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9785_15 | Spitfire captured a French privateer brig Heureux Courier, of Granville on 19 June, ten leagues SSE of Scilly. The privateer was armed with sixteen brass French 6-pounders and had a crew of 54 men, others being away on the three captures she had made. She was on her way home from her first cruise. Her three captures were two Newfoundland brigs and a Portuguese schooner, Nostra Senora del Carno, De Casta Pinto, master. The privateer had cut out the schooner at St. Michael's (probably St Michael's Mount), where the schooner was loading. The British privateer Tartar, of Guernsey, recaptured the schooner.
In May Spitfire sailed through a severe gale on the 16th to arrive safely in Guernsey. The gale had set several vessels, including Telegraph on their sides, but none were lost. |
9785_16 | Spitfire returned to Plymouth on 14 July from a cruise off the Île de Batz. She then sailed to cruise against smugglers and captured the lugger Three Friends, with 150 ankers of spirits. Three Friends had landed part of her cargo at Polperro. Spitfire took several boats that were endeavouring to escape, in the process killing one smuggler. She brought Three Friends into Plymouth on 4 August.
On 11 August Seymour received a promotion to post-captain.
Commander Robert Keen
His replacement on Spitfire was Commander Robert Keen, who spent the next four years on the Irish station.
On 13 December 1800 Spitfire, Suffisante, , and cutter Swift (2) shared in the recapture of Defiance.
On 25 December, Spitfire and Renard captured the Danish galiot Palmboom. That month Spitfire also captured Vrouw Elizabeth. |
9785_17 | Suffisante and Spitfire shared the proceeds of the recapture of the brig Honduras Packet. Honduras Packet (or Honduras Planter), of eight guns and 16 men under the command of Captain J. Goodwin, had been sailing from London to New Providence. A French privateer, of fourteen guns and 125 men, captured her after an action of one hour and a quarter. Spitfire recaptured her on 18 February 1801 off Abervrac and she arrived at Plymouth four days later. Spitfire arrived the next day.
During 20 to 21 March a hurricane blew in the Channel. Even so, Spitfire, Suffisante, and Renard arrived safely in Jersey.
Spitfire and Renard shared in the proceeds of the capture on 25 April of Prince Frederick van Prussia. On 26 May Spitfire and captured a French brig of unknown name carrying a cargo of rye. |
9785_18 | In July, a court martial on board Cambridge in the Hamoaze tried Spitfires purser, Mr. Banfield, for disobeying Keen's orders. The charge was fully proven, however several naval officers testified to Banfield's excellent character; the board reinstated him as purser but ordered him mulcted of a year's pay.
On 11 July Spitfire captured Commerce. Then in August Spitfire captured St. Esprit and a sloop of unknown name, as well as a chasse maree carrying "310 Burr Stones". Lastly, on 2 September, she captured Betsey. |
9785_19 | Towards the end of September Spitfire detained the American merchantman Robust, on passage from Baltimore to Amsterdam, off the Eddystone. Kean put a mate and six men on board as a prize crew and sent her to Plymouth. On the way, while three men were aloft trimming the sails, two in the hold stowing the cable tier, one at the helm, and the prize-master having breakfast, the Americans, armed with pistols, seized the steersman and the prize master. The Americans threatened to shoot the men aloft and below if the prize crew did not give up the ship. The Americans put the prize crew into a boat, and after a long pull the seven men reached Salcombe. Robust resumed her voyage, reaching Amsterdam.
On 3 October, Spitfire brought Anna, Gildea, master, bound for Philadelphia from Amsterdam, into Plymouth. Anna, was carrying supposed Dutch property. |
9785_20 | Then on 12 November, Spitfire arrived at Plymouth where an order was in effect that as vessels came in their crews were to be paid off and their sails furled. Spitfire, however, remained in service on the Milford and Irish stations. After Keen arrived, he reported that he had encountered a French convoy of 30 vessels off Havre, under the escort of a gun-brig. Spitfire did not engage as hostilities had ended two days earlier.
On 17 January 1802 Spitfire and were ordered to fit-out and victual for foreign service, Spitfire for the West Indies and Weazel for the Mediterranean. It was assumed that they would carry with them copies of the definitive peace treaty. |
9785_21 | On 21 January a messenger came by express from the Admiralty to Plymouth with orders for a fast sloop to be ready to sail at a moment's notice with dispatches for the Straits. Weazle and Spitfire went out into the Sound, still very rough from a gale the previous night, to await orders. The dispatches arrived in the morning three days later and Weazle sailed immediately. Spitfires orders, however, did not come.
Spitfire had to wait for orders until 6 February. The next morning she, Hunter, and two gun-brigs sailed for the St. Georges Channel to intercept smugglers.
In early 1802, Spitfire recaptured the brig Lowestoffe.
On 19 March 1803 Admiral Lord Keith hoisted his pennant aboard as commander in chief of the fleet. Admiral Dacres, second in command of the fleet and port admiral, shifted his flag to Spitfire. |
9785_22 | On 9 April Keen again recommissioned Spitfire in the Hamoaze. Before she could sail, however, she had to have her bottom examined. By 4 May she was completely rigged and fitted for sea, but lacked a full crew. War with France resumed on 22 May.
On 2 March Spitfire escorted a convoy that was leaving Waterford for Newfoundland. That same night two vessels from the convoy, Ranger and Mary Ann, separated in the night in a heavy squall. Four days later the French privateer General Aujereau, of Bayonne, and of 16 guns and 120 men, captured them about 120 miles west of Cape Clear. The privateer plundered Ranger and then released her; she returned to Waterford on the 10th. The privateer sent Mary Ann into France or Spain.
Spitfire was paid off and laid up in ordinary at Sheerness on 30 August 1804 and she remained out of commission through 1805. |
9785_23 | Napoleonic Wars
Spitfire underwent a repair and refit at Sheerness between April 1805 and April 1806, returning to active service under Captain William Green.
While in the Channel under the command of Lieutenant R. Parry (acting), on 28 December she recaptured the English trading brig Friendship, from Mogadore that the French privateer luggers Deux Freres and Espoir had captured, and sent her in to the Downs. The next day Spitfire captured Deux Frères, which had only four of her 14 guns mounted, the rest being stored in her hold. She nevertheless put up a fight and did not surrender till she had lost her captain, H. Trebon, and her third officer killed. and four men wounded out of her crew of 55. (Spitfires surgeon had to amputate the arm of one of the wounded men.) Spitfire was unable to rescue Friendships master and crew as they were on Espoir, which escaped. Spitfire was then paid off. |
9785_24 | She recommissioned again in February 1807 in her original role as a fireship, under the command of Commander Henry Samuel Butt. She served in the Downs, at first under Butt, and then from mid-1807 under Commander John Ellis. Ellis would eventually spend six years with Spitfire, serving at a number of British ports and spending some time in North American waters, including the Greenland station in 1813.
In 1814, Spitfire received a grant from His Royal Highness, the Prince Regent, for what should have been her share of Danish ships detained at Sheerness between 26 and 29 August and on 1 September 1807 on the outbreak of war with Denmark. Ellis and Spitfire had been omitted from the original grant.
On 4 June, Spitfire 1808 captured Alexis, Rebecca Angel, and Duen. |
9785_25 | On 22 October 1808, Spitfire and sailed to the assistance of the sloop , which the Dowlaw signal station, near Dunbar, reported had cut away her masts and bowsprit and thrown some of her guns overboard. Basilisk and Spitfire brought Cygnet back to Leith Roads.
