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several Soviet armies near Smolensk. 1942 – Anne Frank and her family go into hiding in the "Secret Annexe" above her father's office in an Amsterdam warehouse. 1944 – Jackie Robinson refuses to move to the back of a bus, leading to a court-martial. 1944 – The Hartford circus fire, one of America's worst fire disasters, kills approximately 168 people and injures over 700 in Hartford, Connecticut. 1947 – Referendum held in Sylhet to decide its fate in the Partition of India. 1947 – The AK-47 goes into production in the Soviet Union. 1957 – Althea Gibson wins the Wimbledon championships, becoming the first black athlete to do so. 1957 – John Lennon and Paul McCartney meet for the first time, as teenagers at Woolton Fete, three years before forming the Beatles. 1962 – As a part of Operation Plowshare, the Sedan nuclear test takes place. 1962 – The Late Late Show, the world's longest-running chat show by the same broadcaster, airs on RTÉ One for the first time. 1964 – Malawi declares its independence from the United Kingdom. 1966 – Malawi becomes a republic, with Hastings Banda as its first President. 1967 – Nigerian Civil War: Nigerian forces invade Biafra, beginning the war. 1975 – The Comoros declares independence from France. 1986 – Davis Phinney becomes the first American cyclist to win a road stage of the Tour de France. 1988 – The Piper Alpha drilling platform in the North Sea is destroyed by explosions and fires. One hundred sixty-seven oil workers are killed, making it the world's worst offshore oil disaster in terms of direct loss of life. 1989 – The Tel Aviv–Jerusalem bus 405 suicide attack: Sixteen bus passengers are killed when a member of the Palestinian Islamic Jihad took control of the bus and drove it over a cliff. 1990 – The Electronic Frontier Foundation is founded. 1995 – In the Bosnian War, under the command of General Ratko Mladić, Serbia begins its attack on the Bosnian town of Srebrenica. 1996 – A McDonnell Douglas MD-88 operating as Delta Air Lines Flight 1288 experiences a turbine engine failure during takeoff from Pensacola International Airport, killing two and injuring five of the 147 people on board. 1997 – The Troubles: In response to the Drumcree dispute, five days of mass protests, riots and gun battles begin in Irish nationalist districts of Northern Ireland. 1998 – Hong Kong International Airport opens in Chek Lap Kok, Hong Kong, replacing Kai Tak Airport as the city's international airport. 2003 – The 70-metre Yevpatoria Planetary Radar sends a METI message (Cosmic Call 2) to five stars: Hip 4872, HD 245409, 55 Cancri (HD 75732), HD 10307 and 47 Ursae Majoris (HD 95128). The messages will arrive to these stars in 2036, 2040, 2044, and 2049, respectively. 2006 – The Nathu La pass between India and China, sealed during the Sino-Indian War, re-opens for trade after 44 years. 2013 – At least 42 people are killed in a shooting at a school in Yobe State, Nigeria. 2013 – A Boeing 777 operating as Asiana Airlines Flight 214 crashes at San Francisco International Airport, killing three and injuring 181 of the 307 people on board. 2013 – A 73-car oil train derails in the town of Lac-Mégantic, Quebec and explodes into flames, killing at least 47 people and destroying more than 30 buildings in the town's central area. Births Pre-1600 1387 – Queen Blanche I of Navarre (d. 1441) 1423 – Antonio Manetti, Italian mathematician and architect (d. 1497) 1580 – Johann Stobäus, German lute player and composer (d. 1646) 1601–1900 1623 – Jacopo Melani, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1676) 1678 – Nicola Francesco Haym, Italian cellist and composer (d. 1729) 1686 – Antoine de Jussieu, French biologist and academic (d. 1758) 1701 – Mary, Countess of Harold, English aristocrat and philanthropist (d. 1785) 1736 – Daniel Morgan, American general and politician (d. 1802) 1747 – John Paul Jones, Scottish-American captain (d. 1792) 1766 – Alexander Wilson, Scottish-American poet, ornithologist, and illustrator (d. 1813) 1782 – Maria Luisa of Spain (d. 1824) 1785 – William Hooker, English botanist and academic (d. 1865) 1789 – María Isabella of Spain (d. 1846) 1796 – Nicholas I of Russia (d. 1855) 1797 – Henry Paget, 2nd Marquess of Anglesey (d. 1869) 1799 – Louisa Caroline Huggins Tuthill, American author (d. 1879) 1817 – Albert von Kölliker, Swiss anatomist and physiologist (d. 1905) 1818 – Adolf Anderssen, German chess player (d. 1879) 1823 – Sophie Adlersparre, Swedish publisher, writer, and women's rights activist (d. 1895) 1829 – Frederick VIII, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein (d. 1880) 1831 – Sylvester Pennoyer, American lawyer and politician, 8th Governor of Oregon (d. 1902) 1832 – Maximilian I of Mexico (d. 1867) 1837 – R. G. Bhandarkar, Indian orientalist and scholar (d. 1925) 1838 – Vatroslav Jagić, Croatian philologist and scholar (d. 1923) 1840 – José María Velasco Gómez, Mexican painter and academic (d. 1912) 1843 – John Downer, Australian politician, 16th Premier of South Australia (d. 1915) 1846 – Ángela Peralta, Mexican opera singer (d. 1883) 1856 – George Howard Earle, Jr., American lawyer and businessman (d. 1928) 1858 – William Irvine, Irish-Australian politician, 21st Premier of Victoria (d. 1943) 1865 – Émile Jaques-Dalcroze, Swiss composer and educator (d. 1950) 1868 – Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom (d. 1935) 1873 – Dimitrios Maximos, Greek banker and politician, 140th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1955) 1877 – Arnaud Massy, French golfer (d. 1950) 1878 – Eino Leino, Finnish poet and journalist (d. 1926) 1883 – Godfrey Huggins, Prime Minister of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (d. 1971) 1884 – Harold Stirling Vanderbilt, American businessman and sailor (d. 1970) 1885 – Ernst Busch, German field marshal (d. 1945) 1886 – Marc Bloch, French historian and academic (d. 1944) 1887 – Marc Chagall, Belarusian-French painter and poet (d. 1985) 1887 – Annette Kellermann, Australian swimmer and actress (d. 1975) 1890 – Dhan Gopal Mukerji, Indian-American author and scholar (d. 1936) 1892 – Will James, American author and illustrator (d. 1942) 1897 – Richard Krautheimer, German-American historian and scholar (d. 1994) 1898 – Hanns Eisler, German-Austrian soldier and composer (d. 1962) 1899 – Susannah Mushatt Jones, American supercentarian (d. 2016) 1900 – Frederica Sagor Maas, American author and screenwriter (d. 2012) 1900 – Elfriede Wever, German Olympic runner (d. 1941) 1901–present 1903 – Hugo Theorell, Swedish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1982) 1904 – Robert Whitney, American conductor and composer (d. 1986) 1904 – Erik Wickberg, Swedish 9th General of The Salvation Army (d. 1996) 1905 – Juan O'Gorman, Mexican painter and architect (d. 1982) 1907 – Frida Kahlo, Mexican painter and educator (d. 1954) 1907 – George Stanley, Canadian soldier, historian, and author, designed the flag of Canada (d. 2002) 1908 – Anton Muttukumaru, Sri Lankan general and diplomat (d. 2001) 1909 – Eric Reece, Australian politician, 32nd Premier of Tasmania (d. 1999) 1910 – René Le Grèves, French cyclist (d. 1946) 1911 – June Gale, American actress (d. 1996) 1912 – Heinrich Harrer, Austrian geographer and mountaineer (d. 2006) 1912 – Molly Yard, American feminist (d. 2005) 1913 – Vance Trimble, American journalist and author (d. 2021) 1914 – Vince McMahon Sr., American wrestling promoter, founded WWE (d. 1984) 1914 – Ernest Kirkendall, American chemist and metallurgist (d. 2005) 1915 – Leonard Birchall, Royal Canadian Air Force pilot (d. 2004) 1916 – Harold Norse, American poet and author (d. 2009) 1916 – Don R. Christensen, American animator, cartoonist, illustrator, writer and inventor (d. 2006) 1917 – Arthur Lydiard, New Zealand runner and coach (d. 2004) 1918 – Sebastian Cabot, English-Canadian actor (d. 1977) 1918 – Herm Fuetsch, American professional basketball player (d. 2010) 1918 – Francisco Moncion, Dominican-American ballet dancer, charter member of the New York City Ballet (d.1995) 1919 – Ernst Haefliger, Swiss tenor and educator (d. 2007) 1919 – Edward Kenna, Australian Second World War recipient of the Victoria Cross (d. 2009) 1919 – Ray Dowker, New Zealand cricketer (d. 2004) 1921 – Allan MacEachen,
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Wagram; France defeats the Austrian army in the largest battle to date of the Napoleonic Wars. 1854 – In Jackson, Michigan, the first convention of the United States Republican Party is held. 1885 – Louis Pasteur successfully tests his vaccine against rabies on Joseph Meister, a boy who was bitten by a rabid dog. 1887 – David Kalākaua, monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii, is forced to sign the Bayonet Constitution, which transfers much of the king's authority to the Legislature of the Kingdom of Hawaii. 1892 – Three thousand eight hundred striking steelworkers engage in a day-long battle with Pinkerton agents during the Homestead Strike, leaving ten dead and dozens wounded. 1901–present 1917 – World War I: Arabian troops led by T. E. Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia") and Auda ibu Tayi capture Aqaba from the Ottoman Empire during the Arab Revolt. 1918 – The Left SR uprising in Russia starts with the assassination of German ambassador Wilhelm von Mirbach by Cheka members. 1919 – The British dirigible R34 lands in New York, completing the first crossing of the Atlantic Ocean by an airship. 1933 – The first Major League Baseball All-Star Game is played in Chicago's Comiskey Park. The American League defeated the National League 4–2. 1936 – A major breach of the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal in England sends millions of gallons of water cascading into the River Irwell. 1937 – Spanish Civil War: Battle of Brunete: The battle begins with Spanish Republican troops going on the offensive against the Nationalists to relieve pressure on Madrid. 1939 – Anti-Jewish legislation in prewar Nazi Germany closes the last remaining Jewish enterprises. 1940 – Story Bridge, a major landmark in Brisbane, as well as Australia's longest cantilever bridge is formally opened. 1941 – The German army launches its offensive to encircle several Soviet armies near Smolensk. 1942 – Anne Frank and her family go into hiding in the "Secret Annexe" above her father's office in an Amsterdam warehouse. 1944 – Jackie Robinson refuses to move to the back of a bus, leading to a court-martial. 1944 – The Hartford circus fire, one of America's worst fire disasters, kills approximately 168 people and injures over 700 in Hartford, Connecticut. 1947 – Referendum held in Sylhet to decide its fate in the Partition of India. 1947 – The AK-47 goes into production in the Soviet Union. 1957 – Althea Gibson wins the Wimbledon championships, becoming the first black athlete to do so. 1957 – John Lennon and Paul McCartney meet for the first time, as teenagers at Woolton Fete, three years before forming the Beatles. 1962 – As a part of Operation Plowshare, the Sedan nuclear test takes place. 1962 – The Late Late Show, the world's longest-running chat show by the same broadcaster, airs on RTÉ One for the first time. 1964 – Malawi declares its independence from the United Kingdom. 1966 – Malawi becomes a republic, with Hastings Banda as its first President. 1967 – Nigerian Civil War: Nigerian forces invade Biafra, beginning the war. 1975 – The Comoros declares independence from France. 1986 – Davis Phinney becomes the first American cyclist to win a road stage of the Tour de France. 1988 – The Piper Alpha drilling platform in the North Sea is destroyed by explosions and fires. One hundred sixty-seven oil workers are killed, making it the world's worst offshore oil disaster in terms of direct loss of life. 1989 – The Tel Aviv–Jerusalem bus 405 suicide attack: Sixteen bus passengers are killed when a member of the Palestinian Islamic Jihad took control of the bus and drove it over a cliff. 1990 – The Electronic Frontier Foundation is founded. 1995 – In the Bosnian War, under the command of General Ratko Mladić, Serbia begins its attack on the Bosnian town of Srebrenica. 1996 – A McDonnell Douglas MD-88 operating as Delta Air Lines Flight 1288 experiences a turbine engine failure during takeoff from Pensacola International Airport, killing two and injuring five of the 147 people on board. 1997 – The Troubles: In response to the Drumcree dispute, five days of mass protests, riots and gun battles begin in Irish nationalist districts of Northern Ireland. 1998 – Hong Kong International Airport opens in Chek Lap Kok, Hong Kong, replacing Kai Tak Airport as the city's international airport. 2003 – The 70-metre Yevpatoria Planetary Radar sends a METI message (Cosmic Call 2) to five stars: Hip 4872, HD 245409, 55 Cancri (HD 75732), HD 10307 and 47 Ursae Majoris (HD 95128). The messages will arrive to these stars in 2036, 2040, 2044, and 2049, respectively. 2006 – The Nathu La pass between India and China, sealed during the Sino-Indian War, re-opens for trade after 44 years. 2013 – At least 42 people are killed in a shooting at a school in Yobe State, Nigeria. 2013 – A Boeing 777 operating as Asiana Airlines Flight 214 crashes at San Francisco International Airport, killing three and injuring 181 of the 307 people on board. 2013 – A 73-car oil train derails in the town of Lac-Mégantic, Quebec and explodes into flames, killing at least 47 people and destroying more than 30 buildings in the town's central area. Births Pre-1600 1387 – Queen Blanche I of Navarre (d. 1441) 1423 – Antonio Manetti, Italian mathematician and architect (d. 1497) 1580 – Johann Stobäus, German lute player and composer (d. 1646) 1601–1900 1623 – Jacopo Melani, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1676) 1678 – Nicola Francesco Haym, Italian cellist and composer (d. 1729) 1686 – Antoine de Jussieu, French biologist and academic (d. 1758) 1701 – Mary, Countess of Harold, English aristocrat and philanthropist (d. 1785) 1736 – Daniel Morgan, American general and politician (d. 1802) 1747 – John Paul Jones, Scottish-American captain (d. 1792) 1766 – Alexander Wilson, Scottish-American poet, ornithologist, and illustrator (d. 1813) 1782 – Maria Luisa of Spain (d. 1824) 1785 – William Hooker, English botanist and academic (d. 1865) 1789 – María Isabella of Spain (d. 1846) 1796 – Nicholas I of Russia (d. 1855) 1797 – Henry Paget, 2nd Marquess of Anglesey (d. 1869) 1799 – Louisa Caroline Huggins Tuthill, American author (d. 1879) 1817 – Albert von Kölliker, Swiss anatomist and physiologist (d. 1905) 1818 – Adolf Anderssen, German chess player (d. 1879) 1823 – Sophie Adlersparre, Swedish publisher, writer, and women's rights activist (d. 1895) 1829 – Frederick VIII, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein (d. 1880) 1831 – Sylvester Pennoyer, American lawyer and politician, 8th Governor of Oregon (d. 1902) 1832 – Maximilian I of Mexico (d. 1867) 1837 – R. G. Bhandarkar, Indian orientalist and scholar (d. 1925) 1838 – Vatroslav Jagić, Croatian philologist and scholar (d. 1923) 1840 – José María Velasco Gómez, Mexican painter and academic (d. 1912) 1843 – John Downer, Australian politician, 16th Premier of South Australia (d. 1915) 1846 – Ángela Peralta, Mexican opera singer (d. 1883) 1856 – George Howard Earle, Jr., American lawyer and businessman (d. 1928) 1858 – William Irvine, Irish-Australian politician, 21st Premier of Victoria (d. 1943) 1865 – Émile Jaques-Dalcroze, Swiss composer and educator (d. 1950) 1868 – Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom (d. 1935) 1873 – Dimitrios Maximos, Greek banker and politician, 140th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1955) 1877 – Arnaud Massy, French golfer (d. 1950) 1878 – Eino Leino, Finnish poet and journalist (d. 1926) 1883 – Godfrey Huggins, Prime Minister of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (d. 1971) 1884 – Harold Stirling Vanderbilt, American businessman and sailor (d. 1970) 1885 – Ernst Busch, German field marshal (d. 1945) 1886 – Marc Bloch, French historian and academic (d. 1944) 1887 – Marc Chagall, Belarusian-French painter and poet (d. 1985) 1887 – Annette Kellermann, Australian swimmer and actress (d. 1975) 1890 – Dhan Gopal Mukerji, Indian-American author and scholar (d. 1936) 1892 – Will James, American author and illustrator (d. 1942) 1897 – Richard Krautheimer, German-American historian and scholar (d. 1994) 1898 – Hanns Eisler, German-Austrian soldier and composer (d. 1962) 1899 – Susannah Mushatt Jones, American supercentarian (d. 2016) 1900 – Frederica Sagor Maas, American author and screenwriter (d. 2012) 1900 – Elfriede Wever, German Olympic runner (d. 1941) 1901–present 1903 – Hugo Theorell, Swedish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1982) 1904 – Robert Whitney, American conductor and composer (d. 1986) 1904 – Erik Wickberg, Swedish 9th General of The Salvation Army (d. 1996) 1905 – Juan O'Gorman, Mexican painter and architect (d. 1982) 1907 – Frida Kahlo, Mexican painter and educator (d. 1954) 1907 – George Stanley, Canadian soldier, historian, and author, designed the flag of Canada (d. 2002) 1908 – Anton Muttukumaru, Sri Lankan general and diplomat (d. 2001) 1909 – Eric Reece, Australian politician, 32nd Premier of Tasmania (d. 1999) 1910 – René Le Grèves, French cyclist (d. 1946) 1911 – June Gale, American actress (d. 1996) 1912 – Heinrich Harrer, Austrian geographer and mountaineer (d. 2006) 1912 – Molly Yard, American feminist (d. 2005) 1913 – Vance Trimble, American journalist and author (d. 2021) 1914 – Vince McMahon Sr., American wrestling promoter, founded WWE (d. 1984) 1914 – Ernest Kirkendall, American chemist and metallurgist (d. 2005) 1915 – Leonard Birchall, Royal Canadian Air Force pilot (d. 2004) 1916 – Harold Norse, American poet and author (d. 2009) 1916 – Don R. Christensen, American animator, cartoonist, illustrator, writer and inventor (d. 2006) 1917 – Arthur Lydiard, New Zealand runner and coach (d. 2004) 1918 – Sebastian Cabot, English-Canadian actor (d. 1977) 1918 – Herm Fuetsch, American professional basketball player (d. 2010) 1918 – Francisco Moncion, Dominican-American ballet dancer, charter member of the New York City Ballet (d.1995) 1919 – Ernst Haefliger, Swiss tenor and educator (d. 2007) 1919 – Edward Kenna, Australian Second World War recipient of the Victoria Cross (d. 2009) 1919 – Ray Dowker, New Zealand cricketer (d. 2004) 1921 – Allan MacEachen, Canadian economist and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Canada (d. 2017) 1921 – Billy Mauch, American actor (d. 2006) 1921 – Bobby Mauch, American actor (d. 2007) 1921 – Nancy Reagan, American actress and activist, 42nd First Lady of the United States (d. 2016) 1922 – William Schallert, American actor; president (1979–81) of the Screen Actors Guild (d. 2016) 1923 – Wojciech Jaruzelski, Polish general and politician, 1st President of Poland (d. 2014) 1924 – Mahim Bora, Indian writer and educationist, recipients of the Padma Shri, India's fourth highest civilian honour (d. 2016) 1924 – Louie Bellson, American drummer, composer, and bandleader (d. 2009) 1925 – Merv Griffin, American actor, singer, and producer, created Wheel of Fortune and Jeopardy! (d. 2007) 1925 – Bill Haley, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1981) 1925 – Gazi Yaşargil, Turkish neurosurgeon and academic 1926 – Sulev Vahtre, Estonian historian and academic (d. 2007) 1926 – Armando Silvestre, Mexican-American actor 1927 – Jan Hein Donner, Dutch chess player and journalist (d. 1988) 1927 – Janet Leigh, American actress and author (d. 2004) 1928 – Bernard Malgrange, French mathematician 1929 – Hélène Carrère d'Encausse, French politician historian 1930 – George Armstrong, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2021) 1930 – Ian Burgess, English racing driver (d. 2012) 1931 – Della Reese, American actress and singer (d. 2017) 1931 – László Tábori, Hungarian runner and coach (d. 2018) 1932 – Herman Hertzberger, Dutch architect and academic 1935 – Candy Barr, American model, dancer, and actress (d. 2005) 1935 – Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama 1936 – Dave Allen, Irish comedian, actor, and screenwriter (d. 2005) 1937 – Vladimir Ashkenazy, Russian-Icelandic pianist and conductor 1937 – Ned Beatty, American actor (d. 2021) 1937 – Gene Chandler, American singer-songwriter and producer 1937 – Bessie Head, Botswanan writer (d. 1986) 1937 – Michael Sata, Zambian police officer and politician, 5th President of Zambia (d. 2014) 1939 – Jet Harris, English bass player (d. 2011) 1939 – Mary Peters, English-Irish pentathlete and shot putter 1939 – Bruce Hunter, American swimmer (d. 2018) 1940 – Nursultan Nazarbayev, Kazakh politician, 1st President of Kazakhstan 1940 – Jeannie Seely, Grammy Award-winning country music singer-songwriter and Grand Ole Opry member 1940 – Siti Norma Yaakob, Malaysian lawyer and judge 1941 – David Crystal, British linguist, author, and academic 1941 – Reinhard Roder, German footballer and manager 1943 – Tamara Sinyavskaya, Russian soprano 1944 – Gunhild Hoffmeister, German runner 1946 – George W. Bush, American businessman and politician, 43rd President of the United States 1946 – Fred Dryer, American football player and actor 1946 – Peter Singer, Australian philosopher and academic 1946 – Sylvester Stallone, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1947 – Roy Señeres, Filipino diplomat
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Tom Kristensen, Danish race car driver 1968 – Jorja Fox, American actress 1969 – Sylke Otto, German luger 1969 – Joe Sakic, Canadian ice hockey player 1969 – Cree Summer, American-Canadian actress 1970 – Wayne McCullough, Northern Irish boxer 1970 – Min Patel, Indian-English cricketer 1970 – Erik Zabel, German cyclist and coach 1971 – Christian Camargo, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1972 – Lisa Leslie, American basketball player and actress 1972 – Manfred Stohl, Austrian race car driver 1972 – Kirsten Vangsness, American actress and writer 1973 – José Jiménez, Dominican baseball player 1973 – Kārlis Skrastiņš, Latvian ice hockey player (died 2011) 1974 – Patrick Lalime, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1975 – Tony Benshoof, American luger 1975 – Louis Koen, South African rugby player 1975 – Adam Nelson, American shot putter 1976 – Bérénice Bejo, Argentinian-French actress 1976 – Dominic Foley, Irish footballer 1976 – Vasily Petrenko, Russian conductor 1976 – Ercüment Olgundeniz, Turkish discus thrower and shot putter 1978 – Chris Andersen, American basketball player 1978 – Davor Kraljević, Croatian footballer 1979 – Ibrahim Sulayman Muhammad Arbaysh, Saudi Arabian terrorist (died 2015) 1979 – Anastasios Gousis, Greek sprinter 1979 – Douglas Hondo, Zimbabwean cricketer 1980 – John Buck, American baseball player 1980 – Serdar Kulbilge, Turkish footballer 1980 – Michelle Kwan, American figure skater 1981 – Mahendra Singh Dhoni, Indian cricketer 1982 – Jan Laštůvka, Czech footballer 1982 – George Owu, Ghanaian footballer 1983 – Justin Davies, Australian footballer 1984 – Minas Alozidis, Greek hurdler 1984 – Alberto Aquilani, Italian footballer 1984 – Mohammad Ashraful, Bangladeshi cricketer 1985 – Marc Stein, German footballer 1986 – Ana Kasparian, American journalist and producer 1986 – Udo Schwarz, German rugby player 1986 – Sevyn Streeter, American singer-songwriter 1988 – Kaci Brown, American singer-songwriter 1988 – Lukas Rosenthal, German rugby player 1989 – Landon Cassill, American race car driver 1989 – Miina Kallas, Estonian footballer 1989 – Karl-August Tiirmaa, Estonian skier 1990 – Lee Addy, Ghanaian footballer 1990 – Pascal Stöger, Austrian footballer 1991 – Alesso, Swedish DJ, record producer and musician 1992 – Ellina Anissimova, Estonian hammer thrower 1992 – Dominik Furman, Polish footballer 1994 – Timothy Cathcart, Northern Irish race car driver (died 2014) 1997 – Mizuho Habu, Japanese idol 1999 – Moussa Diaby, French footballer Deaths Pre-1600 984 – Crescentius the Elder, Italian politician and aristocrat 1021 – Fujiwara no Akimitsu, Japanese bureaucrat (born 944) 1162 – Haakon II Sigurdsson, king of Norway (born 1147) 1285 – Tile Kolup, German impostor claiming to be Frederick II 1304 – Benedict XI, pope of the Catholic Church (born 1240) 1307 – Edward I, king of England (born 1239) 1345 – Momchil, Bulgarian brigand and ruler 1531 – Tilman Riemenschneider, German sculptor (born 1460) 1568 – William Turner, British ornithologist and botanist (born 1508) 1572 – Sigismund II Augustus, Polish king (born 1520) 1573 – Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, Italian architect, designed the Church of the Gesù and Villa Farnese (born 1507) 1593 – Mohammed Bagayogo, Malian scholar and academic (born 1523) 1600 – Thomas Lucy, English politician (born 1532) 1601–1900 1607 – Penelope Blount, Countess of Devonshire, English noblewoman (born 1563) 1647 – Thomas Hooker, English minister, founded the Colony of Connecticut (born 1586) 1701 – William Stoughton, American judge and politician, Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay (born 1631) 1713 – Henry Compton, English bishop (born 1632) 1718 – Alexei Petrovich, Russian tsarevich (born 1690) 1730 – Olivier Levasseur, French pirate (born 1690) 1758 – Marthanda Varma, Raja of Attingal (born 1706) 1764 – William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath, English politician, Secretary at War (born 1683) 1776 – Jeremiah Markland, English scholar and academic (born 1693) 1790 – François Hemsterhuis, Dutch philosopher and author (born 1721) 1816 – Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Irish playwright and poet (born 1751) 1863 – William Mulready, Irish genre painter (born 1786) 1865 – George Atzerodt (born 1833) 1865 – David Herold (born 1842) 1865 – Lewis Payne (born 1844) 1865 – Mary Surratt (born 1823) 1890 – Henri Nestlé, German businessman, founded Nestlé (born 1814) 1901–present 1901 – Johanna Spyri, Swiss author (born 1827) 1913 – Edward Burd Grubb Jr., American general and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Spain (born 1841) 1922 – Cathal Brugha, Irish revolutionary and politician, active in the Easter Rising, Irish War of Independence; first Ceann Comhairle and first President of Dáil Éireann (born 1874) 1925 – Clarence Hudson White, American photographer and educator (born 1871) 1927 – Gösta Mittag-Leffler, Swedish mathematician and academic (born 1846) 1930 – Arthur Conan Doyle, British writer (born 1859) 1932 – Alexander Grin, Russian author (born 1880) 1932 – Henry Eyster Jacobs, American theologian and educator (born 1844) 1939 – Deacon White, American baseball player and manager (born 1847) 1950 – Fats Navarro, American trumpet player and composer (born 1923) 1955 – Ali Naci Karacan, Turkish journalist and publisher (born 1896) 1956 – Gottfried Benn, German author and poet (born 1886) 1960 – Francis Browne, Irish priest and photographer (born 1880) 1964 – Lillian Copeland, American discus thrower and shot putter (born 1904) 1965 – Moshe Sharett, Ukrainian-Israeli lieutenant and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Israel (born 1894) 1968 – Jo Schlesser, French race car driver (born 1928) 1971 – Claude Gauvreau, Canadian poet and playwright (born 1925) 1972 – Athenagoras I of Constantinople (born 1886) 1973 – Max Horkheimer, German philosopher and sociologist (born 1895) 1973 – Veronica Lake, American actress (born 1922) 1978 – Francisco Mendes, Guinea-Bissau lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Guinea-Bissau (born 1933) 1980 – Dore Schary, American director, producer, and screenwriter (born 1905) 1982 – Bon Maharaja, Indian guru and religious writer (born 1901) 1984 – George Oppen, American poet and author (born 1908) 1987 – Germaine Thyssens-Valentin, Dutch-French pianist (born 1902) 1990 – Bill Cullen, American
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France and Russia is signed, ending hostilities between the two countries in the War of the Fourth Coalition. 1834 – In New York City, four nights of rioting against abolitionists began. 1846 – US troops occupy Monterey and Yerba Buena, thus beginning the US conquest of California. 1863 – The United States begins its first military draft; exemptions cost $300. 1865 – Four conspirators in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln are hanged. 1892 – The Katipunan is established, the discovery of which by Spanish authorities initiated the Philippine Revolution. 1898 – US President William McKinley signs the Newlands Resolution annexing Hawaii as a territory of the United States. 1901–present 1907 – Florenz Ziegfeld Jr. staged his first Follies on the roof of the New York Theater in New York City. 1911 – The United States, UK, Japan, and Russia sign the North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911 banning open-water seal hunting, the first international treaty to address wildlife preservation issues. 1915 – The First Battle of the Isonzo comes to an end. 1915 – Colombo Town Guard officer Henry Pedris is executed in British Ceylon for allegedly inciting persecution of Muslims. 1916 – The New Zealand Labour Party was founded in Wellington. 1928 – Sliced bread is sold for the first time (on the inventor's 48th birthday) by the Chillicothe Baking Company of Chillicothe, Missouri. 1930 – Industrialist Henry J. Kaiser begins construction of Boulder Dam (now known as Hoover Dam). 1937 – The Marco Polo Bridge Incident (Lugou Bridge) provides the Imperial Japanese Army with a pretext for starting the Second Sino-Japanese War (China-Japan War). 1937 – The Peel Commission Report recommends the partition of Palestine, which was the first formal recommendation for partition in the history of Palestine. 1941 – The US occupation of Iceland replaces the UK's occupation. 1944 – World War II: Largest Banzai charge of the Pacific War at the Battle of Saipan. 1946 – Mother Francesca S. Cabrini becomes the first American to be canonized. 1946 – Howard Hughes nearly dies when his XF-11 reconnaissance aircraft prototype crashes in a Beverly Hills neighborhood. 1952 – The ocean liner passes Bishop Rock on her maiden voyage, breaking the transatlantic speed record to become the fastest passenger ship in the world. 1953 – Ernesto "Che" Guevara sets out on a trip through Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, and El Salvador. 1958 – US President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs the Alaska Statehood Act into law. 1959 – Venus occults the star Regulus. This rare event is used to determine the diameter of Venus and the structure of the Venusian atmosphere. 1963 – Buddhist crisis: Police commanded by Ngô Đình Nhu, brother and chief political adviser of South Vietnam President Ngo Dinh Diem, attacked a group of American journalists who were covering a protest. 1978 – The Solomon Islands becomes independent from the United Kingdom. 1980 – Institution of sharia law in Iran. 1980 – During the Lebanese Civil War, 83 Tiger militants are killed during what will be known as the Safra massacre. 1981 – US President Ronald Reagan appoints Sandra Day O'Connor to become the first female member of the Supreme Court of the United States. 1983 – Cold War: Samantha Smith, a US schoolgirl, flies to the Soviet Union at the invitation of Secretary General Yuri Andropov. 1985 – Boris Becker becomes the youngest player ever to win Wimbledon at age 17. 1991 – Yugoslav Wars: The Brioni Agreement ends the ten-day independence war in Slovenia against the rest of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. 1992 – The New York Court of Appeals rules that women have the same right as men to go topless in public. 1997 – The Turkish Armed Forces withdraw from northern Iraq after assisting the Kurdistan Democratic Party in the Iraqi Kurdish Civil War. 2003 – NASA Opportunity rover, MER-B or Mars Exploration Rover–B, was launched into space aboard a Delta II rocket. 2005 – A series of four explosions occurs on London's transport system, killing 56 people, including four suicide bombers, and injuring over 700 others. 2007 – The first Live Earth benefit concert was held in 11 locations around the world. 2012 – At least 172 people are killed in a flash flood in the Krasnodar Krai region of Russia. 2013 – A De Havilland Otter air taxi crashes in Soldotna, Alaska, killing ten people. 2016 – Ex-US Army soldier Micah Xavier Johnson shoots fourteen policemen during an anti-police protest in downtown Dallas, Texas, killing five of them. He is subsequently killed by a robot-delivered bomb. 2019 – The United States women's national soccer team defeated the Netherlands 2–0 at the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup Final in Lyon, France. Births Pre-1600 611 – Eudoxia Epiphania, daughter of Byzantine emperor Heraclius 1053 – Emperor Shirakawa of Japan (died 1129) 1119 – Emperor Sutoku of Japan (died 1164) 1207 – Elizabeth of Hungary (died 1231) 1482 – Andrzej Krzycki, Polish archbishop (died 1537) 1528 – Archduchess Anna of Austria (died 1590) 1540 – John Sigismund Zápolya, King of Hungary (died 1571) 1585 – Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel, English courtier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Northumberland (died 1646) 1601–1900 1616 – John Leverett, Governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony (died 1679) 1752 – Joseph Marie Jacquard, French merchant, invented the Jacquard loom (died 1834) 1766 – Guillaume Philibert Duhesme, French general (died 1815) 1831 – Jane Elizabeth Conklin, American poet and religious writer (died 1914) 1833 – Félicien Rops, Belgian painter and illustrator (died 1898) 1843 – Camillo Golgi, Italian physician and pathologist, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1926) 1846 – Heinrich Rosenthal, Estonian physician and author (died 1916) 1848 – Francisco de Paula Rodrigues Alves, Brazilian politician, 5th President of Brazil (died 1919) 1851 – Charles Albert Tindley,
