic-shaped water guns caused accidental shootings by police, stricter rules regarding shapes and coloring of water guns were drafted in the United States.\n", "As the bullet enters the barrel, it inserts itself into the rifling, a process that gradually wears down the barrel, and also causes the barrel to heat up more rapidly. Therefore, some machine guns are equipped with quick-change barrels that can be swapped every few thousand rounds, or in earlier designs, were water-cooled. Unlike older carbon steel barrels, which were limited to around 1,000 shots before the extreme heat caused accuracy to fade, modern stainless steel barrels for target rifles are much more resistant to wear, allowing many thousands of rounds to be fired before accuracy drops. (Many shotguns and small arms have chrome-lined barrels to reduce wear and enhance corrosion resistance. This is rare on rifles designed for extreme accuracy, as the plating process is difficult and liable to reduce the effect of the rifling.) Modern ammunition has a hardened lead core with a softer outer cladding or jacket, typically of an alloy of copper and nickel – cupro-nickel. Some ammunition is even coated with molybdenum disulfide to further reduce internal friction – the so-called 'moly-coated' bullet.\n", "The mechanism of the Maxim gun employed one of the earliest recoil-operated firing systems in history. The idea is that the energy from recoil acting on the breech block is used to eject each spent cartridge and insert the next one, instead of a hand-operated mechanism. Maxim's earliest designs used a 360-degree rotating cam to reverse the movement of the block, but this was later simplified to a toggle lock. This made it vastly more efficient and less labor-intensive than previous rapid-firing guns, such as the Mitrailleuse, Gatling, Gardner, or Nordenfelt, that relied on actual mechanical cranking. The Maxim gun design was provided with water cooling, giving it the ability to maintain its rate of fire for far longer than air-cooled guns. The disadvantage of this was that it made the gun less flexible in attack than the lighter air-cooled weapons, being heavier and more complex, and requiring a supply of water.\n" ]

[ "Quarks are very small things that make up everything we see (matter). There are six different \"flavors\" of quarks: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top. Quarks also have three \"colors\": red, green, and blue. There are also antiquarks, which are the opposite of the regular quarks. In total, there are 18 different types of regular quarks, and 18 different types of antiquarks. Quarks are known as the \"building blocks of matter\" because they are the smallest thing that make up all the matter in the Universe.\n", "Quarks are fermionic particles of spin (\"S\" = ). Because spin projections vary in increments of 1 (that is 1 ħ), a single quark has a spin vector of length , and has two spin projections (\"S\" = + and \"S\" = −). Two quarks can have their spins aligned, in which case the two spin vectors add to make a vector of length \"S\" = 1 and three spin projections (\"S\" = +1, \"S\" = 0, and \"S\" = −1). If two quarks have unaligned spins, the spin vectors add up to make a vector of length \"S\" = 0 and has only one spin projection (\"S\" = 0), etc. Since baryons are made of three quarks, their spin vectors can add to make a vector of length \"S\" = , which has four spin projections (\"S\" = +, \"S\" = +, \"S\" = −, and \"S\" = −), or a vector of length \"S\" =  with two spin projections (\"S\" = +, and \"S\" = −).\n", "is a transformation that simultaneously turns all the up quarks in the universe into down quarks and vice versa. More specifically, these flavour rotations are exact symmetries if \"only\" strong force interactions are looked at, but they are not truly exact symmetries of the universe because the three quarks have different masses and different electroweak interactions.\n", "Quarks are fermions—specifically in this case, particles having spin (\"S\" = ). Because spin projections vary in increments of 1 (that is 1 \"ħ\"), a single quark has a spin vector of length , and has two spin projections (\"S\" = + and \"S\" = −). Two quarks can have their spins aligned, in which case the two spin vectors add to make a vector of length \"S\" = 1 and three spin projections (\"S\" = +1, \"S\" = 0, and \"S\" = −1), called the spin-1 triplet. If two quarks have unaligned spins, the spin vectors add up to make a vector of length S = 0 and only one spin projection (\"S\" = 0), called the spin-0 singlet. Because mesons are made of one quark and one antiquark, they can be found in triplet and singlet spin states.\n", "The Quarks were rectangular, with four arms: one pair which folded into the body, the other pair being retractable. On the end of each arm was a solitary claw. The spherical head was divided into octants; the upper four octants formed the \"sensory hemisphere\", which detected changes in light, heat and motion. At five of the corners of the octants were directional crystal beam transmitters (the sixth corner joined with the robot's extremely short neck). Quarks communicated by means of high-pitched sounds. Their tendency to run out of energy quickly was their primary weakness.