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what happens with the intellectual properties of a company when they close down? | It gets sold off/liquidated, like physical assets (to take your example further, Disneylands, corporate headquarters, and other things like that). | [
"After closing a business may be dissolved and have its assets redistributed after filing articles of dissolution. A business that operates multiple locations may continue to operate, but close some of its locations that are under-performing, or in the case of a manufacturer, cease production of some of its products that are not selling well. Some failing companies are purchased by a new owner who may be able to run the company better, and some are merged with another company that will then take over its operations. Some businesses save themselves through bankruptcy or bankruptcy protection, thereby allowing themselves to restructure. There are several consequences towards the owners/shareholders, such as limited liability, the finance and the continuity (if a shareholder does not want to continue in the business).\n",
"“has destroyed the unity that we commonly call property - has divided ownership into nominal ownership and the power formerly joined to it. Thereby the corporation has changed the nature of profit-seeking enterprise.”\n",
"Events such as mergers, acquisitions, insolvency, or the commission of a crime will adversely affect the corporation in its current form. At the end of the corporate lifecycle, a corporation may be \"wound up\" and enter into bankruptcy liquidation. This often arises when the corporation is unable to discharge its debts in a timely manner. Comparatively, a merger or acquisition can often mean the altering or extinguishing of the corporation. In addition to the creation of the corporation, and its financing, these events serve as a transition phase into either dissolution, or some other material shift. \n",
"Due to this act, many small companies on the edge of the market went to bankruptcy. Many other were sold according to decreasing profitability of the business. For example, GE was selling Lake, their consumer-credit division.\n",
"Solutions to the diseconomies of scale for large firms may involve splitting the company into smaller organisations. This can either happen by default when the company is in financial difficulties, sells off its profitable divisions and shuts down the rest; or can happen proactively, if the management is willing.\n",
"The disappearance of the corporation naturally puts an end to prosecution, this even in the case of merger or acquisition. The principle of responsibility for personal actions runs counter to the acquiring entity or person of responsibility for infractions committed by the acquired business (Crim. 14 octobre 2003).\n",
"On March 19, 2012, the company suffered due to not having enough money, went broke and was ultimately put into administrative control. It is in the process of selling IP and assets, most notably the \"Hydrophobia\" series and the Hydroengine.3\n"
] |
why do you see so many saabs and other out of production cars in movies? | Those brands are/were all owned by GM, and GM has made it a point of pride that their vehicles have been showcased in many motion pictures. What you're seeing is product placement coupled with favorable rental rates for fleet vehicles to achieve that effect. | [
"Many of the cars that appear in the 2015 scenes are either modified for the film or concept cars. Examples include Ford Probe, Saab EV-1, Citroën DS 21, Pontiac Banshee Concept, Pontiac Fiero and Volkswagen Beetle. Cars reused from other science fiction films include the \"Star Car\" from \"The Last Starfighter\" (1984) and a \"Spinner\" from \"Blade Runner\" (1982). Griff's car is a modified BMW 633 (which was notably never in the convertible form seen in the film).\n",
"The film was announced in July 2007. Vin Diesel, Paul Walker, and the rest of the cast of the original film all reprised their roles. Filming began in 2008. The movie cars were built in Southern California's San Fernando Valley. Around 240 cars were built for the film. However, the replica vehicles do not match the specifications they were supposed to represent. For example, the replica version of \"F-Bomb\", a 1973 Chevrolet Camaro built by Tom Nelson of NRE and David Freiburger of \"Hot Rod\" magazine, included a 300 hp crate V8 engine with a 3-speed automatic transmission, whereas the actual car included a twin-turbo 1,500 hp engine and a 5-speed transmission.\n",
"The cars used in racing scenes were provided by Andy Hillenburg, who purchased Rockingham Speedway months after its release and provided the stunt drivers, as many ARCA Re/Max Series drivers participated in the filming (ARCA Re/Max Series stickers can be found on the cars in the movie; Hillenberg trained stunt drivers, along with letting some film stars take turns driving). Some cars that can be seen in \"Ta Ra Rum Pum\" display high resemblance to cars specifically created for Will Ferrell's \"\" (except featuring modified sponsorship decals) as Hillenburg provided cars for that movie as well.\n",
"They also built three cars with 'futuristic' appearance, based on Ford Zephyr running gear and aluminium gullwing door bodyshells, for Gerry Anderson and the 1969 film 'Doppelgänger'. These were re-painted and re-used for the much better known UFO TV series of 1970. The cars were infamously unfinished, underpowered and unreliable. Ed Straker’s car was later owned by DJ Dave Lee Travis, who hated it. Little survives of these cars, except for enough remains to build a modern replica.\n",
"Several elements recur in the films series. As the Japanese carmaker Toyota was usually the main sponsor of the film series, most cars, including the villain's cars, the security cars, the police cars, the gang's car, civilian cars parked on the sidewalks, etc. was supplied by the company. Models include the Crown as taxis, Toyota Cressida as police cars, Hiace as security vans and money transports, and so on. There have been exceptions, notably \"Olsenbandens aller siste kupp\" (\"The Olsen-Gangs Very Last Coup\") from 1982, which was sponsored by Datsun. \n",
"Depending on the source, either eleven or twelve cars were built by Cinema Vehicle Services for the film (not including CVS's creation of one additional Eleanor clone - with a Ford 428 - for producer Bruckheimer). Nine were shells, and three were built as fully functional vehicles. Seven were reported to have \"survived the filming [and] made it back to Cinema Vehicle Services\" according to research by Mustangandfords.com.\n",
"CG supervisor Thanh John Nguyen states that they tried to duplicate the look of the cars in the book, which Executive Producer Ken Tsumura describes as bearing the look of the 1940s and 1950s; according to production designer Yarrow Cheney, the filmmakers also partnered with Volkswagen to design the red car that Ted drives, simplifying it a bit and rounding the edges. Cheney also said that prior to this they had based some of the models on Volkswagens due to their suitability.\n"
] |
how does a bike stay up when at faster speeds but will fall over when not going fast enough? | The gyroscopic forces created by the wheels mass cause the wheel to fix itself on a plane in turn overcoming to forces of gravity stopping it just falling over | [
"The rider applies torque to the handlebars in order to turn the front wheel and so to control lean and maintain balance. At high speeds, small steering angles quickly move the ground contact points laterally; at low speeds, larger steering angles are required to achieve the same results in the same amount of time. Because of this, it is usually easier to maintain balance at high speeds. As self-stability typically occurs at speeds above a certain threshold, going faster increases the chances that a bike is contributing to its own stability.\n",
"Although longitudinally stable when stationary, bikes often have a high enough center of mass and a short enough wheelbase to lift a wheel off the ground under sufficient acceleration or deceleration. When braking, depending on the location of the combined center of mass of the bike and rider with respect to the point where the front wheel contacts the ground, bikes can either skid the front wheel or flip the bike and rider over the front wheel. A similar situation is possible while accelerating, but with respect to the rear wheel.\n",
"At low forward speeds, the precession of the front wheel is too quick, contributing to an uncontrolled bike’s tendency to oversteer, start to lean the other way and eventually oscillate and fall over. At high forward speeds, the precession is usually too slow, contributing to an uncontrolled bike’s tendency to understeer and eventually fall over without ever having reached the upright position. This instability is very slow, on the order of seconds, and is easy for most riders to counteract. Thus a fast bike may feel stable even though it is actually not self-stable and would fall over if it were uncontrolled.\n",
"For most bikes, depending on geometry and mass distribution, capsize is stable at low speeds, and becomes less stable as speed increases until it is no longer stable. However, on many bikes, tire interaction with the pavement is sufficient to prevent capsize from becoming unstable at high speeds.\n",
"However, neither of these solutions are ideal as they hinder the suspension's ability to absorb small bumps or low-speed impacts while the bicycle is coasting (Note: \"low-speed\" does not refer to the velocity at which the vehicle is traveling, but the speed at which the suspension is compressed). In the case of excessive compression damping, this problem is known as overdamping.\n",
"Bikes, as complex mechanisms, have a variety of modes: fundamental ways that they can move. These modes can be stable or unstable, depending on the bike parameters and its forward speed. In this context, \"stable\" means that an uncontrolled bike will continue rolling forward without falling over as long as forward speed is maintained. Conversely, \"unstable\" means that an uncontrolled bike will eventually fall over, even if forward speed is maintained. The modes can be differentiated by the speed at which they switch stability and the relative phases of leaning and steering as the bike experiences that mode. Any bike motion consists of a combination of various amounts of the possible modes, and there are three main modes that a bike can experience: capsize, weave, and wobble. A lesser known mode is rear wobble, and it is usually stable.\n",
"A cyclist executing a basic track stand holds the bicycle's cranks in a horizontal position, with his or her dominant foot forward. Track stands executed on bicycles with a freewheel usually employ a small uphill section of ground. The uphill needs to be sufficient to allow the rider to create backward motion by relaxing pressure on the pedals, thus allowing the bike to roll backwards. Once the track stand is mastered, even a very tiny uphill section is sufficient: e.g. the camber of the road, a raised road marking, and so on. Where no such uphill exists, or even if the gradient is downhill, a track stand can be achieved on a freewheeling bicycle by using a brake to initiate a backwards movement. If a fixed-gear bicycle is being used, an uphill slope is not needed since the rider is able to simply back pedal to move backwards. In both cases forward motion is accomplished by pedalling forwards. The handlebars are held at approximately a 45 degree angle, converting the bike's forward and back motion into side-to-side motion beneath the rider's body. This allows the rider to keep the bike directly below their center of gravity.\n"
] |
what is infrasound and how can it cause panic attacks in humans? | Human hearing works for tones in the frequency range of 20hz-20000hz. Everything below that is called infrasound, everything above is called ultrasound.
The resonant frequencies of a lot of human organs happen to be in the infrasound range, so a loud/powerful enough tone can cause them to vibrate strongly, resulting in discomfort and nausea. | [
"Cyclospora is a gastrointestinal pathogen that causes fever, diarrhea, vomiting, and severe weight loss. Outbreaks of the disease occurred in Chicago in 1989 and other areas in the United States. But investigation by the Center for Disease Control could not identify an infectious cause. The discovery of the cause was made by Mr. Ramachandran Rajah, the head of a medical clinic's laboratory in Kathmandu, Nepal. Mr. Rajah was trying to discover why local residents and visitors were becoming ill every summer. He identified an unusual looking organism in stool samples from patients who were sick. But when the clinic sent slides of the organism to the Center for Disease Control, it was identified as blue-green algae, which is harmless. Many pathologists had seen the same thing before, but dismissed it as irrelevant to the patient's disease. Later, the organism would be identified as a special kind of parasite, and treatment would be developed to help patients with the infection. In the United States, Cyclospora infection must be reported to the Center for Disease Control according to the CDC's Reportable Disease Chart\n",
"Infrasound is sound at frequencies lower than the low frequency end of human hearing threshold at 20 Hz. It is known, however, that humans can perceive sounds below this frequency at very high pressure levels. Infrasound can come from many natural as well as man-made sources, including weather patterns, topographic features, ocean wave activity, thunderstorms, geomagnetic storms, earthquakes, jet streams, mountain ranges, and rocket launchings. Infrasounds are also present in the vocalizations of some animals. Low frequency sounds can travel for long distances with very little attenuation and can be detected hundreds of miles away from their sources.\n",
"An ecchymosis is a subcutaneous spot of bleeding with diameter larger than . It is similar to (and sometimes indistinguishable from) a hematoma, commonly called a bruise, though the terms are not interchangeable in careful usage. Specifically, bruises are caused by trauma whereas ecchymoses, which are the same as the spots of purpura except larger, are not \"necessarily\" caused by trauma, often being caused by pathophysiologic cell function, and some diseases such as Marburg virus disease.\n",
"Mobilida is a group of parasitic or symbiotic peritrich ciliates, comprising more than 280 species. Mobilids live on or within a wide variety of aquatic organisms, including fish, amphibians, molluscs, cnidarians, flatworms and other ciliates, attaching to their host organism by means of an aboral adhesive disk. Some mobilid species are pathogens of wild or farmed fish, causing severe and economically damaging diseases such as trichodinosis.\n",
"Latrodectism is the illness caused by the bite of \"Latrodectus\" spiders (the black widow spider and related species). Pain, muscle rigidity, vomiting, and sweating are the symptoms of latrodectism. Contrary to popular conception, latrodectism is very rarely fatal for humans, though domestic cats have been known to die due to convulsions and paralysis.\n",
"Hurler syndrome, also known as mucopolysaccharidosis Type IH (MPS-IH), Hurler's disease, and formerly gargoylism, is a genetic disorder that results in the buildup of large sugar molecules called glycosaminoglycans (AKA GAGs, or mucopolysaccharides) in lysosomes. The inability to break down these molecules results in a wide variety of symptoms caused by damage to several different organ systems, including but not limited to the nervous system, skeletal system, eyes, and heart.\n",
"Surra (from the Marathi \"sūra\", meaning the sound of heavy breathing through nostrils, of imitative origin) is a disease of vertebrate animals. The disease is caused by protozoan trypanosomes, specifically \"Trypanosoma evansi\", of several species which infect the blood of the vertebrate host, causing fever, weakness, and lethargy which lead to weight loss and anemia. In some animals the disease is fatal unless treated.\n"
] |
what would happen to a person when they cannot afford payment to a loan/debt. | They default on a loan which means they can't pay it back, they may have to declare bankruptcy. Their credit gets ruined and for most loans the credit bereau is told to basically just forget about the loan and take the loss. This is worst case
If you just miss a payment on a loan then you get a ding to your credit for non-payment however a single non-payment from a late payment won't be too damaging and can even potentially removed from your credit history in some circumstances.
In general, credit bereaus will try to work with people to have lower payments that they can afford because they would rather have a loan take longer to be repaid than to take the loss. | [
"Unless he cancels the contract, or obtains an order compelling the creditor to accept his performance, it is not clear how the debtor can discharge his debt without having to wait until the period of prescription has run, or until performance has become impossible. Consignation (payment into court with notice to the creditor) appears to have fallen into desuetude, and is in any event impossible or impracticable in many cases (as in the case where perishables are to be delivered). Whether the debtor may sell the goods for the account of the creditor is also uncertain.\n",
"Failure to make a payment on an unsecured debt may ultimately result in reporting the delinquent debt to a credit reporting agency or legal action. However, a nongovernmental unsecured creditor cannot seize any of your assets without a court judgment in the U.S.\n",
"From the borrower's perspective, this means failure to make their regular payment for one or two payment periods or failure to pay taxes or insurance premiums for the loan collateral will lead to substantially higher interest for the entire remaining term of the loan.\n",
"It is not a crime to fail to pay a debt. Except in certain bankruptcy situations, debtors can choose to pay debts in any priority they choose. But if one fails to pay a debt, they have broken a contract or agreement between them and a creditor. Generally, most oral and written agreements for the repayment of consumer debt - debts for personal, family or household purposes secured primarily by a person's residence - are enforceable.\n",
"If the debt was secured by specific collateral, such as a car or home, the creditor may seek to repossess the collateral. In more serious circumstances, individuals and companies may go into bankruptcy.\n",
"If you’ve borrowed money and your lender cancels/terminates or forgives the outstanding loan balance owed to you at a later stage, then you, as per the Internal Revenue Service will be liable to file an income tax return on the forgiven debt amount with respect to the corresponding situations. At the time of loan origination, the loan money that you received weren’t considered as an income because you made an agreement to pay back the borrowed sum to the lender, i.e., it was your obligation to repay the loan amount as per the signed contract’s terms and conditions. \n",
"As noted by Sachs J in \"Coetzee\", the small debtor without means will no longer be faced with imprisonment, from which he can only be rescued by family or friends. Further, creditors will no longer be able to extend credit on the basis that the debt can be exacted through fear of imprisonment. Credit should be extended only to those who are creditworthy, and to those who provide proper security.\n"
] |
how can a tiny amount of toxic chemical affect a person's entire body? | Let's do some math. Methanol is lethal at a dose of 1-2 mL/kg. So for an 80kg person, say 2mL/kg dose to be on the safe side (or dangerous, as it were) and that gives a dose of 160mL or 5.4 oz. This dose contains 2.38 x 10^24 molecules of methanol. If you have millions of cells, that's still on the order of 10^18 molecules per cell or billions of billions.
EDIT: There are roughly 3.72 trillion (human) cells in the body, so that bumps it down from billions of billions to only trillions of molecules per cell. | [
"Most toxic substances exert their toxicity through some interaction (e.g., covalent bonding, oxidation) with cellular macromolecules like proteins or DNA. This interaction leads to changes in the normal cellular biochemistry and physiology and downstream toxic effects.\n",
"Most toxicants are known to affect only a fraction of exposed population. This is due to the differences in the genetic makeup of the organisms which affects toxicant metabolism and clearance from the body. Effect of developmental toxicants depends on the genetic makeup of the mother and fetus.\n",
"The types of toxicities where substances may cause lethality to the entire body, lethality to specific organs, major/minor damage, or cause cancer. These are globally accepted definitions of what toxicity is. Anything falling outside of the definition cannot be classified as that type of toxicant.\n",
"Toxicity of a substance can be affected by many different factors, such as the pathway of administration (whether the toxicant is applied to the skin, ingested, inhaled, injected), the time of exposure (a brief encounter or long term), the number of exposures (a single dose or multiple doses over time), the physical form of the toxicant (solid, liquid, gas), the genetic makeup of an individual, an individual's overall health, and many others. Several of the terms used to describe these factors have been included here.\n",
"BULLET::::- Physical toxicants are substances that, due to their physical nature, interfere with biological processes. Examples include coal dust, asbestos fibers or finely divided silicon dioxide, all of which can ultimately be fatal if inhaled. Corrosive chemicals possess physical toxicity because they destroy tissues, but they're not directly poisonous unless they interfere directly with biological activity. Water can act as a physical toxicant if taken in extremely high doses because the concentration of vital ions decreases dramatically if there's too much water in the body. Asphyxiant gases can be considered physical toxicants because they act by displacing oxygen in the environment but they are inert, not chemically toxic gases.\n",
"Toxicants that at low concentrations modify or inhibit some biological process by binding at a specific site or molecule have a specific acting mode of toxic action. However, at high enough concentrations, toxicants with specific acting modes of toxic actions can produce narcosis that may or may not be reversible. Nevertheless, the specific action of the toxicant is always shown first because it requires lower concentrations.\n",
"Certain drugs are toxic in their own right in therapeutic doses because of their mechanism of action. Alkylating antineoplastic agents, for example, cause DNA damage, which is more harmful to cancer cells than regular cells. However, alkylation causes severe side-effects and is actually carcinogenic in its own right, with potential to lead to the development of secondary tumors. In a similar manner, arsenic-based medications like melarsoprol, used to treat trypanosomiasis, can cause arsenic poisoning.\n"
] |
why the rear wheel in buses and trucks is close to centre? | It's to increase manouverability. The further back the rear wheels are, the longer the wheelbase of the vehicle is, and therefore the wider any turns it will make will be.
If you move the rear wheels towards the front of the bus, then the bus can swing into tighter turns. The tradeoff is the back end of the bus can swing out now, whereas if the wheels are at the back, that can't happen. | [
"They are also used in railways and low floor buses although, in the case of buses, the device is engineered in the opposite way to those fitted to off-road vehicles - the axle is below the center of the wheel. Thus, the inverted portal axle allows the floor of the bus to be lowered, easing access to the bus and increasing the available cabin height.\n",
"In automotive design, an RR, or rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout places both the engine and drive wheels at the rear of the vehicle. In contrast to the RMR layout, the center of mass of the engine is between the rear axle and the rear bumper. Although very common in transit buses and coaches due to the elimination of the drive shaft with low-floor bus, this layout has become increasingly rare in passenger cars.\n",
"The guide-wheel, which protrudes just ahead of the front wheels, is the most important part of the bus when travelling on the O-Bahn. It is connected directly to the steering mechanism, and steers the bus by running along the raised edge of the track. While it is not strictly necessary for drivers to hold the steering wheel when travelling on the O-Bahn because of the guide-wheel, safety procedures require the driver to be alert to their circumstances at all times. A rumble strip before stations is a reminder that they need to resume control. The guide-wheel is the most delicate part of the system and is designed to snap off upon sharp impact; before the O-Bahn was in place, a number of buses were fitted with guide-wheels for their ordinary routes to test their durability. Drivers were forced to be more cautious on their normal trips after numerous guide-wheel-to-curb impacts.\n",
"In some buses the rearmost axle is connected to the steering, with the rear most set steering in the opposite direction to the front axle. This steering arrangement makes it possible for the longer triple axle buses to negotiate corners with greater ease than would otherwise be the case.\n",
"From 1982 to 1999, the MallRide fleet used front-wheel-drive and right-hand-drive buses that were custom-designed and purpose-built. The right-hand-drive gives the operators better view of passengers entering and exiting the buses from the right-hand side and to watch out for the pedestrians. These buses can travel up to on the street and must deal with the 'wandering' pedestrians on the sidewalks who get too close to the buses.\n",
"Thanks to the high floor in the rear of the vehicle, the engine and gearbox are placed in the centre for the third axle. It works with the SCR technology using AdBlue. All axles are from ZF. Due to the use of larger wheel size 295/70 tires the bus has an extended wheel arch. Behind the front axle there is a storage possibly for snow chains. Two illuminated steps provide access to the higher floor level at the rear. All seats are located on the raised floor and are equipped with safety belts, while those located on the side of the stairs have additional armrests and handles. Above the seats in the low floor part of the bus there are shelves for luggage on the ceiling. The higher door has wheelchair access. Optionally, in place of the wheelchair bay the space can be transformed for four additional passenger seats. The ventilation of the interior of the bus has side windows and two electric sunroofs. Instead of tilting windows there can be installed an air conditioning system. There are several versions of the cab: open (open door), semi-closed (with glass door) and closed (fully built cabin). Doors used in Solaris Urbino 15 LE all open to the outside.\n",
"Gölsdorf axles work in this way. Two of the five axles cannot move sideways relative to the frame because their axle boxes fix them rigidly to the frame. The other axles, however, are fitted into their bearings and attached to their drives in such a way that they can be moved sideways during curve running, depending on the sideways forces acting on them. In addition the connecting and coupling rods, through which the steam pressure and linear forces from the steam pistons are translated into the rotation of the wheels via the crank pins, also have to be able to move sideways.\n"
] |
how do first responders or hospital personnel know who to contact if you have had an accident and are unconscious? | I believe this generally sorted out only after you get to the hospital. | [
"Situation awareness for first responders in medical situations also includes evaluating and understanding what happened to avoid injury of responders and also to provide information to other rescue agencies which may need to know what the situation is via radio prior to their arrival on the scene.\n",
"When an unconscious person enters a hospital, the hospital utilizes a series of diagnostic steps to identify the cause of unconsciousness. According to Young, the following steps should be taken when dealing with a patient possibly in a coma:\n",
"To illustrate, a call is received in the dispatch center about a possibly unconscious person. The call taker will immediately identify the call location, and will then ask further questions, in order to assess precipitating symptoms, specific location, and any special circumstances (no house number, a neighbor is calling, etc.). While this interview is occurring, the call taker will enter the command \"Bewusstlose Person\" (unconscious person) into the dispatch computer, resulting in an automatic suggestion to dispatch of a RTW (emergency ambulance) or NKTW and a NEF (emergency physician car). Upon entering the address of the patient, the computer will look for the emergency vehicles closest to this address. Now the dispatcher can send the whole package over the air and those two vehicles are alarmed, similar to Computer-assisted dispatch (CAD) in the United States. Whilst the vehicles are being alarmed by the dispatcher, the call taker may remain on the line with the caller, providing telephone advice or assistance until the EMS resources arrive on the scene. While still on the line with the caller the dispatcher is able to guide the ambulance to the scene and provide the crew with additional and more precise information about the incident. This, of course, happens without any notice of the caller and will help to get the EMS resources on scene more quickly.\n",
"To illustrate, a call is received in the dispatch center about a possibly unconscious person. The dispatcher will immediately identify the call location, and will then ask further questions, in order to assess precipitating symptoms, specific location, and any special circumstances (no house number, a neighbor is calling, etc.). While this interview is occurring, the dispatcher will enter the command \"Bewußtlosigkeit\" (unconsciousness) into the dispatch computer, resulting in an automatic suggestion to dispatch of a \"Rettungswagen\" (emergency ambulance) and a \"Notarzteinsatzfahrzeug\" (Doctor's Car). Upon entering the address of the patient, the computer will look for the emergency vehicles closest to this address. Now the dispatcher can send the whole package over the air and those two vehicles are alarmed, similar to Computer-assisted dispatch (CAD) in the United States. After sending the alarm, the dispatcher may remain on the line with the caller, providing telephone advice or assistance until the EMS resources arrive on the scene.\n",
"Certain emergency medical services urge patients to record information describing their medical conditions, medications and drug allergies, emergency contacts, as well as advance healthcare directives for when the patients are incapacitated or suffer from dementia or learning difficulties, and place the record as a special \"message in a bottle\" stored in (conventionally) a refrigerator, where paramedics can quickly locate it.\n",
"In general, first responders are sent to immediately life-threatening situations such as cardiac arrest. Some ambulance services restrict the type of calls which responders can attend, either through blanket prohibition or by more detailed call screening by the emergency dispatch centre. This is because responders do not necessarily have the levels of training or equipment available to full-time staff, and may arrive on their own, increasing risks. Types of call which responders may not be asked to attend (or be stood down if already en route) include drugs related problems, domestic violence and abusive patients as well as dangerous scenes such as traffic collisions or building sites. In some areas, responders are also not dispatched to paediatric cases, although other areas have this as a main part of their role.\n",
"Within hospitals, the EWS is used as part of a \"track-and-trigger\" system whereby an increasing score produces an escalated response varying from increasing the frequency of patient's observations (for a low score) up to urgent review by a rapid response or Medical Emergency Team (MET call). Concerns by nursing staff may also be used to trigger such call, as concerns may precede changes in vital signs.\n"
] |
what ever happened to the sequestration? | The simple answer is it happened and almost nothing has come of it. The people that said the sky would fall were wrong, and the people who said it would fix our deficit were wrong. That's it.
Sequestration is the exact prime example of why you cannot just listen to the news and "experts" to determine what is going on. People lie and exaggerate to get more attention. | [
"The budget sequestration in 2013 refers to the automatic spending cuts to United States federal government spending in particular categories of outlays that were initially set to begin on January 1, 2013, as a fiscal policy as a result of Budget Control Act of 2011 (BCA), and were postponed by two months by the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 until March 1 when this law went into effect.\n",
"The term \"budget sequestration\" was first used to describe a section of Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Deficit Reduction Act of 1985 (GRHDRA). The hard caps were abandoned and replaced with a PAYGO system by the Budget Enforcement Act of 1990, which was in effect until 2002. Sequestration was later included as part of the Budget Control Act of 2011, which resolved the debt-ceiling crisis; the bill set up a Congressional debt-reduction committee and included the sequestration as a disincentive to be activated only if Congress did not pass deficit reduction legislation. However, the committee did not come to agreement on any plan, activating the sequestration plan. The sequestration was to come into force on January 1, 2013 and was considered part of the fiscal cliff, but the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 delayed it until March 1 of that year.\n",
"The sequestration became a major topic of the fiscal cliff debate. The debate's resolution, the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 (ATRA), eliminated much of the tax side of the dispute but only delayed the budget sequestrations for two months, thus reducing the original $110 billion to be saved per fiscal year to $85 billion in 2013.\n",
"In 2011, sequestration was used in the Budget Control Act of 2011 (Pub. L. 112-25) as a tool in federal budget control. This 2011 act authorized an increase in the debt ceiling in exchange for $2.4 trillion in deficit reduction over the following ten years. This total included $1.2 trillion in spending cuts identified specifically in the legislation, with an additional $1.2 trillion in cuts that were to be determined by a bipartisan group of Senators and Representatives known as the \"Super Committee\" or officially as the United States Congress Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction. The Super Committee failed to reach an agreement. In that event, a trigger mechanism in the bill was activated to implement across-the-board reductions in the rate of increase in spending known as \"sequestration\".\n",
"Budget sequestration was first authorized by the Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985 (BBEDCA, Title II of Pub. L. 99-177). This is known as the Gramm–Rudman–Hollings Act. They provided for automatic spending cuts (called \"sequesters\") if the deficit exceeded a set of fixed deficit targets. The process for determining the amount of the automatic cuts was found unconstitutional in the case of \"Bowsher v. Synar,\" and Congress enacted a reworked version of the law in 1987. Gramm-Rudman failed, however, to prevent large budget deficits. The Budget Enforcement Act of 1990 supplanted the fixed deficit targets.\n",
"On February 22, 2013, shortly before the United States federal budget sequester took effect, \"The Washington Post\" published a column by Woodward in which he criticized the Obama administration for their statements in 2012 and 2013 that the sequester had been proposed by Republicans in Congress; Woodward said his research showed that the sequester proposal had originated with the White House. Press Secretary Jay Carney confirmed, \"The sequester was something that was discussed, and as has been reported, it was an idea that the White House put forward.\"\n",
"Budget sequestration is a procedure in United States law that limits the size of the federal budget. Sequestration involves setting a hard cap on the amount of government spending within broadly defined categories; if Congress enacts annual appropriations legislation that exceeds these caps, an across-the-board spending cut is automatically imposed on these categories, affecting all departments and programs by an equal percentage. The amount exceeding the budget limit is held back by the Treasury and not transferred to the agencies specified in the appropriation bills. The word sequestration was derived from a legal term referring to the seizing of property by an agent of the court, to prevent destruction or harm, while any dispute over said property is resolved in court.\n"
] |
What effect does machine generated wind (i.e. a fan) have on sound waves? | Sound travels at a speed relative to the medium it's in (the air). For example, in the cockpit of a fighter jet, no matter how fast you're going, sound will always travel away from you when you speak at about 340m/s (depending on air temperature/pressure etc) because the air is moving with the jet, but the sound that the jet creates from its engines and emits out into the atmosphere can only travel at about 340m/s relative to the stationary air the jet is flying through, and so the plane zooms passed the sound as soon as its emitted. So all the sound piles up and makes a shock wave and a sonic boom, but that's a different story.
So when you have sound travelling through air that's being blown by your fan, it will be travelling a little bit faster/slower relative to the room (depending on which direction the fan was pointing) than if the fan was turned off.
However, the speed of sound is huge compared to the speed of the air blown by your fan, so the difference is pretty much negligible. | [
"The wind machine (also called aeoliphone) is a friction idiophone, which is a class of instrument which produces sound through vibrations within the instrument itself. It is a specialist musical instrument used to produce the sound of wind in orchestral compositions and musical theater productions.\n",
"The wind machine is played by rotating the crank handle, which is attached to the cylinder, to create friction between the wooden slats and the material covering that touches the cylinder but does not rotate as the crank handle is turned. This friction between the wood and the material covering creates the sound of rushing wind. The volume and pitch of the sound is controlled by the rate at which the crank is turned. The faster the handle is turned, the higher the resulting pitch and the louder the sound. The slower the handle is turned, the lower the pitch and the softer the volume. The sound of the wind machine can also be controlled by the tightness of the fabric covering the cylinder.\n",
"The wind can also be created by using pressurized steam instead of air. The steam organ, or calliope, was invented in the United States in the 19th century. Calliopes usually have very loud and clean sound. Calliopes are used as outdoors instruments, and many have been built on wheeled platforms.\n",
"The wind machine is constructed of a large cylinder made up of several wooden slats which measures approximately 75–80 centimeters in diameter. The cylinder body of the instrument rests upon a stand and is typically covered with silk, canvas, or other material which is in a fixed position. A crank handle, used by the player to rotate the cylinder and create the sound, is attached to the cylinder.\n",
"Just like in the case of the standing-wave system, the machine \"spontaneously\" produces sound if the temperature \"T\" is high enough. The resulting pressure oscillations can be used in a variety of ways, such as in producing electricity, cooling, and heat pumping.\n",
"In musical terms, they are often described as sounding hollow, and are therefore used as the basis for wind instrument sounds created using subtractive synthesis. Additionally, the distortion effect used on electric guitars clips the outermost regions of the waveform, causing it to increasingly resemble a square wave as more distortion is applied.\n",
"Fans generate noise from the rapid flow of air around blades and obstacles causing vortexes, and from the motor. Fan noise has been found to be roughly proportional to the fifth power of fan speed; halving speed reduces noise by about 15 dB.\n"
] |
why does 101 mean the basics of something rather than just 1 or 001? | In a college curriculum, courses are numbered to indicate both the level (100-level courses are more basic than 200-level courses) and, frequently but not always, the sequence of courses (you have to take Biology 101 before you can take Biology 102).
A course with a number of 101 is typically the first introductory-level course offered in a discipline.
Why isn't it 100, though? Well, first, it's the sequency. If you have to take 101 before 102, it's easier to understand and remember that 10***1*** is *1st* and 10***2*** is **2nd** that it would be to remember that 100 is 1st and 101 is 2nd.
Also, at some institutions, the number 100 is reserved for remedial courses. So as a typical first-year student at a US university, you would be likely to take English 101 in the fall and English 102 in the spring ... but that assumes that you have the basic skills in reading and writing from high school. If testing shows that you aren't quite ready for the college-level English courses, you might have to take an English 100 class to brush up those skills before moving on to 101 and 102. That's only at some institutions, though, and not as consistent as the 101, 102 style numbering. | [
"BULLET::::- 101: (pronounced 'one o one') used to indicate basic knowledge; e.g., \"Didn't you learn to sweep the floor in housework 101?\" (from the numbering scheme of educational courses where 101 would be the first course in a sequence on the subject).\n",
"It is variously pronounced \"one hundred and one\" / \"a hundred and one\", \"one hundred one\" / \"a hundred one\", and \"one oh one\". As an ordinal number, 101st (one hundred [and] first), rather than 101th, is the correct form.\n",
"A similar concept can be seen in many of the \"[topic] For Dummies\" series of tutorials and also in many other introductory surveys entitled with the suffix \"101\" (based on academic numberings of entry-level courses).\n",
"Instead of meaning 5:30, the \"half five\" expression is sometimes used to mean 4:30, or \"half-way to five\", especially for regions such as the American Midwest and other areas that have been particularly influenced by German culture. This meaning follows the pattern choices of many Germanic and Slavic languages, including Croatian, Dutch, Danish, Russian and Swedish, as well as Hungarian and Finnish.\n",
"10101 DO 101 I = 1, 101 because the zero in column 6 is treated as if it were a space (!), while 101010DO101I=1.101 was instead 10101 DO101I = 1.101, the assignment of 1.101 to a variable called DO101I. Note the slight visual difference between a comma and a period.\n",
"Thus, the quotient of 11011 divided by 101 is 101, as shown on the top line, while the remainder, shown on the bottom line, is 10. In decimal, this corresponds to the fact that 27 divided by 5 is 5, with a remainder of 2.\n",
"The model name CDP-101 was chosen by Nobuyuki Idei, who headed Sony's Audio Division. \"101\" represents the number 5 in binary notation and was chosen because Idei considered the model to be of \"medium class\".\n"
] |
I've read that in the 1800's, US military officers were drawn from the upper class. If so, was it possible that a lower class citizen could perform well in school, go to college and be commissioned regardless of his prior social status? | Yes, it was possible. The prototypical example would be Andrew Jackson, the son of recent Irish immigrants (his older siblings were actually born in Ireland - that's how recent his parents had immigrated before his birth). Jackson rose to the rank of Major General in the Army and, of course, eventually reached the highest office in the land in 1828 (inaugurated 1829). | [
"BULLET::::- Officers who had fought in the Army, Navy, or Marine Corps of the United States in the suppression of the Rebellion, or enlisted men who had so served and were subsequently commissioned in the regular forces of the United States, constituted the \"Original Companions of the First Class.\" The eldest direct male lineal descendants of deceased Original Companions or deceased eligible officers could be admitted as \"hereditary Companions of the First Class.\"\n",
"Only a small proportion of officers were from the nobility; in 1809, only 140 officers were peers or peers' sons. A large proportion of officers came from the Militia, and a small number had been gentlemen volunteers, who trained and fought as private soldiers but messed with the officers and remained as such until vacancies (without purchase) for commissions became available.\n",
"At least two of their colonels, Williams and Howard, were considered as the best officers of their grade in the army. Gunby, Hall, Smith, Stone, and Ramsey, and the lamented Ford, who dies gallantly at the head of his regiment, were equal to any others in the whole continental service.\"\n",
"For officers, the fencible, like the militia regiments, presented both advantages and disadvantages. For many young men those formations formed a kind of stepping-stone to get into the regular army. Others, again, who passed too many years in them, gained no rank, spent their daily pay, and acquired little professional knowledge, beyond the parade and drill exercise; and when, at the end of six, eight, or ten years, they thought of looking out for some permanent means of subsistence, or some military commission that might secure them rank and a future provision, they found themselves to have no more seniority than the first day they entered the service.\n",
"About ten percent of the officers had first served in the ranks before being commissioned. This was a substantially larger proportion than during the rest of the nineteenth century, when the officer corps obtained the character of a closed caste. The background of the rankers can be summarised into three different categories.\n",
"Officers in the infantry and cavalry came from a fairly broad social spectrum, although socially dominated by the aristocracy and the gentry; albeit holding only about a quarter of all commissions in the eighteenth century, half of the colonels and generals belonged to these classes. Many sons of officers, including many Huguenots, also become officers; lacking the social status, economic security and connections enjoyed by the sons of the aristocracy and the gentry, their advancement was slower and needed the patronage of superiors from the social elite. Rankers rarely reached beyond subaltern ranks. The majority of the officers were competent professionals with long time in service, without private means, living on their pay. The lifestyle required of an officer with the King's commission meant, however, that the living costs often exceeded the income, with permanent money problems and indebtedness as a result.\n",
"Army officers were divided between those whose education had ended at the Army Academy (a secondary school) and those who had advanced on to the prestigious Army War College. The latter group formed the elite of the officer corps, while officers of the former group were effectively barred by tradition from advancement to staff positions. A number of these lesser-privileged officers formed the army's contribution to the young, highly politicized group often referred to as the .\n"
] |
Did the discovery of the Higgs particle actually prove or disprove either Super-symmetry or the Multiverse theories? | Nope. It confirmed a prediction of the [Standard Model of Particle Physics](_URL_0_).
The Standard Model doesn't say anything about supersymmetry (often abbreviated to SuSy) or the multiverse.
SuSy is a hypothetical extension to the Standard Model. It's a pretty extension, but to date there is absolutely no experimental evidence for it. In fact, the Large Hadron Collider has substantially constrained the properties of SuSy - but has not disproved it.
