Eureka Moments with the Irish Copula: 
A Crib Sheet



The copula looked easy at first glance. But the devil was in the detail.



Drawing on my own series of eureka moments, I've pulled together all the information I encountered while completing the Duolingo Irish lessons, focusing on **Classification and Identification** sentences. I’ve tacked on a brief teaser at the end for negation, question/response, copula inherent in questions, and other idioms. **When you spot errors, please post and I will make corrections.** 


Since this “crib sheet” has grown to the length of a short chapter, I don’t always include numerous examples.  **But if you have favorite Duolingo examples just say the word and I’ll add them.** 


**THE BASICS**



Use the copula ***"is"*** to link the subject (noun/pronoun) to the predicate (noun/pronoun) in a relationship of equivalence. 



> 
> **X = Y**
> 
> 
> 
> 


Equivalence comes in two flavors, **classification** (X is "**a**" Y) and **identification** (X is "**the**" Y): 


**CLASSIFICATION** (X is **“a”** Y)   

 --The **predicate is always INDEFINITE** (a teacher, a doctor, an animal, teachers, doctors, animals)  

--Expresses class membership. **X (the subject) belongs to class Y (the predicate).** 



> 
> ***Is dochtúir í.*** She is a doctor. (classification: “She” belongs to the class “doctor.”) 
> 
> 
> ***Is fear é.*** He is a man. (classification: "He" belongs to the class “man”.) 
> 
> 
> ***Is portán é.*** It is a crab. (classification: “It” belongs to the class “crab.”)
> 
> 
> ***Ba dhochtúir mé .*** I was a doctor. (classification: “I” belonged to the class “doctor.”) *Ba* causes lenition 
> 
> 
> ***B’aisteoir é.*** He was an actor. (classification: “he” belonged to the class “actor”.) Use *b’* if the following word begins with a vowel
> 
> 
> 


**IDENTIFICATION** (X is **“the”** Y)   

--The **predicate is always DEFINITE**, i.e., noun with definite article (the river, the trees, the shop), noun with a possessive pronoun (my horse, your book, their ice cream) or proper noun (Niamh, Dublin, Apple).  

--Expresses identity of subject and predicate. **X (the subject) and Y (the predicate) refer to the same entity.** 



> 
> ***Is í an dochtúir an bhean.*** The woman is the doctor. (identification: “The woman” and “the doctor” refer to the same person.) 
> 
> 
> ***Is é mo dheartháir é.*** He is my brother. (identification: “He” and “my brother” refer to the same person.) 
> 
> 
> ***Is é Pól uachtarán na hÉireann.*** Paul is the President of Ireland. (identification: “Paul” and “the President of Ireland” refer to the same person.) 
> 
> 
> ***Is í an léachtóir í.*** She is the lecturer. (identification: “She” and “lecturer” refer to the same person.)
> 
> 
> 


**An important HINT** while we’re dealing with basics. Don’t confuse ***“is”*** with ***“tá”.*** Use ***“is”*** when the predicate is a **noun/pronoun** and use ***“tá”*** when the predicate is an **adjective.** 



> 
> ***Is capaill iad.*** They are horses. 
> 
> 
> ***Tá sí óg.*** She is young.
> 
> 
> 


**PRONOUNS WITH THE COPULA**   

As you can see from all examples above, the copula uses the pronouns ***é, í, iad*** instead of ***sé, sí, siad*** (used with *tá* and all other conjugated verbs). 


The copula also the uses ***ea,*** the **neuter pronoun** meaning **“it”.** 


***Emphatic pronouns*** are used in some copula constructions: ***mé/mise, tú/tusa,*** ***sibh/sibhse,*** . The emphatic forms area usually preferred for the 1st person and 2nd person with the copula. 



> 
> ***Is mise Tara.*** I am Tara. 
> 
> 
> 


**SUBPREDICATES**   

**The copula construction follows this basic pattern:** 



> 
> **COPULA + PREDICATE + SUBJECT.** 
> 
> 
> ***Is dochtúir é.*** He is a doctor.
> 
> 
> 


This basic pattern can be tweaked slightly by the insertion of a *subpredicate.* The historical explanation for subpredicates is the subject of fractious debate, but for standard Irish, the pragmatic explanation most commonly presented is that a DEFINITE NOUN cannot stand directly after the COPULA. To prevent this from occurring a pronoun, called at “subpredicate,” is inserted.