On 29 June 1809, Spitfire captured Wilhelmina Fredericka.
Ellis sailed Spitfire from Leith on 23 May 1810, escorting a convoy to Quebec.
On 11 January 1811, Ellis and Spitfire towed into port Economy, which had fought off or out-sailed several privateers and lost her rudder in a gale and was trying to steer by sails.
Spitfire, Surveillante, and Sybille (Sybelle), shared in the capture on 28 January 1812 of the American vessel Zone. |
9785_26 | Lastly, when news of the outbreak of the War of 1812 reached Britain, the Royal Navy seized all American vessels then in British ports. Spitfire was among the Royal Navy vessels then lying at Spithead or Portsmouth and so entitled to share in the grant for the American ships Belleville, Janus, Aeos, Ganges, and Leonidas seized there on 31 July 1812.
Spitfire was in company with when they recaptured the brig Fermina on 18 April 1813.
Spitfire was cruising with the 32-gun frigate off North Cape on 19 July 1813. There they chased the 44-gun American frigate and her consort, the privateer schooner Scourge, away from a British convoy out of Archangel. Captain John Rodgers of President excused his fleeing the British by claiming that he had fled from a ship of the line and a frigate.
On 14 June 1814 Spitfire recaptured Hugh Jones. Hugh Jones, Thomas, master, had been sailing from Belfast to Guadeloupe when a privateer had captured her. Hugh Jones arrived at Plymouth on 7 July. |
9785_27 | Post-war
Commander James Dalton took over in 1814. Spitfire arrived on the West African coast in January, under the command of Commander John Ellis, to join the West Africa Squadron. When she arrived, HMS Favorite, Captain John Maxwell, captain of the sloop and governor of the Sierra Leone station, sent her to the Gallinas River where an English slave trader called Crawford was working with a Spanish schooner carrying slaves that Crawford had gathered. The schooner had captured the British privateer and murdered John Roach, her master. The Spaniards plundered Kitty before scuttling her. The schooner also enslaved the black crew on Kitty, including two freed Negroes from Sierra Leone, and sold them into slavery at Havana. On 22 February Spitfires boats narrowly missed capturing Crawford, though they were able to seize his trade goods and free Kittys crew.
In April, Spitfire engaged in an unsuccessful chase of an American privateer sailing under British colours. |
9785_28 | Fate
Spitfire returned to Britain in 1815, where she was paid off for the final time and laid up at Portsmouth in May. She remained at Portsmouth in ordinary for the next ten years. Some records report that she served as a prison hulk at Portsmouth between 1818 and 1820.
Finally the "Principal Officers and Commissioners of His Majesty's Navy" offered the "Spitfire sloop, of 422 tons", "lying at Portsmouth", for sale on 11 July 1825. She was sold for breaking up to a Mr Ranwell for the sum of £1,205 on 30 July.
Notes, citations, and references
Notes
Citations
References |
9785_29 | Edwards, Bryan (1819) The History, Civil and Commercial, of the British West Indies. (G. and W.B. Whittaker).
O’Byrne, William R. (1849) A naval biographical dictionary: comprising the life and services of every living officer in Her Majesty's navy, from the rank of admiral of the fleet to that of lieutenant, inclusive. (London: J. Murray).
Page, William, ed. (1907) The Victoria History of the County of Suffolk. (Constable).
Fireships of the Royal Navy
Brigs of the Royal Navy
1782 ships
Ships of the West Africa Squadron |
9786_0 | Laudomia Forteguerri (1515–1555, Siena, Italy) was an accomplished Italian poet and a member of one of the most powerful families in the sixteenth-century Republic of Siena. She is considered by some historians to be Italy's earliest lesbian writer, and she was famous for her beauty, wit, and intelligence. In January 1553, Forteguerri led a group of women in helping with the construction of a defensive bastion to protect her city against an anticipated attack from Imperial Spanish forces. The attack and siege that followed in 1554–55 ultimately lead to the fall of the independent Republic. Forteguerri became a legendary figure in Sienese history and her legacy has lived on long after her death. |
9786_1 | Early life |
9786_2 | Laudomia Forteguerri was born in 1515 to Alessandro di Niccodemo Forteguerri and Virginia di Giuli Pecci. At her baptism it was observed that Forteguerri was "unique in the world and of rare beauty"—a fitting entrance into society for a woman who would be noted for her exceptional charm, intelligence, and beauty throughout her life. Laudomia Forteguerri was the child of her father's second wife, and she had one older half-brother, Niccodemo Forteguerri, who would become a prominent Sienese captain in the siege of Siena. Alessandro Forteguerri married Virginia Pecci in 1515 after the death of Niccodemo's mother, and the couple had at least seven children together in addition to Laudomia. Forteguerri's parents were members of some of the most powerful feudal families of sixteenth-century Siena; the Forteguerri and Pecci clans were highly influential, and together they controlled much of the civic and ecclesiastical life of the city. Both of Forteguerri's parents were descendants of |
9786_3 | Siena's imperial counts and were members of the Noveschi, a powerful group that had ruled Siena in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Thus Forteguerri enjoyed a highly elite status within the city. |
9786_4 | Forteguerri married Giulio di Alessandro Colombini (a member of another powerful Noveschi family) in her late teens, and while the exact date of the wedding is uncertain, it is known to have occurred before 1535. Although it was common for many women in Northwestern Europe during the Renaissance to delay marriage until their mid-to-late twenties and to marry a man close to their own age, Italian noblewomen often married somewhat younger, as Forteguerri did. Italian noblewomen also frequently married men who were up to ten years their senior, thus it was not at all unusual that Giulio was eight years older than the teenaged Forteguerri. Laudomia and Giulio had three children together, Olimpia Antonia (born in 1535), Antonia Anna (born in 1537), and Allesandro Antonio (born in 1539), and Giulio died some time around 1542. After being widowed, in 1544 Forteguerri remarried to Petruccio Petrucci, a member of the powerful ruling family of Siena during this era. Remarriage was very common |
9786_5 | during the Renaissance, but widows often had more latitude in their marital choices, so it is perhaps telling that Forteguerri's new husband was much closer to her own age, at just two years her senior. As was the custom during this time, Laudomia's children by Giulio were sent to live with the Colombini family; she and her new husband had no children together, and little is known regarding their married life. |
9786_6 | Influence in Sienese society |
9786_7 | Forteguerri was an active and influential figure in Sienese society, and one historian even claims that she was the first woman whose poetry was discussed openly in an academic setting during a 1541 lecture held by Alessandro Piccolomini at the Infiamatti—a respected literary academy in Padua. However Forteguerri did not only create esteemed literature, but she also inspired it; Forteguerri was famous for her beauty and intellect, and she became a muse for several prominent Sienese writers. The first known text to feature Forteguerri is Marc’Antonio Piccolomini’s Ragionamento, where she takes part in a philosophical (and borderline heretical) dialogue with fellow noblewomen intellectuals Girolama Carli de' Piccolomini and Franzi Marzi. The Piccolomini family was highly influential in Siena during this time, and Marc'Antonio helped found the Accademia degli Intronati, which served as the center of Sienese aristocratic cultural and intellectual life during the mid-sixteenth-century . |