The multiverse is a prediction of string theory, which is currently so far beyond the realm of detection by any imaginable experiment as to place it almost outside the bounds of science. | [
"The resulting electroweak theory and Standard Model have correctly predicted (among other discoveries) weak neutral currents, three bosons, the top and charm quarks, and with great precision, the mass and other properties of some of these. Many of those involved eventually won Nobel Prizes or other renowned awards. A 1974 paper in \"Reviews of Modern Physics\" commented that \"while no one doubted the [mathematical] correctness of these arguments, no one quite believed that nature was diabolically clever enough to take advantage of them\". By 1986 and again in the 1990s it became possible to write that understanding and proving the Higgs sector of the Standard Model was \"the central problem today in particle physics.\" \n",
"In the 1960s, Higgs proposed that broken symmetry in electroweak theory could explain the origin of mass of elementary particles in general and of the W and Z bosons in particular. This so-called Higgs mechanism, which was proposed by several physicists besides Higgs at about the same time, predicts the existence of a new particle, the Higgs boson, the detection of which became one of the great goals of physics. On 4 July 2012, CERN announced the discovery of the boson at the Large Hadron Collider. The Higgs mechanism is generally accepted as an important ingredient in the Standard Model of particle physics, without which certain particles would have no mass.\n",
"Although these ideas did not gain much initial support or attention, by 1972 they had been developed into a comprehensive theory and proved capable of giving \"sensible\" results that accurately described particles known at the time, and which, with exceptional accuracy, predicted several other particles discovered during the following years. During the 1970s these theories rapidly became the Standard Model of particle physics. There was not yet any direct evidence that the Higgs field existed, but even without proof of the field, the accuracy of its predictions led scientists to believe the theory might be true. By the 1980s the question of whether or not the Higgs field existed, and therefore whether or not the entire Standard Model was correct, had come to be regarded as one of the most important unanswered questions in particle physics.\n",
"As part of another longstanding scientific dispute, Hawking had emphatically argued, and bet, that the Higgs boson would never be found. The particle was proposed to exist as part of the Higgs field theory by Peter Higgs in 1964. Hawking and Higgs engaged in a heated and public debate over the matter in 2002 and again in 2008, with Higgs criticising Hawking's work and complaining that Hawking's \"celebrity status gives him instant credibility that others do not have.\" The particle was discovered in July 2012 at CERN following construction of the Large Hadron Collider. Hawking quickly conceded that he had lost his bet and said that Higgs should win the Nobel Prize for Physics, which he did in 2013.\n",
"In late 2012, \"Time\", Forbes, \"Slate\", \"NPR\", and others announced incorrectly that the existence of the Higgs boson had been confirmed. Numerous statements by the discoverers at CERN and other experts since July 2012 had reiterated that a particle was discovered but it was not yet confirmed to be a Higgs boson. It was only in March 2013 that it was announced officially. This was followed by the making of a documentary film about the hunt.\n",
"This confirmed answer proved the existence of the hypothetical Higgs field—a field of immense significance that is hypothesised as the source of electroweak symmetry breaking and the means by which elementary particles acquire mass. Symmetry breaking is considered proven but confirming exactly \"how\" this occurs in nature is a major unanswered question in physics. Proof of the Higgs field (by observing the associated particle) validates the final unconfirmed part of the Standard Model as essentially correct, avoiding the need for alternative sources for the Higgs mechanism. Evidence of its properties is likely to greatly affect human understanding of the universe and open up \"new\" physics beyond current theories.\n",
"The possibility of discovering a Higgs-like boson played a crucial role in the conceptual design of CMS, and served as a benchmark to test the performance of the experiment. In 1990 Virdee and a colleague, Christopher Seez, carried out the first detailed simulation studies of the most plausible way to detect the SM Higgs boson in the low-mass region in the environment of the LHC: via its decay into two photons. Understanding that dense scintillating crystals offer arguably the best possibility of achieving excellent energy resolution, Virdee made a compelling case for the use of lead tungstate scintillating crystals (PbWO4) for the electromagnetic calorimeter of CMS and then led the team that proved the viability of this technique, a technique that has played a crucial role in the discovery of the new heavy boson, in July 2012. Virdee was deeply involved in this search for the Higgs boson, especially via its two-photon decay mode.\n"
] |
why are arabs and people from north africa (egypt, libya, morocco, tunisia, etc.) labeled as "white" or "caucasian" in the us census? | Race is a construct. There was a time when Russians, Irish and Italians weren't considered white themselves. | [
"North African Arabs ( \"‘Arab Shamal Ifriqiya\") or Maghrebi Arabs ( \"al-‘Arab al-Maghariba\") are the inhabitants of the North African Maghreb region whose native language is a dialect of Arabic and identify as Arab. This ethnic identity is a product of the Arab conquest of North Africa during the Arab–Byzantine wars and the spread of Islam to Africa. The migration of Arab tribes to North Africa in the 11th century was a major factor in the linguistic and cultural Arabization of the Maghreb region, mainly Beni Hassan, Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym. \n",
"Non-Arab and non-Muslim Middle Eastern people, as well as South Asians of different ethnic/religious backgrounds (Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs) have been stereotyped as \"Arabs\" and racialized in a similar manner. The case of Balbir Singh Sodhi, a Sikh who was murdered at a Phoenix gas station by a white supremacist for \"looking like an Arab terrorist\" (because of the turban, a requirement of Sikhism), as well as that of Hindus being attacked for \"being Muslims\" have achieved prominence and criticism following the September 11 attacks.\n",
"The 2020 United States Census might allow Middle Easterners and North Africans to write in their ethnicity/race instead of merely marking them as White. Right now, and in the past, Arabs have been marked in the U.S. Census as White. This began in the early twentieth century when Arabs coming to the United States successfully petitioned to be marked as White in order to avoid entry quotas and have a greater chance of achieving success and avoiding discrimination.\n",
"There are prominent Arab non-Muslim minorities in the Arab world. These minorities include the Arab Christians in Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Iraq and Kuwait, among other Arab countries. There are also sizable minorities of Arab Jews, Druze, and nonreligious. Most Arabs are Caucasian. Exceptions are Mauritanian, Sudanese, Eritrean, Somali, and Comoran Arabs.\n",
"The characterization of Middle Eastern and North African Americans as white has been a matter of controversy. In the early 20th century, peoples of Arab descent were sometimes denied entry into the United States because they were characterized as nonwhite. In 1944, the law changed, and Middle Eastern and North African peoples were granted white status. The U.S. Census is currently revisiting the issue, and considering creating a separate racial category for Middle Eastern and North African Americans in the 2020 Census. \n",
"It is a response from Berber activists to those Algerians and Moroccans who self-identify as \"Arab\" because of their Arabic tongue. North Africa was gradually Arabized with the spread of Islam in the 7th century AD, when the liturgical language Arabic was first brought to the Maghreb. However, the identity of northwestern Africa remained Berber for a long time thereafter. Additionally, even though the process of Arabization began with these early invasions, many large parts of North Africa were only recently Arabized like the Aurès (Awras) mountains in the 19th and 20th centuries. Although, the fertile plains of North Africa seem to have been (at least partly) Arabized in the 11th century with the emigration of the Banu Hilal tribes from Arabia. The mass education and promotion of Arabic language and culture through schools and mass media, during the 20th century, by the Arabist governments of North Africa, is regarded as the strongest Arabization process in North Africa ever.\n",
"The majority of self-identifying Arab Americans are Eastern Rite Catholic or Orthodox Christian, according to the Arab American Institute. On the other hand, most American Muslims are black (African Americans or Sub-Saharan Africans) or of South Asian (Indian, Pakistani or Bangladeshi) origin.\n"
] |
why do older tvs have a weird screen effect while being viewed on another camera? | because the refresh rate of the TV screen collides with the frame rate of the video resulting in an "animation" of said refresh rate - the line moving up or down the screen. It's similar to the way rims on a car often look like they are going on the wrong direction on film, or how in a strobe environment water droplets look like they are travelling up instead of down. | [
"Early analogue televisions varied in the displayed image because of manufacturing tolerance problems. There were also effects from the early design limitations of power supplies, whose DC voltage was not regulated as well as in later power supplies. This could cause the image size to change with normal variations in the AC line voltage, as well as a process called blooming, where the image size increased slightly when a brighter overall picture was displayed due to the increased electron beam current causing the CRT anode voltage to drop. Because of this, TV producers could not be certain where the visible edges of the image would be. In order to compensate, they defined three areas:\n",
"A CRT computer monitor with a low refresh rate (<70Hz) or a CRT television can cause similar problems because the image has a visible flicker. Aging CRTs also often go slightly out of focus, and this can cause eye strain. LCDs do not go out of focus but are also susceptible to flicker if the backlight for the LCD uses PWM for dimming. This causes the backlight to turn on and off for shorter intervals as the display becomes dimmer, creating noticeable flickering which causes eye fatigue.\n",
"Older televisions can display less of the space outside of the safe area than ones made more recently. Flat panel screens, plasma displays and liquid crystal display (LCD) screens generally can show most of the picture outside the safe areas.\n",
"The image may seem garbled, poorly saturated, of poor contrast, blurry or too faint outside the stated viewing angle range, the exact mode of \"failure\" depends on the display type in question. For example, some projection screens reflect more light perpendicular to the screen and less light to the sides, making the screen appear much darker (and sometimes colors distorted) if the viewer is not in front of the screen. Many manufacturers of projection screens thus define the viewing angle as the angle at which the luminance of the image is exactly half of the maximum. With LCD screens, some manufacturers have opted to measure the contrast ratio, and report the viewing angle as the angle where the contrast ratio exceeds 5:1 or 10:1, giving minimally acceptable viewing conditions.\n",
"Many televisions and monitors automatically degauss their picture tube when switched on, before an image is displayed. The high current surge that takes place during this automatic degauss is the cause of an audible \"thunk\" or loud hum, which can be heard (and felt) when televisions and CRT computer monitors are switched on. Visually, this causes the image to shake dramatically for a short period of time. A degauss option is also usually available for manual selection in the operations menu in such appliances.\n",
"BULLET::::- As of 2012, most implementations of LCD backlighting use pulse-width modulation (PWM) to dim the display, which makes the screen flicker more acutely (this does not mean visibly) than a CRT monitor at 85 Hz refresh rate would (this is because the entire screen is strobing on and off rather than a CRT's phosphor sustained dot which continually scans across the display, leaving some part of the display always lit), causing severe eye-strain for some people. Unfortunately, many of these people don't know that their eye-strain is being caused by the invisible strobe effect of PWM. This problem is worse on many LED-backlit monitors, because the LEDs switch on and off faster than a CCFL lamp.\n",
"The display system, while innovative with its projected information directly in the image, unfortunately, made the viewfinder darker due to the LCD overlay. The LCD elements were not lit, so it was impossible to see the LCD overlay—including focus areas—in the dark.\n"
] |
why do some offices have a pc connected to a virtual machine? | For my firm, working from a virtual server means that updates are significantly easier. Having to update a program individually on 600+ computers would be an IT nightmare (for obvious security reasons, workers do not have the rights to install programs themselves). Working on a virtual machine allows IT to update much more quickly and smoothly. | [
"Some systems provide user interface remotely with the help of a serial (e.g. RS-232, USB, I²C, etc.) or network (e.g. Ethernet) connection. This approach gives several advantages: extends the capabilities of embedded system, avoids the cost of a display, simplifies BSP and allows one to build a rich user interface on the PC. A good example of this is the combination of an embedded web server running on an embedded device (such as an IP camera) or a network router. The user interface is displayed in a web browser on a PC connected to the device, therefore needing no software to be installed.\n",
"A computer-on-module (COM) is a complete computer built on a single circuit board. They are often used as embedded systems due to their small physical size and low power consumption. Gumstix is one manufacturer of COMs.\n",
"Since the advent and subsequent popularization of the personal computer, few genuine hardware terminals are used to interface with computers today. Using the monitor and keyboard, modern operating systems like Linux and the BSD derivatives feature virtual consoles, which are mostly independent from the hardware used.\n",
"Some companies, such as TeleTypesetting Co. created software and hardware interfaces between personal computers like the Apple II and IBM PS/2 and phototypesetting machines which provided computers equipped with it the capability to connect to phototypesetting machines.\n",
"Founded by Alex Vasilevsky, Virtual Computer is a venture-backed software company in the Boston area that produces desktop virtualization products, which combine centralized management with local execution on a hypervisor running on PCs. Virtual Computer has developed a type-1 hypervisor that runs directly on end-user PCs, delivering native PC performance and mobility. By running the workload on the PC, Virtual Computer enables companies to have centralized management without servers, storage, and networking required for server-hosted VDI. The technology supports shared image management, enabling an IT professional to manage thousands of desktops and laptops the same way that they would manage one.\n",
"Virtual machine techniques enable several operating systems (\"guest\" operating systems) or other software to run on the same computer so that each thinks it has a whole computer to itself, and each of these simulated whole computers is called a \"virtual machine\". The operating system which really controls the computer is usually called a hypervisor. Two of the major components of the hypervisor are:\n",
"COMs are complete embedded computers built on a single circuit board. The design is centered on a microprocessor with RAM, input/output controllers and all other features needed to be a functional computer on the one board. However, unlike a single-board computer, the COM usually lacks the standard connectors for any input/output peripherals to be attached directly to the board.\n"
] |
how can a state be projected to be won by a candidate with only 1% of the polling reporting in? | How can so many idiots ask the same question without reading the goddamn sub? | [
"This article is a collection of statewide polls for the 2016 United States presidential election. The polls listed here provide early data on opinion polling between the Democratic candidate, the Republican candidate, the Libertarian candidate, and the Green candidate. Prior to the parties' conventions, presumptive candidates were included in the polls. Not all states will conduct polling for the election due to various factors. States that are considered swing states usually put out more polls as more attention is given to the results. For determining a statistical tie, the margin of error provided by the polling source is applied to the result for each candidate. \n",
"BULLET::::- State winner-take-all laws encourage candidates to focus disproportionately on a limited set of swing states (and in the case of Maine and Nebraska, swing districts), as small changes in the popular vote in those areas produce large changes in the electoral college vote. For example, in the 2016 election, a shift of 2,736 votes (or less than 0.4% of all votes cast) toward Donald Trump in New Hampshire would have produced a 4 electoral vote gain for his campaign. A similar shift in any other state would have produced no change in the electoral vote, thus encouraging the campaign to focus on New Hampshire above other states. A study by FairVote reported that the 2004 candidates devoted three quarters of their peak season campaign resources to just five states, while the other 45 states received very little attention. The report also stated that 18 states received no candidate visits and no TV advertising. This means that swing state issues receive more attention, while issues important to other states are largely ignored.\n",
"The following table records the official vote tallies for each state for those presidential candidates who were listed on ballots in enough states to have a theoretical chance for a majority in the Electoral College. State popular vote results are from the official Federal Election Commission report. The column labeled \"Margin\" shows Obama's margin of victory over McCain (the margin is negative for states and districts won by McCain).\n",
"Another way to measure how much a state's results reflect the national average is how far the state deviates from the national results. The states with the least deviation from a two-party presidential vote from 1896 to 2012 include:\n",
"The election was held using the absolute majority system, under which a candidate had to receive over 50% of the popular vote to be elected. If no candidate received over 50% of the vote, a joint session of the National Congress would vote on the two candidates that received the most votes.\n",
"Candidate was determined by a combination of votes from an evaluation commission based on 4 debates, held in different region of the country (40%), votes from the party members (30%), and public opinion polls (30%).\n",
"The required percentages to win the Presidential Election was reduced from 45 to 40 percent. The electoral law states that a participating candidate must obtain a relative majority of at least 40 percent of the vote to win a presidential election. However, a candidate may win by obtaining at least 35 percent of the vote, with at least a five percent margin over the second-place finisher. The law also established a second-round runoff election if none of the candidates won in the first round.\n"
] |
why is democracy the go to political system despite its inherent instability with every election. what made it a better choice than something else? | The instability of every election is the strength of a democratic process. It means that, at least in theory, one person or group of people can't entrench themselves and turn the government into their own machine and the country into their own kingdom.
The people gets a mandatory opportunity to replace those in power every few years, again in theory meaning that if we are dissatisfied with them, we can replace them.
Of course over time people who crave that kind of enduring power have created all sorts of different ways to remain in power despite the rules, either by coup or by election fraud or simply by having a dual party system where both parties talk very differently, but act very similarly, and we get to pick a different figurehead every few years. | [
"More recently, democracy is criticised for not offering enough political stability. As governments are frequently elected on and off there tends to be frequent changes in the policies of democratic countries both domestically and internationally. Even if a political party maintains power, vociferous, headline grabbing protests and harsh criticism from the popular media are often enough to force sudden, unexpected political change. Frequent policy changes with regard to business and immigration are likely to deter investment and so hinder economic growth. For this reason, many people have put forward the idea that democracy is undesirable for a developing country in which economic growth and the reduction of poverty are top priorities.\n",
"More recently, democracy is criticized for not offering enough political stability. As governments are frequently elected on and off there tend to be frequent changes in the policies of democratic countries both domestically and internationally. Even if a political party maintains power, vociferous, headline grabbing protests and harsh criticism from the mass media are often enough to force sudden, unexpected political change. Frequent policy changes with regard to business and immigration are likely to deter investment and so hinder economic growth. For this reason, many people have put forward the idea that democracy is undesirable for a developing country in which economic growth and the reduction of poverty are top priority. However, Anthony Downs argued that the political market works much the same way as the economic market, and that there could potentially be an equilibrium in the system because of democratic process. However, he eventually argued that imperfect knowledge in politicians and voters prevented the reaching of that equilibrium.\n",
"Democracy is also criticised for frequent elections due to the instability of coalition governments. Coalitions are frequently formed \"after\" the elections in many countries (for example India) and the basis of alliance is predominantly to enable a viable majority, not an ideological concurrence.\n",
"BULLET::::- Democratic decisions are not necessarily any better-made or more efficient, than bureaucratic or entrepreneurial ones; at most, democracy allows for errors to be corrected more easily, and permits bad managers to be ousted more easily, instead of bad managers becoming entrenched in positions of power.\n",
"The positive changes of democracy to economic growth such as delegation of authority and regulations of social conflicts heavily outweigh the negative and restrictive effects, especially when compared to autocracy. One of the main reasons for this is that society, i.e. voters are able to support difficult trade offs and changes when there is no perceived alternative. This is primarily true in countries with a higher level of education. So it ties the development level of a country as one of the decisive factors to undergo positive democratic changes and reforms. Thus, countries that embark in democratization at higher levels of education are more likely than not to continue their development under democracy.\n",
"Voters may not be educated enough to exercise their democratic rights prudently. Politicians may take advantage of voters' irrationality, and compete more in the field of public relations and tactics, than in ideology. While arguments against democracy are often taken by advocates of democracy as an attempt to maintain or revive traditional hierarchy and autocratic rule, many extensions have been made to develop the argument further. In Lipset's 1959 essay about the requirements for forming democracy, he found that almost all emerging democracies provided good education. However, education alone cannot sustain a democracy, though Caplan did note in 2005 that as people become educated, they think more like economists.\n",
"Democracy is one of the propositions that many religious people are afraid of approaching. According to the philosopher of religions Abdolkarim Soroush we do not have one democracy from ancient Greece to today, but many of them, hence there is a plurality of democracies in the international community. Democracy prevailed in different eras depending on the conditions of the time. What alters the hue and color of democracy is a society’s specific characteristics and elements.\n"
] |
How many calories does the human brain consume in a day? | Your brain runs around ~~10 Watts~~. 10 Watts = 10 Joules per sec. There are 4.184 Joules in a calorie (little c, not Calorie, which is 1000 calories). That's 2.39 calories per second. There are 86400 seconds in a day. 86400 x 2.39 = 206496 calories, or ~~**206.5 Calories per day.**~~
EDIT: I was going off of some research that I had done about a week ago, namely [#30 in this list](_URL_0_). Being lazy as I am, I didn't read into it and just remembered the 10 watts. As several people in the comments are saying, the power is closer to 20 watts. [WolframAlpha](_URL_1_) is one source of this other wattage. So double my original estimate = 413 Calories.
**tl;dr: 413 Cal, not 206.5** | [
"A number of theories in evolutionary psychology that are hinged on the assumption that sheer number of calories constitute the only important bottleneck in nutrition are challenged by research on hidden hunger, types of malnutrition in which deficits of specific essential micronutrients cause diseases or even death despite a suitable number of calories. Comparisons between species show that although human brains consume more nutrients than the brains of other species, human brains consuming roughly 20% of the body's total calory requirements in adult humans and 60% in young children, there are other organs in many other species that consume more calories than their human counterparts. This means that humans do not stand out in requirements for calories at any stage of life, though human brains stand out in requiring higher amounts of many different essential nutrients while other organs in other species may require higher amounts of two or three specific micronutrients. While studies of blood flow in the brain's dura mater in fossil humans show a negligible difference in oxygen and with it caloric requirements between Neanderthals and modern humans, the fact that some Neanderthal groups in Belgium lived exclusively of large land animal meat while other Neanderthal groups in Spain lived exclusively of plants that were present there at the time with a much narrower range of nutrients than the diets vegans eat today shows that although Neanderthals were capable of varying their diets, they could also survive off non-varied diets that would cause lethal deficits in modern humans. Since many micronutrient deficits in modern humans cause neurological symptoms, this is explainable as a result of less flexible synapses in Neanderthal brains requiring lower levels of many specific mincronutrients than the highly flexible synapses of modern humans. This contradicts the claim that human females were under unique selection pressure to evolve curvy shapes for fat storage for fetal brain development, as fat would only store calories and not micronutrients which could be stored without affecting body shape and nonhuman animals with other high fetal calory requirements do not have curvy females. The claim that human females evolved large breasts to feed infants needing many calories is also challenged, empirically citing the human example that while most asian women have small breasts, asian people do not have smaller brains than other people and that explaining it away as a \"trade-off\" would be a misuse of the term as the observation is one trait (brain size) being unaffected by a dramatic reduction of another trait (breast size) as opposed to the correct definition of \"trade-off\" which is an otherwise adaptive trait being reduced by a change of something else. The distribution of essential nutrients between different types of food varied dramatically between regions in the paleolithic before the exchange of breeding stock of domestic and feral plants and animal species over long distances at the dawn of agriculture and the many micronuitrients required in higher levels by sapiens than by archaics meant that in every region, one or more types of food became narrower bottlenecks for sapiens group size than for archaic group size though the specific bottleneck food varied from region to region. This contradicts evolutionary psychology's claim that sapiens evolved in larger group sizes and since many essential nutreients are in types of food that cannot be prevented from going rancid in short times while other essential nutrients degrade fast even if the food in which they are contained does not become rancid, trade over long distances could not address the problem. The discovery of stone tools further from the origin of the stone at sapiens sites than at archaic sites is therefore not explainable by trade between tribes, but can be explained by people moving further to eat the essential nutrients and that the same movement patterns in other sapiens groups making them less capable of consistent territorial defense than archaics were, allowing sapiens to move longer and take their tools with them. It also challenges evolutionary psychology's claim of an universal exchange value of animal versus vegetable food that would have maintained an universal division of labour between hunting men and gathering women and/or a need for stable pair bonds in a context of paying for guard services with food within the tribe, as the most valuable essential micronutrient food would have been animal in some regions yet vegetable in other regions and such differences were commonly found between different localities within the relatively large part of Africa in which Homo sapiens evolved as a number of interbreeding groups.\n",
"The range with which the adult brain in all animals regardless of body size consumes energy as a percentage of the body's energy is roughly 2% to 8%. The only exceptions of animal brains using more than 10% (in terms of O intake) are a few primates (11–13%) and humans. However, research published in 1996 in the Journal of Experimental Biology by Göran Nilsson at Uppsala University found that mormyrinae brains utilize roughly 60% of their body O consumption. This is due to the combination of large brain size (3.1% of body mass compared to 2% in humans) and them being ectothermic.\n",
"The total energy radiated in one day is about 8 MJ, or 2000 kcal (food calories). Basal metabolic rate for a 40-year-old male is about 35 kcal/(m·h), which is equivalent to 1700 kcal per day, assuming the same 2 m area. However, the mean metabolic rate of sedentary adults is about 50% to 70% greater than their basal rate.\n",
"Because of the blood–brain barrier, getting nutrients to the human brain is especially dependent on molecules that can pass this barrier. The brain itself consumes about 18% of the basal metabolic rate: on a total intake of 1800 kcal/day, this equates to 324 kcal, or about 80 g of glucose. About 25% of total body glucose consumption occurs in the brain.\n",
"Relatively speaking, the brain consumes an immense amount of energy in comparison to the rest of the body. The human brain is approximately 2% of the human body mass and uses 20–25% of the total energy expenditure. Therefore, mechanisms involved in the transfer of energy from foods to neurons are likely to be fundamental to the control of brain function. Insufficient intake of selected vitamins, or certain metabolic disorders, affect cognitive processes by disrupting the nutrient-dependent processes within the body that are associated with the management of energy in neurons, which can subsequently affect neurotransmission, synaptic plasticity, and cell survival.\n",
"The brain consumes up to 20% of the energy used by the human body, more than any other organ. In humans, blood glucose is the primary source of energy for most cells and is critical for normal function in a number of tissues, including the brain. The human brain consumes approximately 60% of blood glucose in fasted, sedentary individuals. Brain metabolism normally relies upon blood glucose as an energy source, but during times of low glucose (such as fasting, endurance exercise, or limited carbohydrate intake), the brain uses ketone bodies for fuel with a smaller need for glucose. The brain can also utilize lactate during exercise. The brain stores glucose in the form of glycogen, albeit in significantly smaller amounts than that found in the liver or skeletal muscle. Long-chain fatty acids cannot cross the blood–brain barrier, but the liver can break these down to produce ketone bodies. However, short-chain fatty acids (e.g., butyric acid, propionic acid, and acetic acid) and the medium-chain fatty acids, octanoic acid and heptanoic acid, can cross the blood–brain barrier and be metabolized by brain cells.\n",
"The energy input to the human body is in the form of food energy, usually quantified in kilocalories [kcal] or kiloJoules [kJ=kWs]. This can be related to a certain distance travelled and to body weight, giving units such as kJ/(km∙kg). The rate of food consumption, i.e. the amount consumed during a certain period of time, is the input power. This can be measured in kcal/day or in J/s = W (1000 kcal/d ~ 48.5 W).\n"
] |
Can a computer simulation create itself inside itself? | A computer can emulate another computer (check [this](_URL_0_) out!). A computer can, in fact, emulate a simplified version of itself. The only problem is, as the usage of the emulated computer (or CPU) approaches the maximum speed/usage of the *real* computer, the number of states that can be simulated approaches one.
Eventually, with the emulated computer under 100% load, the emulation will halt - unable to continue because it will require more memory and power than the *real* computer is able to provide it. /u/Begging4Bacon explained it very well:
> The computer would have to be able to simulate itself in a random state. The random state would take up all the memory, leaving none for the hardware itself. | [
"Simulation is also used in computer games and animation and can be accelerated by using a physics engine, the technology used in many powerful computer graphics software programs, like 3ds Max, Maya, Lightwave, and many others to simulate physical characteristics. In computer animation, things like hair, cloth, liquid, fire, and particles can be easily modeled, while the human animator animates simpler objects. Computer-based dynamic animation was first used at a very simple level in the 1989 Pixar short film \"Knick Knack\" to move the fake snow in the snowglobe and pebbles in a fish tank.\n",
"A discrete computer simulation, or simply a computer simulation, is a computer program that tries to reproduce, for pedagogical or scientific purposes, a natural phenomenon through the visualization of the different states that it can have. Each of these states is described by a set of variables that change in time due to the iteration of a given algorithm.\n",
"In computer science, a simulation is a computation of the execution of some appropriately modelled state-transition system. Typically this process models the complete state of the system at individual points in a discrete linear time frame, computing each state sequentially from its predecessor. Models for computer programs or VLSI logic designs can be very easily simulated, as they often have an operational semantics which can be used directly for simulation.\n",
"Advanced computer programs can simulate power system behavior , weather conditions, electronic circuits, chemical reactions, mechatronics , heat pumps, feedback control systems, atomic reactions, even complex biological processes. In theory, any phenomena that can be reduced to mathematical data and equations can be simulated on a computer. Simulation can be difficult because most natural phenomena are subject to an almost infinite number of influences. One of the tricks to developing useful simulations is to determine which are the most important factors that affect the goals of the simulation.\n",
"Computer simulations are constructed to emulate a physical system. Because these are meant to replicate some aspect of a system in detail, they often do not yield an analytic solution. Therefore, methods such as discrete event simulation or finite element solvers are used. A computer model is used to make inferences about the system it replicates. For example, climate models are often used because experimentation on an earth sized object is impossible.\n",
"Computer simulation is a computer program, or network of computers, that attempts to simulate an abstract model of a particular system. Computer simulations have become a useful part of mathematical modelling of many natural systems in physics, and computational physics, chemistry and biology; human systems in economics, psychology, and social science; and in the process of engineering and new technology, to gain insight into the operation of those systems, or to observe their behavior. The simultaneous visualization and simulation of a system is called visulation.\n",
"Less theoretically, an interesting application of computer simulation is to simulate computers using computers. In computer architecture, a type of simulator, typically called an \"emulator\", is often used to execute a program that has to run on some inconvenient type of computer (for example, a newly designed computer that has not yet been built or an obsolete computer that is no longer available), or in a tightly controlled testing environment (see \"Computer architecture simulator\" and \"Platform virtualization\"). For example, simulators have been used to debug a microprogram or sometimes commercial application programs, before the program is downloaded to the target machine. Since the operation of the computer is simulated, all of the information about the computer's operation is directly available to the programmer, and the speed and execution of the simulation can be varied at will.\n"
] |
Why does a curling rock turn the same direction the rock is spinning? Why does sweeping reduce the curl? | > Why does a curling rock turn the same direction the rock is spinning?
I could not find any conclusive evidence either. However, I will point out that the section in Wikipedia article mentioned several alternate explanations of increased friction as skating speed increases, including different skating techniques. I will also point out the surface of a curling sheet is not a smooth surface - it is roughened by the introduction of pebbles. This makes it behave very differently than on ice (in fact, you can't throw a stone very far on smooth ice because the stone forms a nice seal on the ice, and that has a suction effect that drastically slows down the stone).
The explanations I'm familiar with is that the quasi-liquid layer is mainly responsible for reducing friction, and this layer affects the front of the stone more than the back, because the contact pressure of a 42 pound stone will increase the thickness of that layer. This makes any friction at the back dominate over that of the front. For a clockwise curl, the back of the stone is pushing _left_ on the ice, which makes the stone curl right.
> Why does sweeping reduce the curl?
The answer to this is more certain. The friction from the broom heats up and softens the pebbles on the ice, and this reduces the friction of the ice. This has the effect of extending the distance of the stone, and also reduces the curl as there is less friction on the stone. | [
"The player can induce a curved path, described as \"curl\", by causing the stone to slowly turn as it slides. The path of the rock may be further influenced by two sweepers with brooms, who accompany it as it slides down the sheet and sweep the ice in front of the stone. \"Sweeping a rock\" decreases the friction, which makes the stone travel a straighter path (with less \"curl\") and a longer distance. A great deal of strategy and teamwork go into choosing the ideal path and placement of a stone for each situation, and the skills of the curlers determine the degree to which the stone will achieve the desired result. This gives curling its nickname of \"chess on ice\".\n",
"BULLET::::- : When a rock's running surface travels over a foreign particle such as a hair, causing the rock to deviate from its expected path, usually by increasing friction and thereby the amount of curl\n",
"One of the basic technical aspects of curling is knowing when to sweep. When the ice in front of the stone is swept a stone will usually travel both farther and straighter and in some situations one of those is not desirable. For example, a stone may be traveling too fast (said to have too much weight) but require sweeping to prevent curling into another stone. The team must decide which is better: getting by the other stone but traveling too far or hitting the stone.\n",
"In a rocking, wagging or twisting coordinate the bond lengths within the groups involved do not change. The angles do. Rocking is distinguished from wagging by the fact that the atoms in the group stay in the same plane.\n",
"Curling which is the bending of the shoot or the rolling of the leaf, is a result of over-growth on one side of an organ. Often viral diseases cause such leaf distortions due to irregular growth of the lamina. Extreme reduction of the leaf lamina brings about the symptom known as the Shoe-string effect.\n",
"Curling is a sheet metal forming process used to form the edges into a hollow ring. Curling can be performed to eliminate sharp edges and increase the moment of inertia near the curled end. Other parts are curled to perform their primary function, such as door hinges.\n",
"Rocking stones (also known as logan stones or logans) are large stones that are so finely balanced that the application of just a small force causes them to rock. Typically, rocking stones are residual corestones formed initially by spheroidal weathering and have later been exposed by erosion or glacial erratics left by retreating glaciers. Natural rocking stones are found throughout the world. A few rocking stones might be man-made megaliths.\n"
] |
Is damage of radiation linearly dependent of radiation exposure? | It's a difficult question to answer, but for the purposes of radiation protection, cancer risk is considered proportional to dose and is not time dependent, in accordance with the [Linear No-Threshold model](_URL_0_). Now that is certainly not true with biological damage in general. For instance, the spreading out of the UV dose will prevent you from getting sunburned. Radiation-based cancer treatments are usually spread out over the course of multiple days or weeks to allow for normal (non-tumor) tissue recovery. But for *cancer risk specifically*, yes, with caveats you can look up in the Wikipedia entry.
Interestingly, some folks think that very small doses of radiation may actually REDUCE your cancer risk (hormesis). But there's not enough evidence to support that at this point, so we still use the linear no-threshold to predict excess cancer risk from radiation. And excessively high doses, well, that will kill you, so I guess at that point it's not really linear anymore... | [
"The most common impact is stochastic induction of cancer with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. For example, ionizing radiation is the sole cause of chronic myelogenous leukemia. The mechanism by which this occurs is well understood, but quantitative models predicting the level of risk remain controversial. The most widely accepted model posits that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation increases linearly with effective radiation dose at a rate of 5.5% per sievert. If this linear model is correct, then natural background radiation is the most hazardous source of radiation to general public health, followed by medical imaging as a close second. Other stochastic effects of ionizing radiation are teratogenesis, cognitive decline, and heart disease.\n",
"Exposure to ionizing radiation is known to increase the future incidence of cancer, particularly leukemia. The mechanism by which this occurs is well understood, but quantitative models predicting the level of risk remain controversial. The most widely accepted model posits that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation increases linearly with effective radiation dose at a rate of 5.5% per sievert. If the linear model is correct, then natural background radiation is the most hazardous source of radiation to general public health, followed by medical imaging as a close second. \n",
"The deterministic (acute tissue damage) effects that can lead to acute radiation syndrome only occur in the case of acute high doses (≳ 0.1 Gy) and high dose rates (≳ 0.1 Gy/h) and are conventionally not measured using the unit sievert, but use the unit gray (Gy).\n",
"Its most common impact is the stochastic induction of cancer with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. The mechanism by which this occurs is well understood, but quantitative models predicting the level of risk remain controversial. The most widely accepted model posits that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation increases linearly with effective radiation dose at a rate of 5.5% per sievert. If this linear model is correct, then natural background radiation is the most hazardous source of radiation to general public health, followed by medical imaging as a close second. Other stochastic effects of ionizing radiation are teratogenesis, cognitive decline, and heart disease.\n",
"BULLET::::- The application of the linear no threshold model to predict deaths from low levels of exposure to radiation was disputed in a BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) \"Horizon\" documentary, broadcast on 13 July 2006. It offered statistical evidence to suggest that there is an exposure threshold of about 200 millisieverts, below which there is no increase in radiation-induced disease. Indeed, it went further, reporting research from Professor Ron Chesser of Texas Tech University, which suggests that low exposures to radiation can have a protective effect. The program interviewed scientists who believe that the increase in thyroid cancer in the immediate area of the explosion had been over-recorded, and predicted that the estimates for widespread deaths in the long term would be proved wrong. It noted the view of the World Health Organization scientist Dr Mike Rapacholi that, while most cancers can take decades to manifest, leukemia manifests within a decade or so: none of the previously expected peak of leukemia deaths has been found, and none is now expected. Identifying the need to balance the \"fear response\" in the public's reaction to radiation, the program quoted Dr Peter Boyle, director of the IARC: \"Tobacco smoking will cause several thousand times more cancers in the [European] population.\"\n",
"According to the linear no-threshold model, any exposure to ionizing radiation, even at doses too low to produce any symptoms of radiation sickness, can induce cancer due to cellular and genetic damage. Under the assumption, survivors of acute radiation syndrome face an increased risk of developing cancer later in life. The probability of developing cancer is a linear function with respect to the effective radiation dose. In radiation-induced cancer, the speed at which the condition advances, the prognosis, the degree of pain, and every other feature of the disease are not believed to be functions of the radiation dosage.\n",
"High radiation doses can cause DNA damage. If left unrepaired, this damage can create serious and even lethal chromosomal aberrations. Ionizing radiation can produce reactive oxygen species, which are very damaging to DNA.\n"
] |
Flat or disc-shaped planet | The shape of the object doesn't matter. There's no aerodynamics in space because there's no air. However, a naturally formed planet can't be any other shape due to the laws of gravity. | [
"A disk-shaped planet similar to an Alderson disk (though far smaller) served as the home world of the fantasy \"Aysle\" setting (or \"cosm\") of West End Games' \"Torg\" roleplaying game. In contrast with the Alderson disk, the Aysle \"diskworld\" works according to fantasy physics, including a \"gravity plane\" that bisects the disk laterally, so that opposite sides \"fall\" towards the plane. The diskworld of Aysle had a bobbing Sun and multiple inner layers. Both sides of the disk were inhabited, as were the internal layers.\n",
"Flatness refers to the shape of a liquid's free surface. On planet Earth, the flatness of a liquid is a function of the curvature of the Earth, and from trigonometry, can be found to deviate from true flatness by approximately 19.6 nanometers over an area of 1 square meter, a deviation which is dominated by the effects of surface tension. This calculation using the Earth's mean radius at sea level, however a liquid will be slightly flatter at the poles.\n",
"A biconcave disc — also referred to as a discocyte — is a geometric shape resembling an oblate spheroid with two concavities on the top and on the bottom. It is meta-stable, and involves the continuous adjustment of the asymmetric transbilayer lipid distribution, which is correlated with ATP depletion.\n",
"The shape, three-dimensional convex circles, derived from the dot pieces. Irwin wanted them to be circular in order to avoid the corners a square or rectangle would produce. But instead of being flat it needed to be convex to deemphasize the edge. The disc was painted where the disc bulges out (point closest to the viewer) the same color as the wall (point furthest away from the viewer) to give it a floating effect. But the combination of convexity and color made it so the viewer had a difficult time determining whether the disc was convex, concave, or flat. (Originally he painted the discs with dots, but the way they turned out was unsatisfactory. He resorted to a spray painting technique, which allowed for the effect that minimized the visibility of the edge.)\n",
"Pleuronectiformes (flatfish) are an order of ray-finned fish. The most obvious characteristic of the modern flatfish is their asymmetry, with both eyes on the same side of the head in the adult fish. In some families the eyes are always on the right side of the body (dextral or right-eyed flatfish) and in others they are always on the left (sinistral or left-eyed flatfish). The primitive spiny turbots include equal numbers of right- and left-eyed individuals, and are generally less asymmetrical than the other families. Other distinguishing features of the order are the presence of protrusible eyes, another adaptation to living on the seabed (benthos), and the extension of the dorsal fin onto the head.\n",
"Pebbles ranging in size from centimeters up to a meter in size are accreted at an enhanced rate in a protoplanetary disk. A protoplanetary disk is made up of a mix of gas and solids including dust, pebbles, planetesimals, and protoplanets. Gas in a protoplanetary disk is pressure supported and as a result orbits at a velocity slower than large objects. The gas affects the motions of the solids in varying ways depending on their size, with dust moving with the gas and the largest planetesimals orbiting largely unaffected by the gas. Pebbles are an intermediate case, aerodynamic drag causes them to settle toward the central plane of the disk and to orbit at a sub-keplerian velocity resulting in radial drift toward the central star. The pebbles frequently encounter planetesimals as a result of their lower velocities and inward drift. If their motions were unaffected by the gas only a small fraction, determined by gravitational focusing and the cross-section of the planetesimals, would be accreted by the planetesimals. The remainder would follow hyperbolic paths, accelerating toward the planetesimal on their approach and decelerating as they recede. However, the drag the pebbles experience grows as their velocities increase, slowing some enough that they become gravitationally bound to the planetesimal. These pebbles continue to lose energy as they orbit the planetesimal causing them to spiral toward and be accreted by the planetesimal.\n",
"The medieval Indian texts called the Puranas describe the Earth as a flat-bottomed, circular disk with concentric oceans and continents. This general scheme is present not only in the Hindu cosmologies but also in Buddhist and Jain cosmologies of South Asia. However, some Puranas include other models. For example, the fifth canto of the \"Bhagavata Purana\", includes sections that describe the Earth both as flat and spherical.\n"
] |
why more recently than ever do webpages refresh and not actually go back when you hit the back button? | It is more and more common mispractice to include a 0 second redirect in a site, which as soon as you load a page, redirects you to a slightly different page they actually want you to see. So far, this isn't a bad thing, it helps site design. The problem is, if you hit the back button on most browsers, it will take you back to the page with the instant redirect instead of back PAST that page to the page you came from. It is bad design, and SHOULD be easy to avoid, but some web designers are idiots.
Source: I'm a web developer. | [
"BULLET::::- If a page redirects too quickly (less than 2-3 seconds), using the \"Back\" button on the next page may cause some browsers to move back to the redirecting page, whereupon the redirect will occur again. This is bad for usability, as this may cause a reader to be \"stuck\" on the last website.\n",
"Many web design tutorials also point out that client-side redirecting tends to interfere with the normal functioning of a Web browser's \"back\" button. After being redirected, clicking the back button will cause the user to go back to the redirect page, which redirects them again. Some modern browsers seem to overcome this problem however, including Safari, Mozilla Firefox and Opera.\n",
"Normally JavaScript pushes the redirector site's URL to the browser's history. It can cause redirect loops when users hit the back button. With the following command you can prevent this type of behaviour.\n",
"Sometimes a mistake can cause a page to end up redirecting back to itself, possibly via other pages, leading to an infinite sequence of redirects. Browsers should stop redirecting after a certain number of hops and display an error message.\n",
"Also, the \"Online\" button is actually a toggle switch, such that if the printer is already online, pressing Online makes the printer go offline and can be used to stop a runaway print job. Pressing Shift-Reset will then reset the printer, clearing the remainder of the unwanted document from the printer's memory, so that it will not continue to print it when brought back on line. (Before resetting the printer, it is necessary to make the computer stop sending data for the print job to the printer, if it hasn't already finished sending that job, through the computer's software. Otherwise, when the printer is put back online, it will start receiving the job from somewhere in the middle, which will likely cause the same runaway problem to recur.)\n",
"The Button experienced technical issues which caused it to reach zero despite users pressing it in time. This occurred multiple times and was attributed to database errors by reddit's administrators. The outages caused community discontentment and some speculation that the subreddit was being gamed by the administrators. Although The Button was revived within a day of the outages, the administrators of Reddit considered closing The Button experiment early.\n",
"The reasoning behind this is due to the lack of time to maintain the site and that the site need a complete restart to gain its former glory. A task that unfortunately is big to undertake within a reasonable amount of time and effort. We all sincerely wish that we could revert time but unfortunately this is the position that we're at.\n"
] |
why do people tie shoe laces and toss them over power lines? | Three reasons:
1. Gang members do it to mark their territory ([supposedly](_URL_0_)).
2. Bullies steal someone's sneakers and throw them over power lines to taunt their victim.
3. People take their old sneakers and throw them over power lines because they are inspired by (1.) or just think it's cool, funny, or exciting to do. | [
"With both ends tucked (slipped) it becomes a good way to tie shoelaces, whilst the non-slipped version is useful for shoelaces that are excessively short. It is appropriate for tying plastic garbage or trash bags, as the knot forms a handle when tied in two twisted edges of the bag.\n",
"Self-tying shoes (also known as \"self-lacing\" or \"power laces\") are designed to automatically tighten once the user puts them on. Such shoes were initially depicted in the 1989 science fiction film \"Back to the Future II\".\n",
"There are several ways to tie a shoelace knot; each starts with the tying of a half hitch, and requires attention or some habitual mechanism for arriving at a knot that is an elaboration of the reef (or square) knot rather than of the granny (or lubber's) knot. One approach is to start by taking, in each hand, the end of the lace that emerges from the uppermost eyelet on that hand's side of the shoe; then passing the \"dominant\" hand's end \"under\" the other end, from front toward back, and dropping each lace on the opposite side from where it started; and in the finishing step again grasping the lace on each side with the hand on that side (perhaps taking time to note that because each end crossed over the shoe before, the laces have switched hands—or vice versa, the hands have switched laces) and again passing the \"dominant\" hand's end \"under\" the other end, from front toward back.\n",
"This is the process of running the shoelaces through the holes, eyelets, loops, or hooks to hold together the sides of the shoe with many common lacing methods. There are, in fact, almost two trillion ways to lace a shoe with six pairs of eyelets.\n",
"Knitted lace with no bound-off edges is extremely elastic, deforming easily to fit whatever it is draped on. As a consequence, knitted lace garments must be blocked or \"dressed\" before use, and tend to stretch over time.\n",
"A cable tie (also known as a hose tie, or zip tie, and by the brand names Ty-Rap) is a type of fastener, for holding items together, primarily electrical cables or wires. Because of their low cost and ease of use, cable ties are ubiquitous, finding use in a wide range of other applications. Stainless steel versions, either naked or coated with a rugged plastic, cater for exterior applications and hazardous environments.\n",
"Shoe dangling, or shoe flinging, is the practice of throwing shoes whose shoelaces have been tied together so that they hang from overhead wires such as power lines or telephone cables. Once the shoes are tied together, the pair is then thrown at the wires as a sort of bolas.\n"
] |
What is the difference between Enthalpy (H) and Heat (Q)? | Enthalpy is a Legendre transform of internal energy. It's a state function, so the change in enthalpy between two states doesn't depend on the path you take between those two steps (in fancy words, it's an *exact differential*).
Heat is not a state function; a system doesn't "have" a certain amount of heat in it (whereas a system *does* have a certain amount of enthalpy). Furthermore, the heat added or removed from a system between some initial and final state **does** depend on the path you take between those states (it's an *inexact differential*).
For a reversible process at constant pressure (like a lot of the things you do in chemistry), the differential enthalpy during some process is the same as the heat transferred into or out of the system during that process.
So that's why in chemistry you often hear terms like "latent heat of fusion" and "enthalpy of fusion" being used as if they're interchangeable, because they often *are* in chemistry.
The first law of thermodynamics says:
dU = ~~d~~Q + ~~d~~W, where the strikethroughs indicate inexact differentials.
And the (pressure-volume) work can be written as ~~d~~W = - p dV.
But maybe you want to think about energy as a function of pressure rather than volume. That way if you can keep the pressure constant (like in a laboratory environment), it'll simplify things.
If you replace the internal energy U with the enthalpy H = U + pV, you find that dH = dU + p dV + V dp.
Now replacing dU with what we have above, dH = ~~d~~Q - p dV + p dV + V dp.
The two terms in the middle cancel, and all that remains is dH = ~~d~~Q + V dp. At constant pressure (dp = 0), this says that dH = ~~d~~Q. | [
"Since the 1920s, it has been recommended practice to use enthalpy to refer to the \"heat content at constant volume\", and to thermal energy when \"heat\" in the general sense is intended, while \"heat\" is reserved for the very specific context of the transfer of thermal energy between two systems.\n",
"Enthalpy (H) is the transfer of energy in a reaction (for chemical reactions it is in the form of heat) and ΔH is the change in enthalpy. ΔH is a state function. Being a state function means that ΔH is independent of the processes between initial and final states. In other words, it does not matter what steps we take to get from initial reactants to final products—the ΔH will always be the same. ΔHrxn, or the change in enthalpy of a reaction, has the same value of ΔH as in a thermochemical equation, but is in units of kJ/mol being that it is the enthalpy change per moles of any particular substance in the equation. Values of ΔH are determined experimentally under standard conditions of 1atm and 25 °C (298.15K).\n",
"The enthalpy of sublimation, or heat of sublimation, is the heat required to change one mole of a substance from solid state to gaseous state at a given combination of temperature and pressure, usually standard temperature and pressure (STP). The heat of sublimation is usually expressed in kJ/mol, although the less customary kJ/kg is also encountered.\n",
"The total enthalpy, \"H\", of a system cannot be measured directly. The same situation exists in classical mechanics: only a change or difference in energy carries physical meaning. Enthalpy itself is a thermodynamic potential, so in order to measure the enthalpy of a system, we must refer to a defined reference point; therefore what we measure is the change in enthalpy, Δ\"H\". The Δ\"H\" is a positive change in endothermic reactions, and negative in heat-releasing exothermic processes.\n",
"Enthalpy , a property of a thermodynamic system, is equal to the system's internal energy plus the product of its pressure and volume. In a system enclosed so as to prevent matter transfer, for processes at constant pressure, the heat absorbed or released equals the change in enthalpy.\n",
"The \"Q\" temperature coefficient is a measure of the rate of change of a biological or chemical system as a consequence of increasing the temperature by 10 °C. There are many examples where the \"Q\" is used, one being the calculation of the nerve conduction velocity and another being calculating the contraction velocity of muscle fibres. It can also be applied to chemical reactions and many other systems.\n",
"Heat is defined in physics as the transfer of thermal energy across a well-defined boundary around a thermodynamic system. The thermodynamic free energy is the amount of work that a thermodynamic system can perform. Enthalpy is a thermodynamic potential, designated by the letter \"H\", that is the sum of the internal energy of the system (U) plus the product of pressure (P) and volume (V). Joule is a unit to quantify energy, work, or the amount of heat.\n"
] |
Would the water pressure be the same at 100 metres under the surface, even if the water was located in a water tank on land? | Yes.