If the subject of a sentence is a **DEFINITE** noun (the woman, my father, Paul), then the subpredicate will be a pronoun (***í, é, iad,*** etc.) agreeing in gender/number with the subject. In the example below the subpredicate ***"é"*** is inserted between the copula ***"is"*** and the DEFINITE noun "an fear". ***Is dochtúir é an fear.*** The man is a doctor. (*"é"* agrees in gender/number with the DEFINITE noun subject *"an fear"*)


If the predicate of a sentence is also a **DEFINITE** noun (the man, my mother, Niamh) and the predicate is also a **DEFINITE** noun (the man, my mother, Niamh), then the subpredicate will be a pronoun (***í, é, iad,*** etc.) agreeing in gender/number with the subject. In the example below the subpredicate ***"é"*** is inserted between the copula ***"is"*** and the DEFINITE nouns *"an dochtúir"* and *"an fear"*. ***Is é an dochtúir an fear.*** The man is the doctor (*"é"* agrees in gender/number with the DEFINITE subject *"an fear"*)


If the predicate is an **INDEFINITE** noun (a man, a doctor, a girl), that predicate can be shifted to the front of the sentence for emphasis, then the subpredicate ***ea***, the NEUTER PRONOUN, will be used regardless of the gender/number of the subject. The INDEFINITE predicate is shifted to the front of the sentence and the subpredicate "ea" is placed between the copula and the DEFINITE noun subject. ***Dochtúir is ea an fear.*** The man is a doctor! (doctor emphasized; "ea" the neuter pronoun is used regardless of gender/number of subject)


You can get a better idea of how subpredicates work by looking at further examples below showing the copula in sentences of CLASSIFICATION, “X is *a* Y” (predicate is INDEFINITE (a woman, a doctor, a boy) and IDENTIFICATION, "X is *the* Y" (predicate is DEFINITE (the doctor, my brother, Paul). 


**WORD ORDER PATTERNS WITH THE COPULA--EXAMPLES**



Now we have all the pieces and some stickum. Let’s make our own sentences. The point here is to consolidate "all of the above" into common colloquial patterns that you can use in everyday speech.


**CLASSIFICATION,** the predicate is always INDEFINITE



**"X is a Y"**



***Is dochtúir í.***



She is a doctor.



copula (*Is* ) + predicate (INDEFINITE NOUN *dochtúir* ) + subject (PRONOUN *í* )



> 
> both subject and predicate are INDEFINITE 
> 
> 
> 


**"the X is a Y"**



***Is dochtúir é an fear.***



The man is a doctor.



copula (*Is* ) + predicate (INDEFINITE NOUN *dochtúir* ) + subpredicate (*é* ) + subject (DEFINITE NOUN *an fear* ) 



> 
> subject is DEFINITE; predicate is INDEFINITE 
> 
> 
> Literally: The man is he, a doctor. 
> 
> 
> A subpredicate (*é*) is placed before the DEFINITE noun subject (*an fear*). It matches the subject in gender/number 
> 
> 
> 


**"X is a Y"** (with EMPHASIS)**



For emphasis shift the predicated “dochtúir” in the sentence ***Is dochtúir í.*** (She is a doctor) to the front of the sentence. In the resulting blank space, ***Dochtúir is \_\_\_ í.*** insert ***ea***, the neuter pronoun, regardless of the gender/number of the noun being emphasized. 


***Dochtúir is ea í.***



She is a doctor! (doctor emphasized)



predicate (INDEFINITE noun *Dochtúir*; emphasized) + copula (*is* ) + subpredicate (*ea* ) + PRONOUN subject (*í* ) 



> 
> Literally: A doctor, is it she. 
> 
> 
> 


**IDENTIFICATION,** the predicate is always DEFINITE



**"She is the Y"**



***Is í an léachtóir í.***



She is the lecturer.



Copula (*Is* ) + subpredicate (*í* ) + Predicate (DEFINITE noun *an léachtóir* ) + pronominal subject (*í* ) 



> 
> predicate is DEFINITE noun; subject is PRONOUN, 3rd person 
> 
> 
> Literally: She is she, the lecturer.
> 
> 
> 


**"I am the Y"**



***Is mise an dochtúir.***



I am the doctor.



Copula (*Is* ) + subject (*mise* ) + predicate (*an dochtúir* )



> 
> EMPHATIC pronoun preferred in 1st and 2nd persons 
> 
> 
> predicate is DEFINITE noun; subject is PRONOUN, 1st and 2nd person
> 
> 
> 


**"The X is the Y"**



***Is é an dochtúir an fear.***



The man is the doctor.



