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2797 | Black_carbon | Global brightening is caused by changes in cloud cover, reflective aerosols and absorbing aerosols. | Black carbon Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients . |
2303 | Tropical_cyclone | However, weather imposes its own dramatic ups and downs over the long term trend. | Tropical cyclone A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center , a closed low-level atmospheric circulation , strong winds , and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain . Depending on its location and strength , a tropical cyclone is referred to by names such as hurricane ( -LSB- ˈhʌrᵻkən -RSB- or -LSB- ˈhʌrᵻkeɪn -RSB- ) , typhoon -LSB- taɪ ` fuːn -RSB- , tropical storm , cyclonic storm , tropical depression , and simply cyclone . A hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean , a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean , and a cyclone occurs in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean . Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water . They derive their energy through the evaporation of water from the ocean surface , which ultimately recondenses into clouds and rain when moist air rises and cools to saturation . This energy source differs from that of mid-latitude cyclonic storms , such as nor'easter s and European windstorms , which are fueled primarily by horizontal temperature contrasts . The strong rotating winds of a tropical cyclone are a result of the conservation of angular momentum imparted by the Earth 's rotation as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation . As a result , they rarely form within 5 ° of the equator . Tropical cyclones are typically between 100 and in diameter . Tropical refers to the geographical origin of these systems , which form almost exclusively over tropical seas . Cyclone refers to their cyclonic nature , with wind blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere . The opposite direction of circulation is due to the Coriolis effect . In addition to strong winds and rain , tropical cyclones are capable of generating high waves , damaging storm surge , and tornadoes . They typically weaken rapidly over land where they are cut off from their primary energy source . For this reason , coastal regions are particularly vulnerable to damage from a tropical cyclone as compared to inland regions . Heavy rains , however , can cause significant flooding inland , and storm surges can produce extensive coastal flooding up to 40 km from the coastline . Though their effects on human populations are often devastating , tropical cyclones can relieve drought conditions . They also carry heat energy away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes , which may play an important role in modulating regional and global climate . |
1211 | Carbon_tax | "climate economists see a positive externality, not a negative one, from the human influence on climate. | Carbon tax A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation . |
1284 | Pollution | It is clear, then, that greening is emerging as a factor with the potential to blunt some of the worst impacts of human greenhouse gas emissions. | Pollution Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change . Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy , such as noise , heat or light . Pollutants , the components of pollution , can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants . Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution . |
3046 | Attribution_of_recent_climate_change | There are many lines of evidence which clearly show that the atmospheric CO2 increase is caused by humans. | Attribution of recent climate change Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) . |
376 | Carbon_dioxide | whenever in the past there was an explosion of plant life, the carbon dioxide content was far higher than at present. | Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid . |
470 | Global_warming | According to NASA, the globally averaged temperature of the land and ocean was 0.9˚C (1.62˚F) above the 20th century average. | Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned . |
2896 | Post-glacial_rebound | But gravity measurements of ice-mass loss are complicated by glacial isostatic adjustments—compensation for the rise or fall of the underlying crustal material. | Post-glacial rebound Post-glacial rebound ( also called either isostatic rebound or crustal rebound ) is the rise of land masses that were depressed by the huge weight of ice sheets during the last glacial period , through a process known as isostatic depression . Post-glacial rebound and isostatic depression are different parts of a process known as either glacial isostasy , glacial isostatic adjustment , or glacioisostasy . Glacioisostasy is the solid Earth deformation associated with changes in ice mass distribution . The most obvious and direct effects of post-glacial rebound are readily apparent in parts of Northern Eurasia , Northern America , Patagonia , and Antarctica . However , through processes known as ocean siphoning and continental levering , the effects of post-glacial rebound on sea level are felt globally far from the locations of current and former ice sheets . |
2347 | Global_warming | In truth, the overwhelming majority of climate-research funding comes from the federal government and left-wing foundations. | Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned . |
1376 | Little_Ice_Age | Also, it is increasingly clear that the planet was significantly warmer than today several times during the past 10,000 years. | Little Ice Age The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population . |
2599 | Caffeine | Small amounts of very active substances can cause large effects. | Caffeine Caffeine is a central nervous system ( CNS ) stimulant of the methylxanthine class . It is the world 's most widely consumed psychoactive drug . Unlike many other psychoactive substances , it is legal and unregulated in nearly all parts of the world . There are several known mechanisms of action to explain the effects of caffeine . The most prominent is that it reversibly blocks the action of adenosine on its receptor and consequently prevents the onset of drowsiness induced by adenosine . Caffeine also stimulates certain portions of the autonomic nervous system . Caffeine is a bitter , white crystalline purine , a methylxanthine alkaloid , and is chemically related to the adenine and guanine bases of deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ) and ribonucleic acid ( RNA ) . It is found in the seeds , nuts , or leaves of a number of plants native to South America and East Asia and helps to protect them against predator insects and to prevent germination of nearby seeds . The most well known source of caffeine is the coffee bean , a misnomer for the seed of Coffea plants . Beverages containing caffeine are ingested to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve performance . To make these drinks , caffeine is extracted by steeping the plant product in water , a process called infusion . Caffeine-containing drinks , such as coffee , tea , and cola , are very popular ; in 2005 , 90 % of North American adults consumed caffeine daily . Caffeine can have both positive and negative health effects . It can treat and prevent the premature infant breathing disorders bronchopulmonary dysplasia of prematurity and apnea of prematurity . Caffeine citrate is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines . It may confer a modest protective effect against some diseases , including Parkinson 's disease and certain types of cancer . One meta-analysis concluded that cardiovascular disease such as coronary artery disease and stroke is less likely with 3 -- 5 cups of non-decaffeinated coffee per day but more likely with over 5 cups per day . Some people experience insomnia or sleep disruption if they consume caffeine , especially during the evening hours , but others show little disturbance . Evidence of a risk during pregnancy is equivocal ; some authorities recommend that pregnant women limit consumption to the equivalent of two cups of coffee per day or less . Caffeine can produce a mild form of drug dependence -- associated with withdrawal symptoms such as sleepiness , headache , and irritability -- when an individual stops using caffeine after repeated daily intake . Tolerance to the autonomic effects of increased blood pressure and heart rate , and increased urine output , develops with chronic use ( i.e. , these symptoms become less pronounced or do not occur following consistent use ) . Caffeine is classified by the Food and Drug Administration as `` generally recognized as safe '' ( GRAS ) . Toxic doses , over 10 grams per day for an adult , are much higher than typical doses of under 500 milligrams per day . A cup of coffee contains 80 -- 175 mg of caffeine , depending on what `` bean '' ( seed ) is used and how it is prepared ( e.g. drip , percolation , or espresso ) . Thus it requires roughly 50 -- 100 ordinary cups of coffee to reach a lethal dose . However pure powdered caffeine , which is available as a dietary supplement , can be lethal in tablespoon-sized amounts . |
1377 | 2015_South_Indian_floods | there has been no increase in frequency or intensity of storms, floods or droughts, while deaths attributed to such natural disasters have never been fewer | 2015 South Indian floods The 2015 South Indian floods resulted from heavy rainfall generated by the annual northeast monsoon in November -- December 2015 . They affected the Coromandel Coast region of the South Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh , and the union territory of Puducherry , with Tamil Nadu and the city of Chennai particularly hard-hit . More than 500 people were killed and over 18 lakh ( 1.8 million ) people were displaced . With estimates of damages and losses ranging from nearly to over , the floods were the costliest to have occurred in 2015 , and were among the costliest natural disasters of the year . The flooding has been attributed to the 2014 -- 16 El Niño event . |
972 | Mars | "Arctic land stores about twice as much carbon as the atmosphere. | Mars Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System , after Mercury . Named after the Roman god of war , it is often referred to as the `` Red Planet '' because the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance . Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere , having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys , deserts , and polar ice caps of Earth . The rotational period and seasonal cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth , as is the tilt that produces the seasons . Mars is the site of Olympus Mons , the largest volcano and second-highest known mountain in the Solar System , and of Valles Marineris , one of the largest canyons in the Solar System . The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere covers 40 % of the planet and may be a giant impact feature . Mars has two moons , Phobos and Deimos , which are small and irregularly shaped . These may be captured asteroids , similar to 5261 Eureka , a Mars trojan . There are ongoing investigations assessing the past habitability potential of Mars , as well as the possibility of extant life . Future astrobiology missions are planned , including the Mars 2020 and ExoMars rovers . Liquid water can not exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure , which is about that of the Earth 's , except at the lowest elevations for short periods . The two polar ice caps appear to be made largely of water . The volume of water ice in the south polar ice cap , if melted , would be sufficient to cover the entire planetary surface to a depth of 11 m . In November 2016 , NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars . The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior . Mars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye , as can its reddish coloring . Its apparent magnitude reaches − 2.91 , which is surpassed only by Jupiter , Venus , the Moon , and the Sun . Optical ground-based telescopes are typically limited to resolving features about 300 km across when Earth and Mars are closest because of Earth 's atmosphere . |
1570 | Holocene_extinction | Humans are too insignificant to affect global climate. | Holocene extinction The Holocene extinction , otherwise referred to as the Sixth extinction or Anthropocene extinction , is the ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch , mainly due to human activity . The large number of extinctions spans numerous families of plants and animals , including mammals , birds , amphibians , reptiles and arthropods . With widespread degradation of highly biodiverse habitats such as coral reefs and rainforest , as well as other areas , the vast majority of these extinctions is thought to be undocumented . According to the species-area theory , and based on upper-bound estimating , the present rate of extinction may be up to 140,000 species per year , making it the greatest loss of biodiversity since the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event . The Holocene extinction includes the disappearance of large land animals known as megafauna , starting at the end of the last Ice Age . Megafauna outside of the African continent , which did not evolve alongside humans , proved highly sensitive to the introduction of new predation , and many died out shortly after early humans began spreading and hunting across the Earth ( additionally , many African species have also gone extinct in the Holocene ) . These extinctions , occurring near the Pleistocene -- Holocene boundary , are sometimes referred to as the Quaternary extinction event . The arrival of humans on different continents coincides with megafaunal extinction . The most popular theory is that human overhunting of species added to existing stress conditions . Although there is debate regarding how much human predation affected their decline , certain population declines have been directly correlated with human activity , such as the extinction events of New Zealand and Hawaii . Aside from humans , climate change may have been a driving factor in the megafaunal extinctions , especially at the end of the Quaternary . The ecology of humanity has been noted as being that of an unprecedented `` global superpredator '' that regularly preys on the adults of other apex predators and has worldwide effects on food webs . Extinctions of species have occurred on every land mass and ocean , with many famous examples within Africa , Asia , Europe , Australia , North and South America , and on smaller islands . Overall , the Holocene extinction can be characterized by the human impact on the environment . The Holocene extinction continues into the 21st century , with meat consumption , overfishing , ocean acidification and the amphibian crisis being a few broader examples of an almost universal , cosmopolitan decline in biodiversity . A ballooning human population along with profligate consumption are considered to be the primary drivers of this rapid decline . |