9786_8 | The Ragionamento was thus highly influential within Sienese academic circles. Many scholars believe that this work was not based on an actual event, as Piccolomini claimed it was, but that it was rather constructed by the author so as to alleviate rumors of heresy surrounding the Piccolomini family. Although it is unclear whether the heretical Calvinist views that Forteguerri espouses in this dialogue are representative of her actual beliefs, or if she is used by Piccolomini simply as a foil for the orthodox portrayal of Girolama Piccolomini, Forteguerri is undoubtedly presented as a strong woman with a refined intellect in this literary work. |
9786_9 | Marc’Antonio Piccolomini's cousin, the philosopher and humanist Alessandro Piccolomini, was also inspired by Forteguerri. He was infatuated with the brilliant poet, and in spite of Forteguerri's apparent lack of romantic interest in him, she would be viewed as Piccolomini's great love throughout his life. When Forteguerri lamented the fact that, as a woman, she was barred from studying the science of astronomy, he wrote De la sfera del mondo and De le stele fisse (On the Sphere of the World and On the Fixed Stars), an influential two-part compendium of information on the subject that he dedicated to her. This compendium is considered an important text in the history of astronomy, as it marked the first time that stellar luminosity was classified alphabetically (as it continues to be today) and it contained the earliest complete star atlas that historians have been able to locate. It was also one of the first texts on astronomy that was widely accessible, as Piccolomini's chose not to |
9786_10 | publish this work in Latin—the standard language of academic literature during this period—but in Italian, so that Forteguerri would be able to fully comprehend it. He also composed the impressive philosophical work, On the Organization of the Entire Life of a Man Born Noble and in a Free City, as a baptismal gift for Forteguerri's son, Allesandro Antonio Colombini, who was also Piccolomini's godson. |
9786_11 | Piccolomini was by far the most zealous supporter of Forteguerri's public image and literary works, and his glowing analysis of her sonnets in his 1541 lecture in Padua would later be published and widely circulated. Perhaps the most important aspect of this lecture was Piccolomini's "outing" of Forteguerri, as all of the sonnets he discusses are dedicated to Forteguerri's great love, Margaret of Austria. But rather than exhibit jealousy at Forteguerri's expression of love for another, Piccolomini celebrates it, lauding her poetry as "an example of a most ardent Love that exists… between two most unique and divine women." This is particularly surprising given Piccolomini's resentment of Forteguerri's second marriage in 1544—an event that wounded him so deeply that he would never again mention Forteguerri by name in his work (though some of his later poems speak rather dramatically of the "betrayal" of his beloved). It seems clear that Piccolomini's acceptance of Forteguerri's |
9786_12 | expressions of same-sex love was based on his belief that she was not experiencing true physical desire, but rather a divine (and entirely platonic) love for Margaret. However, while contemporary Sienese poets such as Emanuele Grimaldi, Benedetto Varchi, and Agnolo Firenzuola would largely echo Piccolomini's heteronormative view of Forteguerri's love for Margaret, the relationship between these two women cannot be written off as merely platonic. |
9786_13 | Sonnets, Sapphism, and Margaret of Austria
"Happy plant, so cherished in heaven
Where nature placed all its most perfect things,
When it set out to create so much beauty,
I speak of my goddess, Margeruite of Austria."
-Laudomia Forteguerri |
9786_14 | Forteguerri was known throughout Siena for her poetry, and her work continues to be noted by modern scholars, particularly for its strong Sapphic themes. Although only six of her sonnets have survived, all are testaments to the love she bore for other women, and five are specifically dedicated to Margaret of Austria. Margaret was a prominent Duchess and the illegitimate child of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, and Forteguerri's love for her would become well known throughout Italy and as far as France. Although there is some dispute about the exact date of Margaret's first meeting with Forteguerri, it occurred either in 1533 (when Forteguerri would have been seventeen years old and Margaret just ten) or 1536 (when Forteguerri would have been twenty years old and Margaret thirteen). Regardless of the specific date, the two certainly met before Margaret's marriage to Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence in 1536, and they quickly formed an intense bond. In spite of Margaret's extreme |
9786_15 | youth, many claimed that their attraction was instantaneous; indeed, Piccolomini declared, “As soon as Laudomia saw Madama and was seen by her… suddenly with the most ardent flames of Love each burned for the other, and the most manifest sign of this was that they went to visit each other many times.” |
9786_16 | Such homoeroticism was actually not at all uncommon during Forteguerri's time. The Renaissance experienced a revival of ancient Greek and Roman literature, and the works of Sappho and Socrates (both of whose same-sex sexual preferences were well known during this period) were especially revered. Sappho was particularly championed as an exemplar of female poetic genius during the Renaissance, and same-sex female desire during this period was largely modeled after her. While some historians have argued that women's homoerotic relations were considered to be relatively harmless during this period because they led to no offspring (and thus did not threaten paternal heredity), the Renaissance view of what we would now term “lesbianism” was in actuality far more ambivalent, and it was typically divided into two categories. While chaste (if impassioned) female friendships were often considered to be a pure and almost holy form of love, same-sex tribadism was viewed as sinful, unnatural, and |
9786_17 | even monstrous. Forteguerri's feelings for Margaret were generally categorized as the former kind of love, and contemporary poet Firenzuola even lauds the divine purity and chastity of these two women in his 1541 Dialoghi delle bellezze delle donne. However many historians have pointed out that the valorization of homoerotic friendship during this period, combined with the common practice of same-sex bed sharing, would have provided many opportunities for homoerotic sexual exploration within such ostensibly “chaste” female relationships. Because of this, Forteguerri and Margaret are often cited as examples of an early lesbian relationship (although that term would not be invented until the nineteenth-century). |
9786_18 | "Why do you keep me in this wretched state
With no hope ever to come out of my misery?
...Listen to my words, how they are ready
To beseech you. Nor do I want anything else
But that you keep me close to my goddess."