Copula (*Is* ) + subpredicate (*é* ) + predicate (DEFINITE noun *an dochtúir* ) + subject (DEFINITE noun *an fear* ) 



> 
> literally: "The man is he, the doctor." 
> 
> 
> predicate is DEFINITE; subject is DEFINITE
> 
> 
> 


**"Séamus is the Y"**



***Is é Séamus an múinteoir.***



Séamus is the teacher.



Copula (*Is* ) + subpredicate (*é* ) + subject (DEFINITE:PROPER NOUN *Séamus* ) + predicate (DEFINITE noun *an múinteoir* ) 



> 
> predicate is DEFINITE; subject is DEFINITE (Proper noun) 
> 
> 
> (pronoun added after copula; agrees in gender/number with the subject) 
> 
> 
> 


**"This/that is the Y"**



***Is é seo an peann.***



This is the pen.




> 
> subject is a demonstrative pronoun 
> 
> 
> 


***Seo an peann.***



This is the pen.




> 
> Simple structure. *Is é* can be dropped in affirmative statements.
> 
> 
> 


**NEGATION**



Some people describe the copula as a defective verb. Some describe it as a particle. On the practical level, if you think of the copula as a particle rather than as a verb, it makes it very easy to understand how other particles like ní, níor, an, ar, etc. can replace the copula in negative sentences or in question/response. 


***Ní*** replaces *is* in negative sentences (add "h" if word following *Ní* begins with a vowel.)  

***Níor*** replaces *ba* in negative sentences (causes lenition)  

***Níorbh*** replaces *ba* in negative sentences if the word following begins with a vowel 


EXAMPLES   

***Ní fear mé.*** I am not a man  

***Ní mé an dochtúir.*** I am not the doctor.   

***Ní hí an léachtóir í***. She is not the lecturer. (add "h" if word following *Ní* begins with a vowel.)  

***Ní hé an dochtúir an fear***. The man is not the doctor. (add "h" if word following *Ní* begins with a vowel.) 


***Níor dhochtúir í.***  He was not a doctor. (causes lenition)   

***Níorbh aisteoir é.*** He was not an actor. (use *níorbh* if following word begins with a vowel)


**QUESTION/RESPONSE**



 Question:


***An*** replaces *is* (**DOES NOT** cause eclipsis when replacing copula)  

***Ar*** replaces *ba*  

***Arbh*** replaces *ba* if the word following begins with a vowel   

*Ar* replaces *is* in Connacht Irish; *ab* if the following word begins with a vowel.   

***Nach*** replaces *is* for a negative question  

***Nár*** replaces *ba* for a negative question  

***Nárbh*** replaces *ba* for a negative question if the word following begins with a vowel


 Response:


USE ***ea*** in the response if the **predicate is INDEFINITE** (h-prothesis , add an initial “h” to *"ea"* following *Ní*: *Ní hea*.) 


Use the **personal pronoun** (*í, é, iad,* etc. ) that matches the gender/number of the subject if the **predicate is DEFINITE** (add "h" if word following *ní* begins with a vowel: *Ní hé*.) 


 EXAMPLES


***An dochtúir í?*** Is she a doctor? (no eclipsis) ***Is ea.*** Yes, she is. ***Ní hea.*** ((add "h" if word following *Ní* begins with a vowel.) No, she isn’t.   

***An portán é?*** (no eclipsis ) Is it a crab? ***Is ea.*** Yes, it is. ***Ní hea.*** (h-prothesis) No, it isn’t  

***An dochtúir é Pól?*** Is Paul a doctor? (no eclipsis) ***Sea.*** (Sea is the contracted form of *Is ea*) Yes. ***Ní hea.*** (h-prothesis) No, he isn’t.   