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1941 – Robert Bradford, Northern Irish politician and activist (d. 1981) 1941 – George Pell, Australian cardinal 1942 – Nikos Konstantopoulos, Greek politician, Greek Minister of the Interior 1942 – Doug Mountjoy, Welsh snooker player (d. 2021) 1943 – Colin Baker, English actor 1943 – William Calley, American military officer 1943 – Willie Davenport, American hurdler (d. 2002) 1943 – Peter Eggert, German footballer and manager 1943 – Pierre-André Fournier, Roman Catholic archbishop (d. 2015) 1944 – Boz Scaggs, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1945 – Steven Fromholz, American singer-songwriter, producer, and poet (d. 2014) 1945 – Derek Underwood, English cricketer 1946 – Graham Henry, New Zealand rugby player and coach 1947 – Annie Haslam, English singer-songwriter and painter 1947 – Sara Paretsky, American author 1947 – Eric F. Wieschaus, American biologist, geneticist, and academic Nobel Prize laureate 1949 – Emanuel Ax, Polish-American pianist and educator 1949 – Hildegard Falck, German runner 1950 – Kathy Baker, American actress 1950 – Sônia Braga, Brazilian actress and producer 1951 – Bonnie Tyler, Welsh singer-songwriter 1953 – Sandy Nairne, English historian and curator 1953 – Ivo Sanader, Croatian historian and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Croatia 1953 – Olav Stedje, Norwegian singer-songwriter 1954 – Kiril of Varna, Bulgarian metropolitan (d. 2013) 1954 – Sergei Storchak, Ukrainian-Russian politician 1955 – Tim Berners-Lee, English computer scientist, invented the World Wide Web 1955 – José Antonio Camacho, Spanish footballer and manager 1955 – Griffin Dunne, American actor, director, and producer 1956 – Jonathan Potter, English psychologist, sociolinguist, and academic 1957 – Scott Adams, American author and illustrator 1957 – Don Robinson, American baseball player and politician 1957 – Sonja Vectomov, Czech/Finnish sculptor 1958 – Louise Richardson, Irish political scientist and academic 1959 – C.T. Fletcher, American powerlifter and bodybuilder; three-time World Bench Press Champion and three-time World Strict Curl Champion 1959 – Mohsen Kadivar, Iranian philosopher 1960 – Mick Hucknall, English singer-songwriter 1960 – Thomas Steen, Swedish ice hockey player and coach 1961 – Mary Bonauto, American lawyer and gay rights activist 1963 – Karen Kingsbury, American journalist and author 1964 – Butch Reynolds, American runner and coach 1965 – Kevin Farley, American screenwriter 1967 – Russell E. Morris, Welsh chemist and academic 1968 – Sharon Shannon, Irish traditional musician 1975 – Mark Ricciuto, Australian footballer and sportcaster 1976 – Lindsay Davenport, American tennis player 1977 – Kanye West, American rapper, producer, director, and fashion designer 1978 – Maria Menounos, American television personality, professional wrestler, author, and actress 1981 – Rachel Held Evans, American Christian author (d. 2019) 1982 – Nadia Petrova, Russian tennis player 1983 – Kim Clijsters, Belgian tennis player; winner of six Grand Slam tournament titles. 1984 – Javier Mascherano, Argentinian footballer 1986 – Keith Gill, American financial analyst and investor 1989 – Timea Bacsinszky, Swiss tennis player 1997 – Jeļena Ostapenko, Latvian tennis player Deaths Pre-1600 632 – Muhammad, the central figure of Islam, widely regarded as its founder (b. 570/571) 696 – Chlodulf, bishop of Metz (or 697) 951 – Zhao Ying, Chinese chancellor (b. 885) 1042 – Harthacnut, English-Danish king (b. 1018) 1154 – William of York, English archbishop and saint 1290 – Beatrice Portinari, object of Dante Alighieri's adoration (b. 1266) 1376 – Edward, the Black Prince, English son of Edward III of England (b. 1330) 1383 – Thomas de Ros, 4th Baron de Ros, English politician (b. 1338) 1384 – Kan'ami, Japanese actor and playwright (b. 1333) 1405 – Richard le Scrope, Archbishop of York (b. c.1350) 1405 – Thomas de Mowbray, 4th Earl of Norfolk (b. 1385) 1476 – George Neville, English archbishop and academic (b. 1432) 1492 – Elizabeth Woodville, Queen consort of England (b. 1437) 1501 – George Gordon, 2nd Earl of Huntly, Earl of Huntly and Lord Chancellor of Scotland (b. 1440) 1505 – Hongzhi Emperor of China (b. 1470) 1600 – Edward Fortunatus, German nobleman (b. 1565) 1601–1900 1611 – Jean Bertaut, French bishop and poet (b. 1552) 1612 – Hans Leo Hassler, German organist and composer (b. 1562) 1621 – Anne de Xainctonge, French saint, founded the Society of the Sisters of Saint Ursula of the Blessed Virgin (b. 1567) 1628 – Rudolph Goclenius, German lexicographer and philosopher (b. 1547) 1651 – Tokugawa Iemitsu, Japanese shōgun (b. 1604) 1714 – Sophia of Hanover (b. 1630) 1716 – Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine, German son of Landgravine Elisabeth Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt (b. 1658) 1727 – August Hermann Francke, German-Lutheran pietist, philanthropist, and scholar (b. 1663) 1768 – Johann Joachim Winckelmann, German archaeologist and scholar (b. 1717) 1771 – George Montagu-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1716) 1795 – Louis XVII of France (b. 1785) 1809 – Thomas Paine, English-American theorist and author (b. 1737) 1831 – Sarah Siddons, Welsh actress (b. 1755) 1835 – Gian Domenico Romagnosi, Italian economist and jurist (b. 1761) 1845 – Andrew Jackson, American general, judge, and politician, 7th President of the United States (b. 1767) 1846 – Rodolphe Töpffer, Swiss teacher, author, painter, cartoonist, and caricaturist (b. 1799) 1857 – Douglas William Jerrold, English journalist and playwright (b. 1803) 1874 – Cochise, American tribal chief (b. 1805) 1876 – George Sand, French author and playwright (b. 1804) 1885 – Ignace Bourget, Canadian bishop (b. 1799) 1889 – Gerard Manley Hopkins, English poet (b. 1844) 1899 – Mary of the Divine Heart, German nun and saint (b. 1863) 1901–present 1924 – Andrew Irvine, English mountaineer and explorer (b. 1902) 1924 – George Mallory, English lieutenant and mountaineer (b. 1886) 1929 – Bliss Carman, Canadian-American poet and playwright (b. 1861) 1945 – Karl Hanke, Polish-German soldier and politician (b. 1903) 1951 – Eugène Fiset, Canadian physician, general, and politician, 18th Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (b. 1874) 1951 – Oswald Pohl, German SS officer (b. 1892) 1956 – Marie Laurencin, French painter and sculptor (b. 1883) 1959 – Leslie Johnson, English race car driver (b. 1912) 1965 – Edmondo Rossoni, Italian politician (b. 1884) 1966 – Anton Melik, Slovenian geographer and academic (b. 1890) 1968 – Elizabeth Enright, American author and illustrator (b. 1909) 1968 – Ludovico Scarfiotti, Italian race car driver (b. 1933) 1969 – Arunachalam Mahadeva, Sri Lankan politician and diplomat (b. 1885) 1969 – Robert Taylor, American actor and singer (b. 1911) 1970 – Abraham Maslow, American psychologist and academic (b. 1908) 1971 – J.I. Rodale, American author and playwright (b. 1898) 1976 – Thorleif Schjelderup-Ebbe, Norwegian zoologist and psychologist (b. 1894) 1982 – Satchel Paige, American baseball player (b. 1906) 1984 – Gordon Jacob, English composer and academic (b. 1895) 1987 – Alexander Iolas, Egyptian-American art collector (b. 1907) 1997 – George Turner, Australian author and critic (b. 1916) 1997 – Karen Wetterhahn, American chemist and academic (b. 1948) 1998 – Sani Abacha, Nigerian general and politician, 10th President of Nigeria (b. 1943) 1998 – Maria Reiche, German mathematician and archaeologist (b. 1903) 2000 – Frédéric Dard, French author and screenwriter (b. 1921) 2000 – Jeff MacNelly, American cartoonist (b. 1948) 2001 – Alex de Renzy, American director and producer (b. 1935) 2004 – Charles Hyder, American astrophysicist and academic (b. 1930) 2004 – Mack Jones, American baseball player (b. 1938) 2006 – Jaxon, American illustrator and publisher, co-founded Rip Off Press (b. 1941) 2006 – Matta El Meskeen, Egyptian monk, theologian, and author (b. 1919) 2008 – Šaban Bajramović, Serbian singer-songwriter (b. 1936) 2009 – Omar Bongo, Gabonese captain and politician, President of Gabon (b. 1935) 2012 – Pete Brennan, American basketball player (b. 1936) 2012 – Charles E. M. Pearce, New Zealand-Australian mathematician and academic (b. 1940) 2012 – Ghassan Tueni, Lebanese journalist, academic, and politician (b. 1926) 2013 – Paul Cellucci, American soldier and politician, 69th Governor of Massachusetts (b. 1948) 2013 – Yoram Kaniuk, Israeli painter, journalist, and critic (b. 1930) 2013 – Taufiq Kiemas, Indonesian politician, 5th First Spouse of Indonesia (b. 1942) 2014 – Alexander Imich, Polish-American chemist, parapsychologist, and academic (b. 1903) 2014 – Yoshihito, Prince Katsura of Japan (b. 1948) 2015 – Chea Sim, Cambodian commander and politician (b. 1932) 2017 – Sam Panopoulos, Greek cook (b. 1934) 2018 – Anthony Bourdain, American chef and travel documentarian (b. 1956) 2019 – Andre Matos, Brazilian heavy metal musician (b. 1971) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Blessed Mariam Thresia Chiramel Mankidiyan Blessed Mary of the Divine Heart (Droste zu Vischering) Chlodulf of Metz Jacques Berthieu, S.J. Jadwiga (Hedwig) of Poland Medard Melania the Elder Roland Allen (Episcopal Church (USA)) Thomas Ken (Church of England) William of York June 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Earliest day on which Queen's Birthday can fall, while June 14 is the latest; celebrated on the second Monday in June. (Australia, except Western Australia and Queensland) Bounty Day (Norfolk Island) Caribbean American HIV/AIDS Awareness Day Engineer's Day (Peru) Primož Trubar Day (Slovenia) World Brain Tumor Day World Oceans Day
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2007) 1916 – Richard Pousette-Dart, American painter and educator (d. 1992) 1917 – Byron White, American football player, lawyer and judge (d. 2002) 1918 – George Edward Hughes, Irish-New Zealand philosopher and logician (d. 1994) 1918 – Robert Preston, American actor and singer (d. 1987) 1918 – John D. Roberts, American chemist and academic (d. 2016) 1919 – John R. Deane, Jr., American general (d. 2013) 1920 – Gwen Harwood, Australian poet and playwright (d. 1995) 1921 – Gordon McLendon, American broadcaster and businessman (d. 1986) 1921 – Olga Nardone, American actress (d. 2010) 1921 – LeRoy Neiman, American painter (d. 2012) 1921 – Alexis Smith, Canadian-born American actress and singer (d. 1993) 1921 – Suharto, Indonesian soldier and politician, 2nd President of Indonesia (d. 2008) 1924 – Billie Dawe, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (d. 2013) 1924 – Kenneth Waltz, American political scientist and academic (d. 2013) 1925 – Barbara Bush, American wife of George H. W. Bush, 41st First Lady of the United States (d. 2018) 1927 – Jerry Stiller, American actor, comedian and producer (d. 2020) 1929 – Nada Inada, Japanese psychiatrist and author (d. 2013) 1930 – Robert Aumann, German-American mathematician and economist, Nobel Prize laureate 1930 – Marcel Léger, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 1993) 1931 – James Goldstone, American director and screenwriter (d. 1999) 1931 – Dana Wynter, British actress (d. 2011) 1932 – Ray Illingworth, English cricketer and sportscaster 1932 – Ian Kirkwood, Lord Kirkwood, Scottish lawyer and judge (d. 2017) 1933 – Rommie Loudd, American football player and coach (d. 1998) 1933 – Joan Rivers, American comedian, actress, and television host (d. 2014) 1934 – Millicent Martin, English actress and singer 1935 – Molade Okoya-Thomas, Nigerian businessman and philanthropist (d. 2015) 1936 – James Darren, American actor 1936 – Kenneth G. Wilson, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013) 1937 – Gillian Clarke, Welsh poet and playwright 1938 – Angelo Amato, Italian cardinal 1940 – Nancy Sinatra, American singer and actress 1941 – Robert Bradford, Northern Irish politician and activist (d. 1981) 1941 – George Pell, Australian cardinal 1942 – Nikos Konstantopoulos, Greek politician, Greek Minister of the Interior 1942 – Doug Mountjoy, Welsh snooker player (d. 2021) 1943 – Colin Baker, English actor 1943 – William Calley, American military officer 1943 – Willie Davenport, American hurdler (d. 2002) 1943 – Peter Eggert, German footballer and manager 1943 – Pierre-André Fournier, Roman Catholic archbishop (d. 2015) 1944 – Boz Scaggs, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1945 – Steven Fromholz, American singer-songwriter, producer, and poet (d. 2014) 1945 – Derek Underwood, English cricketer 1946 – Graham Henry, New Zealand rugby player and coach 1947 – Annie Haslam, English singer-songwriter and painter 1947 – Sara Paretsky, American author 1947 – Eric F. Wieschaus, American biologist, geneticist, and academic Nobel Prize laureate 1949 – Emanuel Ax, Polish-American pianist and educator 1949 – Hildegard Falck, German runner 1950 – Kathy Baker, American actress 1950 – Sônia Braga, Brazilian actress and producer 1951 – Bonnie Tyler, Welsh singer-songwriter 1953 – Sandy Nairne, English historian and curator 1953 – Ivo Sanader, Croatian historian and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Croatia 1953 – Olav Stedje, Norwegian singer-songwriter 1954 – Kiril of Varna, Bulgarian metropolitan (d. 2013) 1954 – Sergei Storchak, Ukrainian-Russian politician 1955 – Tim Berners-Lee, English computer scientist, invented the World Wide Web 1955 – José Antonio Camacho, Spanish footballer and manager 1955 – Griffin Dunne, American actor, director, and producer 1956 – Jonathan Potter, English psychologist, sociolinguist, and academic 1957 – Scott Adams, American author and illustrator 1957 – Don Robinson, American baseball player and politician 1957 – Sonja Vectomov, Czech/Finnish sculptor 1958 – Louise Richardson, Irish political scientist and academic 1959 – C.T. Fletcher, American powerlifter and bodybuilder; three-time World Bench Press Champion and three-time World Strict Curl Champion 1959 – Mohsen Kadivar, Iranian philosopher 1960 – Mick Hucknall, English singer-songwriter 1960 – Thomas Steen, Swedish ice hockey player and coach 1961 – Mary Bonauto, American lawyer and gay rights activist 1963 – Karen Kingsbury, American journalist and author 1964 – Butch Reynolds, American runner and coach 1965 – Kevin Farley, American screenwriter 1967 – Russell E. Morris, Welsh chemist and academic 1968 – Sharon Shannon, Irish traditional musician 1975 – Mark Ricciuto, Australian footballer and sportcaster 1976 – Lindsay Davenport, American tennis player 1977 – Kanye West, American rapper, producer, director, and fashion designer 1978 – Maria Menounos, American television personality, professional wrestler, author, and actress 1981 – Rachel Held Evans, American Christian author (d. 2019) 1982 – Nadia Petrova, Russian tennis player 1983 – Kim Clijsters, Belgian tennis player; winner of six Grand Slam tournament titles. 1984 – Javier Mascherano, Argentinian footballer 1986 – Keith Gill, American financial analyst and investor 1989 – Timea Bacsinszky, Swiss tennis player 1997 – Jeļena Ostapenko, Latvian tennis player Deaths Pre-1600 632 – Muhammad, the central figure of Islam, widely regarded as its founder (b. 570/571) 696 – Chlodulf, bishop of Metz (or 697) 951 – Zhao Ying, Chinese chancellor (b. 885) 1042 – Harthacnut, English-Danish king (b. 1018) 1154 – William of York, English archbishop and saint 1290 – Beatrice Portinari, object of Dante Alighieri's adoration (b. 1266) 1376 – Edward, the Black Prince, English son of Edward III of England (b. 1330) 1383 – Thomas de Ros, 4th Baron de Ros, English politician (b. 1338) 1384 – Kan'ami, Japanese actor and playwright (b. 1333) 1405 – Richard le Scrope, Archbishop of York (b. c.1350) 1405 – Thomas de Mowbray, 4th Earl of Norfolk (b. 1385) 1476 – George Neville, English archbishop and academic (b. 1432) 1492 – Elizabeth Woodville, Queen consort of England (b. 1437) 1501 – George Gordon, 2nd Earl of Huntly, Earl of Huntly and Lord Chancellor of Scotland (b. 1440) 1505 – Hongzhi Emperor of China (b. 1470) 1600 – Edward Fortunatus, German nobleman (b. 1565) 1601–1900 1611 – Jean Bertaut, French bishop and poet (b. 1552) 1612 – Hans Leo Hassler, German organist and composer (b. 1562) 1621 – Anne de Xainctonge, French saint, founded the Society of the Sisters of Saint Ursula of the Blessed Virgin (b. 1567) 1628 – Rudolph Goclenius, German lexicographer and philosopher (b. 1547) 1651 – Tokugawa Iemitsu, Japanese shōgun (b. 1604) 1714 – Sophia of Hanover (b. 1630) 1716 – Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine, German son of Landgravine Elisabeth Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt (b. 1658) 1727 – August Hermann Francke, German-Lutheran
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academic 1939 – David Hobbs, English race car driver and sportscaster 1939 – Dick Vitale, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster 1939 – Charles Webb, American author (died 2020) 1940 – André Vallerand, Canadian businessman and politician 1941 – Jon Lord, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player (died 2012) 1942 – Anton Burghardt, German footballer and manager 1942 – Nicholas Lloyd, English journalist 1943 – John Fitzpatrick, English race car driver 1943 – Charles Saatchi, Iraqi-English businessman, co-founded Saatchi & Saatchi 1944 – Janric Craig, 3rd Viscount Craigavon, English accountant and politician 1944 – Wally Gabler, American football player and sportscaster 1946 – Deyda Hydara, Gambian journalist and publisher, co-founded The Point (died 2004) 1946 – James Kelman, Scottish author and playwright 1946 – Peter Kilfoyle, English politician 1946 – Giulio Terzi di Sant'Agata, Italian politician and diplomat, Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1947 – Robert Indermaur, Swiss painter 1947 – Robbie Vincent, UK disc jockey and radio presenter 1948 – Jim Bailey, American football player 1948 – Gudrun Schyman, Swedish social worker and politician 1949 – Kiran Bedi, Indian police officer and activist 1950 – Trevor Bolder, English bass player, songwriter, and producer (died 2013) 1950 – Fred Jackson, American football player and coach 1950 – Giorgos Kastrinakis, Greek-American basketball player 1951 – Michael Patrick Cronan, American graphic designer and academic (died 2013) 1951 – James Newton Howard, American composer, conductor, and producer 1951 – Dave Parker, American baseball player and coach 1951 – Brian Taylor, American basketball player 1952 – Uzi Hitman, Israeli singer-songwriter (died 2004) 1952 – Billy Knight, American basketball player 1953 – Ken Navarro, Italian-American guitarist and composer 1954 – Pete Byrne, English singer-songwriter 1954 – Paul Chapman, Welsh guitarist and songwriter (died 2020) 1954 – Gregory Maguire, American author 1954 – Elizabeth May, American-Canadian environmentalist, lawyer, and politician 1954 – George Pérez, American author and illustrator 1956 – Berit Aunli, Norwegian skier 1956 – Patricia Cornwell, American journalist and author 1956 – Marek Gazdzicki, Polish nuclear physicist 1956 – Joaquín, Spanish footballer 1956 – John Le Lievre, British squash player (d. 2021) 1956 – Kayhan Mortezavi, Iranian director 1956 – Francine Raymond, French Canadian singer-songwriter 1956 – Nikolai Tsonev, Bulgarian politician 1956 – Rudolf Wojtowicz, Polish footballer 1957 – Randy Read, English crystallographer and academic 1958 – David Ancrum, American basketball player and coach 1959 – Peter Fowler, Australian golfer 1960 – Steve Paikin, Canadian journalist and author 1961 – Thomas Benson, American football player 1961 – Michael J. Fox, Canadian-American actor, producer, and author 1961 – Aaron Sorkin, American screenwriter, producer, and playwright 1962 – Yuval Banay, Israeli singer-songwriter and guitarist 1962 – Ken Rose, American football player 1962 – David Trewhella, Australian rugby league player 1963 – Gilad Atzmon, Israeli-English saxophonist, author, and activist 1963 – Johnny Depp, American actor 1963 – David Koepp, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1964 – Gloria Reuben, Canadian-American actress 1964 – Wayman Tisdale, American basketball player and bass player (died 2009) 1967 – Rubén Maza, Venezuelan runner 1967 – Jian Ghomeshi, Iranian-Canadian radio personality 1968 – Niki Bakoyianni, Greek high jumper and coach 1969 – André Racicot, Canadian ice hockey player 1969 – Eric Wynalda, American soccer player, coach, and sportscaster 1971 – Gilles De Bilde, Belgian footballer and sportscaster 1971 – Jean Galfione, French pole vaulter and sportscaster 1971 – Jackie McKeown, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1972 – Matt Horsley, Australian footballer and coach 1973 – Aigars Apinis, Latvian discus thrower and shot putter 1973 – Tedy Bruschi, American football player and sportscaster 1973 – Frédéric Choffat, Swiss director, producer, and cinematographer 1973 – Grant Marshall, Canadian ice hockey player 1974 – Samoth, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1975 – Otto Addo, German-Ghanaian footballer and manager 1975 – Ameesha Patel, Indian actress and model 1975 – Andrew Symonds, English-Australian cricketer 1977 – Usman Afzaal, Pakistani-English cricketer 1977 – Paul Hutchison, English cricketer 1977 – Olin Kreutz, American football player 1977 – Peja Stojaković, Serbian basketball player 1978 – Matt Bellamy, English singer, musician and songwriter 1978 – Shandi Finnessey, American model and actress, Miss USA 2004 1978 – Miroslav Klose, German footballer 1978 – Heather Mitts, American soccer player 1978 – Hayden Schlossberg, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1979 – Dario Dainelli, Italian footballer 1979 – Amanda Lassiter, American basketball player 1980 – D'banj, Nigerian singer-songwriter and harmonica player 1980 – Mike Fontenot, American baseball player 1980 – Udonis Haslem, American basketball player 1980 – Lehlohonolo Seema, South African footballer 1981 – Natalie Portman, Israeli-American actress 1981 – Parinya Charoenphol, Thai boxer, model, and actress 1982 – Yoshito Ōkubo, Japanese footballer 1982 – Christina Stürmer, Austrian singer-songwriter 1983 – Firas Al-Khatib, Syrian footballer 1983 – Josh Cribbs, American football player 1983 – Dwayne Jones, American basketball player 1983 – Danny Richar, Dominican-American baseball player 1984 – Yulieski Gourriel, Cuban baseball player 1984 – Jake Newton, Guyanese footballer 1984 – Asko Paade, Estonian basketball player 1984 – Masoud Shojaei, Iranian footballer 1984 – Wesley Sneijder, Dutch footballer 1985 – Richard Kahui, New Zealand rugby player 1985 – Sonam Kapoor, Indian model and actress 1985 – Sebastian Telfair, American basketball player 1986 – Doug Legursky, American football player 1986 – Yadier Pedroso, Cuban baseball player (died 2013) 1986 – Ashley Postell, American gymnast 1987 – Jaan Mölder, Estonian race car driver 1988 – Jason Demers, Canadian ice hockey defenseman 1988 – Sara Isaković, Slovenian swimmer 1988 – Mae Whitman, American actress 1989 – Dídac Vilà, Spanish footballer 1990 – Matthias Mayer, Austrian skier 1991 – Aaron M. Johnson, American jazz saxophonist 1992 – Zach Hyman, Canadian ice hockey player 1992 – Yannick Agnel, French swimmer 1992 – Boyd Cordner, Australian rugby league player 1993 – George Jennings, Australian rugby league player Deaths Pre-1600 68 – Nero, Roman emperor (born 37) 373 – Ephrem the Syrian, hymnographer and theologian (born 306) 597 – Columba, Irish missionary and saint (born 521) 630 – Shahrbaraz, king of the Persian Empire 908 – Yang Wo, Prince of Hongnong 1075 – Gebhard of Supplinburg, Saxon count 1087 – Otto I of Olomouc (born 1045) 1238 – Peter des Roches, bishop of Winchester 1252 – Otto I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg 1348 – Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Sienese painter (born 1290) 1361 – Philippe de Vitry, French composer and poet (born 1291) 1563 – William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, English accountant and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (born 1506) 1572 – Jeanne d'Albret, Navarrese queen and Huguenot leader (born 1528) 1583 – Thomas Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (born 1525) 1597 – José de Anchieta, Spanish Jesuit missionary (born 1534) 1601–1900 1647 – Leonard Calvert, Colonial governor of Maryland (born 1606) 1656 – Thomas Tomkins, Welsh-English composer (born 1572) 1716 – Banda Singh Bahadur, Indian commander (born 1670) 1717 – Jeanne Guyon, French mystic and author (born 1648) 1834 – William Carey, English minister and missionary (born 1761) 1870 – Charles Dickens, English novelist and critic (born 1812) 1871 – Anna Atkins, English botanist and photographer (born 1799) 1875 – Gérard Paul Deshayes, French geologist and conchologist (born 1795) 1889 – Mike Burke, American baseball player (born 1854) 1892 – William Grant Stairs, Canadian-English captain and explorer (born 1863) 1901–present 1901 – Adolf Bötticher, German historian and author (born 1842) 1923 – Princess Helena of the United Kingdom (born 1846) 1927 – Victoria Woodhull, American activist for women's rights (born 1838) 1929 – Louis Bennison, American stage and silent film actor (born 1884) 1929 – Margaret Lawrence, American stage actress (born 1889) 1942 – František Erben, Czech gymnast (born 1874) 1952 – Adolf Busch, German-Austrian violinist and composer (born 1891) 1953 – Ernest Graves, Sr., American football player, coach, and general (born 1880) 1956 – Chandrashekhar Agashe, Indian industrialist and lawyer (born 1888) 1956 – Hans Bergsland, Norwegian fencer (born 1878) 1956 – Thomas Hicks, Australian tennis player (born 1869) 1956 – Ferdinand Jodl, German general (born 1896) 1958 – Robert Donat, English actor (born 1905) 1959 – Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1876) 1960 – Harry S. Hammond, American football player and businessman (born 1884) 1961 – Camille Guérin, French veterinarian, bacteriologist and immunologist (born 1872) 1963 – Jacques Villon, French painter (b.1875) 1964 – Max Aitken, 1st Baron Beaverbrook, British businessman and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (born 1879) 1968 – Bernard Cronin, Australian author and journalist (born 1884) 1972 – Gilberto Parlotti, Italian motorcycle racer (born 1940) 1973 – Chuck Bennett, American football player and coach (born 1907) 1973 – John Creasey, English author and politician (born 1908) 1973 – Erich von Manstein, German general (born 1887) 1974 – Miguel Ángel Asturias, Guatemalan journalist, author, and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1899) 1979 – Cyclone Taylor, Canadian ice hockey player and civil servant (born 1884) 1981 – Allen Ludden, American game show host (born 1917) 1984 – Helen Hardin, American painter (born 1943) 1989 – George Wells Beadle, American geneticist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1903) 1991 – Claudio Arrau, Chilean-American pianist and educator (born 1903) 1993 – Alexis Smith, Canadian-born American actress (born 1921) 1994 – Jan Tinbergen, Dutch economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1903) 1997 – Stanley Knowles, American-Canadian academic and politician (born 1908) 1998 – Lois Mailou Jones, American painter and academic (born 1905) 2000 – John Abramovic, American basketball player (born
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1874 – Launceston Elliot, Scottish weightlifter and wrestler (died 1930) 1875 – Henry Hallett Dale, English pharmacologist and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1968) 1879 – Harry DeBaecke, American rower (died 1961) 1882 – Robert Kerr, Irish-Canadian sprinter and coach (died 1963) 1885 – Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski, Polish general and politician, 27th Prime Minister of Poland (died 1962) 1890 – Leslie Banks, English actor, director, and producer (died 1952) 1891 – Cole Porter, American composer and songwriter (died 1964) 1893 – Irish Meusel, American baseball player and coach (died 1963) 1895 – Archie Weston, American football player and journalist (died 1981) 1898 – Luigi Fagioli, Italian race car driver (died 1952) 1900 – Fred Waring, American singer, bandleader, and television host (died 1984) 1901–present 1902 – Skip James, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (died 1969) 1903 – Felice Bonetto, Italian race car driver (died 1953) 1903 – Marcia Davenport, American author and critic (died 1996) 1906 – Robert Klark Graham, American eugenicist and businessman, founded Repository for Germinal Choice (died 1997) 1908 – Luis Kutner, American lawyer, author, and activist (died 1993) 1908 – Branch McCracken, American basketball player and coach (died 1970) 1910 – Robert Cummings, American actor, singer, and director (died 1990) 1910 – Ted Hicks, Australian public servant and diplomat, Australian High Commissioner to New Zealand (died 1984) 1912 – Ingolf Dahl, German-American pianist, composer, and conductor (died 1970) 1915 – Jim McDonald, American football player and coach (died 1997) 1915 – Les Paul, American guitarist and songwriter (died 2009) 1916 – Jurij Brězan, German soldier and author (died 2006) 1916 – Siegfried Graetschus, German SS officer (died 1943) 1916 – Robert McNamara, American businessman and politician, 8th United States Secretary of Defense (died 2009) 1917 – Eric Hobsbawm, Egyptian-English historian and author (died 2012) 1918 – John Hospers, American philosopher and politician (died 2011) 1921 – Arthur Hertzberg, American rabbi and scholar (died 2006) 1921 – Jean Lacouture, French journalist, historian, and author (died 2015) 1922 – George Axelrod, American director, producer, and screenwriter (died 2003) 1922 – John Gillespie Magee, Jr., Anglo-American pilot and poet (died 1941) 1922 – Fernand Seguin, Canadian biochemist and academic (died 1988) 1923 – Gerald Götting, German politician (died 2015) 1924 – Ed Farhat, American wrestler and manager (died 2003) 1925 – Keith Laumer, American soldier and author (died 1993) 1925 – Herman Sarkowsky, German-American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded the Seattle Seahawks (died 2014) 1926 – Calvin "Fuzz" Jones, American singer and bass player (died 2010) 1926 – Happy Rockefeller, American philanthropist, 31st Second Lady of the United States (died 2015) 1927 – Jim Nolan, American basketball player (died 1983) 1928 – R. Geraint Gruffydd, Welsh critic and academic (died 2015) 1929 – Johnny Ace, American singer and pianist (died 1954) 1930 – Barbara, French singer (died 1997) 1930 – Jordi Pujol, Spanish physician and politician, 126th President of the Generalitat de Catalunya 1931 – Jackie Mason, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (died 2021) 1931 – Nandini Satpathy, Indian author and politician, 8th Chief Minister of Odisha (died 2006) 1931 – Bill Virdon, American baseball player, coach, and manager 1933 – Al Cantello, American javelin thrower and coach 1934 – Michael Mates, English colonel and politician 1934 – Jackie Wilson, American singer-songwriter (died 1984) 1935 – Dutch Savage, American wrestler and promoter (died 2013) 1936 – Nell Dunn, English playwright, screenwriter and author 1936 – Mick O'Dwyer, Irish Gaelic footballer and manager 1936 – George Radda, Hungarian chemist and academic 1937 – Harald Rosenthal, German hydrobiologist and academic 1938 – Jeremy Hardie, English economist and businessman 1938 – Giles Havergal, Scottish actor, director, and playwright 1938 – Charles Wuorinen, American composer and educator (died 2020) 1939 – Ileana Cotrubaș, Romanian soprano and actress 1939 – Eric Fernie, Scottish historian and academic 1939 – David Hobbs, English race car driver and sportscaster 1939 – Dick Vitale, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster 1939 – Charles Webb, American author (died 2020) 1940 – André Vallerand, Canadian businessman and politician 1941 – Jon Lord, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player (died 2012) 1942 – Anton Burghardt, German footballer and manager 1942 – Nicholas Lloyd, English journalist 1943 – John Fitzpatrick, English race car driver 1943 – Charles Saatchi, Iraqi-English businessman, co-founded Saatchi & Saatchi 1944 – Janric Craig, 3rd Viscount Craigavon, English accountant and politician 1944 – Wally Gabler, American football player and sportscaster 1946 – Deyda Hydara, Gambian journalist and publisher, co-founded The Point (died 2004) 1946 – James Kelman, Scottish author and playwright 1946 – Peter Kilfoyle, English politician 1946 – Giulio Terzi di Sant'Agata, Italian politician and diplomat, Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1947 – Robert Indermaur, Swiss painter 1947 – Robbie Vincent, UK disc jockey and radio presenter 1948 – Jim Bailey, American football player 1948 – Gudrun Schyman, Swedish social worker and politician 1949 – Kiran Bedi, Indian police officer and activist 1950 – Trevor Bolder, English bass player, songwriter, and producer (died 2013) 1950 – Fred Jackson, American football player and coach 1950 – Giorgos Kastrinakis, Greek-American basketball player 1951 – Michael Patrick Cronan, American graphic designer and academic (died 2013) 1951 – James Newton Howard, American composer, conductor, and producer 1951 – Dave Parker, American baseball player and coach 1951 – Brian Taylor, American basketball player 1952 – Uzi Hitman, Israeli singer-songwriter (died 2004) 1952 – Billy Knight, American basketball player 1953 – Ken Navarro, Italian-American guitarist and composer 1954 – Pete Byrne, English singer-songwriter 1954 – Paul Chapman, Welsh guitarist and songwriter (died 2020) 1954 – Gregory Maguire, American author 1954 – Elizabeth May, American-Canadian environmentalist, lawyer, and politician 1954 – George Pérez, American author and illustrator 1956 – Berit Aunli, Norwegian skier 1956 – Patricia Cornwell, American journalist and author 1956 – Marek Gazdzicki, Polish nuclear physicist 1956 – Joaquín, Spanish footballer 1956 – John Le Lievre, British squash player (d. 2021) 1956 – Kayhan Mortezavi, Iranian director 1956 – Francine Raymond, French Canadian singer-songwriter 1956 – Nikolai Tsonev, Bulgarian politician 1956 – Rudolf Wojtowicz, Polish footballer 1957 – Randy Read, English crystallographer and academic 1958 – David Ancrum, American basketball player and coach 1959 – Peter Fowler, Australian golfer 1960 – Steve Paikin, Canadian journalist and author 1961 – Thomas Benson, American football player 1961 – Michael J. Fox, Canadian-American actor, producer, and author 1961 – Aaron Sorkin, American screenwriter, producer, and playwright 1962 – Yuval Banay, Israeli singer-songwriter and guitarist 1962 – Ken Rose, American football player 1962 – David Trewhella, Australian rugby league player 1963 – Gilad Atzmon, Israeli-English saxophonist, author, and activist 1963 – Johnny Depp, American actor 1963 – David Koepp, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1964 – Gloria Reuben, Canadian-American actress 1964 – Wayman Tisdale, American basketball player and bass player (died 2009) 1967 – Rubén Maza, Venezuelan runner 1967 – Jian Ghomeshi, Iranian-Canadian radio personality 1968 – Niki Bakoyianni, Greek high jumper and coach 1969 – André Racicot, Canadian ice hockey player 1969 – Eric Wynalda, American soccer player, coach, and sportscaster 1971 – Gilles De Bilde, Belgian footballer and sportscaster 1971 – Jean Galfione, French pole vaulter and sportscaster 1971 – Jackie McKeown, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1972 – Matt Horsley, Australian footballer and coach 1973 – Aigars Apinis, Latvian discus thrower and shot putter 1973 – Tedy Bruschi, American football player and sportscaster 1973 – Frédéric Choffat, Swiss director, producer, and cinematographer 1973 – Grant Marshall, Canadian ice hockey player 1974 – Samoth, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1975 – Otto Addo, German-Ghanaian footballer and manager 1975 – Ameesha Patel, Indian actress and model 1975 – Andrew Symonds, English-Australian cricketer 1977 – Usman Afzaal, Pakistani-English cricketer 1977 – Paul Hutchison, English cricketer 1977 – Olin Kreutz, American football player 1977 – Peja Stojaković, Serbian basketball player 1978 – Matt Bellamy, English singer, musician and songwriter 1978 – Shandi Finnessey, American model and actress, Miss USA 2004 1978 – Miroslav Klose, German footballer 1978 – Heather Mitts, American soccer player 1978 – Hayden Schlossberg, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1979 – Dario Dainelli, Italian footballer 1979 – Amanda Lassiter, American basketball player 1980 – D'banj, Nigerian singer-songwriter and harmonica player 1980 – Mike Fontenot, American baseball player 1980 – Udonis Haslem, American basketball player 1980 – Lehlohonolo Seema, South African footballer 1981 – Natalie Portman, Israeli-American actress 1981 – Parinya Charoenphol, Thai boxer, model, and actress 1982 – Yoshito Ōkubo, Japanese footballer 1982 – Christina Stürmer, Austrian singer-songwriter 1983 – Firas Al-Khatib, Syrian footballer 1983 – Josh Cribbs, American football player 1983 – Dwayne Jones, American basketball player 1983 – Danny Richar, Dominican-American baseball player 1984 – Yulieski Gourriel, Cuban baseball player 1984 – Jake Newton, Guyanese footballer 1984 – Asko Paade, Estonian basketball