\n", "There are six types, known as \"flavors\", of quarks: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top. Up and down quarks have the lowest masses of all quarks. The heavier quarks rapidly change into up and down quarks through a process of particle decay: the transformation from a higher mass state to a lower mass state. Because of this, up and down quarks are generally stable and the most common in the universe, whereas strange, charm, bottom, and top quarks can only be produced in high energy collisions (such as those involving cosmic rays and in particle accelerators). For every quark flavor there is a corresponding type of antiparticle, known as an antiquark, that differs from the quark only in that some of its properties (such as the electric charge) have equal magnitude but opposite sign.\n", "A quark is a type of elementary particle that has mass, electric charge, and colour charge, as well as an additional property called flavour, which describes what type of quark it is (up, down, strange, charm, top, or bottom). Due to an effect known as colour confinement, quarks are never seen on their own. Instead, they form composite particles known as hadrons so that their colour charges cancel out. Hadrons made of one quark and one antiquark are known as mesons, while those made of three quarks are known as baryons. These 'regular' hadrons are well documented and characterized; however, there is nothing in theory to prevent quarks from forming 'exotic' hadrons such as tetraquarks with two quarks and two antiquarks, or pentaquarks with four quarks and one antiquark.\n" ]

[ "In the United States, the U.S. Supreme Court has held blue laws as constitutional numerous times, citing secular bases such as securing a day of rest for mail carriers, as well as protecting workers and families, in turn contributing to societal stability and guaranteeing the free exercise of religion. The origin of the blue laws also partially stems from religion, particularly the prohibition of Sabbath desecration in Christian Churches following the first-day Sabbatarian tradition. Both labour unions and trade associations have historically supported the legislation of blue laws. Most blue laws have been repealed in the United States, although some states ban the sale of alcoholic beverages on Sundays and many states ban selling cars on Sundays.\n", "In the United States, the U.S. Supreme Court has held blue laws as constitutional numerous times, citing secular bases such as securing a day of rest for mail carriers, as well as protecting workers and families, in turn contributing to societal stability and guaranteeing the free exercise of religion. The origin of the blue laws also partially stems from religion, particularly the prohibition of Sabbath desecration in Christian Churches following the first-day Sabbatarian tradition. Both labour unions and trade associations have historically supported the legislation of blue laws. Most blue laws have been repealed in the United States, although Indiana banned the sale of alcoholic beverages on Sundays until the law was repealed on February 28, 2018, and many states ban selling cars on Sundays.\n", "Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence that blue laws were originally printed on blue paper. Rather, the word \"blue\" was used in the 17th century as a disparaging reference to rigid moral codes and those who observed them, particularly in \"blue-stocking\", a reference to Oliver Cromwell's supporters in the parliament of 1653. Moreover, although Reverend Peters claimed that the term \"blue law\" was originally used by Puritan colonists, his work has since been found to be unreliable. In any event, Peters never asserted that the blue laws were originally printed on blue paper, and this has come to be regarded as an example of false etymology, another version of which is that the laws were first bound in books with blue covers.\n", "BULLET::::- A blue law is a type of law, typically found in the United States and Canada, designed to enforce religious standards, particularly the observance of Sunday as a day of worship or rest, and a restriction on Sunday shopping.\n", "Another feature of blue laws in the United States restricts the purchase of particular items on Sundays. Some of these laws restrict the ability to buy cars, groceries, office supplies, and housewares among other things. Though most of these laws have been relaxed or repealed in most states, they are still enforced in some other states.\n", "In the United States, judges have defended blue laws \"in terms of their secular benefit to workers\", holding that \"the laws were essential to social well-being\". Chief Justice Stephen Johnson Field, with regard to Sunday blue laws, stated:\n", "This was one of the four cases decided in 1961 that declared blue laws to be constitutional. The other three were \"Braunfeld v. Brown\", \"Two Guys from Harrison-Allentown, Inc., v. McGinley\" and \"McGowan v. Maryland\"\n" ]

