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262_0	The Immigration Depot (, ISO: Āpravāsī Ghāta) is a building complex located in Port Louis on the Indian Ocean island of Mauritius, the first British colony to receive indentured, or contracted, labour workforce from many countries. From 1849 to 1923, half a million Indian indentured labourers passed through the Immigration Depot, to be transported to plantations throughout the British Empire. The large-scale migration of the labourers left an indelible mark on the societies of many former British colonies, with Indians constituting a substantial proportion of their national populations. In Mauritius alone, 68 percent of the current total population is of Indian ancestry. The Immigration Depot has thus become an important reference point in the history and cultural identity of Mauritius.
262_1	Unchecked infrastructural development in the mid-20th century means that only the partial remains of three stone buildings from the entire complex have survived. These are now protected as a national monument, under the Mauritian national heritage legislation. The Immigration Depot's role in social history was recognized by UNESCO when it was declared a World Heritage Site in 2006. The site is under the management of the Aapravasi Ghat Trust Fund. Conservation efforts are underway to restore the fragile buildings back to their 1860s state. It is one of two World Heritage Sites in Mauritius, along with Le Morne Brabant. Etymology The word ghat is explained by numerous Dravidian etymons such as Kannada gatta (mountain range) Tamil kattu (side of a mountain, dam, ridge, causeway) and Telugu katta and gattu (dam, embankment).
262_2	Ghat, a term used in the Indian subcontinent, depending on the context could either refer to a range of stepped-hill such as Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats; or the series of steps leading down to a body of water or wharf, such bathing or cremation place along the banks of a river or pond, Ghats in Varanasi, Dhoby Ghaut or Aapravasi Ghat. Roads passing through ghats are called Ghat Roads. Name The name Aapravasi Ghat, which has been in use since 1987, is a direct Hindi translation of "Immigration Depot". Aapravasi is the Hindi word for "immigrant", while ghat literally means "interface"—factually reflecting the structure's position between the land and sea, and symbolically marking a transition between the old life and the new for the arriving indentured immigrants. Alluding to its function as a pit stop to prospective plantation workers, alternatively called coolies, the Immigration Depot has also been known by an older name, the 'Coolie Ghat'.
262_3	The prominent use of the Hindi language in Mauritian naming conventions is based on social and ethnic demographics; over half the national population is of Indian ancestry, a direct result of the Indian labour diaspora that passed through the Immigration Depot. In Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, from where majority of these Indian Labourers where brought,"Ghat" is referred to River Bank which is used for Docking of Boats. Location The Immigration Depot was built on the east side of the sheltered bay of Trou Fanfaron in Port Louis, the Mauritian capital. The historic complex currently consists of the partial remains of three stone buildings dating back to the 1860s, built on the spot of an earlier depot site. It consists of the entrance gateway and a hospital block, remnants of immigration sheds, and vestiges of the service quarters.
262_4	Subsequent land reclamations as a result of urban development have moved the Immigration Depot's location further inland. The Caudan Waterfront, a marina being developed as an economic and tourist centre, is situated beyond the site. History Background The area where the building complex is situated, Trou Fanfaron, was the landing point for the French East India Company, which took possession of Mauritius in 1721. Slaves were imported from Africa, India and Madagascar to construct defensive walls and a hospital during the early phase of settlement. By the mid-18th century, sugar plantations had been developed on the Island of Mauritius, utilizing slave labour.
262_5	In 1810, during the Napoleonic Wars, Mauritius passed to British control, as confirmed in the Treaty of Paris, at a time when the British Empire was expanding its influence in the Indian Ocean region. British commercial interest led to the rise in the production of sugar, which became the most valuable commodity in European trade beginning in the mid-18th century throughout the empire in general, leading to the development of infrastructure for Port Louis as a free port in particular.
262_6	The abolition of slavery in European colonies in 1834, however, posed a problem for sugar plantations as their operations were highly dependent on slave labour. There was a demand for cheaper intensive labour, as the now emancipated slaves were negotiating for higher wages and better living conditions. As a result, the British government conceived of a plan to replace the emancipated Africans with labourers from other parts of the world. The first wave of new plantation workers were labourers from the Portuguese island of Madeira, freed African-Americans from the U.S. and impoverished Chinese seeking greener pastures. Even though the ethnicity of the plantation workers had changed, the poor working conditions and low living standards remained. These labourers, in the end, could not withstand the manioc root and subsistence cultivation.
262_7	At the time, India had been experiencing a depressed economy. This was further aggravated by the Indian Rebellion of 1857 which devastated the northern part of the subcontinent. The hard-working but indigent Indians seemed suited to agricultural labour on the plantations, able to work hard for low wages, providing a potentially massive source of cheap labour. The 'Great Experiment', as the indentured program came to be known, called for these prospective labourers, under a contract labour scheme, to be transported to plantations across the empire to supply the necessary agricultural manpower. This was a system whereby the prospective labourers agreed to work for a determined period of time in return for their cost of passage, basic accommodation and a small wage.
262_8	Indentured laborers in Mauritius Mauritius became the focus of the Great Experiment, as its plantation economy was still in a state of expansion, hence with room for agricultural flexibility, in contrast to those of the West Indies, which were considered exhausted. The long term planning needed in agriculture meant that plantations were generally unable to respond to the sudden market changes. When the sugar beet proved to be a viable and cheaper alternative to the sugar cane, the established sugar plantations throughout the Caribbean became economic liabilities, while thousands of their contracted workers and slaves were left to wallow. In addition, the island's proximity to India was also an advantage.
262_9	From 1834 to 1849, when the first migrations of indentured labourers began, no fixed depot had been established to accommodate the immigrants arriving in Port Louis. The thousands of migrants arriving annually put a stress on the lack of a specialized facility. In 1849, a building dating back to the French administration in the Trou Fanfaron area was chosen as the core of a planned structural complex that would become the permanent depot for immigration. The Immigration Depot, as it came to be known, was continuously enlarged in response to the high number of migrants. This lasted until 1857, when all the available land had been occupied. The adequate space allowed the facility to deal with as much as 1,000 prospective laborers at any one time. Further modifications, for the purpose of service convenience, hygiene and transport, were continuously done. However, the competition from beet sugar caught up with Mauritius's sugar cane estates. The spread of a malaria epidemic in the 1860s
262_10	further drove shipping away from the colony, leading to a decline of indentured immigration, culminating in 1923, when it had completely ceased. By then, an estimated 450,000 indentured labourers from India had passed through the Immigration Depot throughout its existence.
262_11	State of preservation and protection The end of indentured immigration meant that the Immigration Depot had served its purpose. After 1923, the buildings were put to other uses. The structures remained extant until the 1970s, when the construction of a bus station and a corresponding motorway led to the demolition of some of the buildings.