-Laudomia Forteguerri |
9786_19 | However some modern scholars have questioned Forteguerri's seeming lesbianism, arguing that the sonnets she composed for Margaret may not have been genuine expressions of same-sex love and desire, but a calculated political strategy designed by Forteguerri to curry the favor of Margaret's royal father. Politically, this would make some sense; trouble was brewing between the Republic of Siena and its longtime rival, the Duchy of Florence, and signs of the Italian War of 1551-59 were beginning to appear. Many scholars have noted that Forteguerri, who was highly politically astute, would have recognized the strategic importance of an Imperial ally during this tumultuous period, and argue that such earnest and effusive expressions of platonic love were fairly typical of this era. However others have pointed out that the lack of eroticism in Forteguerri's poems is not surprising, given that they were able to be published at all. Indeed, they note that, while Forteguerri's poems lack in |
9786_20 | overt sexual imagery, they display a strong depth of emotion and tenderness for Margaret, and in one sonnet Forteguerri even requests that Margaret send her a small portrait of herself. |
9786_21 | Although Margaret's feelings for Forteguerri are less clear, as none of the letters between the two women have survived, her lack of interest in—and even aversion to—her husbands makes it seem plausible that Margaret could have reciprocated Forteguerri's feelings. Margaret had no children from her marriage to Alessandro de' Medici and dressed in black for her subsequent marriage to Ottavio Farnese, the Duke of Parma (ostensibly in honor of her recently deceased husband), and she famously refused to consummate the union for five years. After she finally gave birth to twins in 1545, she chose to live separately from her husband, and when modern historian Renato Lefevre sought to defend Margaret's honor against rumors of sexual impropriety, he stated, perhaps somewhat tellingly, that “not one of the scandalous rumors so frequent at that time touched her. If anything, one could say the contrary about her… that men were of no interest to her as such.” Although there is no evidence that |
9786_22 | would suggest that Margaret and Forteguerri ever consummated their relationship, their transgressions of their gender roles and prominent positions within a male-dominated society, their lack of interest in their husbands, and their tender relationship has led many to assume that these women were lovers in all but name. |
9786_23 | Siege of Siena |
9786_24 | The Republic of Siena had been experiencing increasing political turmoil as the sixteenth-century went on, and by the 1550s, the city was involved in full scale-war. When the Petrucci era of the Republic came to an end in the 1520s, an intense struggle for power broke out between the city's leading factions as they all tried to take its place. The fighting escalated, and Pope Clement VII even attempted to intervene at the beginning of the sixteenth-century on behalf of the Notrevechi party (to which the Forteguerri family belonged); Holy Roman Emperor Charles V finally became involved in 1530, using the political turmoil of Siena as an excuse to occupy the city. The occupation was brutal, and in 1552 the people of Siena rose up against the Imperial forces and were able to expel their Spanish occupiers from the city. However, the Sienese people knew that they would have little chance of surviving the imminent Imperial attack. Because of this, every able citizen was mobilized in the |
9786_25 | effort to build fortifications, and Laudomia Forteguerri herself led a group of 1,000 noble and artisan women to aid in the construction. The siege was even more brutal than the occupation had been, and it lasted a year and a half (26 January 1554 to 17 April 1555). By the time the Republic of Siena finally surrendered to Duke Cosimo I de' Medici in April 1555 after the bloody Battle of Marciano, the once proud city lay in ruins, marking the end of the Republic of Siena Although there is no record of Laudomia after 1555, her legacy lived on long, and she would forever be remembered for her bravery in the face of her city's destruction. |
9786_26 | Notes |
9786_27 | References
Bennett, Judith M. "'Lesbian-Like' and the Social History of Lesbianisms." Journal of the History of Sexuality 9.1–2 (2000): 1–24. Web. 14 Dec. 2014.
Borris, Kenneth. "Laudomia Forteguerri." Same-sex Desire in the English Renaissance: A Sourcebook of Texts, 1470–1650. New York: Routledge, 2004. 271-90. Print.
Cox, Virginia. "Laodomia Forteguerri to Margaret of Austria (1559)." Lyric Poetry by Women of the Italian Renaissance. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013. 288. Print.
Douglas, R. Langton. A History of Siena. London: J. Murray, 1902. Print.
Eisenbichler, Konrad. "Laudomia Forteguerri: Constructions of a Woman." The Sword and the Pen: Women, Politics, and Poetry in Sixteenth-century Siena. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2012. 101-64. Print. |
9786_28 | McClure, George W. "The Academy of the Intronati and Sienese Women (1525–1555)." Parlour Games and the Public Life of Women in Renaissance Italy. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013. 35–51. Print.
Robin, Diana, Anne R. Larsen, and Carole Levin. "Forteguerri, Laudomia (1515–1556?)." Encyclopedia of Women in the Renaissance: Italy, France, and England. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2007. 151-53. Print.
Robin, Diana. "Laudomia Forteguerri's Canzoniere and the Fall of Siena." Publishing Women: Salons, the Presses, and the Counter-Reformation in Sixteenth-century Italy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007. 124–159. Print. |
9786_29 | External links
The Conquest of Siena
Piccolomini's On the Sphere of the World and On the Fixed Stars
1515 births
1555 deaths
Italian women poets
People from Siena
LGBT poets
LGBT writers from Italy
16th-century LGBT people
Women in 16th-century warfare
Lesbian writers
Women in European warfare
16th-century Italian women writers
Renaissance women |
9787_0 | (originally released in North America as Jet Grind Radio) is a 2000 action game developed by Smilebit and published by Sega for the Dreamcast. The player controls a member of a youth gang, the GGs, as they use inline skates to traverse Tokyo, spraying graffiti, challenging rival gangs, and evading authorities.
Development was headed by director Masayoshi Kikuchi, with art by Ryuta Ueda. The influence was drawn from late 1990s Japanese popular culture such as the rhythm game PaRappa the Rapper, and the anti-establishment themes in the film Fight Club. The environments were based on Tokyo shopping districts in Shibuya and Shinjuku, with graffiti designed by artists including Eric Haze. It was the first game to use a cel-shaded art style, developed in response to the team's disappointment towards Sega games mainly resembling anime or manga. |
9787_1 | Jet Set Radio received acclaim for its graphics, soundtrack, and gameplay. It won several awards and was nominated for many others. A Game Boy Advance version, developed by Vicarious Visions, was released in 2003, along with versions for Japanese mobile phones. In 2012, Jet Set Radio was digitally re-released for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and iOS, followed by releases for Windows, PlayStation Vita and Android. A sequel, Jet Set Radio Future, was released for the Xbox in 2002.
Gameplay |
9787_2 | The player controls a member of a gang of graffiti-tagging inline skaters. The game consists of three types of levels: Street, Rival Showdown, and Trial. The Street levels come in two categories. The first is to tag every graffiti point in each area previously tagged by a rival gang before the timer runs out while evading the authorities. The second category serves as a boss battle by chasing the rival gang members and spraying graffiti on them. The more graffiti points are sprayed, the more deadly the authorities become. Graffiti points are marked by arrows and require paint to tag them. Players can spray graffiti by either pressing a single button or inputting commands using the analog stick depending on the size of the graffiti spot. Players are unable if they run out of paint and must be refilled by obtaining yellow and blue spray cans scattered across the stage. Yellow spray cans refill a single spray can and blue spray cans refill five. Enemies will pursue players and attempt to |
9787_3 | deplete their health. Health can be replenished by obtaining red and green spray cans. Performing tricks add bonus points to the player's overall score and gain access to areas difficult to reach. |
9787_4 | In Rival Showdown levels, more playable characters can be unlocked after they are defeated by matching the rival's movements in technique sections or by spraying graffiti before the rival in race sections. Trial levels are unlocked after Street and Rival Showdown levels are cleared in a specific area. There are three kinds of trials: Jet Graffiti, Jet Tech, and Jet Crash. In Jet Graffiti, the objective is to spray all the graffiti points within the time limit. Jet Tech prioritizes in obtaining the top score within the time limit. In Jet Crash, the objective is to reach the goal and spray graffiti on it before the opponent. Players can customize their graffiti by choosing presets, or create their own using the Graffiti editor. By using a VMU, players can upload their graffiti to the official website for other players to use or download graffiti from other players. More Graffiti presets can be unlocked by collecting Graffiti Soul icons scattered throughout stages. |
9787_5 | Plot
DJ Professor K broadcasts the Jet Set Radio pirate radio station to gangs of youths who roam Tokyo-to, skating and spraying graffiti. One gang, the GGs, competes for turf with the all-female Love Shockers in the shopping districts of Shibuya-Cho, the cyborg Noise Tanks in the Benten entertainment district, and the kaiju-loving Poison Jam in the Kogane dockyard. The authorities, led by Captain Onishima, pursue the gangs with riot police and military armaments. After the GGs defeat Poison Jam, Noise Tanks, and Love Shockers in turf wars, they each drop a piece of a mysterious vinyl record. Professor K says that the mysterious vinyl has the power to summon a demon. |
9787_6 | The GGs are joined by Combo and Cube, who explain that their hometown, Grind City, has been overtaken by the Rokkaku business conglomerate. They ask the GGs to help them to free their friend, Coin, who has been captured by the Rokkaku. The Rokkaku pursue the GGs and steal the vinyl record. Poison Jam explains that the Rokkaku CEO, Goji Rokkaku, plans to use the record to make a contract with the demon and take over the world. The GGs defeat Goji in the rooftop of his headquarters by destroying his turntable. Freedom is returned to the streets of Tokyo-to. Combo reveals that The Devil's Contract was an old record with no demonic powers and that wealth had driven Goji to insanity.