The pressure at any point in the water body depends on three things given negligible air pressure changes. Density of liquid , gravitational constant and height below the surface. Given same g and density , at same depths no matter where kept, the pressure will be same.
| [
"The density of water causes ambient pressures that increase dramatically with depth. The atmospheric pressure at the surface is 14.7 pounds per square inch or around 100 kPa. A comparable hydrostatic pressure occurs at a depth of only ( for sea water). Thus, at about 10 m below the surface, the water exerts twice the pressure (2 atmospheres or 200 kPa) as air at surface level.\n",
"It is worthwhile to note that pressures may often be expressed in units of distance such as feet when diving. For this, note that descending 33 ft in salt water or 33.9 ft in fresh water results in a change of 1 atm, so distance and pressure are used interchangeably in this context.\n",
"Example: For a column of fresh water of 8.33 pounds per gallon (lb/U.S. gal) standing still hydrostatically in a 21,000 feet vertical cased wellbore from top to bottom (vertical hole), the pressure gradient would be\n",
"Elevated water tank, also known as a water tower, will create a pressure at the ground-level outlet of 1 kPa per 10.2 cm or 1 psi per 2.31 feet of elevation. Thus a tank elevated to 20 metres creates about 200 kPa and a tank elevated to 70 feet creates about 30 psi of discharge pressure, sufficient for most domestic and industrial requirements.\n",
"Since buoyant force points upwards, in the direction opposite to gravity, then pressure in the fluid increases downwards. Pressure in a static body of water increases proportionally to the depth below the surface of the water. The surfaces of constant pressure are planes parallel to the surface, which can be characterized as the plane of zero pressure.\n",
"Ambient pressure is the pressure in the water around the diver (or the air, with caisson workers etc.). As a diver descends, the ambient pressure increases. At in salt water, it is twice the normal pressure than that at the surface. At 40 meters (a common recommended limit for recreational diving) it is 5 times the pressure than at sea level.\n",
"In more detail, one can look at how the hydrostatic pressure varies through a static siphon, considering in turn the vertical tube from the top reservoir, the vertical tube from the bottom reservoir, and the horizontal tube connecting them (assuming a U-shape). At liquid level in the top reservoir, the liquid is under atmospheric pressure, and as one goes up the siphon, the hydrostatic pressure decreases (under vertical pressure variation), since the weight of atmospheric pressure pushing the water up is counterbalanced by the column of water in the siphon pushing down (until one reaches the maximal height of a barometer/siphon, at which point the liquid cannot be pushed higher) – the hydrostatic pressure at the top of the tube is then lower than atmospheric pressure by an amount proportional to the height of the tube. Doing the same analysis on the tube rising from the lower reservoir yields the pressure at the top of that (vertical) tube; this pressure is lower because the tube is longer (there is more water pushing down), and requires that the lower reservoir is lower than the upper reservoir, or more generally that the discharge outlet simply be lower than the surface of the upper reservoir. Considering now the horizontal tube connecting them, one sees that the pressure at the top of the tube from the top reservoir is higher (since less water is being lifted), while the pressure at the top of the tube from the bottom reservoir is lower (since more water is being lifted), and since liquids move from high pressure to low pressure, the liquid flows across the horizontal tube from the top basin to the bottom basin. Note that the liquid is under positive pressure (compression) throughout the tube, not tension.\n"
] |
would it be possible to replace all of your bones with some sort of metal replica? | Short answer: no. For a couple reasons.
Firstly, there's all the biological functions bone has in the body - as a store of calcium, a site for red and white blood cell production, a fat storage location, and probably more I'm forgetting.
Secondly, there's the material reasons - bone is an amazing natural composite, a living material. It's constantly breaking itself down and rebuilding in response to your needs, which is what makes replace parts with metal so complex. With bone, it's rare to have to deal with fatigue fractures, from years of constant cyclic loading (your leg joints take multiples of your bodyweight in load each time you take a step), as your body rebuilds the bone constantly. Metal isn't doing that, so it can eventually crack.
There's also the ways it would be held - our body knows what to do with bone, how to attach soft tissues to it, how not to attack it with the immune system - with metal (or any other material really) these things have to be taken into consideration. | [
"As an organic material, bone often does not survive in a way that is archaeologically recoverable. However, under the right conditions, bone tools do sometimes survive and many have been recovered from locations around the world representing time periods throughout history and prehistory. Also many examples have been collected ethnographically, and some traditional peoples, as well as experimental archaeologists, continue to use bone to make tools.\n",
"Bone generally has the ability to regenerate completely but requires a very small fracture space or some sort of scaffold to do so. Bone grafts may be autologous (bone harvested from the patient’s own body, often from the iliac crest), allograft (cadaveric bone usually obtained from a bone bank), or synthetic (often made of hydroxyapatite or other naturally occurring and biocompatible substances) with similar mechanical properties to bone. Most bone grafts are expected to be reabsorbed and replaced as the natural bone heals over a few months’ time.\n",
"Not all that remains is bone. There may be melted metal lumps from missed jewellery; casket furniture; dental fillings; and surgical implants, such as hip replacements. Breast implants do not have to be removed before cremation. Some medical devices such as pacemakers may need to be removed before cremation to avoid the risk of explosion. Large items such as titanium hip replacements (which tarnish but do not melt) or casket hinges are usually removed before processing, as they may damage the processor. (If they are missed at first, they must ultimately be removed before processing is complete, as items such as titanium joint replacements are far too durable to be ground.) Implants may be returned to the family, but are more commonly sold as ferrous/non-ferrous scrap metal. After the remains are processed, smaller bits of metal such as tooth fillings, and rings (commonly known as \"gleanings\") are sieved out and may be later interred in common, consecrated ground in a remote area of the cemetery. They may also be sold as precious metal scrap.\n",
"Bone has a unique and well documented natural healing process that normally is sufficient to repair fractures and other common injuries. Misaligned breaks due to severe trauma, as well as treatments like tumor resections of bone cancer, are prone to improper healing if left to the natural process alone. Scaffolds composed of natural and artificial components are seeded with mesenchymal stem cells and placed in the defect. Within four weeks of placing the scaffold, newly formed bone begins to integrate with the old bone and within 32 weeks, full union is achieved. Further studies are necessary to fully characterize the use of cell-based therapeutics for treatment of bone fractures.\n",
"Research on artificial bone materials has revealed that bioactive and resorbable silicate glasses (bioglass), glass-ceramics, and calcium phosphates exhibit mechanical properties that similar to human bone. Similar mechanical property does not assure biocompatibility. The body's biological response to those materials depends on many parameters including chemical composition, topography, porosity, and grain size. If the material is metal, there is a risk of corrosion and infection. If the material is ceramic, it is difficult to form the desired shape, and bone can't reabsorb or replace it due to its high crystallinity. Hydroxyapatite, on the other hand, has shown excellent properties in supporting the adhesion, differentiation, and proliferation of osteogenesis cell since it is both thermodynamically stable and bioactive. Artificial bones using hydroxyapatite combine with collagen tissue helps to form new bones in pores, and have a strong affinity to biological tissues while maintaining uniformity with adjacent bone tissue. Despite its excellent performance in interacting with bone tissue, hydroxyapatite has the same problem as ceramic in reabsorption due to its high crystallinity. Since hydroxyapatite is processed at a high temperature, it is unlikely that it will remain in a stable state.\n",
"Casts of skeletons were also produced, to replace the original bones after taphonomic study, scientific documentation and excavation. In contrast to Pompeii, where casts resembling the body features of the victims were produced by filling the body imprints in the ash deposit with plaster, the shape of corpses at Herculaneum could not be preserved, due to the rapid vapourization and replacement of the flesh of the victims by the hot ash (ca. 500 °C). A cast of the skeletons unearthed within chamber 10 is on display at the Museum of Anthropology in Naples. The most significant and extensive study of a sample of the skeletal remains of the Herculaneum victims is that published by Luigi Capasso in 2001. This study which employed X rays has superseded the earlier work by Bisel \n",
"Thorough study of the skeletal remains lasted for over three months. Owsley was eventually able to identify the victim as 18-year-old Steven Hicks, who had disappeared in 1978. The case was particularly difficult, because the victim's body had been cut, broken, and literally chopped into several pieces. Forensics require careful identification, measuring, and matching of various sizes of bone chips, which often calls for the use of scanning electron microscopes to accurately establish the composition of the most minute chip and fragment to confirm that it is actually bone and human remains.\n"
] |
who's in charge of coming up with street names and is there any approval by a committee? also, if you were someone that decided street names how did you come up with them? | In private developments in Ohio, it's up to the discretion of the developer. For example, the development I live in AND the street I live ON are both named after the developer's grandson... who lived in the development. The development I used to live in was interesting because every street was named after a winner of the Kentucky Derby. I would guess that the county commissioners name the public streets. This is probably different in all fifty states and I'm sure it's different in other countries. | [
"One notable feature of the town is the naming of some of its streets, and also its occasionally idiosyncratic numbering system. Some streets which pass through the town may thus bear two names (in whichever language). For example, Jean Talon Street, a large East-West thoroughfare crossing Montreal for kilometers, goes a few hundred meters through TMR under the name of Dresden Avenue, only to recover its Montreal name on the other side of the town. This situation has been recently addressed by putting the two names on the street signs. On these few hundred meters, TMR uses a house civic numbering totally different from that of Montreal on either side. This sort of change in the numbering system also occurs on smaller streets shared by both Montreal and TMR (for example, Trenton, Lockhart and Brookfield avenues, where the TMR numbering system decreases from East to West, only to jump from 2 to 2400 on the few meters of the street that still belong to Montreal.\n",
"Other streets, mainly \"-gil\", may be named after the street name it diverges from with a systematic number. There are three different types of numbering rules: basic numbering, serial numbering, and other numbering. The purpose of numbering streets is to make street names easier to predict position of it so address users find their destination streets or buildings easily on the maps or the streets. \n",
"BULLET::::- Allow useful information to be deduced from the names based on regularities. For instance, in Manhattan, streets are consecutively numbered; with East-West streets called \"Streets\" and North-South streets called \"Avenues\".\n",
"Street names reflected this bottom-up emergence, and street names were not coordinated from development to development, even for along the same north-south or east-west line. Some names were used more than once, by different streets across various Denver neighborhoods and surrounding towns. There was no universal system for the use of terms like \"street\", \"avenue\", etc. Later, these terms were defined such that \"street\" designated roads running north and south and aligned with the hundreds of the numbering system, with \"court\" for intermediate (non-hundreds) north-south roads and \"way\" for roads which start north-south but curve to intersect with another north-south road; \"avenue\", \"place\", and \"drive\" (respectively) are the corresponding terms for roads running east and west. Major arterials in both directions, however, are often called \"boulevards\", and \"road\" and \"parkway\" also make appearances.\n",
"A street name can also include a direction (the cardinal points east, west, north, south, or the quadrants NW, NE, SW, SE) especially in cities with a grid-numbering system. Examples include \"E Roosevelt Boulevard\" and \"14th Street NW\". These directions are often (though not always) used to differentiate two sections of a street. Other qualifiers may be used for that purpose as well. Examples: upper/lower, old/new, or adding \"extension\".\n",
"Street numbers can be written as orientation numbers (related to street) or descriptive numbers (unique within the town) or as a combination separated by a slash (descriptive/orientation). Descriptive numbers are also used within small villages that do not have named streets.\n",
"Though the nomenclature may initially confuse new arrivals and visitors, most consider the grid system an aid to navigation. Some streets have names, such as State Street, which would otherwise be known as 100 East. Other streets have honorary names, such as the western portion of 300 South, named \"Adam Galvez Street\" (for a local Marine corporal killed in action) or others honoring Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King, Jr., César Chávez, and John Stockton. These honorary names appear only on street signs and cannot be used in postal addresses.\n"
] |
what happens to our mind when you spin around? | Nothing happens to your brain. You have fluid in your ear that helps your brain recognize what is up and what is down. When you spin the fluid has to re-equilibrate and while this is happening your brain is confused and the result is nausea, vertigo, and that weird effect where your eyes continue to follow whatever direction you were spinning in. | [
"The most common general symptom of having the spins is described by its name: the feeling that one has the uncontrollable sense of spinning, although one is not in motion, which is one of the main reasons an intoxicated person may vomit. The person has this feeling due to impairments in vision and equilibrioception. Diplopia (double vision) or polyplopia are common, as well as the symptoms of motion sickness and vertigo.\n",
"The spins (as in having \"the spins\") is an adverse reaction of intoxication that causes a state of vertigo and nausea, causing one to feel as if \"spinning out of control\", especially when lying down. It is most commonly associated with drunkenness or mixing alcohol with other psychoactive drugs such as cannabis. This state is likely to cause vomiting, but having \"the spins\" is not life-threatening unless pulmonary aspiration occurs.\n",
"Depending on the perception of the observer, the apparent direction of spin may change any number of times, a typical feature of so-called bistable percepts such as the Necker cube which may be perceived from time to time as seen from above or below. These alternations are spontaneous and may randomly occur without any change in the stimulus or intention by the observer. However some observers may have difficulty perceiving a change in motion at all.\n",
"The spinning sensation experienced from BPPV is usually triggered by movement of the head, will have a sudden onset, and can last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. The most common movements people report triggering a spinning sensation are tilting their heads upwards in order to look at something, and rolling over in bed.\n",
"When humans turn the head from left to right, the image projected on the retinas moves in the direction opposite to the head movement. Without the head turning, such an image displacement would appear as something moving; but when it is correlated with the turning of the head, no movement of the environment is seen. However, what if the image were to move in coordination with the head movement, but the extent of that movement were less (or more) than would be usual for the head movement in question? Would the anomaly be noticed?\n",
"The movement of shaking or rotating the head left and right happens almost entirely at the joint between the atlas and the axis, the atlanto-axial joint. A small amount of rotation of the vertebral column itself contributes to the movement. This movement between the atlas and axis is often referred to as the \"no joint\", owing to its nature of being able to rotate the head in a side-to-side fashion.\n",
"Balance in the body is monitored principally by two systems, both of which are affected by alcohol sending abnormal impulses to the brain, [which tells it] that the body is rotating, causing disorientation and making the eyes spin round to compensate.\n"
] |
why is there two ways of writing "4" and "a" ? | The '4' and 'a' you see on your screen right now (unless you're using an odd font) are the technically correct glyphs, which is why they appear that way in most typefaces unless it's specifically mimicking handwriting. The "open 4" is use in handwriting because it's easier to distinguish from a 9. When writing quickly, those two digits can often look similar. The other way of writing 'a' is more because it's easier and faster. | [
"Linguistically, it has the alphabetical usage in texts for \"b\", \"a\", or syllabically for \"ba\", and also a replacement for \"\"b\"\", by \"\"p\"\". The a is replaceable in word formation by any of the 4 vowels: \"a, e, i,\" or \"u\".\n",
"The pronunciation of the digits 3, 4, 5, and 9 differs from standard English – being pronounced \"tree\", \"fower\", \"fife\", and \"niner\". The digit 3 is specified as \"tree\" so that it is not pronounced \"sri\"; the long pronunciation of 4 (still found in some English dialects) keeps it somewhat distinct from \"for\"; 5 is pronounced with a second \"f\" because the normal pronunciation with a \"v\" is easily confused with \"fire\" (a command to shoot); and 9 has an extra syllable to keep it distinct from German \"nein\" 'no'.\n",
"BULLET::::- The letter \"ç\" is sometimes written \"ch\" due to technical limitations because of its use in English sound and its analogy to the other digraphs \"xh\", \"sh\", and \"zh\". Usually it is written simply \"c\" or more rarely \"q\" with context resolving any ambiguities.\n",
"Letters 16 and 17 form a two-letter word ending in \"P\". Since this has to be \"UP\", letter 16 is a \"U\", which can be filled into the appropriate clue answer in the list of clues. Likewise, a three-letter word starting with \"A\" could be \"and\", \"any\", \"all\", or even a proper name like \"Ann\". One might need more clue answers before daring to guess which it could be. \n",
"C is the third letter in the English alphabet and a letter of the alphabets of many other writing systems which inherited it from the Latin alphabet. It is also the third letter of the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is named \"cee\" (pronounced ) in English.\n",
"The \"e\" preceding the \"r\" is kept in American inflected forms of nouns and verbs, for example, , which are respectively in British English. \"\" is an interesting example, since, according to the \"OED\", it is a \"\"word ... of 3 syllables (in careful pronunciation)\"\" (i.e., ), yet there is no vowel in the spelling corresponding to the second syllable (). The OED third edition (revised entry of June 2016) allows either two or three syllables. The three-syllable version is listed as only the American pronunciation of \"centering\" on the Oxford Dictionaries Online website. The \"e\" is dropped for other derivations, for example, \"central\", \"fibrous\", \"spectral\". However, the existence of related words without \"e\" before the \"r\" is not proof for the existence of an \"-re\" British spelling: for example, \"entry\" and \"entrance\" come from \"enter\", which has not been spelled \"entre\" for centuries.\n",
"The form \"an\" is used before words starting with a vowel sound, regardless of whether the word begins with a vowel letter. This avoids the glottal stop (momentary silent pause) that would otherwise be required between \"a\" and a following vowel sound. Where the next word begins with a consonant sound, \"a\" is used. Examples: \"a box\"; \"an apple\"; \"an SSO\" (pronounced \"es-es-oh\"); \"a HEPA filter\" (HEPA is pronounced as a word rather than as letters); \"an hour\" (the \"h\" is silent); \"a one-armed bandit\" (pronounced \"won...\"); \"an heir\" (pronounced \"air\"); \"a unicorn\" (pronounced \"yoo-\"); \"an herb\" in American English (where the \"h\" is silent), but \"a herb\" in British English; \"a unionized worker\" but \"an unionized particle\".\n"
] |
how are movies that were recorded in a lower definition able to be released in higher definitions? | They were recorded on film, which isn't limited to an amount of pixels- for the most part.
Remember that they were broadcast on a huge screen.
As long as you can get the original print you can re-release the movie as HD. | [
"Depending on the year and format in which a movie was filmed, the exposed image can vary greatly in size. Sizes range from as big as 24 mm × 36 mm for VistaVision/Technirama 8 perforation cameras (same as 35 mm still photo film) going down through 18 mm × 24 mm for Silent Films or Full Frame 4 perforations cameras to as small as 9 mm × 21 mm in Academy Sound Aperture cameras modified for the Techniscope 2 perforation format. Movies are also produced using other film gauges, including 70 mm films (22 mm × 48 mm) or the rarely used 55 mm and CINERAMA.\n",
"BULLET::::- Length: Films may be shortened for television broadcasting or for use on airlines. DVD releases of films may also contain longer cuts. In a growing trend, more and more films are being released in an \"Unrated\" cut of the film. Prior to when TV airings of the film begins, a format screen appears reading, \"\"The following film has been modified from its original version. It has been formatted to fit this screen, to run in the time allotted and edited for content\"\" (see below). The end credits on TV airings of films sometimes speed up to make time for the next show or film to start, or to free up more airtime for advertisements, which has become an increasingly-common practice.\n",
"DVD producers can also choose to show even wider ratios such as 1.85:1 and 2.39:1 within the 16:9 DVD frame by hard matting or adding black bars within the image itself. Some films which were made in a 1.85:1 aspect ratio, such as the U.S.-Italian co-production \"Man of La Mancha\" and Kenneth Branagh's \"Much Ado About Nothing\", fit quite comfortably onto a 1.7:1 HDTV screen and have been issued as an enhanced version on DVD without the black bars. Many digital video cameras have the capability to record in 16:9.\n",
"A handful of theatrically released feature films, such as \"Timecode\" (2000), \"Russian Ark\" (2002), \"PVC-1\" (2007), and \"Victoria\" (2015) are filmed in one single take; others are composed entirely from a series of long takes, while many more may be well known for one or two specific long takes within otherwise more conventionally edited films. In 2012, the art collective The Hut Project produced \"The Look of Performance\", a digital film shot in a single 360° take lasting 3 hours, 33 minutes and 8 seconds. The film was shot at 50 frames per second, meaning the final exhibited work lasts 7 hours, 6 minutes and 17 seconds.\n",
"In many cases, successful film releases have had items made in limited numbers. These \"limited editions\" usually contain the best DVD edition possible of a film with special items in a box set, sometimes containing items available only in the limited edition. Items marked thus are often (but not always) released for a shorter time and in lower quantity than common editions, often with a running number (e.g. \"13055 of 20000\") printed on the products to boost the rarity feel, as the company implies not to manufacture more. It is also common to have such items packaged with unique designs.\n",
"However, films shot at aspect ratios of 2.20:1, 2.35:1, 2.39:1, 2.55:1, and especially 2.76:1 (\"Ben-Hur\" for example) might still be problematic when displayed on televisions of any type. But when the DVD is \"anamorphically enhanced for widescreen\", or the film is telecast on a high-definition channel seen on a widescreen TV, the black spaces are smaller, and the effect is still much like watching a film on a theatrical wide screen. Though 16:9 (and occasionally 16:10, mostly for computers and tablets) remain standard as of 2018, wider-screen consumer TVs in 21:9 have been released to the market by multiple brands.\n",
"If footage with taller ratios were shot (digitally or on film), for example IMAX scenes for various films, then the screen real-estate is cropped in accordance to the deliverable ratio. This helps in preserving headroom and composition for the film beyond the theatrical release. \n"
] |
What happens to bones when a big animal like a shark or an orca eats and swallows another whole animal? | Sharks have a digestive system that's designed to primarily digest meat and fat, so larger bones, chunks of sea turtle shells, things like that are usually vomited back out.
And orcas have a three-chambered stomach, so the food takes more times to pass through, and gives the stomach acid more time to digest everything, including bone | [
"Crocodilians are unable to chew and need to swallow food whole, so prey that is too large to swallow is torn into pieces. They may be unable to deal with a large animal with a thick hide, and may wait until it becomes putrid and comes apart more easily. To tear a chunk of tissue from a large carcass, a crocodilian spins its body continuously while holding on with its jaws, a manoeuvre known as the \"death roll\". During cooperative feeding, some individuals may hold on to the prey, while others perform the roll. The animals do not fight, and each retires with a piece of flesh and awaits its next feeding turn. Food is typically consumed by crocodilians with their heads above water. The food is held with the tips of the jaws, tossed towards the back of the mouth by an upward jerk of the head and then gulped down. Nile crocodiles may store carcasses underwater for later consumption.\n",
"BULLET::::- Tyrannosaur teeth could crush bone, and therefore could extract as much food (bone marrow) as possible from carcass remnants, usually the least nutritious parts. Karen Chin and colleagues have found bone fragments in coprolites (fossilized feces) that they attribute to tyrannosaurs, but point out that a tyrannosaur's teeth were not well adapted to systematically chewing bone like hyenas do to extract marrow. Gregory Paul also wrote that a bone-crushing bite would also have been advantageous to a predator; providing the extreme bite force to kill prey and later consume it efficiently. Other paleontologists would also find similarities between \"Tyrannosaurus\" teeth and those of other predators. Farlow and Holtz pointed out that like \"Tyrannosaurus\", orcas and crocodiles also had broad-based teeth. Holtz noted the similarities between \"Tyrannosaurus\" teeth and those of hyaenids, but further addeds that all hyaenids are known to kill prey, with the largest (\"Crocuta crocuta\") obtaining most of its food through this means. He also notes that hyaenids mainly crunch bone with their molars and premolars. Holtz also pointed out that felids also developed thickened teeth as adaptations to resist contact with bone during prey capture or dispatch as well as during feeding.\n",
"In the Dinosaur Park Formation, small theropods are rare due to the tendency of their thin-walled bones to be broken or poorly preserved. Small bones of small theropods that were preyed upon by larger ones may have been swallowed whole and digested. In this context, the discovery of a small theropod dinosaur with preserved tooth marks was especially valuable. Possible indeterminate avimimid and therizinosaurid remains are known from the formation.\n",
"Another possible explanation for the small bones is that they were originally located in the throat and were pushed into the pharyngeal pouch during fossilization. If this was the case, \"Trimerorhachis\" may have eaten its young instead of brooding them. This type of cannibalism is widespread in living amphibians, and most likely occurred among some prehistoric amphibians as well.\n",
"Vultures are scavengers, meaning they eat dead animals. They rarely attack healthy animals, but may kill the wounded or sick. When a carcass has too thick a hide for its beak to open, it waits for a larger scavenger to eat first. Vast numbers have been seen upon battlefields. They gorge themselves when prey is abundant, until their crops bulge, and sit, sleepy or half torpid, to digest their food. These birds do not carry food to their young in their talons but disgorge it from their crops. The mountain-dwelling bearded vulture is the only vertebrate to specialize in eating bones, and does carry bones to the nest for the young, and it hunts some live prey.\n",
"When feeding on large carcasses, the shark employs a rolling motion of its jaw. The 48-52 teeth of the upper jaw are very thin and pointed, lacking serrations. These upper jaw teeth act as an anchor while the lower jaw proceeds to cut massive chunks out of their prey for a quick and easy kill.\n",
"Predators including big cats, birds of prey, and ants share powerful jaws, sharp teeth, or claws which they use to seize and kill their prey. Some predators such as snakes and fish-eating birds like herons and cormorants swallow their prey whole; some snakes can unhinge their jaws to allow them to swallow large prey, while fish-eating birds have long spear-like beaks that they use to stab and grip fast-moving and slippery prey. Fish and other predators have developed the ability to crush or open the armoured shells of molluscs.\n"
] |
how do hooves make animals better at climbing mountains? | Mountain goats have special hooves that are like a pirate's hook with soft padding to help adjust. They suck at running long distance running but are great at scaling verticle surfaces because of this. | [
"Many animals climb in other habitats, such as in rock piles or mountains, and in those habitats, many of the same principles apply due to inclines, narrow ledges, and balance issues. However, less research has been conducted on the specific demands of locomotion in these habitats.\n",
"Perhaps the most exceptional of the animals that move on steep or even near vertical rock faces by careful balancing and leaping are the various types of mountain dwelling caprid such as the Barbary sheep, markhor, yak, ibex, tahr, rocky mountain goat, and chamois. Their adaptations may include a soft rubbery pad between their hooves for grip, hooves with sharp keratin rims for lodging in small footholds, and prominent dew claws. The snow leopard, being a predator of such mountain caprids, also has spectacular balance and leaping abilities; being able to leap up to ≈17m (~50 ft). Other balancers and leapers include the mountain zebra, mountain tapir, and hyraxes.\n",
"The mountain goat's feet are well-suited for climbing steep, rocky slopes with pitches exceeding 60°, with inner pads that provide traction and cloven hooves that can spread apart. The tips of their feet have sharp dewclaws that keep them from slipping. They have powerful shoulder and neck muscles that help propel them up steep slopes.\n",
"Their skill in foraging for food allows them to survive in steep mountain areas where they both graze and eat plants that many other cattle avoid. They can dig through the snow with their horns to find buried plants.\n",
"Some animals are specialized for moving on non-horizontal surfaces. One common habitat for such climbing animals is in trees, for example the gibbon is specialized for arboreal movement, traveling rapidly by brachiation. Another case is animals like the snow leopard living on steep rock faces such as are found in mountains. Some light animals are able to climb up smooth sheer surfaces or hang upside down by adhesion using suckers. Many insects can do this, though much larger animals such as geckos can also perform similar feats.\n",
"As a member of the ungulate group of mammals, the Himalayan tahr possesses an even number of toes. They have adapted the unique ability to grasp both smooth and rough surfaces that are typical of the mountainous terrain on which they reside. This useful characteristic also helps their mobility. The hooves of the tahr have a rubber-like core which allows for gripping smooth rocks while keratin at the rim of their hooves allow increased hoof durability, which is important for traversing the rocky ground. This adaptation allows for confident and swift maneuvering of the terrain.\n",
"Hooves grow continuously. In nature, wild animals are capable of wearing down the hoof as it continuously grows, but captive domesticated species often must undergo specific hoof care for a healthy, functional hoof. Proper care improves biomechanical efficiency and prevents lameness. If not worn down enough by use, such as in the dairy industry, hooves may need to be trimmed by a farrier. However, too much wear can result in damage of the hooves, and for this reason, horseshoes and oxshoes are used by animals that routinely walk on hard surfaces and carry heavy weight. Within the equine world, the expression, \"no foot, no horse\" emphasizes the importance of hoof health. Lameness, behind infertility and mastitis, is the biggest cause of economic loss to a dairy farmer.\n"
] |
Would phlegm be digested if swallowed? | The mucous is digested further down in the gut by enzymes in the small bowel and bacteria in the large bowel. | [
"Pharyngeal aspiration is often performed on mice and rats. Prior to introduction of the stubstance, the animal is anesthetized and its tongue extended, preventing the animal from swallowing the material and allowing it to be aspirated into the lungs over the course of at least two deep breaths. A liquid suspension of particles in saline solution is usually used, in a typical volume of 50 μL. Sometimes the substance is introduced into the larynx instead of the pharynx to avoid contamination from food particles and other contaminants present in the mouth.\n",
"Globus pharyngis is the persistent sensation of having phlegm, a pill or some other sort of obstruction in the throat when there is none. Swallowing can be performed normally, so it is not a true case of dysphagia, but it can become quite irritating. One may also feel mild chest pain or even severe pain with a clicking sensation when swallowing.\n",
"From chewing to defecation, alpha-synuclein deposits affect every level of gastrointestinal function. Almost all persons with DLB have upper gastrointestinal tract dysfunction (such as delayed gastric emptying) or lower gastrointestinal dysfunction (such as constipation and prolonged stool transit time). Persons with Lewy body dementias almost universally experience nausea, gastric retention, or abdominal distention from delayed gastric emptying. Constipation can present a decade before diagnosis. Difficulty swallowing is milder than in other synucleinopathies, and presents later in the course of the disease.\n",
"Like the pharyngeal phase of swallowing, the esophageal phase of swallowing is under involuntary neuromuscular control. However, propagation of the food bolus is significantly slower than in the pharynx. The bolus enters the esophagus and is propelled downwards first by striated muscle (recurrent laryngeal, X) then by the smooth muscle (X) at a rate of 3–5 cm/s. The upper esophageal sphincter relaxes to let food pass, after which various striated constrictor muscles of the pharynx as well as peristalsis and relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter sequentially push the bolus of food through the esophagus into the stomach.\n",
"The salpingopharyngeus is known to raise the pharynx and larynx during deglutition (swallowing) and laterally draws the pharyngeal walls up. In addition, it opens the pharyngeal orifice of the pharyngotympanic tube during swallowing. This allows for the equalization of pressure between the auditory canal and the pharynx. As the salpingopharyngeus is used to open the eustachian tubes to equalize pressure in the middle ear, the muscle can easily be stimulated by swallowing.\n",
"Certain parts of the respiratory tract, such as the oropharynx, are also subject to the abrasive swallowing of food. To prevent the destruction of the respiratory epithelium in these areas, it changes to stratified squamous epithelium, which is better suited to the constant sloughing and abrasion. The squamous layer of the oropharynx is continuous with the esophagus.\n",
"In many protists, phagocytosis is used as a means of feeding, providing part or all of their nourishment. This is called phagotrophic nutrition, distinguished from osmotrophic nutrition which takes place by absorption.\n"
] |
Have there been periods of greater or lesser volcanic activity on earth, and if so, what causes this variation? | In the past there have been more volcanic activities since the Earth was much hotter after accretion. The whole surface would have been a barely cooled crust covered in volcanic pustules.
It was much hotter and we have evidence of it from komatiiates which only form at higher temperatures than we see today (1).
So during the early Earth was more volcanically active but different from the volcanoes we see today.
Another thing that continues to influence volcanic activity is thought to be glacier cover. The increased pressure on the volcano from meters worth of ice can depress eruptions (2).
References:
1. _URL_0_
2. _URL_1_ | [
"The 1991 spike is understood to be due to the volcanic eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in June of that year. Volcanoes affect atmospheric methane emissions when they erupt, releasing ash and sulfur dioxide into the air. As a result, photochemistry of plants is affected and the removal of methane via the tropospheric hydroxyl radical is reduced. However, growth rates quickly fell due to lower temperatures and global reduction in rainfall.\n",
"There is evidence of a decline in volcanic activity over the past few million years. This decline in volcanic activity can be grouped into two phases. From eight to four million years ago, volcanism rates were higher than they are at present. Magma production during this volcanic phase was most active from seven to five million years ago and was related to a period of rifting along the Pacific and North American Plate boundary. Between four and three million years ago in the Pliocene epoch, a pause in volcanic activity began to happen. The most recent magmatic phase ranging from two million years ago to present resulted from nearby areas of rifting during a period of compression between the Pacific and North American plates. Volcanism rates during this volcanic phase was most active from two to one million years ago with the construction of 25 volcanic zones then decreased one million years ago with the construction of 11 volcanic zones. To date, the most recent volcanic phase has produced of volcanic material whereas the first phase produced of volcanic material. Even though the rate in volcanism throughout the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province has changed considerably, there is no correlation between the rate in magma production and the number of active volcanoes during any interval of time. The present day volcanism rate for the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is considerably lower than the Cascade Volcanic Arc and Hawaiian volcanism rates. However, geologists are aware the temporal volcanic patterns known for the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province should be looked at carefully because volcanics that pre-date the last glacial period have been eroded by glacial ice and many of the volcanics have not been directly dated or have not been dated in significant detail to identify more individual temporal patterns. Lava fountains can occur in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province roughly every 100 years.\n",
"The volcanic field has formed on top of older, Oligocene to Miocene age volcanic rocks and calderas, but its own activity commenced only about 6 million years ago. The reasons for volcanism there are not well known. The volcanic field has produced various types of basaltic magma and also trachyte; the most recent eruption was about 38,000 years ago and renewed activity is possible.\n",
"Holocene volcanic activity includes the emission of tephra and lava flows with eruptions every 1,400 - 1,200 years since 3,800 years before present. The growth of a lava dome over the last 600 years was accompanied by phreatic activity. Tephrochronology suggests the occurrence of eruptions 1,350, 750 AD, 550 ± 100 BC, 1,850 BC, 3,050 BC, 5,550 BC, 7,050 BC and 7,550 BC.\n",
"Over the past 360,000 years there have been two major cycles, each culminating with two caldera-forming eruptions. The cycles end when the magma evolves to a rhyolitic composition, causing the most explosive eruptions. In between the caldera-forming eruptions are a series of sub-cycles. Lava flows and small explosive eruptions build up cones, which are thought to impede the flow of magma to the surface. This allows the formation of large magma chambers, in which the magma can evolve to more silicic compositions. Once this happens, a large explosive eruption destroys the cone. The Kameni islands in the centre of the lagoon are the most recent example of a cone built by this volcano, with much of them hidden beneath the water.\n",
"While the land's volcanic history dates back to before the Zealandia microcontinent rifted away from Gondwana 60–130 million years ago, activity continues today with minor eruptions occurring every few years. This recent activity is primarily due to the country's position on the boundary between the Indo-Australian and Pacific Plates, a part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, and particularly the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Indo-Australian Plate.\n",
"Highly active periods of volcanism in what are called large igneous provinces have produced huge oceanic plateaus and flood basalts in the past. These can comprise hundreds of large eruptions, producing millions of cubic kilometers of lava in total. No large eruptions of flood basalts have occurred in human history, the most recent having occurred over 10 million years ago. They are often associated with breakup of supercontinents such as Pangea in the geologic record, and may have contributed to a number of mass extinctions. Most large igneous provinces have either not been studied thoroughly enough to establish the size of their component eruptions, or are not preserved well enough to make this possible. Many of the eruptions listed above thus come from just two large igneous provinces: the Paraná and Etendeka traps and the Columbia River Basalt Group. The latter is the most recent large igneous province, and also one of the smallest. A list of large igneous provinces follows to provide some indication of how many large eruptions may be missing from the lists given here.\n"
] |
Have there ever been memes similar to the modern memes? | "Kilroy was here" is the only thing I can remember. Basically, during ww2 American soldiers would leave these marks on beaches they stormed, places they visited, etc. | [
"The idea of memes, and the word itself, were originally speculated by Richard Dawkins in his book \"The Selfish Gene\" although similar, or analogous, concepts had been in currency for a while before its publishing. Richard Dawkins wrote a foreword to \"The Meme Machine\".\n",
"Richard Dawkins, who originated the concept of memes, approvingly cites in the second edition of his book \"The Selfish Gene\" Henson's coining of the neologism \"memeoids\" to refer to \"victims who have been taken over by a meme to the extent that their own survival becomes inconsequential.\"\n",
"In his 1976 book \"The Selfish Gene\", Richard Dawkins coined the term memes to describe informational units that can be transmitted culturally, analogous to genes. He later used this concept in the essay \"Viruses of the Mind\" to explain the persistence of religious ideas in human culture.\n",
"Richard Dawkins coined the term \"meme\" in his 1976 book \"The Selfish Gene\". As conceived by Dawkins, a meme is a unit of cultural meaning, such as an idea or a value, that is passed from one generation to another. When asked to assess this comparison, Lauren Ancel Meyers, a biology professor at the University of Texas, states that \"memes spread through online social networks similarly to the way diseases do through offline populations\". This dispersion of cultural movements is shown through the spread of memes online, especially when seemingly innocuous or trivial trends spread and die in rapid fashion.\n",
"Susan Blackmore (2002) re-stated the definition of meme as: whatever is copied from one person to another person, whether habits, skills, songs, stories, or any other kind of information. Further she said that memes, like genes, are replicators in the sense as defined by Dawkins.\n",
"Richard Dawkins argues for the existence of a \"unit of cultural transmission\" called a meme. This concept of memes has become much more accepted as more extensive research has been done into cultural behaviors. Much as one can inherit genes from each parent, it is suggested that individuals acquire memes through imitating what they observe around them. The more relevant actions (actions that increase ones probability of survival), such as architecture and craftwork are more likely to become prevalent, enabling a culture to form. The idea of memes as following a form of Natural Selection was first presented by Daniel Dennett. It has also been argued by Dennett that memes are responsible for the entirety of human consciousness. He claims that everything that constitutes humanity, such as language and music is a result of memes and the unflinching hold they have on our thought processes.\n",
"The term meme was coined in Richard Dawkins' 1976 book \"The Selfish Gene,\" but Dawkins later distanced himself from the resulting field of study. Analogous to a gene, the meme was conceived as a \"unit of culture\" (an idea, belief, pattern of behaviour, etc.) which is \"hosted\" in the minds of one or more individuals, and which can reproduce itself in the sense of jumping from the mind of one person to the mind of another. Thus what would otherwise be regarded as one individual influencing another to adopt a belief is seen as an idea-replicator reproducing itself in a new host. As with genetics, particularly under a Dawkinsian interpretation, a meme's success may be due to its contribution to the effectiveness of its host.\n"
] |
nuclear arms race | they dont just stockpile the same type of nuke, with time other nations can come up with newer and better delivery methods that cant be stopped or intercepted or your older nukes become incapable of delivering/entering the target area so they make more nukes with better technology.
sometimes they upgrade previous systems , other times its complete new systems.
since those weapons dont ever get used they stock pile into the thousands. | [
"The nuclear arms race was an arms race competition for supremacy in nuclear warfare between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies during the Cold War. During this period, in addition to the American and Soviet nuclear stockpiles, other countries developed nuclear weapons, though none engaged in warhead production on nearly the same scale as the two superpowers.\n",
"BULLET::::- Nuclear arms race and warfare is expanded by a nuclear mapmode, uranium as a resource, factories (centrifuges) to produce enriched fission material, ICBMs that can be launched from silos, nuclear submarines, and a red button.\n",
"In nuclear strategy, a second-strike capability is a country's assured ability to respond to a nuclear attack with powerful nuclear retaliation against the attacker. To have such an ability (and to convince an opponent of its viability) is considered vital in nuclear deterrence, as otherwise the other side might attempt to try to win a nuclear war in one massive first strike against its opponent's own nuclear forces.\n",
"The crucial goal in maintaining second-strike capabilities is preventing first-strike attacks from taking out a nation's nuclear arsenal. In this manner, a country can carry out nuclear retaliation even after absorbing a nuclear attack. The United States and other countries have diversified their nuclear arsenals through the nuclear triad in order to better ensure second-strike capability.\n",
"In 2007, Rhodes published \"Arsenals of Folly: The Making of the Nuclear Arms Race\", a chronicle of the arms buildups during the Cold War, especially focusing on Mikhail Gorbachev and the Reagan administration.\n",
"BULLET::::- Frank Barnaby and Geoffrey Thomas, eds, \"The nuclear arms race — control or catastrophe?: proceedings of the General Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 1981\" (London: Pinter, 1982).\n",
"In nuclear strategy, first strike capability is a country's ability to defeat another nuclear power by destroying its arsenal to the point where the attacking country can survive the weakened retaliation.\n"
] |
Can any scientists comment on the debate in /r/science regarding a new Alzheimer's vaccine? | Based on the abstract (for some reason my institution doesn't have access to the full paper) of the [Lancet Neurology paper](_URL_2_), I'm not too impressed. This was an extremely preliminary study establishing the side effect profile, as well as determining whether the vaccine actually induces an antibody response. According the abstract, they didn't even look at efficacy in their outcomes. Their overall conclusion was that 1) this vaccine does induce some sort of immune response and 2) it doesn't seem to have serious adverse effects. They listed "Immune response, cognitive and functional assessments" as one of their secondary outcomes on their [_URL_1_ page](_URL_0_), but don't report on it in the abstract.