262_12	A renewed interest on the site's importance in the 1980s was sparked by the visit to the site by the late Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1970. This led to the protection of the complex's remains as a national monument in 1987, through the national heritage legislation. A landscape project over a part of the site and a series of restoration works were initiated in the 1990s. The lack of a formal conservation plan or a methodical archaeological approach have call into question the site's historic authenticity. 2001 was a landmark year for the site. The Aapravasi Ghat Trust Fund was established to manage the site directly. Its responsibilities include overseeing the excavations and implementing corrective actions on restorations that were haphazardly done since the 1990s. Among the previous preservation works that are being reversed are the landscape project, the hospital building's roof installation, which unfortunately used modern materials, the use of native lime mortar
262_13	technique in the reconstruction and maintenance of the remaining stone walls, and devising an archaeological strategy to document finds and discoveries, as well as to safeguard the existing artifacts. The objective of the conservation efforts is for the site to regain its appearance in the 1860s. The site's name was officially changed to Aapravasi Ghat that same year. The name change was not without controversy. Although it was meant to reflect the Hindu Indian majority of indentured labourers, the use of the Hindi translation swept away the myriad of other ethnic and religious populations that also passed through the Immigration Depot.
262_14	Facilities The uncontrolled urban development after the abolition of the indentured system and the late initiative to conserve the site in late 20th century meant that only the partial remains of the place have survived. From the complex founded in 1849, experts estimate that only about 15% still authentically exists today. However, records of the building plan and photographs, as well as recent archaeological evidence, allow for the precise reconstruction of the complex.
262_15	Immigrants arriving via the "coolie ships" on the wharf of Trou Fanfaron were led to the Immigration Depot via a series of 14 stone steps, which are presently intact. The walls protecting the wharf along the waterfront are made from a mosaic of dressed stones, as a result of continuous reconstruction over a long period of time. Land reclamations carried out over time to develop the Trou Fanfaron harbor have rendered the historic wharf unusable. The stone steps' direct access to the sea, the first parts of the Immigration Depot seen by arriving migrants, has become part of history.
262_16	Beyond the stone steps is the building complex, which was centred on a yard. The buildings had characteristic French clay tile roofing, the better to provide insulation and ventilation, and bitumen flooring. Continuous site improvements to accommodate the high number of migrants were carried out, including the installation of planked walls as room dividers by the late 1850s. By 1865, transportation needs led to the construction of a railway, cutting the Immigration Depot into two. Walls were constructed along the track.
262_17	The still standing stone-arched gateway, also constructed in 1865, greeted the migrants when they entered the complex. Adjoining the structure is a hospital building, consisting of seven rooms that accommodated the staff, including a guard's room, kitchen, surgery room and staff privies. Of these, only the gatekeeper's office and surgery room have survived, while archaeological remains of the kitchen and privies have been found. The remnant of the hospital building received a new roof installation in 2000. The use of modern materials however has been questioned by preservation groups.
262_18	The migrants also had an immigration shed, where they stayed for up to three days after arrival before being distributed to the respective local sugar estates or being transported to other colonies. The quarter includes a kitchen, while the immigrants' privies are located on a separate service quarter, together with the bathing area. A standing stone wall provides the only mute testimony to the existence of the immigrant shed. Legacy Mauritius's sugar industry Mauritius's local sugar plantations, economically devastated by the emancipation of the slaves, were given a new lifeline with the establishment of the Immigration Depot. The high number of indentured labourers passing through the facility, to be transported to the various territories of the British Empire, proved to be an endless supply stream of cheap labour. In the period of 1834–60, 290,000 Indian labourers arrived.
262_19	The pool of labour proved to be so large that, for the next 67 years, indentured contracts were limited to only one year. This sugar revolution led to an increase in volume production, making Mauritius the most important sugar-producing British colony, its sugar export accounting for 7.4 percent of the world's total production by the 1850s.
262_20	Mauritius's dependence on its sugar estates to sustain its economy continued into the early 20th century. The economy prospered during World War I, when supply shortages led to the rise in the market price of sugar. The eventual fall in the price of sugar in the 1930s due to the Depression, the mono-crop agricultural industry and the abolition of the indentured labor system have made the Mauritian economy vulnerable, which culminated in labour unrests in 1937. World War II further aggravated the situation. Hence, economic reforms were carried out to diversify agricultural production and develop other industries beginning in 1945. In the mid-1990s, the agricultural sector only accounted for one-eighth of the country's gross national product, although sugar production still generates one-third of Mauritius's export earnings, and occupies about 80 percent of the total arable land. The global system of indentured laborers
262_21	Mauritius was not the pioneering site for the use of indentured labour. In the 17th century, substantial numbers of indentured servants, of European origin, arrived in America, in what were then the Thirteen Colonies. By the 18th century, it has been estimated that over half of the population of white immigrants in the British colonies of North America may have been indentured servants. However, the scale of the system that was put into operation in Mauritius was unprecedented. It immediately spread throughout the colonies of the British Empire, and was imitated by other European powers, while the Indian labor force was also employed beyond the sugarcane fields, in such workplaces as mines and even railways.
262_22	The global system of indentured labourers was abolished in 1918, although in Mauritius, the Immigration Depot still continued operating until 1923. By then, the Great Experiment had seen the transportation of an estimated two million people throughout the world, with Mauritius welcoming the largest contingent of indentured labourers, reaching nearly half a million Indian immigrants. In total, 1.2 million Indian migrants were handled by emigration depots worldwide, becoming the global working class of the British Empire. On a larger picture, the migration of indentured labourers is but a small portion of the Indian diaspora, which has continued through the 20th century to contemporary times. It is estimated that up to 20 million Indians have emigrated from their homeland, making it the largest diaspora in modern times.
262_23	Thus, the Immigration Depot is considered to be the site where the modern, large-scale indentured labour diaspora began—the system didn't only sustain the plantation economies of the British Empire, but also resulted in the transplantation of cultures and shaping of the national identity of former colonies. Countries from the Caribbean to southern Africa to the Pacific currently have substantial Indian populations. The Mauritian and French poet Khal Torabully, in exploring the mosaic of cultures brought about by the indentured labourers, coined the term "coolitude," re-defining the migration of laborers not just as part of the historical past, but the entanglement of experiences and mosaic imaginaries:
262_24	The indentured system also left a sizeable documentary heritage. A comprehensive record was kept of immigrants, from the contracts signed, their photographs, the transportation cost, the accommodation spending and the final destination of labourers. These registers are currently being managed by the Indian Immigration Archives, which is directly administered by the Mahatma Gandhi Institute, an educational institution established in Mauritius, in cooperation with India. UNESCO, the international organization responsible for the preservation and protection the world's cultural and natural heritage, has recognized the 1,640 m2 site of the Immigration Depot for its outstanding universal importance. It was proclaimed as a World Heritage Site in 2006, citing the buildings as among the earliest explicit manifestations of what was to become a global economic system and one of the greatest migrations in history. The Mauritian society
262_25	The majority of Indian workers arriving at the Immigration Depot came from the northern part of the subcontinent, corresponding to the present states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The region was then in turmoil following the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Smaller numbers of migrants came from Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. The Indian migrants that passed through the island have left a distinct mark on the Mauritian society. In 1835, a year after the Great Experiment was implemented, Indians constituted less than four percent of Mauritius's population. However, the steady trickle of labourers changed the demographic face of the colony so that, by 1860, Indians made up more than 66 percent of the population. The colony received such a high proportion of the Indian diaspora that historians have noted the dramatic way the local demography had been altered over such a short period of time, more than in any other sugar-producing British territories. No other indentured migration has so definitely
262_26	shaped the future of a nation as the movement of Indian workers to Mauritius, with the result of around half a million Indians settling on the island. Today, up to 1.22 million Mauritians, or 68 percent of the national population, have Indian ancestry, called Indo-Mauritians. This Indian heritage, however, had been extant even before the indentured system began, with merchants from the subcontinent, together with Chinese counterparts, settling on the island. In 1806, when Mauritius was still under the French administration, official statistics showed that there were already 6,162 Indians living on the island, in the eastern suburb of Port Louis, known as Camp des Malabars.