***An peann é sin?*** (NO ECLIPSIS) Is that a pen? ***Is ea.*** Yes, it is. ***Ní hea.*** (h-prothesis) 


***An é an portán é?*** Is it the crab. ***Is é.*** Yes it is. ***Ní hé.*** (h-prothesis) No it isn’t.  

***An í Máire mo mhúinteoir?*** Is Mary my teacher. ***Is í.*** Yes, she is. ***Ní hí.*** (h-prothesis) No, she isn’t.   

***An é Pól an dochtúir?*** Is Paul the doctor? ***Is é.*** Yes, he is. ***Ní hé.*** (h-prothesis) No, he isn’t. 


***An mise an léachtóir?*** Am I the lecturer? ***Is tú.*** Yes you are. ***Ní tú.*** No you aren’t.  

***An sibhse a tuismitheoirí?*** Are you her parents? ***Is muid.*** Yes we are. ***Ní muid.*** No we aren’t.  

***An tusa Seán?*** Are you Seán? ***Is mé.*** Yes, I am. ***Ní mé.*** No, I am not. 


***An é seo an peann?*** Is this the pen? ***Is é.*** Yes, it is. ***Ní hé.*** (h-prothesis) No, it isn’t  

***An é sin m'athair?*** Is that my father? ***Is é.*** Yes, it is. ***Ní hé.*** (h-prothesis) No, it isn’t  

***Ar dochtúir í*** (Is she a doctor?) Connacht Irish  

***Ab ise an dochtúir*** (Is she the doctor?) Connacht Irish


***Ar mhúinteoir í?*** Was she a teacher? (+lenition) ***Ba í.*** Yes, she was. ***Níorbh í.*** No, she wasn’t.  

***Arbh é an múinteoir?*** Was he the teacher? ***Ba é.*** Yes, he was. ***Níorbh é.*** No, he wasn’t.  

***Nach dochtúir mé?*** Am I not a doctor?  

***Nar dochtúir mé?*** Was I not the doctor? 


**THE HIDDEN COPULA IN QUESTIONS**



The copula is inherent in many question words. In those instances, the response will also take the copula.   

Take a look at a couple of examples from the Duolingo course to understand this more fully: 


***Cé?*** = Who [is]? The copula *is* is inherent in *cé* (Who is?). So the response to *cé* questions also includes the copula.  

***Cé tú?*** Who are you? (copula inherent in *cé*) / *Is múinteoir mé.* I am a teacher.  

***Cé hí?*** Who is she (copula inherent in *cé*; h-prothesis) / *Is múinteoir í.* She is a teacher.  

***Cé hé?*** Who is he? (copula inherent in *cé*; h-prothesis) / *Is múinteoir é.* He is a teacher.  

***Cé hiad?*** Who are they? (copula inherent in *cé*; h-prothesis) / ***Is múinteoirí iad.*** They are teachers. 


***Cér?*** = Who [was]? The copula *ba* is inherent in *cér* (Who was?). So the response to *cér* questions also includes the copula.  

***Cérbh?*** Who [was] (Use *cérbh* instead of *cér* if the following word begins with a vowel)  

***Cér tú?*** Who were you? / ***Ba mhúinteoir mé.*** (+lenition) I was a teacher.  

***Cerbh iad?*** Who were they? / ***Ba mhúinteoirí iad.*** (causes lenition) They are teachers. 


***Cad*** =What [is]? (the copula *is* is inherent in *cad* ) 


***Cad é do cheist?*** What is your question? That is: What is it, your question?   

This sentence has two clauses: 



> 
> ***Cad é*** What [is] it  
> 
> ***do cheist*** your question 
> 
> 
> 


Knowing the copula is inherent in *cad* helps us understand another Duolingo example:  

***Cad atá sin?*** What is that? More literally: What is it, which that is? 


*Cad* What [is it] the copula *is* is inherent in *cad*; “it” is also implied in this instance   

*a* is a relative pronoun which/that (“which” used with a comma, “that” used without a comma) introducing a new clause (tá sin=that is)  

*tá* is  

*sin* that


So two clauses:  

*Cad* What [is it]  

*atá sin* which that is (*a* and *tá* contract to *atá* )


**OTHER IDIOMATIC USES**



**Liking and Preference**  

***Is maith linn seacláid.*** We like chocolate.  

***Ba mhaith liom é sin.*** I would like that.  

***B'fhearr liom tae.*** I would prefer tea.  

***Arbh fhearr leat caifé?*** Would you prefer coffee? 


**Name**  

***Yu Ming is ainm dom.*** My name is Yu Ming. (Literally: Yu Ming is name to me) 


**Place of Origin**  

***Is as Éirinn di.*** She is from Ireland. 


**Ownership**  

***Is linne é.*** It is ours. (Literally, It is with us [permanently]. *linne*= *linn* + the emphatic suffix *–ne*   

***Is le Pól an carr.*** The car belongs to Paul. (Literally: The car is with Paul [permanently].) 


**Superlative**  

***an fear is mó*** the biggest man 


 I made no attempt at a comprehensive survey of the literature or anything else. I went for whatever caught my fancy. :D :D :D