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Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul. 2014 – Rojava conflict: The Kobanî Canton declares its autonomy from the Syrian Arab Republic. 2017 – A naming ceremony for the chemical element tennessine takes place in the United States. Births Pre-1600 1365 – Edward of Angoulême, English noble (d. 1370) 1443 – Albert III, Duke of Saxony (d. 1500) 1546 – Joachim III Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg (d. 1608) 1571 – Abbas I of Persia (d. 1629) 1585 – Hendrick Avercamp, Dutch painter (d. 1634) 1601–1900 1603 – Sir Harbottle Grimston, 2nd Baronet, English lawyer and politician, Speaker of the House of Commons (d. 1685) 1603 – Humphrey Mackworth, English politician, lawyer and judge (d. 1654) 1621 – Thomas Willis, English physician and anatomist (d. 1675) 1662 – Richard Bentley, English scholar and theologian (d. 1742) 1663 – George Byng, 1st Viscount Torrington, Royal Navy admiral (d. 1733) 1687 – Johann Balthasar Neumann, German engineer and architect, designed Würzburg Residence and Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers (d. 1753) 1701 – Johann Nikolaus von Hontheim, German historian and theologian (d. 1790) 1708 – Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna of Russia (d. 1728) 1741 – Hester Thrale, Welsh author (d. 1821) 1756 – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Austrian pianist and composer (d. 1791) 1775 – Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, German-Swiss philosopher and academic (d. 1854) 1782 – Titumir, Bengali revolutionary (d. 1831) 1790 – Juan Álvarez, Mexican general and president (1855) (d. 1867) 1795 – Eli Whitney Blake, American engineer, invented the Mortise lock (d. 1886) 1803 – Eunice Hale Waite Cobb, American writer, public speaker, and activist (d. 1880) 1805 – Maria Anna of Bavaria (d. 1877) 1805 – Samuel Palmer, English painter and etcher (d. 1881) 1806 – Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga, Spanish composer and educator (d. 1826) 1808 – David Strauss, German theologian and author (d. 1874) 1814 – Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, French architect, designed the Lausanne Cathedral (d. 1879) 1821 – John Chivington, American colonel and pastor (d. 1892) 1823 – Édouard Lalo, French violinist and composer (d. 1892) 1824 – Urbain Johnson, Canadian farmer and political figure (d. 1917) 1826 – Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin, Russian journalist and author (d. 1889) 1826 – Richard Taylor, American general, historian, and politician (d. 1879) 1832 – Lewis Carroll, English novelist, poet, and mathematician (d. 1898) 1832 – Carl Friedrich Schmidt, Estonian-Russian geologist and botanist (d. 1908) 1836 – Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, Austrian journalist and author (d. 1895) 1842 – Arkhip Kuindzhi, Ukrainian-Russian painter (d. 1910) 1848 – Tōgō Heihachirō, Japanese admiral (d. 1934) 1850 – John Collier, English painter and author (d. 1934) 1850 – Samuel Gompers, English-American labor leader (d. 1924) 1850 – Edward Smith, English captain (d. 1912) 1858 – Neel Doff, Dutch-Belgian author (d. 1942) 1859 – Wilhelm II, German Emperor (d. 1941) 1869 – Will Marion Cook, American violinist and composer (d. 1944) 1878 – Dorothy Scarborough, American author (d. 1935) 1885 – Jerome Kern, American composer and songwriter (d. 1945) 1885 – Seison Maeda, Japanese painter (d. 1977) 1886 – Radhabinod Pal, Indian academic and jurist (d. 1967) 1889 – Balthasar van der Pol, Dutch physicist and academic (d. 1959) 1893 – Soong Ching-ling, Chinese politician, Honorary President of the People's Republic of China (d. 1981) 1895 – Joseph Rosenstock, Polish-American conductor and manager (d. 1985) 1895 – Harry Ruby, American composer and screenwriter (d. 1974) 1900 – Hyman G. Rickover, American admiral (d. 1986) 1901–present 1901 – Willy Fritsch, German actor (d. 1973) 1901 – Art Rooney, American football player, coach and owner (d. 1988) 1903 – John Eccles, Australian-Swiss neurophysiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997) 1904 – James J. Gibson, American psychologist and academic (d. 1979) 1905 – Howard McNear, American actor (d. 1969) 1908 – William Randolph Hearst, Jr., American journalist and publisher (d. 1993) 1910 – Edvard Kardelj, Slovene general, economist, and politician, 2nd Foreign Minister of Yugoslavia (d. 1979) 1912 – Arne Næss, Norwegian philosopher and environmentalist (d. 2009) 1912 – Francis Rogallo, American engineer, invented the Rogallo wing (d. 2009) 1915 – Jules Archer, American historian and author (d. 2008) 1915 – Jacques Hnizdovsky, Ukrainian-American painter, sculptor, and illustrator (d. 1985) 1918 – Skitch Henderson, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2005) 1918 – Elmore James, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1963) 1918 – William Seawell, American general (d. 2005) 1919 – Ross Bagdasarian, Sr., American singer-songwriter, pianist, producer, and actor, created Alvin and the Chipmunks (d. 1972) 1920 – Hiroyoshi Nishizawa, Japanese lieutenant and pilot (d. 1944) 1920 – Helmut Zacharias, German violinist and composer (d. 2002) 1921 – Donna Reed, American actress (d. 1986) 1924 – Rauf Denktaş, Cypriot lawyer and politician, 1st President of Northern Cyprus (d. 2012) 1924 – Brian Rix, English actor, producer, and politician (d. 2016) 1924 – Harvey Shapiro, American poet (d. 2013) 1926 – Fritz Spiegl, Austrian flute player and journalist (d. 2003) 1926 – Ingrid Thulin, Swedish actress (d. 2004) 1928 – Michael Craig, Indian-English actor and screenwriter 1928 – Hans Modrow, Polish-German lawyer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of East Germany 1929 – Mohamed Al-Fayed, Egyptian-Swiss businessman 1929 – Gastón Suárez, Bolivian author and playwright (d. 1984) 1930 – Bobby "Blue" Bland, American blues singer-songwriter (d. 2013) 1931 – Mordecai Richler, Canadian author and screenwriter (d. 2001) 1931 – Nigel Vinson, Baron Vinson, English lieutenant and businessman 1932 – Boris Shakhlin, Russian-Ukrainian gymnast (d. 2008) 1933 – Jerry Buss, American chemist and businessman (d. 2013) 1934 – Édith Cresson, French politician and diplomat, Prime Minister of France 1934 – George Follmer, American race car driver 1935 – Steve Demeter, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2013) 1936 – Troy Donahue, American actor (d. 2001) 1936 – Samuel C. C. Ting, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1937 – Fred Åkerström, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1985) 1940 – Ahmet Kurtcebe Alptemoçin, Turkish engineer and politician, 35th Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs 1940 – James Cromwell, American actor 1940 – Terry Harper, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1940 – Petru Lucinschi, Romanian activist and politician, 2nd President of Moldova 1940 – Reynaldo Rey, American actor and screenwriter (d. 2015) 1941 – Beatrice Tinsley, New Zealand astronomer and cosmologist (d. 1981) 1942 – Maki Asakawa, Japanese singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2010) 1942 – Tasuku Honjo, Japanese immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate in Physiology or Medicine 1942 – John Witherspoon, American actor and comedian (d. 2019) 1942 – Kate Wolf, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1986) 1943 – Julia Cumberlege, Baroness Cumberlege, English businesswoman and politician 1944 – Peter Akinola, Nigerian archbishop 1944 – Mairead Maguire, Northern Irish activist, Nobel Prize laureate 1944 – Nick Mason, English drummer, songwriter, and producer 1945 – Harold Cardinal, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 2005) 1946 – Christopher Hum, English academic and diplomat, British Ambassador to China 1946 – Nedra Talley, American singer 1947 – Björn Afzelius, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1999) 1947 – Vyron Polydoras, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister for Public Order 1947 – Cal Schenkel, American painter and illustrator 1947 – Philip Sugden, English historian and author (d. 2014) 1947 – Perfecto Yasay Jr., Filipino lawyer and Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Philippines (d. 2020) 1948 – Mikhail Baryshnikov, Russian-American dancer, choreographer, and actor 1948 – Jean-Philippe Collard, French pianist 1951 – Seth Justman, American keyboard player and songwriter 1951 – Cees van der Knaap, Dutch soldier and politician 1952 – Brian Gottfried, American tennis player 1952 – Billy Johnson, American football player and coach 1952 – Tam O'Shaughnessy, American tennis player, psychologist, and academic 1952 – G. E. Smith, American guitarist and songwriter 1954 – Peter Laird, American author and illustrator 1954 – Ed Schultz, American talk show host and sportscaster (d. 2018) 1955 – Brian Engblom, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1955 – John Roberts, American lawyer and judge, 17th Chief Justice of the United States 1956 – Mimi Rogers, American actress 1957 – Janick Gers, English guitarist and songwriter 1957 – Frank Miller, American illustrator, director, producer, and screenwriter 1958 – James Grippando, American lawyer and author 1958 – Alan Milburn, English businessman and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster 1959 – Cris Collinsworth, American football player and sportscaster 1959 – Göran Hägglund, Swedish lawyer and politician, 28th Swedish Minister for Social Affairs 1959 – Keith Olbermann, American journalist and author 1960 – Fiona O'Donnell, Canadian-Scottish politician 1961 – Narciso Rodriguez, American fashion designer 1961 – Margo Timmins, Canadian singer-songwriter 1962 – Roberto Paci Dalò, Italian director and composer 1963 – George Monbiot, English-Welsh author and activist 1964 – Patrick van Deurzen, Dutch composer and academic 1964 – Bridget Fonda, American actress 1965 – Alan Cumming, Scottish-American actor 1965 – Mike Newell, English footballer and manager 1965 – Ignacio Noé, Argentinian author and illustrator 1965 – Attila Sekerlioglu, Austrian footballer and manager 1966 – Tamlyn Tomita, Japanese-American actress and singer 1967 – Dave Manson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1968 – Tracy Lawrence, American country singer 1968 – Mike Patton, American singer, composer, and voice artist 1968 – Matt Stover, American football player 1969 – Michael Kulas, Canadian singer-songwriter and producer 1969 – Patton Oswalt, American comedian and actor 1969 – Shane Thomson, New Zealand cricketer 1970 – Bradley Clyde, Australian rugby league player 1970 – Dean Headley, English cricketer and coach 1971 – Patrice Brisebois, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1972 – Bibi Gaytán, Mexican singer and actress 1973 – Valyantsin Byalkevich, Belarusian footballer
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theologian and author (d. 1874) 1814 – Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, French architect, designed the Lausanne Cathedral (d. 1879) 1821 – John Chivington, American colonel and pastor (d. 1892) 1823 – Édouard Lalo, French violinist and composer (d. 1892) 1824 – Urbain Johnson, Canadian farmer and political figure (d. 1917) 1826 – Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin, Russian journalist and author (d. 1889) 1826 – Richard Taylor, American general, historian, and politician (d. 1879) 1832 – Lewis Carroll, English novelist, poet, and mathematician (d. 1898) 1832 – Carl Friedrich Schmidt, Estonian-Russian geologist and botanist (d. 1908) 1836 – Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, Austrian journalist and author (d. 1895) 1842 – Arkhip Kuindzhi, Ukrainian-Russian painter (d. 1910) 1848 – Tōgō Heihachirō, Japanese admiral (d. 1934) 1850 – John Collier, English painter and author (d. 1934) 1850 – Samuel Gompers, English-American labor leader (d. 1924) 1850 – Edward Smith, English captain (d. 1912) 1858 – Neel Doff, Dutch-Belgian author (d. 1942) 1859 – Wilhelm II, German Emperor (d. 1941) 1869 – Will Marion Cook, American violinist and composer (d. 1944) 1878 – Dorothy Scarborough, American author (d. 1935) 1885 – Jerome Kern, American composer and songwriter (d. 1945) 1885 – Seison Maeda, Japanese painter (d. 1977) 1886 – Radhabinod Pal, Indian academic and jurist (d. 1967) 1889 – Balthasar van der Pol, Dutch physicist and academic (d. 1959) 1893 – Soong Ching-ling, Chinese politician, Honorary President of the People's Republic of China (d. 1981) 1895 – Joseph Rosenstock, Polish-American conductor and manager (d. 1985) 1895 – Harry Ruby, American composer and screenwriter (d. 1974) 1900 – Hyman G. Rickover, American admiral (d. 1986) 1901–present 1901 – Willy Fritsch, German actor (d. 1973) 1901 – Art Rooney, American football player, coach and owner (d. 1988) 1903 – John Eccles, Australian-Swiss neurophysiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997) 1904 – James J. Gibson, American psychologist and academic (d. 1979) 1905 – Howard McNear, American actor (d. 1969) 1908 – William Randolph Hearst, Jr., American journalist and publisher (d. 1993) 1910 – Edvard Kardelj, Slovene general, economist, and politician, 2nd Foreign Minister of Yugoslavia (d. 1979) 1912 – Arne Næss, Norwegian philosopher and environmentalist (d. 2009) 1912 – Francis Rogallo, American engineer, invented the Rogallo wing (d. 2009) 1915 – Jules Archer, American historian and author (d. 2008) 1915 – Jacques Hnizdovsky, Ukrainian-American painter, sculptor, and illustrator (d. 1985) 1918 – Skitch Henderson, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2005) 1918 – Elmore James, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1963) 1918 – William Seawell, American general (d. 2005) 1919 – Ross Bagdasarian, Sr., American singer-songwriter, pianist, producer, and actor, created Alvin and the Chipmunks (d. 1972) 1920 – Hiroyoshi Nishizawa, Japanese lieutenant and pilot (d. 1944) 1920 – Helmut Zacharias, German violinist and composer (d. 2002) 1921 – Donna Reed, American actress (d. 1986) 1924 – Rauf Denktaş, Cypriot lawyer and politician, 1st President of Northern Cyprus (d. 2012) 1924 – Brian Rix, English actor, producer, and politician (d. 2016) 1924 – Harvey Shapiro, American poet (d. 2013) 1926 – Fritz Spiegl, Austrian flute player and journalist (d. 2003) 1926 – Ingrid Thulin, Swedish actress (d. 2004) 1928 – Michael Craig, Indian-English actor and screenwriter 1928 – Hans Modrow, Polish-German lawyer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of East Germany 1929 – Mohamed Al-Fayed, Egyptian-Swiss businessman 1929 – Gastón Suárez, Bolivian author and playwright (d. 1984) 1930 – Bobby "Blue" Bland, American blues singer-songwriter (d. 2013) 1931 – Mordecai Richler, Canadian author and screenwriter (d. 2001) 1931 – Nigel Vinson, Baron Vinson, English lieutenant and businessman 1932 – Boris Shakhlin, Russian-Ukrainian gymnast (d. 2008) 1933 – Jerry Buss, American chemist and businessman (d. 2013) 1934 – Édith Cresson, French politician and diplomat, Prime Minister of France 1934 – George Follmer, American race car driver 1935 – Steve Demeter, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2013) 1936 – Troy Donahue, American actor (d. 2001) 1936 – Samuel C. C. Ting, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1937 – Fred Åkerström, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1985) 1940 – Ahmet Kurtcebe Alptemoçin, Turkish engineer and politician, 35th Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs 1940 – James Cromwell, American actor 1940 – Terry Harper, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1940 – Petru Lucinschi, Romanian activist and politician, 2nd President of Moldova 1940 – Reynaldo Rey, American actor and screenwriter (d. 2015) 1941 – Beatrice Tinsley, New Zealand astronomer and cosmologist (d. 1981) 1942 – Maki Asakawa, Japanese singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2010) 1942 – Tasuku Honjo, Japanese immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate in Physiology or Medicine 1942 – John Witherspoon, American actor and comedian (d. 2019) 1942 – Kate Wolf, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1986) 1943 – Julia Cumberlege, Baroness Cumberlege, English businesswoman and politician 1944 – Peter Akinola, Nigerian archbishop 1944 – Mairead Maguire, Northern Irish activist, Nobel Prize laureate 1944 – Nick Mason, English drummer, songwriter, and producer 1945 – Harold Cardinal, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 2005) 1946 – Christopher Hum, English academic and diplomat, British Ambassador to China 1946 – Nedra Talley, American singer 1947 – Björn Afzelius, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1999) 1947 – Vyron Polydoras, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister for Public Order 1947 – Cal Schenkel, American painter and illustrator 1947 – Philip Sugden, English historian and author (d. 2014) 1947 – Perfecto Yasay Jr., Filipino lawyer and Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Philippines (d. 2020) 1948 – Mikhail Baryshnikov, Russian-American dancer, choreographer, and actor 1948 – Jean-Philippe Collard, French pianist 1951 – Seth Justman, American keyboard player and songwriter 1951 – Cees van der Knaap, Dutch soldier and politician 1952 – Brian Gottfried, American tennis player 1952 – Billy Johnson, American football player and coach 1952 – Tam O'Shaughnessy, American tennis player, psychologist, and academic 1952 – G. E. Smith, American guitarist and songwriter 1954 – Peter Laird, American author and illustrator 1954 – Ed Schultz, American talk show host and sportscaster (d. 2018) 1955 – Brian Engblom, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1955 – John Roberts, American lawyer and judge, 17th Chief Justice of the United States 1956 – Mimi Rogers, American actress 1957 – Janick Gers, English guitarist and songwriter 1957 – Frank Miller, American illustrator, director, producer, and screenwriter 1958 – James Grippando, American lawyer and author 1958 – Alan Milburn, English businessman and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster 1959 – Cris Collinsworth, American football player and sportscaster 1959 – Göran Hägglund, Swedish lawyer and politician, 28th Swedish Minister for Social Affairs 1959 – Keith Olbermann, American journalist and author 1960 – Fiona O'Donnell, Canadian-Scottish politician 1961 – Narciso Rodriguez, American fashion designer 1961 – Margo Timmins, Canadian singer-songwriter 1962 – Roberto Paci Dalò, Italian director and composer 1963 – George Monbiot, English-Welsh author and activist 1964 – Patrick van Deurzen, Dutch composer and academic 1964 – Bridget Fonda, American actress 1965 – Alan Cumming, Scottish-American actor 1965 – Mike Newell, English footballer and manager 1965 – Ignacio Noé, Argentinian author and illustrator 1965 – Attila Sekerlioglu, Austrian footballer and manager 1966 – Tamlyn Tomita, Japanese-American actress and singer 1967 – Dave Manson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1968 – Tracy Lawrence, American country singer 1968 – Mike Patton, American singer, composer, and voice artist 1968 – Matt Stover, American football player 1969 – Michael Kulas, Canadian singer-songwriter and producer 1969 – Patton Oswalt, American comedian and actor 1969 – Shane Thomson, New Zealand cricketer 1970 – Bradley Clyde, Australian rugby league player 1970 – Dean Headley, English cricketer and coach 1971 – Patrice Brisebois, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1972 – Bibi Gaytán, Mexican singer and actress 1973 – Valyantsin Byalkevich, Belarusian footballer and manager (d. 2014) 1974 – Ole Einar Bjørndalen, Norwegian skier and biathlete 1974 – Andrei Pavel, Romanian tennis player and coach 1974 – Chaminda Vaas, Sri Lankan cricketer and coach 1976 – Ahn Jung-hwan, South Korean footballer 1976 – Danielle George , American professor 1978 – Pete Laforest, Canadian-American baseball player and manager 1979 – Daniel Vettori, New Zealand cricketer and coach 1980 – Chanda Gunn, American ice hockey player and coach 1980 – Marat Safin, Russian tennis player and politician 1981 – Alicia Molik, Australian tennis player and sportscaster 1981 – Tony Woodcock, New Zealand rugby player 1982 – Eva Asderaki, Greek tennis umpire 1983 – Carlo Colaiacovo, Canadian ice hockey player 1983 – Paulo Colaiacovo, Canadian ice hockey player 1983 – Gavin Floyd, American baseball player 1983 – Lee Grant, English footballer 1984 – Vince Mellars, New Zealand rugby league player 1987 – Katy Rose, American singer-songwriter and producer 1987 – Anton Shunin, Russian footballer 1988 – Kerlon, Brazilian footballer 1989 – Alberto Botía, Spanish footballer 1991 – Christian Bickel, German footballer 1991 – Sebastine Ikahihifo, New Zealand rugby league player 1992 – Stefano Pettinari, Italian footballer 1994 – Jack Stephens, English footballer 1995 – Harrison Reed, English footballer 2000 – Cory Paix, Australian rugby league player Deaths Pre-1600 98 – Nerva, Roman emperor (b. 35) 457 – Marcian, Byzantine emperor
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| |John Lynch (inc.) | |Democratic | |69.8% | |Joseph Kenney | |Republican | |27.9% | |Susan Newell | |Libertarian | |2.2% |- | 2010 | |John Lynch (inc.) | |Democratic | |52.6% | |John Stephen | |Republican | |45.1% | |John Babiarz | |Libertarian | |2.2% Tenure Taxes As a candidate for governor, Lynch took "The Pledge" not to enact any broad-based taxes, especially a sales or income tax. As governor, Lynch kept his promise. Lynch does not support an amendment to the State Constitution banning an income tax. In 2007, Lynch signed into law the Research and Development Tax credit, which for the following five years appropriated $1,000,000 for companies to write off qualifying "manufacturing research and development" expenditures. In 2012, during his final State of the State address, Lynch proposed doubling the tax credit, citing its success in creating jobs, and slammed lawmakers for slashing funding to the state's community college system to fund a 10-cent reduction in the tobacco tax. In June 2010, Lynch signed a budget-balancing measure that repealed the state's LLC tax. Crime Lynch worked with the state Attorney General, police chiefs, and lawmakers to pass sex offender laws; increase the state police force; and increase the number of state prosecutors. New Hampshire was rated the "Safest State" in the Nation in 2008 and 2009. New Hampshire again boasts the nation's lowest murder rate and the second-lowest rates for aggravated assault, according to CQ Press. Lynch issued the following statement after the announcement of the award in 2009: Death penalty Lynch upheld the death penalty while in office, stating "there are crimes so heinous that the death penalty is warranted." The New Hampshire House of Representatives passed legislation in March 2009 to abolish the death penalty, which Lynch threatened to veto. Due to the veto threat, the Senate tabled the legislation in April of that year. In June, Lynch compromised with legislators and signed legislation to form the New Hampshire Commission to Study the Death Penalty. In December 2010, the Commission recommended, by a 12 to 10 vote, to retain the death penalty. However, the panel unanimously recommended against expanding it. In 2011, Lynch signed legislation to expand the death penalty to include home invasions. Natural disaster response In April 2006, Lynch was awarded the "National Chairman of Volunteers" Award for Volunteer Excellence by the American Red Cross, due to his leadership during the 2005 floods. Same-sex marriage On June 3, 2009, Lynch signed a same-sex marriage bill into law, despite being personally opposed to gay marriages, making New Hampshire the fifth state in the United States to allow such unions. Historic popularity Throughout his eight year tenure, Lynch enjoyed very high approval ratings, often being ranked among the most popular of U.S. governors. According to the WMUR/Granite State Poll conducted by the University of New Hampshire, just three months after taking office in January 2005, Lynch's approval rating surpassed 50% and stayed upwards of 55% throughout his tenure. Likewise, between February 2006 and February 2009 his approval rating was above 70%. In April 2012, Lynch's approval rating was again above 70% making him the second most popular governor in the United States, behind New York Governor Andrew Cuomo. Lynch enjoyed bipartisan support and is the most popular governor in the state's history. Presidential endorsements During the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries, Lynch
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launched his campaign for Governor of New Hampshire. Lynch spent the five months preceding the election relentlessly attacking Governor Craig Benson, the first-term Republican incumbent, for what Lynch claimed was a lack of integrity following a long series of scandals during Benson's tenure. Lynch accused Benson of creating a "culture of corruption" and cronyism at the State House. On September 15, Lynch won the Democratic primary and on November 2, Lynch defeated Benson 51% to 49%. Lynch was the first challenger to defeat a first-term incumbent in New Hampshire since 1926. On January 6, 2005, Lynch was inaugurated as the 80th Governor of New Hampshire. On November 7, 2006, Lynch was re-elected governor in a 74% to 26% landslide victory over Republican challenger Jim Coburn. Lynch's 74% of the vote was the largest margin of victory ever in a New Hampshire gubernatorial race. Lynch's coattails carried his party to control of both chambers of the State Legislature and both of New Hampshire's two U.S. House seats. On November 4, 2008, he was elected to a third term in another landslide victory. Lynch defeated Republican challenger Joseph Kenney, a New Hampshire state senator and U.S. Marine, 70% to 28%, with 2% of the vote won by the Libertarian candidate. Democrats maintained control of the state legislature and held both U.S. House seats, and gained a U.S. Senate seat. On November 2, 2010, Lynch was elected to a historic fourth term as Governor of New Hampshire, in a victory over former State Health and Human Service's Commissioner John Stephen, 53% to 45%. Lynch was the only Democrat elected to statewide office. As had happened in many states throughout the U.S. during the 2010 midterm elections, Democrats suffered heavy losses. Democrats lost control of both chambers of the State Legislature, control of the Executive Council and both of the U.S. House seats. According to the Concord Monitor, when Lynch was inaugurated on January 6, 2011, he became "the state's longest-serving governor in nearly two centuries. John Taylor Gilman was the last governor to serve longer than six years, serving 14 one-year terms as governor between 1794 and 1816. (The state switched to two-year terms in 1877)" New Hampshire and neighboring Vermont are the only two States in the U.S. that use two-year terms. On September 15, 2011, Lynch announced he would not seek a historic fifth term as governor. During the announcement Lynch said "I feel like I have the passion and the energy to keep doing this work for a long, long time, but democracy demands periodic change. To refresh and revive itself, democracy needs new leaders and new ideas." On January 3, 2013, Lynch was succeeded by fellow Democrat Maggie Hassan, marking the first time a Democrat succeeded a Democrat as the state's governor since the 19th century. |- | colspan=10 style="text-align:center;" |New Hampshire gubernatorial election (General Election) |- ! Year ! Winning candidate ! Party ! Pct ! Opponent ! Party ! Pct ! Opponent ! Party ! Pct |- | 2004 | |John Lynch | |Democratic | |51.02% | |Craig Benson (inc.) | |Republican | |48.87% | | | |- | 2006 | |John Lynch (inc.) | |Democratic | |73.5% | |Jim Coburn | |Republican | |26.5% | | | |- | 2008 | |John Lynch (inc.) | |Democratic | |69.8% | |Joseph Kenney | |Republican | |27.9% | |Susan Newell | |Libertarian | |2.2% |- | 2010 | |John Lynch (inc.) | |Democratic | |52.6% | |John Stephen | |Republican | |45.1% | |John Babiarz | |Libertarian | |2.2% Tenure Taxes As a candidate for governor, Lynch took "The Pledge" not to enact any broad-based taxes, especially a sales or income tax. As governor, Lynch kept his promise. Lynch does not support an amendment to the State Constitution banning an income tax. In 2007, Lynch signed into law the Research and Development Tax credit, which for the following five years appropriated $1,000,000
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privately, most importantly those of Lady Margaret Hall and St Hugh's College, given that the women's colleges were in great need of good teachers in their early years, and Tolkien as a married professor (then still not common) was considered suitable, as a bachelor don would not have been. During his time at Pembroke College Tolkien wrote The Hobbit and the first two volumes of The Lord of the Rings, while living at 20 Northmoor Road in North Oxford. He also published a philological essay in 1932 on the name "Nodens", following Sir Mortimer Wheeler's unearthing of a Roman Asclepeion at Lydney Park, Gloucestershire, in 1928. Beowulf In the 1920s, Tolkien undertook a translation of Beowulf, which he finished in 1926, but did not publish. It was finally edited by his son and published in 2014, more than 40 years after Tolkien's death and almost 90 years after its completion. Ten years after finishing his translation, Tolkien gave a highly acclaimed lecture on the work, "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics", which had a lasting influence on Beowulf research. Lewis E. Nicholson said that the article is "widely recognized as a turning point in Beowulfian criticism", noting that Tolkien established the primacy of the poetic nature of the work as opposed to its purely linguistic elements. At the time, the consensus of scholarship deprecated Beowulf for dealing with childish battles with monsters rather than realistic tribal warfare; Tolkien argued that the author of Beowulf was addressing human destiny in general, not as limited by particular tribal politics, and therefore the monsters were essential to the poem. Where Beowulf does deal with specific tribal struggles, as at Finnsburg, Tolkien argued firmly against reading in fantastic elements. In the essay, Tolkien also revealed how highly he regarded Beowulf: "Beowulf is among my most valued sources"; this influence may be seen throughout his Middle-earth legendarium. According to Humphrey Carpenter, Tolkien began his series of lectures on Beowulf in a most striking way, entering the room silently, fixing the audience with a look, and suddenly declaiming in Old English the opening lines of the poem, starting "with a great cry of Hwæt!" It was a dramatic impersonation of an Anglo-Saxon bard in a mead hall, and it made the students realize that Beowulf was not just a set text but "a powerful piece of dramatic poetry". Decades later, W. H. Auden wrote to his former professor, thanking him for the "unforgettable experience" of hearing him recite Beowulf, and stating "The voice was the voice of Gandalf". Second World War In the run-up to the Second World War, Tolkien was earmarked as a codebreaker. In January 1939, he was asked to serve in the cryptographic department of the Foreign Office in the event of national emergency. Beginning on 27 March, he took an instructional course at the London HQ of the Government Code and Cypher School. He was informed in October that his services would not be required. In 1945, Tolkien moved to Merton College, Oxford, becoming the Merton Professor of English Language and Literature, in which post he remained until his retirement in 1959. He served as an external examiner for University College, Galway (now NUI Galway), for many years. In 1954 Tolkien received an honorary degree from the National University of Ireland (of which University College, Galway, was a constituent college). Tolkien completed The Lord of the Rings in 1948, close to a decade after the first sketches. Family The Tolkiens had four children: John Francis Reuel Tolkien (17 November 1917 – 22 January 2003), Michael Hilary Reuel Tolkien (22 October 1920 – 27 February 1984), Christopher John Reuel Tolkien (21 November 1924 – 16 January 2020) and Priscilla Mary Anne Reuel Tolkien (born 18 June 1929). Tolkien was very devoted to his children and sent them illustrated letters from Father Christmas when they were young. Retirement During his life in retirement, from 1959 up to his death in 1973, Tolkien received steadily increasing public attention and literary fame. In 1961, his friend C. S. Lewis even nominated him for the Nobel Prize in Literature. The sales of his books were so profitable that he regretted that he had not chosen early retirement. In a 1972 letter, he deplored having become a cult-figure, but admitted that "even the nose of a very modest idol ... cannot remain entirely untickled by the sweet smell of incense!" Fan attention became so intense that Tolkien had to take his phone number out of the public directory, and eventually he and Edith moved to Bournemouth, which was then a seaside resort patronized by the British upper middle class. Tolkien's status as a best-selling author gave them easy entry into polite society, but Tolkien deeply missed the company of his fellow Inklings. Edith, however, was overjoyed to step into the role of a society hostess, which had been the reason that Tolkien selected Bournemouth in the first place. The genuine and deep affection between Ronald and Edith was demonstrated by their care about the other's health, in details like wrapping presents, in the generous way he gave up his life at Oxford so she could retire to Bournemouth, and in her pride in his becoming a famous author. They were tied together, too, by love for their children and grandchildren. In his retirement Tolkien was a consultant and translator for The Jerusalem Bible, published in 1966. He was initially assigned a larger portion to translate, but, due to other commitments, only managed to offer some criticisms of other contributors and a translation of the Book of Jonah. Final years Edith died on 29 November 1971, at the age of 82. Ronald returned to Oxford, where Merton College gave him convenient rooms near the High Street. He missed Edith, but enjoyed being back in the city. Tolkien was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1972 New Year Honours and received the insignia of the Order at Buckingham Palace on 28 March 1972. In the same year Oxford University gave him an honorary Doctorate of Letters. He had the name Luthien [sic] engraved on Edith's tombstone at Wolvercote Cemetery, Oxford. When Tolkien died 21 months later on 2 September 1973 from a bleeding ulcer and chest infection, at the age of 81, he was buried in the same grave, with "Beren" added to his name. Tolkien's will was proven on 20 December 1973, with his estate valued at £190,577 (equivalent to £ in ). Views Religion Tolkien's Catholicism was a significant factor in C. S. Lewis's conversion from atheism to Christianity, although Tolkien was dismayed that Lewis chose to join the Church of England. He once wrote to Rayner Unwin's daughter Camilla, who wished to know the purpose of life, that it was "to increase according to our capacity our knowledge of God by all the means we have, and to be moved by it to praise and thanks." He had a special devotion to the blessed sacrament, writing to his son Michael that in "the Blessed Sacrament ... you will find romance, glory, honour, fidelity, and the true way of all your loves upon earth, and more than that". He accordingly encouraged frequent reception of Holy Communion, again writing to his son Michael that "the only cure for sagging of fainting faith is Communion." He believed the Catholic Church to be true most of all because of the pride of place and the honour in which it holds the Blessed Sacrament. In the last years of his life, Tolkien resisted the liturgical changes implemented after the Second Vatican Council, especially the use of English for the liturgy; he continued to make the responses in Latin, loudly, ignoring the rest of the congregation. Race Tolkien's fantasy writings have often been accused of embodying outmoded attitudes to race. However, scholars have noted that he was influenced by Victorian attitudes to race and to a literary tradition of monsters, and that he was anti-racist both in peacetime and during the two World Wars. With the late 19th century background of eugenics and a fear of moral decline, some critics saw the mention of race mixing in The Lord of the Rings as embodying scientific racism. Other commentators saw in Tolkien's orcs a reflection of wartime propaganda caricatures of the Japanese. Critics have noted, too, that the work embodies a moral geography, with good in the West, evil in the East. Against this, scholars have noted that Tolkien was opposed to peacetime Nazi racial theory, while in the Second World War he was equally opposed to anti-German propaganda. Other scholars have stated that Tolkien's Middle-earth is definitely polycultural and polylingual, and that attacks on Tolkien based on The Lord of the Rings often omit relevant evidence from the text. Nature During most of his own life conservationism was not yet on the political agenda, and Tolkien himself did not directly express conservationist views—except in some private letters, in which he tells about his fondness for forests and sadness at tree-felling. In later years, a number of authors of biographies or literary analyses of Tolkien conclude that during his writing of The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien gained increased interest in the value of wild and untamed nature, and in protecting what wild nature was left in the industrialized world. Writing Influences Tolkien's fantasy books on Middle-earth, especially The Lord of the Rings and The Silmarillion, drew on a wide array of influences including his philological interest in language, Christianity, mythology, archaeology, ancient and modern literature, and personal experience. His philological work centred on the study of Old English literature, especially Beowulf, and he acknowledged its importance to his writings. He was a gifted linguist, influenced by Germanic, Celtic, Finnish, and Greek language and mythology. Commentators have attempted to identify many literary and topological antecedents for characters, places and events in Tolkien's writings. Some writers were important to him, including the Arts and Crafts polymath William Morris, and he undoubtedly made use of some real place-names, such as Bag End, the name of his aunt's home. He acknowledged, too, John Buchan and H. Rider Haggard, authors of modern adventure stories that he enjoyed. The effects of some specific experiences have been identified. Tolkien's childhood in the English countryside, and its urbanization by the growth of Birmingham, influenced his creation of the Shire, while his personal experience of fighting in the trenches of the First World War affected his depiction of Mordor. Publications "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics" In addition to writing fiction, Tolkien was an author of academic literary criticism. His seminal 1936 lecture, later published as an article, revolutionized the treatment of the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf by literary critics. The essay remains highly influential in the study of Old English literature to this day. Beowulf is one of the most significant influences upon Tolkien's later fiction, with major details of both The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings being adapted from the poem. "On Fairy-Stories" This essay discusses the fairy-story as a literary form. It was initially written as the 1939 Andrew Lang Lecture at the University of St Andrews, Scotland. Tolkien focuses on Andrew Lang's work as a folklorist and collector of fairy tales. He disagreed with Lang's broad inclusion, in his Fairy Book