262_27	Beginning in the 1840s, the emancipated labourers, or those with concluded contracts, were able to save money and buy their own lands, mostly outside the rural sugar estates, permanently settling in Mauritius. The increasing number of these freed labourers preferring to stay in the colony gave rise to a new class of rural Indian peasantry. Their limited skills meant that they engaged in small-scale crop cultivation to earn a living, while others were able to work as traders or hawkers. The class of rural Indians gained in importance as the sugar industry moved into the 20th century. The struggling sugar barons sold portions of their properties to the Indian merchants in what became known as the Great Morcellement Movement. Thus, the Indians, or Indo-Mauritians, became the first non-whites to own lands in the colony.
262_28	By the 1920s, the properties of Indo-Mauritians had already accounted for 40 percent of Mauritius's arable lands. They eventually took control of a substantial part of the agricultural economy, leading to the growth of rural villages and giving rise to a bourgeoisie that would continue to influence to island's post-colonial politics. Meanwhile, the second-generation Indian immigrants, who were exposed to the cultures of foreign land and were more attuned to British policies, were able to work beyond the agricultural sector. These Western-educated skilled professionals were employed by the British in the Colonial Service. In the British territories bordering the Indian Ocean, they took up a large share of the clerical positions in the bureaucracy. Slowly making their way up, many had achieved respectable positions by the beginning of the 20th century.
262_29	Beyond politics, the settlement of Indian migrants on the island resulted in a melting pot of culture, intermixing with African, Chinese, Creole, and European influences. The celebration of Hindu festivals has become part of the Mauritian calendar. A religious Hindu ceremony is held annually on the second day of November, a national holiday to commemorate the arrival of indentured laborers at the Immigration Depot to honor the (Hindi for "ship-mates", or "ship-brother") spirits. The lake of Grand Bassin, also known as Ganga Talao, located in the center of the island has become an object of sacred pilgrimage by the Indo-Mauritians professing their Hindu faith. The Mauritian style of architecture, using lime mortar, consisting of a mixture of yogurt, egg white, butter and sesame oil, as a binding material for stone structures, also has an Indian origin. This same method of construction is being utilized by the Aapravasi Ghat Trust Fund to conserve the remnants of the Immigration Depot
262_30	complex.
262_31	See also History of Mauritius Culture of Mauritius Non-resident Indian and Person of Indian Origin Indentured servants Coolies References External links Aapravasi Ghat World Heritage Site Coolitude and the symbolism of the Aapravasi ghat The aapravasi ghat (in French) En ce cinquième anniversare du Ghat, une belle expérience de l'humanisme du Divers World Heritage Sites in Mauritius History of Mauritius Government buildings in Mauritius Government buildings completed in 1849 Human migration Indian diaspora in Mauritius 1849 establishments in the British Empire Buildings and structures in Port Louis
263_0	One of the major depositional strata in the Himalaya is the Lesser Himalayan Strata from the Paleozoic to Mesozoic eras. It had a quite different marine succession during the Paleozoic, as most parts of it are sparsely fossiliferous or even devoid of any well-defined fossils. Moreover, it consists of many varied lithofacies, making correlation work more difficult. This article describes the major formations of the Paleozoic – Mesozoic Lesser Himalayan Strata, including the Tal Formation, Gondwana Strata, Singtali Formation and Subathu Formation.
263_1	Geological background The Himalayan mountain chain is a fold and thrust belt that can be divided into four units bounded by thrusts from south to north: the Sub-Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya, Greater Himalaya and Tethyan Himalaya. The Lesser Himalayan Zone has a lower relief and elevation of the mountains compared to Greater Himalaya. The Lesser Himalaya Sequence (LHS) is bounded by two main thrusts: the Main Central Thrust (MCT) in the north and the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) in the south.
263_2	The main layers of the LHS includes non-fossiliferous, low-grade, metasedimentary rocks, metavolcanic strata and augen gneiss. These have been dated as an age ranging from 1870 Ma to 520 Ma (i.e. Proterozoic to Cambrian). Near the end of the Early Cambrian, there was a regional diastrophism (i.e. deformation of the Earth's crust) or crustal movement that heaved up the Indian subcontinent, interrupting the sedimentation in the Lesser Himalaya and causing a widespread unconformity in Nepal. This is known as the Great Lesser Himalayan Unconformity, which separates the older LHS from the overlying younger LHS that has an age of Permian to Middle Eocene.
263_3	During the Paleozoic and Mesozoic, the LHS starts from the basal Tal Formation, which is part of the Outer Lesser Himalayan sequence in the Garhwal Himalaya. The Tal was deposited between the period of the Late Proterozoic to Palaeozoic Cambrian. After that, there was a great hiatus between the Middle Proterozoic rocks and the overlying Palaeocene-Eocene strata. This indicates that the LHS experienced a long period of denudation or non-deposition in the Western Himalaya (e.g. in the Jumla area), resulting in missing Gondwana Strata in Jumla during the Mesozoic (see more in the table of "Gondwana Strata of LHS in Western and Central Nepal"). In the Central and Eastern Himalaya, Gondwana strata from the Permian to Paleocene were preserved unconformably onto the older LHS. The next succession of the LHS in the Garhwal Himalaya comes to the Singtali Formation, which was deposited from the Late Cretaceous to Palaeocene, followed by the Subathu Formation, which was deposited from the Late
263_4	Palaeocene to Middle Eocene, marking the start of Cenozoic Era.
263_5	Table showing the major formations discussed in the following sections: Tal Formation The Tal Formation belongs to the Mussoorie Group of Outer Lesser Himalaya of Garhwal in northwestern India. It is well exposed along the Krol Belt, and is overlying the Precambrian Krol Group. The Tal in the Mussoorie Synform can be divided into the Lower Tal and Upper Tal. For the Lower Tal, there are four subdivisions: the Chert, Argillaceous, Arenaceous and Calcareous Units. The basal black shale succession with sandy limestone represents a depositional environment of a protected lagoon or embayment, while the overlying siltstone is deposited in a mud flat of an intertidal zone.