[ "The Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA), or simply the Dow (), is a stock market index that indicates the value of 30 large, publicly owned companies based in the United States, and how they have traded in the stock market during various periods of time.\n", "The NASDAQ is an electronic exchange, where all of the trading is done over a computer network. The process is similar to the New York Stock Exchange. One or more NASDAQ market makers will always provide a bid and ask price at which they will always purchase or sell 'their' stock.\n", "Nasdaq, Inc. is an American multinational financial services corporation that owns and operates (and is listed on) the NASDAQ stock market and eight European Stock Exchanges, including the Armenian Stock Exchange, Copenhagen Stock Exchange, Helsinki Stock Exchange, Iceland Stock Exchange, Riga Stock Exchange, Stockholm Stock Exchange, Tallinn Stock Exchange, and NASDAQ OMX Vilnius. It is headquartered in New York City, and its president and chief executive officer is Adena Friedman. The Swedish investment company Investor AB has been a major shareholder since 2011.\n", "The NASDAQ-100 (^NDX) is a stock market index made up of 103 equity securities issued by 100 of the largest non-financial companies listed on the NASDAQ. It is a modified capitalization-weighted index. The stocks' weights in the index are based on their market capitalizations, with certain rules capping the influence of the largest components. It is based on exchange, and it is not an index of U.S.-based companies. It does not have any financial companies, since these were put in a separate index. Both of those criteria differentiate it from the Dow Jones Industrial Average, and the exclusion of financial companies distinguishes it from the S&P 500.\n", "The NASDAQ Financial-100 is a specialty index operated by NASDAQ that follows stocks in the Financial services index. It was created in 1985 as the sister index to the more widely followed NASDAQ-100. As designed by NASDAQ, this index follows companies that engage in banking, insurance, mortgages, securities trading and real estate. It also has, among its components, exchanges, including NASDAQ itself.\n", "Over the years, the Nasdaq Stock Market became more of a stock market by adding trade and volume reporting and automated trading systems. It was also the first stock market in the United States to trade online, highlighting Nasdaq-traded companies and closing with the declaration that the Nasdaq Stock Market is \"the stock market for the next hundred years\". The Nasdaq Stock Market attracted new growth companies, including Microsoft, Apple, Cisco, Oracle and Dell, and it helped modernize the IPO.\n", "The Nasdaq Stock Market (, also known as Nasdaq) is an American stock exchange. It is the second-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, behind only the New York Stock Exchange located in the same city. The exchange platform is owned by Nasdaq, Inc., which also owns the Nasdaq Nordic (formerly known as OMX) and Nasdaq Baltic stock market network and several U.S. stock and options exchanges.\n" ]

[ "There were so many officers and men suffering from shell shock that 19 British military hospitals were wholly devoted to the treatment of cases. Ten years after the war, 65,000 veterans of the war were still receiving treatment for it in Britain. In France it was possible to visit aged shell shock victims in hospital in 1960.\n", "At first, shell-shock casualties were rapidly evacuated from the front line – in part because of fear of their unpredictable behaviour. As the size of the British Expeditionary Force increased, and manpower became in shorter supply, the number of shell shock cases became a growing problem for the military authorities. At the Battle of the Somme in 1916, as many as 40% of casualties were shell-shocked, resulting in concern about an epidemic of psychiatric casualties, which could not be afforded in either military or financial terms.\n", "In World War I, shell shock was considered a psychiatric illness resulting from injury to the nerves during combat. The horrors of trench warfare meant that about 10% of the fighting soldiers were killed (compared to 4.5% during World War II) and the total proportion of troops who became casualties (killed or wounded) was 56%. Whether a shell-shock sufferer was considered \"wounded\" or \"sick\" depended on the circumstances. When faced with the phenomenon of a minority of soldiers mentally breaking down, there was an expectation that the root of this problem lay in character of the individual soldier, not because of what they experienced on the front lines during the war. These sorts of attitudes helped fuel the main argument that was accepted after the war and going forward that there was a social root to shell shock that consisted of soldiers finding the only way allowed by the military to show weakness and get out of the front, claiming that their mental anguish constituted a legitimate medical diagnosis as a disease. The large proportion of World War I veterans in the European population meant that the symptoms were common to the culture.