collections, of traveller's tales, beast fables, and other types of stories. Tolkien held a narrower perspective, viewing fairy stories as those that took place in Faerie, an enchanted realm, with or without fairies as characters. He viewed them as the natural development of the interaction of human imagination and human language. Children's books and other short works In addition to his mythopoeic compositions, Tolkien enjoyed inventing fantasy stories to entertain his children. He wrote annual Christmas letters from Father Christmas for them, building up a series of short stories (later compiled and published as The Father Christmas Letters). Other works included Mr. Bliss and Roverandom (for children), and Leaf by Niggle (part of Tree and Leaf), The Adventures of Tom Bombadil, Smith of Wootton Major and Farmer Giles of Ham. Roverandom and Smith of Wootton Major, like The Hobbit, borrowed ideas from his legendarium. The Hobbit Tolkien never expected his stories to become popular, but by sheer accident a book called The Hobbit, which he had written some years before for his own children, came in 1936 to the attention of Susan Dagnall, an employee of the London publishing firm George Allen & Unwin, who persuaded Tolkien to submit it for publication. When it was published a year later, the book attracted adult readers as well as children, and it became popular enough for the publishers to ask Tolkien to produce a sequel. The Lord of the Rings The request for a sequel prompted Tolkien to begin what became his most famous work: the epic novel The Lord of the Rings (originally published in three volumes in 1954–1955). Tolkien spent more than ten years writing the primary narrative and appendices for The Lord of the Rings, during which time he received the constant support of the Inklings, in particular his closest friend C. S. Lewis, the author of The Chronicles of Narnia. Both The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings are set against the background of The Silmarillion, but in a time long after it. Tolkien at first intended The Lord of the Rings to be a children's tale in the style of The Hobbit, but it quickly grew darker and more serious in the writing. Though a direct sequel to The Hobbit, it addressed an older audience, drawing on the immense backstory of Beleriand that Tolkien had constructed in previous years, and which eventually saw posthumous publication in The Silmarillion and other volumes. Tolkien strongly influenced the fantasy genre that grew up after the book's success. The Lord of the Rings became immensely popular in the 1960s and has remained so ever since, ranking as one of the most popular works of fiction of the 20th century, judged by both sales and reader surveys. In the 2003 "Big Read" survey conducted by the BBC, The Lord of the Rings was found to be the UK's "Best-loved Novel". Australians voted The Lord of the Rings "My Favourite Book" in a 2004 survey conducted by the Australian ABC. In a 1999 poll of Amazon.com customers, The Lord of the Rings was judged to be their favourite "book of the millennium". In 2002 Tolkien was voted the 92nd "greatest Briton" in a poll conducted by the BBC, and in 2004 he was voted 35th in the SABC3's Great South Africans, the only person to appear in both lists. His popularity is not limited to the English-speaking world: in a 2004 poll inspired by the UK's "Big Read" survey, about 250,000 Germans found The Lord of the Rings to be their favourite work of literature. The Silmarillion Tolkien wrote a brief "Sketch of the Mythology", which included the tales of Beren and Lúthien and of Túrin; and that sketch eventually evolved into the Quenta Silmarillion, an epic history that Tolkien started three times but never published. Tolkien desperately hoped to publish it along with The Lord of the Rings, but publishers (both Allen & Unwin and Collins) declined. Moreover, printing costs were very high in 1950s Britain, requiring The Lord of the Rings to be published in three volumes. The story of this continuous redrafting is told in the posthumous series The History of Middle-earth, edited by Tolkien's son, Christopher Tolkien. From around 1936, Tolkien began to extend this framework to include the tale of The Fall of Númenor, which was inspired by the legend of Atlantis. Tolkien appointed his son Christopher to be his literary executor, and he (with assistance from Guy Gavriel Kay, later a well-known fantasy author in his own right) organized some of this material into a single coherent volume, published as The Silmarillion in 1977. It received the Locus Award for Best Fantasy novel in 1978. Unfinished Tales and The History of Middle-earth In 1980, Christopher Tolkien published a collection of more fragmentary material, under the title Unfinished Tales of Númenor and Middle-earth. In subsequent years (1983–1996), he published a large amount of the remaining unpublished materials, together with notes and extensive commentary, in a series of twelve volumes called The History of Middle-earth. They contain unfinished, abandoned, alternative, and outright contradictory accounts, since they were always a work in progress for Tolkien and he only rarely settled on a definitive version for any of the stories. There is not complete consistency between The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit, the two most closely related works, because Tolkien never fully integrated all their traditions into each other. He commented in 1965, while editing The Hobbit for a third edition, that he would have preferred to rewrite the book completely because of the style of its prose. Works compiled by Christopher Tolkien Manuscript locations Before his death, Tolkien negotiated the sale of the manuscripts, drafts, proofs and other materials related to his then-published works—including The Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit and Farmer Giles of Ham—to the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Marquette University's John P. Raynor, S.J., Library in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. After his death his estate donated the papers containing Tolkien's Silmarillion mythology and his academic work to the Bodleian Library at Oxford University. The Bodleian Library held an exhibition of his work in 2018, including more than 60 items which had never been seen in public before. In 2009, a partial draft of Language and Human Nature, which Tolkien had begun co-writing with C. S. Lewis but had never completed, was discovered at the Bodleian Library. Languages and philology Linguistic career Both Tolkien's academic career and his literary production are inseparable from his love of language and philology. He specialized in English philology at university and in 1915 graduated with Old Norse as his special subject. He worked on the Oxford English Dictionary from 1918 and is credited with having worked on a number of words starting with the letter W, including walrus, over which he struggled mightily. In 1920, he became Reader in English Language at the University of Leeds, where he claimed credit for raising the number of students of linguistics from five to twenty. He gave courses in Old English heroic verse, history of English, various Old English and Middle English texts, Old and Middle English philology, introductory Germanic philology, Gothic, Old Icelandic, and Medieval Welsh. When in 1925, aged thirty-three, Tolkien applied for the Rawlinson and Bosworth Professorship of Anglo-Saxon at Pembroke College, Oxford, he boasted that his students of Germanic philology in Leeds had even formed a "Viking Club". He also had a certain, if imperfect, knowledge of Finnish. Privately, Tolkien was attracted to "things of racial and linguistic significance", and in his 1955 lecture English and Welsh, which is crucial to his understanding of race and language, he entertained notions of "inherent linguistic predilections", which he termed the "native language" as opposed to the "cradle-tongue" which a person first learns to speak. He considered the West Midlands dialect of Middle English to be his own "native language", and, as he wrote to W. H. Auden in 1955, "I am a West-midlander by blood (and took to early west-midland Middle English as a known tongue as soon as I set eyes on it)." Language construction Parallel to Tolkien's professional work as a philologist, and sometimes overshadowing this work, to the effect that his academic output remained rather thin, was his affection for constructing languages. The most developed of these are Quenya and Sindarin, the etymological connection between which formed the core of much of Tolkien's legendarium. Language and grammar for Tolkien was a matter of aesthetics and euphony, and Quenya in particular was designed from "phonaesthetic" considerations; it was intended as an "Elven-latin", and was phonologically based on Latin, with ingredients from Finnish, Welsh, English, and Greek. A notable addition came in late 1945 with Adûnaic or Númenórean, a language of a "faintly Semitic flavour", connected with Tolkien's Atlantis legend, which by The Notion Club Papers ties directly into his ideas about the inability of language to be inherited, and via the "Second Age" and the story of Eärendil was grounded in the legendarium, thereby providing a link of Tolkien's 20th-century "real primary world" with the legendary past of his Middle-earth. Tolkien considered languages inseparable from the mythology associated with them, and he consequently took a dim view of auxiliary languages: in 1930 a congress of Esperantists were told as much by him, in his lecture A Secret Vice, "Your language construction will breed a mythology", but by 1956 he had concluded that "Volapük, Esperanto, Ido, Novial, &c, &c, are dead, far deader than ancient unused languages, because their authors never invented any Esperanto legends". The popularity of Tolkien's books has had a small but lasting effect on the use of language in fantasy literature in particular, and even on mainstream dictionaries, which today commonly accept Tolkien's idiosyncratic spellings dwarves and dwarvish (alongside dwarfs and dwarfish), which had been little used since the mid-19th century and earlier. (In fact, according to Tolkien, had the Old English plural survived, it would have been dwarrows or dwerrows.) He also coined the term eucatastrophe, though it remains mainly used in connection with his own work. Artwork Tolkien learnt to paint and draw as a child, and continued to do so all his adult life. From early in his writing career, the development of his stories was accompanied by drawings and paintings, especially of landscapes, and by maps of the lands in which the tales were set. He also produced pictures to accompany the stories told to his own children, including those later published in Mr Bliss and Roverandom, and sent them elaborately illustrated letters purporting to come from Father Christmas. Although he regarded himself as an amateur, the publisher used the author's own cover art, his maps, and full-page illustrations for the early editions of The Hobbit. He prepared maps and illustrations for The Lord of the Rings, but the first edition contained only the maps, his calligraphy for the inscription on the One Ring, and his ink drawing of the Doors of Durin. Much of his artwork was
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of my dreams". They went across the Kleine Scheidegg to Grindelwald and on across the Grosse Scheidegg to Meiringen. They continued across the Grimsel Pass, through the upper Valais to Brig and on to the Aletsch glacier and Zermatt. In October of the same year, Tolkien began studying at Exeter College, Oxford. He initially read classics but changed his course in 1913 to English language and literature, graduating in 1915 with first-class honours. Among his tutors at Oxford was Joseph Wright, whose Primer of the Gothic Language had inspired Tolkien as a schoolboy. Courtship and marriage At the age of 16, Tolkien met Edith Mary Bratt, who was three years his senior, when he and his brother Hilary moved into the boarding house where she lived in Duchess Road, Edgbaston. According to Humphrey Carpenter, "Edith and Ronald took to frequenting Birmingham teashops, especially one which had a balcony overlooking the pavement. There they would sit and throw sugarlumps into the hats of passers-by, moving to the next table when the sugar bowl was empty. ... With two people of their personalities and in their position, romance was bound to flourish. Both were orphans in need of affection, and they found that they could give it to each other. During the summer of 1909, they decided that they were in love." His guardian, Father Morgan, considered it "altogether unfortunate" that his surrogate son was romantically involved with an older, Protestant woman; Tolkien wrote that the combined tensions contributed to his having "muffed [his] exams". Morgan prohibited him from meeting, talking to, or even corresponding with Edith until he was 21. Tolkien obeyed this prohibition to the letter, with one notable early exception, over which Father Morgan threatened to cut short his university career if he did not stop. On the evening of his 21st birthday, Tolkien wrote to Edith, who was living with family friend C. H. Jessop at Cheltenham. He declared that he had never ceased to love her, and asked her to marry him. Edith replied that she had already accepted the proposal of George Field, the brother of one of her closest school friends. But Edith said she had agreed to marry Field only because she felt "on the shelf" and had begun to doubt that Tolkien still cared for her. She explained that, because of Tolkien's letter, everything had changed. On 8 January 1913, Tolkien travelled by train to Cheltenham and was met on the platform by Edith. The two took a walk into the countryside, sat under a railway viaduct, and talked. By the end of the day, Edith had agreed to accept Tolkien's proposal. She wrote to Field and returned her engagement ring. Field was "dreadfully upset at first", and the Field family was "insulted and angry". Upon learning of Edith's new plans, Jessop wrote to her guardian, "I have nothing to say against Tolkien, he is a cultured gentleman, but his prospects are poor in the extreme, and when he will be in a position to marry I cannot imagine. Had he adopted a profession it would have been different." Following their engagement, Edith reluctantly announced that she was converting to Catholicism at Tolkien's insistence. Jessop, "like many others of his age and class ... strongly anti-Catholic", was infuriated, and he ordered Edith to find other lodgings. Edith Bratt and Ronald Tolkien were formally engaged at Birmingham in January 1913, and married at St Mary Immaculate Catholic Church at Warwick, on 22 March 1916. In his 1941 letter to Michael, Tolkien expressed admiration for his wife's willingness to marry a man with no job, little money, and no prospects except the likelihood of being killed in the Great War. First World War In August 1914, Britain entered the First World War. Tolkien's relatives were shocked when he elected not to volunteer immediately for the British Army. In a 1941 letter to his son Michael, Tolkien recalled: "In those days chaps joined up, or were scorned publicly. It was a nasty cleft to be in for a young man with too much imagination and little physical courage." Instead, Tolkien, "endured the obloquy", and entered a programme by which he delayed enlistment until completing his degree. By the time he passed his finals in July 1915, Tolkien recalled that the hints were "becoming outspoken from relatives". He was commissioned as a temporary second lieutenant in the Lancashire Fusiliers on 15 July 1915. He trained with the 13th (Reserve) Battalion on Cannock Chase, Rugeley Camp near to Rugeley, Staffordshire, for 11 months. In a letter to Edith, Tolkien complained: "Gentlemen are rare among the superiors, and even human beings rare indeed." Following their wedding, Lieutenant and Mrs. Tolkien took up lodgings near the training camp. On 2 June 1916, Tolkien received a telegram summoning him to Folkestone for posting to France. The Tolkiens spent the night before his departure in a room at the Plough & Harrow Hotel in Edgbaston, Birmingham. He later wrote: "Junior officers were being killed off, a dozen a minute. Parting from my wife then... it was like a death." France On 5 June 1916, Tolkien boarded a troop transport for an overnight voyage to Calais. Like other soldiers arriving for the first time, he was sent to the British Expeditionary Force's (BEF) base depot at Étaples. On 7 June, he was informed that he had been assigned as a signals officer to the 11th (Service) Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers. The battalion was part of the 74th Brigade, 25th Division. While waiting to be summoned to his unit, Tolkien sank into boredom. To pass the time, he composed a poem entitled The Lonely Isle, which was inspired by his feelings during the sea crossing to Calais. To evade the British Army's postal censorship, he developed a code of dots by which Edith could track his movements. He left Étaples on 27 June 1916 and joined his battalion at Rubempré, near Amiens. He found himself commanding enlisted men who were drawn mainly from the mining, milling, and weaving towns of Lancashire. According to John Garth, he "felt an affinity for these working class men", but military protocol prohibited friendships with "other ranks". Instead, he was required to "take charge of them, discipline them, train them, and probably censor their letters ... If possible, he was supposed to inspire their love and loyalty." Tolkien later lamented, "The most improper job of any man ... is bossing other men. Not one in a million is fit for it, and least of all those who seek the opportunity." Battle of the Somme Tolkien arrived at the Somme in early July 1916. In between terms behind the lines at Bouzincourt, he participated in the assaults on the Schwaben Redoubt and the Leipzig salient. Tolkien's time in combat was a terrible stress for Edith, who feared that every knock on the door might carry news of her husband's death. Edith could track her husband's movements on a map of the Western Front. The Reverend Mervyn S. Evers, Anglican chaplain to the Lancashire Fusiliers, recorded that Tolkien and his brother officers were eaten by "hordes of lice" which found the Medical Officer's ointment merely "a kind of hors d'oeuvre and the little beggars went at their feast with renewed vigour." On 27 October 1916, as his battalion attacked Regina Trench, Tolkien contracted trench fever, a disease carried by lice. He was invalided to England on 8 November 1916. Many of his dearest school friends were killed in the war. Among their number were Rob Gilson of the Tea Club and Barrovian Society, who was killed on the first day of the Somme while leading his men in the assault on Beaumont Hamel. Fellow T.C.B.S. member Geoffrey Smith was killed during the battle, when a German artillery shell landed on a first-aid post. Tolkien's battalion was almost completely wiped out following his return to England. According to John Garth, Kitchener's army at once marked existing social boundaries and counteracted the class system by throwing everyone into a desperate situation together. Tolkien was grateful, writing that it had taught him "a deep sympathy and feeling for the Tommy; especially the plain soldier from the agricultural counties". Home front A weak and emaciated Tolkien spent the remainder of the war alternating between hospitals and garrison duties, being deemed medically unfit for general service. During his recovery in a cottage in Little Haywood, Staffordshire, he began to work on what he called The Book of Lost Tales, beginning with The Fall of Gondolin. Lost Tales represented Tolkien's attempt to create a mythology for England, a project he would abandon without ever completing. Throughout 1917 and 1918 his illness kept recurring, but he had recovered enough to do home service at various camps. It was at this time that Edith bore their first child, John Francis Reuel Tolkien. In a 1941 letter, Tolkien described his son John as "(conceived and carried during the starvation-year of 1917 and the great U-Boat campaign) round about the Battle of Cambrai, when the end of the war seemed as far off as it does now". Tolkien was promoted to the temporary rank of lieutenant on 6 January 1918. When he was stationed at Kingston upon Hull, he and Edith went walking in the woods at nearby Roos, and Edith began to dance for him in a clearing among the flowering hemlock. After his wife's death in 1971, Tolkien remembered, On 16 July 1919 Tolkien was taken off active service, at Fovant, on Salisbury Plain, with a temporary disability pension. Academic and writing career On 3 November 1920, Tolkien was demobilized and left the army, retaining his rank of lieutenant. His first civilian job after World War I was at the Oxford English Dictionary, where he worked mainly on the history and etymology of words of Germanic origin beginning with the letter W. In 1920, he took up a post as reader in English language at the University of Leeds, becoming the youngest member of the academic staff there. While at Leeds, he produced A Middle English Vocabulary and a definitive edition of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight with E. V. Gordon; both became academic standard works for several decades. He translated Sir Gawain, Pearl, and Sir Orfeo. In 1925, he returned to Oxford as Rawlinson and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon, with a fellowship at Pembroke College. In mid-1919, he began to tutor undergraduates privately, most importantly those of Lady Margaret Hall and St Hugh's College, given that the women's colleges were in great need of good teachers in their early years, and Tolkien as a married professor (then still not common) was considered suitable, as a bachelor don would not have been. During his time at Pembroke College Tolkien wrote The Hobbit and the first two volumes of The Lord of the Rings, while living at 20 Northmoor Road in North Oxford. He also published a philological essay in 1932 on the name "Nodens", following Sir Mortimer Wheeler's unearthing of a Roman Asclepeion at Lydney Park, Gloucestershire, in 1928. Beowulf In the 1920s, Tolkien undertook a translation of Beowulf, which he finished in 1926, but did not publish. It was finally edited by his son and published in 2014, more than 40 years after Tolkien's death and almost 90 years after its completion. Ten years after finishing his translation, Tolkien gave a highly acclaimed lecture on the work, "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics", which had a lasting influence on Beowulf research. Lewis E. Nicholson said that the article is "widely recognized as a turning point in Beowulfian criticism", noting that Tolkien established the primacy of the poetic nature of the work as opposed to its purely linguistic elements. At the time, the consensus of scholarship deprecated Beowulf for dealing with childish battles with monsters rather than realistic tribal warfare; Tolkien argued that the author of Beowulf was addressing human destiny in general, not as limited by particular tribal politics, and therefore the monsters were essential to the poem. Where Beowulf does deal with specific tribal struggles, as at Finnsburg, Tolkien argued firmly against reading in fantastic elements. In the essay, Tolkien also revealed how highly he regarded Beowulf: "Beowulf is among my most valued sources"; this influence may be seen throughout his Middle-earth legendarium. According to Humphrey Carpenter, Tolkien began his series of lectures on Beowulf in a most striking way, entering the room silently, fixing the audience with a look, and suddenly declaiming in Old English the opening lines of the poem, starting "with a great cry of Hwæt!" It was a dramatic impersonation of an Anglo-Saxon bard in a mead hall, and it made the students realize that Beowulf was not just a set text but "a powerful piece of dramatic poetry". Decades later, W. H. Auden wrote to his former professor, thanking him for the "unforgettable experience" of hearing him recite Beowulf, and stating "The voice was the voice of Gandalf". Second World War In the run-up to the Second World War, Tolkien was earmarked as a codebreaker. In January 1939, he was asked to serve in the cryptographic department of the Foreign Office in the event of national emergency. Beginning on 27 March, he took an instructional course at the London HQ of the Government Code and Cypher School. He was informed in October that his services would not be required. In 1945, Tolkien moved to Merton College, Oxford, becoming the Merton Professor of English Language and Literature, in which post he remained until his retirement in 1959. He served as an external examiner for University College, Galway (now NUI Galway), for many years. In 1954 Tolkien received an honorary degree from the National University of Ireland (of which University College, Galway, was a constituent college). Tolkien completed The Lord of the Rings in 1948, close to a decade after the first sketches. Family The Tolkiens had four children: John Francis Reuel Tolkien (17 November 1917 – 22 January 2003), Michael Hilary Reuel Tolkien (22 October 1920 – 27 February 1984), Christopher John Reuel Tolkien (21 November 1924 – 16 January 2020) and Priscilla Mary Anne Reuel Tolkien (born 18 June 1929). Tolkien was very devoted to his children and sent them illustrated letters from Father Christmas when they were young. Retirement During his life in retirement, from 1959 up to his death in 1973, Tolkien received steadily increasing public attention and literary fame. In 1961, his friend C. S. Lewis even nominated him for the Nobel Prize in Literature. The sales of his books were so profitable that he regretted that he had not chosen early retirement. In a 1972 letter, he deplored having become a cult-figure, but admitted that "even the nose of a very modest idol ... cannot remain entirely untickled by the sweet smell of incense!" Fan attention became so intense that Tolkien had to take his phone number out of the public directory, and eventually he and Edith moved to Bournemouth, which was then a seaside resort patronized by the British upper middle class. Tolkien's status as a best-selling author gave them easy entry into polite society, but Tolkien deeply missed the company of his fellow Inklings. Edith, however, was overjoyed to step into the role of a society hostess, which had been the reason that Tolkien selected Bournemouth in the first place. The genuine and deep affection between Ronald and Edith was demonstrated by their care about the other's health, in details like wrapping presents, in the generous way he gave up his life at Oxford so she could retire to Bournemouth, and in her pride in his becoming a famous author. They were tied together, too, by love for their children and grandchildren. In his retirement Tolkien was a consultant and translator for The Jerusalem Bible, published in 1966. He was initially assigned a larger portion to translate, but, due to other commitments, only managed to offer some criticisms of other contributors and a translation of the Book of Jonah. Final years Edith died on 29 November 1971, at the age of 82. Ronald returned to Oxford, where Merton College gave him convenient rooms near the High Street. He missed Edith, but enjoyed being back in the city. Tolkien was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1972 New Year Honours and received the insignia of the Order at Buckingham Palace on 28 March 1972. In the same year Oxford University gave him an honorary Doctorate of Letters. He had the name Luthien [sic] engraved on Edith's tombstone at Wolvercote Cemetery, Oxford. When Tolkien died 21 months later on 2 September 1973 from a bleeding ulcer and chest infection, at the age of 81, he was buried in the same grave, with "Beren" added to his name. Tolkien's will was proven on 20 December 1973, with his estate valued at £190,577 (equivalent to £ in ). Views Religion Tolkien's Catholicism was a significant factor in C. S. Lewis's conversion from atheism to Christianity, although Tolkien was dismayed that Lewis chose to join the Church of England. He once wrote to Rayner Unwin's daughter Camilla, who wished to know the purpose of life, that it was "to increase according to our capacity our knowledge of God by all the means we have, and to be moved by it to praise and thanks." He had a special devotion to the blessed sacrament, writing to his son Michael that in "the Blessed Sacrament ... you will find romance, glory, honour, fidelity, and the true way of all your loves upon earth, and more than that". He accordingly encouraged frequent reception of Holy Communion, again writing to his son Michael that "the only cure for sagging of fainting faith is Communion." He believed the Catholic Church to be true most of all because of the pride of place and the honour in which it holds the Blessed Sacrament. In the last years of his life, Tolkien resisted the liturgical changes implemented after the Second Vatican Council, especially the use of English for the liturgy; he continued to make the responses in Latin, loudly, ignoring the rest of the congregation. Race Tolkien's fantasy writings have often been accused of embodying outmoded attitudes to race. However, scholars have noted that he was influenced by Victorian attitudes to race and to a literary tradition of monsters, and that he was anti-racist both in peacetime and during the two World Wars. With the late 19th century background of eugenics and a fear of moral decline, some critics saw the mention of race mixing in The Lord of the Rings as embodying scientific racism. Other commentators saw in Tolkien's orcs a reflection of wartime propaganda caricatures of the Japanese. Critics have noted, too, that the work embodies a moral geography, with good in the West, evil in the East. Against this, scholars have noted that Tolkien was opposed to peacetime Nazi racial theory, while in the Second World War he was equally opposed to anti-German propaganda. Other scholars have stated that Tolkien's Middle-earth is definitely polycultural and polylingual, and that attacks on Tolkien based on The Lord of the Rings often omit relevant evidence from the text. Nature During most of his own life conservationism was not yet on the political agenda, and Tolkien himself did not directly express conservationist views—except in some private letters, in which he tells about his fondness for forests and sadness at tree-felling. In later years, a number of authors of biographies or literary analyses of Tolkien conclude that during his writing of The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien gained increased interest in the value of wild and untamed nature, and in protecting what wild nature was left in the industrialized world. Writing Influences Tolkien's fantasy books on Middle-earth, especially The Lord of the Rings and The Silmarillion, drew on a wide array of influences including his philological interest in language, Christianity, mythology, archaeology, ancient and modern literature, and personal experience. His philological work centred on the study of Old English literature, especially Beowulf, and he acknowledged its importance to his writings. He was a gifted linguist, influenced by Germanic, Celtic, Finnish, and Greek language and mythology. Commentators have attempted to identify many literary and topological antecedents for characters, places and events in Tolkien's writings. Some writers were important to him, including the Arts and Crafts polymath William Morris, and he undoubtedly made use of some real place-names, such as Bag End, the name of his aunt's home. He acknowledged, too, John Buchan and H. Rider Haggard, authors of modern adventure stories that he enjoyed. The effects of some specific experiences have been identified. Tolkien's childhood in the English countryside, and its urbanization by the growth of Birmingham, influenced his creation of the Shire, while his personal experience of fighting in the trenches of the First World War affected his depiction of Mordor. Publications "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics" In addition to writing fiction, Tolkien was an author of academic literary criticism. His seminal 1936 lecture, later published as an article, revolutionized the treatment of the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf by literary critics. The essay remains highly influential in the study of Old English literature to this day. Beowulf is one of the most significant influences upon Tolkien's later fiction, with major details of both The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings being adapted from the poem. "On Fairy-Stories" This essay discusses the fairy-story as a literary form. It was initially written as the 1939 Andrew Lang Lecture at the University of St Andrews, Scotland. Tolkien focuses on Andrew Lang's work as a folklorist and collector of fairy tales. He disagreed with Lang's broad inclusion, in his Fairy Book collections, of traveller's tales, beast fables, and other types of stories. Tolkien held a narrower perspective, viewing fairy stories as those that took place in Faerie, an enchanted realm, with or without fairies as characters. He viewed them as the natural development of the interaction of human imagination and human language. Children's books and other short works In addition to his mythopoeic compositions, Tolkien enjoyed inventing fantasy stories to entertain his children. He wrote annual Christmas letters from Father Christmas for them, building up a series of short stories (later compiled and published as The Father Christmas Letters). Other works included Mr. Bliss and Roverandom (for children), and Leaf by Niggle (part of Tree and Leaf), The Adventures of Tom Bombadil, Smith of Wootton Major and Farmer Giles of Ham. Roverandom and Smith of Wootton Major, like The Hobbit, borrowed ideas from his legendarium. The Hobbit Tolkien never expected his stories to become popular, but by sheer accident a book called The Hobbit, which he had written some years before for his own children, came in 1936 to