263_6	The Upper Tal can be subdivided into lower quartzitic sequence and upper thick calcareous sequence containing abundant fragmentary shells of bivalves, gastropods, bryozoa, etc. The Phulchatti quartzite succession represents the deposits of a shoal environment, while the uppermost shell limestone sequence indicates an increasing energy of the shallow tidal sea, and a marine transgression in the Cretaceous. There is an increase of energy for deposition from the Lower Tal to the Upper Tal. Because of the lack of well-defined body fossils in the Tal, it has been proposed that the deposits of the Tal were formed in the Late Precambrian near Precambrian-Cambrian transition, except for the uppermost Manikot Shell Limestone, which has been proposed to have been formed in the Late Cretaceous and unconformably overlain by the Subathu Formation in the Tal Valley, Garhwal Himayala. The details of lithologies and depositional environment of Tal Formation are shown in the table below:
263_7	Gondwana strata Gondwana strata are not exposed in the Garhwal Himalaya after the Tal Formation owing to the great hiatus; some outcrops can be found in Central and Eastern Himalaya during Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic times. Central Himalaya – Central and Western Nepal
263_8	In Nepal, the older LHS with age ranging from the Paleoproterozoic to uppermost Precambrian are separated from the younger LHS by the Great Lesser Himalayan Unconformity. Missing Early Proterozoic strata of the LHS suggest that the rocks may have been eroded before the deposition of the Gondwana strata. Younger continental facies Gondwana strata were first deposited after the unconformity. They are then unconformably overlain by a marine facies Tertiary Unit. The Gondwana strata are mainly developed within two zones in Nepal in the central Himalaya. The first is in central Nepal, where several outcrops of the Tansen Group can be found. The second is in western Nepal, where the Gondwana strata are exposed in the Jumla–Humla basins near the Tethyan Himalaya.
263_9	The Tansen area contains Gondwana sediments that are identified by the presence of fossils. Two major formation can be found there. They are older Sisne Formation (or the Lower Gondwanas) and younger Taltung and Amile formations (or the Upper Gondwanas). The Sisne Formation is dominated by glacial diamictite and fluvial deposits. In the upper part of the formation, shales are found to contain fenstellid bryozoan fossils, indicating that the Lower Gondwanas in central Nepal dates from the Late Carboniferous to the Permian.
263_10	The Upper Gondwanas are further subdivided into the Taltung and Amile formations. The Taltung Formation is characterised by coarse-grained, volcaniclastic conglomerates, sandstones and silty shales. They were deposited by northwestward-flowing fluvial channels. Abundant plant fossils are found in the Taltung Formation, and they are dated to the Late Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous. The Amile Formation is unconformably overlying the Taltung Formation. It is dominated by white quartz arenites, quartz pebble sandstones, carbonaceous shales and limestones with coral, mollusc and vertebrate fossils. In the upper part of the formation, an abrupt change of lithology from thick, coarse-grained quartzose sandstones to interbedded layers of black marine shales and fine-grained quartzose sandstones are observed. This is probably the contact between the Upper Amile Formation and the overlying Bhainskati Formation of the Tertiary Unit. The Amile Formation is dated to the Early Cretaceous to Early
263_11	Paleocene, while the Bhainskati Formation is biostratigraphically dated as from the Middle to Late Eocene.
263_12	In the Jumla area of western Nepal, Gondwana strata unconformably overly the caronbate rocks of the Uppermost Nawakot Unit of Mesoproterozoic age. The Gondwanas here are characterized by quartzose sandstones, black shales, quartz pebble conglomerates as well as coal and lignite. They are dated as Jurassic to Paleocene. The lithology of Gondwanas here is quite similar to that of the Amile Formation in central Nepal. Also, the Gondwana Unit is overlain by the Bhainskati Formation of the Tertiary Unit, similar to the situation in central Nepal.
263_13	However, in fact, the Gondwana Unit is not very well developed in the Jumla area. The strata with lithology similar to that of the Taltung Formation and Lower Gondwanas are missing here. In other words, the LHS in the Jumla area is lacking a part of the Gondwana Unit of age ranging from Late Carboniferous-Permian to Early Cretaceous. This is probably due to a greater effect by the Great Lesser Himalayan Unconformity in the Jumla area than in the Tansen area. Eastern Himalaya – Bhutan Compared with Nepal, the Gondwana strata are exposed in a relatively smaller area in Bhutan. In southeastern Bhutan, the basal LHS begins with the metamorphic Daling-Shumar Group, followed by the Baxa Group that is characterized by quartzite, phyllite and dolomite succession of Neoproterozoic to probably Cambrian age. The bottom of the Gondwana Units (Diuri Formation) is then directly overlying the Baxa Group.
263_14	Generally, there are three main formations of Gondwana Units exposed in southeastern Bhutan. The bottom one is the Diuri Formation with Proterozoic to Permian ages. It consists of conglomerate, quartzite, phyllite as well as diamictite with interbedded slates. At the base of this formation, pebbles are composed of quartzite and siliceous dolomite. They are embedded in a fine quartzite matrix. The thicker beds of slate and phyllite are overlying the conglomerate layers. Clear schistosity can be observed. The diamictite found implies a source of glacial origin. It is probably correlated to the glaciation event of the Gondwana supercontinent during the Late Paleozoic.
263_15	The Diuri Formation is then overlain by the Setikhola Formation, which is characterized by feldspathic sandstone, shale, graywacke, coal lenses and plant fossils. One sequence consists of interbedding of sandstone and shale and is intensely bioturbated with flames structures observed as well. This indicates a depositional environment of beach or mudflat. Also, another sequence of interbedding calcareous greywacke and carbonaceous shale is found. Ripples and cross-laminae can be observed on the greywacke, while small-scaled sun cracks and slump folds can be seen on shale. It is proposed that this sequence has a depositional environment of semi-isolated basin. The marine fossils contained here indicate a Permian age of the Setikhola Formation.
263_16	The uppermost Gondwana unit is the Damudas Sub-Group, which is characterized by arenite, shale, slate and black coal beds. In fact, the Setikhola Formation and Damudas Sub-Group are together termed as the Gondwana succession. The bedrock of the Damudas Sub-Group is made up of gritty, micaceous and cross-laminated sandstones. These friable sandstone layers are interbedded with coal beds that have been sheared and crushed. Abundant plant fossils like fern leaves can be found on the carbonaceous shale, characterising the Damuda coalfields and indicating a Permian age. Generally, the strata here are lenticular and display a fining-upwards sequence. In tectonic context, it is proposed that the Gondwana strata here have experienced post—Gondwana orogenic movements, resulting in folded rocks followed by overturned beddings.
263_17	Singtali and Subathu formations Following a sedimentary break or unconformity, the Singtali and Subathu formations were deposited as foreland basin sediments in the Garhwal Outer Lesser Himalaya during the Late Cretaceous to Middle Palaeocene. Both formations can be found overlying the Tal Formation in an extremely complex structural setting including isoclinal overturned folding and multiple thrusting events. In addition, with the similarities of the lithology as well as depositional environment, it is sometimes quite difficult to distinguish between the Singtali and Subathu Formations. The main difference discussed in the following is related to the tectonic events during their deposition.