Development |
9787_7 | Jet Set Radio was developed by Smilebit, a Sega studio formed from members of Team Andromeda, developers of the Panzer Dragoon games for the Sega Saturn. The development team consisted of fewer than 25 developers, with an average age of under 25. Programming began in mid-1999. The game was announced at the 1999 Tokyo Game Show and drew media attention for its cel-shaded style. During the early stages of development, director Masayoshi Kikuchi had difficulty leading the team, having no prior directing experience. The visual style was established before the gameplay; according to Kikuchi, the game could have become an adventure game or role-playing game. His superiors were not satisfied with early concepts, and so Kikuchi used trial and error to develop a concept that he believed everyone would find interesting. |
9787_8 | Ueda wanted to create something "cool" that dealt with popular culture and was completely unlike the team's previous game, the 1998 role-playing game Panzer Dragoon Saga. Ueda's drawings of a punky character with headphones and rollerblades became the foundation of the game. Ueda had joined Sega after being impressed by the "freshness" and international appeal of Sonic the Hedgehog, but was disappointed with the number of manga and anime-style designs; he hoped to create something original. Smilebit drew inspiration from games outside the typical game genres of science fiction and fantasy. Ueda was particularly inspired by a demonstration of the PlayStation rhythm game PaRappa the Rapper at the 1996 Tokyo Game Show: "I think that's the first game with pop culture like that. They did it first. After that I decided to make a true game, not just a visual experience, that was actually for adults". The anti-establishment themes of the 1999 film Fight Club were another influence. |
9787_9 | Smilebit used thicker lines for objects they wanted to stand out. Smilebit developed a new cel-shading technique not used at the time as it would not have been possible on the Dreamcast or PlayStation 2. The game features graffiti by a variety of artists, including Eric Haze, who had designed album art for acts including the Beastie Boys and Public Enemy. Smilebit initially wanted to make it a skateboarding game, but was scrapped due to the legs having to be fixed and instead chose inline skates. |
9787_10 | Jet Set Radio was one of the earliest games to feature an open 3D world, which presented the team's biggest challenge. Kikuchi said: "Making an entire town in a game was quite the prospect. It's not hard with modern hi-spec hardware, but that wasn't the case back then... It was very difficult from a programming standpoint". Another Sega game developed in that period, Shenmue (1999), also featured an open world, but Kikuchi felt the games posed different technical challenges, as Shenmue does not allow the player to jump or move at speed. The team implemented grinding to allow players to enjoy speed without worrying about colliding with obstacles. Smilebit chose to have a fixed camera as an attempt to reduce motion sickness. They attempted to make the game impossible to duplicate on PlayStation 2 by pushing the Dreamcast limitations using bright colors, realistic shadows, and more than sixteen NPCs on-screen without lag that would have been impossible on PS2 due to its smaller memory. |
9787_11 | The settings were inspired by Japanese locations such as the Tokyo shopping districts of Shibuya and Shinjuku, which Smilebit photographed to use as references. Sega feared that the game's style might alienate players outside Japan and requested changes for the international versions. The team added stages modeled after New York City: one based on Times Square, and another on Roosevelt Avenue along Queens and Brooklyn, and changed the nationality of two characters to American. The interactive credits sequence of the Japanese version was also cut, as localizing it would have meant rebuilding the stage with English names. Sega sold the international version in Japan as De La Jet Set Radio. Ueda was unhappy about the changes, which he felt diminished the essential Japanese elements of the game. |
9787_12 | Soundtrack |
9787_13 | The Jet Set Radio soundtrack includes original and licensed tracks with a variety of genres including J-pop, hip hop, funk, electronic dance, rock, acid jazz, and trip hop. The main theme of the game is called "Let Mom Sleep". The North American version and international rereleases add metal songs. The 2012 port omits "Yappie Feet" and "Many Styles" for licensing reasons. The music has been described as energetic, rhythm-heavy, defiant, and multicultural. Most of the soundtrack was composed by Hideki Naganuma, with additional tracks by Richard Jacques, Deavid Soul, Toronto, and B.B. Rights. Naganuma attempted to match the visual style, and experimented with voices, cutting and rearranging samples to the point that they became nonsensical. In 2012, Naganuma said Jet Set Radio and its sequel had been his favorite projects. Smilebit worked with Sega of America and Sega of Europe to include as many street culture elements as possible, hoping to create music that was internationally |
9787_14 | acceptable. |
9787_15 | Jet Set Radio Original Soundtrack was distributed by Polydor Records on December 20, 2000, in Japan. For the HD release, a new soundtrack was distributed by Sumthing Else on September 18, 2012, for North America and Europe and contained additional tracks from the sequel, Jet Set Radio Future. A second soundtrack for the HD version, Jet Set Radio: Sega Original Tracks, was distributed by Sega and released on iTunes on October 3, 2012.
Promotion and release |
9787_16 | Jet Set Radio was released in Japan on June 29, 2000. In North America, it was released on October 31 as Jet Grind Radio due to trademark problems for "Jet Set" in the United States at the time. The PAL version was released later on November 24 under the original name. The North American and PAL versions contained two new maps, new songs, and other in-game content designed to increase the game's appeal to Western audiences. To promote the North American release, Sega of America held a "Graffiti is Art" competition for contestants to enter their own graffiti art pieces to Sega. Sega chose five finalists and flew them into San Francisco, California on October 21, where they competed to make graffiti art pieces on a canvas within a 3 and a half-hour timeframe for a prize of $5000. Mayor of San Francisco, Willie Brown discovered the competition and attempted to revoke Sega of America's permit, but was unsuccessful due to obtaining the permit legally. |
9787_17 | Sega re-released the game in Japan under the name This version was released on October 18, 2001, in Japan via Dreamcast Direct (later renamed Sega Direct) and included a T-shirt featuring the protagonist Beat for those who pre-ordered. This version features content that was originally exclusive to PAL and North American versions, namely music, two playable characters, and two stages.
Alternative versions
Mobile versions
Jet Set Radio was remade as two 2D mobile versions. The first, a side-scrolling game in which players escape police, was released for Japanese mobile phones by Sega on June 22, 2001. It was followed by a remake for Game Boy Advance developed by Vicarious Visions and published by THQ in North America on June 26, 2003, and in Europe on February 20, 2004. The Game Boy Advance version uses the Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2 engine and an isometric perspective, and emulates the cel-shaded graphics of the Dreamcast game, with some original stages and shortened songs. |
9787_18 | High-definition remaster
In 2012, high-definition ports developed by BlitWorks were released for PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Windows, PlayStation Vita, iOS and Android. The ports add features including widescreen HD graphics, online leaderboards, achievements, and a new camera system. It combines the North American, European and Japanese soundtracks and adds bonus tracks from Jet Set Radio Future, but omits the PAL tracks "Yappie Feet" and "Many Styles". To promote the ports, Sega ran a contest to allow players to submit their own artwork to be used as graffiti within the game. On May 3, 2016, the game was made backwards-compatible with the Xbox One. |
9787_19 | In North America, the PS3 version was released on September 18, with PlayStation Plus members able to purchase it early on September 11. The PS3 version was released in Europe the following day alongside The Xbox Live Arcade and Windows version for both North America and Europe. The PlayStation Vita version was scheduled for release on October 16, but was delayed for development optimization reasons; it was released on November 20 in North America and in Europe the following day. The PS3, Xbox 360, and PlayStation Vita versions were released in Japan simultaneously on February 20, 2013.