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War II: Allied invasion of Sicily: German and Italian troops launch a counter-attack on Allied forces in Sicily. 1947 – The Exodus 1947 heads to Palestine from France. 1950 – Pakistan joins the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank. 1957 – Prince Karim Husseini Aga Khan IV inherits the office of Imamat as the 49th Imam of Shia Imami Ismai'li worldwide, after the death of Sir Sultan Mahommed Shah Aga Khan III. 1960 – France legislates for the independence of Dahomey (later Benin), Upper Volta (later Burkina) and Niger. 1960 – Congo Crisis: The State of Katanga breaks away from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 1960 – To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee is first published, in the United States. 1962 – First transatlantic satellite television transmission. 1962 – Project Apollo: At a press conference, NASA announces lunar orbit rendezvous as the means to land astronauts on the Moon, and return them to Earth. 1971 – Copper mines in Chile are nationalized. 1972 – The first game of the World Chess Championship 1972 between challenger Bobby Fischer and defending champion Boris Spassky starts. 1973 – Varig Flight 820 crashes near Paris, France on approach to Orly Airport, killing 123 of the 134 on board. In response, the FAA bans smoking in airplane lavatories. 1977 – Martin Luther King Jr., assassinated in 1968, is awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. 1978 – Los Alfaques disaster: A truck carrying liquid gas crashes and explodes at a coastal campsite in Tarragona, Spain killing 216 tourists. 1979 – America's first space station, Skylab, is destroyed as it re-enters the Earth's atmosphere over the Indian Ocean. 1982 – The Italy National Football Team defeats West Germany at Santiago Bernabéu Stadium to capture the 1982 FIFA World Cup. 1983 – A TAME airline Boeing 737–200 crashes near Cuenca, Ecuador, killing all 119 passengers and crew on board. 1990 – Oka Crisis: First Nations land dispute in Quebec, Canada begins. 1991 – Nigeria Airways Flight 2120 crashes in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia killing all 261 passengers and crew on board. 1995 – Yugoslav Wars: Srebrenica massacre begins; lasts until 22 July. 2006 – Mumbai train bombings: Two hundred nine people are killed in a series of bomb attacks in Mumbai, India. 2010 – The Islamist militia group Al-Shabaab carried out multiple suicide bombings in Kampala, Uganda, killing 74 people and injuring 85 others. 2011 – Ninety-eight containers of explosives self-detonate killing 13 people in Zygi, Cyprus. 2015 – Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán escapes from the maximum security prison in Altiplano, in Mexico. It's his second escape. 2021 – Richard Branson becomes the first civilian to be launched into space via his Virgin Galactic spacecraft. 2021 – The Italy National Football Team defeats the England National Football Team at Wembley Stadium to capture the 2020 UEFA European Football Championship. Births Pre-1600 154 – Bardaisan, Syrian astrologer, scholar, and philosopher (died 222) 1274 – Robert the Bruce, Scottish king (died 1329) 1406 – William, Margrave of Hachberg-Sausenberg (died 1482) 1459 – Kaspar, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken, German nobleman (died 1527) 1558 – Robert Greene, English author and playwright (died 1592) 1561 – Luis de Góngora, Spanish cleric and poet (died 1627) 1601–1900 1603 – Kenelm Digby, English astrologer, courtier, and diplomat (died 1665) 1628 – Tokugawa Mitsukuni, Japanese daimyō (died 1701) 1653 – Sarah Good, American woman accused of witchcraft (died 1692) 1657 – Frederick I of Prussia (died 1713) 1662 – Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria (died 1726) 1709 – Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Swedish chemist and mineralogist (died 1785) 1723 – Jean-François Marmontel, French historian and author (died 1799) 1751 – Caroline Matilda, British princess, queen consort of Denmark (died 1775) 1754 – Thomas Bowdler, English physician and philanthropist (died 1825) 1760 – Peggy Shippen, American wife of Benedict Arnold and American Revolutionary War spy (died 1804) 1767 – John Quincy Adams, American lawyer and politician, 6th President of the United States (died 1848) 1826 – Alexander Afanasyev, Russian ethnographer and author (died 1871) 1832 – Charilaos Trikoupis, Greek lawyer and politician, 55th Prime Minister of Greece (died 1896) 1834 – James Abbott McNeill Whistler, American-English painter and illustrator (died 1903) 1836 – Antônio Carlos Gomes, Brazilian composer (died 1896) 1846 – Léon Bloy, French author and poet (died 1917) 1849 – N. E. Brown, English plant taxonomist and authority on succulents (died 1934) 1850 – Annie Armstrong, American missionary (died 1938) 1866 – Princess Irene of Hesse and by Rhine (died 1953) 1875 – H. M. Brock, British painter and illustrator (died 1960) 1880 – Friedrich Lahrs, German architect and academic (died 1964) 1881 – Isabel Martin Lewis, American astronomer and author (died 1966) 1882 – James Larkin White, American miner, explorer, and park ranger (died 1946) 1886 – Boris Grigoriev, Russian painter and illustrator (died 1939) 1888 – Carl Schmitt, German philosopher and jurist (died 1985) 1892 – Thomas Mitchell, American actor, singer, and screenwriter (died 1962) 1894 – Erna Mohr, German zoologist (died 1968) 1895 – Dorothy Wilde, English author and poet (died 1941) 1897 – Bull Connor, American police officer (died 1973) 1899 – Wilfrid Israel, German businessman and philanthropist (died 1943) 1899 – E. B. White, American essayist and journalist (died 1985) 1901–present 1901 – Gwendolyn Lizarraga, Belizean businesswoman, activist, and politician (died 1975) 1903 – Rudolf Abel, English-Russian colonel (died 1971) 1903 – Sidney Franklin, American bullfighter (died 1976) 1904 – Niño Ricardo, Spanish guitarist and composer (died 1972) 1905 – Betty Allan, Australian statistician and biometrician (died 1952) 1906 – Harry von Zell, American actor and announcer (died 1981) 1906 – Herbert Wehner, German politician, Minister of Intra-German Relations (died 1990) 1909 – Irene Hervey, American actress (died 1998) 1909 – Jacques Clemens, Dutch catholic priest (died 2018) 1910 – Sally Blane, American actress (died 1997) 1911 – Erna Flegel, German nurse who was still present in the Führerbunker when it was captured by Soviet troops (died 2006) 1912 – Sergiu Celibidache, Romanian conductor and composer (died 1996) 1912 – Peta Taylor, English cricketer (died 1989) 1912 – William F. Walsh, American captain and politician, 48th Mayor of Syracuse (died 2011) 1913 – Paul Gibb, English cricketer (died 1977) 1913 – Cordwainer Smith, American sinologist, author, and academic (died 1966) 1916 – Mortimer Caplin, American tax attorney, educator, and IRS Commissioner (died 2019) 1916 – Hans Maier, Dutch water polo player (died 2018) 1916 – Alexander Prokhorov, Australian-Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (died 2002) 1916 – Reg Varney, English actor and screenwriter (died 2008) 1916 – Gough Whitlam, Australian lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 21st Prime Minister of Australia (died 2014) 1918 – Venetia Burney, English educator, who named Pluto (died 2009) 1920 – Yul Brynner, Russian actor and dancer (died 1985) 1920 – Zecharia Sitchin, Russian-American author (died 2010) 1922 – Gene Evans, American actor (died 1998) 1922 – Fritz Riess, German-Swiss racing driver (died 1991) 1923 – Richard Pipes, Polish-American historian and academic (died 2018) 1923 – Tun Tun, Indian actress and comedian (died 2003) 1924 – César Lattes, Brazilian physicist and academic (died 2005) 1924 – Brett Somers, Canadian-American actress and singer (died 2007) 1924 – Charlie Tully, Northern Irish footballer and manager (died 1971) 1924 – Oscar Wyatt, American businessman 1925 – Charles Chaynes, French composer (died 2016) 1925 – Nicolai Gedda, Swedish operatic tenor (died 2017) 1925 – Peter Kyros, American lawyer and politician (died 2012) 1925 – Sid Smith, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (died 2004) 1926 – Frederick Buechner, American minister, theologian, and author 1927 – Theodore Maiman, American-Canadian physicist and engineer (died 2007) 1927 – Chris Leonard, English footballer (died 1987) 1928 – Greville Janner, Baron Janner of Braunstone, Welsh-English lawyer and politician (died 2015) 1928 – Bobo Olson, American boxer (died 2002) 1928 – Andrea Veneracion, Filipina choirmaster (died 2014) 1929 – Danny Flores, American singer-songwriter and saxophonist (died 2006) 1929 – David Kelly, Irish actor (died 2012) 1930 – Jack Alabaster, New Zealand cricketer 1930 – Harold Bloom, American literary critic (died 2019) 1930 – Trevor Storer, English businessman, founded Pukka Pies (died 2013) 1930 – Ezra Vogel, American sociologist (died 2020) 1931 – Dick Gray, American baseball player (died 2013) 1931 – Thurston Harris, American doo-wop singer (died 1990) 1931 – Tab Hunter, American actor and singer (died 2018) 1931 – Tullio Regge, Italian physicist and academic (died 2014) 1932 – Alex Hassilev, French-born American folk singer and musician 1932 – Jean-Guy Talbot, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1933 – Jim Carlen, American football player and coach (died 2012) 1933 – Frank Kelso, American admiral and politician, United States Secretary of the Navy (died 2013) 1934 – Giorgio Armani, Italian fashion designer, founded the Armani Company 1935 – Frederick Hemke, American saxophonist and educator (died 2019) 1935 – Oliver Napier, Northern Irish lawyer and politician (died 2011) 1937 – Pai Hsien-yung, Chinese-Taiwanese author 1941 – Bill Boggs, American journalist and producer 1941 – Henry Lowther, English trumpet player 1943 – Richard Carleton, Australian journalist (died 2006) 1943 – Howard Gardner, American psychologist and academic 1943 – Tom Holland, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1943 – Peter Jensen, Australian metropolitan 1943 – Robert Malval, Haitian businessman and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Haiti 1943 – Rolf Stommelen, German racing driver (died 1983) 1944 – Lou Hudson, American basketball player and coach (died 2014) 1944 – Michael Levy, Baron Levy, English philanthropist 1944 – Patricia Polacco, American author and illustrator 1946 – Martin Wong, American painter (died 1999) 1947 – Jeff Hanna, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and drummer 1947 – Norman Lebrecht, English author and critic 1947 – Bo Lundgren, Swedish politician 1950 – Pervez Hoodbhoy, Pakistani physicist and academic 1950 – J. R. Morgan, Welsh author and academic 1950 – Bonnie Pointer, American singer (died 2020) 1951 – Ed Ott, American baseball player and coach 1952 – Bill Barber, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1952 – Stephen Lang, American actor and playwright 1953 – Piyasvasti Amranand, Thai businessman and politician, Thai Minister of Energy 1953 – Angélica Aragón, Mexican film, television, and stage actress and singer 1953 – Peter Brown, American singer-songwriter and producer 1953 – Suresh Prabhu, Indian accountant and politician, Indian Minister of Railways 1953 – Patricia Reyes Spíndola, Mexican actress, director, and producer 1953 – Leon Spinks, American boxer (died 2021) 1953 – Mindy Sterling, American actress 1953 – Ivan Toms, South African physician and activist (died 2008) 1953 – Bramwell Tovey, English-Canadian conductor and composer 1953 – Paul Weiland, English director, producer, and screenwriter 1954 – Julia King, English engineer and academic 1955 – Balaji Sadasivan, Singaporean neurosurgeon and politician, Singaporean Minister of Health (died 2010) 1956 – Amitav Ghosh, Indian-American author and academic 1956 – Robin Renucci, French actor and director 1956 – Sela Ward, American actress 1957 – Johann Lamont, Scottish educator and politician 1957 – Peter Murphy, English singer-songwriter 1957 – Patsy O'Hara, Irish Republican hunger striker (died 1981) 1957 – Michael Rose, Jamaican singer-songwriter 1958 – Mark Lester, English actor 1958 – Hugo Sánchez, Mexican footballer, coach, and manager 1959 – Richie Sambora, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1959 – Suzanne Vega, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1960 – David Baerwald, American singer-songwriter, composer, and musician 1960 – Caroline Quentin, English actress 1961 – Antony Jenkins, English banker and businessman 1962 – Gaétan Duchesne, Canadian ice hockey player (died 2007) 1962 – Pauline McLynn, Irish actress and author 1962 – Fumiya Fujii, Japanese music artist 1963 – Al MacInnis, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1963 – Dean Richards, English rugby player and coach 1963 – Lisa Rinna, American actress and talk show host 1964 – Chris Cornell, American musician (died 2017) 1964 – Craig Charles, English actor and TV presenter 1965 – Tony Cottee, English footballer, manager, and sportscaster 1965 – Ernesto Hoost, Dutch kick-boxer and sportscaster 1965 – Scott Shriner, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1966 – Nadeem Aslam, Pakistani-English author 1966 – Kentaro Miura, Japanese author and illustrator (died 2021) 1966 – Rod Strickland, American basketball player and coach 1966 – Ricky Warwick, Northern Irish musician 1967 – Andy Ashby, American baseball player and sportscaster 1967 – Jhumpa Lahiri, Indian American
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of Alexandria in Egypt as part of the Anglo-Egyptian War. 1889 – Tijuana, Mexico, is founded. 1893 – The first cultured pearl is obtained by Kōkichi Mikimoto. 1893 – A revolution led by the liberal general and politician José Santos Zelaya takes over state power in Nicaragua. 1897 – Salomon August Andrée leaves Spitsbergen to attempt to reach the North Pole by balloon. 1899 – Fiat founded by Giovanni Agnelli in Turin, Italy. 1901–present 1906 – Murder of Grace Brown by Chester Gillette in the United States, inspiration for Theodore Dreiser's An American Tragedy. 1914 – Babe Ruth makes his debut in Major League Baseball. 1914 – is launched. 1919 – The eight-hour day and free Sunday become law for workers in the Netherlands. 1920 – In the East Prussian plebiscite the local populace decides to remain with Weimar Germany. 1921 – A truce in the Irish War of Independence comes into effect. 1921 – The Red Army captures Mongolia from the White Army and establishes the Mongolian People's Republic. 1921 – Former president of the United States William Howard Taft is sworn in as 10th chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, becoming the only person ever to hold both offices. 1922 – The Hollywood Bowl opens. 1924 – Eric Liddell won the gold medal in 400m at the 1924 Paris Olympics, after refusing to run in the heats for 100m, his favoured distance, on the Sunday. 1934 – Engelbert Zaschka of Germany flies his large human-powered aircraft, the Zaschka Human-Power Aircraft, about 20 meters at Berlin Tempelhof Airport without assisted take-off. 1936 – The Triborough Bridge in New York City is opened to traffic. 1940 – World War II: Vichy France regime is formally established. Philippe Pétain becomes Chief of the French State. 1941 – The Northern Rhodesian Labour Party holds its first congress in Nkana. 1943 – Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army within the Reichskommissariat Ukraine (Volhynia) peak. 1943 – World War II: Allied invasion of Sicily: German and Italian troops launch a counter-attack on Allied forces in Sicily. 1947 – The Exodus 1947 heads to Palestine from France. 1950 – Pakistan joins the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank. 1957 – Prince Karim Husseini Aga Khan IV inherits the office of Imamat as the 49th Imam of Shia Imami Ismai'li worldwide, after the death of Sir Sultan Mahommed Shah Aga Khan III. 1960 – France legislates for the independence of Dahomey (later Benin), Upper Volta (later Burkina) and Niger. 1960 – Congo Crisis: The State of Katanga breaks away from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 1960 – To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee is first published, in the United States. 1962 – First transatlantic satellite television transmission. 1962 – Project Apollo: At a press conference, NASA announces lunar orbit rendezvous as the means to land astronauts on the Moon, and return them to Earth. 1971 – Copper mines in Chile are nationalized. 1972 – The first game of the World Chess Championship 1972 between challenger Bobby Fischer and defending champion Boris Spassky starts. 1973 – Varig Flight 820 crashes near Paris, France on approach to Orly Airport, killing 123 of the 134 on board. In response, the FAA bans smoking in airplane lavatories. 1977 – Martin Luther King Jr., assassinated in 1968, is awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. 1978 – Los Alfaques disaster: A truck carrying liquid gas crashes and explodes at a coastal campsite in Tarragona, Spain killing 216 tourists. 1979 – America's first space station, Skylab, is destroyed as it re-enters the Earth's atmosphere over the Indian Ocean. 1982 – The Italy National Football Team defeats West Germany at Santiago Bernabéu Stadium to capture the 1982 FIFA World Cup. 1983 – A TAME airline Boeing 737–200 crashes near Cuenca, Ecuador, killing all 119 passengers and crew on board. 1990 – Oka Crisis: First Nations land dispute in Quebec, Canada begins. 1991 – Nigeria Airways Flight 2120 crashes in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia killing all 261 passengers and crew on board. 1995 – Yugoslav Wars: Srebrenica massacre begins; lasts until 22 July. 2006 – Mumbai train bombings: Two hundred nine people are killed in a series of bomb attacks in Mumbai, India. 2010 – The Islamist militia group Al-Shabaab carried out multiple suicide bombings in Kampala, Uganda, killing 74 people and injuring 85 others. 2011 – Ninety-eight containers of explosives self-detonate killing 13 people in Zygi, Cyprus. 2015 – Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán escapes from the maximum security prison in Altiplano, in Mexico. It's his second escape. 2021 – Richard Branson becomes the first civilian to be launched into space via his Virgin Galactic spacecraft. 2021 – The Italy National Football Team defeats the England National Football Team at Wembley Stadium to capture the 2020 UEFA European Football Championship. Births Pre-1600 154 – Bardaisan, Syrian astrologer, scholar, and philosopher (died 222) 1274 – Robert the Bruce, Scottish king (died 1329) 1406 – William, Margrave of Hachberg-Sausenberg (died 1482) 1459 – Kaspar, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken, German nobleman (died 1527) 1558 – Robert Greene, English author and playwright (died 1592) 1561 – Luis de Góngora, Spanish cleric and poet (died 1627) 1601–1900 1603 – Kenelm Digby, English astrologer, courtier, and diplomat (died 1665) 1628 – Tokugawa Mitsukuni, Japanese daimyō (died 1701) 1653 – Sarah Good, American woman accused of witchcraft (died 1692) 1657 – Frederick I of Prussia (died 1713) 1662 – Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria (died 1726) 1709 – Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Swedish chemist and mineralogist (died 1785) 1723 – Jean-François Marmontel, French historian and author (died 1799) 1751 – Caroline Matilda, British princess, queen consort of Denmark (died 1775) 1754 – Thomas Bowdler, English physician and philanthropist (died 1825) 1760 – Peggy Shippen, American wife of Benedict Arnold and American Revolutionary War spy (died 1804) 1767 – John Quincy Adams, American lawyer and politician, 6th President of the United States (died 1848) 1826 – Alexander Afanasyev, Russian ethnographer and author (died 1871) 1832 – Charilaos Trikoupis, Greek lawyer and politician, 55th Prime Minister of Greece (died 1896) 1834 – James Abbott McNeill Whistler, American-English painter and illustrator (died 1903) 1836 – Antônio Carlos Gomes, Brazilian composer (died 1896) 1846 – Léon Bloy, French author and poet (died 1917) 1849 – N. E. Brown, English plant taxonomist and authority on succulents (died 1934) 1850 – Annie Armstrong, American missionary (died 1938) 1866 – Princess Irene of Hesse and by Rhine (died 1953) 1875 – H. M. Brock, British painter and illustrator (died 1960) 1880 – Friedrich Lahrs, German architect and academic (died 1964) 1881 – Isabel Martin Lewis, American astronomer and author (died 1966) 1882 – James Larkin White, American miner, explorer, and park ranger (died 1946) 1886 – Boris Grigoriev, Russian painter and illustrator (died 1939) 1888 – Carl Schmitt, German philosopher and jurist (died 1985) 1892 – Thomas Mitchell, American actor, singer, and screenwriter (died 1962) 1894 – Erna Mohr, German zoologist (died 1968) 1895 – Dorothy Wilde, English author and poet (died 1941) 1897 – Bull Connor, American police officer (died 1973) 1899 – Wilfrid Israel, German businessman and philanthropist (died 1943) 1899 – E. B. White, American essayist and journalist (died 1985) 1901–present 1901 – Gwendolyn Lizarraga, Belizean businesswoman, activist, and politician (died 1975) 1903 – Rudolf Abel, English-Russian colonel (died 1971) 1903 – Sidney Franklin, American bullfighter (died 1976) 1904 – Niño Ricardo, Spanish guitarist and composer (died 1972) 1905 – Betty Allan, Australian statistician and biometrician (died 1952) 1906 – Harry von Zell, American actor and announcer (died 1981) 1906 – Herbert Wehner, German politician, Minister of Intra-German Relations (died 1990) 1909 – Irene Hervey, American actress (died 1998) 1909 – Jacques Clemens, Dutch catholic priest (died 2018) 1910 – Sally Blane, American actress (died 1997) 1911 – Erna Flegel, German nurse who was still present in the Führerbunker when it was captured by Soviet troops (died 2006) 1912 – Sergiu Celibidache, Romanian conductor and composer (died 1996) 1912 – Peta Taylor, English cricketer (died 1989) 1912 – William F. Walsh, American captain and politician, 48th Mayor of Syracuse (died 2011) 1913 – Paul Gibb, English cricketer (died 1977) 1913 – Cordwainer Smith, American sinologist, author, and academic (died 1966) 1916 – Mortimer Caplin, American tax attorney, educator, and IRS Commissioner (died 2019) 1916 – Hans Maier, Dutch water polo player (died 2018) 1916 – Alexander Prokhorov, Australian-Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (died 2002) 1916 – Reg Varney, English actor and screenwriter (died 2008) 1916 – Gough Whitlam, Australian lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 21st Prime Minister of Australia (died 2014) 1918 – Venetia Burney, English educator, who named Pluto (died 2009) 1920 – Yul Brynner, Russian actor and dancer (died 1985) 1920 – Zecharia Sitchin, Russian-American author (died 2010) 1922 – Gene Evans, American actor (died 1998) 1922 – Fritz Riess, German-Swiss racing driver (died 1991) 1923 – Richard Pipes, Polish-American historian and academic (died 2018) 1923 – Tun Tun, Indian actress and comedian (died 2003) 1924 – César Lattes, Brazilian physicist and academic (died 2005) 1924 – Brett Somers, Canadian-American actress and singer
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death of his father, Kim Il-sung. 2003 – Sudan Airways Flight 139 crashes near Port Sudan Airport during an emergency landing attempt, killing 116 of the 117 people on board. 2011 – Space Shuttle Atlantis is launched in the final mission of the U.S. Space Shuttle program. 2014 – Israel launches an offensive on Gaza amid rising tensions following the kidnapping and murder of three Israeli teenagers. 2021 – President Joe Biden announces that the official conclusion of the U.S. involvement in the War in Afghanistan will be on August 31, 2021. Births Pre-1600 1478 – Gian Giorgio Trissino, Italian linguist, poet, and playwright (d. 1550) 1528 – Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy (d. 1580) 1538 – Alberto Bolognetti, Roman Catholic cardinal (d. 1585) 1545 – Carlos, Prince of Asturias (d. 1568) 1593 – Artemisia Gentileschi, Italian painter (d. 1653) 1601–1900 1621 – Jean de La Fontaine, French author and poet (d. 1695) 1760 – Christian Kramp, French mathematician and academic (d. 1826) 1766 – Dominique Jean Larrey, French surgeon (d. 1842) 1779 – Giorgio Pullicino, Maltese painter and architect (d. 1851) 1819 – Francis Leopold McClintock, Irish admiral and explorer (d. 1907) 1830 – Frederick W. Seward, American lawyer and politician, 6th United States Assistant Secretary of State (d. 1915) 1831 – John Pemberton, American chemist and pharmacist, invented Coca-Cola (d. 1888) 1836 – Joseph Chamberlain, English businessman and politician, Secretary of State for the Colonies (d. 1914) 1838 – Eli Lilly, American soldier, chemist, and businessman, founded Eli Lilly and Company (d. 1898) 1838 – Ferdinand von Zeppelin, German general and businessman, founded the Zeppelin Airship Company (d. 1917) 1839 – John D. Rockefeller, American businessman and philanthropist, founded the Standard Oil Company (d. 1937) 1851 – Arthur Evans, English archaeologist and academic (d. 1941) 1851 – John Murray, Australian politician, 23rd Premier of Victoria (d. 1916) 1857 – Alfred Binet, French psychologist and graphologist (d. 1911) 1867 – Käthe Kollwitz, German painter and sculptor (d. 1945) 1876 – Alexandros Papanastasiou, Greek sociologist and politician, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1936) 1882 – Percy Grainger, Australian-American pianist and composer (d. 1961) 1885 – Ernst Bloch, German philosopher, author, and academic (d. 1977) 1885 – Hugo Boss, German fashion designer, founded Hugo Boss (d. 1948) 1890 – Stanton Macdonald-Wright, American painter (d. 1973) 1892 – Richard Aldington, English author and poet (d. 1962) 1892 – Pavel Korin, Russian painter (d. 1967) 1893 – R. Carlyle Buley, American historian and author (d. 1968) 1894 – Pyotr Kapitsa, Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1984) 1895 – Igor Tamm, Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971) 1898 – Melville Ruick, American actor (d. 1972) 1900 – George Antheil, American pianist, composer, and author (d. 1959) 1901–present 1904 – Henri Cartan, French mathematician and academic (d. 2008) 1905 – Leonid Amalrik, Russian animator and director (d. 1997) 1906 – Philip Johnson, American architect, designed the IDS Center and PPG Place (d. 2005) 1907 – George W. Romney, American businessman and politician, 43rd Governor of Michigan (d. 1995) 1908 – Louis Jordan, American singer-songwriter, saxophonist, and actor (d. 1975) 1908 – Nelson Rockefeller, American businessman and politician, 41st Vice President of the United States (d. 1979) 1908 – V. K. R. Varadaraja Rao, Indian economist, politician, professor and educator (d. 1991) 1909 – Alan Brown, English soldier (d. 1971) 1909 – Ike Petersen, American football back (d. 1995) 1910 – Carlos Betances Ramírez, Puerto Rican general (d. 2001) 1911 – Ken Farnes, English cricketer (d. 1941) 1913 – Alejandra Soler, Spanish politician (d. 2017) 1914 – Jyoti Basu, Indian politician, 6th Chief Minister of West Bengal (d. 2010) 1914 – Billy Eckstine, American singer and trumpet player (d. 1993) 1915 – Neil D. Van Sickle, American Air Force major general (d. 2019) 1915 – Lowell English, United States Marine Corps general (d. 2005) 1916 – Jean Rouverol, American author, actress and screenwriter (d. 2017) 1917 – Pamela Brown, English actress (d. 1975) 1917 – Faye Emerson, American actress (d. 1983) 1917 – J. F. Powers, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1999) 1918 – Paul B. Fay, American businessman, soldier, and diplomat, 12th United States Secretary of the Navy (d. 2009) 1918 – Irwin Hasen, American illustrator (d. 2015) 1918 – Oluf Reed-Olsen, Norwegian resistance member and pilot (d. 2002) 1918 – Julia Pirie, British spy working for MI5 (d. 2008) 1918 – Edward B. Giller, American Major General (d. 2017) 1918 – Craig Stevens, American actor (d. 2000) 1919 – Walter Scheel, German soldier and politician, 4th President of West Germany (d. 2016) 1920 – Godtfred Kirk Christiansen, Danish businessman (d. 1995) 1921 – John Money, New Zealand psychologist and sexologist, responsible for controversial sexual identity study on David Reimer (d. 2006) 1923 – Harrison Dillard, American sprinter and hurdler (d. 2019) 1923 – Val Bettin, American actor (d. 2021) 1924 – Johnnie Johnson, American pianist and songwriter (d. 2005) 1924 – Charles C. Droz, American politician 1925 – Marco Cé, Italian cardinal (d. 2014) 1925 – Arthur Imperatore Sr., Italian-American businessman (d. 2020) 1925 – Bill Mackrides, American football quarterback (d. 2019) 1925 – Dominique Nohain, French actor, screenwriter and director (d. 2017) 1926 – David Malet Armstrong, Australian philosopher and author (d. 2014) 1926 – John Dingell, American lieutenant and politician (d. 2019) 1926 – Martin Riesen, Swiss professional ice hockey goaltender (d. 2003) 1926 – Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, Swiss-American psychiatrist and author (d. 2004) 1927 – Maurice Hayes, Irish educator and politician (d. 2017) 1927 – Khensur Lungri Namgyel, Tibetan religious leader 1927 – Bob Beckham, American country singer (d. 2013) 1928 – Balakh Sher Mazari, former prime minister of Pakistan 1930 – Jerry Vale, American singer (d. 2014) 1933 – Antonio Lamer, Canadian lawyer and politician, 16th Chief Justice of Canada (d. 2007) 1934 – Raquel Correa, Chilean journalist (d. 2012) 1934 – Marty Feldman, English actor and screenwriter (d. 1982) 1934 – Edward D. DiPrete, American politician 1935 – John David Crow, American football player and coach (d. 2015) 1935 – Steve Lawrence, American actor and singer 1935 – Vitaly Sevastyanov, Russian engineer and cosmonaut (d. 2010) 1938 – Diane Clare, English actress (d. 2013) 1939 – Ed Lumley, Canadian businessman and politician, 8th Canadian Minister of Communications 1940 – Joe B. Mauldin, American bass player and songwriter (d. 2015) 1941 – Dario Gradi, Italian-English footballer, coach, and manager 1942 – Phil Gramm, American economist and politician 1944 – Jaimoe, American drummer 1944 – Jeffrey Tambor, American actor and singer 1945 – Micheline Calmy-Rey, Swiss politician, 91st President of the Swiss Confederation 1947 – Kim Darby, American actress 1947 – Jenny Diski, English author and screenwriter (d. 2016) 1947 – Luis Fernando Figari, Peruvian religious leader, founded the Sodalitium Christianae Vitae 1948 – Raffi, Egyptian-Canadian singer-songwriter 1948 – Ruby Sales, American civil-rights activist 1949 – Wolfgang Puck, Austrian-American chef, restaurateur and entrepreneur 1949 – Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy, Indian politician, 14th Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh (d. 2009) 1951 – Alan Ashby, American baseball player, manager, and sportscaster 1951 – Anjelica Huston, American actress and director 1952 – Larry Garner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1952 – Jack Lambert, American football player and sportscaster 1952 – Marianne Williamson, American author and activist 1956 – Terry Puhl, Canadian baseball player and coach 1957 – Carlos Cavazo, Mexican-American guitarist and songwriter 1957 – Aleksandr Gurnov, Russian journalist and author 1958 – Kevin Bacon, American actor and musician 1958 – Andreas Carlgren, Swedish educator and politician, 8th Swedish Minister for the Environment 1958 – Tzipi Livni, Israeli lawyer and politician, 18th Justice Minister of Israel 1959 – Pauline Quirke, English actress 1960 – Mal Meninga, Australian rugby league player and coach 1961 – Ces Drilon, Filipino journalist
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– Charles II of England grants John Clarke a Royal charter to Rhode Island. 1709 – Peter I of Russia defeats Charles XII of Sweden at the Battle of Poltava, thus effectively ending Sweden's status as a major power in Europe. 1716 – The Battle of Dynekilen forces Sweden to abandon its invasion of Norway. 1730 – An estimated magnitude 8.7 earthquake causes a tsunami that damages more than of Chile's coastline. 1758 – French forces hold Fort Carillon against the British at Ticonderoga, New York. 1760 – British forces defeat French forces in the last naval battle in New France. 1775 – The Olive Branch Petition is signed by the Continental Congress of the Thirteen Colonies of North America. 1776 – Church bells (possibly including the Liberty Bell) are rung after John Nixon delivers the first public reading of the Declaration of Independence of the United States. 1808 – Promulgation of the Bayonne Statute, a royal charter Joseph Bonaparte intended as the basis for his rule as king of Spain. 1822 – Chippewas turn over a huge tract of land in Ontario to the United Kingdom. 1853 – The Perry Expedition arrives in Edo Bay with a treaty requesting trade. 1859 – King Charles XV & IV accedes to the throne of Sweden–Norway. 1864 – Ikedaya Incident: The Choshu Han shishi's planned Shinsengumi sabotage on Kyoto, Japan at Ikedaya. 1874 – The Mounties begin their March West. 1876 – The Hamburg massacre prior to the 1876 United States presidential election results in the deaths of six African-Americans of the Republican Party, along with one white assailant. 1879 – Sailing ship departs San Francisco carrying an ill-fated expedition to the North Pole. 1889 – The first issue of The Wall Street Journal is published. 1892 – St. John's, Newfoundland is devastated in the Great Fire of 1892. 1898 – The death of crime boss Soapy Smith, killed in the Shootout on Juneau Wharf, releases Skagway, Alaska from his iron grip. 1901–present 1912 – Henrique Mitchell de Paiva Couceiro leads an unsuccessful royalist attack against the First Portuguese Republic in Chaves. 1932 – The Dow Jones Industrial Average reaches its lowest level of the Great Depression, closing at 41.22. 1933 – The first rugby union test match between the Wallabies of Australia and the Springboks of South Africa is played at Newlands Stadium in Cape Town. 1937 – Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Afghanistan sign the Treaty of Saadabad. 1947 – Reports are broadcast that a UFO crash-landed in Roswell, New Mexico in what became known as the Roswell UFO incident. 1948 – The United States Air Force accepts its first female recruits into a program called Women in the Air Force (WAF). 1960 – Francis Gary Powers is charged with espionage resulting from his flight over the Soviet Union. 1962 – Ne Win besieges and blows up the Rangoon University Student Union building to crush the Student Movement. 1966 – King Mwambutsa IV Bangiriceng of Burundi is deposed by his son Prince Charles Ndizi. 1968 – The Chrysler wildcat strike begins in Detroit, Michigan. 1970 – Richard Nixon delivers a special congressional message enunciating Native American self-determination as official US Indian policy, leading to the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975. 1972 – Israeli Mossad assassinate Palestinian writer Ghassan Kanafani. 1980 – The inaugural 1980 State of Origin game is won by Queensland who defeat New South Wales 20–10 at Lang Park. 1980 – Aeroflot Flight 4225 crashes near Almaty International Airport in the then Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (present day Kazakhstan) killing all 166 people on board. 1982 – A failed assassination attempt against Iraqi president Saddam Hussein results in the Dujail Massacre over the next several months. 1988 – The Island Express train travelling from Bangalore to Kanyakumari derails on the Peruman bridge and falls into Ashtamudi Lake, killing 105 passengers and injuring over 200 more. 1994 – Kim Jong-il begins to assume supreme leadership of North Korea upon the death of his father, Kim Il-sung. 2003 – Sudan Airways Flight 139 crashes near Port Sudan Airport during an emergency landing attempt, killing 116 of the 117 people on board. 2011 – Space Shuttle Atlantis is launched in the final mission of the U.S. Space Shuttle program. 2014 – Israel launches an offensive on Gaza amid rising tensions following the kidnapping and murder of three Israeli teenagers. 2021 – President Joe Biden announces that the official conclusion of the U.S. involvement in the War in Afghanistan will be on August 31, 2021. Births Pre-1600 1478 – Gian Giorgio Trissino, Italian linguist, poet, and playwright (d. 1550) 1528 – Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy (d. 1580) 1538 – Alberto Bolognetti, Roman Catholic cardinal (d. 1585) 1545 – Carlos, Prince of Asturias (d. 1568) 1593 – Artemisia Gentileschi, Italian painter (d. 1653) 1601–1900 1621 – Jean de La Fontaine, French author and poet (d. 1695) 1760 – Christian Kramp, French mathematician and academic (d. 1826) 1766 – Dominique Jean Larrey, French surgeon (d. 1842) 1779 – Giorgio Pullicino, Maltese painter and architect (d. 1851) 1819 – Francis Leopold McClintock, Irish admiral and explorer (d. 1907) 1830 – Frederick W. Seward, American lawyer and politician, 6th United States Assistant Secretary of State (d. 1915) 1831 – John Pemberton, American chemist and pharmacist, invented Coca-Cola (d. 1888) 1836 – Joseph Chamberlain, English businessman and politician, Secretary of State for the Colonies (d. 1914) 1838 – Eli Lilly, American soldier, chemist, and businessman, founded Eli Lilly and Company (d. 1898) 1838 – Ferdinand von Zeppelin, German general and businessman, founded the Zeppelin Airship Company (d. 1917) 1839 – John D. Rockefeller, American businessman and philanthropist, founded the Standard Oil Company (d. 1937) 1851 – Arthur Evans, English archaeologist and academic (d. 1941) 1851 – John Murray, Australian politician, 23rd Premier of Victoria (d. 1916) 1857 – Alfred Binet, French psychologist and graphologist (d. 1911) 1867 – Käthe Kollwitz, German painter and sculptor (d. 1945) 1876 – Alexandros Papanastasiou, Greek sociologist and politician, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1936) 1882 – Percy Grainger, Australian-American pianist and composer (d. 1961) 1885 – Ernst Bloch, German philosopher, author, and academic (d. 1977) 1885 – Hugo Boss, German fashion designer, founded Hugo Boss (d. 1948) 1890 – Stanton Macdonald-Wright, American painter (d. 1973) 1892 – Richard Aldington, English author and poet (d. 1962) 1892 – Pavel Korin, Russian painter (d. 1967) 1893 – R. Carlyle Buley, American historian and author (d. 1968) 1894 – Pyotr Kapitsa, Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1984) 1895 – Igor Tamm, Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971) 1898 – Melville Ruick, American actor (d. 1972) 1900 – George Antheil, American pianist, composer, and author (d. 1959) 1901–present 1904 – Henri Cartan, French mathematician and academic (d. 2008) 1905 – Leonid Amalrik, Russian animator and director (d. 1997) 1906 – Philip Johnson, American architect, designed the IDS Center and PPG Place (d. 2005) 1907 – George W. Romney, American businessman and politician, 43rd Governor of Michigan (d. 1995) 1908 – Louis Jordan, American singer-songwriter, saxophonist, and actor (d. 1975) 1908 – Nelson Rockefeller, American businessman and politician, 41st Vice President of the United States (d. 1979) 1908 – V. K. R. Varadaraja Rao, Indian economist, politician, professor and educator (d. 1991) 1909 – Alan Brown, English soldier (d. 1971) 1909 – Ike Petersen, American football back (d. 1995) 1910 – Carlos Betances Ramírez, Puerto Rican general (d. 2001) 1911 – Ken Farnes, English cricketer (d. 1941) 1913 – Alejandra Soler, Spanish politician (d. 2017) 1914 – Jyoti Basu, Indian politician, 6th Chief Minister of West Bengal (d. 2010) 1914 – Billy Eckstine, American singer and trumpet player (d. 1993) 1915 – Neil D. Van Sickle, American Air Force major general (d. 2019) 1915 – Lowell English, United States Marine Corps general (d. 2005) 1916 – Jean Rouverol, American author, actress and screenwriter (d. 2017) 1917 – Pamela Brown, English actress (d.