As this was merely a phase I trial, the n is also very small (58 total). I think it's quite a number of steps from anything clinically useful.
edited to add: the principle that they're working with is inducing antibodies against the Aβ-amyloid. I'm not convinced that this would actually be effective. Aβ-amyloid makes up the 'senile plaques' that is so characteristic, but I don't think it's very indicative of cognitive defects. I think the tau proteins (that make up the neurofibrillary tangles) are much more prognostic. I'm also not convinced that an antibody response against these plaques would be helpful, since they would have to penetrate the blood-brain barrier to reach the amyloid. Once there, it's not like the antibodies magically make them go away, since there would still need to be some mechanism of clearing them (possibly via microglia). So I guess my point is that this is an important step towards eventually possibly developing a vaccine or treatment, but there's so much that we don't know yet that it's hard to see it happening in the near future. | [
"BULLET::::- Alzheimer's Disease: West Virginia University's Rockefeller Neuroscience Institute has been chosen as the first site in the world to participate in phase II of a new clinical trial using ultrasound technology to help reverse the effects of Alzheimer's disease, and allow doctors access to parts of the brain affected by it.\n",
"BULLET::::- Toronto Star, June 13, 2006 - New drug offers hope against Alzheimer's - AZD-103 found by U of T researchers Shown to reverse some damage from disease Part of a research study which is a collaboration between the University of Toronto and the Alzheimer Society of Ontario, funded by both federal and provincial research organizations.\n",
"Shriver executive-produced \"The Alzheimer's Project\", a four-part documentary series that premiered on HBO in May 2009 and later earned two Emmy Awards. It was described by the \"Los Angeles Times\" as \"ambitious, disturbing, emotionally fraught and carefully optimistic\". The series took a close look at cutting-edge research being done in the country's leading Alzheimer's laboratories. The documentary also examined the effects of this disease on patients and families. One of the Emmy Award-winning films, \"Grandpa, Do you Know Who I Am?\" is based on Shriver's best-selling children's book dealing with Alzheimer's.\n",
"The foundation is currently researching and testing on various possible cures of the Alzheimer's. Tests are being conducted on diabetes drugs, turmeric, testosterone and omega 3 (being tested to prevent the beta amyloid).\n",
"BULLET::::- Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI): The FNIH helps manage the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI), a public-private partnership that has profoundly influenced the understanding of Alzheimer's disease by identifying and validating biological markers that indicate its onset and progression. The study tracks volunteers at clinical sites with normal cognition, mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease to create a widely-available database of imaging, biochemical and genetic data, which can lay the groundwork for Alzheimer's discoveries. By standardizing technologies and protocols, the study has improved clinical trial design and the understanding of the disease and its progression. Furthermore, ADNI's open-access data policy continues to be a model of successful data sharing in a pre-competitive environment.\n",
"24. Wang CY. “Peptide vaccine for prevention and immunotherapy of dementia of the Alzheimer’s type” US Patent 9,102,752 (2015), US Patent Application 14/824,075 (2015), and WO Patent Application PCT/US13/37865 (2013).\n",
"van Dyck and the Yale ADRU have tested potential Alzheimer’s therapeutics for over 20 years. They have contributed to the successful development of memantine now in use for the treatment of mid-late stage Alzheimer’s Disease, and assess potential new therapeutic strategies, e.g. antibodies that reduce amyloid pathology such as Crenezumab, and based on the work of Dr. Stephen Strittmatter, an inhibitor of fyn.\n"
] |
how are people/groups of people legally allowed to place "bounties" on others? | They're not "bounties" like in the Boba Fett sense. They're rewards to turn over information which would lead to arrest/prosecution. Boba Fett bounties ("Capture and/or kill this person") are illegal. | [
"The reasons may include neglect, but also tax evasion and/or avoiding arrest for a crime. The downside for the person is that he cannot get benefits such as (for a Dutch person) getting a passport, and for anyone still living in the country, being allowed to work and to send his children to school, getting social security, etc.\n",
"A more recent trend is for sarcastic tips to be offered that are observations by the readers regarding other people's behaviour, such as a barmaid who suggests male public house customers who are \"trying to get into a barmaid's knickers\" should \"pull back your tenner just as she reaches to take it when paying for a round. It really turns us on\". In a similar vein, one reader suggested \"Old people – are you worried that people in a hurry might be able to get past you on the pavement? Why not try stumbling aimlessly from side to side? That should stop them\".\n",
"The citizens occupy their time with many strange and outright bizarre hobbies, such as simping (recreational stupidity), bat gliding, sky surfing and peeping (spying on people at home and in public), which is illegal when done for voyeuristic purposes, but legal when done under the authority of a Judge. If any of these ever get out of hand, and there is no legal justification for banning, the Judges simply impose a heavy tax on them, restricting them to only the few very wealthy citizens.\n",
"Occasionally, a Barast may voluntarily remove themselves from society in order to continue work that has been deemed not meaningful or to protest when work is purposefully stopped as dangerous. This individual would move away from the community to an isolated area, and would thereafter support themselves. They would not be able to generally ask for assistance from the greater community, and would also in some cases remove their Alibi Archive implant as protest (so their life after leaving the community would not be recorded) or have it removed involuntarily (to prevent any further recording regarding dangerous work). This isolation is voluntary, and they can have visitors or opt to return to the community at any time, although returning requires that they resume providing a meaningful contribution (and cease any dangerous work, if that was the reason for leaving).\n",
"Bickers continues to be active in working on legislation to protect the human rights of vulnerable people and exploited workers, focusing on lobbying in the 2019 legislative session for protective legislation including: making it illegal for law enforcement to have sex with workers before arresting them; allowing workers to work together or share a space for safety reasons without being vulnerable to charges of trafficking or exploiting each other; and allowing full service sex workers to report assault without their jobs being used as evidence to prosecute them while their assaults are ignored.\n",
"In the legal system of England and Wales, the victim surcharge is a penalty applied to people convicted of offences, in addition to a conditional discharge, a fine, or a community or custodial sentence, in order to provide compensation for the victims of crime.\n",
"Lead the people with administrative injunctions and put them in their place with penal law, and they will avoid punishments but will be without a sense of shame. Lead them with excellence and put them in their place through roles and ritual practices, and in addition to developing a sense of shame, they will order themselves harmoniously.\n"
] |
lots of people barely eat vegetables and never take multivitamins, and still seem to be in good health. how is the daily recommended amount of micronutrients calculated, and why do people seem just fine even if they don't get it? | Pretty much everyone in a developed country gets enough nutrients to stay reasonably healthy unless they are on some kind of super restrictive diet.
The RDA's are *very* conservative and you have to be *very* deficient for a long time before you'll start seeing serious health effects. | [
"According to the Harvard School of Public Health: \"...many people don’t eat the healthiest of diets. That’s why a multivitamin can help fill in the gaps, and may have added health benefits.\" The U.S. Office of Dietary Supplements, a branch of the National Institutes of Health, suggests that multivitamin supplements might be helpful for some people with specific health problems (for example, macular degeneration). However, the Office concluded that \"most research shows that healthy people who take an MVM [multivitamin] do not have a lower chance of diseases, such as cancer, heart disease, or diabetes. Based on current research, it's not possible to recommend for or against the use of MVMs to stay healthier longer.\"\n",
"Creating an industry estimated to have a 2015 value of $37 billion, there are more than 50,000 dietary supplement products marketed just in the United States, where about 50% of the American adult population consumes dietary supplements. Multivitamins are the most commonly used product. For those who fail to consume a balanced diet, the United States National Institutes of Health states that certain supplements \"may have value.\"\n",
"Treatment involves a diet which includes an adequate amount of riboflavin containing foods. Multi-vitamin and mineral dietary supplements often contain 100% of the Daily Value (1.3 mg) for riboflavin, and can be used by persons concerned about an inadequate diet. Over-the-counter dietary supplements are available in the United States with doses as high as 100 mg, but there is no evidence that these high doses have any additional benefit for healthy people.\n",
"In the 1999–2000 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 52% of adults in the United States reported taking at least one dietary supplement in the last month and 35% reported regular use of multivitamin-multimineral supplements. Women versus men, older adults versus younger adults, non-Hispanic whites versus non-Hispanic blacks, and those with higher education levels versus lower education levels (among other categories) were more likely to take multivitamins. Individuals who use dietary supplements (including multivitamins) generally report higher dietary nutrient intakes and healthier diets. Additionally, adults with a history of prostate and breast cancers were more likely to use dietary and multivitamin supplements.\n",
"Some nutrients, such as calcium and magnesium, are rarely included at 100% of the recommended allowance because the pill would become too large. Most multivitamins come in capsule form; tablets, powders, liquids, and injectable formulations also exist. In the U.S., the FDA requires any product marketed as a \"multivitamin\" to contain at least three vitamins and minerals; furthermore, the dosages must be below a \"tolerable upper limit\", and a multivitamin may not include herbs, hormones, or drugs.\n",
"According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Dietary Reference Intakes, which is the \"highest level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects\" specify 10 mg/day for most people, corresponding to 10 L of fluoridated water with no risk. For infants and young children the values are smaller, ranging from 0.7 mg/d for infants to 2.2 mg/d. Water and food sources of fluoride include community water fluoridation, seafood, tea, and gelatin.\n",
"Some vitamins in large doses have been linked to increased risk of cardiovascular disease, of cancer and of death. The scientific consensus view is that for normal individuals, a balanced diet contains all necessary vitamins and minerals, and that routine supplementation is not necessary absent specific diagnosed deficiencies.\n"
] |
If gravitons exist, then is it possible for anti-gravitons to exist and would that mean that the matter they interact with will gain negative gravity? | The graviton would be its own antiparticle in the same way that the photon is also its own antiparticle. No negative gravity needed. | [
"If it exists, the graviton is expected to be massless because the gravitational force is very long range and appears to propagate at the speed of light. The graviton must be a spin-2 boson because the source of gravitation is the stress–energy tensor, a second-order tensor (compared with electromagnetism's spin-1 photon, the source of which is the four-current, a first-order tensor). Additionally, it can be shown that any massless spin-2 field would give rise to a force indistinguishable from gravitation, because a massless spin-2 field would couple to the stress–energy tensor in the same way that gravitational interactions do. This result suggests that, if a massless spin-2 particle is discovered, it must be the graviton.\n",
"In gravity theories with extended supersymmetry (extended supergravities), a graviphoton is normally a superpartner of the graviton that behaves like a photon, and is prone to couple with gravitational strength, as was appreciated in the late 1970s. Unlike the graviton, however, it may provide a \"repulsive\" (as well as an attractive) force, and thus, in some technical sense, a type of anti-gravity. Under special circumstances, then, in several natural models, often descending from five-dimensional theories mentioned, it may actually cancel the gravitational attraction in the static limit. Joël Scherk investigated semirealistic aspects of this phenomenon, thereby opening up an ongoing search for physical manifestations of the mechanism.\n",
"The graviton, listed separately above, is a hypothetical particle that has been included in some extensions to the standard model to mediate the gravitational force. It is in a peculiar category between known and hypothetical particles: As an unobserved particle that is not predicted by, nor required for the Standard Model, it belongs in the table of hypothetical particles, below. But gravitational force itself is a certainty, and expressing that known force in the framework of a quantum field theory requires a boson to mediate it.\n",
"In the framework of quantum field theory, the graviton is the name given to a hypothetical elementary particle speculated to be the force carrier that mediates gravity. However the graviton is not yet proven to exist, and no scientific model yet exists that successfully reconciles general relativity, which describes gravity, and the Standard Model, which describes all other fundamental forces. Attempts, such as quantum gravity, have been made, but are not yet accepted.\n",
"Most theories containing gravitons suffer from severe problems. Attempts to extend the Standard Model or other quantum field theories by adding gravitons run into serious theoretical difficulties at energies close to or above the Planck scale. This is because of infinities arising due to quantum effects; technically, gravitation is not renormalizable. Since classical general relativity and quantum mechanics seem to be incompatible at such energies, from a theoretical point of view, this situation is not tenable. One possible solution is to replace particles with strings. String theories are quantum theories of gravity in the sense that they reduce to classical general relativity plus field theory at low energies, but are fully quantum mechanical, contain a graviton, and are thought to be mathematically consistent.\n",
"In addition to uncertainty regarding whether antimatter is gravitationally attracted or repulsed from other matter, it is also unknown whether the magnitude of the gravitational force is the same. Difficulties in creating quantum gravity theories have led to the idea that antimatter may react with a slightly different magnitude.\n",
"In theories of quantum gravity, the graviton is the hypothetical quantum of gravity, an elementary particle that mediates the force of gravity. There is no complete quantum field theory of gravitons due to an outstanding mathematical problem with renormalization in general relativity. In string theory, believed to be a consistent theory of quantum gravity, the graviton is a massless state of a fundamental string.\n"
] |
How does a globe storm glass barometer work? | It is open to the atmosphere! That glass pipe off to the side is open, and when the air pressure increases it pushes down on the fluid in the pipe. Through the wonderful nature of hydraulics, the water in the globe then rises. | [
"A barometer is a scientific instrument that is used to measure air pressure in a certain environment. Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather. Many measurements of air pressure are used within surface weather analysis to help find surface troughs, pressure systems and frontal boundaries.\n",
"The weather ball barometer consists of a glass container with a sealed body, half filled with water. A narrow spout connects to the body below the water level and rises above the water level. The narrow spout is open to the atmosphere. When the air pressure is lower than it was at the time the body was sealed, the water level in the spout will rise above the water level in the body; when the air pressure is higher, the water level in the spout will drop below the water level in the body. A variation of this type of barometer can be easily made at home.\n",
"A watch glass is a circular concave piece of glass used in chemistry as a surface to evaporate a liquid, to hold solids while being weighed, for heating a small amount of substance and as a cover for a beaker. The latter use is generally applied to prevent dust or other particles entering the beaker; the watch glass does not completely seal the beaker, so gas exchanges still occur. When used as an evaporation surface, a watch glass allows closer observation of precipitates or crystallization, and can be placed on a surface of contrasting color to improve the visibility overall. Watch glasses are also sometimes used to cover a glass of whisky, to concentrate the aromas in the glass, and to prevent spills when the whisky is swirled. Watch glasses are named so because they are similar to the glass used for the front of old-fashioned pocket watches. In reference to this, large watch glasses are occasionally known as clock glasses.\n",
"BULLET::::- Helmholtz (DUO) (2015) large glass spheres act as sound resonators for low frequency noises, and various sized flames and rotating mirrors are used to show the visualization of the vibrations. There is a relationship in this piece between the histories of acoustic psychology and the physics of sound, with influence from the manometric flame apparatus and Helmholtz resonators.\n",
"An aneroid barometer is an instrument used for measuring pressure as a method that does not involve liquid. Invented in 1844 by French scientist Lucien Vidi, the aneroid barometer uses a small, flexible metal box called an aneroid cell (capsule), which is made from an alloy of beryllium and copper. The evacuated capsule (or usually several capsules, stacked to add up their movements) is prevented from collapsing by a strong spring. Small changes in external air pressure cause the cell to expand or contract. This expansion and contraction drives mechanical levers such that the tiny movements of the capsule are amplified and displayed on the face of the aneroid barometer. Many models include a manually set needle which is used to mark the current measurement so a change can be seen. This type of barometer is common in homes and in recreational boats. It is also used in meteorology, mostly in barographs and as a pressure instrument in radiosondes.\n",
"Aneroid barometers have a mechanical adjustment that allows the equivalent sea level pressure to be read directly and without further adjustment if the instrument is not moved to a different altitude. Setting an aneroid barometer is similar to resetting an analog clock that is not at the correct time. Its dial is rotated so that the current atmospheric pressure from a known accurate and nearby barometer (such as the local weather station) is displayed. No calculation is needed, as the source barometer reading has already been converted to equivalent sea-level pressure, and this is transferred to the barometer being set—regardless of its altitude. Though somewhat rare, a few aneroid barometers intended for monitoring the weather are calibrated to manually adjust for altitude. In this case, knowing \"either\" the altitude or the current atmospheric pressure would be sufficient for future accurate readings.\n",
"An Abney level and clinometer, is an instrument used in surveying which consists of a fixed sighting tube, a movable spirit level that is connected to a pointing arm, and a protractor scale. An internal mirror allows the user to see the bubble in the level while sighting a distant target. It can be used as a hand-held instrument or mounted on a Jacob's staff for more precise measurement, and it is small enough to carry in a coat pocket.\n"
] |
What happens to a morbidly obese individual during hydrated starvation? | Similar - and I emphasize SIMILAR things have been done, although I frankly don't know where to find the study. Googling might pull up something for you.
They took a fat dude, kept him supplied with fluids and vitamins and the like, and successfully kept him alive and relatively well. Think he lost a totally insane amount of weight, too. | [
"Early symptoms include impulsivity, irritability, and hyperactivity. Atrophy (wasting away) of the stomach weakens the perception of hunger, since the perception is controlled by the volume of the stomach that is empty. Individuals experiencing starvation lose substantial fat (adipose tissue) and muscle mass as the body breaks down these tissues for energy. \"Catabolysis\" is the process of a body breaking down its own muscles and other tissues in order to keep vital systems such as the nervous system and heart muscle (myocardium) functioning. The energy deficiency inherent in starvation causes fatigue and renders the victim more apathetic over time. As the starving person becomes too weak to move or even eat, their interaction with the surrounding world diminishes. In females, menstruation ceases when the body fat percentage is too low to support a fetus.\n",
"Victims of starvation are often too weak to sense thirst, and therefore become dehydrated. All movements become painful due to muscle atrophy and dry, cracked skin that is caused by severe dehydration. With a weakened body, diseases are commonplace. Fungi, for example, often grow under the esophagus, making swallowing painful. Vitamin deficiency is also a common result of starvation, often leading to anemia, beriberi, pellagra, and scurvy. These diseases collectively can also cause diarrhea, skin rashes, edema, and heart failure. Individuals are often irritable and lethargic as a result.\n",
"Months of depletion are usually necessary to deplete body stores of most nutrients and a nutritional optic neuropathy may be present in a patient with or without obvious evidence of under-nutrition. An individual suffering from starvation could be easily recognized as a person who is undernourished due to their cachectic corporal appearance. However, a not so obvious individual may be the recipient of a gastric bypass surgery, a procedure that may lead to vitamin B12 deficiency from poor absorption. The optic neuropathy associated with pernicious anemia and vitamin B12 deficiency can be seen amongst individuals who obtain adequate caloric input from foods low in nutritional and micronutrient density (see Food desert).\n",
"The underlying starvation, malnourishment, and usually dehydration, associated with emaciation, affect and are harmful to organ systems throughout the body. The emaciated individual experiences disturbances of the blood, circulatory, and urinary systems; these include hyponatremia and/or hypokalemia (low sodium and/or potassium in the blood, respectively), anemia (low hemoglobin), improper function of lymph (immune system-related white blood matter) and the lymphatic system, and pleurisy (fluid in the pleural cavity surrounding the lungs) and edema (swelling in general) caused by poor or improper function of the kidneys to eliminate wastes from the blood.\n",
"Starvation causes the body to metabolize its own (purine-rich) tissues for energy. Thus, like a high purine diet, starvation increases the amount of purine converted to uric acid. A very low calorie diet without carbohydrate can induce extreme hyperuricemia; including some carbohydrate (and reducing the protein) reduces the level of hyperuricemia. Starvation also impairs the ability of the kidney to excrete uric acid, due to competition for transport between uric acid and ketones.\n",
"When the human body is deprived of adequate nutrition, testosterone levels drop, while the adrenal glands continue to produce estrogens, thereby causing a hormonal imbalance. Gynecomastia can also occur once normal nutrition is restarted (this is known as refeeding gynecomastia).\n",
"Continuous dehydration can cause many problems, but is most often associated with renal problems and neurological problems such as seizures. Excessive thirst, known as polydipsia, along with excessive urination, known as polyuria, may be an indication of diabetes mellitus or diabetes insipidus.\n"
] |
Is it possible for a planet to exist in our SS that we have yet to discover? | No, any body large enough to be a real planet would leave a gravitational footprint that could be observed. | [
"HD 162826 has no known planets. The current state of knowledge excludes hot Jupiters and suggests that a more distant \"Jupiter\" is unlikely, but terrestrial planets are possible. A rocky terrestrial planet situated in a Mars-like orbit at about 1.525 AU could potentially be habitable. However, more studies on this star are needed in order to verify these habitability factors.\n",
"Other possible candidates are merely speculated based on their mass and position in the habitable zone include planet though little is actually known of their composition. Some scientists speculate Kepler-22b may be an \"ocean-like\" planet. Models have been proposed for Gliese 581 d that could include surface oceans. Gliese 436 b is speculated to have an ocean of \"hot ice\". Exomoons orbiting planets, particularly gas giants within their parent star's habitable zone may theoretically have surface oceans.\n",
"Additional data is needed to confirm the possibility of more sub-Saturn planets between 0.5 (really, 0.3) and 30 AU from the star. An Earth-mass planet in the star's habitable zone (which would still be too small to detect with current technology) remains possible.\n",
"It is possible that some exoplanets may have moons with solid surfaces or liquid oceans that are hospitable. Most of the planets so far discovered outside the Solar System are hot gas giants thought to be inhospitable to life, so it is not yet known whether the Solar System, with a warm, rocky, metal-rich inner planet such as Earth, is of an aberrant composition. Improved detection methods and increased observation time will undoubtedly discover more planetary systems, and possibly some more like ours. For example, NASA's Kepler Mission seeks to discover Earth-sized planets around other stars by measuring minute changes in the star's light curve as the planet passes between the star and the spacecraft. Progress in infrared astronomy and submillimeter astronomy has revealed the constituents of other star systems.\n",
"The outermost planet discovered appears to be within the system's habitable zone, where liquid water would remain stable (more accurate data on the primary star's luminosity will be required to know for sure where the habitable zone is). HD 69830 is the first extrasolar planetary system around a Sun-like star without any known planets comparable to Jupiter or Saturn in mass.\n",
"Given the general planet-to-satellite(s) mass ratio of 10,000, Large Saturn or Jupiter sized gas planets in the habitable zone are believed to be the best candidates to harbour Earth-like moons with more than 120 such planets by 2018. Massive exoplanets known to be located within a habitable zone (such as Gliese 876 b, 55 Cancri f, Upsilon Andromedae d, 47 Ursae Majoris b, HD 28185 b and HD 37124 c) are of particular interest as they may potentially possess natural satellites with liquid water on the surface.\n",
"The goal of current searches is to find Earth-sized planets in the habitable zone of their planetary systems (also sometimes called the \"Goldilocks zone\"). Planets with oceans could include Earth-sized moons of giant planets, though it remains speculative whether such 'moons' really exist. The Kepler telescope might be sensitive enough to detect them. There is speculation that rocky planets hosting water may be commonplace throughout the Milky Way.\n"
] |
why do radio stations sometimes have two frequencies playing the same thing? | They would probably be broadcasting from different locations, giving the station a wider range. | [
"Two-way radios can operate on many different frequencies, and these frequencies are assigned differently in different countries. Typically channelized operations are used, so that operators need not tune equipment to a particular frequency but instead can use one or more pre-selected frequencies, easily chosen by a dial, a pushbutton or other means. For example, in the United States, there is a block of 5 channels (pre-selected radio frequencies) are allocated to the Multiple Use Radio System. A different block of 22 channels are assigned, collectively, to the General Mobile Radio Service and Family Radio Service. The citizen's band radio service (\"\"CB\"\") has 40 channels.\n",
"The most common two-way radio systems operate in the VHF and UHF parts of the radio spectrum. Because this part of the spectrum is heavily used for broadcasting and multiple competing uses, spectrum management has become an important activity of governments to regulate radio users in the interests of both efficient and non-interfering use of radio. Both bands are widely applied for different users.\n",
"Using the trunked radio system technology that shares and reuses radio channels, the system is capable of handling thousands of individual Talkgroups and radio ID's. Since most radios are only transmitting a small percentage of the time, the channels are shared among many users. The same radio frequency may be used at many sites throughout the state.\n",
"Two-way radio systems usually use a single radio channel and operate in a half-duplex mode: the user can talk, or he can listen, but not at the same time. The radio is normally in receive mode so the user can hear all other transmissions on the channel. When the user wants to talk he presses a \"push-to-talk\" button, which turns off the receiver and turns on the transmitter; when he releases the button the receiver is activated again. Multiple users on the channel must take turns talking. Other two-way radio systems operate in full-duplex mode, in which both parties can talk simultaneously. This requires either two separate radio channels or channel sharing methods such as time division duplex (TDD) to carry the two directions of the conversation simultaneously on a single radio frequency. A cell phone is an example of a full-duplex two-way radio. During a phone call, the phone communicates with the cell tower over two radio channels; an incoming one to carry the remote party's voice to the user, and an outgoing one to carry the user's voice to the remote party.\n",
"Early two-way schemes allowed only one station to transmit at a time while others listened, since all signals were on the same radio frequency – this was called \"simplex\" mode. Code and voice operations required a simple communication protocol to allow all stations to cooperate in using the single radio channel, so that one station's transmissions were not obscured by another's. By using receivers and transmitters tuned to different frequencies and solving the problems introduced by operation of a receiver immediately next to a transmitter, simultaneous transmission and reception was possible at each end of a radio link, in so-called \"full duplex\" mode.\n",
"A radio band is a small contiguous section of the radio spectrum frequencies, in which channels are usually used or set aside for the same purpose. To prevent interference and allow for efficient use of the radio spectrum, similar services are allocated in bands. For example, broadcasting, mobile radio, or navigation devices, will be allocated in non-overlapping ranges of frequencies.\n",
"A two-way radio is an audio transceiver, a receiver and transmitter in the same device, used for bidirectional person-to-person voice communication with other similar radios. An older term for this mode of communication is \"radiotelephony\". The radio link may be half-duplex, as in a walkie-talkie, using a single radio channel in which only one radio can transmit at a time, so different users take turns talking, pressing a \"push to talk\" button on their radio which switches off the receiver and switches on the transmitter. Or the radio link may be full duplex, a bidirectional link using two radio channels so both people can talk at the same time, as in a cell phone.\n"
] |
Is there any known species that can see other parts of the electro magnetic spectrum? | Tarsiers and Chameleons can see in the Ultraviolet. Dragonflies can see polarized light (Not a different part of the spectrum, but still cool). The Mantis shrimp is my favorite though. It has the most complex eyes known in the animal kingdom. Like many flies the mantis shrimp has compound eyes, but each row of ommatidia have specific functions (i.e. one for light intensity, one for color, etc) Their eyes have twelve different types of color receptors (humans only have three) as well as Ultraviolet, Infrared, and polarized light. Let me also say that it doesn't necessarily help to see light in other parts of the E/M spectrum except infrared because although stars emit light from ultraviolet to radio, about 50% of the light is in the visible range and about 20% is infrared. | [
"Another less general type of magnetic sensing mechanism in animals that has been described is electromagnetic induction used by sharks, stingrays and chimaeras (cartilaginous fish). These species possess a unique electroreceptive organ known as \"ampullae of Lorenzini\" which can detect a slight variation in electric potential. These organs are made up of mucus-filled canals that connect from the skin's pores to small sacs within the animal's flesh that are also filled with mucus. The ampullae of Lorenzini are capable of detecting DC currents and have been proposed to be used in the sensing of the weak electric fields of prey and predators. These organs could also possibly sense magnetic fields, by means of Faraday's law: as a conductor moves through a magnetic field an electric potential is generated. In this case the conductor is the animal moving through a magnetic field, and the potential induced depends on the time varying rate of flux through the conductor according to\n",
"There are innumerable reports of heterogeneous types of precursory phenomena ranging from emission of electromagnetic waves from ultralow frequency (ULF) to visible (VIS) and near-infrared (NIR) light, electric field and magnetic field anomalies of various kinds (see below), all the way to unusual animal behavior, which has been reported again and again.\n",
"Several species of birds are known to incorporate magnetite crystals in the upper beak for magnetoreception, which (in conjunction with cryptochromes in the retina) gives them the ability to sense the direction, polarity, and magnitude of the ambient magnetic field.\n",
"The class of crustaceans called Stomatopods, which includes \"Lysiosquillina maculata\" has the most complex visual receptors in the animal kingdom. Many species are thought to be able to express up to 16 different visual pigments. In addition, Stomatopods have a tripartite cornea which contains upper and lower halves, separated by a middle band made up of ommatidia. These photoreceptors include specialized receptors that can detect a wide range of visible and ultraviolet light, as well as being able to detect linearly and circularly polarized light. polarized light is used by many insects for navigation, however, in other invertebrates like cephalopods and crustaceans it is used primarily to increase visual contrast and for visual signaling.\n",
"Many investigations of the magnetosphere and auroral regions have been made using rockets and satellites. McIlwain discovered from a rocket flight in 1960 that the energy spectrum of auroral electrons exhibited a peak that was thought then to be too sharp to be produced by a random process and which suggested, therefore, that an ordered process was responsible. It was reported in 1977 that satellites had detected the signature of double layers as electrostatic shocks in the magnetosphere. indications of electric fields parallel to the geomagnetic field lines was obtained by the Viking satellite, which measures the differential potential structures in the magnetosphere with probes mounted on 40m long booms. These probes measured the local particle density and the potential difference between two points 80m apart. Asymmetric potential excursions with respect to 0 V were measured, and interpreted as a double layer with a net potential within the region. Magnetospheric double layers typically have a strength formula_1 (where the electron temperature is assumed to lie in the range formula_2) and are therefore weak. A series of such double layers would tend to merge, much like a string of bar magnets, and dissipate, even within a rarefied plasma. It has yet to be explained how any overall localised charge distribution in the form of double layers might provide a source of energy for auroral electrons precipitated into the atmosphere.\n",
"In regards to the magnetic field hypothesis, there are three main concepts that should be considered. The concepts include electromagnetic induction, magnetic field chemical reactions, and magnetite. In regards to electromagnetic induction, it is assumed that the sea turtles have electroreceptors. Although evidence has been found in other species such as rays and sharks, no evidence has shown that there are electroreceptors in sea turtles making this hypothesis invalid. A second concept from the experimentation by Irwin involves chemical reactions which is commonly found in a variety of species of newts and birds. The strength of the magnetic field affects the chemical reactions within the bodies of the newts and birds. The final concept includes the magnetic crystals that form during the magnetic pulses from the earth's magnetic fields. These magnetic crystals formed by magnetite give the turtles directional information and guides in migration. The magnetite affects the cells of the nervous system of the sea turtle by producing a signal that references the forces of the magnetic field and the direction and magnitude that is applied. If this magnetite is used in the migration, when the earth's magnetic poles reverse at the dipole moment, the signal that the sea turtle nervous system receives will change the migration direction. Regardless of the hypothesis, hatchling turtles have the ability to determine the direction and inclination angle of which they are swimming with aide from magnetic fields.\n",
"The interaction is significant at sub-auroral, auroral, and polar latitudes where large regions of the magnetosphere are mapped along the magnetic field into relatively small regions of the ionosphere, and where the magnetospheric dynamics are controlled primarily by the plasma rather than the magnetic field. This organization is actually by magnetic rather than by geographic latitude (see Baker and Wing, and references therein for a description of magnetic vs. geographic coordinates). The aurora, for example, is most frequently observed at magnetic latitudes between roughly 60 and 80 degrees (see Eather). In the northern hemisphere Canada has the largest land mass at the magnetic latitudes. As a consequence of this so-called \"Canadian-advantage\", Canada has been a world-leader in ground-based auroral and ionospheric research for decades.\n"
] |
why do your lips peel when you’re sick? | lip skin is different than regular sin & doesn't make it's own lipid.
It comes from the skin around your lips & those pores could be clogged. As an experiment you could try AHA cream on that skin, or just get good chapstick. | [
"Inflammation of the corners (angles) of the lips is termed angular stomatitis or angular cheilitis. In children a frequent cause is repeated lip-licking, and in adults it may be a sign of underlying iron deficiency anemia, or vitamin B deficiencies (\"e.g.\", B-riboflavin, B-folate, or B-cobalamin, which in turn may be evidence of poor diets or malnutrition such as celiac disease).\n",
"Lip licker's dermatitis, popularly known as perioral dermatitis, is an irritant contact dermatitis on and around the lips due to saliva from repetitive lip licking. Involving children more than adults, the resulting papules, scaling, erythema and occasional fissures and crusting make a well-defined ring around the lips. The rash extends as far as the tongue can reach and frequently spares the angle of the mouth. Unlike periorificial dermatitis, the vermillion border of the lip is often involved and the treatment is simple moisturisers.\n",
"Lip licking, biting, or rubbing habits are frequently involved. Counterintuitively, constant licking of the lips causes drying and irritation, and eventually the mucosa splits or cracks. The lips have a greater tendency to dry out in cold, dry weather. Digestive enzymes present in saliva may also irritate the lips, and the evaporation of the water in saliva saps moisture from them.\n",
"Chapped lips (also cheilitis simplex or common cheilitis) are characterized by cracking, fissuring, and peeling of the skin of the lips, and are one of the most common types of cheilitis. While both lips may be affected, the lower lip is the most common site. There may also be burning or the formation of large, painful cracks when the lips are stretched. Chronic cheilitis simplex can progress to crusting and bleeding.\n",
"The lips are normally symmetrical, pink, smooth, and moist. There should be no growths, lumps, or discoloration of the tissue. Abnormal findings are asymmetricality, cyanosis, a cherry-red or pale color or dryness. Diseases include mucocele, aphthous ulcer, angular stomatitis, carcinoma, cleft lip, leukoplakia, herpes simplex and chelitis.\n",
"Symptoms typically include generalized hives, itchiness, flushing, or swelling (angioedema) of the afflicted tissues. Those with angioedema may describe a burning sensation of the skin rather than itchiness. Swelling of the tongue or throat occurs in up to about 20% of cases. Other features may include a runny nose and swelling of the conjunctiva. The skin may also be blue tinged because of lack of oxygen.\n",
"Common side effects when applied to the skin include redness. Common side effects when taken by mouth include nausea, headache, and liver problems. Liver problems may result in death or the need for a liver transplantation. Other severe side effect when taken by mouth include QT prolongation, adrenocortical insufficiency, and anaphylaxis. It is an imidazole and works by affecting the production of ergosterol required for the fungal cell membrane thereby slowing growth.\n"
] |
Japan was separated from their Axis allies by numerous Allied countries. How did they communicate with other Axis powers? | For the most part, they didn't. Top axis and allied leaders met and hammered out agreements at conferences. The Axis leaders often didn't even tell each other which countries they were going to invade, much less had joint strategy sessions. | [
"As the Axis powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan cemented their military alliance by mutually declaring war against the United States by December 11, 1941, the Japanese proposed a clear territorial arrangement with the two main European Axis powers concerning the Asian continent. On December 15 they presented the Germans with a drafted military convention that would delimit the continent of Asia into two separate \"operational spheres\" (zones of military responsibility) by a dividing line along the 70th meridian east longitude, going southwards through the Ob River's Arctic estuary, southwards to just east of Khost in Afghanistan and heading into the Indian Ocean just west of Rajkot in India, to split the \"Lebensraum\" land holdings of Germany and the similar \"spazio vitale\" areas of Italy to the west of it, and the Empire of Japan (and the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere) to the east of it, after a complete defeat of the Soviet Union by the Third Reich.\n",
"In 1940, the three countries formed the Axis powers, and became closer linked. Japan imported Nazi propaganda films such as \"Ohm Krüger\" (1941), advertising them as narratives showing the suffering caused by Western imperialism.\n",
"On September 27, 1940, Imperial Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Their objectives were to \"establish and maintain a new order of things\" in their respective world regions and spheres of influence, with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in Europe, and Imperial Japan in Asia. The signatories of this alliance become known as the Axis Powers. The pact also called for mutual protection—if any one of the member powers was attacked by a country not already at war, excluding the Soviet Union—and for technological and economic cooperation between the signatories.\n",
"At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy and Germany as the Axis Powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country, with the exception of the Soviet Union, which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia and Romania joined. Romania and Hungary would make major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union.\n",
"Germany and Japan were separated by great distance, and by 1944 they were increasingly cut off from each other. While neither power was able to send meaningful reinforcements or armaments through territory controlled by the Allied powers, they were able to use submarines to share some intelligence and weapons blueprints. Submarines offered security and their stealth allowed for a fair chance of success. Between 1942 and 1944, approximately 35 submarines attempted the journey from Europe to the Far East, and at least 11 attempted the journey from the Far East to Europe (ref. 4).\n",
"On September 27, 1940, Germany, Italy and Japan signed the Axis Pact, which divided the world into spheres of influence and was implicitly directed at the United States. The pact contained an explicit provision (Article 5) stating that it did not concern relations with the Soviet Union. Molotov, worried that the pact contained a secret codicil pertaining specifically to the Soviet Union, attempted to extract information from the Japanese ambassador in Moscow, Togo.\n",
"The Tripartite Pact—between the three Axis Powers of Germany, Japan and Italy—guaranteed mutual support, and this paid off for Japan in July 1941 when French weakness in the wake of the fall of France to Germany allowed Japan to occupy French Indo-China (now modern Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia). This blocked a supply route for the Kuomintang, against whom Japan had been fighting, since 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War. It also gave Imperial Japan a seaboard facing Sarawak and North Borneo across the China Sea. Japan turned its eyes from the war in China and towards strategic targets in the Pacific and the Dutch East Indies. In December that year, Japan struck out against US possessions in Hawaii and the Philippines, declaring war on the US and finally precipitating Germany's official declaration of war on America according to the Pact.\n"
] |
what is the purpose of so much pollen everywhere? | > So why do plants give off so much pollen?
To make sure they have enough. Way out on the edges of the most distant spread of the pollen there may be just enough for fertilization, and the ground covered increases greatly as they put more and more out there. It isn't a group effort; each tree is trying to spread its genes individually. It doesn't matter if other trees have "enough" pollen, it matters if they have the pollen of a given tree. | [
"Pollen in plants is used for transferring haploid male genetic material from the anther of a single flower to the stigma of another in cross-pollination. In a case of self-pollination, this process takes place from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower.\n",
"Bee pollen is a ball or pellet of field-gathered flower pollen packed by worker honeybees, and used as the primary food source for the hive. It consists of simple sugars, protein, minerals and vitamins, fatty acids, and a small percentage of other components. Also called bee bread, or ambrosia, it is stored in brood cells, mixed with saliva, and sealed with a drop of honey. Bee pollen is harvested as food for humans, with various health claims, one of them being that the fermentation process makes it much more potent than simple flower pollen.\n",
"Pollen is a fine to coarse powdery substance comprising pollen grains which are male microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects the gametophytes during the process of their movement from the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants, or from the male cone to the female cone of coniferous plants. If pollen lands on a compatible pistil or female cone, it germinates, producing a pollen tube that transfers the sperm to the ovule containing the female gametophyte. Individual pollen grains are small enough to require magnification to see detail. The study of pollen is called palynology and is highly useful in paleoecology, paleontology, archaeology, and forensics. \n",
"The term pollen source is often used in the context of beekeeping and refers to flowering plants as a source of pollen for bees or other insects. Bees collect pollen as a protein source to raise their brood. For the plant, the pollinizer, this can be an important mechanism for sexual reproduction, as the pollinator distributes its pollen. Few flowering plants self-pollinate; some can provide their own pollen (self fertile), but require a pollinator to move the pollen; others are dependent on cross pollination from a genetically different source of viable pollen, through the activity of pollinators. One of the possible pollinators to assist in cross-pollination are honeybees. The article below is mainly about the pollen source from a beekeeping perspective.\n",
"\"Filipendula rubra\" is known for its air-borne pollen, however pollination is only effective (can create a seed) when pollen is transferred to a different plant, due to the fact that \"F. rubra\" is self-incompatible. The vast majority of pollen will be derived from inflorescences within the same clone and thus incompatible. Pollination is aided by insects such as sweat bees spreading pollen.\n",
"Pollen is most commonly spread by wind. The male produces the pollen and the female plant produces the seed. The wind carries the pollen from resistant male plants to female plants. In addition, the seed is spread by traditional means, such as harvesting, inadequate cleaning of equipment, and the spreading of infested materials, such as manure.\n",
"While some plants are capable of self-pollenization, \"pollenizer\" is more often used in pollination management for a plant that provides abundant, compatible, and viable pollen at the same flowering time as the pollinated plant. For example, most crabapple varieties are good pollenizers for any apple tree that blooms at the same time, and are often used in apple orchards for the purpose. Some apple cultivars produce very little pollen or pollen that is sterile or incompatible with other apple varieties. These are poor pollenizers.\n"
] |
How can a counterexample to the Collatz(3n+1) conjecture be for a sequence to go towards infinity? | You can't use statistics on math. For example, half of numbers are even, but there's only one odd power of two, and only one even prime. Similarly, you might end up getting (3n+1)/2 as being odd over and over again even though it statistically shouldn't happen. | [
"For each of these, multiply the distance to the closest line with integer x-coordinate by the distance to the closest line with integer y-coordinate. This product will certainly be at most 1/4. The conjecture makes no statement about whether this sequence of values will converge; it typically does not, in fact. The conjecture states something about the limit inferior, and says that there is a subsequence for which the distances decay faster than the reciprocal, i.e.\n",
"The Collatz conjecture is a conjecture in mathematics that concerns a sequence defined as follows: start with any positive integer \"n\". Then each term is obtained from the previous term as follows: if the previous term is even, the next term is one half the previous term. If the previous term is odd, the next term is 3 times the previous term plus 1. The conjecture is that no matter what value of \"n\", the sequence will always reach 1.\n",
"If is a composite number, , then an expansion for could be found from an expansion for or . Therefore, if a counterexample to the Erdős–Straus conjecture exists, the smallest forming a counterexample would have to be a prime number, and it can be further restricted to one of six infinite arithmetic progressions modulo . Computer searches have verified the truth of the conjecture up to , but proving it for all remains an open problem.\n",
"If Legendre's conjecture is true, the gap between any prime \"p\" and the next largest prime would always be at most on the order of formula_1; in big O notation, the gaps are formula_2. Two stronger conjectures, Andrica's conjecture and Oppermann's conjecture, also both imply that the gaps have the same magnitude. It does not, however, provide a solution to the Riemann Hypothesis, but rather strengthens one of the implications of its correctness.\n",
"Thurston's conjecture was proven by . More precisely, they showed that, as \"n\" goes to infinity, the function \"f\" determined using Thurston's method from hexagonal packings of radius-1/\"n\" circles converges uniformly on compact subsets of \"A\" to a conformal map from \"A\" to \"C\".\n",
"If the Erdős–Ulam problem has a positive solution, it would provide a counterexample to the Bombieri–Lang conjecture and to the abc conjecture. It would also solve Harborth's conjecture, on the existence of drawings of planar graphs in which all distances are integers. If a dense rational-distance set exists, any straight-line drawing of a planar graph could be perturbed by a small amount (without introducing crossings) to use points from this set as its vertices, and then scaled to make the distances integers. However, like the Erdős–Ulam problem, Harborth's conjecture remains unproven.\n",
"BULLET::::- The chain of natural numbers together with infinity, as a Heyting algebra, is subdirectly representable as a subalgebra of the direct product of the finite linearly ordered Heyting algebras. The situation with other Heyting algebras is treated in further detail in the article on subdirect irreducibles.\n"
] |
What did Vikings do with all their loot? Was the loot divided equally among the raiders, given to one man, or somewhere in between? | It certainly did. I recently finished my masters on these lovely individuals and while I do not have all the sources handy with me, hopefully, someone else here will.
To give you a brief, non-cited explanation, there were several places that the loot from Viking raids/expeditions had a serious effect. Towns like Dublin were completely established by Viking raiders and therefore would have been affected greatly by the influx of coinage. In addition to that, those Vikings that served in the Varangian Guard and returned to Iceland often did so as rich men. I believe there is a man named Bolli Bollason (or something similar), who serves for a time in the Varangian guard, then returns and is so wealthy he is known as Bolli the Grand.
As far as the division of loot goes that is a much harder and less studied question. There are no primary sources that give us a percentage break-down of what a raiding band would receive. Often, all we have is that the entire force was paid x pounds of silver and other such goods. In order to really find out something about how much the average Viking warrior took home would require examining graves. Even then though, it would only be a rough estimate of how much a raider could obtain over time and not be an accurate reflection of how much a particular raid earned them.