1691 | Sea_level_rise | Sea level rise is now increasing faster than predicted due to unexpectedly rapid ice melting. | Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems . |
2945 | Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change | But that conclusion holds true only if there are no other sources of c12 increases which are not human caused. | Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors. |
1711 | Global_warming | Global warming' and 'climate change' mean different things and have both been used for decades. | Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned . |
2449 | Year | "January 2008 capped a 12 month period of global temperature drops on all of the major well respected indicators. | Year A year is the orbital period of the Earth moving in its orbit around the Sun . Due to the Earth 's axial tilt , the course of a year sees the passing of the seasons , marked by changes in weather , the hours of daylight , and , consequently , vegetation and soil fertility . In temperate and subpolar regions around the globe , four seasons are generally recognized : spring , summer , autumn and winter . In tropical and subtropical regions several geographical sectors do not present defined seasons ; but in the seasonal tropics , the annual wet and dry seasons are recognized and tracked . A calendar year is an approximation of the number of days of the Earth 's orbital period as counted in a given calendar . The Gregorian , or modern , calendar , presents its calendar year to be either a common year of 365 days or a leap year of 366 days , as do the Julian calendars ; see below . For the Gregorian calendar the average length of the calendar year ( the mean year ) across the complete leap cycle of 400 years is 365.2425 days . The ISO standard ISO 80000-3 , Annex C , supports the symbol `` a '' ( for Latin annus ) to represent a year of either 365 or 366 days . In English , the abbreviations `` y '' and `` yr '' are commonly used . In astronomy , the Julian year is a unit of time ; it is defined as 365.25 days of exactly seconds ( SI base unit ) , totalling exactly seconds in the Julian astronomical year . The word `` year '' is also used for periods loosely associated with , but not identical to , the calendar or astronomical year , such as the seasonal year , the fiscal year , the academic year , etc. . Similarly , `` year '' can mean the orbital period of any planet : for example , a Martian year or a Venusian year are examples of the time a planet takes to transit one complete orbit . The term can also be used in reference to any long period or cycle , such as the Great Year . |
444 | Carbon_monoxide | Carbon dioxide is a trace gas." | Carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl . |
1645 | Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change | Cosmic rays show no trend over the last 30 years & have had little impact on recent global warming. | Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors. |
2453 | Devonian | "The killer proof that CO2 does not drive climate is to be found during the Ordovician- Silurian and the Jurassic-Cretaceous periods when CO2 levels were greater than 4000 ppmv (parts per million by volume) and about 2000 ppmv respectively. | Devonian The Devonian is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic , spanning 60 million years from the end of the Silurian , million years ago ( Mya ) , to the beginning of the Carboniferous , Mya . It is named after Devon , England , where rocks from this period were first studied . The first significant adaptive radiation of life on dry land occurred during the Devonian . Free-sporing vascular plants began to spread across dry land , forming extensive forests which covered the continents . By the middle of the Devonian , several groups of plants had evolved leaves and true roots , and by the end of the period the first seed-bearing plants appeared . Various terrestrial arthropods also became well-established . Fish reached substantial diversity during this time , leading the Devonian to often be dubbed the `` Age of Fish '' . The first ray-finned and lobe-finned bony fish appeared , while the placodermi began dominating almost every known aquatic environment . The ancestors of all four-limbed vertebrates ( tetrapods ) began adapting to walking on land , as their strong pectoral and pelvic fins gradually evolved into legs . In the oceans , primitive sharks became more numerous than in the Silurian and Late Ordovician . The first ammonites , species of molluscs , appeared . Trilobites , the mollusk-like brachiopods and the great coral reefs , were still common . The Late Devonian extinction which started about 375 million years ago severely affected marine life , killing off all placodermi , and all trilobites , save for a few species of the order Proetida . The palaeogeography was dominated by the supercontinent of Gondwana to the south , the continent of Siberia to the north , and the early formation of the small continent of Euramerica in between . |
1092 | Doctor_of_Philosophy | But then, just over a year ago, Mike Wallace, a hydrologist with 30 years' experience, noticed while researching his PhD that they had omitted some key information[…] his results were surprising: there has been no reduction in oceanic pH | Doctor of Philosophy A Doctor of Philosophy ( PhD , Ph.D. , or DPhil ; Latin Philosophiae Doctor ) is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries . Ph.D. s are awarded for a wide range of programs in the sciences ( e.g. , biology , chemistry , physics , mathematics , etc. ) , engineering , and humanities ( e.g. , history , geography , literature , musicology , etc. ) , among others . The Ph.D. is a terminal degree in many fields . The completion of a Ph.D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor , researcher , or scientist in many fields . A clear distinction is made between an `` earned doctorate '' , which is awarded for completion of a course of study and a thesis or dissertation , and an `` honorary doctorate '' , a title granted by a university to a successful or notable person who has not completed doctoral academic work or completed a dissertation at the university . Individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of `` Doctor '' with their name and use the post-nominal letters `` Ph.D. '' , `` PhD '' or `` DPhil '' . The requirements to earn a Ph.D. degree vary considerably according to the country , institution , and time period , from entry-level research degrees to higher doctorates . A person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor . During the studies that lead to the degree , the student is called doctoral student or Ph.D. student , but also doctoral candidate or Ph.D. candidate once the student has completed all of the coursework and comprehensive examinations and is working on their thesis/dissertation ( all but dissertation ) . A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions . A Ph.D. candidate must submit a project , thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of original academic research , which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed journal . In many countries , a candidate must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university . Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph.D. , such as the Doctor of Musical Arts ( D.M.A. ) , a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education ( Ed.D. ) , a degree for professional educators . In 2016 , ELIA ( European League of the Institutes of the Arts ) launched The ` Florence Principles ' on the Doctorate in the Arts . The Florence Principles relating to the Salzburg Principles and the Salzburg Recommendations of EUA ( European University Association ) name seven points of attention to specify the Doctorate / Ph.D. in the Arts compared to a scientific doctorate / Ph.D. . The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC , CILECT , CUMULUS and SAR . In the context of academic degrees , the term `` philosophy '' does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy , but is used in a broader sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning , which is `` love of wisdom '' . In most of Europe , all fields ( history , philosophy , social sciences , mathematics , and natural philosophy/natural sciences ) other than theology , law , and medicine ( the so-called professional , vocational , or technical curriculum ) were traditionally known as philosophy , and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of liberal arts was known as the `` faculty of philosophy '' . |
2857 | Viscosity | Weather is chaotic because air is light, it has low friction and viscosity, it expands strongly when in contact with hot surfaces and it conducts heat poorly. | Viscosity The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress . For liquids , it corresponds to the informal concept of `` thickness '' ; for example , honey has a much higher viscosity than water . Viscosity is a property of the fluid which opposes the relative motion between the two surfaces of the fluid in a fluid that are moving at different velocities . When the fluid is forced through a tube , the particles which compose the fluid generally move more quickly near the tube 's axis and more slowly near its walls ; therefore some stress ( such as a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube ) is needed to overcome the friction between particle layers to keep the fluid moving . For a given velocity pattern , the stress required is proportional to the fluid 's viscosity . A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or inviscid fluid . Zero viscosity is observed only at very low temperatures in superfluids . Otherwise , all fluids have positive viscosity , and are technically said to be viscous or viscid . In common parlance , however , a liquid is said to be viscous if its viscosity is substantially greater than that of water , and may be described as mobile if the viscosity is noticeably less than water . A fluid with a relatively high viscosity , such as pitch , may appear to be a solid . |
551 | Weather | Gone are the days when scientists drew a bright line dividing weather and climate. | Weather Weather is the state of the atmosphere , to the degree that it is hot or cold , wet or dry , calm or stormy , clear or cloudy . Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere , the troposphere , just below the stratosphere . Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity , whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time . When used without qualification , `` weather '' is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth . Weather is driven by air pressure , temperature and moisture differences between one place and another . These differences can occur due to the sun 's angle at any particular spot , which varies with latitude . The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the largest scale atmospheric circulations : the Hadley Cell , the Ferrel Cell , the Polar Cell , and the jet stream . Weather systems in the mid-latitudes , such as extratropical cyclones , are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow . Because the Earth 's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane , sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year . On Earth 's surface , temperatures usually range ± 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F to 100 ° F ) annually . Over thousands of years , changes in Earth 's orbit can affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth , thus influencing long-term climate and global climate change . Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences . Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes as most atmospheric heating is due to contact with the Earth 's surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant . Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location . The Earth 's weather system is a chaotic system ; as a result , small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole . Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout history , and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture and industry have modified weather patterns . Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth . A famous landmark in the Solar System , Jupiter 's Great Red Spot , is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years . However , weather is not limited to planetary bodies . A star 's corona is constantly being lost to space , creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System . The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind . |
1582 | Tuvalu | Tuvalu sea level isn't rising. | Tuvalu Tuvalu ( -LSB- tᵿˈvɑːlu -RSB- or -LSB- ˈtuːvəˌluː -RSB- ) , formerly known as the Ellice Islands , is a Polynesian island nation located in the Pacific Ocean , about midway between Hawaii and Australia , lying east-northeast of the Santa Cruz Islands ( belonging to the Solomons ) , southeast of Nauru , south of Kiribati , west of Tokelau , northwest of Samoa and Wallis and Futuna and north of Fiji . It comprises three reef islands and six true atolls spread out between the latitude of 5 ° to 10 ° south and longitude of 176 ° to 180 ° , west of the International Date Line . Tuvalu has a population of 10,640 ( 2012 census ) . The total land area of the islands of Tuvalu is 26 km2 . The first inhabitants of Tuvalu were Polynesians . The pattern of settlement that is believed to have occurred is that the Polynesians spread out from Samoa and Tonga into the Tuvaluan atolls , with Tuvalu providing a stepping stone to migration into the Polynesian Outlier communities in Melanesia and Micronesia . In 1568 , Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to sail through the archipelago , sighting the island of Nui during his expedition in search of Terra Australis . In 1819 the island of Funafuti was named Ellice 's Island ; the name Ellice was applied to all nine islands after the work of English hydrographer Alexander George Findlay . The islands came under Britain 's sphere of influence in the late 19th century , when each of the Ellice Islands was declared a British Protectorate by Captain Gibson of between 9 and 16 October 1892 . The Ellice Islands were administered as British protectorate by a Resident Commissioner from 1892 to 1916 as part of the British Western Pacific Territories ( BWPT ) , and then as part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony from 1916 to 1974 . A referendum was held in December 1974 to determine whether the Gilbert Islands and Ellice Islands should each have their own administration . As a consequence of the referendum , the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony ceased to exist on 1 January 1976 and the separate British colonies of Kiribati and Tuvalu came into existence . Tuvalu became fully independent within the Commonwealth on 1 October 1978 . On 5 September 2000 Tuvalu became the 189th member of the United Nations . |
1367 | Global_warming | But we do have other reliable indicators of temperatures before the late 1800s, and the evidence shows temperatures have been warmer than today for most of the past several thousand years, including warmer-than-present temperatures for most of the human civilization time period | Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned . |
952 | Fossil_fuel_power_station | The Alaskan tundra is warming so quickly it has become a net emitter of carbon dioxide ahead of schedule, a new study finds | Fossil fuel power station A fossil fuel power station is a power station which burns fossil fuel such as coal , natural gas , or petroleum to produce electricity . Central station fossil fuel power plants are designed on a large scale for continuous operation . In many countries , such plants provide most of the electrical energy used . Fossil fuel power stations have machinery to convert the heat energy of combustion into mechanical energy , which then operates an electrical generator . The prime mover may be a steam turbine , a gas turbine or , in small plants , a reciprocating internal combustion engine . All plants use the energy extracted from expanding gas , either steam or combustion gases . Very few MHD generators have been built which directly convert the energy of hot , moving water into electricity . MHD means Magnetohydrodynamics , which is the study of the magnetic properties of electrically conducting fluids . Examples of such magnetofluids include plasmas , liquid metals , salt water and electrolytes . By-products of thermal power plant operation must be considered in their design and operation . Waste heat energy , which remains due to the finite efficiency of the Carnot , Rankine , or Diesel power cycle , is released directly to the atmosphere or river/lake water , or indirectly to the atmosphere using a cooling tower with river or lake water used as a cooling medium . The flue gas from combustion of the fossil fuels is discharged to the air . This gas contains carbon dioxide and water vapor , as well as other substances such as nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , sulfur oxides ( SOx ) , mercury , traces of other metals , and , for coal-fired plants , fly ash . Solid waste ash from coal-fired boilers must also be removed . Some coal ash can be recycled for building materials . Fossil fueled power stations are major emitters of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , a greenhouse gas which according to a consensus opinion of scientific organisations is a contributor to global warming . The results of a recent study show that the net income available to shareholders of large companies could see a significant reduction from the greenhouse gas emissions liability related to only natural disasters in the U.S. from a single coal-fired power plant . However , as of 2015 , no such cases have awarded damages in the U.S. Per unit of electric energy , brown coal emits nearly two times as much CO2 as natural gas , and black coal emits somewhat less than brown . Carbon capture and storage of emissions is not currently available . |
2571 | Hockey_stick_controversy | The error was incorrect citation, failing to mention the peer-reviewed papers where the data came from. | Hockey stick controversy In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions . |
1920 | Arctic | Melting of Arctic sea ice and polar icecaps is not occurring at unnatural rates and does not constitute evidence of a human impact on the climate. | Arctic The Arctic ( -LSB- ˈɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth . The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean , adjacent seas , and parts of Alaska ( United States ) , Canada , Finland , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Iceland , Norway , Russia and Sweden . Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover , with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places . The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems . For example , the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions . In recent years , Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming . Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice , zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds , land animals , plants and human societies . Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic . |
2008 | Tony_Abbott | Tony Abbott the Opposition must respect the Government's mandate to overturn the carbon tax. | Tony Abbott Anthony John `` Tony '' Abbott ( born 4 November 1957 ) is an Australian politician who was the 28th Prime Minister of Australia , from 18 September 2013 to 15 September 2015 . Abbott was leader of the Liberal Party of Australia from 2009 to 2015 , and has been a member of parliament for Warringah since 1994 . Abbott was born in London , to an Australian mother and a British father , and emigrated to Sydney , Australia , with his parents in 1960 . Prior to entering Parliament , Abbott took the degrees of Bachelor of Economics and Bachelor of Laws at the University of Sydney , then attended The Queen 's College , Oxford , as a Rhodes Scholar , graduating as a Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy , Politics and Economics . He later proceeded by seniority to Master of Arts . After graduating from Oxford , Abbott trained as a Roman Catholic seminarian , and later worked as a journalist , a manager , and a political adviser . In 1992 , he was appointed Director of Australians for Constitutional Monarchy , a position he held until his election to Parliament in 1994 . Abbott was first appointed to Cabinet following the 1998 election , as part of the Second Howard Ministry , becoming Minister for Employment , Workplace Relations and Small Business . In 2003 , Abbott became Minister for Health and Ageing , retaining this position until the defeat of the Howard Government at the 2007 election . Initially serving in the Shadow Cabinets of Brendan Nelson and then Malcolm Turnbull , Abbott resigned from the front bench in November 2009 , in protest against Turnbull 's support for the Rudd Government 's proposed Emissions Trading Scheme ( ETS ) . Forcing a leadership ballot on the subject , Abbott defeated Turnbull by 42 votes to 41 , to become the Party 's leader and Leader of the Opposition . Abbott led the Coalition at the 2010 election , which resulted in a hung parliament . Following negotiations , Labor formed a Government , with the support of one Greens MP and three Independent MPs . Abbott was re-elected as Liberal Leader unopposed . Abbott went on to lead the Coalition to victory in the 2013 election and was sworn in as the 28th Prime Minister of Australia on 18 September 2013 . On 14 September 2015 , Abbott was defeated in a vote for the Liberal leadership ( 54 votes to 44 ) by Malcolm Turnbull , who replaced Abbott as Prime Minister the following day . |
1919 | Global_warming | Measurements indicating that 2017 had relatively more sea ice in the Arctic and less melting of glacial ice in Greenland casts scientific doubt on the reality of global warming. | Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned . |
3003 | Venus | Venus is not hot because of a runaway greenhouse. | Venus Venus is the second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellites . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4.6 , bright enough to cast shadows at night and , though rare , occasionally be visible in broad daylight . Because Venus orbits within Earth 's orbit it is an inferior planet and never appears to venture far from the Sun ; its maximum angular distance from the Sun ( elongation ) is 47.8 ° . Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth , or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System , with a mean surface temperature of 735 K , even though Mercury is closer to the Sun . Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid , preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light . It may have had water oceans in the past , but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect . The water has probably photodissociated , and the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field . Venus 's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism . As one of the brightest objects in the sky , Venus has been a major fixture in human culture for as long as records have existed . It has been made sacred to gods of many cultures , and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as the `` morning star '' and `` evening star '' . Venus was the first planet to have its motions plotted across the sky , as early as the second millennium BC . As the closest planet to Earth , Venus has been a prime target for early interplanetary exploration . It was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft ( Mariner 2 in 1962 ) , and the first to be successfully landed on ( by Venera 7 in 1970 ) . Venus 's thick clouds render observation of its surface impossible in visible light , and the first detailed maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991 . Plans have been proposed for rovers or more complex missions , but they are hindered by Venus 's hostile surface conditions . |
85 | Sea_level_rise | Sea-level rise does not seem to depend on ocean temperature, and certainly not on CO2 | Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems . |
1923 | Presidency_of_Donald_Trump | More than 260,000 Americans are employed by the domestic solar industry — three times as many workers as employed by the entire coal mining industry. | Presidency of Donald Trump The presidency of Donald Trump began at noon EST on January 20 , 2017 , the day that Donald Trump was inaugurated as the 45th President of the United States , succeeding Barack Obama . Trump , a Republican , was a businessman from New York City at the time of his victory in the 2016 presidential election over Democrat Hillary Clinton . His running mate , former Governor Mike Pence of Indiana , took office as the 48th Vice President of the United States on the same day . Trump 's term in office is set to end on January 20 , 2021 , though he is eligible for election to a second term and has declared his intention to run . During his first few months in office , , Trump has issued 36 executive orders and 25 presidential memoranda . The executive orders 13769 and 13780 dealing with denying admission to the US of people from several foreign countries have been blocked by federal courts . Trump 's nominee to the Supreme Court , Neil Gorsuch , was confirmed by the United States Senate on April 7 , 2017 . |
1937 | Air_pollution | Not only is there no scientific evidence that CO2 is a pollutant, higher CO2 concentrations actually help ecosystems support more plant and animal life. | Air pollution Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced into Earth 's atmosphere . It may cause diseases , allergies or death in humans ; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops , and may damage the natural or built environment . Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution . Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world 's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World 's Worst Polluted Places report . According to the 2014 WHO report , air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide , an estimate roughly matched by the International Energy Agency . |
1259 | San_Joaquin_Valley | While the north-east, midwest and upper great plains have experienced a 30% increase in heavy rainfall episodes – considered once-in-every-five year downpours – parts of the west, particularly California, have been parched by drought. | San Joaquin Valley The San Joaquin Valley -LSB- ˌsæn_hwɑːˈkiːn -RSB- is the area of the Central Valley of the U.S. state of California that lies south of the Sacramento -- San Joaquin River Delta and is drained by the San Joaquin River . It comprises seven Northern California counties -- all of Kings County ; a majority of Fresno , Merced , Stanislaus counties ; segments of Madera and Tulare counties -- and all of Kern County , in Southern California . Although a majority of the valley is rural , it does contain urban cities such as Fresno , Bakersfield , Stockton , Modesto , Turlock , Porterville , Visalia , Merced , and Hanford . |
1654 | Global_warming_controversy | Climate scientists could make far more money in other careers - most notably, working for the oil industry. | Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming . |
821 | Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction | Societies do fall apart from war, disease or chaos. | Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction is a subgenre of science fiction , science fantasy or horror fiction literature in which the Earth 's technological civilization is collapsing or has collapsed . The apocalypse event may be climatic , such as runaway climate change ; natural , such as an impact event ; man-made , such as nuclear warfare ; medical , such as a plague or virus , whether natural or man-made ; or imaginative , such as zombie apocalypse or alien invasion . The story may involve attempts to prevent an apocalypse event , deal with the impact and consequences of the event itself , or it may be post-apocalyptic , set after the event . The time frame may be immediately after the catastrophe , focusing on the travails or psychology of survivors , the way to maintain the human race alive and together as one , or considerably later , often including the theme that the existence of pre-catastrophe civilization has been forgotten ( or mythologized ) . Post-apocalyptic stories often take place in a non-technological future world , or a world where only scattered elements of society and technology remain . Various ancient societies , including the Babylonian and Judaic , produced apocalyptic literature and mythology which dealt with the end of the world and of human society , such as the Epic of Gilgamesh , written ca. 2000 -- 1500 BC . And recognizable modern apocalyptic novels had existed since at least the first quarter of the 19th century , when Mary Shelley 's The Last Man ( 1826 ) was published . However , this form of literature gained widespread popularity after World War II , when the possibility of global annihilation by nuclear weapons entered the public consciousness . As shown above , the apocalypse is also depicted in visual art , for example in Albert Goodwin 's painting Apocalypse ( 1903 ) . |
2766 | Radiative_forcing | The most interesting thing here is that the albedo forcings, in watts/sq meter seem to be fairly large. | Radiative forcing Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols . |
2991 | Stern_Review | Yet the cost of doing something will likely be higher than 6 per cent of GDP" (Bjorn Lomborg) | Stern Review The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change is a 700-page report released for the Government of the United Kingdom on 30 October 2006 by economist Nicholas Stern , chair of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London School of Economics ( LSE ) and also chair of the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) at Leeds University and LSE . The report discusses the effect of global warming on the world economy . Although not the first economic report on climate change , it is significant as the largest and most widely known and discussed report of its kind . The Review states that climate change is the greatest and widest-ranging market failure ever seen , presenting a unique challenge for economics . The Review provides prescriptions including environmental taxes to minimise the economic and social disruptions . The Stern Review 's main conclusion is that the benefits of strong , early action on climate change far outweigh the costs of not acting . The Review points to the potential impacts of climate change on water resources , food production , health , and the environment . According to the Review , without action , the overall costs of climate change will be equivalent to losing at least 5 % of global gross domestic product ( GDP ) each year , now and forever . Including a wider range of risks and impacts could increase this to 20 % of GDP or more , also indefinitely . Stern believes that 5 -- 6 degrees of temperature increase is `` a real possibility . '' The Review proposes that one percent of global GDP per annum is required to be invested to avoid the worst effects of climate change . In June 2008 , Stern increased the estimate for the annual cost of achieving stabilisation between 500 and 550 ppm CO2e to 2 % of GDP to account for faster than expected climate change . There has been a mixed reaction to the Stern Review from economists . Several economists have been critical of the Review , for example , a paper by Byatt et al. ( 2006 ) describes the Review as `` deeply flawed '' . Some economists ( such as Brad DeLong and John Quiggin ) have supported the Review . Others have criticised aspects of Review 's analysis , but argued that some of its conclusions might still be justified based on other grounds , e.g. , see papers by Martin Weitzman ( 2007 ) and Dieter Helm ( 2008 ) . |
375 | Climate_change_mitigation | when 3 per cent of total annual global emissions of carbon dioxide are from humans and Australia produces 1.3 per cent of this 3 per cent, then no amount of emissions reduction here will have any effect on global climate. | Climate change mitigation Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit . |
0 | Polar_bear | Global warming is driving polar bears toward extinction | Polar bear The polar bear ( ursus #Latin maritimus #Latin ) is a carnivorous bear whose native range lies largely within the Arctic Circle , encompassing the Arctic Ocean , its surrounding seas and surrounding land masses . It is a large bear , approximately the same size as the omnivorous Kodiak bear ( Ursus arctos middendorffi ) . A boar ( adult male ) weighs around 350 -- , while a sow ( adult female ) is about half that size . Although it is the sister species of the brown bear , it has evolved to occupy a narrower ecological niche , with many body characteristics adapted for cold temperatures , for moving across snow , ice and open water , and for hunting seals , which make up most of its diet . Although most polar bears are born on land , they spend most of their time on the sea ice . Their scientific name means `` maritime bear '' and derives from this fact . Polar bears hunt their preferred food of seals from the edge of sea ice , often living off fat reserves when no sea ice is present . Because of their dependence on the sea ice , polar bears are classified as marine mammals ; an alternative basis for classification as marine mammals is that they depend on the ocean as their main food source . Because of expected habitat loss caused by climate change , the polar bear is classified as a vulnerable species , and at least three of the nineteen polar bear subpopulations are currently in decline . For decades , large-scale hunting raised international concern for the future of the species , but populations rebounded after controls and quotas began to take effect . For thousands of years , the polar bear has been a key figure in the material , spiritual , and cultural life of circumpolar peoples , and polar bears remain important in their cultures . |
482 | Low-carbon_economy | It is expected the report will focus on required changes to the energy system, rather than forests. | Low-carbon economy A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy . |
450 | Svante_Arrhenius | If we double atmospheric carbon dioxide[…] we'd only raise global surface temperatures by about a degree Celsius. | Svante Arrhenius Svante August Arrhenius ( 19 February 1859 -- 2 October 1927 ) was a Nobel-Prize winning Swedish scientist , originally a physicist , but often referred to as a chemist , and one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry . He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903 , becoming the first Swedish Nobel laureate , and in 1905 became director of the Nobel Institute where he remained until his death . His lasting contributions to science are exemplified and memorialized by the Arrhenius equation , Arrhenius definition of an acid , lunar crater Arrhenius , the mountain of Arrheniusfjellet and the Arrhenius Labs at Stockholm University , all named after him . He was the first to use basic principles of physical chemistry to calculate estimates of the extent to which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide increase Earth 's surface temperature through the Arrhenius effect , leading Keeling to conclude that human-caused carbon dioxide emissions are large enough to cause global warming . |
1157 | Unemployment_in_the_United_States | "In 2013 the level of U.S. farm output was about 2.7 times its 1948 level, and productivity was growing at an average annual rate of 1.52%. | Unemployment in the United States Unemployment in the United States discusses the causes and measures of U.S. unemployment and strategies for reducing it . Job creation and unemployment are affected by factors such as economic conditions , global competition , education , automation , and demographics . These factors can affect the number of workers , the duration of unemployment , and wage levels . |
1353 | Year | Temperatures in 1999 were nearly three-tenths of a degree lower than in 1998, and a similar change should occur this time around, though it might not fit so neatly into a calendar year. | Year A year is the orbital period of the Earth moving in its orbit around the Sun . Due to the Earth 's axial tilt , the course of a year sees the passing of the seasons , marked by changes in weather , the hours of daylight , and , consequently , vegetation and soil fertility . In temperate and subpolar regions around the globe , four seasons are generally recognized : spring , summer , autumn and winter . In tropical and subtropical regions several geographical sectors do not present defined seasons ; but in the seasonal tropics , the annual wet and dry seasons are recognized and tracked . A calendar year is an approximation of the number of days of the Earth 's orbital period as counted in a given calendar . The Gregorian , or modern , calendar , presents its calendar year to be either a common year of 365 days or a leap year of 366 days , as do the Julian calendars ; see below . For the Gregorian calendar the average length of the calendar year ( the mean year ) across the complete leap cycle of 400 years is 365.2425 days . The ISO standard ISO 80000-3 , Annex C , supports the symbol `` a '' ( for Latin annus ) to represent a year of either 365 or 366 days . In English , the abbreviations `` y '' and `` yr '' are commonly used . In astronomy , the Julian year is a unit of time ; it is defined as 365.25 days of exactly seconds ( SI base unit ) , totalling exactly seconds in the Julian astronomical year . The word `` year '' is also used for periods loosely associated with , but not identical to , the calendar or astronomical year , such as the seasonal year , the fiscal year , the academic year , etc. . Similarly , `` year '' can mean the orbital period of any planet : for example , a Martian year or a Venusian year are examples of the time a planet takes to transit one complete orbit . The term can also be used in reference to any long period or cycle , such as the Great Year . |
2223 | Biodiversity | Because current climate change is so rapid, the way species typically adapt (eg - migration) is, in most cases, simply not be possible. | Biodiversity Biodiversity a portmanteau of `` biological diversity , '' generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth . According to the United Nations Environment Programme , biodiversity typically measures variation at the genetic , the species , and the ecosystem level . Terrestrial biodiversity tends to be greater near the equator , which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity . Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth , and is richest in the tropics . These tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10 per cent of earth 's surface , and contain about 90 percent of the world 's species . Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific , where sea surface temperature is highest and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceans . There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity . Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots , and has been increasing through time , but will be likely to slow in the future . Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions . More than 99.9 percent of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described . The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037 and weighs 50 billion tonnes . In comparison , the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC ( trillion tons of carbon ) . In July 2016 , scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor ( LUCA ) of all organisms living on Earth . The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years old . The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago , during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon . There are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia . Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old meta-sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland . More recently , in 2015 , `` remains of biotic life '' were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia . According to one of the researchers , `` If life arose relatively quickly on Earth . . then it could be common in the universe . '' Since life began on Earth , five major mass extinctions and several minor events have led to large and sudden drops in biodiversity . The Phanerozoic eon ( the last 540 million years ) marked a rapid growth in biodiversity via the Cambrian explosion -- a period during which the majority of multicellular phyla first appeared . The next 400 million years included repeated , massive biodiversity losses classified as mass extinction events . In the Carboniferous , rainforest collapse led to a great loss of plant and animal life . The Permian -- Triassic extinction event , 251 million years ago , was the worst ; vertebrate recovery took 30 million years . The most recent , the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event , occurred 65 million years ago and has often attracted more attention than others because it resulted in the extinction of the dinosaurs . The period since the emergence of humans has displayed an ongoing biodiversity reduction and an accompanying loss of genetic diversity . Named the Holocene extinction , the reduction is caused primarily by human impacts , particularly habitat destruction . Conversely , biodiversity impacts human health in a number of ways , both positively and negatively . The United Nations designated 2011 -- 2020 as the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity . |
1090 | 2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves | Extreme high temperatures were seen from India — where the city of Phalodi recorded temperatures of 51 degrees Celsius (123.8 Fahrenheit) in May, a new national record — to Iran, where a temperature of 53 degrees Celsius (127.4 F) was recorded in Delhoran on July 22. | 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels. |