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– George Nelson, American astronomer and astronaut 1950 – Ma Ying-jeou, Hong Kong-Taiwanese commander and politician, 12th President of the Republic of China 1950 – Jurelang Zedkaia, Marshallese politician, 5th President of the Marshall Islands (d. 2015) 1951 – Rob Bishop, American educator and politician 1951 – Didi Conn, American actress and singer 1953 – David Thompson, American basketball player 1954 – Ray Bright, Australian cricketer 1954 – Louise Mandrell, American singer-songwriter and actress 1956 – Mark Mendoza, American bass player and songwriter 1956 – Michael Spinks, American boxer 1957 – Thierry Boutsen, Belgian race car driver and businessman 1957 – Cameron Crowe, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1959 – Richard Leman, English field hockey player 1959 – Fuziah Salleh, Malaysian politician 1960 – Robert Abraham, American football player 1960 – Ian Hislop, Welsh-English journalist and screenwriter 1960 – Curtis Rouse, American football player (d. 2013) 1961 – Tahira Asif, Pakistani politician (d. 2014) 1961 – Anders Jarryd, Swedish tennis player 1961 – Khalid Mahmood, Pakistani-English engineer and politician 1961 – Stelios Manolas, Greek footballer and manager 1961 – Tim Watson, Australian footballer, coach, and journalist 1962 – Tom Kenny, American voice actor and screenwriter 1962 – Rhonda Vincent, American singer-songwriter and mandolin player 1963 – Neal Foulds, English snooker player and sportscaster 1963 – Kenny Johnson, American actor, producer, and model 1964 – Charlie Hides, American drag queen and comedian 1964 – Paul Thorn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1965 – Eileen Ivers, American fiddler 1965 – Colin van der Voort, Australian rugby league player 1966 – Gerald Levert, American R&B singer-songwriter, producer, and actor (d. 2006) 1966 – Natalia Luis-Bassa, Venezuelan-English conductor and educator 1967 – Richard Marles, Australian lawyer and politician, 50th Australian Minister for Trade and Investment 1967 – Mark McGowan, Australian politician, 30th Premier of Western Australia 1969 – Brad Godden, Australian rugby league player 1969 – Ken Jeong, American actor, comedian, and physician 1969 – Oleg Serebrian, Moldovan political scientist and politician 1970 – Andrei Tivontchik, German pole vaulter and trainer 1971 – Mark Neeld, Australian footballer and coach 1972 – Sean Waltman, American professional wrestler 1974 – Deborah Cox, Canadian singer-songwriter and actress 1974 – Jarno Trulli, Italian race car driver 1975 – Diego Spotorno, Ecuadorian actor 1975 – Mariada Pieridi, Cypriot singer-songwriter 1976 – Sheldon Souray, Canadian ice hockey player 1977 – Chris Horn, American football player 1978 – Ryan Ludwick, American baseball player 1978 – Prodromos Nikolaidis, Greek basketball player 1979 – Craig Bellamy, Welsh footballer 1979 – Daniel Díaz, Argentinian footballer 1979 – Libuše Průšová, Czech tennis player 1979 – Lucinda Ruh, Swiss figure skater and coach 1981 – Ágnes Kovács, Hungarian swimmer 1981 – Mirco Lorenzetto, Italian cyclist 1982 – Shin-Soo Choo, South Korean baseball player 1982 – Simon Clist, English footballer 1982 – Dominic Isaacs, South African footballer 1982 – Nick Kenny, Australian rugby league player 1982 – Yadier Molina, Puerto Rican-American baseball player 1983 – Kristof Beyens, Belgian sprinter 1983 – Marco Pomante, Italian footballer 1983 – Liu Xiang, Chinese hurdler 1984 – Ida Maria, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1985 – Trell Kimmons, American sprinter 1985 – Guillermo Ochoa, Mexican footballer 1985 – Charlotte Dujardin, English equestrian 1988 – Marcos Paulo Gelmini Gomes, Brazilian-Italian footballer 1988 – Colton Haynes, American actor, model and singer 1988 – Steven R. McQueen, American actor and model 1988 – Raúl Spank, German high jumper 1988 – Tulisa, English singer-songwriter and actress 1989 – Leon Bridges, American soul singer, songwriter and record producer 1989 – Charis Giannopoulos, Greek basketball player 1990 – Kieran Foran, New Zealand rugby league player 1990 – Eduardo Salvio, Argentinian footballer 1992 – Elise Matthysen, Belgian swimmer 1993 – Daniel Bentley, English footballer 1995 – Cody Bellinger, American baseball player 1995 – Dante Exum, Australian basketball player 2002 – Deborah Medrado, Brazilian rhythmic gymnast Deaths Pre-1600 574 – John III, pope of the Catholic Church 716 – Rui Zong, Chinese emperor (b. 662) 815 – Wu Yuanheng, Chinese poet and politician (b. 758) 884 – Huang Chao, Chinese rebel leader (b. 835) 939 – Leo VII, pope of the Catholic Church 982 – Gunther, margrave of Merseburg 982 – Henry I, bishop of Augsburg 982 – Pandulf II, Lombard prince 982 – Landulf IV, Lombard prince 982 – Abu'l-Qasim, Kalbid emir of Sicily 1024 – Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 973) 1105 – Rashi, French rabbi and commentator (b. 1040) 1205 – Hubert Walter, English archbishop and politician, Lord Chancellor of The United Kingdom (b. 1160) 1357 – Bartolus de Saxoferrato Italian academic and jurist (b. 1313) 1380 – Bertrand du Guesclin, French nobleman and knight (b. 1320) 1399 – Peter Parler, German architect, designed St. Vitus Cathedral and Charles Bridge (b. 1330) 1491 – Afonso, Portuguese prince (b. 1475) 1551 – John Wallop, English soldier and diplomat (b. 1490) 1601–1900 1617 – Adam Wenceslaus, duke of Cieszyn (b. 1574) 1621 – Albert VII, archduke of Austria (b. 1559) 1626 – Robert Sidney, 1st Earl of Leicester, English politician (b. 1563) 1628 – Robert Shirley, English soldier and diplomat (b. 1581) 1629 – Caspar Bartholin the Elder, Swedish physician and theologian (b. 1585) 1683 – Arthur Capell, 1st Earl of Essex, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1631) 1755 – Edward Braddock, Scottish general (b. 1695) 1762 – James Bradley, English priest and astronomer (b. 1693) 1789 – Victor de Riqueti, marquis de Mirabeau, French economist and academic (b. 1715) 1793 – Jean-Paul Marat, French physician and theorist (b. 1743) 1807 – Henry Benedict Stuart, Italian cardinal, pretender to the British throne and last member of the House of Stuart (b. 1725) 1881 – John C. Pemberton, American general (b. 1814) 1889 – Robert Hamerling, Austrian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1830) 1890 – John C. Frémont, American general and politician, 5th Territorial Governor of
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Ernest Gold, Austrian-American composer and conductor (d. 1999) 1922 – Leslie Brooks, American actress (d. 2011) 1922 – Anker Jørgensen, Danish trade union leader and politician, 16th Prime Minister of Denmark (d. 2016) 1922 – Helmy Afify Abd El-Bar, Egyptian military commander (d. 2011) 1922 – Ken Mosdell, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2006) 1923 – Ashley Bryan, American children's book author and illustrator (d. 2022) 1924 – Johnny Gilbert, American game show host and announcer 1925 – Suzanne Zimmerman, American competition swimmer and Olympic medalist (d. 2021) 1925 – Huang Zongying, Chinese actress and writer (d. 2020) 1926 – Robert H. Justman, American director, producer, and production manager (d. 2008) 1926 – T. Loren Christianson, American politician (d. 2019) 1926 – Thomas Clark, American politician (d. 2020) 1927 – Simone Veil, French lawyer and politician, President of the European Parliament (d. 2017) 1927 – Ian Reed, Australian discus thrower (d. 2020) 1928 – Bob Crane, American actor (d. 1978) 1928 – Sven Davidson, Swedish-American tennis player (d. 2008) 1928 – Al Rex, American musician (d. 2020) 1929 – Sofia Muratova, Russian gymnast (d. 2006) 1929 – Svein Ellingsen, Norwegian visual artist and hymnist (d. 2020) 1930 – Sam Greenlee, American author and poet (d. 2014) 1930 – Naomi Shemer, Israeli singer-songwriter (d. 2004) 1931 – Frank Ramsey, American basketball player and coach (d. 2018) 1932 – Hubert Reeves, Canadian-French astrophysicist and author 1933 – David Storey, English author, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 2017) 1933 – Piero Manzoni, Italian artist (d. 1963) 1934 – Peter Gzowski, Canadian journalist and academic (d. 2002) 1934 – Gordon Lee, English footballer and manager 1934 – Wole Soyinka, Nigerian author, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate 1934 – Aleksei Yeliseyev, Russian engineer and astronaut 1935 – Jack Kemp, American football player and politician, 9th United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development (d. 2009) 1935 – Earl Lovelace, Trinidadian journalist, author, and playwright 1935 – Kurt Westergaard, Danish cartoonist (d. 2021) 1936 – Albert Ayler, American saxophonist and composer (d. 1970) 1937 – Ghillean Prance, English botanist and ecologist 1939 – Lambert Jackson Woodburne, South African admiral (d. 2013) 1940 – Tom Lichtenberg, American football player and coach (d. 2013) 1940 – Paul Prudhomme, American chef and author (d. 2015) 1940 – Patrick Stewart, English actor, director, and producer 1941 – Grahame Corling, Australian cricketer 1941 – Robert Forster, American actor and producer (d. 2019) 1941 – Ehud Manor, Israeli songwriter and translator (d. 2005) 1941 – Jacques Perrin, French actor, director, and producer 1942 – Harrison Ford, American actor and producer 1942 – Roger McGuinn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1943 – Chris Serle, English journalist and actor 1944 – Eric Freeman, Australian cricketer 1944 – Cyril Knowles, English footballer and manager (d. 1991) 1944 – Ernő Rubik, Hungarian game designer, architect, and educator, invented the Rubik's Cube 1945 – Ashley Mallett, Australian cricketer and author (d. 2021) 1946 – Bob Kauffman, American basketball player and coach (d. 2015) 1946 – Cheech Marin, American actor and comedian 1948 – Catherine Breillat, French director and screenwriter 1949 – Bryan Murray, Irish actor 1950 – George Nelson, American astronomer and astronaut 1950 – Ma Ying-jeou, Hong Kong-Taiwanese commander and politician, 12th President of the Republic of China 1950 – Jurelang Zedkaia, Marshallese politician, 5th President of the Marshall Islands (d. 2015) 1951 – Rob Bishop, American educator and politician 1951 – Didi Conn, American actress and singer 1953 – David Thompson, American basketball player 1954 – Ray Bright, Australian cricketer 1954 – Louise Mandrell, American singer-songwriter and actress 1956 – Mark Mendoza, American bass player and songwriter 1956 – Michael Spinks, American boxer 1957 – Thierry Boutsen, Belgian race car driver and businessman 1957 – Cameron Crowe, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1959 – Richard Leman, English field hockey player 1959 – Fuziah Salleh, Malaysian politician 1960 – Robert Abraham, American football player 1960 – Ian Hislop, Welsh-English journalist and screenwriter 1960 – Curtis Rouse, American football player (d. 2013) 1961 – Tahira Asif, Pakistani politician (d. 2014) 1961 – Anders Jarryd, Swedish tennis player 1961 – Khalid Mahmood, Pakistani-English engineer and politician 1961 – Stelios Manolas, Greek footballer and manager 1961 – Tim Watson, Australian footballer, coach, and journalist 1962 – Tom Kenny, American voice actor and screenwriter 1962 – Rhonda Vincent, American singer-songwriter and mandolin player 1963 – Neal Foulds, English snooker player and sportscaster 1963 – Kenny Johnson, American actor, producer, and model 1964 – Charlie Hides, American drag queen and comedian 1964 – Paul Thorn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1965 – Eileen Ivers, American fiddler 1965 – Colin van der Voort, Australian rugby league player 1966 – Gerald Levert, American R&B singer-songwriter, producer, and actor (d. 2006) 1966 – Natalia Luis-Bassa, Venezuelan-English conductor and educator 1967 – Richard Marles, Australian lawyer and politician, 50th Australian Minister for Trade and Investment 1967 – Mark McGowan, Australian politician, 30th Premier of Western Australia 1969 – Brad Godden, Australian rugby league player 1969 – Ken Jeong, American actor, comedian, and physician 1969 – Oleg Serebrian, Moldovan political scientist and politician 1970 – Andrei Tivontchik, German pole vaulter and trainer 1971 – Mark Neeld, Australian footballer and coach 1972 – Sean Waltman, American professional wrestler 1974 – Deborah Cox, Canadian singer-songwriter and actress 1974 – Jarno Trulli, Italian race car driver 1975 – Diego Spotorno, Ecuadorian actor 1975 – Mariada Pieridi, Cypriot singer-songwriter 1976 – Sheldon Souray, Canadian ice hockey player 1977 – Chris Horn, American football player 1978 – Ryan Ludwick, American baseball player 1978 – Prodromos Nikolaidis, Greek basketball player 1979 – Craig Bellamy, Welsh footballer 1979 – Daniel Díaz, Argentinian footballer 1979 – Libuše Průšová, Czech tennis player 1979 – Lucinda Ruh, Swiss figure skater and coach 1981 – Ágnes Kovács, Hungarian swimmer 1981 – Mirco Lorenzetto, Italian cyclist 1982 – Shin-Soo Choo, South Korean baseball player 1982 – Simon Clist, English footballer 1982 – Dominic Isaacs, South African footballer 1982 – Nick Kenny, Australian rugby league player 1982 – Yadier Molina, Puerto Rican-American baseball player 1983 – Kristof Beyens, Belgian sprinter 1983 – Marco Pomante, Italian footballer 1983 – Liu Xiang, Chinese hurdler 1984 – Ida Maria, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1985 – Trell Kimmons, American sprinter 1985 – Guillermo Ochoa, Mexican footballer 1985 – Charlotte Dujardin, English equestrian 1988 – Marcos Paulo Gelmini Gomes, Brazilian-Italian footballer 1988 – Colton Haynes, American actor, model and singer 1988 – Steven R. McQueen, American actor and model 1988 – Raúl Spank, German high jumper 1988 – Tulisa, English singer-songwriter and actress 1989 – Leon Bridges, American soul singer, songwriter and record producer 1989 – Charis Giannopoulos, Greek basketball player 1990 – Kieran Foran, New Zealand rugby
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repositories, including Virginia Commonwealth University and the University of Virginia. Honors In 1970, Virginia Commonwealth University, also located in Richmond, named its main campus library "James Branch Cabell Library" in his honor. In the 1970s, Cabell's personal library and personal papers were moved from his home on Monument Avenue to the James Branch Cabell Library. Consisting of some 3,000 volumes, the collection includes manuscripts; notebooks and scrapbooks; periodicals in which Cabell's essays, reviews and fiction were published; his correspondence with noted writers including H. L. Mencken, Ellen Glasgow, Sinclair Lewis and Theodore Dreiser; correspondence with family, friends, editors and publishers, newspaper clippings, photographs, periodicals, criticisms, printed material; publishers' agreements; and statements of sales. The collection resides in the Special Collections and Archives department of the library. The VCU undergraduate literary journal at the university is named Poictesme after the fictional province in his cycle Biography of the Life of Manuel. More recently, VCU spent over $50 million to expand and modernize the James Branch Cabell Library to further entrench it as the premier library in the Greater Richmond Area and one of the top landmark libraries in the United States. In 2016 Cabell Library won the New Landmark Library Award. The Library Journals website provides a virtual walking tour of the new James Branch Cabell Library. Works Jurgen Cabell's best-known book, Jurgen, A Comedy of Justice (1919), was the subject of a celebrated obscenity case shortly after its publication. The eponymous hero, who considers himself a "monstrous clever fellow", embarks on a journey through ever more fantastic realms, even to hell and heaven. Everywhere he goes, he winds up seducing the local women, even the Devil's wife. The novel was denounced by the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice; they attempted to bring a prosecution for obscenity. The case went on for two years before Cabell and his publisher, Robert M. McBride, won: the "indecencies" were double entendres that also had a perfectly decent interpretation, though it appeared that what had actually offended the prosecution most was a joke about papal infallibility. The presiding judge, Charles Cooper Nott Jr., wrote in his decision that "... the most that can be said against the book is that certain passages therein may be considered suggestive in a veiled and subtle way of immorality, but such suggestions are delicately conveyed" and that because of Cabell's writing style "it is doubtful if the book could be read or understood at all by more than a very limited number of readers." Cabell took an author's revenge: the revised edition of 1926 included a previously "lost" passage in which the hero is placed on trial by the Philistines, with a large dung-beetle as the chief prosecutor. He also wrote a short book, Taboo, in which he thanks John H. Sumner and the Society for Suppression of Vice for generating the publicity that gave his career a boost. Due to the notoriety of the suppression of Jurgen, Cabell became a figure of international fame. In the early 1920s, he became associated by some critics with a group of writers referred to as "The James Branch Cabell School", which included such figures as Mencken, Carl Van Vechten and Elinor Wylie. Biography of the Life of Manuel A great deal of Cabell's work has focused on the Biography of the Life of Manuel, the story of a character named Dom Manuel and his descendants through many generations. The biography includes a total of 25 works that were written over a 23-year period. Cabell stated that he considered the Biography to be a single work, and supervised its publication in a single uniform edition of 18 volumes, known as the Storisende Edition, published from 1927 to 1930. A number of the volumes of the Biography were also published in editions illustrated by Frank C. Papé between 1921 and 1926. The themes and characters from Jurgen make appearances in many works included in the Biography. Figures of Earth tells the story of Manuel the swineherd, a morally ambiguous protagonist who rises to conquer a realm by playing on others' expectations—his motto being Mundus Vult Decipi, meaning "the world wishes to be deceived." The Silver Stallion is a loose sequel to Figures of Earth that deals with the creation of the legend of Manuel the Redeemer, in which Manuel is pictured as an infallible hero, an example to which all others should aspire; the story is told by Manuel's former knights, who remember how things really were and take different approaches to reconciling the mythology with the actuality of Manuel. Many of these books take place in the fictional country eventually ruled by Manuel, known as "Poictesme", (pronounced "pwa-tem"). It was the author's intention to situate Poictesme roughly in the south of France. The name suggests the two real French cities of Poitiers (medieval Poictiers) and Angoulême (medieval Angoulesme). Several other books take place in the fictional town of Lichfield, Virginia. After concluding the Biography in 1932, Cabell shortened his professional name to Branch Cabell. The truncated name was used for all his new, "post-Biography" publications until the printing of There Were Two Pirates (1946). Others Though Cabell is best known as a fantasist, the plots and characters of his first few novels, The Eagle's Shadow (1904), The Cords of Vanity (1909), and The Rivet in Grandfather's Neck (1915) (later all adapted for inclusion into the Biography), do not wander out of the everyday society of Virginia's beleaguered gentry. But Cabell's signature droll style is clearly in evidence, and in later printings each book would bear a characteristically Cabellian subtitle: A Comedy of Purse-Strings, A Comedy of Shirking, and A Comedy of Limitations, respectively. His later novel, The First Gentleman of America: A Comedy of Conquest (1942), retells the strange career of an American Indian from the shores of the Potomac who sailed away with Spanish explorers, later to return, be made chief of his tribe, and kill all the Spaniards in the new Virginia settlement. Cabell delivered a more concise, historical treatment of the novel's events in The First Virginian, part one of his 1947 work of non-fiction, Let Me Lie, a book on the history of Virginia. Other works include: The Nightmare Has Triplets trilogy, comprising Smirt (1934), Smith (1935), and Smire (1937) The Heirs and Assigns trilogy, comprising Hamlet Had an Uncle (1940), The King Was in His Counting House (1938), and The First Gentleman of America (1942) The It Happened in Florida trilogy, comprising The St. Johns (written in collaboration with A. J. Hanna), There Were Two Pirates (1946), and The Devil's Own Dear Son (1949) Cabell also wrote a number of autobiographical and genealogical works. List of works The Eagle's Shadow (1904) The Line Of Love (1905) (also titled: Dizain Des Mariages) Gallantry (1907/22) Branchiana (1907) The Cords Of Vanity: A Comedy Of Shirking (1909/21) Chivalry: Dizain Des Reines (1909/21) Branch Of Abingdon (1911) The Soul Of Melicent (1913) The Rivet In Grandfather's Neck: A Comedy Of Limitations, (1915) The Majors And Their Marriages (1915)
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had a perfectly decent interpretation, though it appeared that what had actually offended the prosecution most was a joke about papal infallibility. The presiding judge, Charles Cooper Nott Jr., wrote in his decision that "... the most that can be said against the book is that certain passages therein may be considered suggestive in a veiled and subtle way of immorality, but such suggestions are delicately conveyed" and that because of Cabell's writing style "it is doubtful if the book could be read or understood at all by more than a very limited number of readers." Cabell took an author's revenge: the revised edition of 1926 included a previously "lost" passage in which the hero is placed on trial by the Philistines, with a large dung-beetle as the chief prosecutor. He also wrote a short book, Taboo, in which he thanks John H. Sumner and the Society for Suppression of Vice for generating the publicity that gave his career a boost. Due to the notoriety of the suppression of Jurgen, Cabell became a figure of international fame. In the early 1920s, he became associated by some critics with a group of writers referred to as "The James Branch Cabell School", which included such figures as Mencken, Carl Van Vechten and Elinor Wylie. Biography of the Life of Manuel A great deal of Cabell's work has focused on the Biography of the Life of Manuel, the story of a character named Dom Manuel and his descendants through many generations. The biography includes a total of 25 works that were written over a 23-year period. Cabell stated that he considered the Biography to be a single work, and supervised its publication in a single uniform edition of 18 volumes, known as the Storisende Edition, published from 1927 to 1930. A number of the volumes of the Biography were also published in editions illustrated by Frank C. Papé between 1921 and 1926. The themes and characters from Jurgen make appearances in many works included in the Biography. Figures of Earth tells the story of Manuel the swineherd, a morally ambiguous protagonist who rises to conquer a realm by playing on others' expectations—his motto being Mundus Vult Decipi, meaning "the world wishes to be deceived." The Silver Stallion is a loose sequel to Figures of Earth that deals with the creation of the legend of Manuel the Redeemer, in which Manuel is pictured as an infallible hero, an example to which all others should aspire; the story is told by Manuel's former knights, who remember how things really were and take different approaches to reconciling the mythology with the actuality of Manuel. Many of these books take place in the fictional country eventually ruled by Manuel, known as "Poictesme", (pronounced "pwa-tem"). It was the author's intention to situate Poictesme roughly in the south of France. The name suggests the two real French cities of Poitiers (medieval Poictiers) and Angoulême (medieval Angoulesme). Several other books take place in the fictional town of Lichfield, Virginia. After concluding the Biography in 1932, Cabell shortened his professional name to Branch Cabell. The truncated name was used for all his new, "post-Biography" publications until the printing of There Were Two Pirates (1946). Others Though Cabell is best known as a fantasist, the plots and characters of his first few novels, The Eagle's Shadow (1904), The Cords of Vanity (1909), and The Rivet in Grandfather's Neck (1915) (later all adapted for inclusion into the Biography), do not wander out of the everyday society of Virginia's beleaguered gentry. But Cabell's signature droll style is clearly in evidence, and in later printings each book would bear a characteristically Cabellian subtitle: A Comedy of Purse-Strings, A Comedy of Shirking, and A Comedy of Limitations, respectively. His later novel, The First Gentleman of America: A Comedy of Conquest (1942), retells the strange career of an American Indian from the shores of the Potomac who sailed away with Spanish explorers, later to return, be made chief of his tribe, and kill all the Spaniards in the new Virginia settlement. Cabell delivered a more concise, historical treatment of the novel's events in The First Virginian, part one of his 1947 work of non-fiction, Let Me Lie, a book on the history of Virginia. Other works include: The Nightmare Has Triplets trilogy, comprising Smirt (1934), Smith (1935), and Smire (1937) The Heirs and Assigns trilogy, comprising Hamlet Had an Uncle (1940), The King Was in His Counting House (1938), and The First Gentleman of America (1942) The It Happened in Florida trilogy, comprising The St. Johns (written in collaboration with A. J. Hanna), There Were Two Pirates (1946), and The Devil's Own Dear Son (1949) Cabell also wrote a number of autobiographical and genealogical works. List of works The Eagle's Shadow (1904) The Line Of Love (1905) (also titled: Dizain Des Mariages) Gallantry (1907/22) Branchiana (1907) The Cords Of Vanity: A Comedy Of Shirking (1909/21) Chivalry: Dizain Des Reines (1909/21) Branch Of Abingdon (1911) The Soul Of Melicent (1913) The Rivet In Grandfather's Neck: A Comedy Of Limitations, (1915) The Majors And Their Marriages (1915) The Certain Hour (1916) From The Hidden Way (1916/1924) The Cream Of The Jest (1917) Jurgen: A Comedy Of Justice (1919) Beyond Life (1919) Domnei: A Comedy Of Woman-Worship (1920) The Judging Of Jurgen (1920) Jurgen And The Censor (1920) Taboo: A Legend Retold From The Dighic Of Saevius Nicanor (1921) Figures Of Earth: A Comedy Of Appearances (1921) The Jewel Merchants (1921) Joseph Hergesheimer (1921) The Jewel Merchants (1921) The Lineage Of Lichfield: An Essay In Eugenics (1922) The High Place (1923) Straws And Prayer-Books (1924) The Silver Stallion (1926) The Music From Behind The Moon (1926) Something About Eve (1927) The Works (1927-30) The White Robe (1928) Ballades From The Hidden Way (1928) The Way Of Ecben (1929) Sonnets From Antan (1929) Some Of Us: An Essay In Epitaphs (1930) Townsend Of Lichfield (1930) Between Dawn And Sunrise (1930) [edited by John Macy] These Restless Heads: A Trilogy Of Romantics (1932) Special Delivery: A Packet Of Replies (1933) Ladies And Gentlemen: A Parcel Of Reconsiderations (1934) Smirt: An Urbane Nightmare (1934) Smith: A Sylvan Interlude (1935) Preface To The Past (1936) Smire: An Acceptance In The Third Person (1937) The Nightmare Has Triplets (1937) Of Ellen Glasgow (1938) The King Was In His Counting House (1938) Hamlet Had An Uncle (1940) The First Gentleman Of America (1942) (UK title: The First American Gentleman) The St Johns: A Parade Of Diversities (1943) [with A.J. Hanna] There Were Two Pirates (1946) Let Me Lie (1947) The Witch Woman (1948) The Devil's Own Dear Son (1949) Quiet Please (1952) As I Remember It: Some Epilogues In Recollection (1955) Between Friends (1962) Source: Influence Cabell's work was highly regarded by a number of his peers, including Mark Twain, Sinclair Lewis, H. L. Mencken, Joseph Hergesheimer, and Jack Woodford. Although now largely forgotten by the general public, his work was remarkably influential on later authors of fantasy fiction. James Blish was a fan of Cabell's works, and for a time edited Kalki, the journal of the Cabell Society. Robert A. Heinlein was greatly inspired by Cabell's boldness, and originally described his book Stranger in a Strange Land as "a Cabellesque satire". A later work, Job: A Comedy of Justice, derived its title from Jurgen and contains appearances by Jurgen and the Slavic god Koschei. Charles
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On May 8, 2007, Sun finished the process, making all of its JVM's core code available under free software/open-source distribution terms, aside from a small portion of code to which Sun did not hold the copyright. Sun's vice-president Rich Green said that Sun's ideal role with regard to Java was as an evangelist. Following Oracle Corporation's acquisition of Sun Microsystems in 2009–10, Oracle has described itself as the steward of Java technology with a relentless commitment to fostering a community of participation and transparency. This did not prevent Oracle from filing a lawsuit against Google shortly after that for using Java inside the Android SDK (see the Android section). On April 2, 2010, James Gosling resigned from Oracle. In January 2016, Oracle announced that Java run-time environments based on JDK 9 will discontinue the browser plugin. Java software runs on everything from laptops to data centers, game consoles to scientific supercomputers. Principles There were five primary goals in the creation of the Java language: It must be simple, object-oriented, and familiar. It must be robust and secure. It must be architecture-neutral and portable. It must execute with high performance. It must be interpreted, threaded, and dynamic. Versions , Java 8, 11 and 17 are supported as Long-Term Support (LTS) versions. Major release versions of Java, along with their release dates: Editions Sun has defined and supports four editions of Java targeting different application environments and segmented many of its APIs so that they belong to one of the platforms. The platforms are: Java Card for smart-cards. Java Platform, Micro Edition (Java ME) – targeting environments with limited resources. Java Platform, Standard Edition (Java SE) – targeting workstation environments. Java Platform, Enterprise Edition (Java EE) – targeting large distributed enterprise or Internet environments. The classes in the Java APIs are organized into separate groups called packages. Each package contains a set of related interfaces, classes, subpackages and exceptions. Sun also provided an edition called Personal Java that has been superseded by later, standards-based Java ME configuration-profile pairings. Execution system Java JVM and bytecode One design goal of Java is portability, which means that programs written for the Java platform must run similarly on any combination of hardware and operating system with adequate run time support. This is achieved by compiling the Java language code to an intermediate representation called Java bytecode, instead of directly to architecture-specific machine code. Java bytecode instructions are analogous to machine code, but they are intended to be executed by a virtual machine (VM) written specifically for the host hardware. End-users commonly use a Java Runtime Environment (JRE) installed on their device for standalone Java applications or a web browser for Java applets. Standard libraries provide a generic way to access host-specific features such as graphics, threading, and networking. The use of universal bytecode makes porting simple. However, the overhead of interpreting bytecode into machine instructions made interpreted programs almost always run more slowly than native executables. Just-in-time (JIT) compilers that compile byte-codes to machine code during runtime were introduced from an early stage. Java's Hotspot compiler is actually two compilers in one; and with GraalVM (included in e.g. Java 11, but removed as of Java 16) allowing tiered compilation. Java itself is platform-independent and is adapted to the particular platform it is to run on by a Java virtual machine (JVM) for it, which translates the Java bytecode into the platform's machine language. Performance Programs written in Java have a reputation for being slower and requiring more memory than those written in C++ . However, Java programs' execution speed improved significantly with the introduction of just-in-time compilation in 1997/1998 for Java 1.1, the addition of language features supporting better code analysis (such as inner classes, the StringBuilder class, optional assertions, etc.), and optimizations in the Java virtual machine, such as HotSpot becoming Sun's default JVM in 2000. With Java 1.5, the performance was improved with the addition of the java.util.concurrent package, including lock-free implementations of the ConcurrentMaps and other multi-core collections, and it was improved further with Java 1.6. Non-JVM Some platforms offer direct hardware support for Java; there are micro controllers that can run Java bytecode in hardware instead of a software Java virtual machine, and some ARM-based processors could have hardware support for executing Java bytecode through their Jazelle option, though support has mostly been dropped in current implementations of ARM. Automatic memory management Java uses an automatic garbage collector to manage memory in the object lifecycle. The programmer determines when objects are created, and the Java runtime is responsible for recovering the memory once objects are no longer in use. Once no references to an object remain, the unreachable memory becomes eligible to be freed automatically by the garbage collector. Something similar to a memory leak may still occur if a programmer's code holds a reference to an object that is no longer needed, typically when objects that are no longer needed are stored in containers that are still in use. If methods for a non-existent object are called, a null pointer exception is thrown. One of the ideas behind Java's automatic memory management model is that programmers can be spared the burden of having to perform manual memory management. In some languages, memory for the creation of objects is implicitly allocated on the stack or explicitly allocated and deallocated from the heap. In the latter case, the responsibility of managing memory resides with the programmer. If the program does not deallocate an object, a memory leak occurs. If the program attempts to access or deallocate memory that has already been deallocated, the result is undefined and difficult to predict, and the program is likely to become unstable or crash. This can be partially remedied by the use of smart pointers, but these add overhead and complexity. Note that garbage collection does not prevent logical memory leaks, i.e. those where the memory is still referenced but never used. Garbage collection may happen at any time. Ideally, it will occur when a program is idle. It is guaranteed to be triggered if there is insufficient free memory on the heap to allocate a new object; this can cause a program to stall momentarily. Explicit memory management is not possible in Java. Java does not support C/C++ style pointer arithmetic, where object addresses can be arithmetically manipulated (e.g. by adding or subtracting an offset). This allows the garbage collector to relocate referenced objects and ensures type safety and security. As in C++ and some other object-oriented languages, variables of Java's primitive data types are either stored directly in fields (for objects) or on the stack (for methods) rather than on the heap, as is commonly true for non-primitive data types (but see escape analysis). This was a conscious decision by Java's designers for performance reasons. Java contains multiple types of garbage collectors. Since Java 9, HotSpot uses the Garbage First Garbage Collector (G1GC) as the default. However, there are also several other garbage collectors that can be used to manage the heap. For most applications in Java, G1GC is sufficient. Previously, the Parallel Garbage Collector was used in Java 8. Having solved the memory management problem does not relieve the programmer of the burden of handling properly other kinds of resources, like network or database connections, file handles, etc., especially in the presence of exceptions. Syntax The syntax of Java is largely influenced by C++ and C. Unlike C++, which combines the syntax for structured, generic, and object-oriented programming, Java was built almost exclusively as an object-oriented language. All code is written inside classes, and every data item is an object, with the exception of the primitive data types, (i.e. integers, floating-point numbers, boolean values, and characters), which are not objects for performance reasons. Java reuses some popular aspects of C++ (such as the method). Unlike C++, Java does not support operator overloading or multiple inheritance for classes, though multiple inheritance is supported for interfaces. Java uses comments similar to those of C++. There are three different styles of comments: a single line style marked with two slashes (//), a multiple line style opened with /* and closed with */, and the Javadoc commenting style opened with /** and closed with */. The Javadoc style of commenting allows the user to run the Javadoc executable to create documentation for the program and can be read by some integrated development environments (IDEs) such as Eclipse to allow developers to access documentation within the IDE. Hello world example The traditional Hello world program can be written in Java as: public class HelloWorldApp { public static void main(String[] args) { System.out.println("Hello World!"); // Prints the string to the console. } } All source files must be named after the public class they contain, appending the suffix .java, for example, HelloWorldApp.java. It must first be compiled into bytecode, using a Java compiler, producing a file with the .class suffix (HelloWorldApp.class, in this case). Only then can it be executed or launched. The Java source file may only contain one public class, but it can contain multiple classes with a non-public access modifier and any number of public inner classes. When the source file contains multiple classes, it is necessary to make one class (introduced by the class keyword) public (preceded by the public keyword) and name the source file with that public class name. A class that is not declared public may be stored in any .java file. The compiler will generate a class file for each class defined in the source file. The name of the class file is the name of the class, with .class appended. For class file generation, anonymous classes are treated as if their name were the concatenation of the name of their enclosing class, a $, and an integer. The keyword public denotes that a method can be called from code in other classes, or that a class may be used by classes outside the class hierarchy. The class hierarchy is related to the name of the directory in which the .java file is located. This is called an access level modifier. Other access level modifiers include the keywords private (a method that can only be accessed in the same class) and protected (which allows code from the same package to access). If a piece of code attempts to access private methods or protected methods, the JVM will throw a SecurityException The keyword static in front of a method indicates a static method, which is associated only with the class and not with any specific instance of that class. Only static methods can be invoked without a reference to an object. Static methods cannot access any class members that are not also static. Methods that are not designated static are instance methods and require a specific instance of a class to operate. The keyword void indicates that the main method does not return any value to the caller. If a Java program is to exit with an error code, it must call System.exit() explicitly. The method name main is not a keyword in the Java language. It is simply the name of the method the Java launcher calls to pass control to the program. Java classes that run in managed environments such as applets and Enterprise JavaBeans do not use or need a main() method. A Java program may contain multiple classes that have main methods, which means that the VM needs to be explicitly told which class to launch from. The main method must accept an array of objects. By convention, it is referenced as args although any other legal identifier name can be used. Since Java 5, the main method can also use variable arguments, in the form of public static void main(String... args), allowing the main method to be invoked with an arbitrary number of String arguments. The effect of this alternate declaration is semantically identical (to the args parameter which is still an array of String objects), but it allows