\n", "By the Battle of Passchendaele in 1917, the British Army had developed methods to reduce shell shock. A man who began to show shell-shock symptoms was best given a few days' rest by his local medical officer. Col. Rogers, Regimental Medical Officer, 4th Battalion Black Watch wrote:\n", "1812 – Napoleonic wars give rise to the military medical practice of triage in an effort to sort wounded soldiers in those to receive medical treatment and return to battle and those whose injuries are non-survivable. Dominique-Jean Larrey, a surgeon in the French emperor’s army, not only conceives of taking care of the wounded on the battlefield, but creates the concept of ambulances, collecting the wounded in horse-drawn wagons and taking them to military hospitals.\n", "Casualties during the Boer War were generally recovered in stages. Battalion doctors located on the battlefields would take the wounded by stretcher to a dressing station for initial treatment. This included the widespread use of field dressings consisting of a sterile gauze pad stitched to the bandage and covered with waterproofing. Each pack contained two dressings and numerous safety pins. Later they would be taken to ambulances or stationary hospitals where the complex recovery by the surgeons could be carried out. However, given the number of casualties in relation to staff, it was often days before a wounded soldier could see a doctor for full treatment, increasing the extent of the infection of the wounds. As a result, primary surgical care was often conducted in ambulances. Many wounds were open fractures and often involved damage to bones. In such cases, the wounds were treated by debridement and the wound packed. The limb would then be immobilised with a splint made of canvas with strips of bamboo sewn in to support it.Plaster of Paris was also used during the Boer War after the bone had been set. The treatment of wounds was greatly enhanced by the invention of X-rays and some 9 machines were taken to South Africa during the campaign. \n", "There is also evidence to suggest that the type of warfare faced by soldiers would affect the probability of shell shock symptoms developing. First hand reports from medical doctors at the time note that rates of such afflictions decreased once the war was mobilized again during the 1918 German offences, following the 1916-1917 period where the highest rates of shell shock can be found. This could suggest that it was trench warfare, and the experience of siege warfare specifically, that led to the development these symptoms.\n" ]

[ "It is a well camouflaged bird, it is usually shy and conceals itself close to ground vegetation and flushes only when approached closely. When flushed, they utter a sharp note that sounds like \"scape, scape\" and fly off in a series of aerial zig-zags to confuse predators. They forage in soft mud, probing or picking up food by sight. They mainly eat insects and earthworms, also some plant material.\n", "The name \"lapwing\" has been variously attributed to the \"lapping\" sound its wings make in flight, from the irregular progress in flight due to its large wings (the Oxford English Dictionary derives this from an Old English word meaning \"to totter\"), or from its habit of drawing potential predators away from its nest by trailing a wing as if broken. The names \"peewit\", \"pewit\", \"tuit\" or \"tew-it\" are onomatopaeic and refer to the bird's characteristic call.\n", "Caiques also exhibit a unique behavior known as \"surfing\", where the bird will vigorously rub its face, wings and chest against any nearby soft item (e.g. carpets, towels, cushions, crumpled paper, curtains or human hair) while using its beak to pull itself along. During this, the bird will display jerky movements and may roll over several times. This behavior is thought to be a cleaning or bathing motion and occurs regardless of age or sex. In the wild, caiques use wet leaves for this behavior.\n", "Little is known of its behaviour, but it has an aerial display, which involves flying high in circles, followed by a dive during which the bird makes a drumming sound, caused by vibrations of its modified outer tail feathers.\n", "This bird has an aerial display, which involves flying high in circles, followed by a powerful stoop during which the bird makes a \"drumming\" sound, caused by vibrations of modified outer tail feathers.\n", "Unlike many other wading birds, black-fronted dotterels retain the same plumage all year round, which makes identification easier. They forage in a series of short running motions, holding the body horizontal, stopping to peck from time to time with a rapid bobbing motion. Their diet consists of mostly insects and other small creatures, supplemented by a few seeds.\n", "This bird has a spectacular aerial display, which involves flying high in circles, followed by a powerful stoop during which the bird makes a drumming sound, caused by vibrations of modified outer tail feathers.\n" ]