I can promise you though, it is *very* unlikely that only one man received the loot, and even if he did, he soon split it up amongst his men or else paid the price. Gift giving was extremely important and played a massive role in keeping together raiding parties.
tldr: very much yes. | [
"The hoard consists of a variety of silver items including 27 coins, 10 arm-rings, 2 finger-rings, 14 ingots, 6 brooch fragments, a fine wire braid and 141 fragments of arm-rings and ingots which had been chopped up and turned into hacksilver, which was used as a form of currency in Viking times. Together they weigh a little over two pounds (1 kg). The hoard includes Arabic, Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Viking and Viking coins. They date to around AD 900 and include coins of Alfred the Great and the Danish-ruled Kingdom of Northumbria. Some of the other items appear to have been intended for personal ornamentation, perhaps to indicate the owner's rank. The arm bands would have been given by a leader to a warrior as a reward for services rendered. One of the bands is particularly notable for its unusual combination of Irish, Anglo-Saxon and Carolingian-style decoration.\n",
"The hoard had been protected by lead sheeting of some kind. The coins date from the late 9th and early 10th centuries, providing a \"terminus post quem\" for dating the hoard. The first theory as to a likely 10th-century occasion for such a careful burying was that it had belonged to a wealthy Viking leader during the unrest that followed the conquest of the Viking kingdom of Northumbria in the year 927 by the Anglo-Saxon king of a unified England, Athelstan (924–939). Another brief period of Viking rule in Northumbria also followed Athelstan's death in 939; it lasted until the expulsion and murder of the Viking king of Jórvík (modern-day York), Eric Bloodaxe, in 954.\n",
"Strandhogg in old Norse was a Viking tactic consisting of a coastal raid with the intention of capturing livestock and indigenous peoples for the slave trade. This tactic was enhanced by Viking longships' shallow draft.\n",
"Norse invaders and Norse raiders differed in purpose. The forces engaged by the Anglo-Saxon were raiding, or (in Old Norse) \"\"í víking\"\", to gather loot, rather than to occupy land for settlement. Therefore, if Byrhtnoth's forces had kept the Vikings off by guarding the causeway or by paying them off, Olaf would likely have sailed farther up the river or along the coast, and raided elsewhere. As a man with troops and weapons, it might be that Byrhtnoth had to allow the Vikings ashore to protect others. The poem may, therefore, represent the work of what has been termed the \"monastic party\" in Ethelred's court, which advocated a military response, rather than tribute, to all Norse attacks.\n",
"Molnby Hoard is a Viking Age deposit of 163 silver coins found in Molnby, Vallentuna Municipality in Sweden in October 2016. Most of the coins come from the area around Samarkand in Central Asia and date from the 10th century. The hoard is one of the largest Viking Age hoards to have been discovered in the province of Uppland.\n",
"Judging from the age of the coins, the hoard can have been deposited at the site during the middle of the 9th century at the earliest. This would make it one of the earliest Viking Age hoards to be discovered on mainland Sweden.\n",
"In 1871, a Viking Age hoard of at least eleven Carolingian coins was uncovered at Mullaghboden, near Ballymore Eustace. The hoard appears to have been originally deposited as early as about 847. This could mean that it was hidden by Vikings fleeing the Battle of Sciath Nechtain in 848. The hoard itself appears to have been composed of coins looted from Aquitaine only a few years previous, a haul possibly pillaged by the Viking fleet of \"\" contemporaneously attested by the ninth–eleventh-century \"Annales Engolismenses\". This force was evidently composed of men from Vestfold, a region of eastern Norway evidently under Danish overlordship during the ninth century.\n"
] |
is artificial photosynthesis not viable? | Photosynthesis (PS) involves harnessing light (photons) from the sun for energy to drive chemical reactions. Here's an abridged version of the process:
1. A photon strikes an electron that is chilling in chlorophyll (or some other pigment depending on the wavelength of light the organism harvests)
2. The electron absorbs the photon
3. The electron gains the energy of the photon, becoming 'excited'
4. The excited electron is chemical reactions that require a lot of energy (called 'energetically unfavorable reactions')
5. The cool part: light is used to split water into oxygen and hydrogen and build carbohydrates from CO2
When the excited electron forms a new chemical bond, that chemical bond stores the energy of the excited electron. That stored energy can be used to drive other energetically unfavorable reactions, many of which happen at night. These are aptly called the dark reactions (the reactions involved in harvesting light for energy are called the light reactions).
We know pretty well how PS works, but we're nowhere near technologically advanced enough to replicate the process artificially. There are tons of steps involved in harnessing that light energy - sort of like taking the stairs from the top floor instead of jumping off the roof. Each step is a separate chemical reaction facilitated by a unique protein. It's hard to build that from scratch.
Here's a simple breakdown of the process: _URL_0_
One last thing: the majority of carbon fixation (utilizing atmospheric CO2) is done by microorganisms, especially marine microorganisms. Scientists are trying to genetically modify photosynthetic microorganisms so they'll take atmospheric CO2 and convert it into useful organic compounds like ethanol and other biofuels.
I lied, here's the last thing:
> Chlorophyll? More like BOREophyll!
> Right? | [
"The purpose of artificial photosynthesis is to produce a fuel from sunlight that can be stored conveniently and used when sunlight is not available, by using direct processes, that is, to produce a solar fuel. With the development of catalysts able to reproduce the major parts of photosynthesis, water and sunlight would ultimately be the only needed sources for clean energy production. The only by-product would be oxygen, and production of a solar fuel has the potential to be cheaper than gasoline.\n",
"Artificial photosynthesis was first anticipated by the Italian chemist Giacomo Ciamician during 1912. In a lecture that was later published in Science he proposed a switch from the use of fossil fuels to radiant energy provided by the sun and captured by technical photochemistry devices. In this switch he saw a possibility to lessen the difference between the rich north of Europe and poor south and ventured a guess that this switch from coal to solar energy would \"not be harmful to the progress and to human happiness.\"\n",
"Another area of research within artificial photosynthesis is the selection and manipulation of photosynthetic microorganisms, namely green microalgae and cyanobacteria, for the production of solar fuels. Many strains are able to produce hydrogen naturally, and scientists are working to improve them. Algae biofuels such as butanol and methanol are produced both at laboratory and commercial scales. This method has benefited from the development of synthetic biology, which is also being explored by the J. Craig Venter Institute to produce a synthetic organism capable of biofuel production. In 2017, an efficient process was developed to produce acetic acid from carbon dioxide using \"cyborg bacteria\".\n",
"Using biomimetic approaches, artificial photosynthesis tries to construct systems doing the same type of processes. Ideally, a triad assembly could oxidize water with one catalyst, reduce protons with another and have a photosensitizer molecule to power the whole system. One of the simplest designs is where the photosensitizer is linked in tandem between a water oxidation catalyst and a hydrogen evolving catalyst:\n",
"Artificial photosynthesis remained an academic field for many years. However, in the beginning of 2009, Mitsubishi Chemical Holdings was reported to be developing its own artificial photosynthesis research by using sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to \"create the carbon building blocks from which resins, plastics and fibers can be synthesized.\" This was confirmed with the establishment of the KAITEKI Institute later that year, with carbon dioxide reduction through artificial photosynthesis as one of the main goals.\n",
"Research in artificial photosynthesis is necessarily a multidisciplinary topic, requiring a multitude of different expertise. Some techniques employed in making and investigating catalysts and solar cells include:\n",
"Artificial photosynthesis is a chemical process that biomimics the natural process of photosynthesis to convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and oxygen. The term artificial photosynthesis is commonly used to refer to any scheme for capturing and storing the energy from sunlight in the chemical bonds of a fuel (a solar fuel). Photocatalytic water splitting converts water into hydrogen and oxygen and is a major research topic of artificial photosynthesis. Light-driven carbon dioxide reduction is another process studied that replicates natural carbon fixation.\n"
] |
Would a handful of marbles released in empty space exert enough gravity on each other to clump together or even orbit one another? | If you started them off stationary with respect to one another, they would move together and end up in a clump, because their only acceleration would be towards one another. Of course, the accelerations would be very small, and the time to clumping very large.
If you started them with velocities with respect to one another, they could enter orbit, clump together (or at least hit each other, with behaviour depending on the elasticity of the collision), or move apart forever depending on what those velocities were. My quick calculation suggests that escape velocity for a 5g marble at a distance of 5cm is about 4 microns per second.
Edit: I confirmed my escape velocity calculation using [Wolfram Alpha](_URL_0_). At a distance of 5cm from a relatively heavy 5g marble, it's about 4x10^-6 metres per second. So each marble wouldn't need much velocity to escape the others. | [
"In contrast to Rachel Whiteread's procedure of making positive volumes out of negative space, Chromy constructs a negative space out of a solid volume: the human body. The marble therefore becomes a material of strength, a structural material, rather than one that engages in the illusion of weightlessness — in this way it is a different approach to Chromy's works in bronze which, like the sculptures of Ancient Greece, appear to defy gravitational forces by capturing the dynamism of the human body, many of which can be seen in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, which contains the richest collection of artifacts from Greek antiquity worldwide.\n",
"Bellaso challenged his detractors to solve some cryptograms encrypted according to his guidelines. He also furnished the following clue to help the solution of one of them: ‘‘The cryptogram contains the explanation why two balls, one in iron and one in wood, dropped from a high place will fall on the ground at the same time.’’ This is a clear statement of the law of the free-falling bodies forty years before Galileo. They were purportedly solved in 2018.\n",
"The fluid solution is appropriate for bodies that are only loosely held together, such as a comet. For instance, comet Shoemaker–Levy 9's decaying orbit around Jupiter passed within its Roche limit in July 1992, causing it to fragment into a number of smaller pieces. On its next approach in 1994 the fragments crashed into the planet. Shoemaker–Levy 9 was first observed in 1993, but its orbit indicated that it had been captured by Jupiter a few decades prior.\n",
"It is important to note that in this example the system is not stable for all inputs. Give the marble a big enough push, and it will fall out of the ladle and fall, stopping only when it reaches the floor. For some systems, therefore, it is proper to state that a system is exponentially stable \"over a certain range of inputs\".\n",
"Hard spheres are widely used as model particles in the statistical mechanical theory of fluids and solids. They are defined simply as impenetrable spheres that cannot overlap in space. They mimic the extremely strong (\"infinitely elastic bouncing\") repulsion that atoms and spherical molecules experience at very close distances. Hard spheres systems are studied by analytical means, by molecular dynamics simulations, and by the experimental study of certain colloidal model systems.\n",
"A step input in this case requires supporting the marble away from the bottom of the ladle, so that it cannot roll back. It will stay in the same position and will not, as would be the case if the system were only marginally stable or entirely unstable, continue to move away from the bottom of the ladle under this constant force equal to its weight.\n",
"BULLET::::- Collision: All 16 teams will be placed into a tournament bracket. Marbles will collide with each other and they will be knocked down by a barrier of dominoes. If a barrier ball is triggered, then it will have the ability to knock down other marbles not affected by their opponents. There are 3 sets of barrier balls. 2 horizontal and 1 vertical.\n"
] |
how can most low-end phone have a better processor speed than higher-end laptops? | number of cores and clock speed (GHz) do not necessarily indicate raw processor power. You also cannot add the GHz of multiple cores to get a number that means anything. | [
"For Internet browsing and typical office applications, where the computer spends the majority of its time waiting for the next user input, even relatively low-end laptops (such as Netbooks) can be fast enough for some users. Most higher-end laptops are sufficiently powerful for high-resolution movie playback, some 3D gaming and video editing and encoding. However, laptop processors can be disadvantaged when dealing with a higher-end database, maths, engineering, financial software, virtualization, etc. This is because laptops use the mobile versions of processors to conserve power, and these lag behind desktop chips when it comes to performance. Some manufacturers work around this performance problem by using desktop CPUs for laptops.\n",
"A laptop's central processing unit (CPU) has advanced power-saving features and produces less heat than one intended purely for desktop use. Typically, laptop CPUs have two processor cores, although 4-core models are also available. For low price and mainstream performance, there is no longer a significant performance difference between laptop and desktop CPUs, but at the high end, the fastest 4-to-8-core desktop CPUs still substantially outperform the fastest 4-core laptop processors, at the expense of massively higher power consumption and heat generation; the fastest laptop processors top out at 56 watts of heat, while the fastest desktop processors top out at 150 watts.\n",
"Despite intense user demand for a faster laptop CPU than the G4, Apple never used a G5 series CPU in their PowerBook laptops. The original 970 used far too much power and was never seriously viewed as a candidate for a portable computer. The 970FX reduced thermal design power (TDP) to about 30 W at 1.5 GHz, a figure which led many users to believe a PowerBook G5 might be possible. However, several obstacles prevented even the 970FX from being used in this application. At 1.5 GHz, the G5 was not substantially faster than the 1.5 and 1.67 GHz G4 processors which Apple used in PowerBooks instead. Furthermore, the northbridge chips available to interface the 970FX to memory and other devices were not designed for portable computers, and consumed too much power. Finally, the 970FX had inadequate power saving features for a portable CPU. Its minimum (idle) power was much too high, which would have led to poor battery life figures in a notebook computer.\n",
"The dual-core Cortex A9 runs at a speed of 1.2 GHz by default, but it can be overclocked to 1.3 GHz without the need of a custom kernel. This can be effected by rooting and then using a CPU clock speed modification app.\n",
"At the time of its release at the Intel Developer Forum on September 23, 2009, Clarksfield processors were significantly faster than any other laptop processor, including the Core 2 Extreme QX9300. The initial laptop manufacturers shipping products based on Clarksfield processors include MSI, Dell/Alienware, Hewlett-Packard, Toshiba and Asustek.\n",
"BULLET::::- Low power consumption: Laptops are several times more power-efficient than desktops. A typical laptop uses 20–120 W, compared to 100–800 W for desktops. This could be particularly beneficial for large businesses, which run hundreds of personal computers thus multiplying the potential savings, and homes where there is a computer running 24/7 (such as a home media server, print server, etc.).\n",
"A desktop computer often has the advantage over a comparable laptop in computational capacity. Overclocking is often more feasible on a desktop than on a laptop; similarly hardware add-ons such as discrete graphics co-processors may only be possible to install in a desktop.\n"
] |
what's happening in my head when sound gets drowned out while falling asleep and then a minor disturbance "opens" up my ears? | Your brain differentiates between expected and unexpected noises. So the hum from the fridge or the music you left on is expected, but broken glass or some other noise is unexpected and your brain wakes you up. | [
"The occlusion effect occurs when an object fills the outer portion of a person's ear canal, and that person perceives \"hollow\" or \"booming\" echo-like sounds of their own voice. It is caused by bone-conducted sound vibrations reverberating off the object filling the ear canal. When talking or chewing, these vibrations normally escape through an open ear canal; most people are unaware of their existence. When the ear canal is blocked, the vibrations are reflected back toward the eardrum. Compared to a completely open ear canal, the occlusion effect can boost low frequency (usually below 500 Hz) sound pressure in the ear canal by 20 dB or more. This effect can be measured with a probe-tube microphone.\n",
"Another cause of noise is due to the exocytosis of neurotransmitters from the synaptic terminals that provide input to a given neuron. This occurrence happens in the background while a cell is at resting membrane potential. Since it is happening in the background, the release is not due to a signal, but is random. This unpredictability adds to the synaptic noise level.\n",
"The human ear picks up sounds made by the human body as well, including the sounds of blood flowing and muscles acting. These sounds are normally discarded by the brain; however, they become more obvious when louder external sounds are filtered out. This occlusion effect occurs with seashells, cups, or hands held over one's ears, and also with circumaural headphones, whose cups form a seal around the ear, raising the acoustic impedance to external sounds.\n",
"Misophonia's mechanism is not known, but it appears that, like hyperacusis, it may be caused by a dysfunction of the central auditory system in the brain and not of the ears. The perceived origin and context of the sound appears to be essential to trigger a reaction.\n",
"Disturbances (such as stroke or trauma) at any of these levels can cause hearing problems, especially if the disturbance is bilateral. In some instances it can also lead to auditory hallucinations or more complex difficulties in perceiving sound.\n",
"BULLET::::- Dissonance sensation is a result of brain's response to unusual or rare sound perceptions (). The brain is remembering and ranking the sound patterns that usually enters the ears, and if an unusual (rare occurring) sound is listened to, a well known EEG pattern emerges (P300/P3b) indicating an oddball event. This causes slight stress in the listener, which is causing the sensation of dissonance. In the same paper, Pankovski and Pankovska show by a software simulated neural network that the brain is capable of such remembering and ranking of the sound patterns, thus perfectly reproducing the well known Helmholtz's list of two-tone intervals ordered by consonance/dissonance, for the first time in the history of studying these phenomena. As a consequence, Pankovski and Pankovska suggest that the consonance and dissonance are biologically dependent for the more consonant sounds, and culturally dependent for the more dissonant sounds.\n",
"When exposed to a multitude of sounds from several different sources, sensory overload may occur. This overstimulation can result in general fatigue and loss of sensation in the ear. The associated mechanisms are explained in further detail down below. Sensory overload usually occurs with environmental stimuli and not noise induced by listening to music.\n"
] |
why is e85 85% ethanol? | E85 has between 51 and 83% ethanol, by law (in the U.S.). Outside of the US it has 85%, and you can get 100% ethanol in some places too, mostly in warm areas.
You have to mix it because it won't ignite in cold weather without some gasoline - the exact mix of ethanol and gas is often changed depending on where you are (the weather!). | [
"E85, a mixture of 85% ethanol and ~15% gasoline, is generally the highest ethanol fuel mixture found in the United States and several European countries, particularly in Sweden, as this blend is the standard fuel for flexible-fuel vehicles. This mixture has an octane rating of 108, however, the Ethanol molecule also carries with it an Oxygen atom, -where-as Octane (A.K.A Gasoline) does not carry an Oxygen atom- effectively requiring the internal combustion engine to ingest less air per unit-volume by its' own accord, which reduces pumping losses, and further increases the exo-thermic chemical reaction. Ethanol fuel is considered -although not widely known as- a form of \"chemical supercharging\", similar to that of Nitrous Oxide (N2O) & Nitromethane (CH3NO2).\n",
"For E10 (10% ethanol and 90% gasoline), the effect is small (~3%) when compared to conventional gasoline, and even smaller (1–2%) when compared to oxygenated and reformulated blends. For E85 (85% ethanol), the effect becomes significant. E85 produces lower mileage than gasoline, and requires more frequent refueling. Actual performance may vary depending on the vehicle. Based on EPA tests for all 2006 E85 models, the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles was 25.56% lower than unleaded gasoline. The EPA-rated mileage of current United States flex-fuel vehicles should be considered when making price comparisons, but E85 is a high performance fuel, with an octane rating of about 94–96, and should be compared to premium.\n",
"The E85 blend is used in gasoline engines modified to accept such higher concentrations of ethanol, and the fuel injection is regulated through a dedicated sensor, which automatically detects the amount of ethanol in the fuel, allowing to adjust both fuel injection and spark timing accordingly to the actual blend available in the vehicle's tank. Because ethanol contains close to 34% less energy per unit volume than gasoline, E85 FFVs have a lower mileage per gallon than gasoline. Based on EPA tests for all 2006 E85 models, the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles was 25.56% lower than unleaded gasoline.\n",
", E85 is frequently sold for up to 36% lower price per quantity than gasoline. Much of this discount can be attributed to various government subsidies, and, at least in the United States, the elimination of state taxes that typically apply to gasoline and can amount to 47 cents, or more, per gallon of fuel. The US federal tax exemption that keeps ethanol economically competitive with petroleum fuel products is due to expire in 2007, but this exemption may be extended through legislative action. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the price of E85 rose to nearly on par with the cost of 87 octane gasoline in many states in the United States, and was for a short time the only fuel available when gasoline was sold out, but within four weeks of Katrina, the price of E85 had fallen once more to a 20% to 35% lower cost than 87 octane gasoline.\n",
"In countries like Australia where E85 is always 85% ethanol (and pump fuel with varying fractions is called \"flex fuel\"), performance motoring enthusiasts and motor racing clubs/championships use E85 extensively (without the need for any FFV certification). Use of alcohol (ethanol and methanol) in motor racing history parallels the invention of the automobile, favoured due to inherent combustion characteristics such as high thermal efficiency, raised torque and with some advanced engines, better specific fuel consumption. In the United States, government subsidies of ethanol in general and E85 in particular have encouraged a growing infrastructure for the retail sale of E85, especially in corn growing states in the Midwest.\n",
"Because ethanol contains close to 34% less energy per unit volume than gasoline, E85 FFVs have a lower mileage per gallon than gasoline. However, this lower energy content does not translate directly into a 34% reduction in miles per U.S. gallon, because there are many other variables that affect the performance of a particular fuel in a particular engine, though for E85 the effect becomes significant. E85 will produce lower mileage than gasoline, and actual performance may vary depending on the vehicle. Based on EPA EPA-rated mileage for all 2006 E85 models, the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles was 25.56% lower than unleaded gasoline. When making price comparisons it has to be considered that E85 has octane rating of about 104 and could be used as a substitute for premium gasoline.\n",
"The American E85 flex-fuel vehicle was developed to run on any mixture of unleaded gasoline and ethanol, anywhere from 0% to 85% ethanol by volume. Both fuels are mixed in the same tank, and E85 is sold already blended. In order to reduce ethanol evaporative emissions and to avoid problems starting the engine during cold weather, the maximum blend of ethanol was set to 85%. There is also a seasonal reduction of the ethanol content to E70 (called winter E85 blend) in very cold regions, where temperatures fall below during the winter. In Wyoming for example, E70 is sold as E85 from October to May.\n"
] |
why are nitrites toxic to tank fish, but nitrates are okay? | That one oxygen atom changes the shape, structure, and function.
For example Nitrates are used in many fertilizers and explosives. Nitrites are used in food preservation.
Nitrates form strong acids and nitrates form weaker acids.
That one extra oxygen atom in Nitrates makes a huge difference. | [
"Nitrates and nitrites have been used for hundreds of years to prevent botulism in fish and ensure microbial safety. Nitrates help kill bacteria, produce a characteristic flavor, and give fish a pink or red color. The use of nitrates in food preservation is controversial. This is due to the potential for the formation of nitrosamines when the preserved food is cooked at high temperature. However, the production of carcinogenic nitrosamines can be potently inhibited by the use of the antioxidants Vitamin C and the alpha-tocopherol form of Vitamin E during curing. A 2007 study by Columbia University suggests a link between eating cured meats and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Nitrites were posited as a possible cause. The use of either compound is carefully regulated. For example, the FDA Code of Federal Regulations states that sodium nitrite may be safely used: \"As a color fixative in smoked cured tunafish products so that the level of sodium nitrite does not exceed 10 parts per million (0.001 percent) in the finished product... As a preservative and color fixative, with or without sodium nitrate, in smoked, cured sablefish, smoked, cured salmon, and smoked, cured shad so that the level of sodium nitrite does not exceed 200 parts per million and the level of sodium nitrate does not exceed 500 parts per million in the finished product.\"\n",
"Although nitrites are the nitrogen compound chiefly used in meat curing, nitrates are used in certain specialty curing processes where a long release of nitrite from parent nitrate stores is needed. The use of nitrates in food preservation is controversial. This is due to the potential for the formation of nitrosamines when nitrates are present in high concentrations and the product is cooked at high temperatures. The effect is seen for red or processed meat, but not for white meat or fish. The production of carcinogenic nitrosamines may be inhibited by the use of the antioxidants vitamin C and the alpha-tocopherol form of vitamin E during curing.\n",
"Because of its ready solubility in water, niter is most often found in arid environments and often in conjunction with other soluble minerals like halides, iodates, borates, gypsum, and rarer carbonates and sulphates. A major source of sodium nitrate mineral (\"Chile saltpeter\" or nitratine) is the Atacama Desert in Chile. Potassium and other nitrates are of great importance for use in fertilizers and, historically, gunpowder. Much of the world's demand is now met by synthetically produced nitrates, though the natural mineral is still mined and is still of significant commercial value.\n",
"The use of nitrites in food preservation is controversial due to the potential for the formation of nitrosamines when nitrites are present in high concentrations and the product is cooked at high temperatures. The effect is seen for red or processed meat, but not for white meat or fish. Nitrates and nitrites may cause cancer and the production of carcinogenic nitrosamines can be potently inhibited by the use of the antioxidants Vitamin C and the alpha-tocopherol form of Vitamin E during curing. Under simulated gastric conditions, nitrosothiols rather than nitrosamines are the main nitroso species being formed. The use of either compound is therefore regulated; for example, in the United States, the concentration of nitrates and nitrites is generally limited to 200 ppm or lower. While the meat industry considers them irreplaceable because of their low cost and efficacy at maintaining color, botulism is an extremely rare disease (less than 1000 cases reported worldwide per year), and almost always associated with home preparations of food storing. Furthermore, while the FDA has set a limit of 200 ppm of nitrates for cured meat, they are not allowed and not recognized as safe in most other foods, even foods that are not cooked at high temperatures, such as cheese.\n",
"While this chemical will prevent the growth of bacteria, it can be toxic in high amounts for animals and humans. Sodium nitrite's LD in rats is 180 mg/kg and its human LD is 71 mg/kg, meaning a 65 kg person would likely have to consume at least 4.6 g to result in death. To prevent toxicity, sodium nitrite (blended with salt) sold as a food additive is dyed bright pink to avoid mistaking it for plain salt or sugar. Nitrites are not naturally occurring in vegetables in significant quantities. However, nitrates are found in commercially available vegetables and a study in an intensive agricultural area in northern Portugal found residual nitrate levels in 34 vegetable samples, including different varieties of cabbage, lettuce, spinach, parsley and turnips ranged between 54 and 2440 mg/kg, e.g. curly kale (302.0 mg/kg) and green cauliflower (64 mg/kg). Boiling vegetables lowers nitrate but not nitrite. Fresh meat contains 0.4–0.5 mg/kg nitrite and 4–7 mg/kg of nitrate (10–30 mg/kg nitrate in cured meats). The presence of nitrite in animal tissue is a consequence of metabolism of nitric oxide, an important neurotransmitter. Nitric oxide can be created \"de novo\" from nitric oxide synthase utilizing arginine or from ingested nitrate or nitrite.\n",
"Nitrates and nitrites not only help kill bacteria, but also produce a characteristic flavor and give meat a pink or red color. Nitrite () is generally supplied by sodium nitrite or (indirectly) by potassium nitrate. Nitrite salts are most often used in curing. Nitrate is specifically used only in a few curing conditions and products where nitrite (which may be generated from nitrate) must be generated in the product over long periods of time.\n",
"There are claims that shellfish killed with the CrustaStun taste better than those killed by boiling. Waitrose, Tesco and other major supermarkets in the United Kingdom have insisted that all shellfish products supplied to them are killed using this method.\n"
] |
why is cancer the most common disease associated with dna mutations? | Of all the things that mutations cause (that is, mutations that happen *after* a person has been born), most of them probably just end up with the mutated DNA getting repaired or removed, or the cell that contains it being destroyed through programmed cell death. Cancer is the result of a mutation that removes the cell's ability to repair or quarantine mutations. It isn't that so much of DNA is devoted to reproduction that any one mutation is likely to damage that section of the DNA. It's that, of all the mutations that happen, the ones that can survive and reproduce are necessarily the ones that alter the normal reproduction/cell death processes (and these are the mutations that cause cancer.) | [
"The likely major underlying cause of mutations in cancer is DNA damage. For example, in the case of lung cancer, DNA damage is caused by agents in exogenous genotoxic tobacco smoke (e.g. acrolein, formaldehyde, acrylonitrile, 1,3-butadiene, acetaldehyde, ethylene oxide and isoprene). Endogenous (metabolically-caused) DNA damage is also very frequent, occurring on average more than 60,000 times a day in the genomes of human cells (see DNA damage (naturally occurring)). Externally and endogenously caused damages may be converted into mutations by inaccurate translesion synthesis or inaccurate DNA repair (e.g. by non-homologous end joining). In addition, DNA damages can also give rise to epigenetic alterations during DNA repair. Both mutations and epigenetic alterations (epimutations) can contribute to progression to cancer.\n",
"Cancers have high levels of genome instability, associated with a high frequency of mutations. A high frequency of genomic mutations increases the likelihood of particular mutations occurring that activate oncogenes and inactivate tumor suppressor genes, leading to carcinogenesis. On the basis of whole genome sequencing, cancers are found to have thousands to hundreds of thousands of mutations in their whole genomes. (Also see Mutation frequencies in cancers.) By comparison, the mutation frequency in the whole genome between generations for humans (parent to child) is about 70 new mutations per generation. In the protein coding regions of the genome, there are only about 0.35 mutations between parent/child generations (less than one mutated protein per generation). Whole genome sequencing in blood cells for a pair of identical twin 100-year-old centenarians only found 8 somatic differences, though somatic variation occurring in less than 20% of blood cells would be undetected.\n",
"Cancers also generally have genome instability, that includes a high frequency of mutations in the noncoding DNA that makes up about 98% of the human genome. The average number of DNA sequence mutations in the entire genome of breast cancer tissue is about 20,000. In an average melanom (where melanomas have a higher exome mutation frequency) the total number of DNA sequence mutations is about 80,000.\n",
"DNA damage and genomic instability appear to be the basic causes of sporadic (non-familial) cancer. While infections have many effects, infectious organisms that increase the risk of cancer are frequently a source of DNA damage or genomic instability, as discussed below for oncogenic viruses and an oncogenic bacterium.\n",
"Overall, the most common gene mutations in ovarian cancer occur in \"NF1, BRCA1, BRCA2, \"and \"CDK12\". Type I ovarian cancers, which tend to be less aggressive, tend to have microsatellite instability in several genes, including both oncogenes (most notably \"BRAF\" and \"KRAS\") and tumor suppressors (most notably \"PTEN\"). The most common mutations in Type I cancers are \"KRAS, BRAF, ERBB2, PTEN, PIK3CA,\" and \"ARID1A.\" Type II cancers, the more aggressive type, have different genes mutated, including \"p53, BRCA1\", and \"BRCA2\". Low-grade cancers tend to have mutations in KRAS, whereas cancers of any grade that develop from low malignant potential tumors tend to have mutations in p53. Type I cancers tend to develop from precursor lesions, whereas Type II cancers can develop from a serous tubal intraepithelial carcinoma. Serous cancers that have BRCA mutations also inevitably have p53 mutations, indicating that the removal of both functional genes is important for cancer to develop.\n",
"It is currently accepted that sporadic tumors (non-familial ones) are originated due to the accumulation of several genetic errors. An average cancer of the breast or colon can have about 60 to 70 protein altering mutations, of which about 3 or 4 may be \"driver\" mutations, and the remaining ones may be \"passenger\" mutations Any genetic or epigenetic lesion increasing the mutation rate will have as a consequence an increase in the acquisition of new mutations, increasing then the probability to develop a tumor. During the process of tumorogenesis, it is known that diploid cells acquire mutations in genes responsible for maintaining genome integrity (\"caretaker genes\"), as well as in genes that are directly controlling cellular proliferation (\"gatekeeper genes\"). Genetic instability can originate due to deficiencies in DNA repair, or due to loss or gain of chromosomes, or due to large scale chromosomal reorganizations. Losing genetic stability will favour tumor development, because it favours the generation of mutants that can be selected by the environment.\n",
"Genome-wide analyses of human cancer tissues reveal that a single typical cancer cell may possess roughly 100 mutations in coding regions, 10-20 of which are “driver mutations” that contribute to cancer development. However, chronic inflammation also causes epigenetic changes such as DNA methylations, that are often more common than mutations. Typically, several hundreds to thousands of genes are methylated in a cancer cell (see DNA methylation in cancer). Sites of oxidative damage in chromatin can recruit complexes that contain DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs), a histone deacetylase (SIRT1), and a histone methyltransferase (EZH2), and thus induce DNA methylation. DNA methylation of a CpG island in a promoter region may cause silencing of its downstream gene (see CpG site and regulation of transcription in cancer). DNA repair genes, in particular, are frequently inactivated by methylation in various cancers (see hypermethylation of DNA repair genes in cancer). A 2018 report evaluated the relative importance of mutations and epigenetic alterations in progression to two different types of cancer. This report showed that epigenetic alterations were much more important than mutations in generating gastric cancers (associated with inflammation). However, mutations and epigenetic alterations were of roughly equal importance in generating esophageal squamous cell cancers (associated with tobacco chemicals and acetaldehyde, a product of alcohol metabolism).\n"
] |
why are some drink powders white but then turn a bright/deep shade after adding water | Artificial food coloring is extremely concentrated. A couple of granules, hidden among the white granules that make up most of the drink mix, are all it takes. | [
"Reflecting its slightly hydrophilic character, the white powder is moderately soluble in alcohols and can be recrystallized from hot water. In the presence of a base, it oxidizes readily. The methylated derivatives \"N\"-methylaminophenol and \"N\",\"N\"-dimethylaminophenol are of commercial value.\n",
"Ouzo is a clear liquid. However, when water or ice is added, ouzo turns a milky-white colour. This is because anethole, the essential oil of anise, is completely soluble in alcohol at approximately 38% ABV and above, but not in water. Diluting the spirit causes it to separate creating an emulsion, whose fine droplets scatter the light. This process is called louching, and is also found while preparing absinthe.\n",
"BULLET::::- Pure water is nearly colorless. However, it does absorb slightly more red light than blue, giving large volumes of water a bluish tint; increased scattering of blue light due to fine particles in the water shifts the blue color toward green, for a typically cyan net color.\n",
"Purple-K powder has an acrid taste and odor, is free-flowing, floating on most liquids, non-abrasive, does not wet with water and is compatible with most foam concentrates. It has violet color, to distinguish it from other dry agents. Its principal component is potassium bicarbonate (78–82% by weight), with addition of sodium bicarbonate (12–15%), mica (1–3%), Fuller's earth (1–3%), amorphous silica (0.2–%), and is made hydrophobic by methyl hydrogen polysiloxane (0.2–1%).\n",
"The powders were often packaged in a small envelope containing two coloured paper wraps, one white and one blue. The white packets contained tartaric acid, and the blue packets contained a mixture of 75% w/w Rochelle salt (potassium sodium tartrate) and 25% baking soda (sodium bicarbonate). The powdery contents of both packets were stirred or dissolved separately in water and then mixed, giving off carbon dioxide with a characteristic fizzing sound. The drink was described as \"a cooling, agreeable draught\".\n",
"It is a white to off white odourless crystalline powder. It is practically insoluble in chloroform, slightly soluble in boiling acetone, ethanol, methanol, and ethyl acetate, sparingly soluble in water 8 at 20° and ethyl alcohol, soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, and dilute sodium hydroxide, and freely soluble in N,N-dimethylformamide (at 60 °C).\n",
"The liquid used can be pure ethanol, toluene, kerosene or isoamyl acetate, depending on manufacturer and working temperature range. Since these are transparent, the liquid is made more visible by the addition of a red or blue dye. One half of the glass containing the capillary is usually enamelled white or yellow to give a background for reading the scale.\n"
] |
sarcasm and irony | Irony:
The use of words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of its literal meaning or an outcome of events contrary to what was, or might have been, expected.
Sarcasm: A sharply ironical taunt; sneering or cutting remark
So sarcasm is an ironical remark used to taunt someone.
[_URL_1_](_URL_0_) | [
"Sarcasm does not necessarily involve irony. But irony, or the use of expressions conveying different things according as they are interpreted, is so often made the vehicle of sarcasm ... The essence of sarcasm is the intention of giving pain by (ironical or other) bitter words.\n",
"A feature of satire is strong irony or sarcasm—\"in satire, irony is militant\"—but parody, burlesque, exaggeration, juxtaposition, comparison, analogy, and double entendre are all frequently used in satirical speech and writing. This \"militant\" irony or sarcasm often professes to approve of (or at least accept as natural) the very things the satirist wishes to attack.\n",
"Professionals in psychology and related fields have long looked upon sarcasm negatively, particularly noting that sarcasm tends to be a maladaptive coping mechanism for those with unresolved anger or frustrations. Psychologist Clifford N. Lazarus describes sarcasm as \"hostility disguised as humor\". While an occasional sarcastic comment may enliven a conversation, Lazarus suggests that too frequent use of sarcasm tends to \"overwhelm the emotional flavor of any conversation\".\n",
"Cultural perspectives on sarcasm vary widely with more than a few cultures and linguistic groups finding it offensive to varying degrees. Thomas Carlyle despised it: \"Sarcasm I now see to be, in general, the language of the devil; for which reason I have long since as good as renounced it\". Fyodor Dostoyevsky, on the other hand, recognized in it a cry of pain: Sarcasm, he said, was \"usually the last refuge of modest and chaste-souled people when the privacy of their soul is coarsely and intrusively invaded.\" RFC 1855, a collection of guidelines for Internet communications, includes a warning to be especially careful with it as it \"may not travel well.\" Another study of sarcasm over email verifies these claims. A professional translator has advised that international business executives \"should generally avoid sarcasm in intercultural business conversations and written communications\" because of the difficulties in translating sarcasm.\n",
"Irony can be categorized into different types, including: \"verbal irony\", \"dramatic irony\", and \"situational irony\". Verbal, dramatic, and situational irony are often used for emphasis in the assertion of a truth. The ironic form of simile, used in sarcasm, and some forms of litotes can emphasize one's meaning by the deliberate use of language which states the opposite of the truth, denies the contrary of the truth, or drastically and obviously understates a factual connection. Other forms, as identified by historian Connop Thirlwall, include dialectic and practical irony.\n",
"Distinguishing sarcasm from banter, and referring to the use of irony in sarcasm, Derek Bousfield writes that sarcasm is: The use of strategies which, \"on the surface\" appear to be appropriate to the situation, but are meant to be taken as meaning the opposite in terms of \"face management\". That is, the utterance which appears, on the surface, to maintain or enhance the face of the recipient actually attacks and damages the face of the recipient. ... \"sarcasm\" is an insincere form of politeness which is used to offend one's interlocutor.\n",
"There's a certain aspect of sarcasm, I guess, being a guy from Seattle who lives in L.A., ex-drug addict who lives in the belly of the beast and doesn't partake, and being totally cool with that...It's like being the bad gambler and living in Vegas. It's right there. It's just the irony of that and a little bit of sarcasm. And it's not putting this place down at all. It's just kind of like, 'Wow, you know, check my brain, wow.'\n"
] |
Why are there tigers in Primorye and historically throughout Siberia, but none in the similar ecosystem of Alaska? | There were a number of large cats that formerly inhabited North America, such as the American Lion: _URL_2_ And the Saber-toothed cat: _URL_1_
The only species to survive in North America into modern times is the Cougar. _URL_0_ | [
"Siberian tigers used to be common on either side of the Amur River in Russia and China, as well as in northeastern Mongolia and South Korea. Caspian tigers lived around the Caspian sea in Azerbaijan, Iran and Turkmenistan, and also further away in Armenia, Georgia and Turkey and Kazakhstan all the way to the Altai Mountains in the East. Caspian tigers reportedly became extinct in the 1970s after many years of hunting, poaching and habitat loss. Siberian tigers lost most of their ranges in Siberia and China and became extinct in the wild of Korea and Mongolia.\n",
"The Siberian tiger (\"Panthera tigris tigris\") is a tiger population in the Russian Far East and Northeast China, and possibly North Korea. It once ranged throughout the Korean Peninsula, north China, Russian Far East, and eastern Mongolia. Today, this population inhabits mainly the Sikhote Alin mountain region in southwest Primorye Province in the Russian Far East. In 2005, there were 331–393 adult and subadult Siberian tigers in this region, with a breeding adult population of about 250 individuals. The population had been stable for more than a decade due to intensive conservation efforts, but partial surveys conducted after 2005 indicate that the Russian tiger population was declining. An initial census held in 2015 indicated that the Siberian tiger population had increased to 480–540 individuals in the Russian Far East, including 100 cubs. This was followed up by a more detailed census which revealed there was a total population of 562 wild Siberian tigers in Russia. As of 2014, about 35 individuals were estimated to range in the international border area between Russia and China.\n",
"The Amur region of Russia holds the last remaining habitats of the critically endangered Amur tiger, Amur leopard, and Manchurian sika deer. It has been estimated that there are less the 600 tigers. and around 40 leopards left in the wild. The area also contains populations of Asiatic black bears and Kamchatka brown bears, as the Russian Far East is the only place in the world where tigers, brown bears, and leopards coexist. This region also happens to be some of the last of habitat of the Blakiston’s fish owl (Bubo blakistoni); along with being the world’s largest owl, it is unique in the way that it eats fish (primarily Masu salmon) and relies on old growth forests along river banks to feed, nest, and breed. Common ungulates include red deer, roe deer, wild boar, Manchurian moose, and musk deer.\n",
"BULLET::::- In the 1900s (decade) the Russian government declared that there is no place for tigers in Central Asia and Caucasus. The Russian army was tasked with the extermination of all tigers in the Caspian Sea area so that farmers could move in. It is unknown whether the Caspian tiger is entirely extinct since there are some reports of sightings in Afghanistan.\n",
"The Siberian tiger once inhabited much of the Korean Peninsula, Manchuria and other parts of north-eastern China, the eastern part of Siberia and the Russian Far East, perhaps as far west as Mongolia and the area of Lake Baikal, where the Caspian tiger also reportedly occurred. The geographical range of the tiger in the Russian Far East stretches south to north for almost the length of Primorsky Krai and into southern Khabarovsk Krai east and south of the Amur River. It also occurs within the Greater Xing'an Range, which crosses into Russia from China at several places in southwest Primorye. In both regions, peaks are generally above sea level, with only a few reaching or more. This region represents a merger zone of two bioregions: the East Asian coniferous-deciduous complex and the Taiga, resulting in a mosaic of forest types that vary with elevation, topography, and history. Key habitats of the Siberian tiger are Korean pine broadleaf forests with a complex composition and structure.\n",
"The Siberian tiger occurs in the Northeast, along the border with Russia and North Korea. The Caspian tiger was last seen in the Manasi River Basin of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the 1960s, where this population is now extinct. The South China tiger is an endemic population whose habitat is now confined to the mountain regions of Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangdong and Fujian. A few Indochinese tigers were known to live in Yunnan where six nature reserves have been established for their protection.\n",
"Large mammals such as tigers, bears, and lynx were once abundant throughout the Korean peninsula. However, they have virtually disappeared due to human settlement, loss of forest habitat, and over-hunting. The Siberian tiger has not been sighted in South Korea since the 1920s. Bears and Wildcats can still be found in the more remote areas, such as Jiri-san and Seorak-san. South Korea also has several indigenous species of deer, including the roe deer and the Siberian musk deer. Wild boars have been growing common in recent years, thanks to reduced hunting pressure.\n"
] |
What does it mean for a substance to have 0 viscosity? | It's been a few years since I last did matter at low temp, but IIRC there are a few things that characterise such a state:
- Film flow: superfluids are capable of climbing out of open beakers, even against gravity. Here is a cool [video](_URL_2_)
- Superleaks: Superfluids can leak through incredibly small holes which normal viscous liquids would be unable to do. So one example would be a narrow tube packed with loads of cotton wool.
- Fountain effect: [video](_URL_1_) and [link](_URL_0_) will explain better than me
- Also quantised vortices but I don't know enough about them, maybe someone else can fill in | [
"The intrinsic viscosity of the material, found by extrapolating to zero concentration of relative viscosity to concentration which is measured in deciliters per gram (dℓ/g). Intrinsic viscosity is dependent upon the length of its polymer chains but has no units due to being extrapolated to zero concentration. The longer the polymer chains the more entanglements between chains and therefore the higher the viscosity. The average chain length of a particular batch of resin can be controlled during polycondensation.\n",
"Viscosity is the material property which relates the viscous stresses in a material to the rate of change of a deformation (the strain rate). Although it applies to general flows, it is easy to visualize and define in a simple shearing flow, such as a planar Couette flow.\n",
"Intrinsic viscosity formula_1 is a measure of a solute's contribution to the viscosity formula_2 of a solution. It should not be confused with inherent viscosity, which is the ratio of the natural logarithm of the relative viscosity to the mass concentration of the polymer.\n",
"The viscosity is one of the measures of a fluid substance that is the resistance of itself. It can be described as high viscosity or low viscosity. Before the study of the viscosity of a liquid, a scientist called van der Gulik has explained how the viscosity of gas determines. He said that the increase in temperature can increase the viscosity of the gas, but it is opposite to liquid. He also proposed the influence of the molecules exerts on each other to viscosity. Another person called Brillouin also has mentioned that the concept of free path of molecules should be given up. After several ideas have been mentioned and proposed, the typical image of the viscosity of liquids is that the molecule is actively bouncing in a space that is formed by other molecules when the momentum has been exchanged as collisions. Therefore, the viscosity coefficient is measured by the efficiency of exchange and by the number of collisions per unit of time and volume.\n",
"Critical viscosity is seldom measured and attempts to predict it by formulas are few. For a pure fluid, or component i in a fluid mixture, a formula from kinetic theory is often used to estimate critical viscosity.\n",
"Viscosity is usually described as the property of a fluid which determines the rate at which local momentum differences are equilibrated. Rotational viscosity is a property of a fluid which determines the rate at which local angular momentum differences are equilibrated. It is only appreciable if there are rotational degrees of freedom for the fluid particles. In the classical case, by the equipartition theorem, at equilibrium, if particle collisions can transfer angular momentum as well as linear momentum, then these degrees of freedom will have the same average energy. If there is a lack of equilibrium between these degrees of freedom, then the rate of equilibration will be determined by the rotational viscosity coefficient.\n",
"Observed values of viscosity vary over several orders of magnitude, even for common substances. For instance, a 70% sucrose (sugar) solution has a viscosity over 400 times that of water, and 26000 times that of air. More dramatically, pitch has been estimated to have a viscosity 230 billion times that of water.\n"
] |
Is there an infinite number of wavelengths on the EM spectrum between 2 wavelengths? | No, it's infinite. All wavelengths are allowed.