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program is idle. It is guaranteed to be triggered if there is insufficient free memory on the heap to allocate a new object; this can cause a program to stall momentarily. Explicit memory management is not possible in Java. Java does not support C/C++ style pointer arithmetic, where object addresses can be arithmetically manipulated (e.g. by adding or subtracting an offset). This allows the garbage collector to relocate referenced objects and ensures type safety and security. As in C++ and some other object-oriented languages, variables of Java's primitive data types are either stored directly in fields (for objects) or on the stack (for methods) rather than on the heap, as is commonly true for non-primitive data types (but see escape analysis). This was a conscious decision by Java's designers for performance reasons. Java contains multiple types of garbage collectors. Since Java 9, HotSpot uses the Garbage First Garbage Collector (G1GC) as the default. However, there are also several other garbage collectors that can be used to manage the heap. For most applications in Java, G1GC is sufficient. Previously, the Parallel Garbage Collector was used in Java 8. Having solved the memory management problem does not relieve the programmer of the burden of handling properly other kinds of resources, like network or database connections, file handles, etc., especially in the presence of exceptions. Syntax The syntax of Java is largely influenced by C++ and C. Unlike C++, which combines the syntax for structured, generic, and object-oriented programming, Java was built almost exclusively as an object-oriented language. All code is written inside classes, and every data item is an object, with the exception of the primitive data types, (i.e. integers, floating-point numbers, boolean values, and characters), which are not objects for performance reasons. Java reuses some popular aspects of C++ (such as the method). Unlike C++, Java does not support operator overloading or multiple inheritance for classes, though multiple inheritance is supported for interfaces. Java uses comments similar to those of C++. There are three different styles of comments: a single line style marked with two slashes (//), a multiple line style opened with /* and closed with */, and the Javadoc commenting style opened with /** and closed with */. The Javadoc style of commenting allows the user to run the Javadoc executable to create documentation for the program and can be read by some integrated development environments (IDEs) such as Eclipse to allow developers to access documentation within the IDE. Hello world example The traditional Hello world program can be written in Java as: public class HelloWorldApp { public static void main(String[] args) { System.out.println("Hello World!"); // Prints the string to the console. } } All source files must be named after the public class they contain, appending the suffix .java, for example, HelloWorldApp.java. It must first be compiled into bytecode, using a Java compiler, producing a file with the .class suffix (HelloWorldApp.class, in this case). Only then can it be executed or launched. The Java source file may only contain one public class, but it can contain multiple classes with a non-public access modifier and any number of public inner classes. When the source file contains multiple classes, it is necessary to make one class (introduced by the class keyword) public (preceded by the public keyword) and name the source file with that public class name. A class that is not declared public may be stored in any .java file. The compiler will generate a class file for each class defined in the source file. The name of the class file is the name of the class, with .class appended. For class file generation, anonymous classes are treated as if their name were the concatenation of the name of their enclosing class, a $, and an integer. The keyword public denotes that a method can be called from code in other classes, or that a class may be used by classes outside the class hierarchy. The class hierarchy is related to the name of the directory in which the .java file is located. This is called an access level modifier. Other access level modifiers include the keywords private (a method that can only be accessed in the same class) and protected (which allows code from the same package to access). If a piece of code attempts to access private methods or protected methods, the JVM will throw a SecurityException The keyword static in front of a method indicates a static method, which is associated only with the class and not with any specific instance of that class. Only static methods can be invoked without a reference to an object. Static methods cannot access any class members that are not also static. Methods that are not designated static are instance methods and require a specific instance of a class to operate. The keyword void indicates that the main method does not return any value to the caller. If a Java program is to exit with an error code, it must call System.exit() explicitly. The method name main is not a keyword in the Java language. It is simply the name of the method the Java launcher calls to pass control to the program. Java classes that run in managed environments such as applets and Enterprise JavaBeans do not use or need a main() method. A Java program may contain multiple classes that have main methods, which means that the VM needs to be explicitly told which class to launch from. The main method must accept an array of objects. By convention, it is referenced as args although any other legal identifier name can be used. Since Java 5, the main method can also use variable arguments, in the form of public static void main(String... args), allowing the main method to be invoked with an arbitrary number of String arguments. The effect of this alternate declaration is semantically identical (to the args parameter which is still an array of String objects), but it allows an alternative syntax for creating and passing the array. The Java launcher launches Java by loading a given class (specified on the command line or as an attribute in a JAR) and starting its public static void main(String[]) method. Stand-alone programs must declare this method explicitly. The String[] args parameter is an array of String objects containing any arguments passed to the class. The parameters to main are often passed by means of a command line. Printing is part of a Java standard library: The class defines a public static field called . The out object is an instance of the class and provides many methods for printing data to standard out, including which also appends a new line to the passed string. The string "Hello World!" is automatically converted to a String object by the compiler. Example with methods // This is an example of a single line comment using two slashes /* * This is an example of a multiple line comment using the slash and asterisk. * This type of comment can be used to hold a lot of information or deactivate * code, but it is very important to remember to close the comment. */ package fibsandlies; import java.util.Map; import java.util.HashMap; /** * This is an example of a Javadoc comment; Javadoc can compile documentation * from this text. Javadoc comments must immediately precede the class, method, * or field being documented. * @author Wikipedia Volunteers */ public class FibCalculator extends Fibonacci implements Calculator { private static Map<Integer, Integer> memoized = new HashMap<>(); /* * The main method written as follows is used by the JVM as a starting point * for the program. */ public static void main(String[] args) { memoized.put(1, 1); memoized.put(2, 1); System.out.println(fibonacci(12)); // Get the 12th Fibonacci number and print to console } /** * An example of a method written in Java, wrapped in a class. * Given a non-negative number FIBINDEX, returns * the Nth Fibonacci number, where N equals FIBINDEX. * * @param fibIndex The index of the Fibonacci number * @return the Fibonacci number */ public static int fibonacci(int fibIndex) { if (memoized.containsKey(fibIndex)) { return memoized.get(fibIndex); } int answer = fibonacci(fibIndex - 1) + fibonacci(fibIndex - 2); memoized.put(fibIndex, answer); return answer; } } Special classes Applet Java applets were programs that were embedded in other applications, typically in a Web page displayed in a web browser. The Java applet API is now deprecated since Java 9 in 2017. Servlet Java servlet technology provides Web developers with a simple, consistent mechanism for extending the functionality of a Web server and for accessing existing business systems. Servlets are server-side Java EE components that generate responses to requests from clients. Most of the time, this means generating HTML pages in response to HTTP requests, although there are a number of other standard servlet classes available, for example for WebSocket communication. The Java servlet API has to some extent been superseded (but still used under the hood) by two standard Java technologies for web services: the Java API for RESTful Web Services (JAX-RS 2.0) useful for AJAX, JSON and REST services, and the Java API for XML Web Services (JAX-WS) useful for SOAP Web Services. Typical implementations of these APIs on Application Servers or Servlet Containers use a standard servlet for handling all interactions with the HTTP requests and responses that delegate to
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Rhoades, American sculptor (d. 2006) 1966 – Pamela Adlon, American actress and voice artist 1966 – Zheng Cao, Chinese-American soprano and actress (d. 2013) 1966 – Gary Glasberg, American television writer and producer (d. 2016) 1966 – Marco Pennette, American screenwriter and producer 1967 – Gunnar Axén, Swedish politician 1967 – Yordan Letchkov, Bulgarian footballer 1967 – Mark Stoops, American football player and coach 1967 – Julie Thomas, Welsh lawn bowler 1968 – Paolo Di Canio, Italian footballer and manager 1969 – Nicklas Barker, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1969 – Jason Kearton, Australian footballer and coach 1970 – Trent Green, American football player and sportscaster 1970 – Masami Tsuda, Japanese author and illustrator 1971 – Marc Andreessen, American software developer, co-founded Netscape 1972 – Ara Babajian, American drummer and songwriter 1973 – Kelly Holcomb, American football player and sportscaster 1974 – Siân Berry, English environmentalist and politician 1974 – Ian Bradshaw, Barbadian cricketer 1974 – Gary Kelly, Irish footballer 1974 – Nikola Šarčević, Swedish singer-songwriter and bass player 1975 – Shelton Benjamin, American wrestler 1975 – Isaac Brock, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1975 – Robert Koenig, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1975 – Craig Quinnell, Welsh rugby player 1975 – Jack White, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1976 – Thomas Cichon, Polish-German footballer and manager 1976 – Fred Savage, American actor, director, and producer 1976 – Radike Samo, Fijian-Australian rugby player 1978 – Kara Goucher, American runner 1978 – Nuno Santos, Portuguese footballer 1979 – Gary Chaw, Malaysian Chinese singer-songwriter 1981 – Lee Chun-soo, South Korean footballer 1981 – Junauda Petrus, American author and performance artist 1982 – Alecko Eskandarian, American soccer player and manager 1982 – Sakon Yamamoto, Japanese race car driver 1984 – Chris Campoli, Canadian ice hockey player 1984 – Gianni Fabiano, Italian footballer 1984 – Jacob Hoggard, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1984 – Ave Pajo, Estonian footballer 1984 – Piia Suomalainen, Finnish tennis player 1984 – LA Tenorio, Filipino basketball player 1985 – Paweł Korzeniowski, Polish swimmer 1985 – Ashley Young, English footballer 1986 – Sébastien Bassong, Cameroonian footballer 1986 – Simon Dumont, American skier 1986 – Kiely Williams, American singer-songwriter and dancer 1987 – Gert Jõeäär, Estonian cyclist 1987 – Rebecca Sugar, American animator, composer, and screenwriter 1988 – Raul Rusescu, Romanian footballer 1990 – Earl Bamber, New Zealand race car driver 1990 – Fábio, Brazilian footballer 1990 – Rafael, Brazilian footballer 1991 – Mitchel Musso, American actor and singer 1993 – Mitch Larkin, Australian swimmer 1993 – DeAndre Yedlin, American footballer 1999 – Claire Corlett, American voice actress Deaths Pre-1600 230 – Empress Dowager Bian, Cao Cao's wife (b. 159) 518 – Anastasius I Dicorus, Byzantine emperor (b. 430) 715 – Naga, Japanese prince (b.c 637) 880 – Ariwara no Narihira, Japanese poet (b. 825) 981 – Ramiro Garcés, king of Viguera 1169 – Guido of Ravenna, Italian cartographer, entomologist and historian 1228 – Stephen Langton, English cardinal and theologian (b. 1150) 1270 – Stephen Báncsa, Hungarian cardinal (b. c. 1205) 1386 – Leopold III, Duke of Austria (b. 1351) 1441 – Jan van Eyck, Dutch painter (b.1359) 1546 – Robert Maxwell, 5th Lord Maxwell, Scottish statesman (b. c. 1493) 1553 – Maurice, Elector of Saxony (b. 1521) 1601–1900 1654 – Ferdinand IV, King of the Romans (b. 1633) 1706 – Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, Canadian captain and explorer (b. 1661) 1737 – Gian Gastone de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b. 1671) 1742 – John Oldmixon, English historian, poet, and playwright (b. 1673) 1746 – Philip V of Spain (b. 1683) 1747 – Giovanni Bononcini, Italian cellist and composer (b. 1670) 1766 – Jonathan Mayhew, American minister (b. 1720) 1774 – Anna Morandi Manzolini, Spanish anatomist (b. 1714) 1795 – Henry Seymour Conway, English general and politician, Secretary of State for the Northern Department (b. 1721) 1797 – Edmund Burke, Irish-English philosopher, academic, and politician (b. 1729) 1828 – Cathinka Buchwieser, German operatic singer and actress (b. 1789) 1850 – Báb, Persian religious leader, founded Bábism (b. 1819) 1850 – Zachary Taylor, American general and politician, 12th President of the United States (b. 1784) 1852 – Thomas McKean Thompson McKennan, American lawyer and politician, 2nd United States Secretary of the Interior (b. 1794) 1856 – Amedeo Avogadro, Italian chemist and academic (b. 1776) 1856 – James Strang, American religious leader and politician (b. 1813) 1880 – Paul Broca, French physician and anatomist (b. 1824) 1882 – Ignacio Carrera Pinto, Chilean captain (b. 1848) 1901–present 1903 – Alphonse François Renard, Belgian geologist and photographer (b. 1842) 1927 – John Drew, Jr., American actor (b. 1853) 1932 – King Camp Gillette, American businessman, founded the Gillette Company (b. 1855) 1937 – Oliver Law, American commander (b. 1899) 1938 – Benjamin N. Cardozo, American lawyer and jurist (b. 1870) 1947 – Lucjan Żeligowski, Polish-Lithuanian general and politician (b. 1865) 1949 – Fritz Hart, English-Australian composer and conductor (b. 1874) 1951 – Harry Heilmann, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1894) 1955 – Don Beauman, English race car driver (b. 1928) 1955 – Adolfo de la Huerta, Mexican politician and provisional president, 1920 (b. 1881) 1959 – Ferenc Talányi, Slovene journalist and painter (b. 1883) 1962 – Georges Bataille, French philosopher, novelist, and poet (b. 1897) 1961 – Whittaker Chambers, American spy and witness in Hiss case(b. 1901) 1967 – Eugen Fischer, German physician and academic (b. 1874) 1967 – Fatima Jinnah, Pakistani dentist and politician (b. 1893) 1970 – Sigrid Holmquist, Swedish actress (b. 1899) 1971 – Karl Ast, Estonian author and politician (b. 1886) 1972 – Robert Weede, American opera singer (b. 1903) 1974 – Earl Warren, American jurist and politician, 14th Chief Justice of the United States (b. 1891) 1977 – Alice Paul, American activist (b. 1885) 1979 – Cornelia Otis Skinner, American actress and author (b. 1899) 1980 – Vinicius de Moraes, Brazilian poet, playwright, and composer (b. 1913) 1984 – Edna Ernestine Kramer, American mathematician (b. 1902) 1985 – Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg (b. 1896) 1985 – Jimmy Kinnon, Scottish-American activist, founded Narcotics Anonymous (b. 1911) 1986 – Patriarch Nicholas VI of Alexandria (b. 1915) 1992 – Kelvin Coe, Australian ballet dancer (b. 1946) 1992 – Eric Sevareid, American journalist (b. 1912) 1993 – Metin Altıok, Turkish poet and educator (b. 1940) 1994 – Bill Mosienko, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1921) 1996 – Melvin Belli, American lawyer (b. 1907) 1999 – Robert de Cotret, Canadian politician, 56th Secretary of State for Canada (b. 1944) 2000 – Doug Fisher, English actor (b. 1941) 2002 – Mayo Kaan, American bodybuilder (b. 1914) 2002 – Rod Steiger, American actor (b. 1925) 2004 – Paul Klebnikov, American journalist and historian (b. 1963) 2004 – Isabel Sanford, American actress (b. 1917) 2005 – Chuck Cadman, Canadian engineer and politician (b. 1948) 2005 – Yevgeny Grishin, Russian speed skater (b. 1931) 2005 – Alex Shibicky, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1914) 2006 – Milan Williams, American keyboard player and producer (b. 1948) 2007 – Charles Lane, American actor (b. 1905) 2008 – Séamus Brennan, Irish accountant and politician, Minister for Transport, Tourism and Sport (b. 1948) 2010 – Jessica Anderson, Australian author and playwright (b. 1916) 2011 – Don Ackerman, American basketball player (b. 1930) 2011 – Facundo Cabral, Argentinian singer-songwriter (b. 1937) 2012 – Shin Jae-chul, South Korean-American martial artist (b. 1936) 2012 – Chick King, American baseball player (b. 1930) 2012 – Terepai Maoate, Cook Islander physician and politician, 6th Prime Minister of the Cook Islands (b. 1934) 2012 – Eugênio Sales, Brazilian cardinal (b. 1920) 2013 – Markus Büchel, Liechtensteiner politician, 9th Prime Minister of Liechtenstein (b. 1959) 2013 – Andrew Nori, Solomon lawyer and politician (b. 1952) 2013 – Kiril of Varna, Bulgarian metropolitan (b. 1954) 2013 – Barbara Robinson, American author and poet (b. 1927) 2013 – Toshi Seeger, American activist, co-founded the Clearwater Festival (b. 1922) 2014 – Lorenzo Álvarez Florentín, Paraguayan violinist and composer (b. 1926) 2014 – David Azrieli, Polish-Canadian businessman and philanthropist (b. 1922) 2014 – Eileen Ford, American businesswoman, co-founded Ford Models (b. 1922) 2014 – John Spinks, English guitarist and songwriter (b. 1953) 2015 – Christian Audigier, French fashion designer (b. 1958) 2015 – Saud bin Faisal bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, Saudi Arabian economist and politician, Saudi Arabian Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1940) 2019 – William E. Dannemeyer, American politician (b. 1929) 2019 – Ross Perot, American businessman and politician (b. 1930) 2019 – Fernando de la Rúa, 43rd President of Argentina (b. 1937) 2019 – Rip Torn, American actor (b. 1931) 2019 – Freddie Jones, English actor (b. 1927) Holidays and observances Arbor Day (Cambodia) Christian Feast Day: Agilulfus of Cologne Amandina of Schakkebroek (one of Martyrs of Southern Hunan) Blessed Marija Petković Everilda Gregorio Grassi (one of Martyrs of Shanxi) Martyr Saints of China Martyrs of Gorkum Our Lady of Itatí Our Lady of Peace, Octave of the Visitation Our Lady of the Rosary of Chiquinquirá Pauline of the Agonizing Heart of Jesus Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury (Anglican commemoration) Veronica Giuliani July 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Constitution Day (Australia) Constitution Day (Palau) Constitutionalist Revolution Day (São Paulo) Day of the Employees
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1907) 1853 – William Turner Dannat, American painter (d. 1929) 1856 – John Verran, English-Australian politician, 26th Premier of South Australia (d. 1932) 1858 – Franz Boas, German-American anthropologist and linguist (d. 1942) 1867 – Georges Lecomte, French author and playwright (d. 1958) 1879 – Carlos Chagas, Brazilian physician and parasitologist (d. 1934) 1879 – Ottorino Respighi, Italian composer and conductor (d. 1936) 1887 – James Ormsbee Chapin, American-Canadian painter and illustrator (d. 1975) 1887 – Saturnino Herrán, Mexican painter (d. 1918) 1887 – Samuel Eliot Morison, American admiral and historian (d. 1976) 1889 – Léo Dandurand, American-Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and referee (d. 1964) 1893 – George Geary, English cricketer and coach (d. 1981) 1901–present 1901 – Barbara Cartland, prolific English author (d. 2000) 1902 – Peter Acland, English soldier (d. 1993) 1905 – Clarence Campbell, Canadian ice hockey player and referee (d. 1984) 1907 – Eddie Dean, American singer-songwriter (d. 1999) 1908 – Allamah Rasheed Turabi, Pakistani philosopher and scholar (d. 1973) 1908 – Minor White, American photographer, critic, and educator (d. 1976) 1909 – Basil Wolverton, American author and illustrator (d. 1978) 1910 – Govan Mbeki, South African anti-apartheid and ANC leader and activist (d. 2001) 1911 – Mervyn Peake, English author and illustrator (d. 1968) 1911 – John Archibald Wheeler, American physicist and author (d. 2008) 1914 – Willi Stoph, German engineer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of East Germany (d. 1999) 1914 – Mac Wilson, Australian rules footballer (d. 2017) 1915 – David Diamond, American composer and educator (d. 2005) 1915 – Lee Embree, American sergeant and photographer (d. 2008) 1916 – Dean Goffin, New Zealand composer (d. 1984) 1916 – Edward Heath, English colonel and politician; Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, 1970-74 (d. 2005) 1917 – Krystyna Dańko, Polish orphan, survivor of Holocaust (d. 2019) 1918 – Nicolaas Govert de Bruijn, Dutch mathematician and academic (d. 2012) 1918 – Jarl Wahlström, Finnish 12th General of The Salvation Army (d. 1999) 1921 – David C. Jones, American general (d. 2013) 1922 – Angelines Fernández, Spanish-Mexican actress (d. 1994) 1922 – Jim Pollard, American basketball player and coach (d. 1993) 1924 – Pierre Cochereau, French organist and composer (d. 1984) 1925 – Guru Dutt, Indian actor, director, and producer (d. 1964) 1925 – Charles E. Wicks, American engineer, author, and academic (d. 2010) 1925 – Ronald I. Spiers, American ambassador (d. 2021) 1926 – Murphy Anderson, American illustrator (d. 2015) 1926 – Ben Roy Mottelson, American-Danish physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1926 – Pedro Dellacha, Argentine football defender and coach (d. 2010) 1926 – Mathilde Krim, Italian-American medical researcher and health educator (d. 2018) 1927 – Ed Ames, American singer and actor 1927 – Red Kelly, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and politician (d. 2019) 1928 – Federico Bahamontes, Spanish cyclist 1928 – Vince Edwards, American actor, singer, and director (d. 1996) 1929 – Lee Hazlewood, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2007) 1929 – Jesse McReynolds, American singer and mandolin player 1929 – Chi Haotian, Chinese general 1929 – Hassan II of Morocco (d. 1999) 1930 – K. Balachander, Indian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2014) 1930 – Buddy Bregman, American composer and conductor (d. 2017) 1930 – Janice Lourie, American computer scientist and graphic artist 1930 – Elsa Lystad, Norwegian actress 1930 – Patricia Newcomb, American publicist 1930 – Roy McLean, South African cricketer and rugby player (d. 2007) 1931 – Haynes Johnson, American journalist and author (d. 2013) 1931 – Sylvia Bacon, American judge 1932 – Donald Rumsfeld, American captain and politician, 13th United States Secretary of Defense (d. 2021) 1932 – Amitzur Shapira, Israeli sprinter and long jumper (d. 1972) 1933 – Oliver Sacks, English-American neurologist, author, and academic (d. 2015) 1934 – Michael Graves, American architect, designed the Portland Building and the Humana Building (d. 2015) 1935 – Wim Duisenberg, Dutch economist and politician, Dutch Minister of Finance (d. 2005) 1935 – Mercedes Sosa, Argentinian singer and activist (d. 2009) 1935 – Michael Williams, English actor (d. 2001) 1936 – June Jordan, American poet and educator (d. 2002) 1936 – David Zinman, American violinist and conductor 1937 – David Hockney, English painter and photographer 1938 – Brian Dennehy, American actor (d. 2020) 1938 – Sanjeev Kumar, Indian film actor (d. 1985) 1940 – David B. Frohnmayer, American lawyer and politician, 12th Oregon Attorney General (d. 2015) 1940 – Eugene Victor Wolfenstein, American psychoanalyst and theorist (d. 2010) 1941 – Mac MacLeod, English musician (d. 2020) 1942 – David Chidgey, Baron Chidgey, English engineer and politician (d. 2022) 1942 – Richard Roundtree, American actor 1943 – John Casper, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut 1944 – Judith M. Brown, Indian-English historian and academic 1944 – John Cunniff, American ice hockey player and coach (d. 2002) 1945 – Dean Koontz, American author and screenwriter 1945 – Root Boy Slim, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1993) 1946 – Bon Scott, Scottish-Australian singer-songwriter (d. 1980) 1947 – Haruomi Hosono, Japanese singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer 1947 – Mitch Mitchell, English drummer (d. 2008) 1947 – O. J. Simpson, American football player and actor 1947 – Patrick Wormald, English historian (d. 2004) 1948 – Hassan Wirajuda, Indonesian lawyer and politician, 15th Indonesian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1949 – Raoul Cédras, Haitian military officer and politician 1950 – Amal ibn Idris al-Alami, Moroccan physician and neurosurgeon 1950 – Adriano Panatta, Italian tennis player and sailor 1950 – Viktor Yanukovych, Ukrainian engineer and politician, 4th President of Ukraine 1951 – Chris Cooper, American actor 1951 – Māris Gailis, Latvian politician, businessman, and former Prime Minister of Latvia 1952 – John Tesh, American pianist, composer, and radio and television host 1953 – Margie Gillis, Canadian dancer and choreographer 1953 – Thomas Ligotti, American author 1954 – Théophile Abega, Cameroonian footballer and politician (d. 2012) 1954 – Kevin O'Leary, Canadian journalist and businessman 1955 – Steve Coppell, English footballer and manager 1955 – Lindsey Graham, American lawyer and politician 1955 – Jimmy Smits, American actor and producer 1955 – Willie Wilson, American baseball player and manager 1956 – Tom Hanks, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1956 – Michael Lederer, American author, poet, and playwright 1957 – Marc Almond, English singer-songwriter 1957 – Tim Kring, American screenwriter and producer 1957 – Kelly McGillis, American actress 1957 – Paul Merton, English comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1958 – Abdul Latiff Ahmad, Malaysian politician 1958 – Jacob Joseph, Malaysian football coach 1959 – Jim Kerr, Scottish singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1959 – Kevin Nash, American wrestler 1959 – Clive Stafford Smith, English lawyer and author 1960 – Yūko Asano, Japanese actress and singer 1960 – Wally Fullerton Smith, Australian rugby league player 1960 – Eduardo Montes-Bradley, Argentinian journalist, photographer, and author 1963 – Klaus Theiss, German footballer 1964 – Courtney Love, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress 1964 – Gianluca Vialli, Italian footballer and coach 1965 – Frank Bello, American bass player 1965 – Thomas Jahn, German director and screenwriter 1965 – Jason Rhoades, American sculptor (d. 2006) 1966 – Pamela Adlon, American actress
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the Sirens—the same Sirens encountered by Odysseus in Homer's epic poem the Odyssey. The Sirens lived on three small, rocky islands called Sirenum scopuli and sang beautiful songs that enticed sailors to come to them, which resulted in the crashing of their ship into the islands. When Orpheus heard their voices, he drew his lyre and played music that was more beautiful and louder, drowning out the Sirens' bewitching songs. Talos The Argo then came to the island of Crete, guarded by the bronze man, Talos. As the ship approached, Talos hurled huge stones at the ship, keeping it at bay. Talos had one blood vessel which went from his neck to his ankle, bound shut by only one bronze nail (as in metal casting by the lost wax method). Medea cast a spell on Talos to calm him; she removed the bronze nail and Talos bled to death. The Argo was then able to sail on. Jason returns Thomas Bulfinch has an antecedent to the interaction of Medea and the daughters of Pelias. Jason, celebrating his return with the Golden Fleece, noted that his father was too aged and infirm to participate in the celebrations. He had seen and been served by Medea's magical powers. He asked Medea to take some years from his life and add them to the life of his father. She did so, but at no such cost to Jason's life. Medea withdrew the blood from Aeson's body and infused it with certain herbs; putting it back into his veins, returning vigor to him. Pelias' daughters saw this and wanted the same service for their father. Medea, using her sorcery, claimed to Pelias' daughters that she could make their father smooth and vigorous as a child by chopping him up into pieces and boiling the pieces in a cauldron of water and magical herbs. She demonstrated this remarkable feat with the oldest ram in the flock, which leapt out of the cauldron as a lamb. The girls, rather naively, sliced and diced their father and put him in the cauldron. Medea did not add the magical herbs, and Pelias was dead. Pelias' son, Acastus, drove Jason and Medea into exile for the murder, and the couple settled in Corinth. Treachery of Jason In Corinth, Jason became engaged to marry Creusa (sometimes referred to as Glauce), a daughter of the King of Corinth, to strengthen his political ties. When Medea confronted Jason about the engagement and cited all the help she had given him, he retorted that it was not she that he should thank, but Aphrodite who made Medea fall in love with him. Infuriated with Jason for breaking his vow that he would be hers forever, Medea took her revenge by presenting to Creusa a cursed dress, as a wedding gift, that stuck to her body and burned her to death as soon as she put it on. Creusa's father, Creon, burned to death with his daughter as he tried to save her. Then Medea killed the two boys that she bore to Jason, fearing that they would be murdered or enslaved as a result of their mother's actions. When Jason came to know of this, Medea was already gone. She fled to Athens in a chariot of dragons sent by her grandfather, the sun-god Helios. Although Jason calls Medea most hateful to gods and men, the fact that the chariot is given to her by Helios indicates that she still has the gods on her side. As Bernard Knox points out, Medea's last scene with concluding appearances parallels that of a number of indisputably divine beings in other plays by Euripides. Just like these gods, Medea "interrupts and puts a stop to the violent action of the human being on the lower level, ... justifies her savage revenge on the grounds that she has been treated with disrespect and mockery, ... takes measures and gives orders for the burial of the dead, prophesies the future," and "announces the foundation of a cult." Later Jason and Peleus, father of the hero Achilles, attacked and defeated Acastus, reclaiming the throne of Iolcus for himself once more. Jason's son, Thessalus, then became king. As a result of breaking his vow to love Medea forever, Jason lost his favor with Hera and died lonely and unhappy. He was asleep under the stern of the rotting Argo when it fell on him, killing him instantly. Family Parentage Jason's father is invariably Aeson, but there is great variation as to his mother's name. According to various authors, she could be: Alcimede, daughter of Phylacus Polymede, or Polymele, or Polypheme, a daughter of Autolycus Amphinome Theognete, daughter of Laodicus Rhoeo Arne or Scarphe Jason was also said to have had a younger brother Promachus. Children Children by Medea: Alcimenes, murdered by Medea. Thessalus, twin of Alcimenes and king of Iolcus. Tisander, murdered by Medea Mermeros killed either by the Corinthians or by Medea Pheres, as above Eriopis, their only daughter Medus or Polyxenus, otherwise son of Aegeus Argus seven sons and seven daughters Children by Hypsipyle: Euneus, King of Lemnos and his twin Nebrophonus or Deipylus or Thoas In literature Though some of the episodes of Jason's story draw on ancient material, the definitive telling, on which this account relies, is that of Apollonius of Rhodes in his epic poem Argonautica, written in Alexandria in the late 3rd century BC. Another Argonautica was written by Gaius Valerius Flaccus in the late 1st century AD, eight books in length. The poem ends abruptly with the request of Medea to accompany Jason on his homeward voyage. It is unclear if part of the epic poem has been lost, or if it was never finished. A third version is the Argonautica Orphica, which emphasizes the role of Orpheus in the story. Jason is briefly mentioned in Dante's Divine Comedy in the poem Inferno. He appears in the Canto XVIII. In it, he is seen by Dante and his guide Virgil being punished in Hell's Eighth Circle (Bolgia 1) by being driven to march through the circle for all eternity while being whipped by devils. He is included among the panderers and seducers (possibly for his seduction and subsequent abandoning of Medea). The story of Medea's revenge on Jason is told with devastating effect by Euripides in his tragedy Medea. William Morris wrote an English epic poem, The Life and Death of Jason, published in 1867. The mythical geography of the voyage of the Argonauts has been connected to specific geographic locations by Livio Stecchini but his theories have not been widely adopted. Popular culture Jason appeared in the Hercules episode "Hercules and the Argonauts" voiced by William Shatner. He is shown to have been a student of Philoctetes and takes his advice to let Hercules travel with him. In the series The Heroes of Olympuss first novel The Lost Hero, there was a reference to the mythical Jason when Jason Grace and his friends encounter Medea. The BBC series Atlantis, which premiered in 2013, featured Jason as the protagonist. See also Cape Jason Mermeros and Pheres Jason in popular culture Explanatory notes References Notes Bibliography Alain Moreau, Le Mythe de Jason et Médée. Le Va-nu-pied et la Sorcière. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, collection «Vérité des mythes», 2006 (). Apollodorus, The Library with
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body into the sea; Aeetes stopped to gather them. In another version, Medea lured Apsyrtus into a trap. Jason killed him, chopped off his fingers and toes, and buried the corpse. In any case, Jason and Medea escaped. The return journey On the way back to Iolcus, Medea prophesied to Euphemus, the Argo's helmsman, that one day he would rule Cyrene. This came true through Battus, a descendant of Euphemus. Zeus, as punishment for the slaughter of Medea's own brother, sent a series of storms at the Argo and blew it off course. The Argo then spoke and said that they should seek purification with Circe, a nymph living on the island of Aeaea. After being cleansed, they continued their journey home. Sirens Chiron had told Jason that without the aid of Orpheus, the Argonauts would never be able to pass the Sirens—the same Sirens encountered by Odysseus in Homer's epic poem the Odyssey. The Sirens lived on three small, rocky islands called Sirenum scopuli and sang beautiful songs that enticed sailors to come to them, which resulted in the crashing of their ship into the islands. When Orpheus heard their voices, he drew his lyre and played music that was more beautiful and louder, drowning out the Sirens' bewitching songs. Talos The Argo then came to the island of Crete, guarded by the bronze man, Talos. As the ship approached, Talos hurled huge stones at the ship, keeping it at bay. Talos had one blood vessel which went from his neck to his ankle, bound shut by only one bronze nail (as in metal casting by the lost wax method). Medea cast a spell on Talos to calm him; she removed the bronze nail and Talos bled to death. The Argo was then able to sail on. Jason returns Thomas Bulfinch has an antecedent to the interaction of Medea and the daughters of Pelias. Jason, celebrating his return with the Golden Fleece, noted that his father was too aged and infirm to participate in the celebrations. He had seen and been served by Medea's magical powers. He asked Medea to take some years from his life and add them to the life of his father. She did so, but at no such cost to Jason's life. Medea withdrew the blood from Aeson's body and infused it with certain herbs; putting it back into his veins, returning vigor to him. Pelias' daughters saw this and wanted the same service for their father. Medea, using her sorcery, claimed to Pelias' daughters that she could make their father smooth and vigorous as a child by chopping him up into pieces and boiling the pieces in a cauldron of water and magical herbs. She demonstrated this remarkable feat with the oldest ram in the flock, which leapt out of the cauldron as a lamb. The girls, rather naively, sliced and diced their father and put him in the cauldron. Medea did not add the magical herbs, and Pelias was dead. Pelias' son, Acastus, drove Jason and Medea into exile for the murder, and the couple settled in Corinth. Treachery of Jason In Corinth, Jason became engaged to marry Creusa (sometimes referred to as Glauce), a daughter of the King of Corinth, to strengthen his political ties. When Medea confronted Jason about the engagement and cited all the help she had given him, he retorted that it was not she that he should thank, but Aphrodite who made Medea fall in love with him. Infuriated with Jason for breaking his vow that he would be hers forever, Medea took her revenge by presenting to Creusa a cursed dress, as a wedding gift, that stuck to her body and burned her to death as soon as she put it on. Creusa's father, Creon, burned to death with his daughter as he tried to save her. Then Medea killed the two boys that she bore to Jason, fearing that they would be murdered or enslaved as a result of their mother's actions. When Jason came to know of this, Medea was already gone. She fled to Athens in a chariot of dragons sent by her grandfather, the sun-god Helios. Although Jason calls Medea most hateful to gods and men, the fact that the chariot is given to her by Helios indicates that she still has the gods on her side. As Bernard Knox points out, Medea's last scene with concluding appearances parallels that of a number of indisputably divine beings in other plays by Euripides. Just like these gods, Medea "interrupts and puts a stop to the violent action of the human being on the lower level, ... justifies her savage revenge on the grounds that she has been treated with disrespect and mockery, ... takes measures and gives orders for the burial of the dead, prophesies the future," and "announces the foundation of a cult." Later Jason
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actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1937 – Quinlan Terry, English architect, designed the Brentwood Cathedral 1938 – Alexis Jacquemin, Belgian economist and academic (d. 2004) 1938 – Eugene J. Martin, American painter (d. 2005) 1938 – John Sparling, New Zealand cricketer 1939 – Walt Bellamy, American basketball player and coach (d. 2013) 1939 – David Simon, Baron Simon of Highbury, English businessman and politician 1940 – Dan Hedaya, American actor 1941 – John Bond, English banker and businessman 1942 – Heinz, German-English singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2000) 1942 – David Miner, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1942 – Chris Sarandon, American actor 1944 – Jim Armstrong, Northern Irish guitarist 1945 – Frank Close, English physicist and academic 1945 – Azim Premji, Indian businessman and philanthropist 1945 – Hugh Ross, Canadian-American astrophysicist and astronomer 1945 – Anthony Watts, English geologist, geophysicist, and academic 1946 – Gallagher, American comedian and actor 1946 – Friedhelm Haebermann, German footballer and manager 1946 – Hervé Vilard, French singer-songwriter 1947 – Zaheer Abbas, Pakistani cricketer and manager 1947 – Geoff McQueen, English screenwriter and producer (d. 1994) 1947 – Peter Serkin, American pianist and educator (d. 2020) 1949 – Michael Richards, American actor and comedian 1950 – Jadranka Stojaković, Yugoslav singer-songwriter (d. 2016) 1951 – Lynda Carter, American actress 1951 – Chris Smith, Baron Smith of Finsbury, English politician, Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport 1952 – Ian Cairns, Australian surfer 1952 – Gus Van Sant, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1953 – Julian Brazier, English captain and politician 1953 – Jon Faddis, American trumpet player, composer, and conductor 1953 – Tadashi Kawamata, Japanese contemporary artist 1953 – Claire McCaskill, American lawyer and politician 1953 – James Newcome, English bishop 1954 – Erdoğan Arıca, Turkish footballer and manager (d. 2012) 1954 – Jorge Jesus, Portuguese footballer and manager 1955 – Brad Watson, American author and academic (d. 2020) 1956 – Charlie Crist, American lawyer and politician, 44th Governor of Florida 1957 – Pam Tillis, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress 1958 – Jim Leighton, Scottish footballer and coach 1960 – Catherine Destivelle, French rock climber and mountaineer 1961 – Kerry Dixon, English footballer and manager 1962 – Johnny O'Connell, American race car driver and sportscaster 1963 – Louis Armary, French rugby player 1963 – Karl Malone, American basketball player and coach 1964 – Barry Bonds, American baseball player 1964 – Pedro Passos Coelho, Portuguese economist and politician, 118th Prime Minister of Portugal 1964 – Urmas Kaljend, Estonian footballer 1964 – John Rosengren, American journalist and author 1965 – Andrew Gaze, Australian basketball player and sportscaster 1965 – Kadeem Hardison, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1965 – Doug Liman, American director and producer 1966 – Mo-Do, Italian singer-songwriter (d. 2013) 1966 – Aminatou Haidar, Sahrawi human rights activist 1966 – Martin Keown, English footballer and coach 1968 – Kristin Chenoweth, American actress and singer 1968 – Colleen Doran, American author and illustrator 1968 – Malcolm Ingram, Canadian director, producer, and screenwriter 1968 – Laura Leighton, American actress 1969 – Rick Fox, Bahamian basketball player 1969 – Jennifer Lopez, American actress, singer, and dancer 1971 – Dino Baggio, Italian footballer 1971 – Patty Jenkins, American film director and screenwriter 1972 – Kaiō Hiroyuki, Japanese sumo wrestler 1973 – Russell Bawden, Australian rugby league player 1973 – Ana Cristina Oliveira, Portuguese model and actress 1973 – Amanda Stretton, English race car driver and journalist 1974 – Andy Gomarsall, English rugby player 1975 – Tracey Crouch, English politician, Minister for Sport and the Olympics 1975 – Jamie Langenbrunner, American ice hockey player 1975 – Torrie Wilson, American model, fitness competitor, actress and professional wrestler 1975 – Eric Szmanda, American actor 1976 – Rafer Alston, American basketball player 1976 – Tiago Monteiro, Portuguese race car driver and manager 1978 – Andy Irons, American surfer (d. 2010) 1979 – Rose Byrne, Australian actress 1979 – Jerrod Niemann, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1979 – Valerio Scassellati, Italian race car driver 1979 – Anne-Gaëlle Sidot, French tennis player 1979 – Mark Andrew Smith, American author 1979 – Ryan Speier, American baseball player 1980 – Joel Stroetzel, American guitarist 1981 – Doug Bollinger, Australian cricketer 1981 – Nayib Bukele, Salvadoran politician, 46th President of El Salvador 1981 – Summer Glau, American actress 1981 – Mark Robinson, English footballer 1982 – Trevor Matthews, Canadian actor and producer, founded Brookstreet Pictures 1982 – Thiago Medeiros, Brazilian race car driver 1982 – Mewelde Moore, American football player 1982 – Elisabeth Moss, American actress 1982 – Anna Paquin, Canadian-New Zealand actress 1982 – Michael Poppmeier, South African-German rugby player 1983 – Daniele De Rossi, Italian footballer 1983 – Asami Mizukawa, Japanese actress 1984 – Patrick Harvey, Australian actor 1984 – Tyler Kyte, Canadian singer and drummer 1985 – Patrice Bergeron, Canadian ice hockey player 1985 – Aries Merritt, American hurdler 1985 – Lukáš Rosol, Czech tennis player 1985 – Eric Wright, American football player 1986 – Natalie Tran, Australian actress and online producer 1987 – Filipe Francisco dos Santos, Brazilian footballer 1987 – Nathan Gerbe, American ice hockey player 1987 – Zack Sabre Jr., English wrestler 1988 – Han Seung-yeon, South Korean singer and dancer 1988 – Nichkhun, Thai-American singer-songwriter and actor 1988 – Ricky Petterd, Australian footballer 1989 – Maurkice Pouncey, American football player 1989 – Kim Tae-hwan, South Korean footballer 1990 – Travis Mahoney, Australian swimmer 1991 – Emily Bett Rickards, Canadian actress 1992 – Mikaël Kingsbury, Canadian skier 1994 – Phillip Lindsay, American football player 1995 – Valentine Holmes, Australian rugby league player 1995 – Kyle Kuzma, American basketball player 1995 – Meisei Chikara, Japanese sumo wrestler 1998