My main references were the Duolingo “Notes and Tips,” sentences and attached posts! Additional sources consulted include:


For the catalog of syntax:  

<http://www.nualeargais.ie/gnag/kopul1.htm>


Thoughts on Linguistic Theory:  

<https://corkirish.wordpress.com/2012/10/21/understanding-the-copula/> 


Terms and Examples:  

<http://people.fas.harvard.edu/~hillers/BUNTUS-summer.pdf>


Ongoing translation of the *Caighdeán* into English: 
<https://caighdean.home.blog/chapter-7-the-copula/>
For native speakers, the *ba* form is normally the **conditional**. It only becomes the past tense in context. So, it's more correct to say that *Ba dhoctúir í* means "She **would be** a doctor" but can also be the past, instead of suggesting it the other way around. Also, for tenses/moods/aspects that *don't* have a copular form, you can't use it. *Is docthúr thú* can *never* be "you will be a doctor". You would say *Beidh tú i do dhochtúir* instead.


So, essentially, the one issue I had is with you using *ba* as the past, since that's the marked (not normal) form for native speakers, with the unmarked (the natural interpretation) being the conditional.


Also, just to add a little dialectal variety: Before a vowel in Connacht Irish, *cé* can become *cérb*, so you get *Cérb í* instead of *cé hí*. An, instead on *an* in the present tense, you'll see *ar*, with *ab* before a vowel.


*Ar dochtúir í* (Is she a doctor)


*Ab ise an dochtúir* (Is she the doctor)
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 rezultatul [Problem play](https://englishsummary.com/problem-play/) takes up important issues of the society using the way of conversation between the characters or actors in the play before the audience. These characters express different ideas which clash with each other. These clashing ideas help the audience and the readers to understand the issue and reach a solution on their own.


In Pygmalion by GB Shaw, Professor Henry Higgins makes Cockney speaking flower girl Eliza Doolittle to master English. He succeeds in doing so within six months. Eliza succeeds in learning English and can speak it fluently. However, the rise in her standard because of her language now becomes a problem for her.


She develops the feeling of love for Professor Higgins but the latter remains cold to it. She can neither live with him nor she can go back to flower-selling business. Having no choice she has to marry Freddy, a poor and petty man.


This is what a person who is poor and uneducated feels when he suddenly becomes rich and literate. Hence it is a problem play. The playwright leaves it to the audience to decide what Eliza should have done. dear student,

anaphora : the use of a word referring back to a
word used earlier in the chapter is known as anaphora meaning the
use of synonyms to refer to one single thing
repetition is the simple repeating of a word, within a
sentence or a poetical line, with no particular placement of the
words
metaphor is an implied simile it is different from
simile because like similes they do not state that one thing is
like another or acts as another but takes that for granted and
proceeds as if the two things were one

â€‹â€‹â€‹â€‹â€‹â€‹â€‹regards first, let me teach you about filtering. it's the point of view character telling the reader what sense she used to experience what's happening, or that she used her brain to figure something out or remember something. not only does it add needless words, but it adds "psychic distance" between the reader and the character's experiences. you can look for the words that commonly filter: knew, thought, considered, regarded, wondered, noticed, was aware, sensed, felt, saw, hoped, realized, smelled, heard and it seemed, looked like, appeared, was obvious/apparent. decide on a case-by-case basis whether it's there to filter the point-of-view character's experience, and if it is, rewrite it.

so we'll start with getting rid of what the pov character used to determine what her master was doing. that leaves something like: my master loomed over my shoulder, holding a chain that connected to my collar. (or whatever there is to connect it to.)

is this sexual material? a master must be male, or present as male, and in a submissive character's point of view, the title is capitalized. a "female master" is generally a mistress, madam, domme, or similar title, also capitalized.

the reader needs to know more that what the pov character sees. if she feels the need to look up at her mistress, it's for a reason. did she feel new weight on a collar? hear chain clink? feel eyes on her? 

and last, get some feeling in there. how does the narrator react to being chained at the neck, both physically and emotionally? not understood actually. plz clarify in detail technical vocab – phil 1010 lecture 2 key: terms – \_\_\_ topics – \_\_\_ important – \_\_\_  what is an argument? o arguments are statements that represent an inference. o premises are statements that support a conclusion.  what is an inference? o inferences are thoughts that we believe is true.  inferences can take place conscious or unconsciously. o inferences are implicit while arguments are explicit. o implicit thoughts are implied, suggested, or understood but not directly expressed. o explicit thoughts are usually overly expressed.  sentences & statements o sentences are grammatically correct string of words. o declarative sentences can be either true or fa 修改為正確的句子
1. what does selina want we need to know
>>>we need to know what selina wants. 這裡名詞子句是受詞不能放在句首 也不需放助動詞