[ "Any object whose radius is smaller than its Schwarzschild radius is called a black hole. The surface at the Schwarzschild radius acts as an event horizon in a non-rotating body (a rotating black hole operates slightly differently). Neither light nor particles can escape through this surface from the region inside, hence the name \"black hole\".\n", "If one ignores the electron's angular momentum and charge, as well as the effects of quantum mechanics, one can treat the electron as a black hole and attempt to compute its radius. The Schwarzschild radius of a mass is the radius of the event horizon for a non-rotating, uncharged black hole of that mass. It is given by\n", "The Schwarzschild black hole is characterized by a surrounding spherical boundary, called the event horizon, which is situated at the Schwarzschild radius, often called the radius of a black hole. The boundary is not a physical surface, and if a person fell through the event horizon (before being torn apart by tidal forces), they would not notice any physical surface at that position; it is a mathematical surface which is significant in determining the black hole's properties. Any non-rotating and non-charged mass that is smaller than its Schwarzschild radius forms a black hole. The solution of the Einstein field equations is valid for any mass , so in principle (according to general relativity theory) a Schwarzschild black hole of any mass could exist if conditions became sufficiently favorable to allow for its formation.\n", "The Schwarzschild radius (sometimes historically referred to as the gravitational radius) is a physical parameter that shows up in the Schwarzschild solution to Einstein's field equations, corresponding to the radius defining the event horizon of a Schwarzschild black hole. It is a characteristic radius associated with every quantity of mass. The \"Schwarzschild radius\" was named after the German astronomer Karl Schwarzschild, who calculated this exact solution for the theory of general relativity in 1916.\n", "A black hole in general is surrounded by a surface, called the event horizon and situated at the Schwarzschild radius for a nonrotating black hole, where the escape velocity is equal to the velocity of light. Within this surface, no observer/particle can maintain itself at a constant radius. It is forced to fall inwards, and so this is sometimes called the \"static limit\".\n", "where \"r\" is the Schwarzschild radius and \"M\" is the mass of the Sun. For a black hole with nonzero spin and/or electric charge, the radius is smaller, until an extremal black hole could have an event horizon close to\n", "The surface at the Schwarzschild radius acts as an event horizon in a non-rotating body that fits inside this radius (although a rotating black hole operates slightly differently). The Schwarzschild radius of an object is proportional to its mass. Theoretically, any amount of matter will become a black hole if compressed into a space that fits within its corresponding Schwarzschild radius. For the mass of the Sun this radius is approximately 3 kilometers and for the Earth it is about 9 millimeters. In practice, however, neither the Earth nor the Sun has the necessary mass and therefore the necessary gravitational force, to overcome electron and neutron degeneracy pressure. The minimal mass required for a star to be able to collapse beyond these pressures is the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit, which is approximately three solar masses.\n" ]

[ "The common cold is the most common human disease and affects people all over the globe. Adults typically have two to three infections annually, and children may have six to ten colds a year (and up to twelve colds a year for school children). Rates of symptomatic infections increase in the elderly due to declining immunity.\n", "Well over 200 virus strains are implicated in causing the common cold, with rhinoviruses being the most common. They spread through the air during close contact with infected people or indirectly through contact with objects in the environment, followed by transfer to the mouth or nose. Risk factors include going to child care facilities, not sleeping well, and psychological stress. The symptoms are mostly due to the body's immune response to the infection rather than to tissue destruction by the viruses themselves. In contrast, those affected by influenza can show similar symptoms as people with a cold, but symptoms are usually more severe. Additionally, influenza is less likely to result in a runny nose.\n", "Tens of thousands worldwide were infected as a result of contaminated factor products including more than 10,000 people in the United States, 3,500 British, 1,400 Japanese, 700 Canadians, 250 Irish, and 115 Iraqis.\n", "WHO officials had acknowledged that air travellers \"within two rows of an infected person could be in danger\". However, the virus had also been found to survive for days in the environment, giving rise to the possibility of spread by contact with surfaces including armrests and tray tables.\n", "The common cold is the most frequent infectious disease in humans. The average adult gets two to three colds a year, while the average child may get six to eight. Infections occur more commonly during the winter. These infections have existed throughout human history.