2618 | Perceptual_control_theory | It fails to explain how we can have short-term positive feedback and long-term negative feedback. | Perceptual control theory Perceptual control theory ( PCT ) is a model of behavior based on the principles of negative feedback , but differing in important respects from engineering control theory . Results of PCT experiments have demonstrated that an organism controls neither its own behavior , nor external environmental variables , but rather its own perceptions of those variables . Actions are not controlled , they are varied so as to cancel the effects that unpredictable environmental disturbances would otherwise have on controlled perceptions . According to the standard catch-phrase of the field , `` behavior is the control of perception . '' PCT demonstrates circular causation in a negative feedback loop closed through the environment . This fundamentally contradicts the classical notion of linear causation of behavior by stimuli , in which environmental stimuli are thought to cause behavioral responses , mediated ( according to cognitive psychology ) by intervening cognitive processes . Numerous computer simulations of specific behavioral situations demonstrate its efficacy , with extremely high correlations to observational data ( 0.95 or better ) , which are vanishingly rare in the so-called ` soft ' sciences . While the adoption of PCT in the scientific community has not been widespread , it has been applied not only in experimental psychology and neuroscience , but also in sociology , linguistics , and a number of other fields , and has led to a method of psychotherapy called the method of levels . |
2881 | Renewable_energy | Numerous case studies on both regional and global scales have determined that renewable energy, if properly implemented, can provide baseload power. | Renewable energy Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources , which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , transportation , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services . Based on REN21 's 2016 report , renewables contributed 19.2 % to humans ' global energy consumption and 23.7 % to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015 , respectively . This energy consumption is divided as 8.9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( modern biomass , geothermal and solar heat ) , 3.9 % hydro electricity and 2.2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$ 286 billion in 2015 , with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind , hydro , solar and biofuels . Globally , there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries , with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer . As of 2015 worldwide , more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable . Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas , in contrast to other energy sources , which are concentrated in a limited number of countries . Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security , climate change mitigation , and economic benefits . The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change , a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies . In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power . At the national level , at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply . National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond . Some places and at least two countries , Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already , and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100 % renewable energy in the future . For example , in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply ( electricity , mobility and heating/cooling ) to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 . While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . United Nations ' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity . As most of renewables provide electricity , renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification , which has several benefits : Electricity can be converted to heat ( where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels ) , can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption . In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements , because most renewables do n't have a steam cycle with high losses ( fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65 % ) . Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper . Their share of total energy consumption is increasing . Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables and natural gas . |
2839 | Pine_Island_Glacier | Ice mass loss is occuring at an accelerated rate in Greenland, Antarctica and globally from inland glaciers. | Pine Island Glacier Pine Island Glacier ( PIG ) is a large ice stream glacier , and the fastest melting glacier in Antarctica , responsible for about 25 % of Antarctica 's ice loss . The glacier ice streams flow west-northwest along the south side of the Hudson Mountains into Pine Island Bay , Amundsen Sea , Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and United States Navy ( USN ) air photos , 1960 -- 66 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in association with Pine Island Bay . The area drained by Pine Island Glacier comprises about 10 % of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Satellite measurements have shown that the Pine Island Glacier Basin has a greater net contribution of ice to the sea than any other ice drainage basin in the world and this has increased due to recent acceleration of the ice stream . The ice stream is extremely remote , with the nearest continually occupied research station at Rothera , nearly 1300 km away . The area is not claimed by any nations and the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any new claims while it is in force . |
861 | Florida | None of these places, which today supply much of the world's food, will be reliable sources of any. | Florida Florida -LSB- ˈflɒrᵻdə -RSB- ( Spanish for `` land of flowers '' ) is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States . It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico , to the north by Alabama and Georgia , to the east by the Atlantic Ocean , and to the south by the Straits of Florida and Cuba . Florida is the 22nd-most extensive , the 3rd-most populous , and the 8th-most densely populated of the U.S. states . Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States . The Miami metropolitan area is Florida 's most populous urban area . The city of Tallahassee is the state capital . A peninsula between the Gulf of Mexico , the Atlantic Ocean , and the Straits of Florida , it has the longest coastline in the contiguous United States , approximately 1350 mi , and is the only state that borders both the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean . Much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil . The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south . The American alligator , American crocodile , Florida panther , and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park . Since the first European contact was made in 1513 by Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León -- who named it La Florida ( -LSB- la floˈɾiða -RSB- `` land of flowers '' ) upon landing there in the Easter season , Pascua Florida -- Florida was a challenge for the European colonial powers before it gained statehood in the United States in 1845 . It was a principal location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans , and racial segregation after the American Civil War . Today , Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth , as well as for its increasing environmental issues . The state 's economy relies mainly on tourism , agriculture , and transportation , which developed in the late 19th century . Florida is also renowned for amusement parks , orange crops , the Kennedy Space Center , and as a popular destination for retirees . Florida culture is a reflection of influences and multiple inheritance ; Native American , European American , Hispanic and Latino , and African American heritages can be found in the architecture and cuisine . Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings , Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams , and continues to attract celebrities and athletes . It is internationally known for golf , tennis , auto racing and water sports . |
962 | Ice_age | In April the extent of Arctic sea ice was back to where it was in April 13 years ago | Ice age An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist . |
562 | Sea_level_rise | current climate predictions may underestimate long-term warming by as much as a factor of two | Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems . |
3103 | Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change | "Disasters Cost More Than Ever — But Not Because of Climate Change" (Roger Pielke Jr.) | Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors. |
91 | The_Simpsons | They were going to be gone by now, but now they're setting records | The Simpsons The Simpsons is an American animated sitcom created by Matt Groening for the Fox Broadcasting Company . The series is a satirical depiction of working-class life epitomized by the Simpson family , which consists of Homer , Marge , Bart , Lisa , and Maggie . The show is set in the fictional town of Springfield and parodies American culture , society , television , and the human condition . The family was conceived by Groening shortly before a solicitation for a series of animated shorts with producer James L. Brooks . Groening created a dysfunctional family and named the characters after members of his own family , substituting Bart for his own name . The shorts became a part of The Tracey Ullman Show on April 19 , 1987 . After a three-season run , the sketch was developed into a half-hour prime time show and became an early hit for Fox , becoming the network 's first series to land in the Top 30 ratings in a season ( 1989 -- 90 ) . Since its debut on December 17 , 1989 , episodes of The Simpsons have been broadcast . Its 28th season began on September 25 , 2016 . It is the longest-running American sitcom and the longest-running American animated program , and , in 2009 , it surpassed Gunsmoke as the longest-running American scripted primetime television series . The Simpsons Movie , a feature-length film , was released in theaters worldwide on July 27 , 2007 , and grossed over $ 527 million . On November 4 , 2016 , the series was renewed for a twenty-ninth and thirtieth season of 22 episodes each , extending the show to 2019 . The Simpsons received widespread critical acclaim throughout its first nine seasons , which are generally considered its `` Golden Age '' . Time named it the 20th century 's best television series , and Erik Adams of The A.V. Club named it `` television 's crowning achievement regardless of format '' . On January 14 , 2000 , the Simpson family was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . It has won dozens of awards since it debuted as a series , including 31 Primetime Emmy Awards , 30 Annie Awards , and a Peabody Award . Homer 's exclamatory catchphrase `` D'oh ! '' has been adopted into the English language , while The Simpsons has influenced many adult-oriented animated sitcoms . Despite this , the show has also been criticized for what many perceive as a decline in quality over the years . |
1088 | Global_warming | 'We don't expect record years every year, but the ongoing long-term warming trend is clear.'" | Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned . |
3056 | Chlorofluorocarbon | "The observed data show that CFCs conspiring with cosmic rays most likely caused both the Antarctic ozone hole and global warming... | Chlorofluorocarbon A chlorofluorocarbon ( CFC ) is an organic compound that contains only carbon , chlorine , and fluorine , produced as volatile derivative of methane , ethane , and propane . They are also commonly known by the DuPont brand name Freon . The most common representative is dichlorodifluoromethane ( R-12 or Freon-12 ) . Many CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants , propellants ( in aerosol applications ) , and solvents . Because CFCs contribute to ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere , the manufacture of such compounds has been phased out under the Montreal Protocol , and they are being replaced with other products such as hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) ( e.g. , R-410A ) and R-134a . |
2494 | Ice_age | There is ample evidence that Earth's average temperature has increased in the past 100 years and the decline of mid- and high-latitude glaciers is a major piece of evidence. | Ice age An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist . |
2815 | IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report | A new peer-reviewed study on Surface Warming and the Solar Cycle found that times of high solar activity are on average 0.2°C warmer than times of low solar activity, and that there is a polar amplification of the warming. | IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . '' |
100 | Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy | 'Global warming' is a myth — so say 80 graphs from 58 peer-reviewed scientific papers published in 2017. | Climatic Research Unit email controversy The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations . |
736 | Oxygen | But the new research shows that the amount of oxygen in those shells doesn't actually remain constant over time. | Oxygen Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8 . It is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetal and oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as well as other compounds . By mass , oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe , after hydrogen and helium . At standard temperature and pressure , two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen , a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula . This is an important part of the atmosphere and diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20.8 % of the Earth 's atmosphere . Additionally , as oxides the element makes up almost half of the Earth 's crust . Dioxygen is used in cellular respiration and many major classes of organic molecules in living organisms contain oxygen , such as proteins , nucleic acids , carbohydrates , and fats , as do the major constituent inorganic compounds of animal shells , teeth , and bone . Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water , the major constituent of lifeforms . Conversely , oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis , which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide . Oxygen is too chemically reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms . Another form ( allotrope ) of oxygen , ozone , strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation and the high-altitude ozone layer helps protect the biosphere from ultraviolet radiation . But ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by-product of smog . At low earth orbit altitudes , sufficient atomic oxygen is present to cause corrosion of spacecraft . Oxygen was discovered independently by Carl Wilhelm Scheele , in Uppsala , in 1773 or earlier , and Joseph Priestley in Wiltshire , in 1774 , but Priestley is often given priority because his work was published first . The name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier , whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then-popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion . Its name derives from the Greek roots ὀξύς oxys , `` acid '' , literally `` sharp '' , referring to the sour taste of acids and - γενής - genes , `` producer '' , literally `` begetter '' , because at the time of naming , it was mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen in their composition . Common use of oxygen includes residential heating , internal combustion engines , production of steel , plastics and textiles , brazing , welding and cutting of steels and other metals , rocket propellant , oxygen therapy , and life support systems in aircraft , submarines , spaceflight and diving . |
903 | Cannabis_cultivation | Growers regularly pump CO2 into greenhouses, raising levels to three times that of the natural environment, to produce stronger, greener, healthier plants." | Cannabis cultivation This article presents common techniques and facts regarding the cultivation of the flowering plant Cannabis , primarily for the production and consumption of cannabis flowers ( `` buds '' ) . Cultivation techniques for other purposes ( such as hemp production ) differ . |
2580 | NW_Rota-1 | Volcanoes emit around 0.3 billion tonnes of CO2 per year. | NW Rota-1 NW Rota-1 is a seamount in the Mariana Islands, northwest of Rota, which was discovered through its hydrothermal activity in 2003. The volcano has been observed to be erupting underwater, the first time that submarine explosive eruptions have been directly witnessed. The summit of the seamount lies at 517 m (1,696 ft) below sea level, with a ridge capping off the seamount. It has several craters, the most active of which is located south of the summit ridge and is called "Brimstone Pit". Eruptions have been recorded in 2008–2010 and took the form of Strombolian eruptions with the emission of lava and large amounts of tephra. The erupted material is unstable and forms sediment flows and landslides; one large landslide occurred on 14 August 2009 and stripped part of the southern flank of NW Rota-1. Such landslides generate ash plumes underwater and are similar to large landslides at other active submarine volcanoes. The activity gives rise to intense hydrothermal plumes, which contain droplets of molten sulfur and bubbles of carbon dioxide, among other compounds. It is estimated that NW Rota-1 releases 400,000 ± 100,000 tonne/year of carbon dioxide. The hydrothermal activity nourishes microbial mats and these in turn many animals, although the unstable environment from the frequent eruptions limits animal diversity. |
1088 | Climate_change_(general_concept) | 'We don't expect record years every year, but the ongoing long-term warming trend is clear.'" | Climate change (general concept) Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\nThe energy moving through Earth\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of "internal variability", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies. |
1487 | International_Space_Station | NASA has been adjusting temperatures from the past[...] | International Space Station The International Space Station ( ISS ) is a space station , or a habitable artificial satellite , in low Earth orbit . Its first component launched into orbit in 1998 , and the ISS is now the largest man-made body in low Earth orbit and can often be seen with the naked eye from Earth . The ISS consists of pressurised modules , external trusses , solar arrays , and other components . ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets , and American Space Shuttles . The ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology , human biology , physics , astronomy , meteorology , and other fields . The station is suited for the testing of spacecraft systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon and Mars . The ISS maintains an orbit with an altitude of between 330 and by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft . It completes orbits per day . The ISS is the ninth space station to be inhabited by crews , following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut , Almaz , and Mir stations as well as Skylab from the US . The station has been continuously occupied for since the arrival of Expedition 1 on 2 November 2000 . This is the longest continuous human presence in low Earth orbit , having surpassed the previous record of held by Mir . The station is serviced by a variety of visiting spacecraft : the Russian Soyuz and Progress , the American Dragon and Cygnus , the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle , and formerly the Space Shuttle and the European Automated Transfer Vehicle . It has been visited by astronauts , cosmonauts and space tourists from 17 different nations . After the US Space Shuttle programme ended in 2011 , Soyuz rockets became the only provider of transport for astronauts at the International Space Station , and Dragon became the only provider of bulk cargo return to Earth ( called downmass ) . Soyuz has very limited downmass capability . The ISS programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies : NASA , Roscosmos , JAXA , ESA , and CSA . The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements . The station is divided into two sections , the Russian Orbital Segment ( ROS ) and the United States Orbital Segment ( USOS ) , which is shared by many nations . , the American portion of ISS is being funded until 2024 . Roscosmos has endorsed the continued operation of ISS through 2024 but has proposed using elements of the Russian Orbital Segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK . On 28 March 2015 , Russian sources announced that Roscosmos and NASA had agreed to collaborate on the development of a replacement for the current ISS . NASA later issued a guarded statement expressing thanks for Russia 's interest in future co-operation in space exploration but fell short of confirming the Russian announcement . |
2323 | Extraterrestrial_atmosphere | Now scientists are telling us that Mars is experiencing its own planetary warming: Martian warming. | Extraterrestrial atmosphere The study of extraterrestrial atmospheres is an active field of research , both as an aspect of astronomy and to gain insight into Earth 's atmosphere . In addition to Earth , many of the other astronomical objects in the Solar System have atmospheres . These include all the gas giants , as well as Mars , Venus , and Pluto . Several moons and other bodies also have atmospheres , as do comets and the Sun . There is evidence that extrasolar planets can have an atmosphere . Comparisons of these atmospheres to one another and to Earth 's atmosphere broaden our basic understanding of atmospheric processes such as the greenhouse effect , aerosol and cloud physics , and atmospheric chemistry and dynamics . |
2041 | Sociology | There are fundamental faults in the statistical and scientific analyses used to justify the need for early and comprehensive mitigatory action by governments. | Sociology Sociology is the study of social behavior or society , including its origins , development , organization , networks , and institutions . It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order , disorder , and change . Many sociologists aim to conduct research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare , while others focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes . Subject matter ranges from the micro-sociology level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and the social structure . The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification , social class , social mobility , religion , secularization , law , sexuality and deviance . As all spheres of human activity are affected by the interplay between social structure and individual agency , sociology has gradually expanded its focus to further subjects , such as health , medical , military and penal institutions , the Internet , education , social capital and the role of social activity in the development of scientific knowledge . The range of social scientific methods has also expanded . Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques . The linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly interpretative , hermeneutic , and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society . Conversely , the end of the 1990s and the beginning of 2000s have seen the rise of new analytically , mathematically and computationally rigorous techniques , such as agent-based modelling and social network analysis . Social research informs politicians and policy makers , educators , planners , legislators , administrators , developers , business magnates , managers , social workers , non-governmental organizations , non-profit organizations , and people interested in resolving social issues in general . There is often a great deal of crossover between social research , market research , and other statistical fields . |
2486 | Greenhouse_gas | The minute increase of anthropogenic CO2 in the atmosphere (0.008%) was not the cause of the warming—it was a continuation of natural cycles that occurred over the past 500 years." | Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 . |
503 | 2013–14_North_American_winter | "During the sunless winter, a heatwave raised concerns that the polar vortex may be eroding. | 2013–14 North American winter The 2013 -- 14 North American winter refers to winter as it occurred across the continent from late 2013 through early 2014 . While there is no well-agreed-upon date used to indicate the start of winter in the Northern Hemisphere , there are two definitions of winter which may be used . Based on the astronomical definition , winter begins at the winter solstice , which in 2013 occurred on December 21 , and ends at the March equinox , which in 2014 occurred on March 20 . Based on the meteorological definition , the first day of winter is December 1 and the last day February 28 . Both definitions involve a period of approximately three months , with some variability . __ TOC __ |
296 | Little_Ice_Age | The Little Ice Age ended as recently as 1850. | Little Ice Age The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population . |
2782 | Global_warming | "NASA satellite data from the years 2000 through 2011 show the Earth's atmosphere is allowing far more heat to be released into space than alarmist computer models have predicted, reports a new study in the peer-reviewed science journal Remote Sensing. | Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned . |
1334 | PH | We simply could never release enough CO2 into the atmosphere to cause the pH to go below 7 [the point in the pH scale at which a solution becomes acidic]." | PH In chemistry , pH ( -LSB- piːˈeɪtʃ -RSB- ) ( potential of hydrogen ) is a numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution . It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the molar concentration , measured in units of moles per liter , of hydrogen ions . More precisely it is the negative of the logarithm to base 10 of the activity of the hydrogen ion . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic . Pure water is neutral , at pH 7 , being neither an acid nor a base . Contrary to popular belief , the pH value can be less than 0 or greater than 14 for very strong acids and bases respectively . pH measurements are important in agronomy , medicine , biology , chemistry , agriculture , forestry , food science , environmental science , oceanography , civil engineering , chemical engineering , nutrition , water treatment and water purification , as well as many other applications . The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement . Primary pH standard values are determined using a concentration cell with transference , by measuring the potential difference between a hydrogen electrode and a standard electrode such as the silver chloride electrode . The pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter , or an indicator . |