2. what jones needs is a new house. 這句是正確的 這裡名詞子句是主詞故放在句首 名詞子句是不需放助動詞 除非否定 如 what jones doesn"t　need is a new house.　而且位置是如一般句　而非標準問句形式　what jones needs 當名詞用故句尾加句點　而非問號

修改成一個完整句子
3. (who is coming to the party?) i do not know.
＞＞ i do not know ｗho is coming to the party.　如第一題　而且句首非問句形式　所以加句點　　如果改為　do you know ｗho is coming to the party? 則加問號　　

4. (why did they give up their daughter?) is a secret.
＞＞why they gave up their daughter is a secret.　如第二題　ｗｈ作為名詞子句就整個當名詞用　已不再是問句了　適用所以不再標準問句形式

1.疑問詞為首的名詞子句需要放助動詞嗎　如上解釋

2.還有未來式為首的名詞子句要如何修改 will
where she will go is a secret place. 和上述句子一樣放標準未來式句子的位置 dear student,

mr keesing was an old maths teacher at anne’s school he was
very strict by nature he would not tolerate anyone talking in his
class naturally, he remained quiet annoyed with anne who was no
doubt the chatterbox he would punish her by giving her extra
homework anne would stuff her assigned homework with such funny
contents that not only the class but even mr keesing felt greatly
delighted but mr keesing still failed to stop anne's habit of
chattering in the class with the intention of making a mockery of
anne he gave her an essay to write on the topic: ‘quack,
quack, quack,’ mrs chatterbox anne wrote her essay in the
form of a story in verse it told the story of a mother duck and a
father swan the father bites his three ducklings to death because
they quacked too much the father in the poem is clearly mr keesing
and the ducklings are the children of his class luckily mr keesing
took the joke the right way he enjoyed this poem and read it to
several classes he stopped giving anne any extra homework he
allowed her to talk in the class he even started making jokes with
the children thus we see how even mr keesing got infected by anne's
sense of humour