\n", "When someone falls ill, people they might have infected are vaccinated. Depending on how easily the disease spreads, contacts who could have been infected might include family, neighbours, and friends. Several layers of contacts may be vaccinated (the contacts, the contacts' contacts, the contact's contacts' contacts, etc.). \n", "The common cold virus is typically transmitted via airborne droplets (aerosols), direct contact with infected nasal secretions, or fomites (contaminated objects). Which of these routes is of primary importance has not been determined. The viruses may survive for prolonged periods in the environment (over 18 hours for rhinoviruses) and can be picked up by people's hands and subsequently carried to their eyes or nose where infection occurs. Transmission is common in daycare and at school due to the proximity of many children with little immunity and frequently poor hygiene. These infections are then brought home to other members of the family. There is no evidence that recirculated air during commercial flight is a method of transmission. People sitting in close proximity appear to be at greater risk of infection.\n" ]

[ "Decomposition speed of organic material depends on the carbon to nitrogen ratio of the material, among other factors. Wood breaks down relatively slowly because it has one of the highest carbon to nitrogen ratios of all organic matter that is used in composting. If the wood is not processed into smaller pieces with larger surface area to speed up chemical reactions, breakdown is even slower. The decomposition process may in the short term take more nitrogen from the soil through microbial activity (nitrogen immobilization), if not enough nitrogen is available. Thus in the short term the fertility of the soil may be decreased before eventually, perhaps after 1-2 years, the nitrogen level is increased past the original level. Traditionally therefore, it is said to be advantageous to balance \"browns\" (e.g. woodchippings) with \"greens\" (e.g. leaves) for efficient composting, and to allow compost to become well-rotted before applying it a bed to prevent competition between soil bacteria and plants for nitrogen, reducing yield.\n", "Some firewood is harvested in \"woodlots\" managed for that purpose, but in heavily wooded areas it is more often harvested as a byproduct of natural forests. Deadfall that has not started to rot is preferred, since it is already partly seasoned. Standing dead timber is considered better still, as it is both seasoned, and has less rot. Harvesting this form of timber reduces the speed and intensity of bushfires. Harvesting timber for firewood is normally carried out by hand with chainsaws. Thus, longer pieces - requiring less manual labor, and less chainsaw fuel - are less expensive and only limited by the size of their firebox. Prices also vary considerably with the distance from wood lots, and quality of the wood.\n", "BULLET::::- Wood burning: When wood is burned, it is usually best to dry it first. Damage from shrinkage is not a problem here, as it may be in the case of drying for woodworking purposes. Moisture affects the burning process, with unburnt hydrocarbons going up the chimney. If a 50% wet log is burnt at high temperature, with good heat extraction from the exhaust gas leading to a 100 °C exhaust temperature, about 5% of the energy of the log is wasted through evaporating and heating the water vapour. With condensers, the efficiency can be further increased; but, for the normal stove, the key to burning wet wood is to burn it very hot, perhaps starting fire with dry wood.\n", "Its dense, wood is resistant to the elements and is used for construction, carpentry, beams for bridges, poles and firewood. The wood is said to be unaffected by insects including termites and it can last more than 20 years unpainted.\n", "When purchasing, cutting, or collecting firewood, it is good to be aware of the difference between hardwood and softwood. Both hardwood and softwood have similar energy contents by mass, but not by volume. In other words, a piece of hardwood would usually be heavier and have more available energy than the same sized piece of softwood. Hardwoods, derived from trees such as oak and ash, may burn at a slower rate, resulting in sustained output. Many softwoods are derived from conifers, which are fast growing and may burn at a faster rate. This is one reason why softwood pellets (for pellet stoves) are popular.\n", "Some firewood is harvested in \"woodlots\" managed for that purpose, but in heavily wooded areas it is more usually harvested as a byproduct of natural forests. Deadfall that has not started to rot is preferred, since it is already partly seasoned. Standing dead timber is considered better still, for it has less humid organic material on the trunk, allowing tools to stay sharper longer, as well as being both seasoned and less rotten. Harvesting this form of timber reduces the speed and intensity of bushfires, but it also reduces habitat for snag-nesting animals such as owls and some rodents.\n", "Many softwoods will season (dry) much more quickly than many hardwoods. For example, pine that has been cut, split, stacked and topcovered will usually be ready to burn in one year; oak may be expected to take three years under the same conditions.\n" ]