Planck's constant cannot do that, and you can deduce that without knowing the physics. The theory of photons is free quantum electrodynamics, which has only two dimensionful constants: c and hbar, respectively from relativity and QM. c has units of length/time, hbar has units mass×length^(2)/time. If you had some kind of discretization of wavelength, which has ofc units of length, the step should be a pure number times a length obtained by combination of powers of c and hbar. But as you can see, there is no way to build a length multiplying powers of c and hbar. | [
"The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below frequencies used for modern radio to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength end, covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atom. That would be wavelengths from 10 to 10 kilometers. The long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous.\n",
"There is a minimum possible wavelength, given by twice the equilibrium separation \"a\" between atoms. Any wavelength shorter than this can be mapped onto a wavelength longer than 2\"a\", due to the periodicity of the lattice. This can be thought as one consequence of Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, the lattice points are viewed as the \"sampling points\" of a continuous wave.\n",
"An absolute minimum continuous wavelength range is 0.4 to 1 μm, with possible short wavelength extensions down below 0.3 μm and near infrared extensions to 1.7 μm or even 2.5 μm, depending on the cost and complexity.\n",
"There is a \"minimum possible\" wavelength, given by the equilibrium separation \"a\" between atoms. Any wavelength shorter than this can be mapped onto a wavelength longer than \"a\", due to effects similar to that in aliasing.\n",
"The visible spectrum of light from hydrogen displays four wavelengths, 410 nm, 434 nm, 486 nm, and 656 nm, that correspond to emissions of photons by electrons in excited states transitioning to the quantum level described by the principal quantum number \"n\" equals 2. There are several prominent ultraviolet Balmer lines with wavelengths shorter than 400 nm. The number of these lines is an infinite continuum as it approaches a limit of 364.6 nm in the ultraviolet.\n",
"The 430-nanometer wavelength corresponds to a deep blue (violet) light, and was chosen, as was the multiplier, to make values determined in the SRM system comparable to those determined using the Lovibond system in use at the time the SRM was adopted.\n",
"In electricity and magnetism, the long wavelength limit is the limiting case when the wavelength is much larger than the system size. This corresponds to the quasi-static case, and reduces to electrostatics and magnetostatics.\n"
] |
how come after only a couple days of not working out, i feel and look like i'm not in good shape anymore? | It's honestly a mental thing. If you think you look/feel good, then you will (if you're pretty healthy). I know that I feel like I'm in a funk when I don't work out for a few days. It's all in my head, though. | [
"Dr. Pope said that when individuals have a regular workout regimen, but sustain an injury, they can't wait to get back to working out and that it has a psychiatric protective effect for them. He also said their instincts are to get back to work and if they allow their working out to lapse too long then bad things may start to happen.\n",
"Is caused by overexerting. The body symptoms are fatigue, lack of motivation, losing body weight, decreased performance, depression, insomnia and immune system weakening. This can affect the athlete mentally as well as physically.\n",
"Research has shown that the body experiences muscle fatigue after standing for five hours; this fatigue persists for more than 30 minutes after the end of the work day according to electronic measurements of fatigue. The perception of fatigue is subjective and does not necessarily correlate with the experimental indicators of fatigue.\n",
"Haldeman stated in an article posted on Muscle Foods USA's website: \"I found fitness more by circumstance than anything else. I had an injury (2009) that resulted in my inability to walk or run for quite some time. It was recommended to me that I try weight training during this time to keep in shape and help reduces my recovery time. At the time I had zero interest in lifting weights or making a daily trip to the gym. It didn’t take long, however, until I found that I loved what resistance training can do to your body. After only a few short weeks I was hooked and started to learn everything I could about sculpting and building my physique….and although a few years have passed since then I am just as excited learning about everything health and fitness related ! It is a life style that I have completely submerged myself in!\" \n",
"Over the next few years as I tried the ‘lose-weight-without-any-change’ method, as I wore ever tighter clothes, and weighed myself to depression, I felt doomed. My lowest point was the day I weighed myself after a haircut.\n",
"Even work does not take the pain away. I may be diving for my own pleasure or showing others how to do so, but when I return to the shop, it seems empty without you. I stock and order as I always did, but even now, I sometimes glance over my shoulder without thinking and call for you. As I write this note to you, I wonder when, or if, things like that will ever stop.\n",
"I wish that my lungs felt as good as my hip. If I last four days (of practice) in a row and my hip's barking at me, then that's all she wrote. I know how I felt when I had to retire and I know how I'm feeling now. It's not really how I want to feel. It was fun while I was out there but each day I skated, the pain just kind of lingered a lot longer than I would have liked. I was feeling really good and had started getting some different treatment. I practiced a few times with the Bruins but after some really hard practices, realized there was just no way I could continue.\n"
] |
how and why exactly does anxiety affect your whole body? (eg. digestive system, feeling cold, etc) | Stress causes your adrenal glands to release adrenaline which causes a wide range of physical symptoms. | [
"The behavioral effects of anxiety may include withdrawal from situations which have provoked anxiety or negative feelings in the past. Other effects may include changes in sleeping patterns, changes in habits, increase or decrease in food intake, and increased motor tension (such as foot tapping).\n",
"Researchers believe that feelings of anxiety arise to prepare a person for threats. In humans, anxiety symptoms are distributed along a continuum and different symptom levels of anxiety predict outcomes. Responses consist of increased heart rate, stress hormone secretion, restlessness, vigilance, and fear of a potentially dangerous environment. Anxiety prepares the body physically, cognitively, and behaviourally to detect and deal with threats to survival. As a result, a person's body begins to hyperventilate to allow more oxygen to enter the bloodstream, divert blood to muscles, and sweat to cool the skin. In individuals, the degree to which an anxiety response is developed is based on the probability of bad things happening in the environment and the individual's ability to cope with them. In the case of test taking, this might be a failing exam grade that prevents the student from being accepted to a post-secondary institution. A person's beliefs about their own competencies are a form of self-knowledge, which plays an important role in analyzing situations that might be threatening. When a person has feelings of low competence about their abilities they are likely to anticipate negative outcomes such as failure, under uncertain conditions. Thus, evaluative situations including tests and exams, are perceived as more threatening by students who have low competencies.\n",
"Somatic anxiety is the physical symptoms of anxiety, such as butterflies in the stomach. It is also known as somatization. It is commonly contrasted with \"cognitive anxiety\", which is the mental manifestations of anxiety, or the specific thought processes that occur during anxiety, such as concern or worry. These different components of anxiety are especially studied in sports psychology, specifically relating to how the anxiety symptoms affect athletic performance.\n",
"The emotional effects of anxiety may include \"feelings of apprehension or dread, trouble concentrating, feeling tense or jumpy, anticipating the worst, irritability, restlessness, watching (and waiting) for signs (and occurrences) of danger, and, feeling like your mind's gone blank\" as well as \"nightmares/bad dreams, obsessions about sensations, déjà vu, a trapped-in-your-mind feeling, and feeling like everything is scary.\"\n",
"Stress hormones released in an anxious state have an impact on bowel function and can manifest physical symptoms that may contribute to or exacerbate IBS. Anxiety is often experienced by those with obsessive–compulsive disorder and is an acute presence in panic disorder.\n",
"While anxiety arose as an adaptation, in modern times it is almost always thought of negatively in the context of anxiety disorders. People with these disorders have highly sensitive systems; hence, their systems tend to overreact to seemingly harmless stimuli. Sometimes anxiety disorders occur in those who have had traumatic youths, demonstrating an increased prevalence of anxiety when it appears a child will have a difficult future. In these cases, the disorder arises as a way to predict that the individual's environment will continue to pose threats.\n",
"Psychodynamic theory posits that anxiety is often the result of opposing unconscious wishes or fears that manifest via maladaptive defense mechanisms (such as suppression, repression, anticipation, regression, somatization, passive aggression, dissociation) that develop to adapt to problems with early objects (e.g., caregivers) and empathic failures in childhood. For example, persistent parental discouragement of anger may result in repression/suppression of angry feelings which manifests as gastrointestinal distress (somatization) when provoked by another while the anger remains unconscious and outside the individual's awareness. Such conflicts can be targets for successful treatment with psychodynamic therapy. While psychodynamic therapy tends to explore the underlying roots of anxiety, cognitive behavioral therapy has also been shown to be a successful treatment for anxiety by altering irrational thoughts and unwanted behaviors.\n"
] |
Why was Portugal accepted into NATO? | While both regimes shared very similar outlooks (Corporatist, authoritarian, conservative, anti-communist states) both had significantly different reputations after the 2nd world war. Salazar was an incredibly well regarded statesman, who had a great dislike for Hitler and who stayed neutral during the war due to a strategic issue (Anglo-Portugese alliance stayed intact as a strategic issue, as Portugal was poorly defended and the British did not need more reason to draw the Spanish into the war.) Franco had presided over an incredibly bloody civil war and had only stayed neutral in the 2nd world war because the Germans thought his conditions for Spanish military help were unfeasible (Rumor is Hitler once stated he'd rather have teeth pulled than continue to deal with Franco).
Four years after the end of the 2nd world war, when the North Atlantic treaty was signed, few people had forgotten had close Spain was to becoming a full-fledged member of the Axis.
| [
"NATO's focus on preventing a conventional Soviet attack against Western Europe was to the detriment of military preparations against guerrilla uprisings in Portugal's overseas provinces that were considered essential for the survival of the nation. The integration of Portugal in NATO resulted in the formation of a military élite that were critical in the planning and implementation of operations during the Overseas War. This \"NATO generation\" ascended quickly to the highest political positions and military command without having to provide evidence of loyalty to the regime.\n",
"The membership of the organization at this time remained largely static. In 1974, as a consequence of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, Greece withdrew its forces from NATO's military command structure but, with Turkish cooperation, were readmitted in 1980. The Falklands War between the United Kingdom and Argentina did not result in NATO involvement because article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty specifies that collective self-defence is only applicable to attacks on member state territories north of the Tropic of Cancer. On 30 May 1982, NATO gained a new member when the newly democratic Spain joined the alliance; Spain's membership was confirmed by referendum in 1986. At the peak of the Cold War, 16 member nations maintained an approximate strength of 5,252,800 active military, including as many as 435,000 forward deployed US forces, under a command structure that reached a peak of 78 headquarters, organized into four echelons.\n",
"The alliance has served both countries throughout their respective military histories, influencing the participation of the United Kingdom in the Iberian Peninsular War, the UK's major land contribution to the Napoleonic Wars and the establishment of an Anglo-American base in Portugal. Portugal aided England (and later the UK) in times of need, for example, in the First World War. Today, Portugal and the United Kingdom are both part of NATO, a larger intergovernmental military alliance between several North American and European states that accounts for over 70% of total global military spending.\n",
"A member state of the United Nations since 1955, Portugal is also a founding member of NATO (1949), OECD (1961) and EFTA (1960); it left the last in 1986 to join the European Economic Community, which became the European Union in 1993.\n",
"Portugal was a founding member of NATO (1949), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1961), and European Free Trade Area (1960); it left the latter in 1986 to join the European Economic Community, which would become the European Union (EU) in 1993. In 1996, it co-founded the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP). The country is a member state of the United Nations since 1955.\n",
"After World War II, Portugal was one of the founding nations of NATO. In the scope of the Cold War, the Portuguese fleet actively participated in the defense of the North Atlantic against the Soviet naval threat. Inside NATO, the Portuguese Navy stands out by the development of a high proficiency in the mine and anti-submarine warfares.\n",
"NATO has added new members seven times since its founding in 1949 to include twenty-nine members. Twelve countries were part of the founding of NATO: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The early years of the Cold War saw a stark divide between Capitalist states, backed by United States, and Communist satellite states of the Soviet Union. This divide eased inclusion of Portugal under Salazar in NATO and encouraged the anti-Communist governments of Greece and Turkey to join NATO in 1952. Greece would suspend its membership in 1974, over the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, but rejoined in 1980 with Turkey's cooperation.\n"
] |
why do politicians owe favors to their donors? | Let's look at it at a "before presidency thing", first. To get to that point you have held one office or another multiple times. You would not have gotten past the first if you were known not to "repay favours", as you would get no donors the second time. Now, to the presidency. Let's assume you decide "OK, I'm here, no more sucking up". Can you get any work done? Not really because EVERYONE else needs to still suck up to those campaign funds. So you get nothing done and when your one term is over you find no jobs waiting for you on the other side.
As for evidence? It is hard to tell. Being able to "follow the money" in a lot of cases is difficult, although others are less so. | [
"Although the political science literature indicates that most contributors give to support parties or candidates with whom they are already in agreement, there is wide public perception that donors expect government favors in return. (such as specific legislation being enacted or defeated), so some have come to equate campaign finance with political corruption and bribery. These views have led governments to reform campaign financing in the hope of eliminating big money influence.\n",
"A 2016 experimental study in the \"American Journal of Political Science\" found that politicians made themselves more available for meetings with individuals when they believed that the individuals had donated to their campaign. A 2011 study found that \"even after controlling for past contracts and other factors, companies that contributed more money to federal candidates subsequently received more contracts.\" A 2016 study in the \"Journal of Politics\" found that industries overseen by committees decreased their contributions to congresspeople who recently departed from the committees and that they immediately increase their contributions to new members of the committees, which is \"evidence that corporations and business PACs use donations to acquire immediate access and favor—suggesting they at least anticipate that the donations will influence policy.\" Research by University of Chicago political scientist Anthony Fowler and Northwestern University political scientists Haritz Garro and Jörg L. Spenkuch found no evidence that corporations that donated to a candidate received any monetary benefits from the candidate winning election.\n",
"According to McMaster University political scientist Henry Jacek, political contributions tend to come from the wealthy, and not the poor. It is also clear from other jurisdictions in the world that political donors typically are people that have more disposable income.\n",
"Politics is another area where the power of reciprocity is evident. While politicians often claim autonomy from the feelings of obligation associated with gifts and favors that influence everyone else, they are also susceptible. In the 2002 election, U.S. Congress Representatives who received the most money from special interest groups were over seven times more likely to vote in favor of the group that had contributed the most money to their campaigns.\n",
"Despite the AEC publishing a yearly list of political donors, it is often difficult to ascertain who made the donation, as political parties sometimes use \"associated entities\" as front organisations to hide the source of donations.\n",
"Moreover, the dependence on foundations for revenue, can cause an ideological skewing towards the political orientation of their donors. The donors may also have secret propaganda agendas and aim to utilize these news networks for their own spread of knowledge. However, as mentioned earlier, this could be bypassed by increasing the number of donor sources. The centers also have to create a respectable profile to convince foundations, organizations and individuals to donate, which, in return could in increase the quality of reporting.\n",
"A 2017 study found that \"only a small portion of Americans make campaign donations\" and that both Democratic and Republican donors \"are more ideologically extreme than other partisans, including primary voters. With respect to why individuals contribute, we show that donors appear responsive to their perception of the stakes in the election.\"\n"
] |
How far can an ant be removed from the anthill and still find its way home? | This has been asked a lot before so if you want deeper answers you can look them up. Basically if an ant doesn't know where it's trail home is it will start wandering around in random(ish) directions trying to find it. IIRC, they also have a good ability to remember landmarks, so that can help too.
If they are really far away and can't find their home then yes, then they may wander until they die. They may find another colony that they can assimilate into, but more than likely they ants their won't accept the foreigner and will attack and kill it (even if it's the same species possibly.)
So to answer your question of how far away, it depends. If they are a really long ways away, but get lucky in their random search they can find their way back. In general, I've seen estimates hover closer to 100 or less meters. It's actually a neat direct application of some of the algorithms in computer science if you want a more rigorous way to think of it. | [
"Then let it move Northwards, over \"the hill\", then towards the Northwest so that it starts sliding down towards the \"x = 0\" axis. As soon as the ant crosses this axis it will find itself \"inside\" the Northern lobe, standing right side up. Now let the ant walk towards the North. It will climb up the wall, then along the \"roof\" of the Northern lobe. The ant is back on the third hyperbolic paraboloid, but this time under it and standing upside-down. (Compare with Klein bottle.)\n",
"After following the pheromone trail to vegetation, ants climb onto leaves or grass and begin cutting off sections. To do this, they place one mandible, called the fixed mandible, onto a leaf and anchor it. Then they open the other, called the motile mandible, and place it on the leaf tissue. The ant keeps moves the motile jaw and pulls the fixed jaw behind it by closing them together until the fragment detaches. Which jaw is fixed and which is motile varies depending on the direction the ant chooses to cut a fragment in.\n",
"This ant is found in rainforests in tropical regions of India, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Sarawak, Singapore, Vietnam, Papua New Guinea and parts of the Northern Territory and Queensland in Australia. In Australia it is not usually found above 300 metres and occupies a similar range to the weaver ant, \"Oecophylla smaragdina\".\n",
"Numerous large ant-hills are a prominent feature of the reserve. They are made by the yellow meadow ant. In some places they may be as a high as a metre. In parts of Gloucestershire the ant hills are known as \"emmet casts\", \"emmet\" being the old English word for ant.\n",
"This ant ventures far from its burrow in the Sahara Desert, which has almost no identifiable features. While venturing out it periodically takes measurements of its angle in respect to the Sun. By doing this the ant can venture far from its nest in search of food. Because of the blistering heat, it can only do this for about 3–5 minutes/day (the hottest time of the day, when all its predators are in hiding from the sun). When the ant finds a dead insect it then looks at the sun and because of its periodic references to the sun's angle it knows exactly what the shortest route back to the nest is. Researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology have also verified that desert microhabitats have unique odour signatures that can guide the ants back to the nest.\n",
"This ant usually builds its nest in a hollow in a large live or dead tree. A small entrance may lead to a complex of tunnels and chambers, all excavated by the ants. From the nest the workers emerge by day to forage on other parts of the tree, or cross to contiguous trees, and make use of the crevices in the bark as runways to descend to the ground where they also forage. Auxiliary nests may sometimes be found a little apart from the main colony.\n",
"Imagine an ant on top of the \"third\" hyperbolic paraboloid, \"z = x y\". Let this ant move North. As it moves, it will pass through the other two paraboloids, like a ghost passing through a wall. These other paraboloids only seem like obstacles due to the self-intersecting nature of the immersion. Let the ant ignore all double and triple points and pass right through them. So the ant moves to the North and falls off the edge of the world, so to speak. It now finds itself on the northern lobe, hidden underneath the third paraboloid of Figure 3. The ant is standing upside-down, on the \"outside\" of the Roman surface.\n"
] |
why do planes take what seems like huge detours instead of straight lines to the destination? | Airplanes take [Great Circle paths](_URL_1_), the shortest distance between two points on a globe, effectively a straight line. And when you look at the globe, they do look like straight lines. But when you flatten the globe into a map, [they get distorted](_URL_0_) | [
"The path that a vessel follows over the ground is called a \"ground track\", \"course made good\" or \"course over the ground\". For an aircraft it is simply its \"track\". The intended track is a \"route\". For ships and aircraft, routes are typically straight-line segments between waypoints. A navigator determines the \"bearing\" (the compass direction from the craft's current position) of the next waypoint. Because water currents or wind can cause a craft to drift off course, a navigator sets a \"course to steer\" that compensates for drift. The helmsman or pilot points the craft on a \"heading\" that corresponds to the course to steer. If the predicted drift is correct, then the craft's track will correspond to the planned course to the next waypoint. Course directions are specified in degrees from north, either true or magnetic. In aviation, north is usually expressed as 360°. Navigators used ordinal directions, instead of compass degrees, e.g. \"northeast\" instead of 45° until the mid-20th century when the use of degrees became prevalent.\n",
"The aircraft cannot be too close to each other, so the player needs to make sure that they are passing each other on different flight levels or with sufficient distance (three grid dots north/south or east/west) between them. When an aircraft is in danger of crashing or is exiting at the wrong location or altitude, the aircraft will inform the air traffic controller. Aircraft do not change course/altitude unless the player tells them to. Incoming aircraft not given clearance to land, however, will go into a holding pattern and wait until given clearance. When necessary, the player can also give holding instructions to aircraft, as long as their course takes them over a VOR tower which is used as the holding fix.\n",
"With the exception of landing, plus a few exotic maneuvers, stalling an aircraft is typically avoided in most conventional maneuvers, both because the plane is no longer flying normally, making the control surfaces sloppy and sluggish to react, and also because the aircraft is balanced on the edge of losing control. If the pilot can maintain a level attitude (nose position in relation to the horizon) and keep the wings level, the plane should theoretically float downward at its terminal velocity, which is partially determined by the shape of the plane in the direction of the relative wind. However, the slightest bit of variation in any of a number of factors, such as control surface inputs or air turbulence, will generally result in the aircraft beginning a rotation around both the yaw and roll axes, referred to as \"incipient spin.\" The rotation may be self-induced, called autorotation, or, in maneuvers like the falling leaf, the rotation is pilot-induced by using the rudder.\n",
"At a controlled airport, air traffic control will direct aircraft to the localizer course via assigned headings, making sure aircraft do not get too close to each other (maintain separation), but also avoiding delay as much as possible. Several aircraft can be on the ILS at the same time, several miles apart. An aircraft that has turned onto the inbound heading and is within two and a half degrees of the localizer course (half scale deflection or less shown by the course deviation indicator) is said to be \"established\" on the approach. Typically, an aircraft is established by at least prior to the final approach fix (glideslope intercept at the specified altitude).\n",
"An out-of-plane maneuver enhances this effect, by diverting the fighter into a new plane of travel. Increasing the pitch or slice can quickly provide a change in speed, which can just as quickly be reversed by returning to the original plane of travel. Out-of-plane maneuvers are not only used to provide a reduction in turn radius, but also causes the fighter to fly a longer path in relation to the direction of travel. A maneuver such as a high Yo-Yo is used to slow closure and to bring the fighter into lag pursuit, while a low Yo-Yo is used to increase closure and to bring the fighter into lead pursuit.\n",
"In air navigation, ground tracks typically approximate an arc of a great circle, this being the shortest distance between two points on the Earth's surface. In order to follow a specified ground track, a pilot must adjust their heading in order to compensate for the effect of wind. Aircraft routes are planned to avoid restricted airspace and dangerous areas, and to pass near navigation beacons.\n",
"In general, to avoid vortices an aircraft is safer if its takeoff is before the rotation point of the airplane that took off before it. However care must be taken to stay upwind (or otherwise away) from any vortices that were generated by the previous aircraft. On landing behind an airplane the aircraft should stay above the earlier one's flight path and touch down further along the runway.\n"
] |
seriously, how do cell phones work?! | First of all it's not instant. It's something like one twentieth of a second from the time you speak until the other person hears you, and it depends on how far away you are from each other. It takes time to transmit information, so no kind of communication is instantaneous.
Step by step here is a basic overview. If there's any specific part of this you are curious about I can explain more.
The sound of your voice goes into the microphone.
The microphone converts these sounds into electrical signals.
A part in the phone called a ADC converts these signals into a stream of numbers.
A tiny but very fast computer in the phone does lots of math with the numbers to process the signal, compress the information so there's not too much to transmit, and package it into a format that the phone company can understand.
A radio in the phone transmits these numbers onto the airwaves.
The nearest cell tower receives the radio signal.
A computer at the cell tower then retransmits the numbers, in the form of light waves, into cables that run all over the country. Lots of fancy equipment in big air conditioned facilities all over the world pass this information along to its destination.
At the other end, the reverse process occurs until the sound you made finally exits the other person's phone through its speaker.
| [
"A cell phone is a wireless portable telephone that connects to the telephone network by radio waves exchanged with a local antenna and automated transceiver called a cellular base station (\"cell site\" or \"cell tower\"). The service area served by each provider is divided into small geographical areas called \"cells\", and all the cell phones in a cell communicate with that cell's antenna. Both the cell phone and the cell tower have radio transmitters which communicate with each other. Since in a cellular network the same radio channels are reused every few cells, cellular networks use low power transmitters to avoid radio waves from one cell spilling over and interfering with a nearby cell using the same frequencies.\n",
"Cellular telephones are radio transmitters and receivers much like a walkie-talkie. However, the cell phone communicates only with a repeater inside a nearby cell tower installation. At that installation, the devices take in all cell calls in its geographic area and repeat them out to other cell installations which repeat the signals onward to their destination telephone (either by radio or landline wires). Radio is used also to transmit a caller's voice/data back to the receiver's cell telephone. The two-way duplex phone conversation then exists via these interconnections.\n",
"Single number means that the mobile phone and the desk phone share an extension number. So only one phone number need be given out to receive calls on either a mobile or desk phone. But the cell phone likely still has its own number, it’s just that one need not give it out to anyone. To make business calls from a cell phone, one dials an access number at the office, gets a new dial tone, and then dials the destination number. This allows taking advantage of corporate least-cost-routing, and shows the office number on the caller ID display of the called person.\n",
"A mobile phone, or cell phone, is a long-range, electronic device used for mobile voice or data communication over a network of specialized base stations known as cell sites. Early mobile FM radio telephones were in use for many years, but since the number of radio frequencies were very limited in any area, the number of phone calls were also very limited. To solve this problem, there could be many small areas called cells which share the same frequencies. When users moved from one area to another while calling, the call would have to be switched over automatically without losing the call. In this system, a small number of radio frequencies could accommodate a huge number of calls. The first mobile call was made from a car phone in St. Louis, Missouri on June 17, 1946, but the system was impractical from what is considered a portable handset today. The equipment weighed 80 lbs, and the AT&T service, basically a massive party line, cost $30 per month plus 30 to 40 cents per local call. The basic network and supporting infrastructure of hexagonal cells used to support a mobile telephony system while remaining on the same channel were devised by Douglas H. Ring and W. Rae Young at AT&T Bell Labs in 1947. Finally in 1973, Martin Cooper invented the first handheld cellular/mobile phone. His first mobile phone call was made to Joel S. Engel in April 1973.\n",
"Some cellular telephone networks offer a push-to-talk handset that allows walkie-talkie-like operation over the cellular network, without dialing a call each time. However, the cellphone provider must be accessible.\n",
"To make all that work correctly, the system allows automatic increases and decreases in transmitter power (for the individual cell phone and for the tower repeater, too) so that only the minimum transmit power is used to complete and hold the call active, \"on\", and allows the users to hear and be heard continuously during the conversation. The goal is to hold the call active but use the least amount of transmitting power, mainly to conserve batteries and be efficient. The tower system will sense when a cell phone is not coming in clearly and will order the cell phone to boost transmit power. The user has no control over this boosting; it may occur for a split second or for the whole conversation. If the user is in a remote location, the power boost may be continuous. In addition to carrying voice or data, the cell phone also transmits data about itself automatically, and that is boosted or not as the system detects need.\n",
"All mobile phones are designed to work on cellular networks and contain a standard set of services that allow phones of different types and in different countries to communicate with each other. However, they can also support other features added by various manufacturers over the years:\n"
] |
Can a fusion reaction occur near the boundary of the event horizon of a black hole with enough material? | It is probably not possible for sustained fusion to occur near a black hole, but some fusion may occur on a small scale. Matter falling into a black hole can (if the black hole is large enough) attain incredibly high speeds, even significant fractions of the speed of light. If a black hole accumulates a large cloud of matter around it, internal collisions between high-velocity objects can produce short situations with sufficient pressure to achieve fusion. This is not where the 'burps' come from though. The best example we can look at is a [Quasar](_URL_0_), a galaxy-sized cloud of accreting matter that is falling into a supermassive black hole. These incredibly bright objects produce far more energy per time unit than any star and are often likened to a sustained supernova in terms of their energy output. Th only source of energy that could be that plentiful with the sustained output that quasars demonstrate is the release of gravitational energy of infalling matter. This process is not very well understood, but it is far more efficient than nuclear fusion, and is the source of the 'burps' you are talking about. | [
"BULLET::::- the Schwarzschild generating plane wave, a gravitational plane wave which, should it collide head-on with a twin, will produce in the \"interaction zone\" of the resulting colliding plane wave solution a region which is locally isometric to part of the \"interior\" of a Schwarzschild black hole, thereby permitting a classical peek at the local geometry \"inside\" the event horizon,\n",
"An alternative explanation proposed by Friedwardt Winterberg is that in the course of a gravitational collapse and in reaching the event horizon of a black hole, all matter disintegrates into a burst of gamma radiation.\n",
"A fusion explosion begins with the detonation of the fission primary stage. Its temperature soars past approximately one hundred million kelvins, causing it to glow intensely with thermal X-radiation. These X-rays flood the void (the \"radiation channel\" often filled with polystyrene foam) between the primary and secondary assemblies placed within an enclosure called a radiation case, which confines the X-ray energy and resists its outward pressure. The distance separating the two assemblies ensures that debris fragments from the fission primary (which move much slower than X-ray photons) cannot disassemble the secondary before the fusion explosion runs to completion.\n",
"The probability that fusion occurs is greatly increased compared to the classical picture, thanks to the smearing of the effective radius as the DeBroglie wavelength as well as quantum tunnelling through the potential barrier. To determine the rate of fusion reactions, the value of most interest is the cross section, which describes the probability that particle will fuse by giving a characteristic area of interaction. An estimation of the fusion cross sectional area is often broken into three pieces:\n",
"In 1958, David Finkelstein identified the Schwarzschild surface as an event horizon, \"a perfect unidirectional membrane: causal influences can cross it in only one direction\". This did not strictly contradict Oppenheimer's results, but extended them to include the point of view of infalling observers. Finkelstein's solution extended the Schwarzschild solution for the future of observers falling into a black hole. A complete extension had already been found by Martin Kruskal, who was urged to publish it.\n",
"In the simple picture of stellar collapse leading to formation of a black hole, an event horizon forms before an apparent horizon. As the black hole settles down, the two horizons approach each other, and asymptotically become the same surface. If the AH exists, it is necessarily inside of the EH.\n",
"Event horizons can, in principle, arise and evolve in exactly flat regions of spacetime, having no black hole inside, if a hollow spherically symmetric thin shell of matter is collapsing in a vacuum spacetime. The exterior of the shell is a portion of Schwarzschild space and the interior of the hollow shell is exactly flat Minkowski space. Bob Geroch has pointed out that if all the stars in the Milky Way gradually aggregate towards the galactic center while keeping their proportionate distances from each other, they will all fall within their joint Schwarzschild radius long before they are forced to collide. \n"
] |
which is the best theory on how the world will function in ~100 years (socially, economically etc) and what reasoning supports this/these theories? | there is no way to decide which theory is "best", and there is no good theory that can be done up in one Reddit post, do i suggest you read some books instead
the best theory i've read syas that in a hundred years, most countries will have space colonies, which will be used to gather energy and minerals. Far East Asia will be unified as an economic powerhouse, and Europe will have fallen far behind them and the US due to population crunch. Russia will go to war to create a buffer zone in Europe because the using up of fossil fuels in the middle East will make Siberia a big target for other countries. it will be defeated by America, the East Asian alliance, Eastern European alliance, and turkey. the last one will benefit from the fall of geopolitical importance of the middle East after oil runs out, and, with an alliance with Iran, will control most of the middle east and a good chunk of central asia and north africa. it will still be behind Europe industrially and technologically, and will be the major supplier of labour to the then critically undermanned Europe, causing the ethnic ratios to become very skewed.
Also, India and Mexico will become superpowers and challenge the US.
i know what i said sounds far fetched, but it's hard summarizing a 300 page book into one comment, and it(the book) does a good job of explaining it, so i suggest you go read it. | [
"The \"Dynamics of Growth in a Finite World\" provides several different scenarios. The \"reference run\" is the one that \"represent the most likely behavior mode of the system if the process of industrialization in the future proceeds in a way very similar to its progress in the past, and if technologies and value changes that have already been institutionalized continue to evolve.\" In this scenario, in 2000, the world population reaches six billion, and then goes on to peak at seven billion in 2030. After that population declines because of an increased death rate. In 2015, both industrial output per capita and food per capita peak at US$375 per person (1970s dollars) and 500 vegetable-equivalent kilograms/person. Persistent pollution peaks in the year 2035 at 11 times 1970s levels.\n",
"The World Systems Theory argues that a nation's future is decided by their stance in the global economy. A global capitalistic market demands the needs for wealthy (core) states and poor (periphery) states. Core states benefit from the hierarchical structure of international trade and labor. World systems theory follows the logic that international wars or multinational financial disputes can be explained as attempts to change a location within the global market for a specific state or groups of states; these changes can have the objective to gain more control over the global market (to become a core country), while causing another nation to lose control over the world market. As the two groups grew apart in power, world systems theorists to established another group, the semi-periphery, to act as the middle group.\n",
"Immanuel Wallerstein's world system theory develops a basic framework to understand global power shifts in the rise of the modern world. Wallerstein proposes four different categories: core, semi-periphery, periphery, and external, in terms of different region's relative position in the world system. The core regions are the ones that benefited the most from the capitalist world economy, such as England and France. The peripheral areas relied on and exported raw materials to the core, such as Eastern Europe and Latin America. The semi-peripheries are either core regions in decline or peripheries attempting to improve their relative position in the world system, such as Portugal and Spain. The external areas managed to remain outside the modern world economy, such as Russia.\n",
"The scenario of world economy influenced Philip Kotler to coin the term “Creating a Better World through Marketing”, asserting that that creation of positive perceptions is the fastest route toward attaining behavioural changes to make a better world.\n",
"Stephen G. Bunker (d. 2005) and Paul S. Ciccantell collaborated on two books from a world-systems theory view, following commodity chains through history of the modern world system, charting the changing importance of space, time, and scale of extraction and how these variables influenced the shape and location of the main nodes of the world economy over the past 500 years. Their view of the world was grounded in extraction economies and the politics of different states that seek to dominate the world's resources and each other through gaining hegemonic control of major resources or restructuring global flows in them to benefit their locations.\n",
"Often, the decisions of a policy-maker may have influences that extend to the far future. Economic decisions made today may influence the economic growth of a nation for an unknown number of years into the future. In such cases, it is often convenient to model the future outcomes as an infinite stream. Then, it may be required to compare two infinite streams and decide which one of them is better (for example, in order to decide on a policy). The overtaking criterion is one option to do this comparison.\n",
"The theory allows, being based on the Angus Maddison\"s estimates of the Gross World Product and World population, to restore the picture of development of mankind in the previous centuries. It was shown (see , Chapter 12). that one need the theory, based on the effect of substitution of worker's efforts with work of external power (two-factor theory), for the description of the evolution of production activity from approximately year 1000 of our era. Before this time the substitution of human’s efforts for outer work practically was not noticeable, and one can use one-factor theory that is taking into account only one production factor -- efforts of workers. The theory is stated (see. section 1.3.1, the formula 1.1 in chapter 1 and section 12.3 in chapter 12).\n"
] |
Question about the magnetic field in relation to the human brain. | There's no reason to think it would, because magnetic fields have an incredibly small effect on chemistry (I neglect them all the time in doing theoretical calculations), and the Earth's magnetic field is very weak. It's more surprising, really, that there are birds who've evolved an ability to sense it at all.
Anyway, empirically we also know this isn't the case: We've sent people to the moon, and their brains seemed to work just fine over there. And we routinely stick people's heads in MRI machines to check them out, where the magnetic field is hundreds of thousands of times larger than the earth's field, and not noticed anything. (Nor noticed much chemical effects when using NMR, MRI's chemical cousin) If you think about it, you'll have a stronger field close to an ordinary refrigerator magnet (try it with a compass), and those don't seem to do anything either.
In short: No, static (unchanging) magnetic fields of that size have no significant impact on your brain or physiology, or almost all chemistry in general. That said, a strong _rapidly changing_ magnetic field can and will screw things up in your brain, since they'll induce currents in your head and screw up the electrical signalling that's going on.
| [
"Some researchers also suggest that humans possess a magnetic sense, proposing that this could allow certain people to use magnetoreception for navigation. The role of magnetite in the brain is still not well understood, and there has been a general lag in applying more modern, interdisciplinary techniques to the study of biomagnetism.\n",
"Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is essentially direct magnetic stimulation to the brain. Because electric currents and magnetic fields are intrinsically related, by stimulating the brain with magnetic pulses it is possible to interfere with specific loci in the brain to produce a predictable effect. This field of study is currently receiving a large amount of attention due to the potential benefits that could come out of better understanding this technology. Transcranial magnetic movement of particles in the brain shows promise for drug targeting and delivery as studies have demonstrated this to be noninvasive on brain physiology.\n",
"The measurement of the naturally occurring magnetic fields produced by the brain's electrical activity is called magnetoencephalography. This method differs from magnetic resonance imaging in that it passively measures the magnetic fields without altering the body's magnetization. However, data from MEG and MRI can be combined to create images that approximately map the estimated location of the natural magnetic fields. This composite imaging process is called magnetic source imaging (MSI).\n",
"Aside from the sensory receptor for magnetic reception in homing pigeons there has been work on neural regions that are possibly involved in the processing of magnetic information within the brain. Areas of the brain that have shown increases in activity in response to magnetic fields with a strength of 50 or 150 microtesla are the posterior vestibular nuclei, dorsal thalamus, hippocampus, and visual hyperpallium.\n",
"One hypothesis is that magnetic fields in the 0.5-9 Tesla range can affect the ion permeability of neural membranes, in fact this could account for a lot of the issues seen as this would affect many different brain functions.\n",
"Any electrical current generates a magnetic field; neural oscillations induce weak magnetic fields, and in functional magnetoencephalography the current produced can show localised brain function in high resolution. Tractography uses MRI and image analysis to create 3D images of the nerve tracts of the brain. Connectograms give a graphical representation of the neural connections of the brain.\n",
"In comparison to the electric signals, which are influenced by the differently conductive tissue of the body and varying resistance of the skin before they can be recorded, the magnetic signals travel through the body almost without disturbance. The differences in the electric potentials, that are recorded by the ECG, are directly depending on the inhomogeneity and geometry of the thorax, the magnetic signals outside of the thorax depend primarily on the intracellular currents of the cardiac tissue and only secondarily on the secondary currents generating the electric signal. Furthermore, the magnetic signals of so-called vortex currents, which occur regularly in every heartbeat and include important information for an advanced and more accurate cardiac diagnosis (first theoretically described by John Wikswo), can be acquired with an MFI system, but cannot be recorded electrically on the body surface (First experimental hint by Brockmeier et al. 1994 and comprehensive demonstration Brockmeier et al. 1997).\n"
] |
what goes into making a new font and how hard is it? | Making a new font is a relatively simple process, but can be a lot of work depending on how detailed you want it to be, and how many different letters you want it to span.
In essence all you do is you open up MS paint, draw your letter, and save it. Then rinse and repeat for every letter in your font. You then just need to convert the file type from a .png or .jpeg to a .ot or .tt. Some software, like Photoshop allows you to save your file directly as a .ot or .tt.
Making good fonts is harder, you want letters to look the same, and you want your font to have good spacing between letters (kerning). If you're interested in more, check out the [Open Font Library](_URL_0_) and feel free to contribute. Everyone's shitty first attempt is welcome (although it probably won't be downloaded). | [
"are continually added to it, and common font formats cannot contain more than 65,535 glyphs (about half the number of characters encoded in Unicode). As a result, font developers and foundries incorporate new characters in newer versions or revisions of a font, or in separate auxiliary fonts intended specifically for particular languages.\n",
"\"Fontwork\" is a feature that allows users to create stylized text with special effects differing from ordinary text with the added features of gradient colour fills, shaping, letter height, and character spacing. It is similar to WordArt used by Microsoft Word. When OpenOffice.org saved documents in Microsoft Office file format, all Fontwork was converted into WordArt.\n",
"In addition to the Core fonts for the Web, some newer fonts, such as those packaged with Microsoft Windows, Microsoft Office, OpenOffice.org or other software could form a new canon of core fonts. Broader web browser adoption of the web fonts specification may ultimately render the notion of core fonts obsolete by allowing the real-time downloading and display of specific fonts.\n",
"Different typefaces and sizes can be used by replacing the daisy wheel. It is possible to use multiple fonts within a document: font changing is facilitated by printer device drivers which can position the carriage to the center of the platen and prompt the user to change the wheel before continuing printing. However, printing a document with frequent font changes and thus requiring frequent wheel changes was a tedious task.\n",
"Font editors allow the user to modify the properties of a font, including its kerning table (if the font license permits it). They accomplish this by modifying the table found in the actual font file. The user can change the kerning value in existing pairs, or add new pairs.\n",
"In 2011, FontForge was packaged for easier installation on Mac OS X by Dr. Ben Martin with support from TUG. Meanwhile, Matthew Petroff published his Windows Build System and unofficial Windows builds. In 2013 the FontForgeBuilds project was started on sourceforge to extend this; it was subsequently entirely rewritten, and is today maintained by Jeremy Tan as an official Windows package.\n",
"The latest font-versions that were available from Microsoft's \"Core fonts for the Web\" project were 2.x (e.g. 2.82 for Arial, Times New Roman and Courier New for MS Windows), published in 2000. Later versions (such as version 3 or version 5 with many new characters) were not available from this project. A Microsoft spokesman declared in 2002 that members of the open source community \"will have to find different sources for updated fonts… Although the EULA did not restrict the fonts to just Windows and Mac OS they were only ever available as Windows .exe's and Mac archive files.\"\n"
] |
Mouse models for disease? | The answer varies depending on the model. If the gene or mutation that causes the gene is known, the mouse model is usually made by creating that same mutation in the mice. Long QT syndrome is an example of such a disease that has been studied this way. If the genetic cause isn't known, or if the cause isn't genetic in origin (diet, lifestyle, ect) the researchers try their best to simulate the external factors that lead to the disease. After several attempts they usually find the right combination of factors that result in a mouse that presents with the same symptoms as the human disease. This has been done for diabetic studies (in rats more typically than in mice). Additionally for some diseases, like cardiac hypertrophy or modeling heart failure, a surgical intervention can be done to induce the desired disease state.
How these models are tested depends on how much is known about the disease. Some times we know the gene responsible. From there its usually a matter of figuring out if the mutation results in an overactive protein, and figuring out what drugs will decrease its activity, or if the mutation results in a nonfunctional protein, and figuring out what drugs can restore or circumvent its activity.