regards university of california davis prof: alissa shubb intro to public speaking cmn 001 public speaking criterion ● public speaking situations ○ communicative intention ie. inform, persuade, entertain ○ unintended speaking ○ multiple listeners immediacy effect ● when engaging with the speaker you become more engaged in the message ○ increases the significance of the message and how well it gets across delivery style ● formal ○ written out and memorized/ read (manuscripted) ● impromptu ● extemporaneous confrontation reaction ● physiological reaction ○ adrenaline (fight or flight reaction) ○ spikes at the moment you see the audience and then begins to dissipate in 90s anticipation reaction ● msom 301 exam #2 review guide chapters 9, 10, 11, 12, and 15  50 multiple choice questions worth one point each (plus an extra credit question worth one point)  review (don’t memorize) all powerpoint slides on blackboard and your notes  bring a #2 pencil and a blank scantron form, and valid gmu id.  i post your grade on blackboard; i do not return the test. please note – the number of questions given below for each chapter might not equal to  the number of topics since, in a few instances, there is more than one question on a topic. chapter 9 ­ 9 questions  managing diversity/providing opportunities o managing diversity and inclusion­ managing a culturally diverse  workforce by recognizing the characteristics common to specific group of  employees while dealing with such employees as individuals and  supporting, nurturing, and utilizing their differences to the organization’s  advantage o equal employment opportunity (eeo): “freedom from discrimination on the basis of sex, color, religion, national origin, disability, and age”  diversity management programs­ value and leverage diversity  of all stakeholders—from employees to customers—to achieve  competitive advantage  affirmative action­ special efforts to recruit and hire qualified  members of groups that have been discriminated against in the  past  hostile work environment occurs when unwelcome sexual conduct “has the  purpose or effect of unreasonably interfering with job performance or creating an  intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment.” o i.e. persistent or pervasive displays of pornography, lewd or suggestive  remarks, and demeaning taunts or jokes  sexual harassment­ conduct of a sexual nature that has negative  consequences for employment  glass ceiling­ metaphor for an invisible barrier that makes it difficult to rise  above a certain level in the organization  employee support groups can provide emotional and career support for  members who traditionally haven’t been included in the majority’s informal group o i.e. apple has a jewish culture group, gay/lesbian group, african­ american group, and technical women’s group  anticipated labor force  o by 2050:  the percent of whites in the labor force will decrease to about  48.2%  1/3 of workers will be of hispanic origin  hispanics are the largest and fastest­growing minority  percentage of black workers will slightly increase to 12.4% 1 
  asians will make up 8.6% of all civilian workers o  phased retirement­ allow older employees to work fewer hours per week o retirees return to work because employers don’t want to lose their  accumulated knowledge, willingness to work nontraditional shifts, and  their reliable work habits chapter 10 ­ 10 questions   strategic leadership is a behavior that gives purpose and meaning to  organizations, envisioning and creating a positive future  sources of power o legitimate power­ leader has the right or authority to tell people what to  do; employees are obliged to comply with legitimate order o reward power­ leader influences others because s/he controls valued  rewards; employees comply to receive those rewards o coercive power­ leader has control over punishments; employees comply to avoid punishments o referent power­ leader has personal characteristics that appeal to others; employees comply because they like the leader, desire for approval, or  want to be that leader o expert power­ leader has certain expertise or knowledge; employees  comply because they believe in, can learn from, or otherwise gain from  that expertise  traits of effective leaders o drive­ set of characteristics that reflect a high level of effort, including high need for achievement, constant striving for improvement, ambition,  energy, tenacity (persistence in the face of obstacles), and initiative o leadership motivation  extraversion is consistently related to leadership emergence and  leadership effectiveness o integrity­ correspondence between actions and words o self­confidence­ ability to overcome obstacles, makes decisions despite  uncertainty, and instills confidence in others o knowledge of the business: leaders should have a high level of  knowledge about their industries, companies, and technical matters  leaders should also have intelligence to interpret vast quantities of information  behavioral approach­ leadership perspective that attempts to identify what  good leaders do­­ that is, what behaviors they exhibit 2 
  decision styles o autocratic­ leader makes decisions on his/her own and then announces  those decisions to the group  results in higher performance than democratic style o democratic­ leader solicits input from subordinates  results in the most positive attitudes o laissez­faire­ leader essentially makes no decisions o situational approach­ leadership perspective proposing that universally  important traits and behaviors do not exist, and that effective leadership  behavior varies from situation to situation  participation in decision­making o autocratic leadership­ leader makes decisions on his/her own and then  announces those decisions to the group o democratic leadership­ leader solicits input from subordinates o laissez­faire­ leadership philosophy characterized by an absence of  managerial decision making  university of michigan studies concluded that task­oriented behavior and  relationship­oriented behavior should be exhibited in order to be an effective  manager  situational approach­ leadership perspective proposing that universally  important traits and behaviors do not exist, and that effective leadership behavior varies from situation to situation  vroom model­ situational model that focuses on the participative dimension of  leadership o factors used to analyze problems  decision significance  importance of commitment  leader’s expertise  likelihood of commitment  group support for objectives  group expertise  team competence  fiedler’s contingency model of leadership effectiveness postulated that  effectiveness depends on the personal style of the leader and the degree to  which the situation gives the leader power, control, and influence over the  situation chapter 11 ­ 13 questions  four consequences of behavior o positive reinforcement­ applying a consequence that increases the  likelihood that the person will repeat the behavior that led to it o negative reinforcement­ removing or withholding an unpleasant  consequence o punishment­ administer an aversive consequence o extinction­ withdrawing or failing to provide a reinforcing consequence.  when this occurs, motivation is reduced, and the behavior is  extinguished, or eliminated  expectancy theory­ theory proposes that people will behave based on their  perceived likelihood that their effort will lead to a certain outcome and on how  highly they value that outcome 3 