263_18	Singtali Formation The Singtali Formation belongs to the Sirmur Group of the Outer Lesser Himalaya of Garhwal. It is also called "Upper Tal" as the uppermost Manikot Shell Limestone, however, this formation is distinct from the basement Tal Formation upon which it rests unconformably. Its main lithology is dominated by sandy, oolitic and shelly limestones with subordinate quartz arenites. Medium-bedded massive strata are predominant and no sedimentary structures are visible. The Singtali Formation has been assigned as a Late Cretaceous-Palaeocene age based on faunal evidence. In terms of depositional environment, the dominance of limestone in the Singtali Formation and sparse fauna would imply shallow marine conditions at that time. A high-energy, agitated environment can be inferred from the presence of ooids.
263_19	Subathu Formation or Group
263_20	The Subathu Formation also belongs to the Sirmur Group of the Outer Lesser Himalaya of Garhwal. In 2020 literature it is referred to as Subathu Group. It is a sequence of limestones, green mudrocks and subordinate sandstones, and has been paleontologically dated as from Late Palaeocene to Middle Eocene. The rocks are rich in fossils. The limestones with normal marine fauna and thick mudstones with well preserved, burrowing-type molluscs indicate a quiet, relatively shallow shelf environment during the period of deposition. This depositional environment is similar to that of the Singtali Formation. The Subathu contains the oldest Himalayan foreland basin rocks. Near the Krol and Garhwal thrusts in northeastern India, the Subathu Formation exists as a narrow and discontinuous strip, indicating that it has experienced extremely high tectonic shearing and shattering as a result of overthrusting of rocks. Consequently, the Subathu Formation is only partially preserved in the Krol nappe and
263_21	under the Garhwal thrust, and unconformably overlies the Tal Formation.
263_22	Distinctions between the Singtali and Subathu Formations In the Singtali Formation times (Late Cretaceous-Palaeocene), the Indian craton submerged and stable shallow marine conditions ensued. This event is possibly related to flexure, such that the Spontang ophiolite was obducted onto the Northern Indian Plate margin. One more possible explanation is related to extensional tectonics, such that India has drifted and detached from Gondwana, and northwards subduction of the Neotethys (Tethys Ocean) beneath Asia occurred. Therefore, the Singtali Formation has been interpreted as pre-collisional transgressive sediments, at the same time there was a global eustatic sea level rise during the Late Cretaceous.
263_23	The tectonic setting of the Subathu Formation is different from that of the Singtali Formation. It was deposited during the suturing of India and Eurasia, between the initial and terminal continental collision. The inferred pattern of northward shallowing and reduced sedimentation conflicts with classic foreland basin models. However, these depositional patterns may reflect basement fault reactivation, giving rise to paleohighs, rather than simply crustal loading following on from the collision. Their individual tectonic significance related to foreland basin evolution are discussed in greater detail in the next section. The general similarities and differences between the Singtali and Subathu formations are shown in the table below: Geological significance during Paleozoic to Mesozoic times
263_24	Gondwana strata In the Nepal Himalaya, the Lower Gondwana glacial diamictite is unconformably overlain by the fluvial Taltung Formation (Upper Gondwana), which contains abundant plant fossils distributed widely within the Tansen area. Alkali basalt lava flows are interbedded with the fluvial beds in the Lower Taltung. Gravelly braided river facies are shown in the Lower Taltung while silty meandering river facies are displayed in the Upper Taltung, as a result, the sequence is fining upwards. The strata were deposited in a terrestrial basin on Gondwana.
263_25	Because of the appearance of glacial diamictite and index plant fossils found in the Lower and Upper Gondwanas respectively, it has been proposed that the Lesser Himalaya had been a part of Gondwanaland during the Permian to Cretaceous. Later on, the presence of basaltic lava flows indicate a tectonic setting related to basaltic volcanism as the volcanic clasts were derived from the underlying lava and transported by rivers from Gondwana land. The interbedding layers of fluvial sediments and basaltic lava bands imply that there was repeated occurrence of basaltic eruption and erosion and sedimentation of fluvial deposits alternatively. These events were probably caused by breaking up and rifting of Gondwanaland during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous.
263_26	The whole sequence of Upper Gondwanas (including both the Taltung and Amile Formations) represents non-marine deposition. Data from the paleocurrent direction show that the sediments were derived from the south, because the Indian subcontinent was drifting northwards towards the Lesser Himalaya. After that, the Bhainskati Formation was deposited in shallow marine environment. The upper Bhainskati has been found to have been deposited in a brackish or fresh water environment, indicating a gradual and minor regression period. The regression phase was probably initiated by the sea level change in the northern Neotethys. However, overall there were no significant changes in tectonic setting during the Early Cretaceous to Early Paleocene. In fact, the Bhainskati Formation is correlated to the Subathu Formation in the Garhwal Himalaya. The deposition of these marine facies in a shallow marine environment is associated with the foreland basin development.
263_27	Tectonic events related to Singtali Formation
263_28	The Early Tertiary geology of the Indian Lesser Himalaya conforms well with the classic foreland basin model. In Late Cretaceous times, this area of the northern region of the Indian Plate finally became submerged after a long period when sub-aerial conditions had dominated. This resulted in deposition of the marine Singtali Formation. A possible explanation for this event is that ophiolites such as the Spontang ophiolite were obducted onto the Indian Plate Zanskar continental shelf in the Campanian or Maastrichtian, resulting in downward displacement and flexure of the Indian Plate hundreds of kilometres to the south. Moreover, it has been proposed that the marine transgression is related to extensional tectonic setting, such that the Late Albian has detached from India and has started to drift from the Gondwana supercontinent, Also, the Neotethys has subducted northwards beneath Asia. This event is accompanied with the Late Cretaceous global eustatic sea-level high stand as well.
263_29	Tectonic events related to Subathu Formation The initial contact between India and Eurasia have taken place at 62 – 60 Ma in the northwestern Himalayas, with terminal collision culminating by 55 Ma in the east. The Subathu Formation rocks were deposited during the suturing and initial collision of India and Eurasia. However, the western intermediate structural level localities show a much thinner Subathu marine sequence compared to the eastern intermediate structural level localities and the lowest structural level. The thickness variations between the west and the east could be explained by the progressive suturing of India and Eurasia from northwest to east, with later suturing in the east allowing a longer period where marine conditions could predominate.
263_30	This progressive suturing, however, would not explain the thickness difference between the lowest and intermediate structural levels. As the intermediate structural level restores further to the north than the lower structural level, northward shallowing of the basin (i.e. towards the load) is implied. This is different from the theoretical model, where the depocentre is close to the load and shallows towards the craton. In the Lesser Himalayan early foreland basin, palaeohighs, which are resulted from basement fault reactivation, may have been located in the west between the load to the north and the marine Subathu basin to the south. This would result in shallowing towards, and reduced sedimentation on the palaeohigh, which coupled with the probable distal nature of the basin, therefore, explaining the thin sequences of the western intermediate structural level localities.