539 | Planetary_boundaries | We note that the Earth has never in its history had a quasi-stable state that is around 2C warmer than the preindustrial and suggest that there is substantial risk that the system, itself, will 'want' to continue warming because of all of these other processes – even if we stop emissions," she said. | Planetary boundaries Planetary boundaries is the central concept in an Earth system framework proposed by a group of Earth system and environmental scientists led by Johan Rockström from the Stockholm Resilience Centre and Will Steffen from the Australian National University . In 2009 , the group proposed a framework of `` planetary boundaries '' designed to define a `` safe operating space for humanity '' for the international community , including governments at all levels , international organizations , civil society , the scientific community and the private sector , as a precondition for sustainable development . This framework is based on scientific research that indicates that since the Industrial Revolution , human actions have gradually become the main driver of global environmental change . The scientists assert that once human activity has passed certain thresholds or tipping points , defined as `` planetary boundaries '' , there is a risk of `` irreversible and abrupt environmental change '' . The group identified nine Earth system processes which have boundaries that , to the extent that they are not crossed , mark the safe zone for the planet . However , because of human activities some of these dangerous boundaries have already been crossed , while others are in imminent danger of being crossed . Rockström and Steffen collaborated with 26 leading academics , including Nobel laureate Paul Crutzen , Goddard Institute for Space Studies climate scientist James Hansen and the German Chancellor 's chief climate adviser Hans Joachim Schellnhuber . The group identified nine `` planetary life support systems '' essential for human survival , and attempted to quantify just how far seven of these systems have been pushed already . They then estimated how much further we can go before our own survival is threatened ; beyond these boundaries there is a risk of `` irreversible and abrupt environmental change '' which could make Earth less habitable . Estimates indicate that three of these boundaries -- climate change , biodiversity loss , and the biogeochemical flow boundary -- appear to have been crossed . The boundaries are `` rough , first estimates only , surrounded by large uncertainties and knowledge gaps '' that interact in ways that are complex and not well understood . Boundaries can help identify where there is room and define a `` safe space for human development '' , which is an improvement on approaches which aim at just minimizing human impacts on the planet . The 2009 report was presented to the General Assembly of the Club of Rome in Amsterdam . An edited summary of the report was subsequently published as the featured article in a special edition of Nature . Nature also published critical commentary from leading academics they invited to comment on each of the seven planetary boundaries which had been quantified , including comments from Nobel laureate Mario J. Molina and biologist Cristián Samper . In 2015 , a second paper was published in Science updating the Planetary Boundaries concept . The findings were presented at the World Economic Forum in Davos , January 2015 . |
2779 | Diesel_particulate_filter | Europe and Asia emit most of the soot from burning coal, wood, dung, and diesel in open fires or without particulate filters in stoves, chimneys, smokestacks, and exhaust pipes. | Diesel particulate filter A diesel particulate filter ( or DPF ) is a device designed to remove diesel particulate matter or soot from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine . |
1138 | El_Niño | Stress from unusually warm ocean water heated by man-made climate change and the natural El Niño climate pattern caused the die-off. | El Niño El Niño -LSB- ɛl_ˈniːnjoʊ -RSB- ( -LSB- el ˈniɲo -RSB- ) is the warm phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation ( commonly called ENSO ) and is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific ( between approximately the International Date Line and 120 ° W ) , including off the Pacific coast of South America . El Niño Southern Oscillation refers to the cycle of warm and cold temperatures , as measured by sea surface temperature , SST , of the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean . El Niño is accompanied by high air pressure in the western Pacific and low air pressure in the eastern Pacific . The cool phase of ENSO is called `` La Niña '' with SST in the eastern Pacific below average and air pressures high in the eastern and low in western Pacific . The ENSO cycle , both El Niño and La Niña , cause global changes of both temperatures and rainfall . Developing countries that are dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are usually most affected . In American Spanish , the capitalized term `` El Niño '' refers to `` the little boy '' , so named because the pool of warm water in the Pacific near South America is often at its warmest around Christmas . The original name , `` El Niño de Navidad '' , traces its origin centuries back to Peruvian fisherman , who named the weather phenomenon in reference to the newborn Christ . `` La Niña '' , chosen as the ` opposite ' of El Niño , literally translates to `` the little girl '' . |
2826 | 1257_Samalas_eruption | A drop of volcanic activity in the early 20th century may have had a warming effect. | 1257 Samalas eruption The 1257 Samalas eruption was a major volcanic eruption of the Samalas volcano , next to Mount Rinjani on the island of Lombok , Indonesia . It left a large caldera next to Rinjani volcano , the lake Segara Anak . This volcanic eruption reached a volcanic explosivity index of 7 , making it one of the largest eruptions of the Holocene . The occurrence of this eruption was originally deduced from ice core information revealing a spike in sulfate deposition around the year 1257 ; in 2013 the source of this eruption at Samalas was definitively proven as a result of historical records from that time . This eruption proceeded during four distinct phases , alternately creating eruption columns reaching up for tens of kilometres and pyroclastic flows that buried large parts of Lombok , destroying human habitations including the city of Pamatan . Ash from the eruption fell as far as Java . The volume of the deposits left exceeds 10 km3 . Later activity from the volcano created additional volcanic centres in the caldera , including the present day active Barujari cone . The eruption was witnessed by humans on Lombok , who recorded its effects on text written on palm leaves . The aerosols injected by the volcano into the atmosphere reduced the solar radiation reaching the surface of the Earth , triggering a volcanic winter and cooling lasting for several years . It is possible that the 1257 Samalas eruption helped trigger the Little Ice Age . |
2266 | Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy | A number of independent investigations from different countries, universities and government bodies have investigated the stolen emails and found no evidence of wrong doing. | Climatic Research Unit email controversy The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations . |
528 | Future_of_Earth | Our evolving dynamic planet has survived[…] mass extinctions | Future of Earth The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit . |
378 | Earth | for thousands of millions of years the Earth has been changing, with cycles and one-off events such as an asteroid impact, super-volcano or a supernova explosion. | Earth Earth ( from Eorðe -LSB- Γαῖα , Gaia -RSB- Terra ) , otherwise known as the World or the Globe , is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life . It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets . According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence , Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago . Earth 's gravity interacts with other objects in space , especially the Sun and the Moon , Earth 's only natural satellite . During one orbit around the Sun , Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times ; thus , an Earth year is about 365.26 days long . Earth 's axis of rotation is tilted , producing seasonal variations on the planet 's surface . The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides , stabilizes the Earth 's orientation on its axis , and gradually slows its rotation . Earth 's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years . About 71 % of Earth 's surface is covered with water , mostly by its oceans . The remaining 29 % is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes , rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere . The majority of Earth 's polar regions are covered in ice , including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack . Earth 's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core , a liquid outer core that generates the Earth 's magnetic field , and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics . Within the first billion years of Earth 's history , life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earth 's atmosphere and surface , leading to the proliferation of aerobic and anaerobic organisms . Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago . Since then , the combination of Earth 's distance from the Sun , physical properties , and geological history have allowed life to evolve and thrive . In the history of the Earth , biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion , occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events . Over 99 % of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct . Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely ; most species have not been described . Over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival . Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures ; politically , the world has about 200 sovereign states . |
1149 | Global_warming | Temperatures in the Arctic have soared recently, and scientists are struggling to explain exactly why. | Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned . |
1551 | Summit_Series | We're coming out of the Little Ice Age. | Summit Series The Summit Series , or Super Series ( in Russian Суперсерия СССР -- Канада ; Superseriya SSSR -- Canada ) , known at the time simply as the Canada -- USSR Series , was an eight-game series of ice hockey between the Soviet Union and Canada , held in September 1972 . It was the first competition between the Soviet national team and a Canadian team represented by professional players of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , known as Team Canada . It was the first international ice hockey competition for Canada after Canada had withdrawn from international ice hockey competitions in a dispute with the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) . The series was organized with the intention to create a true best-on-best competition in the sport of ice hockey . The Soviets had become the dominant team in international competitions , which disallowed the professional players of Canada . Canada had had a long history of dominance of the sport prior to the Soviets ' rise . The first four games of the series were held in Canada and the final four in Moscow . The Soviet Union surprised the Canadian team and most of the hockey media with an opening game victory , 7 -- 3 . Many sportswriters had predicted an overwhelming victory for Canada in the series . Canada won the next game 4 -- 1 ; the third game was a tie and the Soviets won game four to take a two games to one lead after the Canadian segment . The series resumed two weeks later in Moscow . The Soviets won game five to take a three games to one series lead . The Canadians won the final three games in Moscow to win the series four games to three , with one tie . The final game was won in dramatic fashion , with the Canadians overcoming a two-goal Soviet lead after two periods . The Canadians scored three in the third , the final one scored with 34 seconds left , by Paul Henderson . The series was played during the Cold War , and intense feelings of nationalism were aroused in both Canada and the Soviet Union , as well as on the ice . The games introduced several talented Soviet players to North America , such as Alexander Yakushev , Valeri Kharlamov and goaltender Vladislav Tretiak ; the latter two are Hockey Hall of Fame inductees . Team Canada , the first NHL and professional all-star team formed for international play , was led by Phil Esposito , who led the series in scoring , as well as contributing in other roles . The Canadian line of Bobby Clarke , Ron Ellis and Henderson , which was not expected to start for the team , as none were yet stars , played a surprisingly large role in the Canadian win . The series was filled with controversy , starting with the exclusion of top Canadian player Bobby Hull and including disputes over officiating , dirty play on the part of both teams and the deliberate injury of Kharlamov by Clarke in game six . |
2920 | Global_warming_controversy | "Global warming data apparently cooked by U.S. government-funded body shows astounding temperature fraud with increases averaging 10 to 15 degrees Fahrenheit. | Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming . |
1729 | Sea_level_rise | A large amount of warming is delayed, and if we don't act now we could pass tipping points. | Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems . |
96 | Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change | The IPCC, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which is sort of the voice of the consensus, concedes that there has been no increase in extreme weather events. | Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore . |
306 | Effects_of_global_warming | There is no statistical evidence that global warming is intensifying[…] droughts | Effects of global warming The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts . |
979 | 2006_European_heat_wave | "Warm weather worsened the most recent five-year drought, which included the driest four-year period on record in terms of statewide precipitation. | 2006 European heat wave The 2006 European heat wave was a period of exceptionally hot weather that arrived at the end of June 2006 in certain European countries . The United Kingdom , France , Belgium , the Netherlands , Luxembourg , Italy , Poland , the Czech Republic , Hungary , Germany and western parts of Russia were most affected . Several records were broken . In the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Ireland and the United Kingdom , July 2006 was the warmest month since official measurements began . |
1378 | Glaciology | Antarctica is gaining land-based ice, according to a new study by NASA scientists published in the Journal of Glaciology | Glaciology Glaciology ( from Latin : glacies , `` frost , ice '' , and Ancient Greek : λόγος , logos , `` subject matter '' ; literally `` study of ice '' ) is the scientific study of glaciers , or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice . Glaciology is an interdisciplinary earth science that integrates geophysics , geology , physical geography , geomorphology , climatology , meteorology , hydrology , biology , and ecology . The impact of glaciers on people includes the fields of human geography and anthropology . The discoveries of water ice on the Moon , Mars , Europa and Pluto add an extraterrestrial component to the field , as in `` astroglaciology '' . |