 o  abraham maslow’s need hierarchy­ human needs theory postulating that  people are motivated to satisfy unmet needs in a specific order o  erg theory postulates that people have three basic sets of needs that can  operate simultaneously o existence needs­ all materials and physiological desires o relatedness needs­ relationships with other people and are satisfied  through the process of mutually sharing thoughts and feelings o growth needs­ motivate people to productively or creatively change  themselves or their environment  extrinsic and intrinsic rewards o extrinsic reward­ reward given to a person by the boss, the company, or some other person (i.e. praise, paycheck, bonuses) o intrinsic reward­ reward a worker derives directly from performing the  job itself (i.e. sense of accomplishment)  job enlargement­ giving people additional tasks at the same time to alleviate  boredom  job enrichment­ changing a task to make it inherently more rewarding,  motivating, and satisfying o hackman and oldham model of job enrichment 4 
   skill variety­ different job activities involving several skills and  talents  task identity­ completion of a whole, identifiable piece of work  task significance­ important, positive impact on the lives of others  meaning, responsibility and feedback provide motivation  autonomy­ independence and discretion in making decisions  feedback­ information about job performance  growth need strength­ degree to which individuals want  personal and psychological development  herzberg’s two­factor theory describes two factors that affect people’s work  motivation and satisfaction o hygiene factors­ workplace characteristics (i.e. policies, working  conditions, pay, supervision) that could make employees dissatisfied o motivators­ nature of the work itself, actual job responsibilities,  opportunity for personal growth and recognition, and the feelings of  achievement the job provides  empowerment­ process of sharing power with employees, thereby enhancing  their confidence in their ability to perform their jobs and their belief that they are  influential contributors to the organization  procedural justice­ using a fair process in decision making and making sure  others know that the process was as fair as possible chapter 12 ­ 11 questions  group and team definitions o group­ collection of people who interact to undertake a task but do not  necessarily perform as a unit or achieve significant performance  improvements o team­ small number of people with complementary skills who are  committed to a common purpose, set of performance goals, and  approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable  traditional environment vs new team environment o traditional work groups were closely supervised 5 
 o today’s teams have more authority and often are self­managed o teams are now used in many more ways than in the past   look at exhibit 12.1 in the textbook  types of teams o work teams­ teams that make or do things, such as manufacture, sell,  assemble, or provide service o project and development teams­ teams that work on long­term projects  but disband once the work is completed o parallel teams­ teams that operate separately from regular work  structure and exist temporarily o management teams­ teams that coordinate and give direction to the  subunits under their jurisdiction and integrate work among subunits o transnational teams­ work groups composed of multinational members  whose activities span multiple countries o virtual teams­ teams that are physically dispersed and communicate  electronically more than face­to­face  stages of team development o  team leader roles o task specialist­ individual who has more advanced job­related skills and abilities than other group members possess o team maintenance specialist­ individual who develops and maintains  team harmony  groupthink occurs when a tightly knit group is very cooperative that agreeing  with one another’s opinions and refraining from criticizing others’ ideas become  norms  social loafing­ working less hard and being less productive when in a group  conflict management strategies o avoidance­ ignoring the problem by doing nothing at all, or  deemphasizing the disagreement o accommodation­ style of dealing with conflict involving cooperation on  behalf of the other party but not being assertive about one’s own interests 6 
 o compromise­ style of dealing with conflict involving moderate attention  to both parties’ concerns o competing­ style of dealing with conflict involving strong focus on one’s  own goals and little or no concern for the other person’s goals o collaboration­ style of dealing with conflict emphasizing both  cooperation and assertiveness to maximize both parties’ satisfaction chapter 15 ­ 8 questions  world­class organization o requires applying the best and latest knowledge and ideas and having  the ability to operate at the highest standards of any place anywhere o world­class companies create high­value products and earn superior  profits over the long run.  o they implement more effective and competitive organizational strategies,  structures, processes, and management of human resources o the result is an organization capable of competing successfully on a  global basis  chief information officer responsibilities include: o coordinating the technological efforts of the business units,  o representing technology in the top management team, o identifying ways that technology can support the company’s strategy, o supervising new technology development, o assessing the technological implications of major strategic initiatives such as acquisitions, new ventures, and strategic alliances o managing organization’s information technology (it) group   “tyranny of the or”­ belief that things must be either a or b and cannot be both o “genius of the and”­ ability to achieve multiple objectives at the same time  organizational development (od)­ systemwide application of behavioral  science knowledge to develop, improve, and reinforce the strategies, structures,  and processes that lead to organizational effectiveness o  human resources management o od intervention: attracting good people, setting goals, and appraising and rewarding performance  reasons for resisting change o inertia o timing o surprise 7 
 o peer pressure o self­interest o misunderstanding o different assessments o management tactics  force­field analysis­ approach to implementing lewin’s  unfreezing/moving/refreezing model by involving identifying the forces that  prevent people from changing and those that will drive people toward change o unfreezing­ realize that current practices are inappropriate and that new  behavior is necessary o moving­ instituting the change o refreezing­ strengthening the new behaviors that support the change  proactive change­ anticipating and preparing for an uncertain future; implies  being a leader and creating the future you want 8