263_31	After suturing, fluvial facies are overlying the marine Subathu Formation. It is associated with the uplift of HImalaya and regression of sea in the Late Eocene. See also Geology of the Himalaya Geology of Nepal Himalayan foreland basin References Geology of the Himalaya Geologic formations of Asia Geologic formations of India Geologic formations of Pakistan Geology of Bhutan Geology of Nepal
264_0	A cross compiler is a compiler capable of creating executable code for a platform other than the one on which the compiler is running. For example, a compiler that runs on a PC but generates code that runs on Android smartphone is a cross compiler. A cross compiler is necessary to compile code for multiple platforms from one development host. Direct compilation on the target platform might be infeasible, for example on embedded systems with limited computing resources. Cross compilers are distinct from source-to-source compilers. A cross compiler is for cross-platform software generation of machine code, while a source-to-source compiler translates from one programming language to another in text code. Both are programming tools.
264_1	Use The fundamental use of a cross compiler is to separate the build environment from target environment. This is useful in several situations: Embedded computers where a device has extremely limited resources. For example, a microwave oven will have an extremely small computer to read its keypad and door sensor, provide output to a digital display and speaker, and to control the machinery for cooking food. This computer is generally not powerful enough to run a compiler, a file system, or a development environment. Compiling for multiple machines. For example, a company may wish to support several different versions of an operating system or to support several different operating systems. By using a cross compiler, a single build environment can be set up to compile for each of these targets.
264_2	Compiling on a server farm. Similar to compiling for multiple machines, a complicated build that involves many compile operations can be executed across any machine that is free, regardless of its underlying hardware or the operating system version that it is running. Bootstrapping to a new platform. When developing software for a new platform, or the emulator of a future platform, one uses a cross compiler to compile necessary tools such as the operating system and a native compiler. Compiling native code for emulators for older now-obsolete platforms like the Commodore 64 or Apple II by enthusiasts who use cross compilers that run on a current platform (such as Aztec C's MS-DOS 6502 cross compilers running under Windows XP).
264_3	Use of virtual machines (such as Java's JVM) resolves some of the reasons for which cross compilers were developed. The virtual machine paradigm allows the same compiler output to be used across multiple target systems, although this is not always ideal because virtual machines are often slower and the compiled program can only be run on computers with that virtual machine. Typically the hardware architecture differs (e.g. compiling a program destined for the MIPS architecture on an x86 computer) but cross-compilation is also applicable when only the operating system environment differs, as when compiling a FreeBSD program under Linux, or even just the system library, as when compiling programs with uClibc on a glibc host.
264_4	Canadian Cross The Canadian Cross is a technique for building cross compilers for other machines, where the original machine is much slower or less convenient than the target. Given three machines A, B, and C, one uses machine A (e.g. running Windows XP on an IA-32 processor) to build a cross compiler that runs on machine B (e.g. running Mac OS X on an x86-64 processor) to create executables for machine C (e.g. running Android on an ARM processor). The practical advantage in this example is that Machine A is slow but has a proprietary compiler, while Machine B is fast but has no compiler at all, and Machine C is impractically slow to be used for compilation.
264_5	When using the Canadian Cross with GCC, and as in this example, there may be four compilers involved The proprietary native Compiler for machine A (1) (e.g. compiler from Microsoft Visual Studio) is used to build the gcc native compiler for machine A (2). The gcc native compiler for machine A (2) is used to build the gcc cross compiler from machine A to machine B (3) The gcc cross compiler from machine A to machine B (3) is used to build the gcc cross compiler from machine B to machine C (4) The end-result cross compiler (4) will not be able to run on build machine A; instead it would run on machine B to compile an application into executable code that would then be copied to machine C and executed on machine C. For instance, NetBSD provides a POSIX Unix shell script named build.sh which will first build its own toolchain with the host's compiler; this, in turn, will be used to build the cross compiler which will be used to build the whole system.
264_6	The term Canadian Cross came about because at the time that these issues were under discussion, Canada had three national political parties. Timeline of early cross compilers 1979 – ALGOL 68C generated ZCODE; this aided porting the compiler and other ALGOL 68 applications to alternate platforms. To compile the ALGOL 68C compiler required about 120 KB of memory. With Z80 its 64 KB memory is too small to actually compile the compiler. So for the Z80 the compiler itself had to be cross compiled from the larger CAP capability computer or an IBM System/370 mainframe. GCC and cross compilation GCC, a free software collection of compilers, can be set up to cross compile. It supports many platforms and languages.
264_7	GCC requires that a compiled copy of binutils be available for each targeted platform. Especially important is the GNU Assembler. Therefore, binutils first has to be compiled correctly with the switch --target=some-target sent to the configure script. GCC also has to be configured with the same --target option. GCC can then be run normally provided that the tools, which binutils creates, are available in the path, which can be done using the following (on UNIX-like operating systems with bash): PATH=/path/to/binutils/bin:${PATH} make Cross-compiling GCC requires that a portion of the target platform'''s C standard library be available on the host platform. The programmer may choose to compile the full C library, but this choice could be unreliable. The alternative is to use newlib, which is a small C library containing only the most essential components required to compile C source code.
264_8	The GNU autotools packages (i.e. autoconf, automake, and libtool) use the notion of a build platform, a host platform, and a target platform. The build platform is where the compiler is actually compiled. In most cases, build should be left undefined (it will default from host). The host platform is always where the output artifacts from the compiler will be executed whether the output is another compiler or not. The target platform is used when cross-compiling cross compilers, it represents what type of object code the package itself will produce; otherwise the target platform setting is irrelevant. For example, consider cross-compiling a video game that will run on a Dreamcast. The machine where the game is compiled is the build platform while the Dreamcast is the host platform. The names host and target are relative to the compiler being used and shifted like son and grandson''.
264_9	Another method popularly used by embedded Linux developers involves the combination of GCC compilers with specialized sandboxes like Scratchbox, scratchbox2, or PRoot. These tools create a "chrooted" sandbox where the programmer can build up necessary tools, libc, and libraries without having to set extra paths. Facilities are also provided to "deceive" the runtime so that it "believes" it is actually running on the intended target CPU (such as an ARM architecture); this allows configuration scripts and the like to run without error. Scratchbox runs more slowly by comparison to "non-chrooted" methods, and most tools that are on the host must be moved into Scratchbox to function. Manx Aztec C cross compilers Manx Software Systems, of Shrewsbury, New Jersey, produced C compilers beginning in the 1980s targeted at professional developers for a variety of platforms up to and including PCs and Macs.
264_10	Manx's Aztec C programming language was available for a variety of platforms including MS-DOS, Apple II, DOS 3.3 and ProDOS, Commodore 64, Macintosh 68XXX and Amiga. From the 1980s and continuing throughout the 1990s until Manx Software Systems disappeared, the MS-DOS version of Aztec C was offered both as a native mode compiler or as a cross compiler for other platforms with different processors including the Commodore 64 and Apple II. Internet distributions still exist for Aztec C including their MS-DOS based cross compilers. They are still in use today. Manx's Aztec C86, their native mode 8086 MS-DOS compiler, was also a cross compiler. Although it did not compile code for a different processor like their Aztec C65 6502 cross compilers for the Commodore 64 and Apple II, it created binary executables for then-legacy operating systems for the 16-bit 8086 family of processors.