2360 | Carbon_sink | In fact, human emit 26 gigatonnes of CO2 per year while CO2 in the atmosphere is rising by only 15 gigatonnes per year - much of human CO2 emissions is being absorbed by natural sinks. | Carbon sink A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process . |
418 | Drought | describes a world of worsening food shortages and wildfires, and a mass die-off of coral reefs as soon as 2040 | Drought A drought is a period of below-average precipitation in a given region , resulting in prolonged shortages in its water supply , whether atmospheric , surface water or ground water . A drought can last for months or years , or may be declared after as few as 15 days . It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region and harm to the local economy . Annual dry seasons in the tropics significantly increase the chances of a drought developing and subsequent bush fires . Periods of heat can significantly worsen drought conditions by hastening evaporation of water vapour . Many plant species , such as those in the family Cactaceae ( or cacti ) , have drought tolerance adaptations like reduced leaf area and waxy cuticles to enhance their ability to tolerate drought . Some others survive dry periods as buried seeds . Semi-permanent drought produces arid biomes such as deserts and grasslands . Prolonged droughts have caused mass migrations and humanitarian crises . Most arid ecosystems have inherently low productivity . The most prolonged drought ever in the world in recorded history occurred in the Atacama Desert in Chile ( 400 Years ) . |
2530 | Global_warming | Glaciers are in rapid retreat worldwide, despite 1 error in 1 paragraph in a 3000 page IPCC report. | Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned . |
935 | El_Niño | The winds around the continent seem to be strengthening, stirring the ocean and bringing up a layer of warmer water that has most likely been there for centuries. | El Niño El Niño -LSB- ɛl_ˈniːnjoʊ -RSB- ( -LSB- el ˈniɲo -RSB- ) is the warm phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation ( commonly called ENSO ) and is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific ( between approximately the International Date Line and 120 ° W ) , including off the Pacific coast of South America . El Niño Southern Oscillation refers to the cycle of warm and cold temperatures , as measured by sea surface temperature , SST , of the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean . El Niño is accompanied by high air pressure in the western Pacific and low air pressure in the eastern Pacific . The cool phase of ENSO is called `` La Niña '' with SST in the eastern Pacific below average and air pressures high in the eastern and low in western Pacific . The ENSO cycle , both El Niño and La Niña , cause global changes of both temperatures and rainfall . Developing countries that are dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are usually most affected . In American Spanish , the capitalized term `` El Niño '' refers to `` the little boy '' , so named because the pool of warm water in the Pacific near South America is often at its warmest around Christmas . The original name , `` El Niño de Navidad '' , traces its origin centuries back to Peruvian fisherman , who named the weather phenomenon in reference to the newborn Christ . `` La Niña '' , chosen as the ` opposite ' of El Niño , literally translates to `` the little girl '' . |
0 | Habitat_destruction | Global warming is driving polar bears toward extinction | Habitat destruction Habitat destruction is the process in which natural habitat is rendered unable to support the species present . In this process , the organisms that previously used the site are displaced or destroyed , reducing biodiversity . Habitat destruction by human activity is mainly for the purpose of harvesting natural resources for industry production and urbanization . Clearing habitats for agriculture is the principal cause of habitat destruction . Other important causes of habitat destruction include mining , logging , trawling and urban sprawl . Habitat destruction is currently ranked as the primary cause of species extinction worldwide . It is a process of natural environmental change that may be caused by habitat fragmentation , geological processes , climate change or by human activities such as the introduction of invasive species , ecosystem nutrient depletion , and other human activities The terms habitat loss and habitat reduction are also used in a wider sense , including loss of habitat from other factors , such as water and noise pollution . |
1019 | El_Niño | An additional kick was supplied by an El Niño weather pattern that peaked in 2016 and temporarily warmed much of the surface of the planet, causing the hottest year in a historical record dating to 1880. | El Niño El Niño -LSB- ɛl_ˈniːnjoʊ -RSB- ( -LSB- el ˈniɲo -RSB- ) is the warm phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation ( commonly called ENSO ) and is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific ( between approximately the International Date Line and 120 ° W ) , including off the Pacific coast of South America . El Niño Southern Oscillation refers to the cycle of warm and cold temperatures , as measured by sea surface temperature , SST , of the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean . El Niño is accompanied by high air pressure in the western Pacific and low air pressure in the eastern Pacific . The cool phase of ENSO is called `` La Niña '' with SST in the eastern Pacific below average and air pressures high in the eastern and low in western Pacific . The ENSO cycle , both El Niño and La Niña , cause global changes of both temperatures and rainfall . Developing countries that are dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are usually most affected . In American Spanish , the capitalized term `` El Niño '' refers to `` the little boy '' , so named because the pool of warm water in the Pacific near South America is often at its warmest around Christmas . The original name , `` El Niño de Navidad '' , traces its origin centuries back to Peruvian fisherman , who named the weather phenomenon in reference to the newborn Christ . `` La Niña '' , chosen as the ` opposite ' of El Niño , literally translates to `` the little girl '' . |
2401 | Mother_goddess | Mother Earth has clearly ruled that CO2 is not a pollutant.' | Mother goddess For | the mountain with native name Chomolungma ( `` Goddess Mother of the World/Earth '' ) | Mount Everest -RCB- h -RCB- A mother goddess is a goddess who represents , or is a personification of nature , motherhood , fertility , creation , destruction or who embodies the bounty of the Earth . When equated with the Earth or the natural world , such goddesses are sometimes referred to as Mother Earth or as the Earth Mother . There is difference of opinion between the academic and the popular conception of the term . The popular view is mainly driven by the Goddess movement and reads that primitive societies initially were matriarchal , worshipping a sovereign , nurturing , motherly earth goddess . This was based upon the nineteenth-century ideas of unilineal evolution of Johann Jakob Bachofen . According to the academic view , however , both Bachofen and the modern Goddess theories are a projection of contemporary world views on ancient myths , rather than attempting to understand the mentalité of that time . Often this is accompanied by a desire for a lost civilization from a bygone era that would have been just , peaceful and wise . However , it is highly unlikely that such a civilization ever existed . For a long time , feminist authors advocated that these peaceful , matriarchal agrarian societies were exterminated or subjugated by nomadic , patriarchal warrior tribes . An important contribution to this was that of archaeologist Marija Gimbutas . Her work in this field is now however largely rejected . Also with feminist archaeologists this vision is nowadays considered highly controversial . Since the sixties of the twentieth century , especially in popular culture , the alleged worship of the mother goddess and the social position that women in prehistoric societies supposedly assumed , were linked . This made the debate a political one . According to the goddess movement , the current male-dominated society should return to the egalitarian matriarchy of earlier times . That this form of society ever existed was supposedly supported by many figurines that were found . In academic circles , this prehistoric matriarchy is considered unlikely . Firstly , worshiping a mother goddess does not necessarily mean that women ruled society . In addition , the figurines can also portray ordinary women or goddesses , and it is unclear whether there really ever was a mother goddess . |
2928 | Global_warming | Warmer seasons or triennial phases are followed by an atmosphere that is rich in CO2, reflecting the gas solving or exsolving from water, and not photosynthesis activity. | Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned . |
2704 | Kyoto_Protocol | Australia accounts for 1.5 per cent of global carbon emissions. | Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol . |
1305 | Coral_bleaching | The projection that much of the Great Barrier Reef could perish within the next few decades could turn out to be too pessimistic, since other research has shown that some species of corals are surprisingly resilient to the stress from changing ocean temperatures. | Coral bleaching Coral bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel algae that lives inside their tissues . Normally , coral polyps live in an endosymbiotic relationship with the algae and that relationship is crucial for the coral and hence for the health of the whole reef . Bleached corals continue to live . But as the algae provide the coral with 90 % of its energy , after expelling the algae the coral begins to starve . Above-average sea water temperatures caused by global warming have been identified as a leading cause for coral bleaching worldwide . Between 2014 and 2016 , the longest global bleaching events ever were recorded . According to the United Nations Environment Programme , these bleaching events killed coral on an unprecedented scale . In 2016 , bleaching hit 90 percent of coral on the Great Barrier Reef and killed 29 percent of the reef 's coral . In 2017 , the bleaching further expanded to areas of the park that were previously spared , such as the central one . __ TOC __ |
2606 | Methane | ...Livestock are responsible for 18 per cent of the greenhouse gases that cause global warming, more than cars, planes and all other forms of transport put together. | Methane Methane ( -LSB- ˈmɛθeɪn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈmiːθeɪn -RSB- ) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula ( one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen ) . It is a group 14 hydride and the simplest alkane , and is the main constituent of natural gas . The relative abundance of methane on Earth makes it an attractive fuel , though capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state under normal conditions for temperature and pressure . Natural methane is found both below ground and under the sea floor . When it reaches the surface and the atmosphere , it is known as atmospheric methane . The Earth 's atmospheric methane concentration has increased by about 150 % since 1750 , and it accounts for 20 % of the total radiative forcing from all of the long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases ( these gases do n't include water vapor which is by far the largest component of the greenhouse effect ) . |
2912 | Precipitation | temperature under the ice is fixed at -2C. Thus elevated winter air temperatures | Precipitation In meteorology , precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity . The main forms of precipitation include drizzle , rain , sleet , snow , graupel and hail . Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor , so that the water condenses and `` precipitates '' . Thus , fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions , because the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate . Two processes , possibly acting together , can lead to air becoming saturated : cooling the air or adding water vapor to the air . Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud . Short , intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called `` showers . '' Moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain . This process is typically active when freezing rain is occurring . A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain and serves as the foci for forcing and rising air . Provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content , the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds , namely stratus and cumulonimbus . Eventually , the cloud droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops and descend toward the Earth where they will freeze on contact with exposed objects . Where relatively warm water bodies are present , for example due to water evaporation from lakes , lake-effect snowfall becomes a concern downwind of the warm lakes within the cold cyclonic flow around the backside of extratropical cyclones . Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy . Thundersnow is possible within a cyclone 's comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands . In mountainous areas , heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation . On the leeward side of mountains , desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating . The movement of the monsoon trough , or intertropical convergence zone , brings rainy seasons to savannah climes . Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle , and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet . Approximately 505000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year ; 398000 km3 of it over the oceans and 107000 km3 over land . Given the Earth 's surface area , that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 mm , but over land it is only 715 mm . Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes . Precipitation may occur on other celestial bodies , e.g. when it gets cold , Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost , rather than rain or snow . |
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