For diseases where we don't know the gene involved, or there are many genes or the problem isn't strictly genetic, we usually screen for drugs that reverse the disease symptoms in our mice models. Researchers have had many years to study mice, so the behavior of healthy happy mice is well known. From there researchers can compare disease model mice to the healthy mice and note any changes or improvements. | [
"Many mouse models are named after the gene that has been inactivated. For example, the p53 knockout mouse is named after the p53 gene which codes for a protein that normally suppresses the growth of tumours by arresting cell division and/or inducing apoptosis. Humans born with mutations that deactivate the p53 gene suffer from Li-Fraumeni syndrome, a condition that dramatically increases the risk of developing bone cancers, breast cancer and blood cancers at an early age. Other mouse models are named according to their physical characteristics or behaviours.\n",
"Nobuyo N. Maeda is a Japanese geneticist and medical researcher, who works on complex human diseases including atherosclerosis, diabetes and high blood pressure, and is particularly known for creating the first mouse model for atherosclerosis. Maeda has worked in the United States since 1978; as of 2017, she is the Robert H. Wagner Distinguished Professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.\n",
"Grompe is a specialist in hepatology and stem cell biology, and is known for the development of the \"Fah mouse model\", a transgenic mouse with an inactivating mutation (exon 5 deletion) in sequence encoding fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase (\"Fah\"). This mouse strain has been a useful model of Type I tyrosinemia, a human genetic disease caused by inactivating mutations in the \"Fah\" gene. The mice have been used to model diseases such as malaria and to optimize human gene therapy strategies \n",
"SCID mice are routinely used as model organisms for research into the basic biology of the immune system, cell transplantation strategies, and the effects of disease on mammalian systems. They have been extensively used as hosts for normal and malignant tissue transplants. In addition, they are useful for testing the safety of new vaccines or therapeutic agents in immunocompromised individuals.\n",
"Mice with severe combined immunodeficiency (SCIDs) are often used in the research of human disease. Human immune cells are used to develop human lymphoid organs within these immunodeficient mice, and many different types of SCID mouse models have been developed. These mice allow researchers to study the human immune system and human disease in a small animal model.\n",
"The Mouse genome Database (MGD) is the international community resource for integrated genetic, genomic and biological data about the laboratory mouse. MGD provides full annotation of phenotypes and human disease associations for mouse models (genotypes) using terms from the Mammalian Phenotype Ontology and disease names from OMIM.\n",
"CDCP1/Trask is not important for the development of the mouse. Adult mice lacking CDCP1 do not exhibit gross morphologic, reproductive or behavioral abnormalities compared with wild-type mice, and histologic examination of multiple organ systems has shown no significant pathology and no observed histologic differences. CDCP1 is a ligand for CD6, a receptor molecule expressed on certain T-cells and may play a role in their migration and chemotaxis. As such CDCP1 may contribute to autoimmune diseases such as encephalomyelitis, multiple sclerosis and inflammatory arthritis.\n"
] |
Is there something better than History of the World? (J.M. Roberts, 2007) | It's probably the best book to start with. If you tell us more specifically, what you are looking for, we may be able to give you better recommendations. For general world history, *A World History* by Clive Ponting is quite good too. It focuses more on the "East", while Roberts' focus is the "West". | [
"History of the World is a compendium written by a collection of noted historians. It was edited by William Nassau Weech, M.A., a former Headmaster of Sedbergh School (and a very early aficionado of downhill skiing who also wrote \"By Ski in Norway\", one of the first British accounts of the sport). First published by Odhams in 1944, \"History of the World\" ran to three editions, the second edition in 1959, and the third in 1965. The editor, W.N. Weech, wrote in the Preface:\"This book is designed for the ordinary man or woman, who should have no difficulty in getting through it in a month, though many may prefer to compress their first reading of it into a fortnight.\" W.N. Weech's \"History of the World\" is notable for bearing comparison with Ernst Gombrich's best-selling \"Little History of the World\", a book that is shorter and is addressed to younger readers. (Gombrich, a Jewish émigré from Vienna, was an art historian better known for his classic work, \"The Story of Art.)\" Weech's book is noteworthy, not only for being both thorough and accessible, but also (not unlike Gombrich's) for maintaining a tolerant and measured style, despite being written during the dark days of Nazism.\n",
"A Short History of the World is a general history non-fiction book written by Australian historian Geoffrey Blainey. First published in 2000 by Penguin Books, it describes over 4 million years of history, from before the first people left Africa, through to the current day.\n",
"John C. Campbell, writing in \"Foreign Affairs\", the journal of the Council on Foreign Relations, said that the book \"cannot be the definitive history, but it comes as close as we are likely to get and is especially good in showing how critical to, and closely interwoven with, the fate of the nation these agencies have been.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- Ellis, Edward Sylvester and Charles F. Horne (1906). \"The story of the greatest nations: from the dawn of history to the twentieth century : a comprehensive history founded upon the leading authorities, including a complete chronology of the world and a pronouncing vocabulary of each nation, Volume 1\". F. R. Niglutsch.\n",
"BULLET::::- Ellis, Edward Sylvester and Charles F. Horne (1906). \"The story of the greatest nations: from the dawn of history to the twentieth century : a comprehensive history founded upon the leading authorities, including a complete chronology of the world and a pronouncing vocabulary of each nation, Volume 1\". F. R. Niglutsch.\n",
"World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. World history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in the United States, Japan and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds.\n",
"Speaking in 2013, the editor of volume three, Norman Yoffee, described the history as being \"conceived by a group of world historians, that is people who insist that large indeed global relations are essential in understanding local histories, and they are dedicated comparativists.\"\n"
] |
Magnets and Space Travel? | Let's apply Fermi method or order of magnitude calculation. If you're moving at about escape velocity, ~10 km/s, then you have to displace about 1 ton per kilometer of air per 1 m^2 of frontal area, so that would be 10 tons/s/m^2. At these speeds a blunt heat shield is the only option, let's say 1 m^2 frontal area. Change of momentum would be 10000 m/s × 10000 kg = 1e8 kgm/s. Flying ~10 km (isobaric height of atmosphere) would take 1 s, so rate of change of momentum or force would be max. 1e8 N/m^2 i.e Pa, or 1000 atm, higher than in a gun barrel. Over 10000 m, that would mean a work of 1e12 J/m^2, 1 terajoule, over at least a second. Most of it would be spent on the atmosphere, but we're still talking about sitting next to a gigawatt heater. You'd need to evaporate about 5-500 tons of water as a coolant. | [
"Project Magnet, led by senior radio engineer Wilbert B. Smith from the Department of Transport, had the goal of studying magnetic phenomena, specifically geomagnetism, as a potential propulsion method for vehicles. Smith believed UFOs were using this method to achieve flight. The final report of the project, however, contained no mention of geomagnetism. It discussed twenty-five UFO sightings reported during 1952, and concluded with the notion that \"extraterrestrial space vehicles\" are probable.\n",
"The Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission (MMS) is a NASA robotic space mission to study the Earth's magnetosphere, using four identical spacecraft flying in a tetrahedral formation. The spacecraft were launched on 13 March 2015 at 02:44 UTC. It is designed to gather information about the microphysics of magnetic reconnection, energetic particle acceleration, and turbulence, processes that occur in many astrophysical plasmas.\n",
"The early Magnets saw some short trips to Europe, but it was not until 1922 that the first proper foreign travel series appeared. In Magnets Nos. 768 to 774 the juniors travel with Bob Cherry's cousin to Africa in search of buried ivory. The juniors revisited Africa with Mr Vernon-Smith in 1931 (Magnets Nos. 1228 to 1236).\n",
"The Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission (MMS) is a mission to study the Earth's magnetosphere, using four identical spacecraft flying in a tetrahedral formation. The spacecraft were launched on March 13, 2015.\n",
"Explorer 6 (1959) used a search coil magnetometer to measure the gross magnetic field of the Earth and vector fluxgate., however because of induced magnetism is the space craft the fluxgate sensor became saturated and did not send data. Future missions would attempt to place magnetometers further away from the space craft.\n",
"Project Magnet was an unidentified flying object (UFO) study programme established by Transport Canada on in December 1950 under the direction of Wilbert Brockhouse Smith, senior radio engineer for Transport Canada's Broadcast and Measurements Section. It was formally active until mid-1954 and informally active (without government funding) until Smith's death in 1962. Smith eventually concluded that UFOs were probably extraterrestrial in origin and likely operated by manipulation of magnetism.\n",
"The main method of interplanetary travel from this time onward is the rocket ship. These vessels use fusion reactions to power the ship throughout its entire voyage. Rocket ships usually can range from 5 to 500 tons.\n"
] |
Will a light source change direction inside a black hole? | > Suppose a flashlight is falling into a black hole facing outwards. Since light cannot escape the black hole, and a trajectory of a single photon is smooth, I would assume that as soon as the flashlight crosses the event horizon, its particles can no longer emit light in the direction towards the event horizon. Is this correct?
Yes, that is exactly right! Inside the event horizon, *all* paths that light (or matter) can take point towards the singularity; no path points outward toward the event horizon.
The three images on the right side of [this Wikipedia article](_URL_0_) do a pretty good job of illustrating this, if you're interested. | [
"While light can still escape from the photon sphere, any light that crosses the photon sphere on an inbound trajectory will be captured by the black hole. Hence any light that reaches an outside observer from the photon sphere must have been emitted by objects between the photon sphere and the event horizon.\n",
"Penrose concluded that whenever there is a cube where all the outgoing (and ingoing) light rays are initially converging, the boundary of the future of that region will end after a finite extension, because all the null geodesics will converge. This isn't significant, because the outgoing light rays for any sphere inside the horizon of a black hole solution are all converging, so the boundary of the future of this region is either compact or comes from nowhere. The future of the interior either ends after a finite extension, or has a boundary that is eventually generated by new light rays that cannot be traced back to the original sphere.\n",
"The region outside the event horizon but inside the surface where the rotational velocity is the speed of light, is called the \"ergosphere\" (from Greek \"ergon\" meaning \"work\"). Particles falling within the ergosphere are forced to rotate faster and thereby gain energy. Because they are still outside the event horizon, they may escape the black hole. The net process is that the rotating black hole emits energetic particles at the cost of its own total energy. The possibility of extracting spin energy from a rotating black hole was first proposed by the mathematician Roger Penrose in 1969 and is thus called the Penrose process. Rotating black holes in astrophysics are a potential source of large amounts of energy and are used to explain energetic phenomena, such as gamma-ray bursts.\n",
"BULLET::::- At the event horizon, formula_30 the speed of light shining outward away from the center of black hole is formula_31 It can not escape from the event horizon. Instead, it gets stuck at the event horizon. Since light moves faster than all others, matter can only move inward at the event horizon. Everything inside the event horizon is hidden from the outside world.\n",
"Falcke predicted that near the edges of a black hole, there would be a 'black hole shadow' that could be detected by a radio telescope.. This shadow was eventually observed with the Event Horizon Telescope. \n",
"The event horizon of a black hole may be thought of as a surface moving outward at the local speed of light and is just on the edge between escaping and falling back. The event horizon of a white hole is a surface moving inward at the local speed of light and is just on the edge between being swept outward and succeeding in reaching the center. They are two different kinds of horizons—the horizon of a white hole is like the horizon of a black hole turned inside-out.\n",
"If light signals are exchanged around one side of the hole, in the equatorial plane, where the adjacent section of event horizon is moving roughly in the direction A→B, then frame-dragging effects should make it easier for light to move with the horizon's motion than against it, and the measurements should show B to be \"downhill\" of A.\n"
] |
why can healthy eyes look in only one direction, i.e. why can’t our eyes look in different directions from each other? | They can be trained to look independently, but our body was evolutionarily selected for the two eyes to work together. It's hard to break the instinct to utilize them in tandem, and there is very little advantage to doing that. | [
"Intermediate directions are controlled by simultaneous actions of multiple muscles. When one shifts the gaze horizontally, one eye will move laterally (toward the side) and the other will move medially (toward the midline). This may be neurally coordinated by the central nervous system, to make the eyes move together and almost involuntarily. This is a key factor in the study of strabismus, namely, the inability of the eyes to be directed to one point.\n",
"Human eyes are horizontally separated by about 50–75 mm (interpupillary distance) depending on each individual. Thus, each eye has a slightly different view of the world around. This can be easily seen when alternately closing one eye while looking at a vertical edge. The binocular disparity can be observed from apparent horizontal shift of the vertical edge between both views.\n",
"The brain must point both eyes accurately enough that the object of regard falls on corresponding points of the two retinas to avoid the perception of double vision. In most vertebrates (humans, mammals, reptiles, birds), the movements of different body parts are controlled by striated muscles acting around joints. The movement of the eye is slightly different in that the eyes are not rigidly attached to anything, but are held in the orbit by six extraocular muscles.\n",
"One and a half syndrome: “One and a half syndrome” also affects horizontal gaze. One eye is completely incapable of horizontal movement, while the other eye is capable of horizontal movement only in one direction away from the midline.\n",
"To maintain stereopsis and singleness of vision, the eyes need to be pointed accurately. The position of each eye in its orbit is controlled by six extraocular muscles. Slight differences in the length or insertion position or strength of the same muscles in the two eyes can lead to a tendency for one eye to drift to a different position in its orbit from the other, especially when one is tired. This is known as phoria. One way to reveal it is with the cover-uncover test. To do this test, look at a cooperative person's eyes. Cover one eye of that person with a card. Have the person look at your finger tip. Move the finger around; this is to break the reflex that normally holds a covered eye in the correct vergence position. Hold your finger steady and then uncover the person's eye. Look at the uncovered eye. You may see it flick quickly from being wall-eyed or cross-eyed to its correct position. If the uncovered eye moved from out to in, the person has esophoria. If it moved from in to out, the person has exophoria. If the eye did not move at all, the person has orthophoria. Most people have some amount of exophoria or esophoria; it is quite normal. If the uncovered eye also moved vertically, the person has hyperphoria (if the eye moved from down to up) or hypophoria (if the eye moved from up to down). Such vertical phorias are quite rare. It is also possible for the covered eye to rotate in its orbit. Such cyclophorias cannot be seen with the cover-uncover test; they are rarer than vertical phorias.\n",
"The brain's ability to see three-dimensional objects depends on proper alignment of the eyes. When both eyes are properly aligned and aimed at the same target, the visual portion of the brain fuses the forms into a single image. When one eye turns inward, outward, upward, or downward, two different pictures are sent to the brain. This causes loss of depth perception and binocular vision. There have also been some reports of people that can \"control\" their afflicted eye. The term is from Greek \"exo\" meaning \"outward\" and \"trope\" meaning \"a turning\".\n",
"Other phenomena of binocular vision include utrocular discrimination (the ability to tell which of two eyes has been stimulated by light), eye dominance (the habit of using one eye when aiming something, even if both eyes are open), allelotropia (the averaging of the visual direction of objects viewed by each eye when both eyes are open), binocular fusion or singleness of vision (seeing one object with both eyes despite each eye's having its own image of the object), and binocular rivalry (seeing one eye's image alternating randomly with the other when each eye views images that are so different they cannot be fused).\n"
] |
how and why is there a standard for cylindrical batteries, and why hasn't it happened for flat batteries? | There are numerous standards for flat batteries. Hearing aides have several standardized sizes, as do watches.
Phone makers/companies also tend to have standardized sizes between specific brands or range of brands. They want you to be somewhat limited in options though so that you have to buy replacements from them. | [
"The third-generation includes mechanical mods and variable voltage devices. Battery sections are commonly called \"mods,\" referencing their past when user modification was common. Mechanical mods do not contain integrated circuits. They are commonly cylindrical or box-shaped, and typical housing materials are wood, aluminium, stainless steel, or brass. A larger \"box mod\" can hold bigger and sometimes multiple batteries.\n",
"BULLET::::- Compared to lead–acid batteries, Ni–Cd batteries have a much higher energy density. A Ni–Cd battery is smaller and lighter than a comparable lead–acid battery, but not a comparable NiMH or Li-ion battery. In cases where size and weight are important considerations (for example, aircraft), Ni–Cd batteries are preferred over the cheaper lead–acid batteries.\n",
"Solid state batteries employ geometry most similar to traditional thin-film batteries. Three-dimensional thin-films use the third dimension to increase the electrochemically active area. Thin film two dimensional batteries are restricted to between 2-5 micrometres, limiting areal capacity to significantly less than that of three-dimensional geometries.\n",
"Because of its large diameter and straight-walled design, the .45 ACP geometry is the highest power-per-pressure production, repeating round in existence. This is because of the higher powers achievable with .45 Super, and +P loads. Because of these inherent low pressures of the standard pressure round, however, compensators and brakes have little effect until +P and Super loads are utilized.\n",
"Alkaline batteries are made in the same button sizes as the other types, but typically provide less capacity and less stable voltage than more costly silver oxide or lithium cells. They are often sold as watch batteries, and bought by people who do not know the difference.\n",
"Deep cycle batteries have a different geometry for their positive electrodes. The positive electrode is not a flat plate but a row of lead-oxide cylinders or tubes strung side by side, so their geometry is called tubular or cylindrical. The advantage of this is an increased surface area in contact with the electrolyte, which higher discharge and charge currents than a flat-plate cell of the same volume and depth-of-charge. Tubular-electrode cells have a higher power density than flat-plate cells. This makes tubular/cylindrical geometry plates especially suitable for high-current applications with weight or space limitations, such as for forklifts or for starting marine diesel engines. However, because tubes/cylinders have less active material in the same volume, they also have a lower energy density than flat-plate cells. And, less active material at the electrode also means they have less material available to shed before the cell becomes unusable. Tubular/cylindrical electrodes are also more complicated to manufacture uniformly, which tends to make them more expensive than flat-plate cells. These trade-offs limit the range of applications in which tubular/cylindrical batteries are meaningful to situations where there is insufficient space to install higher capacity (and thus larger) flat-plate units.\n",
"A significant majority of battery designs are two–dimensional and rely on layered construction. Recent research has taken the electrodes into three-dimensions. This allows for significant improvements in battery capacity; a significant increase in areal capacity occurs between a 2d thick film electrode and a 3d array electrode.\n"
] |
Common cloth materials in medieval Europe? | They weren't that expensive because they were home grown. Anyone could put in a patch of flax among the other crops. Women could pull it (one does not cut it and shorten the fibres), though men could help. After that it was a woman's job to rett the flax in the stream to rot off the outer coating and pith. Then the fibres were hackled or combed out to remove the bits not wanted. Repeated hackling produced short fibres broken off, called tow. Tow was used like cotton balls or waste paper for wiping up or stopping wounds. Everyone used tow, because every woman spun linen. Once the flax had been bleached on the grass, it was put up in stricks, which were a bundle to be arranged on the distaff to draw down smoothly into thread.
Taxes were often paid in thread. Single women contributed to a household by extra spinning, so the traditional term for them was "spinster." Extra thread could be sold for cash.
Women rarely wove at home. That was a job for the weaver's guild, who might trade finished cloth for thread. It was a sign of wealth to have one of the gigantic timber-built looms when they only wove a narrow tabby linen for underclothes (body linen).
Wool was a little more specialist. A fine lady would spin flax, but only a peasant would spin greasy wool. I'll bet her hands loved the lanolin. Fleeces were sheared from sheep and lambs before spring so they were spared the summer heat. Qualities of wool were separated out of the different parts of the fleece. These would be carded until the fibres all ran straight and the tangles were out. Then the carding combs would be cleared a clever way to roll the wool into a roving. Wool can be spun without a distaff. Wool can be combed before carding to produce worsted. Again, wool thread was a valued commodity and one of the few ways to get cash.
But all of these were produced by the peasant class. They still stretched the life of everything, including cutting down clothes so the unworn parts clothed the children. | [
"In medieval times, rulers, the nobility and senior churchmen brought many of their fabrics from the Republic of Ragusa. The most common fabric for ordinary Serbs was \"sclavina\" or \"schiavina\", a coarse woollen fabric. Linen was also made within Serbia while silk was grown at the Dečani Monastery as well as near Prizren. Few secular garments have survived from the medieval period the most notable being the costume worn by Lazar Hrebeljanović at the Battle of Kosovo. More decorated vestments have survived from the period.\n",
"A wide variety of portable objects from various decorative arts were imported from the Islamic world into Europe during the Middle Ages, mostly through Italy, and above all Venice. In many areas European-made goods could not match the quality of Islamic or Byzantine work until near the end of the Middle Ages. Luxury textiles were widely used for clothing and hangings and also, fortunately for art history, also often as shrouds for the burials of important figures, which is how most surviving examples were preserved. In this area Byzantine silk was influenced by Sassanian textiles, and Islamic silk by both, so that is hard to say which culture's textiles had the greatest influence on the Cloth of St Gereon, a large tapestry which is the earliest and most important European imitation of Eastern work. European, especially Italian, cloth gradually caught up with the quality of Eastern imports, and adopted many elements of their designs.\n",
"Archaeological finds from medieval cities all over Europe, such as London, Newcastle, Oslo, Amsterdam, and Lübeck, as well as tax lists, prove the spread of knitted goods for everyday use from the 14th century onward. Like many archaeological textiles, most of the finds are only fragments of knitted items so that in most cases their former appearance and use is unknown. One of the exceptions is a 14th or 15th century woollen child's cap from Lübeck.\n",
"Linen was an especially popular cloth during the Middle Ages in Europe, when cotton was an exotic import. It was used for underclothing, chemises, shifts, shirts and blouses, in fact most clothing worn next to the skin, by those able to afford an extra layer of clothing. The tradition of calling household fabric goods \"linens\" dates from this period, but meant clothing as much as large sheets. According to medieval tradition, which survived up until the modern era, a bride would often be given a gift of linens made by the women in her family as a wedding present, to help her set up her new married home. In France this was called a trousseau, and was often presented to the bride in a wooden hope chest. \n",
"In his \"Lexicon of Medieval Latin\", Charles du Fresne suggests that \"fustanum\" (a piece of cloth) originates from the Roman \"palla\". Cotton \"fustana\" was among the belongings of Pope Urban V (1310–1370).\n",
"While the use of linen has been shown in archaeological evidence, the use of cotton – and cotton-based canvas – is disputed since the access to large amounts of cotton cloth was not widely available in northern Europe at this time. It is quite probable that Egypt (and Asia-Minor generally) still produced cotton well after the 7th and 8th centuries and knowledge (and samples) of this cloth was brought to Europe by the returning Crusaders. However logistics and expense of equipping a town militia or army with large amounts of cotton-based garments is doubtful, when flax-based textiles (linen) was in widespread use.\n",
"The most used materials among the lower classes were wool, flax and hemp. Rich ones used silk, velvet and taffeta which were imported from Italy, Greece and Flanders via Dubrovnik. In time, the weaving workshops began to open in Serbia itself. The silk was produced in Dečani and Prizren and domestic gold-woven fabrics appear at the court of Emperor Dušan. In time, the colored embroidery developed as the main characteristics of the Serbian medieval attire.\n"
] |
if it is thought that dreams only last for fractions of a second at a time and it is our brains that interpret them as longer, what is happening when we talk in our sleep? | Good question! Where did you get that information, that dreams only last for fractions of a second? If your girlfriend talks in her dream and in real life simultaneously then that becomes impossible - you're right! And if it is impossible then the conclusion must be: it isn't true.
Dreams vary in lenght, the further you are into the night the longer the dreams get. Some are very short, you're right about that, but they have been observed to last over 20 minutes in real time | [
"Accumulated observation shows that dreams are strongly associated with REM sleep, during which an electroencephalogram shows brain activity to be most like wakefulness. Participant-nonremembered dreams during NREM are normally more mundane in comparison. During a typical lifespan, a human spends a total of about six years dreaming (which is about two hours each night). Most dreams last only 5 to 20 minutes. It is unknown where in the brain dreams originate, if there is a single origin for dreams, if multiple portions of the brain are involved, or what the purpose of dreaming is for the body or mind.\n",
"Dreams mainly occur in the rapid-eye movement (REM) stage of sleep—when brain activity is high and resembles that of being awake. REM sleep is revealed by continuous movements of the eyes during sleep. At times, dreams may occur during other stages of sleep. However, these dreams tend to be much less vivid or memorable. The length of a dream can vary; they may last for a few seconds, or approximately 20–30 minutes. People are more likely to remember the dream if they are awakened during the REM phase. The average person has three to five dreams per night, and some may have up to seven; however, most dreams are immediately or quickly forgotten. Dreams tend to last longer as the night progresses. During a full eight-hour night sleep, most dreams occur in the typical two hours of REM. Dreams related to waking-life experiences are associated with REM theta activity, which suggests that emotional memory processing takes place in REM sleep.\n",
"Since waking up usually happens during rapid eye movement sleep (REM), the vivid bizarre REM sleep dreams are the most common type of dreams that is remembered. (During REM sleep an electroencephalogram (EEG) shows brain activity that, among sleep states, is most like wakefulness.) During a typical lifespan, a person spends a total of about six years dreaming (which is about two hours each night). Most dreams only last 5 to 20 minutes. It is unknown where in the brain dreams originate, if there is a single origin for dreams or if multiple portions of the brain are involved, or what the purpose of dreaming is for the body or mind.\n",
"Dreams are brief compared to the range and abundance of dream thoughts. Through condensation or compression, dream content can be presented in one dream. Oftentimes, people may recall having more than one dream in a night. Freud explained that the content of all dreams occurring on the same night represents part of the same whole. He believed that separate dreams have the same meaning. Often the first dream is more distorted and the latter is more distinct. Displacement of dream content occurs when manifest content does not resemble the actual meaning of the dream. Displacement comes through the influence of a censorship agent. Representation in dreams is the causal relation between two things. Freud argues that two persons or objects can be combined into a single representation in a dream (see Freud's dream of his uncle and Friend R).\n",
"Dream researcher Ernest Hartman comments on current dream theories proposed by biologists. One such theory suggests that dreams are basically random nonsense and are the product of a poorly functioning brain during sleep. If there is any meaning to dreams, it is added on later as our brains try to make the best of a bad job.\n",
"The characteristics of REM sleep consistently contain a similar set of features. While dreaming people regularly falsely believe that they are awake unless they implement lucidity. Dreams contain multimodal pseudo-perceptions; sometimes any or all sensory modalities are present, but most often visual and motoric. Dream imagery can change quickly and is regularly of a bizarre nature, but reports also contain many images and events that are a part of day-to-day life. In dreams there is a reduction or absence of self-reflection or other forms of meta-cognition relative to during waking life. Dreams are also characterized by a lack of \"orientational stability; persons, times, and places are fused, plastic, incongruous and discontinuous\". In addition, dreams form a single narrative to explain and integrate all dream elements. Lastly, NREM reports contain thought-like mentation and depictions of current concerns more frequently than REM reports.\n",
"Although study participants' reports of intense dream vividness during REM sleep and increased recollection of dreams occurring during that phase suggest that dreaming most commonly occurs during that stage, dreaming can also occur during NREM sleep, in which dreams tend to be more mundane in comparison.\n"
] |
What's the best way to use the Bible, when appropriate, as a Primary Source? | I think a lot of it depends on the level of scholarship.
I know that many scholars use the New Revised Standard Edition when a simple verse quotation is required. It was created in 1989 to be good for devotional use as well as scholarly use.
Learning the biblical languages and using ancient copies is done, but this is at a fairly advanced level of historical inquiry or textual criticism. | [
"BULLET::::- Using Primary Sources as Evidence is the ability to locate, choose, understand and provide context for the past using primary sources. This approach to reading a source will be dependent on the kind of source being used and the kind of information the user is trying to find (e.g. reading to a book for factual information)\n",
"In many fields and contexts, such as historical writing, it is almost always advisable to use primary sources if possible, and \"if none are available, it is only with great caution that [the author] may proceed to make use of secondary sources.\" In addition, primary sources avoid the problem inherent in secondary sources in which each new author may distort and put a new spin on the findings of prior cited authors.\n",
"In other cases, Bible scholars use the way a text is written (changes in style, vocabulary, repetitions, and the like) to determine what sources may have been used by a biblical author. With some reasonable guesswork it is possible to deduce sources not identified as such (e.g., genealogies). Some inter-biblical sources can be determined by virtue of the fact that the source is still extant, for example, where the Books of Chronicles quotes or retells the accounts of the books of Samuel and Kings.\n",
"The minimalists did not claim that the Bible is useless as a historical source; rather, they suggest that its proper use is in understanding the period in which it was written, a period which some of them place in the Persian period (5th–4th centuries BCE) and others in the Hellenistic period (3rd–2nd centuries).\n",
"Sourcebooks are a mix of rules and setting. As such, they contain setting information applicable to any edition of the game, and statistics that may need a little updating. Foreign language editions of sourcebooks often contain additional content relating to local variants on the topic in question. Sometimes even whole original books have been published concentrating solely on providing local source material.\n",
"Study Bible software is also available which can aid readers in the study of the Bible. This software normally includes several Bible translations, commentaries, dictionaries, maps and other content. They also include search engines to enable users to find Bible passages by keyword and by theme.\n",
"The source, inspired by the principle of conscience, is a last resort if none of the widely accepted sources are applicable to a problem. It involves giving favor to rulings that dispel hardship and bring ease to people. The doctrine was justified directly by the Qur'anic verse stating: \"Allah desires you ease and good, not hardship\". Though its main adherents were Abu Hanifa and his pupils (such as Abu Yusuf), Malik and his students made use of it to some degree. The source was subject to extensive discussion and argumentation, and its opponents claimed that it often departs from the primary sources.\n"
] |
When and how did the concept of political veto arise? | The romans created it.
Veto means "I forbade" in latin and the right of veto was the privilege of the tribunes of the plebs. When one of them stood up to say "Veto" it blocked the decision.
Ironically what was originally a tool to protect the plebeian against patrician abuses of the beginnings of the republic became at the end of it one of the base of the imperial power as Augustus received power over the "imperial provinces" and the tibunita potestas, the power of the tribune (of the plebs) enabling him, the patrician to veto any law he would not like. | [
"The institution of the veto, known to the Romans as the \"intercesio\", was adopted by the Roman Republic in the 6th century BC to enable the tribunes to protect the mandamus interests of the plebs (common citizenry) from the encroachments of the patricians, who dominated the Senate. A tribune's veto did not prevent the senate from passing a bill, but meant that it was denied the force of law. The tribunes could also use the veto to prevent a bill from being brought before the plebeian assembly. The consuls also had the power of veto, as decision-making generally required the assent of both consuls. If one disagreed, either could invoke the \"intercessio\" to block the action of the other. The veto was an essential component of the Roman conception of power being wielded not only to manage state affairs but to moderate and restrict the power of the state's high officials and institutions.\n",
"Every single member of the Polish parliament during the 17th and 18th century had an absolute veto (); as a result, legislation could only be passed unanimously. Originally, the procedure was used for technical issues such as points of order, but as diverging interests discovered they could disrupt their opponents' agendas singlehandedly, the process came to be abused. Today, the expression is mostly used to describe an assembly that is too easy for minorities or individuals to disrupt and/or has too many parties present for meaningful and orderly debate and decision-making to take place.\n",
"In 1631 and 1632 the Senate first used its right to veto constitutional acts adopted by the Chamber of Envoys. This marks the first phase of the Senate's demise as powerful nobles (known as the magnates) begin to exercise their power in the legislature. By 1669 the situation had become so bad that landowners took to the streets and, angered by the magnates machinations during the earlier royal election of Michael I, shot at passing senators. By 1717 the king was obliged to implement recommendations given by the senators-resident and by 1773 the cardinal laws pertaining to the 'power of legislating for the Republic in three estates' had been passed and the Senate had begun to hold joint debates with the Chamber of Envoys as a single 'united' Sejm. As a result, in 1775, the senators-resident or 'Little Senate' were abolished and were replaced with a 'Permanent Council' of senators and envoys headed by the King.\n",
"In the case of monarchy, \"legislative veto\" describes the right of the ruler to nullify the actions of a legislative body, for example, the French monarch's claim to the right to veto actions of the National Assembly at the start of the French Revolution.\n",
"The veto was the result of extensive discussion during the negotiations for the formation of the United Nations at Dumbarton Oaks (August–October 1944) and Yalta (February 1945). The evidence is that the United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and China all favored the principle of unanimity, not only out of desire for the major powers to act together, but also to protect their own sovereign rights and national interests. Harry S. Truman, who became President of the US in April 1945, wrote: \"All our experts, civil and military, favored it, and without such a veto no arrangement would have passed the Senate.\"\n",
"The legislative veto was first developed in context of the delegation to the president to reorganize governmental agencies and was first authorized by the Legislative Appropriations Act in 1932. It was furthered by the necessities of providing for national security and foreign affairs immediately prior to and during World War II.\n",
"During the state's early history, vetoes were seldom employed by governors primarily because they were seen as only symbolic since the General Assembly could override them with only a simple majority. Governor James Whitcomb was the first to make significant use of the power and vetoed a record of fifteen bills during a single legislative session. Roger Branigin, who presided over a hostile legislature, made the most total vetoes of any governor, returning a total of one hundred bills to the assembly. Despite the fact that vetoes are easily overridden, only around ten percent of vetoed bills are overridden. During the 1970s, for example, 117 bills were vetoed, but only eleven were overridden. Observers and historians attribute this to the short length of legislative sessions, which often do not allow enough time for a large number of bills to pass through both houses twice. Another factor is that legislators of the same party as the governor typically refuse to override his veto, even in cases where they supported the bill originally.\n"
] |
what would happen to a person if they were to undergo a brain transplant? | This would technically be a body transplant, you are your brain. | [
"Even with proper identification and treatment, the majority of patients who present in the neonatal period have severe neurological and intellectual impairments. Liver transplantation cannot cure brain damage which has already occurred, but it will prevent future hyperammonemic episodes and prevent further damage.\n",
"A man who had a terminal disease decided to get a whole body transplant surgery, removing his brain from his original body and transplanting it to a new brainless body, which was cloned from his cell. He gets the surgery and it seems to be successful.\n",
"No human brain transplant has ever been conducted. Neurosurgeon Robert J. White has grafted the head of a monkey onto the headless body of another monkey. EEG readings showed the brain was later functioning normally. It was thought to prove that the brain was an immunologically privileged organ, as the host's immune system did not attack it at first, but immunorejection caused the monkey to die after nine days. Brain transplants and similar concepts have also been explored in various forms of science fiction.\n",
"A brain transplant or whole-body transplant is a procedure in which the brain of one organism is transplanted into the body of another organism. It is a procedure distinct from head transplantation, which involves transferring the entire head to a new body, as opposed to the brain only. Theoretically, a person with advanced organ failure could be given a new and functional body while keeping their own personality, memories, and consciousness through such a procedure.\n",
"On Earth in the mid-21st century, it became possible to transplant any organ from any person to another, with the exception of brain and central nervous system tissue. Individuals were categorized according to their so-called \"rejection spectrum\" which allowed doctors to counter any immune system responses to the new organs, allowing transplants to \"take\" for life. It also enabled the crime of \"organlegging\" which lasted well into the 24th century.\n",
"The psychological results of the procedure were unclear as well. While concerns were raised about whether recipients of a face transplant and their social circle would have difficulty adjusting, studies had found that disruptions had been minimal. But no transplant had ever been performed where the entire body of an individual is unfamiliar at the conclusion of the procedure, and one of the few documents discussing the ethics in the biomedical literature, a letter to the editor of a journal published in 2015, foresaw a high risk of insanity as a result of the procedure.\n",
"When organs are transplanted, aggressive rejection by the host's immune system can occur. Because immune cells of the CNS contribute to the maintenance of neurogenesis and spatial learning abilities in adulthood, the brain has been hypothesized to be an immunologically privileged (unrejectable) organ.) However, immunorejection of a functional transplanted brain has been reported in monkeys.\n"
] |
why is snowden seen as such a hero? | Because of the breadth of what his leaks revealed.
We spy on our allies. We spy on our own private citizens. We spy on neutral third parties that are no threat at all like fucking Brazil. We spy on everything, *because we* can, *and because noone will stop us*.
Also, the [NSA doesn't really do much to not appear cartoonishly evil](_URL_0_). | [
"In regards to Snowden's presence, the filmmakers stated that while Snowden is \"a central character, he is not the most prominent. It is more about the maelstrom of events surrounding him.\" This was because they knew too little about Snowden himself to give him a more prominent role in the story. Lee said that the film focuses more on the \"vignettes\" than on Snowden and that Snowden serves as a catalyst for events that affect the other characters. Snowden himself has no live dialogue in the film. Lee said that half of the film's focus was on Hong Kong, and half was on Snowden.\n",
"Snowden was active in the Grand Army of the Republic and Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. He took part in numerous Union Army reunions, as well as the dedication of several monuments and memorials.\n",
"Currently held by Snowden. Snowden's speciality is in tricking his opponents, creating clones of himself to deceive opponents. He is the fastest among the Five Pillars, and usually often employs long range tactics like spying or attacking his enemies from long range. Snowden's true form is an owl.\n",
"The awards received by Edward Snowden are part of the reactions to global surveillance disclosures made by Edward Snowden. A subject of controversy, Snowden has been variously called a hero, a whistleblower, a dissident, a patriot, and a traitor. He has been honored by publications and organizations based in Europe and the United States.\n",
"Snowden was in Australia on a worldwide lecture tour when the First World War broke out in August 1914; he did not return to Britain until February 1915. He was not a pacifist; however, he did not support recruiting for the armed forces, and he campaigned against conscription. His stance was unpopular with the public and he lost his seat in the 1918 general election. In 1922, he was elected to represent Colne Valley.\n",
"The Snowden effect is part of the reactions to global surveillance disclosures made by Edward Snowden. A subject of controversy, Snowden has been variously called a hero, a whistleblower, a dissident, a patriot, and a traitor.\n",
"Snowden was named \"Time\"′s Person of the Year runner-up in 2013, behind Pope Francis. \"Time\" was criticized for not placing him in the top spot. In 2014, Snowden was named among \"Time\"s 100 Most Influential People in the world.\n"
] |
What happens to an island formed in a hotspot when in a subduction zone? | This depends a bit on the proximity of the hotspot to the subduction zone and the nature of the material that makes up the island / feature. In a general sense, as plate motion translates an oceanic island away from the hotspot, the island will start to 'sink' as the area around the oceanic island cools (cooler crust = denser crust = lower elevation crust). This coupled with erosion of the island before it sinks below the surface and the potential for continued mass wasting after it is below the surface of the ocean, means that generally the prominence of former oceanic islands diminishes with distance from the hotspot. This is illustrated in [diagrams like these](_URL_2_) and can be seen in the real world in trails of seamounts behind hotspot related oceanic islands, like the [Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain](_URL_4_).