The iOS and Android versions were released in North America and Europe on November 29, 2012. Japan received the iOS and Android versions on December 20, 2012, and January 30, 2013, respectively. The smartphone versions were delisted as of 2015 due to compatibility problems with the updated operating systems of the iOS.
Reception |
9787_20 | Critical reception |
9787_21 | Jet Set Radio received acclaim for its gameplay, visual style, and music. Gamers' Republic called it flawless. IGN praised the extra gameplay modes, saying they added replay value. Official Dreamcast Magazine (ODCM) found the exaggerated physics and interactivity of the levels immersive. DC-UK described the gameplay as a combination of Crazy Taxi and Tony Hawk, and concluded that the gameplay was better than both. GameSpot praised the pacing, stating that the beginning of the game is simple and slowly becomes more challenging as the player progresses. GameFan was not impressed with the early stages but their opinion changed as they progressed the game and were happy with the result. Next Generation found the story modifications of the English versions jarring, although, he complimented the new stages, calling them "impressive" and "a worthy addition to Japanese cityscapes of the original". The camera controls were commonly criticized, but most reviewers felt the overall quality |
9787_22 | outweighed them. |
9787_23 | In regards to the visual style, IGN said it "looks like a moving cartoon, and every character, right down to the police dogs, is practically overflowing with personality ... It has the type of look that makes non-gamers can't help but be impressed". ODCM called it "gorgeous" and compared it to the move to color television. DC-UK also praised it for resembling 2D cartoon and 3D at the same, and considered it ground-breaking. GamePro wrote that the visuals were one of a kind and that the stylized design was convincing and fun to look at. |
9787_24 | When reviewing the music, GamePro called Jet Set Radio one of the best-sounding games of the year, and ODCM said it had "one of the best soundtracks ever". IGN also praised the soundtrack, but was critical of the tracks added to the North American release, in particular songs from Rob Zombie. Next Generation, however, didn't consider the new tracks to make a difference, stating the soundtrack was incredible from the start. GameSpot felt the soundtrack fit perfectly into the game's environment. |
9787_25 | When reviewing the HD remaster, the game received mixed reactions from critics. GamesRadar+ praised how it is a joy to play even after 12 years since its release. Eurogamer also gave positive statements, calling the visual style "timeless", and complimented the HD remaster, stating "12 years on and this is a surprisingly rigorous game built of oddball delights, then, and the HD updating has only enhanced its charms. The skating's still great, the city's still a joy to explore, and the soundtrack's still one of the very best ever put together". Game Informer was more critical, opining that the gameplay was archaic and frustrating. Game Informer further elaborated that in retrospect, the original release visual style blinded them from its faulty gameplay. Both TouchArcade and Pocket Gamer criticized smartphone versions for the touchscreen controls and unable to keep up with the tasks the game requires. |
9787_26 | Across all versions of the game, including the original and re-releases sales of Jet Set Radio surpassed 1 million copies worldwide.
Accolades
Jet Set Radio won the Best Console Game at the E3 Game Critics Awards in 2000 and was the runner up for Best in Show at the same event. The game won the category of "Excellence in Visual Arts" award, received a "Game Spotlights Award" and was nominated for Game of the year at the 2001 Game Developers Choice Awards. It was nominated for Game Design, Game of the Year, Console Game of the Year, Console Innovation, Original Music Composition, Sound Design, and Visual Engineering at the 4th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards in 2001. It won GameSpot's annual "Best Graphics, Artistic" award among console games, and was nominated in the "Best Game Music" and "Best Platform Game" categories. Gamers' Republic awarded it "Best 3D Game Design" in their 2000 Year in Review. The game was also featured in 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die. |
9787_27 | Legacy and sequel
Jet Set Radio is recognized as one of the first games to feature cel-shaded graphics, with exaggerated shapes, thick lines, and flat, bright colors. Insomniac owner Ted Price credited Jet Set Radio as an influence on their game Sunset Overdrive. Numerous indie developers have cited Jet Set Radio as a major influence on their games, the most notable being the successfully crowdfunded Hover: Revolt of Gamers, Lethal League, and the upcoming Bomb Rush Cyberfunk, all of which draw heavy inspiration from Jet Set Radio's visuals and music and feature contributions from Jet Set Radio composer Hideki Naganuma. The game has also been speedrun at Games Done Quick multiple times. Other notable fan community-based Jet Set Radio projects have been Jet Set Radio Live, a 24/7 browser-based radio station based on the fictional radio station in-game created in January 2016 and the album Memories of Tokyo-To by American musician 2 Mello released February 20, 2018. |
9787_28 | A sequel, Jet Set Radio Future, was released for the Xbox in 2002, early in the system's life cycle. Two main characters, Beat and Gum, appear as playable characters in the games Sega Superstars Tennis and Sonic & All-Stars Racing Transformed, and the former also made an appearance in Archie Comics' Sonic Universe issue 45, an adaptation of the game along with Sonic & Sega All-Stars Racing.
In 2009, an early antagonist in the game, Captain Onishima, was ranked 95th in IGN's "Top 100 Videogame Villains" list. Jet Set Radio as well as Jet Set Radio Future are highly requested games to be ported to the Xbox One, the Xbox Series X/S and the Nintendo Switch. In 2021, Sega teased the possibility of a Jet Set Radio reboot, and announced Beat as a playable character for Super Monkey Ball: Banana Mania.
Notes
References
External links
Restoration of the original Official American website
Official Japanese website |
9787_29 | 2000 video games
3D platform games
Action video games
Android (operating system) games
Dreamcast games
Graffiti and unauthorised signage
IOS games
Java platform games
PlayStation 3 games
PlayStation Network games
PlayStation Vita games
Roller skating video games
Sega Games franchises
Sega video games
Single-player video games
Smilebit games
THQ games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games developed in the United States
Video games featuring protagonists of selectable gender
Video games scored by Hideki Naganuma
Video games scored by Richard Jacques
Video games set in Japan
Video games with cel-shaded animation
Video games with isometric graphics
Windows games
Xbox 360 games
Xbox 360 Live Arcade games |
9788_0 | Berkeley Cars Ltd of Biggleswade, Bedfordshire, England produced economical sporting microcars with motorcycle-derived engines from 322 cc to 692 cc and front wheel drive between 1956 and 1960.