264_11	When the IBM PC was first introduced it was available with a choice of operating systems, CP/M-86 and PC DOS being two of them. Aztec C86 was provided with link libraries for generating code for both IBM PC operating systems. Throughout the 1980s later versions of Aztec C86 (3.xx, 4.xx and 5.xx) added support for MS-DOS "transitory" versions 1 and 2 and which were less robust than the "baseline" MS-DOS version 3 and later which Aztec C86 targeted until its demise.
264_12	Finally, Aztec C86 provided C language developers with the ability to produce ROM-able "HEX" code which could then be transferred using a ROM burner directly to an 8086 based processor. Paravirtualization may be more common today but the practice of creating low-level ROM code was more common per-capita during those years when device driver development was often done by application programmers for individual applications, and new devices amounted to a cottage industry. It was not uncommon for application programmers to interface directly with hardware without support from the manufacturer. This practice was similar to Embedded Systems Development today. Thomas Fenwick and James Goodnow II were the two principal developers of Aztec-C. Fenwick later became notable as the author of the Microsoft Windows CE kernel or NK ("New Kernel") as it was then called. Microsoft C cross compilers
264_13	Early history – 1980s Microsoft C (MSC) has a shorter history than others dating back to the 1980s. The first Microsoft C Compilers were made by the same company who made Lattice C and were rebranded by Microsoft as their own, until MSC 4 was released, which was the first version that Microsoft produced themselves. In 1987, many developers started switching to Microsoft C, and many more would follow throughout the development of Microsoft Windows to its present state. Products like Clipper and later Clarion emerged that offered easy database application development by using cross language techniques, allowing part of their programs to be compiled with Microsoft C. Borland C (California company) was available for purchase years before Microsoft released its first C product.
264_14	Long before Borland, BSD Unix (Berkeley University) had gotten C from the authors of the C language: Kernighan and Ritchie who wrote it in unison while working for AT&T (labs). K&R's original needs was not only elegant 2nd level parsed syntax to replace asm 1st level parsed syntax: it was designed so that a minimal amount of asm be written to support each platform (the original design of C was ability to cross compile using C with the least support code per platform, which they needed.). Also yesterdays C directly related to ASM code wherever not platform dependent. Today's C (more-so c++) is no longer C compatible and the asm code underlying can be extremely different than written on a given platform (in Linux: it sometimes replaces and detours library calls with distributor choices). Today's C is a 3rd or 4th level language which is used the old way like a 2nd level language.
264_15	1987 C programs had long been linked with modules written in assembly language. Most C compilers (even current compilers) offer an assembly language pass (that can be tweaked for efficiency then linked to the rest of the program after assembling). Compilers like Aztec-C converted everything to assembly language as a distinct pass and then assembled the code in a distinct pass, and were noted for their very efficient and small code, but by 1987 the optimizer built into Microsoft C was very good, and only "mission critical" parts of a program were usually considered for rewriting. In fact, C language programming had taken over as the "lowest-level" language, with programming becoming a multi-disciplinary growth industry and projects becoming larger, with programmers writing user interfaces and database interfaces in higher-level languages, and a need had emerged for cross language development that continues to this day.
264_16	By 1987, with the release of MSC 5.1, Microsoft offered a cross language development environment for MS-DOS. 16-bit binary object code written in assembly language (MASM) and Microsoft's other languages including QuickBASIC, Pascal, and Fortran could be linked together into one program, in a process they called "Mixed Language Programming" and now "InterLanguage Calling". If BASIC was used in this mix, the main program needed to be in BASIC to support the internal runtime system that compiled BASIC required for garbage collection and its other managed operations that simulated a BASIC interpreter like QBasic in MS-DOS.
264_17	The calling convention for C code, in particular, was to pass parameters in "reverse order" on the stack and return values on the stack rather than in a processor register. There were other programming rules to make all the languages work together, but this particular rule persisted through the cross language development that continued throughout Windows 16- and 32-bit versions and in the development of programs for OS/2, and which persists to this day. It is known as the Pascal calling convention.
264_18	Another type of cross compilation that Microsoft C was used for during this time was in retail applications that require handheld devices like the Symbol Technologies PDT3100 (used to take inventory), which provided a link library targeted at an 8088 based barcode reader. The application was built on the host computer then transferred to the handheld device (via a serial cable) where it was run, similar to what is done today for that same market using Windows Mobile by companies like Motorola, who bought Symbol.
264_19	Early 1990s Throughout the 1990s and beginning with MSC 6 (their first ANSI C compliant compiler) Microsoft re-focused their C compilers on the emerging Windows market, and also on OS/2 and in the development of GUI programs. Mixed language compatibility remained through MSC 6 on the MS-DOS side, but the API for Microsoft Windows 3.0 and 3.1 was written in MSC 6. MSC 6 was also extended to provide support for 32-bit assemblies and support for the emerging Windows for Workgroups and Windows NT which would form the foundation for Windows XP. A programming practice called a thunk was introduced to allow passing between 16- and 32-bit programs that took advantage of runtime binding (dynamic linking) rather than the static binding that was favoured in monolithic 16-bit MS-DOS applications. Static binding is still favoured by some native code developers but does not generally provide the degree of code reuse required by newer best practices like the Capability Maturity Model (CMM).
264_20	MS-DOS support was still provided with the release of Microsoft's first C++ Compiler, MSC 7, which was backwardly compatible with the C programming language and MS-DOS and supported both 16- and 32-bit code generation. MSC took over where Aztec C86 left off. The market share for C compilers had turned to cross compilers which took advantage of the latest and greatest Windows features, offered C and C++ in a single bundle, and still supported MS-DOS systems that were already a decade old, and the smaller companies that produced compilers like Aztec C could no longer compete and either turned to niche markets like embedded systems or disappeared. MS-DOS and 16-bit code generation support continued until MSC 8.00c which was bundled with Microsoft C++ and Microsoft Application Studio 1.5, the forerunner of Microsoft Visual Studio which is the cross development environment that Microsoft provide today.
264_21	Late 1990s MSC 12 was released with Microsoft Visual Studio 6 and no longer provided support for MS-DOS 16-bit binaries, instead providing support for 32-bit console applications, but provided support for Windows 95 and Windows 98 code generation as well as for Windows NT. Link libraries were available for other processors that ran Microsoft Windows; a practice that Microsoft continues to this day. MSC 13 was released with Visual Studio 2003, and MSC 14 was released with Visual Studio 2005, both of which still produce code for older systems like Windows 95, but which will produce code for several target platforms including the mobile market and the ARM architecture.
264_22	.NET and beyond In 2001 Microsoft developed the Common Language Runtime (CLR), which formed the core for their .NET Framework compiler in the Visual Studio IDE. This layer on the operating system which is in the API allows the mixing of development languages compiled across platforms that run the Windows operating system. The .NET Framework runtime and CLR provide a mapping layer to the core routines for the processor and the devices on the target computer. The command-line C compiler in Visual Studio will compile native code for a variety of processors and can be used to build the core routines themselves. Microsoft .NET applications for target platforms like Windows Mobile on the ARM architecture cross-compile on Windows machines with a variety of processors and Microsoft also offer emulators and remote deployment environments that require very little configuration, unlike the cross compilers in days gone by or on other platforms.