The relative volume/prominence of the feature when it reaches the subduction zone will determine what exactly happens (and hence why distance between the subduction zone and the hotspot matters). Small seamounts and similar features are successfully subducted all the time, though their subduction may cause deformation of the [accretionary prism](_URL_6_) or overriding plate, e.g. [Dominguez et al, 1998](_URL_3_). If the seamount is larger or still a true oceanic island (or something really big, like an [oceanic plateau](_URL_5_)), then it is more likely that it will, at least in part, [accrete](_URL_0_) to the margin. An example of this would be the [Ontong-Java plateau](_URL_1_), an oceanic plateau which is related to the eruption of a plume head (i.e. the beginning of a hotspot) and that is now being subducted. Portions of the plateau material have been scraped off and are thrust up along the subduction margin while other portions have continued to be subducted. | [
"On the subducting side of the island arc is a deep and narrow oceanic trench, which is the trace at the Earth's surface of the boundary between the down-going and overriding plates. This trench is created by the downward gravitational pull of the relatively dense subducting plate on the leading edge of the plate. Multiple earthquakes occur along this subduction boundary with the seismic hypocenters located at increasing depth under the island arc: these quakes define the Benioff zone.\n",
"A third type of volcanic oceanic island is formed over volcanic hotspots. A hotspot is more or less stationary relative to the moving tectonic plate above it, so a chain of islands results as the plate drifts. Over long periods of time, this type of island is eventually \"drowned\" by isostatic adjustment and eroded, becoming a seamount. Plate movement across a hot-spot produces a line of islands oriented in the direction of the plate movement. An example is the Hawaiian Islands, from Hawaii to Kure, which continue beneath the sea surface in a more northerly direction as the Emperor Seamounts. Another chain with similar orientation is the Tuamotu Archipelago; its older, northerly trend is the Line Islands. The southernmost chain is the Austral Islands, with its northerly trending part the atolls in the nation of Tuvalu. Tristan da Cunha is an example of a hotspot volcano in the Atlantic Ocean. Another hotspot in the Atlantic is the island of Surtsey, which was formed in 1963.\n",
"The oceanic crust contains hydrated minerals such as the amphibole group. During subduction, oceanic lithosphere is heated and metamorphosed causing dehydration of these hydrous minerals contained within basalts, releasing water into the asthenosphere. The release of water into the asthenosphere leads to partial melting. Partial melting allows the rise of more buoyant, hot material and can lead to volcanism at the surface and emplacement of plutons in the subsurface. These processes which generate magma are not entirely understood.\n",
"The older, and denser plate moves below the lighter plate. The further down it moves, the hotter it becomes, until finally melting altogether at the asthenosphere and inner mantle and the crust is actually destroyed. The location where the two oceanic plates actually meet become deeper and deeper creating trenches with each successive action. There is an interplay of various densities of lithosphere rock, asthenosphere magma, cooling ocean water and plate movement for example the Pacific Ring of Fire. Therefore, the site of the sub oceanic trench will be a site of submarine earthquakes; for example the Mariana Trench, Puerto Rico Trench, and the volcanic arc along the Great Sumatran fault.\n",
"The subduction zone is where the oceanic crust slides beneath the continental crust or other oceanic plates. This is because the oceanic plate's litosphere has a higher density.Subduction zones are sites that usually have a high rate of volcanism and earthquakes. Additionally, subduction zones develop belts of deformation The subduction zones on the east side of the Japanese archipelago cause frequent low intensity earth tremors. Major earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis occur several times per century. It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Northeastern Japan, north of Tanakura fault had high volcanic activity 14-17 million years before present.\n",
"Similarly, exclusion zones have been established due to natural disasters. There is an exclusion zone on the island of Montserrat, where the long-dormant Soufrière Hills volcano started erupting in 1995 and has continued erupting since. It encompasses the south part of the island, accounting for over half of its land mass and most areas of the island which were populated before the volcano erupted. The volcano destroyed the island's urban center and capital Plymouth, as well as many other villages and neighborhoods. The zone is now strictly enforced; entry into most of the destroyed areas is prohibited, while some areas are subject to restrictions during volcanic activity or open only as a \"daytime entry zone\".\n",
"During subduction, an oceanic plate is thrust below another tectonic plate, which may be oceanic or continental. Water and other volatiles in the down-going plate cause flux melting in the upper mantle, creating magma that rises and penetrates the overriding plate, forming a volcanic arc. The weight of the down-going slab flexes the down-going plate creating an oceanic trench. The area between the trench and the arc is the forearc region, and the area behind the arc (i.e. on the side away from the trench) is the back-arc region.\n"
] |
A century ago, in the aftermath of WWI and with the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, the world had to deal with millions of refugees and mass migration. How did the receiving countries deal with this influx? | This depends on a case-by-case basis. I am unfortunately unable to give you a fully-fledged answer in general, but would be happy to explain what happened in the Netherlands during the War and the immediate post-war period with (predominantly Belgian) refugees, if you are interested. I could also be of some help in illuminating the emergence of the closed-border and passport systems in the immediate pre-war era, again if you are interested in the context. | [
"They were followed by other waves of immigration: during the First World War the Ottoman Empire from disintegrating, before and after the Second World War from Europe, from Arab countries because of the exodus caused in 1948 and more recently from South American countries suffering economic crises.\n",
"By the 19th century, the empire began to decline when ethno-nationalist uprisings occurred across the empire. Thus, the last quarter of the 19th and the early part of the 20th century saw some 7–9 million Muslim refugees (Turks and some Circassians, Bosnians, Georgians, etc.) from the lost territories of the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands migrate to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace. By 1913, the government of the Committee of Union and Progress started a program of forcible Turkification of non-Turkish minorities. By 1914, the World War I broke out, and the Turks scored some success in Gallipoli during the Battle of the Dardanelles in 1915. During World War I, the government of the Committee of Union and Progress continued with its Turkification policies, which affected non-Turkish minorities, such as the Armenians during the Armenian Genocide and the Greeks during various campaigns of ethnic cleansing and expulsion. In 1918, the Ottoman Government agreed to the Mudros Armistice with the Allies.\n",
"The conflict and political instability during World War II led to massive numbers of refugees (see World War II evacuation and expulsion). In 1943, the Allies created the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) to provide aid to areas liberated from Axis powers, including parts of Europe and China. By the end of the War, Europe had more than 40 million refugees. UNRRA was involved in returning over seven million refugees, then commonly referred to as displaced persons or DPs, to their country of origin and setting up displaced persons camps for one million refugees who refused to be repatriated. Even two years after the end of War, some 850,000 people still lived in DP camps across Western Europe. DP Camps in Europe Intro, from: \"DPs Europe's Displaced Persons, 1945–1951\" by Mark Wyman After the establishment of Israel in 1948, Israel accepted more than 650,000 refugees by 1950. By 1953, over 250,000 refugees were still in Europe, most of them old, infirm, crippled, or otherwise disabled.\n",
"The First and Second World Wars, and wars, genocides, and crises sparked by them, had an enormous impact on migration. Muslims moved from the Balkan to Turkey, while Christians moved the other way, during the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. In April 1915 the Ottoman government embarked upon the systematic decimation of its civilian Armenian population. The persecutions continued with varying intensity until 1923 when the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist and was replaced by the Republic of Turkey. The Armenian population of the Ottoman state was reported at about two million in 1915. An estimated one million had perished by 1918, while hundreds of thousands had become homeless and stateless refugees. By 1923 virtually the entire Armenian population of Anatolian Turkey had disappeared. Four hundred thousand Jews had already moved to Palestine in the early twentieth century, and numerous Jews to America, as already mentioned. The Russian Civil War caused some three million Russians, Poles, and Germans to migrate out of the new Soviet Union. Decolonization following the Second World War also caused migrations.\n",
"Following the end of the war in Europe in late May 1945, large parts of Europe lay completely smashed. Acute food, housing and medical shortages continued for some time and around 10 million refugees housed in temporary encampments or on the roads.\n",
"The next essential change was brought by World War II respectively its consequences. Owing to the absorption and integration of a large number of refugees grave economic and demographic shifts were brought about.\n",
"Subsequently, with the Balkan Wars (1912–1923) and the First World War (1914–1918) the Ottoman Empire lost virtually most of its possessions, except these in Asia Minor. During these wars and the following Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) the Orthodox Christians there were a subject to a persecution and deportation, and the Assyrians and Greeks even to a Genocide. That put de facto end to the community of the Rum millet. The Treaty of Lausanne from 1923, led to the recognition of the new Republic of Turkey and to the end of the Ottoman Empire itself.\n"
] |
what are those fake puddles of water that appear on the road and disappear as i drive closer? | Mirage. Optical illusion that form when light coming form critical angle bounce(reflection) off instead of refraction. As you approach closer you are no longer in the path of that bounced light, so it disappear | [
"Puddles commonly form during rain, and can cause problems for transport. Due to the angle of the road, puddles tend to be forced by gravity to gather on the edges of the road. This can cause splashing as cars drive through the puddles, which causes water to be sprayed onto pedestrians on the pavement. Irresponsible drivers may do this deliberately, which, in some countries, can lead to prosecution for careless driving.\n",
"Due to the action of surface tension, small puddles can also form if a liquid is spilt on a level surface. Puddles like this are common on kitchen floors. Puddles tend to evaporate quickly due to the high surface-area-to-volume ratio and tend to be short lived. In cold conditions puddles can form patches of ice which are slippery and difficult to see and can be a hazard to road vehicles and pedestrians.\n",
"Puddles commonly form in potholes in a dirt road, or in any other space with a shallow depression and dirt. In such cases, these are sometimes referred to as \"mud puddles\", because mud tends to form in the bottoms, resulting in dirtied wheels or boots when disturbed.\n",
"In order to deal with puddles, roads and pavements are often built with a camber (technically called 'crowning'), being slightly convex in nature, to force puddles to drain into the gutter, which has storm drain grates to allow the water to drain into the sewers. In addition, some surfaces are made to be porous, allowing the water to drain through the surface to the aquifer below.\n",
"Muddy-debris flows can start as a result of slope-related factors and shallow landslides can dam stream beds, resulting in temporary water blockage. As the impoundments fail, a \"domino effect\" may be created, with a remarkable growth in the volume of the flowing mass, which takes up the debris in the stream channel. The solid–liquid mixture can reach densities of up to and velocities of up to (;). These processes normally cause the first severe road interruptions, due not only to deposits accumulated on the road (from several cubic metres to hundreds of cubic metres), but in some cases to the complete removal of bridges or roadways or railways crossing the stream channel. Damage usually derives from a common underestimation of mud-debris flows: in the alpine valleys, for example, bridges are frequently destroyed by the impact force of the flow because their span is usually calculated only for a water discharge. For a small basin in the Italian Alps (area ) affected by a debris flow, estimated a peak discharge of for a section located in the middle stretch of the main channel. At the same cross section, the maximum foreseeable water discharge (by HEC-1), was , a value about 40 times lower than that calculated for the debris flow that occurred.\n",
"Some video games (particularly racing games) include road debris that damages vehicles or obstructs visibility. \"Spy Hunter\" (1983) features slippery, icy roads and puddles, oil slicks, and smoke screens. \"MotorStorm\" (2007) depicts air-borne mud that becomes accurately painted onto the body of each vehicle in real-time. Players can use this airborne debris strategically: a chunk of debris may be used to knock opponents off their motorcycles, and mud spatter on the wind-shields might temporarily blind them. \"Fuel\" (2009) features \"crazy windstorms that kick up leaves and debris.\"\n",
"A road running below the water level of a stream or river is often known as a \"watersplash\". It is a common name for a ford or stretch of wet road in some areas, and sometimes also used to describe tidal crossings. They have become a common feature in rallying courses. There are enthusiasts who seek out and drive through these water features, recording details (such as wave created, position and access) on dedicated websites.\n"
] |
why do so many think robert johnson is the greatest bluesman? | Everything I know about Robert Johnson I learned from the movie Crossroads, but apparently he invented The Blues, or at least wrote all the early classic Blues songs. He was able to do this because he sold his soul to the Devil. | [
"BULLET::::- Eric Clapton considers Johnson \"the most important blues musician who ever lived\". He recorded enough of his songs to make \"Me and Mr. Johnson\", a blues-rock album released in 2004 as a tribute to the legendary bluesman (it was also used in the film \"Sessions for Robert J\"). He earlier recorded \"Crossroads\", an arrangement of \"Cross Road Blues\", with Cream in 1968, leading some to consider him \"the man largely responsible for making Robert Johnson a household name.\"\n",
"Johnson is considered one of the masters of blues, particularly of the gospel blues style. Like his contemporary Blind Lemon Jefferson, Johnson channeled the expressiveness of the blues into his religious messages derived from hymnbooks. Samuel Charters, in the liner notes to the compilation album \"The Complete Blind Willie Johnson\", wrote that, in fact, Johnson was not a bluesman in the traditional sense, \"but here still is so much similarity between his relentless guitar rhythms and his harsh, insistent voice, and the same fierce intensities of the blues singers, that they become images of each other, seen in the mirror of the society that produced them\".\n",
"Robert Leroy Johnson (May 8, 1911August 16, 1938) was an American blues singer, songwriter and musician. His landmark recordings in 1936 and 1937 display a combination of singing, guitar skills, and songwriting talent that has influenced later generations of musicians. Johnson's poorly documented life and death have given rise to much legend. The one most closely associated with his life is that he sold his soul to the devil at a local crossroads to achieve musical success. He is now recognized as a master of the blues, particularly as a progenitor of the Delta blues style.\n",
"Primarily a blues musician, Johnson fuses many eras of the genre with rock, country, and jazz. He regularly performs either as a solo act with an acoustic guitar or with a backing band. Beyond guitar and vocals he also plays harmonica. He draws on influences as diverse as Robert Johnson, Mississippi John Hurt, Lonnie Johnson, Chuck Berry, Muddy Waters, T-Bone Walker, Eric Clapton, BB King, and slide guitarists David Lindley and Sonny Landreth. According to the Musicians Association of Victoria and the Islands, \"for years he has honed his craft in bars, clubs, festivals and concerts and has achieved a worldly perspective that gives his blues the kind of soul that speaks with authenticity.\"\n",
"Johnson is considered a master of the blues, particularly of the Delta blues style. Keith Richards, of the Rolling Stones, said in 1990, \"You want to know how good the blues can get? Well, this is it.\" But according to Elijah Wald, in his book \"Escaping the Delta\", Johnson in his own time was most respected for his ability to play in a wide range of styles, from raw country slide guitar to jazz and pop licks, and for his ability to pick up guitar parts almost instantly upon hearing a song. His first recorded song, \"Kind Hearted Woman Blues\", in contrast to the prevailing Delta style of the time, more resembled the style of Chicago or St. Louis, with \"a full-fledged, abundantly varied musical arrangement\". Unusual for a Delta player of the time, a recording exhibits what Johnson could do entirely outside of a blues style. \"They're Red Hot\", from his first recording session, shows that he was also comfortable with an \"uptown\" swing or ragtime sound similar to that of the Harlem Hamfats, but as Wald remarked, \"no record company was heading to Mississippi in search of a down-home Ink Spots ... [H]e could undoubtedly have come up with a lot more songs in this style if the producers had wanted them.\"\n",
"Johnson has had enormous impact on music and musicians, but outside his own time and place and even the genre for which he was famous. His influence on contemporaries was much smaller, in part because he was an itinerant performer—playing mostly on street corners, in juke joints, and at Saturday night dances—who worked in a then undervalued style of music. He also died young after recording only a handful of songs. Johnson, though well-traveled and admired in his performances, was little noted in his lifetime, and his records were even less appreciated. \"Terraplane Blues\", sometimes described as Johnson's only hit record, outsold his others, but was still only a minor success.\n",
"While Robert Johnson's professional recording career can be measured in months, his musical legacy has survived more than 70 years. Muddy Waters and Howlin' Wolf, two prominent Chicago bluesmen, have their roots in the Delta: both knew Robert Johnson, and were heavily influenced by him. Johnson's emotive vocals, combined with his varied and masterful guitar playing, continue to influence blues and popular music performers to this day. In 2004, Eric Clapton recorded \"Me and Mr. Johnson\" as a tribute to the legendary bluesman; the album reached number 6 on the \"Billboard\" 200 and has sold more than 563,000 copies in the United States. The \"Chicago Tribune\"s Greg Kot wrote that \"The Complete Recordings\", along with Clapton's \"The Layla Sessions\" (1990), survive as \"monuments of 20th Century music that will rarely, if ever, be equaled\".\n"
] |
Do humans make bodily or vocal noises above or below the human hearing (20Hz to 20,000Hz) threshold? | Anything that causes a vibration causes a sound, because that's what sound is. While it may not be audible, pretty much any movement your body makes technically makes a sound.
Waving your hand frantically may cause vibration of a few Hertz, for example, even though it's probably very quiet too. Of course, that's just an example you could easily mimic on purpose.
Short answer is yes. | [
"A human is capable of hearing (and usefully discerning) anything from a quiet murmur in a soundproofed room to the loudest heavy metal concert. Such a difference can exceed 100 dB which represents a factor of 100,000 in amplitude and a factor 10,000,000,000 in power. The dynamic range of human hearing is roughly 140 dB, varying with frequency, from the threshold of hearing (around −9 dB SPL at 3 kHz) to the threshold of pain (from 120–140 dB SPL). This wide dynamic range cannot be perceived all at once, however; the tensor tympani, stapedius muscle, and outer hair cells all act as mechanical dynamic range compressors to adjust the sensitivity of the ear to different ambient levels.\n",
"The threshold of hearing is generally reported as the RMS sound pressure of 20 micropascals, i.e. 0 dB SPL, corresponding to a sound intensity of 0.98 pW/m at 1 atmosphere and 25 °C. It is approximately the quietest sound a young human with undamaged hearing can detect at 1,000 Hz. The threshold of hearing is frequency-dependent and it has been shown that the ear's sensitivity is best at frequencies between 2 kHz and 5 kHz, where the threshold reaches as low as −9 dB SPL.\n",
"The absolute threshold of hearing is the minimum sound level of a pure tone that an average ear with normal hearing can hear with no other sound present. The absolute threshold relates to the sound that can just be heard by the organism.The threshold of hearing is generally reported as the RMS sound pressure of 20 µPa (micropascals) = 2×10 pascal (Pa). It is approximately the quietest sound a young human with undamaged hearing can detect at 1,000 Hz. The threshold of hearing is frequency dependent and it has been shown that the ear's sensitivity is best at frequencies between 1 kHz and 5 kHz.\n",
"Human hearing extends in frequency from 20–20,000 Hz, and in intensity from 0 dB to 120 dB HL or more. 0 dB does not represent absence of sound, but rather the softest sound an average unimpaired human ear can hear; some people can hear down to −5 or even −10 dB. Sound is generally uncomfortably loud above 90 dB and 115 dB represents the threshold of pain. The ear does not hear all frequencies equally well; hearing sensitivity peaks around 3000 Hz. There are many qualities of human hearing besides frequency range and intensity that cannot easily be measured quantitatively. But for many practical purposes, normal hearing is defined by a frequency versus intensity graph, or audiogram, charting sensitivity thresholds of hearing at defined frequencies. Because of the cumulative impact of age and exposure to noise and other acoustic insults, 'typical' hearing may not be normal.\n",
"The commonly stated range of human hearing is 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Under ideal laboratory conditions, humans can hear sound as low as 12 Hz and as high as 28 kHz, though the threshold increases sharply at 15 kHz in adults, corresponding to the last auditory channel of the cochlea. Humans are most sensitive to (i.e. able to discern at lowest intensity) frequencies between 2,000 and 5,000 Hz. Individual hearing range varies according to the general condition of a human's ears and nervous system. The range shrinks during life, usually beginning at around age of eight with the upper frequency limit being reduced. Women typically experience a lesser degree of hearing loss than men, with a later onset. Men have approximately 5 to 10 dB greater loss in the upper frequencies by age 40.\n",
"Audiograms of human hearing are produced using an audiometer, which presents different frequencies to the subject, usually over calibrated headphones, at specified levels. The levels are weighted with frequency relative to a standard graph known as the minimum audibility curve, which is intended to represent \"normal\" hearing. The threshold of hearing is set at around 0 phon on the equal-loudness contours (i.e. 20 micropascals, approximately the quietest sound a young healthy human can detect), but is standardised in an ANSI standard to 1 kHz. Standards using different reference levels, give rise to differences in audiograms. The ASA-1951 standard, for example, used a level of 16.5 dB SPL (sound pressure level) at 1 kHz, whereas the later ANSI-1969/ISO-1963 standard uses , with a 10 dB correction applied for older people.\n",
"The human ear has a large dynamic range in sound reception. The ratio of the sound intensity that causes permanent damage during short exposure to that of the quietest sound that the ear can hear is greater than or equal to 1 trillion (10). Such large measurement ranges are conveniently expressed in logarithmic scale: the base-10 logarithm of 10 is 12, which is expressed as a sound pressure level of 120 dB re 20 μPa.\n"
] |
What happened to German police personnel after the Germans surrendered in WW2? | This is an interesting one.
The Order Police and the Krippo generally continued as normal, as did most of the judiciary.
The Gestapo was brought in front of the Nuremberg trails where it was decided the it was a criminal organisation and that all officers and administrators were collectively responsible. However, it didn't apply to those who left before 1st September 1939, thus ruling it was only after this date that it became a criminal organisation and this ruled out any officer facing punishment for their actions before then.
Very few rank and file officers were brought to trial and most of those that did served less than three years detention. The Law for the Liberation from National Socialism and Militarism (5th March 1946) allowed individuals, including Gestapo officers, the chance of exoneration by producing evidence and witnesses. Most of the West Germans who applied were exonerated (issued a 'Persil Certificate' - a pun on the washing powder that offered whiter-than-white results) due to those overseeing the process being over worked and under staffed.
In the East, the Russians were just as 'thorougher' in investigating the past of those involved in the Nazi regime, however, this meant detention.
Their are a number of things we must understand. Firstly, rank and file Gestapo officers were forcibly transferred from the police detective branch and very very few were members of the Nazi party before 1937. It was the senior managers that were ardent career Nazis with no police experience. Secondly, by the 1950s there was a distinct lack of enthusiasm among the West German political establishment to bring Nazis to judgement. Thirdly, the people who the Gestapo targeted were dead by the end of the war and unable to provide witness to the prosecution. Finally, by the late 1940s, the western allies were more concerned with the Soviet Union than the Nazis. Routing out every Nazi, be them part of the civil service or civilians was not only time consuming but removing the low level civil service would make reconstruction and governance more difficult. | [
"Shortly after the German invasion of Poland, the Nazi authorities ordered the mobilization of prewar Polish officials and the Polish police (the \"Blue Police\"), who were forced, under penalty of death, to work for the German occupation authorities. The primary task of the officials was to run the day-to-day administration of the occupied territories; and of the Blue Police, to act as a regular police force dealing with criminal activities. The Germans also used the Blue Police to combat smuggling and resistance and to round up (\"łapanka\") random civilians for forced labor and to apprehend Jews (in German, \"Judenjagd\", \"hunting Jews\"). While many officials and police reluctantly followed German orders, some acted as agents for the Polish resistance.\n",
"Norwegians who had volunteered for military service with the Wehrmacht, and especially Germanic-SS were subject to criminal prosecution after the war. Police officers who worked with the RSHA in the Sikkerhetspolitiet (Norwegian Secret State Police) or joined the Gestapo faced charges relating to war crimes, torture, executions, and the mistreatment of prisoners.\n",
"After World War I, all military police units were disbanded and no police units existed in the inter-war Weimar Republic era. Garrisons were patrolled by regular soldiers performing the duties of the military police.\n",
"In October 1939, the Nazis ordered a mobilization of the prewar Polish police to the service of the occupational authorities. The policemen were to report for duty or face a death penalty. The so-called Blue Police was formed. At its peak in 1943, it numbered around 16,000. Its primary task was to act as a regular police force and to deal with criminal activities, but they were also used by the Germans in combating smuggling and patrolling the Jewish ghettos. Many individuals in the Blue Police followed German orders reluctantly, often disobeyed them or even risked death acting against them. Many members of the Blue Police were double agents for the Polish resistance; a large percentage cooperated with the Home Army. Some of its officers were ultimately awarded the Righteous Among the Nations awards for saving Jews. However, the moral position of Polish policemen was often compromised by a necessity for cooperation, or even collaboration, with the occupier. According to Timothy Snyder, acting in their capacity as a collaborationist force, the Blue Police may have killed more than 50,000 Jews. The police assisted the Nazis at tasks such as rounding up Poles for forced labor in Germany.\n",
"In October 1939 the German authorities ordered mobilization of the prewar Polish police to serve under the German \"Ordnungspolizei\", thus creating the auxiliary \"Blue Police\" that supplemented the principal German forces. The Polish policemen were to report for duty by 10 November 1939 or face death. At its peak in May 1944, the Blue Police numbered some 17,000 men. Their primary task was to act as a regular police force dealing with criminal activities, but the Germans also used them in combating smuggling and resistance, rounding up random civilians (\"łapanka\") for forced labor or for execution in reprisal for Polish resistance activities (e.g., the Polish underground's execution of Polish traitors or egregiously brutal Germans), patrolling for Jewish ghetto escapees, and in support of military operations against the Polish resistance.\n",
"The police had the unenviable task of training up the local Home Guard, managing the disorder caused by visiting allied troops and dealing with the aftermath of German air raids. The officers of Kent, and indeed other towns targeted by the Germans, were the only persons obliged to perform such tasks as ensuring all lights were switched off during a raid (even going so far as snuffing out the odd offending light bulb with an air rifle) and pulling civilians from the wreckage of their own bombed homes. Captured German pilots were often thrown into the same cells as the common miscreant, with one recorded example of four enemy prisoners rounded up and taken back to an officer’s house, where the officer told his wife to make sure they didn’t leave.\n",
"The German General Government tried to form additional Polish auxiliary police units—\"Schutzmannschaft Battalion 202\" in 1942, and \"Schutzmannschaft Battalion 107\" in 1943. Very few men volunteered, and the Germans decided on forced conscription to fill their ranks. Most of the conscripts subsequently deserted, and the two units were disbanded. \"Schutzmannschaft Battalion 107\" mutinied against its German officers, disarmed them, and joined the Home Army resistance.\n"
] |
How and when did the Star and Crescent become a symbol of Islam? What exactly does it represent? | This is primarily trying to answer another question, but it touches on the question you’re curious about:
* [Why didn't the Turkish Republic change its flag?](_URL_0_)
I’m afraid, though, that I come at this as someone who’s interested in the Early Turkish Republican era/the Late (19th century) Ottoman Empire, so I don’t know much more about this early/middle Ottoman question than I listed in that answer. (Edit: this particularly doesn’t cover at all when the star and crescent became a *global* symbol—it obviously appears on flags outside the former Ottoman Empire and outside the context of Pan-Turkism on, for instance, the flags of Pakistan, Malaysia, and Mauritania.)
/u/Chamboz and /u/CptBuck might have more to add. | [
"The star and crescent symbol became strongly associated with the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, a symbol that had been used throughout the Middle East extending back to pre-Islamic times, especially in the Byzantine Empire and Crusader States which occupied the lands later assumed by the Ottoman Empire. By extension from the use in Ottoman lands, it became a symbol also for Islam as a whole, as well as representative of western Orientalism. \"Star and Crescent\" was used as a metaphor for the rule of the Islamic empires (Ottoman and Persian) in the late 19th century in British literature. This association was apparently strengthened by the increasingly ubiquitous fashion of using the star and crescent symbol in the ornamentation of Ottoman mosques and minarets. The \"Red Crescent\" emblem was adopted by volunteers of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) as early as 1877 during the Russo-Turkish War; it was officially adopted in 1929.\n",
"After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1922, the star and crescent was used in several national flags adopted by its successor states. The star and crescent in the flag of the Kingdom of Libya (1951) was explicitly given an Islamic interpretation by associating it with \"the story of Hijra (migration) of our Prophet Mohammed\" By the 1950s, this symbolism was embraced by movements of Arab nationalism or Islamism, such as the proposed Arab Islamic Republic (1974) and the American Nation of Islam (1973).\n",
"The star and crescent is an iconographic symbol used in various historical contexts but most well known as a symbol of the Ottoman Empire. It is often considered as a symbol of Islam by extension, however is denied as the religion bears no symbol. It develops in the iconography of the Hellenistic period (4th–1st centuries BCE) in the Kingdom of Pontus, the Bosporan Kingdom and notably the city of Byzantium by the 2nd century BCE. It is the conjoined representation of the crescent and a star, both of which constituent elements have a long prior history in the iconography of the Ancient Near East as representing either Sun and Moon or Moon and Morning Star (or their divine personifications). Coins with crescent and star symbols represented separately have a longer history, with possible ties to older Mesopotamian iconography. The star, or Sun, is often shown within the arc of the crescent (also called star in crescent, or star within crescent, for disambiguation of depictions of a star and a crescent side by side); In numismatics in particular, the term crescent and pellet is used in cases where the star is simplified to a single dot.\n",
"In the late 19th century, \"Star and Crescent\" came to be used as a metaphor for Ottoman rule in British literature. The increasingly ubiquitous fashion of using the star and crescent symbol in the ornamentation of Ottoman mosques and minarets led to a gradual association of the symbol with Islam in general in western Orientalism. The \"Red Crescent\" emblem was used by volunteers of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) as early as 1877 during the Russo-Turkish War; it was officially adopted in 1929.\n",
"In the later 20th century, the star and crescent have acquired a popular interpretation as a \"symbol of Islam\", occasionally embraced by Arab nationalism or Islamism in the 1970s to 1980s, but often rejected as erroneous or unfounded by Muslim commentators in more recent times.\n",
"The star and crescent is retained from the 19th-century Ottoman flag, and has acquired its status as de facto national emblem following the abolition of the Ottoman coat of arms in 1922. It was used on national identity cards by the 1930s (with the horns of the crescent facing left instead of the now more common orientation towards the right).\n",
"While some Islamic organisations since the 1970s have embraced the crescent as their logo or emblem (e.g. \" Crescent International\" magazine, established 1980), Muslim publications tend to emphasize that the interpretation of the crescent, historically used on the banners of Muslim armies, as a \"religious symbol\" of Islam was an error made by the \"Christians of Europe\". The identification of the crescent as an \"Islamic symbol\" is mentioned by James Hastings as a \"common error\" to which \"even approved writers on Oriental subjects\" are prone as early as 1928.\n"
] |
how come the human race still has "ugly" people if nobody wants to reproduce with them? | People still do.
Edit: also Luck, two "perfect" parents wont always have a "perfect" child. | [
"The second statement says that since human history is widely diverse and complex, there are many human populations that cannot be easily classified “racially”. However, some anthropologists believe that mankind is classified into at least three major human races. Even though it is believed that there are many human races, it gives no support that there is one race that is superior or inferior to any of the other races.\n",
"Eventually of the race which created it only three are left; these are called the Silent Ones, and they have been 'purged of dross' and can be described as higher, nobler, more angelic beings than are humankind. They have also been sentenced by the good among their race to remain in the world, and not to die, as punishment for their pride which was the source of the calamity called the Dweller, until such time as they destroy their creation—if they still can. And the reason they do not do so is simply that they continue to love it.\n",
"Other human races are descended from the Godless Ones: ethnicities chosen by no god (Aldur abstaining from selection) at the beginning of the human race. They are widely spread across both continents and have physical diversity comparable to the other races.\n",
"Portions of these humanoids are clearly not of human make. They may have drastic differences in skin color and eye type and may have scales, fur, claws, and tails. The average person may find them quite unpleasant and untrustworthy because they are not entirely human.\n",
"Women are often objectified by being compared to a piece of meat or dehumanized by being called a 'cow' or a 'bird'. There is indeed a history of dehumanization through equating humans to animals, which because of speciesism, means that they are devalued and considered to be less than other valued humans. This is often seen in cases of genocide, for in Rwanda the Tutsi were compared to cockroaches for many months leading up to the actual genocide. Viewing humans as animals makes it easier to oppress them, and thus it is once again clear that in order to end the oppression of humans, one must also work to end the oppression of nonhuman animals, because so long as nonhuman animals are viewed as inherently inferior to humans, dehumanization will continue to be justified with comparisons to nonhuman animals.\n",
"The human race consists of billions of people spread throughout a relatively small area of space containing Earth and several other inhabited planets. The majority of the population lives on giant space stations, either in orbit or moving like giant ships. A change occurred over the generations that was caused by zero-gravity conditions and exposure to different radiations. Most are pale-skinned, thin and frail-boned; some would die if they experienced gravity. The human race is ruled over by the Directorate, a group of three genetically modified humans, through whom all information must pass before it is released; this has given the Directorate complete control over information for the last 600 years. They stopped all war and religion and caused humanity to be composed of mostly obedient cowards.\n",
"Through this small sampling of experts, it is clear that race as a social construction is a common theory. All of the experts in this sampling say that biological race is non-existent. Race therefore must have been created by societies. They were created to do what humans do, to serve the purposes of the majority. The hierarchies created by race have kept the majority \"race\" in control of everything from public policy to the workforce to law enforcement. They benefit from this construction of race. Yet, the minorities, who are just the same genetically, suffer under this system. Most of the points made by the experts expose this issue, yet none truly suggest a way to fix the problem. Bill Nye weighs in on the issue on the same side as the experts in the sample. He says that humans are humans, we are all one species. We have to fix it. If society created the problem, society has to take it on itself to fix it.\n"
] |
how did amazon gain enough popularity to support it's massive infrastructure costs? | It was one of the first dot coms, back when online shopping wasn't a thing yet.
They also started niche with just books - an industry which (at that time) had lousy overpriced competition and was impossible for brick and mortar stores to compare on inventory / price. Great place to start.
Then after they became the niche book go-to, they moved to music and movies which had the same basic problem before digitalization.
Then they expanded to more types of merchandise. And so on. | [
"In June 2012, Amazon began the installation of a $52 million investment in cooling its warehouses around the country, a major cost for the company equivalent to 8.2 percent of Amazon's 2011 total earnings. Experts speculated Amazon made such a massive investment either to dampen negative publicity over worker conditions, and/or to better protect goods in the warehouse such as food and electronics equipment.\n",
"In 2016 Q1, revenue was $2.57 billion with net income of $604 million, a 64% increase over 2015 Q1 that resulted in AWS being more profitable than Amazon's North American retail business for the first time. In the first quarter of 2016, Amazon experienced a 42% rise in stock value as a result of increased earnings, of which AWS contributed 56% to corporate profits.\n",
"After the dot-com bubble, Amazon played a key role in the development of cloud computing by modernizing their data centers, which, like most computer networks, were using as little as 10% of their capacity at any one time, just to leave room for occasional spikes. Having found that the new cloud architecture resulted in significant internal efficiency improvements whereby small, fast-moving \"two-pizza teams\" (teams small enough to be fed with two pizzas) could add new features faster and more easily, Amazon initiated a new product development effort to provide cloud computing to external customers, and launched Amazon Web Services (AWS) on a utility computing basis in 2006. \n",
"Amazon is known for its disruption of well-established industries through technological innovation and mass scale. It is the world's largest e-commerce marketplace, AI assistant provider, and cloud computing platform as measured by revenue and market capitalization. Amazon is the largest Internet company by revenue in the world. It is the second largest private employer in the United States and one of the world's most valuable companies. Amazon is the second largest technology company by revenue.\n",
"For the fiscal year 2018, Amazon reported earnings of US$10.07 billion, with an annual revenue of US$232.887 billion, an increase of 30.9% over the previous fiscal cycle. Since 2007 sales increased from 14.835 billion to 232.887 billion, thanks to continued business expansion. Amazon's market capitalization was valued at over US$803 billion in early November 2018.\n",
"Amazon has grown through a number of mergers and acquisitions over the years. The company has also invested in a number of growing firms, both in the United States and Internationally. In 2014, Amazon purchased top level domain .buy in auction for over $4 million. The company has invested in brands that offer a wide range of services and products, including Engine Yard, a Ruby-on-Rails platform as a service company, and Living Social, a local deal site.\n",
"Amazon announced its plans to build a new headquarters in September 2017, saying that it would house 50,000 workers and spend $5 billion on new construction. The corporation also invited governments and economic development organizations to give the corporation tax breaks and other incentives to entice it to their locality. More than 200 cities in Canada, Mexico, and the United States eventually offered tax breaks, expedited construction approvals, promises of infrastructure improvements, new crime-reduction programs, and other incentives.\n"
] |
How long does it take for a large, non-spherical object in space to become spherical? | Assuming the cube is made from the same material that Earth is made of, it would probably not take very long to become spherical. The corners of the cube would in effect be mountains that are many hundreds of km tall, which would collapse due to gravity.
| [
"A spherical secondary can achieve higher implosion densities than a cylindrical secondary, because spherical implosion pushes in from all directions toward the same spot. However, in warheads yielding more than one megaton, the diameter of a spherical secondary would be too large for most applications. A cylindrical secondary is necessary in such cases. The small, cone-shaped re-entry vehicles in multiple-warhead ballistic missiles after 1970 tended to have warheads with spherical secondaries, and yields of a few hundred kilotons.\n",
"If the radius of the sphere is called \"R\", the radii of the spherical segment bases are \"r\" and \"r\", and the height of the segment (the distance from one parallel plane to the other) called \"h\", then the volume of the spherical segment is\n",
"Eridanus II does not have a spherical shape, and its ellipticity (ε) has been estimated at about 0.45 (Crnojević et al., 2016; Koposov et al., 2015). Its size depends on assumptions about mass distribution and three-dimensional structure. Crnojević et al. (2016) find that their data are consistent with a simple exponential distribution of mass and a half-light radius (a radius enclosing half the luminosity of the galaxy) of 277 ±14 pc (~890 light years), with an apparent half-light diameter of 4.6 arcmin to observers on Earth.\n",
"A spherical lens has an aplanatic point (i.e., no spherical aberration) only at a radius that equals the radius of the sphere divided by the index of refraction of the lens material. A typical value of refractive index for crown glass is 1.5 (see list), which indicates that only about 43% of the area (67% of diameter) of a spherical lens is useful. It is often considered to be an imperfection of telescopes and other instruments which makes their focusing less than ideal due to the spherical shape of lenses and mirrors. This is an important effect, because spherical shapes are much easier to produce than aspherical ones. In many cases, it is cheaper to use multiple spherical elements to compensate for spherical aberration than it is to use a single aspheric lens.\n",
"In geometry, a spherical cap, spherical dome, or spherical segment of one base is a portion of a sphere cut off by a plane. If the plane passes through the center of the sphere, so that the height of the cap is equal to the radius of the sphere, the spherical cap is called a \"hemisphere\".\n",
"With a diameter of it is the smallest astronomical body that is known to still be rounded in shape because of self-gravitation. However, Mimas is not actually in hydrostatic equilibrium for its current rotation.\n",
"In spherical geometry, a spherical rectangle is a figure whose four edges are great circle arcs which meet at equal angles greater than 90°. Opposite arcs are equal in length. The surface of a sphere in Euclidean solid geometry is a non-Euclidean surface in the sense of elliptic geometry. Spherical geometry is the simplest form of elliptic geometry.\n"
] |
How and when did pepperoni become the default topping for pizza in the U.S.? | We've had to remove a number of posts with people sharing what they like on their pizza instead of pepperoni and/or challenging the OP's assumption. Please, if you want to discuss your favorite pizza, that is for another subreddit.
As for the fact that Pepperoni is the default topic, "default" is up for debate, I agree, but I think we can all agree that "most popular" is not a very contentious observation, and supported by [polling on the matter.](_URL_0_) So I would ask that further discussion be focused on pepperoni's popularity in the American pizza business, and not on what *you* like on your pie. Thank you! | [
"Common toppings for pizza in the United States include ground beef, mushrooms, onions, pepperoni, pineapple, garlic, olives, peppers, carrots, tomatoes, spinach, anchovies, chicken, bacon, ham and sausage. Distinct regional types developed in the 20th century, including California, Chicago, Detroit, Greek, New Haven, New York and St. Louis styles. The first pizzeria in the U.S. was opened in New York's Little Italy in 1905 and since then regions throughout the U.S. offer variations, including deep-dish, stuffed, pockets, turnovers, rolled and pizza-on-a-stick, each with seemingly limitless combinations of sauce and toppings.\n",
"According to \"Convenience Store Decisions\", Americans consume 251.7 million pounds of pepperoni annually, on 36% of all pizzas produced nationally. Pepperoni has a tendency to curl up from the edges in the heat of a pizza oven. Some pepperoni is produced in thicker slices, so that the edges curl intentionally.\n",
"The dish is believed to date back to the period between the 1940s and the 1960s. During the American Commonwealth Period, a shortage of tomato supplies in the Second World War forced the local development of the banana ketchup. Spaghetti with Bolognese sauce was introduced by the Americans and was tweaked to suit the local Filipino predilection for sweet dishes.\n",
"The first pizzeria in the United States of America was claimed to have been founded by Gennaro Lombardi in New York City's Little Italy in 1905, though this has recently been debunked by author Peter Regas. An immigrant \"pizzaiolo\" (pizza maker) from Naples, he opened a grocery store in 1897; eight years later, it was licensed to sell pizza by New York State. An employee, Antonio Totonno Pero, began making pizza, which sold for five cents a pie. Many people, however, could not afford a whole pie and instead would offer what they could in return for a corresponding sized slice, which was wrapped in paper tied with string. In 1924, Totonno left Lombardi's to open his own pizzeria on Coney Island, called Totonno's.\n",
"Shakey's Pizza was founded in Sacramento, California, on April 30, 1954, by Sherwood \"Shakey\" Johnson and Ed Plummer. Johnson's nickname resulted from nerve damage following a bout of malaria suffered during World War II. The parlor opened on a weekend, but since the pizza ovens were not yet completed only beer was served. Shakey took the profits from beer sales and bought ingredients for pizza the following Monday.\n",
"Old Town Pizza is a pizzeria established in 1974 and located in the historic Merchant Hotel building in the Old Town Chinatown neighborhood of central Portland, Oregon in the United States. The company has a satellite location located at Vanport Square in Northeast Portland that includes a brewery branded as Old Town Brewing Co. Two days before its March 2012 opening, a fire forced the restaurant to undergo reconstruction for six weeks.\n",
"The origins of grandma pizza can be traced back the early 20th century in Long Island when Italian immigrants from southern Italy would try to replicate some of the food and pizza from their old country with what few ingredients they had available. This eventually morphed into a pizza that would be made at home with simple ingredients in their home kitchens. Due to the humble beginnings and background of the pizza, it was dubbed \"grandma pizza\" since it was rarely made outside of a home kitchen and mainly made by first-generation immigrants. Pizzerias rarely sold this type of pizza.\n"
] |
One of the main requirements of Islam is prayer, and one of the prayers is at dawn. How did people in the time of the prophet Muhammad wake up for prayer on time, considering there were no alarms at all? | There are basically two answers. One is that, at least according to the Hadith, the call to prayer already existed and would have been called out for the dawn prayer. The second answer is that pre-modern sleep practices were very different than our modern concept of one, approximately eight hour long period of uninterrupted sleep. Pre-moderns, including Muhammad, would more frequently have had a "first sleep", followed by a period of awakeness, followed by a "second sleep." This is also referenced in the hadith: _URL_0_
Separately, in lieu of alarm clocks, there were plenty of animals that make noise at dawn: _URL_1_ | [
"Mohammad initially prayed the tarawih, a special Muslim prayers during the month of Ramadan, in congregation but later discontinued this practice out of fear that Muslims would start to believe the prayers to be mandatory, rather than a sunnah. During his Caliphate Umar reinstated the practice of praying \"tarawih\" in congregation as there was no longer any fear of people taking it as something mandatory.\n",
"Tahajjud () prayer is performed at night time, and it is recommended that it be performed after first going to sleep for a part of the night. Scholars have different opinions about whether sleeping first is absolutely required or not. In Saudi Arabia during the fasting month of Ramadan, there are many people who leave the Tarawih prayers in the main masjid in a hurry so that they can go home, go to sleep, and then wake up to perform their Tahajjud prayers in the early morning. Others simply stay in the mosque and perform these optional prayers before going home.\n",
"However, as time passed, the Qur'an continued to grow, and by the time ayat 20 was revealed, the Qur'an was too long to fully recite during the night. Consequently, Allah relaxes his prior command to recite the Qur'an at night. Muhammad is told to pray what is easy for him during the night (“recite as much of the Qur’an is easy for you”), but to continue to pray throughout the day (“keep up the prayer [during the day], pay the prescribed alms, and lend God a good loan).\n",
"According to the history of Islam and the report from Abdullah bn 'Abbas narrated from the Prophet saying that: the permission to perform the Friday prayer was given by Allah before hijrah, but the people were unable to congregate and perform it. The Prophet wrote a note to Mus'ab b. Umair, who represented the Prophet in Madinah to pray to raka'at in congregation on Friday (that is, Jumu'ah). Then, after the migration of the Prophet to Medina, the Jumu'ah was held by him.\n",
"A hadith narrated by Abu Huraira said that Muhammad often recited \"As-Sajda\" together with \"Al-Insan\" (chapter 76 of the Quran) for the early morning prayer (\"fajr\") every Friday. This report also appears in Tafsir ibn Kathir. Another report said that he often recited the chapter before going to sleep.\n",
"Tahajjud (), also known as the \"night prayer\", is a voluntary prayer performed by followers of Islam. It is not one of the five obligatory prayers required of all Muslims, although the Islamic prophet, Muhammad was recorded as performing the tahajjud prayer regularly himself and encouraging his companions too.\n",
"When the prayer time came, the Muslims were worried that the Ghatafan men might descend from their mountain hideout and make a sudden attack on them while they were praying. Apprehending this fear, Muhammad introduced the ‘service of prayer of danger.’ In this system, a party of faithful stands guard while the other party prays. Then they take turns. According to Muslim sources, God revealed the verses 4:101 regarding shortening of a prayer.\n"
] |
how do disinfectants work? | They contain an agent which kills bacteria. In the case of hand-sanitizers, the ingredient is alcohol - specifically, usually, ethanol or isopropanal (there's others too, though). When rubbed onto skin (or surfaces, in the case of other disinfectants) the bacteria are killed. | [
"Disinfectants are antimicrobial agents that are applied to the surface of non-living objects to destroy microorganisms that are living on the objects. Disinfection does not necessarily kill all microorganisms, especially resistant bacterial spores; it is less effective than sterilization, which is an extreme physical and/or chemical process that kills all types of life. Disinfectants are different from other antimicrobial agents such as antibiotics, which destroy microorganisms within the body, and antiseptics, which destroy microorganisms on living tissue. Disinfectants are also different from biocides — the latter are intended to destroy all forms of life, not just microorganisms.\n",
"Disinfection is accomplished both by filtering out harmful micro-organisms and by adding disinfectant chemicals. Water is disinfected to kill any pathogens which pass through the filters and to provide a residual dose of disinfectant to kill or inactivate potentially harmful micro-organisms in the storage and distribution systems. Possible pathogens include viruses, bacteria, including \"Salmonella\", \"Cholera\", \"Campylobacter\" and \"Shigella\", and protozoa, including \"Giardia lamblia\" and other \"cryptosporidia\". After the introduction of any chemical disinfecting agent, the water is usually held in temporary storage – often called a contact tank or clear well – to allow the disinfecting action to complete.\n",
"A perfect disinfectant would also offer complete and full microbiological sterilisation, without harming humans and useful form of life, be inexpensive, and noncorrosive. However, most disinfectants are also, by nature, potentially harmful (even toxic) to humans or animals. Most modern household disinfectants contain Bitrex, an exceptionally bitter substance added to discourage ingestion, as a safety measure. Those that are used indoors should never be mixed with other cleaning products as chemical reactions can occur. The choice of disinfectant to be used depends on the particular situation. Some disinfectants have a wide spectrum (kill many different types of microorganisms), while others kill a smaller range of disease-causing organisms but are preferred for other properties (they may be non-corrosive, non-toxic, or inexpensive).\n",
"Chemical disinfectants are products that kill pathogens. If the product is a disinfectant, the label on the product should say \"disinfectant\" or \"kills\" pathogens. Some commercial products, e.g. bleaches, even though they are technically disinfectants, say that they \"kill pathogens\" but are not actually labelled as \"disinfectants\". Not all disinfectants kill all types of pathogens. All disinfectants kill bacteria (called bactericidal). Some also kill fungi (fungicidal), bacterial spores (sporicidal) or viruses (virucidal).\n",
"Disinfection uses liquid chemicals on surfaces and at room temperature to kill disease causing microorganisms. Ultraviolet light has also been used to disinfect the rooms of patients infected with \"Clostridium difficile\" after discharge. Disinfection is less effective than sterilization because it does not kill bacterial endospores.\n",
"Chemical sterilization, also referred to as cold sterilization, can be used to sterilize instruments that cannot normally be disinfected through the other two processes described above. The items sterilized with cold sterilization are usually those that can be damaged by regular sterilization. Commonly, glutaraldehydes and formaldehyde are used in this process, but in different ways. When using the first type of disinfectant, the instruments are soaked in a 2-4% solution for at least 10 hours while a solution of 8% formaldehyde will sterilize the items in 24 hours or more. Chemical sterilization is generally more expensive than steam sterilization and therefore it is used for instruments that cannot be disinfected otherwise. After the instruments have been soaked in the chemical solutions, they are mandatory to be rinsed with sterile water which will remove the residues from the disinfectants. This is the reason why needles and syringes are not sterilized in this way, as the residues left by the chemical solution that has been used to disinfect them cannot be washed off with water and they may interfere with the administered treatment. Although formaldehyde is less expensive than glutaraldehydes, it is also more irritating to the eyes, skin and respiratory tract and is classified as a potential carcinogen.\n",
"BULLET::::- Disinfectants: Destroy or inactivate microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses,) but may not act as sporicides (as those are the most difficult form to destroy). According to efficacy data, the EPA will classify a disinfectant as limited, general/broad spectrum, or as a hospital disinfectant.\n"
] |
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