History
The Berkeley automobile was a collaboration between designer Lawrence "Lawrie" Bond and the Berkeley Coachworks factory owned by Charles Panter, which at the time was one of the largest manufacturers of caravans in Europe. It was an ideal project for Berkeley, who had developed considerable skills in the use of Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), and were looking for something to fill the gaps in the very seasonal caravan market. What Panter and Bond wanted to achieve was "something good enough to win World 750cc races... but cheap, safe, easily repairable and pretty." |
9788_1 | The early cars were an immediate success on the home market, and several derivative models were spawned over the four years of car production. Export markets, most notably the United States, were exploited and the cars earned a reputation for fun, if fragile, sports motoring on a budget. Recognising the threat posed by the newly introduced Mini and Austin-Healey Sprite in the late fifties, the company started to develop are a more conventional model with the support of Ford Motor Company.
The caravan market collapsed towards the end of 1960, and Berkeley's poor cash flow forced the company into liquidation on 12 December 1960, taking its car manufacturing activities with it. After having produced about 4100 cars of various types, the workforce was laid off shortly before Christmas that year. An attempted sale of the company to Sharp's Commercials Ltd (manufacturer of the Bond Minicar) came to nothing, and the company's assets were liquidated in 1961. |
9788_2 | The factory was later used by Kayser Bondor Ltd to make women's underwear, but it was demolished in 2002 and the site turned over to housing. A road named 'Berkeley Close' in the housing estate provides the only obvious link to the car factory.
Today there is an active owner's club (the Berkeley Enthusiasts' Club), which provides a range of parts and services aimed at preserving the remaining few hundred cars known to survive worldwide.
Models
Sports (SA322) |
9788_3 | Berkeley's first production car was the 'Sports' (type SA322), announced in September 1956 and produced from October 1956 to January 1957. Production began with two prototypes (registered RMJ395 and RMJ946), which were seen being tested with enthusiasm around the neighbourhood of Biggleswade in the late summer of 1956. Stirling Moss drove one at Goodwood in September, and the car was launched to the public at the 1956 London Motor Show – one year ahead of the Lotus Elite, which was also to be of fibreglass monocoque construction. |
9788_4 | Bond's attractive 2-seater open tourer design capitalised on Berkeley's GRP experience, and consisted of three large mouldings (floor or 'punt', nose, tail) with no conventional chassis. The front edges to the doors slanted forward so that when the doors were opened they hinged upwards and then closed by themselves. Although usually configured as a two-seater with simple bench seat, a hatch could be removed from behind the front seat, revealing a compartment normally containing the spare wheel and some luggage space which could double as a basic seat for a small child. Equipment was basic, even the fuel gauge was an optional extra. |
9788_5 | Power was provided by a British Anzani twin-cylinder 322 cc two-stroke engine producing and mounted transversely, driving the front wheels via a chain and three-speed gearbox. The engine was already used by various motorcycle manufacturers such as Cotton and Greeves, but in the Berkeley was fitted with a Siba Dynastart to provide both battery charging and electric starting. It was a very advanced two-stroke engine which incorporated a rotary inlet valve mechanism in the centre of the crankshaft. The gearbox was a three-speed Albion HJR5, using a steering column-mounted gearchange.
The car had all-round independent suspension by coil springs and in spite of the tiny engine gave remarkably good performance owing to its light weight (kerb weight is ) and excellent roadholding. Girling hydraulic brakes with drums were used. |
9788_6 | The identification plate was a plain stamped alloy rectangle fitted on the engine bay side wall just above the Dynastart and marked SA322 B1 etc. (Sports Anzani 322 cc Berkeley Chassis number 1).
Sports (SE328)
After 163 of the SA322 cars had been manufactured, a change was made to the SE328 model with a 328 cc Excelsior engine offering . The production run ran from Jan 1957 to April 1958 with chassis numbers from 164 to 1422, many being exported to the United States where it sold for approximately $1600 (equivalent to $ today). The manufacture touted the number 70, meaning it could reach and had an average fuel economy of 70 mpg. The export model was differentiated by having separate headlamps whereas on the home market they were faired into the wings, although the export type lamps could be specified. |
9788_7 | Early cars from Jan 1957 to about chassis number 476 in June 1957 still used a column gear change. During their production run a Deluxe model was offered which was bodily the same but featured polished wheel trims and spinners, tachometer and twin carburettors. The chassis plate was similar to the Anzani type on the early cars but was later changed to a printed type fitted to the bulkhead above the brake master cylinder. The printed type chassis plate had type ‘SE328’ printed on it. Most of these cars had the three-speed gearbox similar to the Anzani except for the mounting flanges. All of the cars had the sloping leading edges to the doors.
Motor magazine tested a 328 cc Berkeley in 1957 and found it to have a top speed of and acceleration from 0- in 30.6 seconds. Fuel consumption of was recorded. The test car cost £574 on the home market including taxes of £152 (equivalent to £ today). |
9788_8 | The SE328 enjoyed considerable success and press exposure through their involvement with lightweight motor racing, and their famous drivers included Pat Moss who drove one in the 1958 Liège-Brescia-Liège rally for cars up to 500 cc. The Berkeley team – a works-supported entry of six cars including BBC commentator Robin Richards – led as far as Slovenia, but slow climbing in summer heat found their weakness and Pat ended up being towed back to Italy by another Berkeley. None of the Berkeleys finished the event.
Sports and Twosome (SE492) |
9788_9 | In late 1957 a new derivative model was introduced, using a , Excelsior three-cylinder 492 cc engine with triple carburettors. This engine configuration was made possible by the vertically split crankcase of the Excelsior engine and modular crankshaft and barrels, which made adding a central cylinder relatively easy. A four speed gearbox was standardised. The top speed was now . Production ran from October 1957 to March 1959 with chassis numbered 1 to 666. From about October 1958, in order to coincide with the introduction of the 'Foursome' (see below), they were renamed the ‘Twosome’. Also at the 1958 Motor Show a Fixed Head (or Hardtop) was announced and displayed that had external as well as the usual internal door handles, but there are no records that this body style actually reached production. |
9788_10 | It is probable that cars pre chassis number 120 (approx), about April 1958, had similar bodies to the early Berkeley “Sports” cars. Cars from about April 1958 to the end of production had vertical front door edges and internal door hinges, as well as body moulding and a few mechanical changes. Early cars were fitted with the four speed TR gearbox whilst later cars had the larger and stronger VR gearbox.
The cars enjoyed some success in Motor Sport and Giovanni Lurani bought three which he took to Italy, fitted them with his own design of hardtop, and running them in the 750 cc GT class, one driven by Lorenzo Bandini finishing first in the 1958 Monza 12 hour race. |
9788_11 | Reliability, always questionable with the air-cooled two-strokes, became more of an issue with the extra heat generated by the triple, and there are many recorded reports of warranty claims. At one point the US authorities appear to have stopped a shipment of Berkeleys at the dock pending rectification of what they considered a serious design issue. There seems little doubt that profitability of the Berkeley programme was affected as a result of these claims and the aggressive export drive to markets not familiar with the eccentricities of British sports motoring.
Foursome |
9788_12 | Announced in October 1958, this model was wider and longer than its forebears and differed structurally in that the rear swinging arms were lower and external to the body, and the spare wheel was mounted at the rear of the car. The type reference is supposed to be SE492/4 but one has the reference B.100. The chassis numbers are D1/1 to D1/19 but then again one example has D1/100, this particular car could be the prototype since it appears in publicity pictures.
The list price of the Foursome was £700 including Purchase Tax, with an additional £28 for the optional hardtop (equivalent to £ and £ today).