264_23	Runtime libraries, such as Mono, provide compatibility for cross-compiled .NET programs to other operating systems, such as Linux. Libraries like Qt and its predecessors including XVT provide source code level cross development capability with other platforms, while still using Microsoft C to build the Windows versions. Other compilers like MinGW have also become popular in this area since they are more directly compatible with the Unixes that comprise the non-Windows side of software development allowing those developers to target all platforms using a familiar build environment.
264_24	Free Pascal Free Pascal was developed from the beginning as a cross compiler. The compiler executable (ppcXXX where XXX is a target architecture) is capable of producing executables (or just object files if no internal linker exists, or even just assembly files if no internal assembler exists) for all OS of the same architecture. For example, ppc386 is capable of producing executables for i386-linux, i386-win32, i386-go32v2 (DOS) and all other OSes (see ). For compiling to another architecture, however, a cross architecture version of the compiler must be built first. The resulting compiler executable would have additional 'ross' before the target architecture in its name. i.e. if the compiler is built to target x64, then the executable would be ppcrossx64.
264_25	To compile for a chosen architecture-OS, the compiler switch (for the compiler driver fpc) -P and -T can be used. This is also done when cross-compiling the compiler itself, but is set via make option CPU_TARGET and OS_TARGET. GNU assembler and linker for the target platform is required if Free Pascal does not yet have internal version of the tools for the target platform. Clang Clang is natively a cross compiler, at build time you can select which architectures you want Clang to be able to target. See also MinGW Scratchbox Free Pascal Cross assembler References
264_26	External links Cross Compilation Tools – reference for configuring GNU cross compilation tools Building Cross Toolchains with gcc is a wiki of other GCC cross-compilation references Scratchbox is a toolkit for Linux cross-compilation to ARM and x86 targets Grand Unified Builder (GUB) for Linux to cross-compile multiple architectures e.g.:Win32/Mac OS/FreeBSD/Linux used by GNU LilyPond Crosstool is a helpful toolchain of scripts, which create a Linux cross-compile environment for the desired architecture, including embedded systems crosstool-NG is a rewrite of Crosstool and helps building toolchains. buildroot is another set of scripts for building a uClibc-based toolchain, usually for embedded systems. It is utilized by OpenWrt. ELDK (Embedded Linux Development Kit). Utilized by Das U-Boot. T2 SDE is another set of scripts for building whole Linux Systems based on either GNU libC, uClibc or dietlibc for a variety of architectures Cross Linux from Scratch Project
264_27	IBM has a very clear structured tutorial about cross-building a GCC toolchain. Cross-compilation avec GCC 4 sous Windows pour Linux - A tutorial to build a cross-GCC toolchain, but from Windows to Linux, a subject rarely developed
264_28	Compiler theory
265_0	U.S. Route 74 (US 74) is an east–west United States highway that runs for from Chattanooga, Tennessee to Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina. Primarily in North Carolina, it serves as an important highway from the mountains to the sea, connecting the cities of Asheville, Charlotte and Wilmington. Route description \|- \|TN \|63.0 \|101.4 \|- \|NC \|451.8 \|727.1 \|- \|Total \|514.8 \|828.5 \|} Tennessee US 74 was designated in 1927. The route travels from the I-24/I-75 interchange, in Chattanooga, northeast to Cleveland, where it then continues east, along with US 64, to the North Carolina state line. The highway is predominantly freeway or expressway grade four-lane, except between Ocoee and Ducktown, where it is a curvy two-lane mountain highway along the Ocoee River known as the Ocoee Scenic Byway.
265_1	TDOT's signage for US 74 is poor. Most highways that cross it will typically only list I-75 or US 64 instead; I-75 completely ignores US 74 along its route, even ignoring it at their intersection, showing instead the US 64 Bypass. North Carolina From the Tennessee state line, US 74 traverses across the southern portion of the state, connecting the major cities Asheville, Charlotte, and Wilmington, for a total of .
265_2	In western North Carolina, US 74 enters the state with a concurrency with US 64. Routed along on pre-existing highways in the region, specifically the: Appalachian Highway (at-grade expressway, except in the Nantahala Gorge) and the Great Smoky Mountains Expressway (controlled-access freeway, which is broken in three sections along the route); it shares a revolving door of concurrency changes with US 19, US 129, US 441 and US 23. The alternating named highway (depending on grade of road) is considered the commercial back-bone and main truck route of Western North Carolina, connecting the cities of Murphy, Andrews, Bryson City, Cherokee, Sylva, and Waynesville. In or around October, the fall colors create an influx of more tourists in the region. In the winter months, the highway is the first to be salted and plowed; however, both the Nantahala Gorge and Balsam Gap tend to get the most snow and/or ice in the region and should be traveled with care.
265_3	North of Clyde, US 74 merges with Interstate 40 and goes east, in concurrency, to Asheville. From there, it then goes southeast, in concurrency with Interstate 26 till Columbus, where it separates and continues east along a mostly controlled-access highway, except in Shelby, to Interstate 85, in Kings Mountain.
265_4	After crossing a unique weave intersection with Interstate 85, it joins with US 29 and travels through downtown Gastonia along Franklin Boulevard. East of Gastonia, it becomes Wilkinson Boulevard as it go through McAdenville, Cramerton and Belmont. After crossing the Lake Wylie/Catawba River, via Sloans Ferry Bridge, it enters Charlotte, with connections with Interstate 485 and Interstate 85/Charlotte Douglas International Airport, via Little Rock Road. At Morehead Street, west of Center City, it splits with US 29 for Interstate 277 along the John Belk Freeway. East of Center City, it goes solo again along Independence Freeway/Boulevard to Matthews, where it connects again with Interstate 485.
265_5	Going southeast, it goes through Stallings, Indian Trail and Monroe, where it briefly overlaps with US 601, before continuing east again through Wingate, Marshville, Peachland, Polkton, Wadesboro and Lilesville. On this stretch, prior to 2018, signage for the route was very poor, only being found at a few locations along the route. As part of the US 74 Monroe Bypass project, signage along the route was improved by the NCDOT.
265_6	Crossing the Pee Dee River and into the Sandhills region, US 74 meets up with Future Interstates I-73/I-74, in Rockingham. After a future interchange near NC 38 that will end its overlap with Interstate 73, US 74/Future I-74 continues southeast, bypassing Laurinburg and Maxton. East of Maxton and through Lumberton, the highway is officially US 74/Interstate 74, before dropping back to Future I-74 west of Boardman; the concurrency with Future I-74 ends at Bolton, where a future interchange will split from US 74 to continue south towards South Carolina. This is one of only two instances (along with I-41 in Wisconsin) of similarly-numbered U.S. and Interstate routes being designated on the same road.

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