B95 and B105 |
9788_13 | The B95 and B105 models were launched at the 1959 Geneva Motor Show and boasted more power from twin-cylinder Royal Enfield 692 cc four-stroke engines, with the Super Meteor engine in the B95 and the Constellation unit in the B105 which could reputedly exceed mark. The engines featured Berkeley-design primary chain cases to accommodate a Lucas Bendix starter motor, an external Lucas dynamo mounted above the gearbox, and a duplex (or double-row) chain drive to the differential. Kerb weight increased to . B95 engine numbers have the unique prefix 'SMTB', while B105 engines are prefixed 'SMUA'. |
9788_14 | The prototype car was SE492 chassis number 638, which was modified to add bracing to withstand the extra power and weight of the four-stroke engine, a taller bonnet (US hood) with large grille to accommodate the engine, and unfaired headlights. In mid-February 1959 this car spent two weeks at the Royal Enfield factory, during which time it covered of general road use and of endurance testing at MIRA.
By the time of the press release announcing the launch of the B95 in March 1959, a further of road and track tests had also been carried out by Berkeley factory drivers. Perhaps to address the reputation for breaking down that the two-strokes had developed, especially in export markets, it was emphasised by the factory that during this testing there had been no involuntary stops or any form of mechanical failure, and that further testing would be performed until a total of had been completed. |
9788_15 | At its launch, the B95 cost £659 (equivalent to £ today). Chassis numbers followed on from the SE492 series, and chassis number 670 (the earliest known B95) was registered at the end of March 1959. The first B105, chassis number 686, was delivered about one month later. Series production continued to chassis number 835. A separate batch of about 12 cars (chassis numbers 850 to 861) appear to have been made for Mantles Garage in the summer of 1960, which used some chassis parts and the bucket seats of the T60.
About 178 B95 and B105 models were made in total, of which approximately 15 to 20 cars were sold to export markets.
QB95 and QB105 |
9788_16 | In October 1959 the Q range was announced, with longer and wider bodies the same dimensions as the Foursome. The wheelbase went up from to and the track from to . The Qs were four seaters (just), although the QB version dispensed with the rear seat to give extra luggage space. The only 'official' mention comes from the Autocar magazine's Motor Show edition of October 1959, when it appears that Berkeley's stand featured a red soft-top QB95 and a blue QB105 with a black hard-top. From this single reference it is assumed that Berkeley built at least two models of this series, although none are thought to have survived.
T60 |
9788_17 | Surprisingly late-on in the British microcar boom of the 1950s, Berkeley's only three-wheeler model was not introduced until September 1959. It was an instant success in the UK where three-wheelers could legally be driven on a motorcycle licence, so were suitable for a motorcyclist with family. Another advantage was that the purchase and road tax fees for three-wheelers cost considerably less than four-wheeled vehicles. Thus at its launch, the T60 only cost £400 (equivalent to £ today). |
9788_18 | They were fitted with the 328 cc Excelsior Talisman engine like the older SE328, and the four speed and reverse type VR gearbox, and were available as both soft and hardtops. The chassis plate, mounted on the bulkhead above the brake master cylinder, was the printed SE328 type but with 'T60' stamped in the chassis number block along with the chassis number. Chassis numbers run from 1 to approximately 1800. The first 600 cars (approximately) had a bench seat with an umbrella-type pull handbrake and aluminium reinforcement sections in the punt body section. Cars thereafter had steel punt chassis sections, bucket seats and a floor-mounted handbrake lever.
In their road test of October 1959, The Motor Cycle magazine described the car as "a fascinating, front-wheel-drive sports car which combines economy with liveliness and superb cornering." |
9788_19 | Drive was still to the front wheels through a four-speed gearbox, but a trailing arm replaced the swing axle independent suspension of the four-wheeled cars. The very last cars had a revised ‘unit’ front and rear suspension layout, presumably to stop the bridge over the differential from breaking and the rear damper top mount detaching itself from the car.
T60/4
The T60/4 was produced from October 1960 and are mechanically and outwardly similar to the late T60. It was the same length and width as the standard T60, but differed in having extra room in the back for two seats, the additional space being created by a revised rear body moulding, thus creating proper seats in the back for two children. The rear bench seat was fastened to the car and the centre backrest had a bulge in it because of the revised rear wheel arch. The Car was available in both soft-top and hardtop forms. These cars used the revised front and rear suspension layouts used on the very late T60s. |
9788_20 | The T60/4 had its own series of chassis numbers, prefixed "T60.4" and followed by a serial number. About 50 were made.
Both variants of T60 were in production at the time the company was declared insolvent in December 1960.
B65
The B65 was announced in September 1960 to complement the T60, B95 and B105. They were bodily the same as late SE492, complete with the lower front right hand side bulge in the punt to accommodate the larger 492 cc engine, but were fitted with the 328 cc Excelsior engine.
Although logically these cars should have run from chassis number 1422 to 1520, it seems more likely that chassis numbers ranged from 1500 to 1520. Very few of these cars are known to exist and the ones that do seem to suggest a production run of about 20 cars or fewer. The type reference marked on the chassis plate is B65.
Bandit |
9788_21 | For 1961, the intention was to move into the mainstream sports car market with the Bandit designed by John Tojeiro. This was to be powered by the 997 cc Ford engine (as in the 105E Anglia) with Berkeley-designed MacPherson strut front and independent rear suspension. The car had a complex sheet steel chassis, braced by a GRP floor which was riveted to it, and boasted 8in diameter Girling disc brakes at the front. This made the design more conventional than earlier models, but still retaining a distinctive design and relatively light weight. |
9788_22 | The cost of the development programme exacerbated the financial difficulties facing the company at the end of 1960, and despite active involvement in the project from Ford the Bandit failed to survive Berkeley's insolvency. Only two prototypes were produced; the original Motor Show and press car registration number 700CNM, which has since been restored, and a second prototype car registered YRX292, which had a 1340 cc Ford Classic engine. This car was sold in Dursley in 1966 and was last seen in Swindon in the late 1960s.
The car was to have sold for £798, equivalent to about £ today, which would have made it more expensive than the Mini and Austin-Healey Sprite. |
9788_23 | Replicas
In the 1980s a new company was formed in Syston, Leicestershire, to restore Berkeley cars. By 1991 it was using the original moulds to make new body panels and in 1993 complete T60 cars were being made with a new ladder type chassis. A choice of engines was available, including Mini, Citroen 2CV and motorcycle units.
In the late 1980s, in Auckland, New Zealand, a few cars called the 'Ibis Berkeley' were made that paid homage to the Berkeley—but using Mini front and rear subframes and a fibreglass monocoque 6 inches wider. Sold as complete body units to accept Mini parts by Ian Byrd and Tim Monck-Mason, these were advanced little cars using carbon fibre and foam beams. This later became the WASP, looking more like a scaled down Cobra. |
9788_24 | Resumption as Berkeley Coachworks
In 2020 news media reported that production of the Berkeley Bandit would begin in 2021 at the Old Warden aerodrome in Biggleswade, Bedfordshire. The Berkeley Coachworks web site claimed that several designs had been completed, and showed Roadster and GT versions of a new Bandit model.
See also
List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom
References
External links
Berkeley Cars
Berkeley pictures
Berkeley Enthusiasts Club
Berkeley Sportscars in the USA
Berkeley cars database
Berkeley Coachworks
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of England
Sports car manufacturers
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
Front-wheel-drive sports cars
Microcars
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1956
Companies based in Bedfordshire
1956 establishments in England
1960 disestablishments in England |
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