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to a crowd of over 100,000 in Montreal: Vive le Québec libre! ("Long live free Quebec!"); the statement angered the Canadian government and many Anglophone Canadians. 1969 – Apollo program: Apollo 11 splashes down safely in the Pacific Ocean. 1974 – Watergate scandal: The United States Supreme Court unanimously ruled that President Richard Nixon did not have the authority to withhold subpoenaed White House tapes and they order him to surrender the tapes to the Watergate special prosecutor. 1977 – End of a four-day-long Libyan–Egyptian War. 1980 – The Quietly Confident Quartet of Australia wins the men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay at the Moscow Olympics, the only time the United States has not won the event at Olympic level. 1982 – Heavy rain causes a mudslide that destroys a bridge at Nagasaki, Japan, killing 299. 1983 – The Black July anti-Tamil riots begin in Sri Lanka, killing between 400 and 3,000. Black July is generally regarded as the beginning of the Sri Lankan Civil War. 1983 – George Brett playing for the Kansas City Royals against the New York Yankees, has a game-winning home run nullified in the "Pine Tar Incident". 1987 – US supertanker collides with mines laid by IRGC causing a 43-square-meter dent in the body of the oil tanker. 1987 – Hulda Crooks, at 91 years of age, climbed Mt. Fuji. Crooks became the oldest person to climb Japan's highest peak. 1998 – Russell Eugene Weston Jr. bursts into the United States Capitol and opens fire killing two police officers. He is later ruled to be incompetent to stand trial. 2001 – Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the last Tsar of Bulgaria when he was a child, is sworn in as Prime Minister of Bulgaria, becoming the first monarch in history to regain political power through democratic election to a different office. 2001 – The Bandaranaike Airport attack is carried out by 14 Tamil Tiger commandos. Eleven civilian and military aircraft are destroyed and 15 are damaged. All 14 commandos are shot dead, while seven soldiers from the Sri Lanka Air Force are killed. In addition, three civilians and an engineer die. This incident slowed the Sri Lankan economy. 2012 – Syrian civil war: The People's Protection Units (YPG) capture the city of Girkê Legê. 2013 – A high-speed train derails in Spain rounding a curve with an speed limit at , killing 78 passengers. 2014 – Air Algérie Flight 5017 loses contact with air traffic controllers 50 minutes after takeoff. It was travelling between Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso and Algiers. The wreckage is later found in Mali. All 116 people onboard are killed. Births Pre-1600 1242 – Christina von Stommeln, German Roman Catholic mystic, ecstatic, and stigmatic (d. 1312) 1468 – Catherine of Saxony, Archduchess of Austria (d. 1524) 1529 – Charles II, Margrave of Baden-Durlach (d. 1577) 1561 – Maria of the Palatinate-Simmern (d. 1589) 1574 – Thomas Platter the Younger, Swiss physician and author (d. 1628) 1601–1900 1660 – Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury, English politician, Lord High Treasurer (d. 1718) 1689 – Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, son of Queen Anne of Great Britain and Prince George of Denmark (d. 1700) 1725 – John Newton, English sailor and priest (d. 1807) 1757 – Vladimir Borovikovsky, Ukrainian-Russian painter (d. 1825) 1783 – Simón Bolívar, Venezuelan commander and politician, second President of Venezuela (d. 1830) 1786 – Joseph Nicollet, French mathematician and explorer (d. 1843) 1794 – Johan Georg Forchhammer, Danish mineralogist and geologist (d. 1865) 1802 – Alexandre Dumas, French novelist and playwright (d. 1870) 1803 – Adolphe Adam, French composer and critic (d. 1856) 1803 – Alexander J. Davis, American architect (d. 1892) 1821 – William Poole, American boxer and gangster (d. 1855) 1826 – Jan Gotlib Bloch, Polish theorist and activist (d. 1902) 1851 – Friedrich Schottky, Polish-German mathematician and theorist (d. 1935) 1856 – Émile Picard, French mathematician and academic (d. 1941) 1857 – Henrik Pontoppidan, Danish journalist and author, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1943) 1857 – Juan Vicente Gómez, Venezuelan general and politician, 27th President of Venezuela (d. 1935) 1860 – Princess Charlotte of Prussia (d. 1919) 1860 – Alphonse Mucha, Czech painter and illustrator (d. 1939) 1864 – Frank Wedekind, German actor and playwright (d. 1918) 1867 – Vicente Acosta, Salvadoran journalist and poet (d. 1908) 1867 – E. F. Benson, English archaeologist and author (d. 1940) 1867 – Fred Tate, English cricketer and coach (d. 1943) 1874 – Oswald Chambers, Scottish minister and author (d. 1917) 1877 – Calogero Vizzini, Italian mob boss (d. 1954) 1878 – Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron of Dunsany, Irish author, poet, and playwright (d. 1957) 1880 – Ernest Bloch, Swiss-American composer and educator (d. 1959) 1884 – Maria Caserini, Italian actress (d. 1969) 1886 – Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Japanese author (d. 1965) 1888 – Arthur Richardson, Australian cricketer and coach (d. 1973) 1889 – Agnes Meyer Driscoll, American cryptanalyst (d. 1971) 1895 – Robert Graves, English poet, novelist, critic (d. 1985) 1897 – Amelia Earhart, American pilot and author (d. 1937) 1899 – Chief Dan George, Canadian actor (d. 1981) 1900 – Zelda Fitzgerald, American author, visual artist and ballet dancer (d. 1948) 1901–present 1904 – Leo Arnaud, French-American trombonist, composer, and conductor (d. 1991) 1904 – Richard B. Morris, American historian and academic (d. 1989) 1904 – Delmer Daves, American screenwriter, director and producer (d. 1977) 1909 – John William Finn, American lieutenant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2010) 1910 – Harry Horner, American director and production designer (d. 1994) 1912 – Essie Summers, New Zealand author (d. 1998) 1913 – Britton Chance, American biologist and sailor (d. 2010) 1914 – Frances Oldham Kelsey, Canadian pharmacologist and physician (d. 2015) 1914 – Ed Mirvish, American-Canadian businessman and philanthropist (d. 2007) 1914 – Alan Waddell, Australian walker (d. 2008) 1915 – Enrique Fernando, Filipino lawyer and jurist, 13th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines (d. 2004) 1916 – John D. MacDonald, American colonel and author (d. 1986) 1917 – Robert Farnon, Canadian trumpet player, composer, and conductor (d. 2005) 1917 –
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which became known as the Mishnah. This completed a project which had been mostly clarified and organised by his father and Nathan the Babylonian. The Mishnah consists of 63 tractates codifying Jewish law, which are the basis of the Talmud. According to Abraham ben David, the Mishnah was compiled by Rabbi Judah the Prince in 3949 AM, or the year 500 of the Seleucid era, which corresponds to 189 CE. The Mishnah contains many of Judah's own sentences, which are introduced by the words, "Rabbi says." The Mishnah was Judah's work, although it includes a few sentences by his son and successor, Gamaliel III, perhaps written after Judah's death. Both the Talmuds assume as a matter of course that Judah is the originator of the Mishnah—"our Mishnah," as it was called in Babylon—and the author of the explanations and discussions relating to its sentences. However, Judah is more correctly considered redactor of the Mishnah, rather than its author. The Mishnah is based on the systematic division of the halakhic material as formulated by Rabbi Akiva; Judah following in his work the arrangement of the halakot as taught by Rabbi Meir (Akiva's foremost student). Judah's work in the Mishnah appears both in what he included and in what he rejected. The volume of tannaitic statements not included in the Mishnah (but recorded in the Tosefta and in the baraitot of both Talmuds) shows that Judah had no small task in selecting the material that he included in his work. Also, the formulating of halakic maxims on controverted points required both his unusual technical knowledge and his undisputed authority; and the fact that he did not invariably lay down the rule, but always admitted divergent opinions and traditions both of the pre-Hadrianic time and, more especially, of Akiva's eminent students, demonstrates his circumspection and his consciousness of the limits imposed upon his authority by tradition and by its recognised representatives. Halacha Using the precedent of Rabbi Meir's reported actions, Judah ruled the Beit Shean region to be exempt from the requirements of tithing and shmita regarding produce grown there. He also did the same for the cities of Kefar Tzemach, Caesarea and Beit Gubrin. He forbade his students to study in the marketplace, basing his prohibition on his interpretation of Song of Songs 7:2, and censured one of his students who violated this restriction. Biblical interpretation His exegesis includes many attempts to harmonise conflicting Biblical statements. Thus he harmonises the contradictions between Genesis 15:13 ("400 years") and 15:16 ("the fourth generation"); Exodus 20:16 and Deuteronomy 5:18; Numbers 9:23, 10:35 and ib., Deuteronomy 14:13 and Leviticus 11:14. The contradiction between Genesis 1:25 (which lists 3 categories of created beings) and 1:24 (which adds a fourth category, the "living souls") Judah explains by saying that this expression designates the demons, for whom God did not create bodies because the Sabbath had come. Noteworthy among the other numerous Scriptural interpretations which have been handed down in Judah's name are his clever etymological explanations, for example: Exodus 19:8-9; Leviticus 23:40; Numbers 15:38; II Samuel 17:27; Joel 1:17; Psalms 68:7. He interpreted the words "to do the evil" in II Samuel 12:9 to mean that David did not really sin with Bathsheba, but only intended to do so. Rav, Judah's student, ascribes this apology for King David to Judah's desire to justify his ancestor. A sentence praising King Hezekiah and an extenuating opinion of King Ahaz have also been handed down in Judah's name. Characteristic of Judah's appreciation of aggadah is his interpretation of the word "vayagged" (Exodus 19:9) to the effect that the words of Moses attracted the hearts of his hearers, like the aggadah does. Once when the audience was falling asleep in his lecture, he made a ludicrous statement in order to revive their interest, and then explained the statement to be accurate in a metaphorical sense. Judah was especially fond of the Book of Psalms. He paraphrased the psalmist's wish "Let the words of my mouth ... be acceptable in thy sight," thus: "May the Psalms have been composed for the coming generations; may they be written down for them; and may those that read them be rewarded like those that study halakhic sentences". He said that the Book of Job was important if only because it presented the sin and punishment of the generations of the Flood. He proves from Exodus 16:35 that there is no chronological order in the Torah. Referring to the prophetic books, he says: "All the Prophets begin with denunciations and end with comfortings". Even the genealogical portions of the Book of Chronicles must be interpreted. It appears that there was an aggadic collection containing Judah's answers to exegetical questions. Among these questions may have been the one which Judah's son Simeon addressed to him. Other quotes What is the right way for man to choose? That which is honorable in his own eyes (i.e. approved by his conscience), and, at the same time, honorable in the eyes of his fellow-men. Be as careful with a light mitzvah as a serious one, for you do not know the reward given for mitzvot. Calculate the loss of a mitzvah against its gain, and the gain of a sin against its loss. Look at three things and you will not come to sin: Know what is above you, an eye seeing and an ear listening, and all your deeds are written in a book. Look not at the jar, but upon what is inside; many a new jug is full of old wine; and many an old jug does not even contain new wine. Much have I learned from my teachers; more from my colleagues; but most from my students. Why is the story of the Nazirite juxtaposed to the story of the suspected adulteress?
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"Rabbi Yehuda ha-Nasi." Often though (and always in the Mishnah), he is simply called "Rabbi" (), the master par excellence. He is occasionally called "Rabbenu" (= "our master"). He is also called "Rabbenu HaQadosh" (, "our holy Master") due to his deep piety. Biography Youth Judah the Prince was born in 135 CE to Simeon ben Gamliel II. According to the Talmud he was of the Davidic line. He is said to have been born on the same day that Rabbi Akiva died as a martyr. The Talmud suggests that this was a result of Divine Providence: God had granted the Jewish people another leader of great stature to succeed Rabbi Akiva. His place of birth is unknown. Judah spent his youth in the city of Usha. His father presumably gave him the same education that he himself had received, including the Greek language. This knowledge of Greek enabled him to become the Jews' intermediary with the Roman authorities. He favoured Greek as the language of the country over Jewish Palestinian Aramaic. In Judah's house, only the Hebrew language was spoken, and the maids of the house became known for their use of obscure Hebrew terminology. Judah devoted himself to the study of the oral and the written law. He studied under some of R' Akiva's most eminent students. As their student and through converse with other prominent men who gathered about his father, he laid a strong foundation of scholarship for his life's work: the editing of the Mishnah. His teachers His teacher at Usha was R' Judah bar Ilai, who was officially employed in the house of the patriarch as judge in religious and legal questions. In later years, Judah described how in his childhood he read the Book of Esther at Usha in the presence of Judah bar Ilai. Judah felt especial reverence for R' Jose ben Halafta, the student of Akiva's who had the closest relations with Simon ben Gamaliel. When, in later years, Judah raised objections to Jose's opinions, he would say: "We poor ones undertake to attack Jose, though our time compares with his as the profane with the holy!" Judah hands down a halakhah by Jose in Menachot 14a. Judah studied from R' Shimon bar Yochai in "Tekoa", a place some have identified with Meron. He also studied with Eleazar ben Shammua. Judah did not study with Rabbi Meir, evidently in consequence of the conflicts which distanced Meir from the house of the patriarch. However, he considered himself lucky even to have seen Meir from behind. Another of Judah's teachers was Nathan the Babylonian, who also took a part in the conflict between Meir and the patriarch; Judah confessed that once, in a fit of youthful ardour, he had failed to treat Nathan with due reverence. In both halakhic and aggadic tradition, Judah's opinion is often opposed to Nathan's. In the Jerusalemite tradition, Judah ben Korshai (the halakhic specialist mentioned as assistant to Simon ben Gamaliel) is designated as Judah's real teacher. Jacob ben Hanina (possibly the R. Jacob whose patronymic is not given and in whose name Judah quotes halakhic sentences) is also mentioned as one of Judah's teachers, and is said to have asked him to repeat halakhic sentences. Judah was also taught by his father (Simon ben Gamaliel); when the two differed on a halakhic matter, the father was generally stricter. Judah himself says: "My opinion seems to me more correct than that of my father"; and he then proceeds to give his reasons. Humility was a virtue ascribed to Judah, and he admired it greatly in his father, who openly recognised Shimon bar Yochai's superiority, thus displaying the same modesty as the Bnei Bathyra when they gave way to Hillel, and as Jonathan when he voluntarily gave precedence to his friend David. Leadership Nothing is known regarding the time when Judah succeeded his father as leader of the Palestinian Jews. According to Rashi, Judah's father, Rabbi Simon ben Gamliel, had served as the nasi of the Sanhedrin in Usha, before it transferred to Shefar'am. According to a tradition, the country at the time of Simon ben Gamaliel's death not only was devastated by a plague of locusts, but suffered many other hardships. From Shefar'am, the Sanhedrin transferred to Beit Shearim, where the Sanhedrin was headed by Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi. Here he officiated for a long time. Eventually, Judah moved with the court from Beit Shearim to Sepphoris, where he spent at least 17 years of his life. He had chosen Sepphoris chiefly because of his ill-health, and being induced to go there because of the place's high altitude and pure air. However, Judah's memorial as a leader is principally associated with Bet She'arim: "To Bet She'arim must one go in order to obtain Rabbi's decision in legal matters." Among Judah's contemporaries in the early years of his activity were Eleazar ben Simeon, Ishmael ben Jose, Jose ben Judah, and Simeon ben Eleazar. His better-known contemporaries and students include Simon b. Manasseh, Phinehas ben Jair, Eleazar ha-Kappar and his son Bar Kappara, Hiyya the Great, Shimon ben Halafta, and Levi ben Sisi. Among his students who taught as the first generation of Amoraim after his death are: Hanina bar Hama and Hoshaiah in Palestine, Rav and Samuel in Babylon. Only scattered records of Judah's official activity exist. These include: the ordination of his students; the recommendation of students for communal offices; orders relating to the announcement of the new moon; amelioration of the law relating to the Sabbatical year; and to decrees relating to tithes in the frontier districts of Palestine. The last-named he was obliged to defend against the opposition of the members of the patriarchal family. The ameliorations he intended for Tisha B'av were prevented by the college. Many religious and legal decisions are recorded as having been rendered by Judah together with his court, the college of scholars. According to the Talmud, Rabbi Judah HaNasi was very wealthy and greatly revered in Rome. He had a close friendship with "Antoninus", possibly the Emperor Antoninus Pius, though it is more likely his famous friendship was with either Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus or Antoninus who is also called Caracalla and who would consult Judah on various worldly and spiritual matters. Jewish sources tell of various discussions between Judah and Antoninus. These include the parable of the blind and the lame (illustrating the judgment of the body and the soul after death), and a discussion of the impulse to sin. The authority of Judah's office was enhanced by his wealth, which is referred to in various traditions. In Babylon, the hyperbolic statement was later made that even his stable-master was wealthier than King Shapur. His household was compared to that of the emperor. Simeon ben Menasya praised Judah by saying that he and his sons united in themselves beauty, power, wealth, wisdom, age, honour, and the blessings of children. During a famine, Judah opened his granaries and distributed corn among the needy. But he denied himself the pleasures procurable by wealth, saying: "Whoever chooses the delights of this world will be deprived of the delights of the next world; whoever renounces the former will receive the latter". Death The year of Judah's death is deduced from the statement that his student Rav left Palestine for good not long before Judah's death, in year 530 of the Seleucid era (219 CE). He assumed the office of patriarch during the reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (c. 165). Hence Judah, having been born about 135, became patriarch at the age of 30, and died at the
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accent into his late teens.” During World War II, he served in the United States Merchant Marine; he completed his first novel at the time, which was published over 40 years after his death. His first published book was The Town and the City, and he achieved widespread fame and notoriety with his second, On the Road, in 1957. It made him a beat icon, who published 12 more novels during his life and numerous poetry volumes. Kerouac is recognized for his style of spontaneous prose. Thematically, his work covers topics such as his Catholic spirituality, jazz, travel, promiscuity, life in New York City, Buddhism, drugs, and poverty. He became an underground celebrity and, with other Beats, a progenitor of the hippie movement, although he remained antagonistic toward some of its politically radical elements. He has a lasting legacy, greatly influencing many of the cultural icons of the 1960s, including Bob Dylan, the Beatles, and the Doors. In 1969, at age 47, Kerouac died from an abdominal hemorrhage caused by a lifetime of heavy drinking. Since then, his literary prestige has grown, and several previously unseen works have been published. Biography Early life and adolescence Jack Kerouac was born on March 12, 1922, in Lowell, Massachusetts, to French Canadian parents, Léo-Alcide Kéroack (1889–1946) and Gabrielle-Ange Lévesque (1895–1973). There is some confusion surrounding his name, partly because of variations on the spelling of Kerouac, and because of Kerouac's own statement of his name as Jean-Louis Lebris de Kerouac. His reason for that statement seems to be linked to an old family legend that the Kerouacs had descended from Baron François Louis Alexandre Lebris de Kerouac. Kerouac's baptism certificate lists his name simply as Jean Louis Kirouac, the most common spelling of the name in Quebec. Research has shown that Kerouac's roots were indeed in Brittany, and he was descended from a middle-class merchant colonist, Urbain-François Le Bihan, Sieur de Kervoac, whose sons married French Canadians. Kerouac's father Leo had been born into a family of potato farmers in the village of Saint-Hubert-de-Rivière-du-Loup, Quebec. Jack also had various stories on the etymology of his surname, usually tracing it to Irish, Breton, Cornish, or other Celtic roots. In one interview he claimed it was from the name of the Cornish language (Kernewek), and that the Kerouacs had fled from Cornwall to Brittany. Another version was that the Kerouacs had come to Cornwall from Ireland before the time of Christ and the name meant "language of the house". In still another interview he said it was an Irish word for "language of the water" and related to Kerwick. Kerouac, derived from Kervoach, is the name of a town in Brittany in Lanmeur, near Morlaix. Jack Kerouac later referred to 34 Beaulieu Street as "sad Beaulieu". The Kerouac family was living there in 1926 when Jack's older brother Gerard died of rheumatic fever, aged nine. This deeply affected four-year-old Jack, who later said Gerard followed him in life as a guardian angel. This is the Gerard of Kerouac's novel Visions of Gerard. He had one other sibling, an older sister named Caroline. Kerouac was referred to as Ti Jean or little John around the house during his childhood. Kerouac spoke French with his family and began learning English at school, around age six; he began speaking it confidently in his late teens. He was a serious child who was devoted to his mother, who played an important role in his life. She was a devout Catholic, who instilled this deep faith into both her sons. He later said she was the only woman he ever loved. After Gerard died, his mother sought solace in her faith, while his father abandoned it, wallowing in drinking, gambling, and smoking. Some of Kerouac's poetry was written in French, and in letters written to friend Allen Ginsberg towards the end of his life, he expressed a desire to speak his parents' native tongue again. In 2016, a whole volume of previously unpublished works originally written in French by Kerouac was published as La vie est d'hommage. On May 17, 1928, while six years old, Kerouac had his first Confession. For penance, he was told to say a rosary, during which he heard God tell him that he had a good soul, that he would suffer in life and die in pain and horror, but would in the end receive salvation. This experience, along with his dying brother's vision of the Virgin Mary (as the nuns fawned over him, convinced he was a saint), combined with a later study of Buddhism and an ongoing commitment to Christ, solidified the worldview which informed his work. Kerouac once told Ted Berrigan, in an interview for The Paris Review, of an incident in the 1940s in which his mother and father were walking together in a Jewish neighborhood on the Lower East Side of New York. He recalled "a whole bunch of rabbis walking arm in arm ... teedah- teedah – teedah ... and they wouldn't part for this Christian man and his wife, so my father went POOM! and knocked a rabbi right in the gutter." Leo, after the death of his child, also treated a priest with similar contempt, angrily throwing him out of the house despite his invitation from Gabrielle. Kerouac was a capable athlete in football and wrestling. Kerouac's skills as running back in football for Lowell High School earned him scholarship offers from Boston College, Notre Dame, and Columbia University. He spent a year at Horace Mann School, where he befriended Seymour Wyse, an Englishman whom he later featured as a character, under the pseudonym 'Lionel Smart', in several of Kerouac's books. He also cites Wyse as the person who introduced him to the new styles of jazz, including Bop. After his year at Horace Mann Kerouac earned the requisite grades for entry to Columbia. Kerouac broke a leg playing football during his freshman season, and during an abbreviated second year he argued constantly with coach Lou Little, who kept him benched. While at Columbia, Kerouac wrote several sports articles for the student newspaper, the Columbia Daily Spectator, and joined the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity. He was a resident of Livingston Hall and Hartley Hall, where other Beat Generation figures lived. He also studied at The New School. Early adulthood When his football career at Columbia ended, Kerouac dropped out of the university. He continued to live for a time in New York's Upper West Side with his girlfriend and future first wife, Edie Parker. It was during this time that he first met the Beat Generation figures who shaped his legacy and became characters in many of his novels, such as Allen Ginsberg, Neal Cassady, John Clellon Holmes, Herbert Huncke, Lucien Carr, and William S. Burroughs. Kerouac was a United States Merchant Marine from July to October 1942 and served on the SS Dorchester before her maiden voyage. A few months later, the SS Dorchester was sunk during a submarine attack while crossing the Atlantic, and several of his former shipmates were lost. In 1943 he joined the United States Navy Reserves. He served eight days of active duty with the Navy before arriving on the sick list. According to his medical report, Kerouac said he "asked for an aspirin for his headaches and they diagnosed me dementia praecox and sent me here." The medical examiner reported that Kerouac's military adjustment was poor, quoting Kerouac: "I just can't stand it; I like to be by myself." Two days later he was honorably discharged on the psychiatric grounds that he was of "indifferent character" with a diagnosis of "schizoid personality". While a Merchant Marine in 1942, Kerouac wrote his first novel, The Sea Is My Brother. The book was published in 2011, 70 years after it was written and over 40 years after Kerouac's death. Kerouac described the work as being about "man's simple revolt from society as it is, with the inequalities, frustration, and self-inflicted agonies." He viewed the work as a failure, calling it a "crock as literature" and never actively seeking to publish it. In 1944, Kerouac was arrested as a material witness in the murder of David Kammerer, who had been stalking Kerouac's friend Lucien Carr since Carr was a teenager in St. Louis. William Burroughs was also a native of St. Louis, and it was through Carr that Kerouac came to know both Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg. According to Carr, Kammerer's homosexual obsession turned aggressive, finally provoking Carr to stab him to death in self-defense. Carr dumped the body in the Hudson River. Afterwards, Carr sought help from Kerouac. Kerouac disposed of the murder weapon and buried Kammerer's eyeglasses. Carr, encouraged by Burroughs, turned himself in to the police. Kerouac and Burroughs were later arrested as material witnesses. Kerouac's father refused to pay his bail. Kerouac then agreed to marry Edie Parker if her parents would pay the bail. (Their marriage was annulled in 1948.) Kerouac and Burroughs collaborated on a novel about the Kammerer killing entitled And the Hippos Were Boiled in Their Tanks. Though the book was not published during their lifetimes, an excerpt eventually appeared in Word Virus: The William S. Burroughs Reader (and as noted below, the novel was finally published late 2008). Kerouac also later wrote about the killing in his novel Vanity of Duluoz. Later, Kerouac lived with his parents in the Ozone Park neighborhood of Queens, after they had also moved to New York. He wrote his first published novel, The Town and the City, and began the famous On the Road around 1949 when living there. His friends jokingly called him "The Wizard of Ozone Park", alluding to Thomas Edison's nickname, "the Wizard of Menlo Park", and to the film The Wizard of Oz. Early career: 1950–1957 The Town and the City was published in 1950 under the name "John Kerouac" and, though it earned him a few respectable reviews, the book sold poorly. Heavily influenced by Kerouac's reading of Thomas Wolfe, it reflects on the generational epic formula and the contrasts of small-town life versus the multi-dimensional, and larger life of the city. The book was heavily edited by Robert Giroux, with around 400 pages taken out. For the next six years, Kerouac continued to write regularly. Building upon previous drafts tentatively titled "The Beat Generation" and "Gone on the Road," Kerouac completed what is now known as On the Road in April 1951, while living at 454 West 20th Street in Manhattan with his second wife, Joan Haverty. The book was largely autobiographical and describes Kerouac's road-trip adventures across the United States and Mexico with Neal Cassady in the late 40s and early 50s, as well as his relationships with other Beat writers and friends. Although some of the novel is focused on driving, Kerouac did not have a driver's license and Cassady did most of the cross-country driving. He learned to drive aged 34, but never had a formal license. Kerouac completed the first version of the novel during a three-week extended session of spontaneous confessional prose. Kerouac wrote the final draft in 20 days, with Joan, his wife, supplying him with benzedrine, cigarettes, bowls of pea soup, and mugs of coffee to keep him going. Before beginning, Kerouac cut sheets of tracing paper into long strips, wide enough for a typewriter, and taped them together into a long roll which he then fed into the machine. This allowed him to type continuously without the interruption of reloading pages. The resulting manuscript contained no chapter or paragraph breaks and was much more explicit than the version which was eventually published. Though "spontaneous," Kerouac had prepared long in advance before beginning to write. In fact, according to his Columbia professor and mentor Mark Van Doren, he had outlined much of the work in his journals over the several preceding years. Though the work was completed quickly, Kerouac had a long and difficult time finding a publisher. Before On the Road was accepted by Viking Press, Kerouac got a job as a "railroad brakeman and fire lookout" (see Desolation Peak (Washington)) traveling between the East and West coasts of the United States to earn money, frequently finding rest and the quiet space necessary for writing at the home of his mother. While employed in this way he met and befriended Abe Green, a young freight train jumper who later introduced Kerouac to Herbert Huncke, a Times Square street hustler and favorite of many Beat Generation writers. Publishers rejected On the Road because of its experimental writing style and its sexual content. Many editors were also uncomfortable with the idea of publishing a book that contained what were, for the era, graphic descriptions of drug use and homosexual behavior—a move that could result in obscenity charges being filed, a fate that later befell Burroughs' Naked Lunch and Ginsberg's Howl. According to Kerouac, On the Road "was really a story about two Catholic buddies roaming the country in search of God. And we found him. I found him in the sky, in Market Street San Francisco (those 2 visions), and Dean (Neal) had God sweating out of his forehead all the way. THERE IS NO OTHER WAY OUT FOR THE HOLY MAN: HE MUST SWEAT FOR GOD. And once he has found Him, the Godhood of God is forever Established and really must not be spoken about." According to his biographer, historian Douglas Brinkley, On the Road has been misinterpreted as a tale of companions out looking for kicks, but the most important thing to comprehend is that Kerouac was an American Catholic author – for example, virtually every page of his diary bore a sketch of a crucifix, a prayer, or an appeal to Christ to be forgiven. In the spring of 1951, while pregnant, Joan Haverty left and divorced Kerouac. In February 1952, she gave birth to Kerouac's only child, Jan Kerouac, whom he acknowledged as his daughter after a blood test confirmed it nine years later. For the next several years Kerouac continued writing and traveling, taking long trips through the U.S. and Mexico. He often experienced episodes of heavy drinking and depression. During this period, he finished drafts of what became ten more novels, including The Subterraneans, Doctor Sax, Tristessa, and Desolation Angels, which chronicle many of the events of these years. In 1953, he lived mostly in New York City, having a brief but passionate affair with an African-American woman. This woman was the basis for the character named "Mardou" in the novel The Subterraneans. At the request of his editors, Kerouac changed the setting of the novel from New York to San Francisco. In 1954, Kerouac discovered Dwight Goddard's A Buddhist Bible at the San Jose Library, which marked the beginning of his study of Buddhism. Between 1955 and 1956, he lived on and off with his sister, whom he called "Nin," and her husband, Paul Blake, at their home outside of Rocky Mount, N.C. ("Testament, Va." in his works) where he meditated on, and studied, Buddhism. He wrote Some of the Dharma, an imaginative treatise on Buddhism, while living there. However, Kerouac had earlier taken an interest in Eastern thought. In 1946 he read Heinrich Zimmer's Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. In 1955, Kerouac wrote a biography of Siddhartha Gautama, titled Wake Up: A Life of the Buddha, which was unpublished during his lifetime, but eventually serialized in Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, 1993–95. It was published by Viking in September 2008. Kerouac found enemies on both sides of the political spectrum, the right disdaining his association with drugs and sexual libertinism and the left contemptuous of his anti-communism and Catholicism; characteristically, he watched the 1954 Senate McCarthy hearings smoking marijuana and rooting for the anti-communist crusader, Senator Joseph McCarthy. In Desolation Angels he wrote, "when I went to Columbia all they tried to teach us was Marx, as if I cared" (considering Marxism, like Freudianism, to be an illusory tangent). In 1957, after being rejected by several other publishers, On the Road was finally purchased by Viking Press, which demanded major revisions prior to publication. Many of the more sexually explicit passages were removed and, fearing libel suits, pseudonyms were used for the book's "characters." These revisions have often led to criticisms of the alleged spontaneity of Kerouac's style. Later career: 1957–1969 In July 1957, Kerouac moved to a small house at 1418½ Clouser Avenue in the College Park section of Orlando, Florida, to await the release of On the Road. Weeks later, a review of the book by Gilbert Millstein appeared in The New York Times proclaiming Kerouac the voice of a new generation. Kerouac was hailed as a major American writer. His friendship with Allen Ginsberg, William S. Burroughs and Gregory Corso, among others, became a notorious representation of the Beat Generation. The term Beat Generation was invented by Kerouac during a conversation held with fellow novelist Herbert Huncke. Huncke used the term "beat" to describe a person with little money and few prospects. "I'm beat to my socks", he had said. Kerouac's fame came as an unmanageable surge that would ultimately be his undoing. Kerouac's novel is often described as the defining work of the post-World War II Beat Generation and Kerouac came to be called "the king of the beat generation," a term with which he never felt comfortable. He once observed, "I'm not a beatnik. I'm a Catholic", showing the reporter a painting of Pope Paul VI and saying, "You know who painted that? Me." The success of On the Road brought Kerouac instant fame. His celebrity status brought publishers desiring unwanted manuscripts that were previously rejected before its publication. After nine months, he no longer felt safe in public. He was badly beaten by three men outside the San Remo Cafe at 189 Bleecker Street in New York City one night. Neal Cassady, possibly as a result of his new notoriety as the central character of the book, was set up and arrested for selling marijuana. In response, Kerouac chronicled parts of his own experience with Buddhism, as well as some of his adventures with Gary Snyder and other San Francisco-area poets, in The Dharma Bums, set in California and Washington and published in 1958. It was written in Orlando between November 26 and December 7, 1957. To begin writing Dharma Bums, Kerouac typed onto a ten-foot length of teleprinter paper, to avoid interrupting his flow for paper changes, as he had done six years previously for On the Road. Kerouac was demoralized by criticism of Dharma Bums from such respected figures in the American field of Buddhism as Zen teachers Ruth Fuller Sasaki and Alan Watts. He wrote to Snyder, referring to a meeting with D.T. Suzuki, that "even Suzuki was looking at me through slitted eyes as though I was a monstrous imposter." He passed up the opportunity to reunite with Snyder in California, and explained to Philip Whalen "I'd be ashamed to confront you and Gary now I've become so decadent and drunk and don't give a shit. I'm not a Buddhist any more." In further reaction to their criticism, he quoted part of Abe Green's café recitation, Thrasonical Yawning in the Abattoir of the Soul: "A gaping, rabid congregation, eager to bathe, are washed over by the Font of Euphoria, and bask like protozoans in the celebrated light." Kerouac also wrote and narrated a beat movie titled Pull My Daisy (1959), directed by Robert Frank and Alfred Leslie. It
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Lucien Carr since Carr was a teenager in St. Louis. William Burroughs was also a native of St. Louis, and it was through Carr that Kerouac came to know both Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg. According to Carr, Kammerer's homosexual obsession turned aggressive, finally provoking Carr to stab him to death in self-defense. Carr dumped the body in the Hudson River. Afterwards, Carr sought help from Kerouac. Kerouac disposed of the murder weapon and buried Kammerer's eyeglasses. Carr, encouraged by Burroughs, turned himself in to the police. Kerouac and Burroughs were later arrested as material witnesses. Kerouac's father refused to pay his bail. Kerouac then agreed to marry Edie Parker if her parents would pay the bail. (Their marriage was annulled in 1948.) Kerouac and Burroughs collaborated on a novel about the Kammerer killing entitled And the Hippos Were Boiled in Their Tanks. Though the book was not published during their lifetimes, an excerpt eventually appeared in Word Virus: The William S. Burroughs Reader (and as noted below, the novel was finally published late 2008). Kerouac also later wrote about the killing in his novel Vanity of Duluoz. Later, Kerouac lived with his parents in the Ozone Park neighborhood of Queens, after they had also moved to New York. He wrote his first published novel, The Town and the City, and began the famous On the Road around 1949 when living there. His friends jokingly called him "The Wizard of Ozone Park", alluding to Thomas Edison's nickname, "the Wizard of Menlo Park", and to the film The Wizard of Oz. Early career: 1950–1957 The Town and the City was published in 1950 under the name "John Kerouac" and, though it earned him a few respectable reviews, the book sold poorly. Heavily influenced by Kerouac's reading of Thomas Wolfe, it reflects on the generational epic formula and the contrasts of small-town life versus the multi-dimensional, and larger life of the city. The book was heavily edited by Robert Giroux, with around 400 pages taken out. For the next six years, Kerouac continued to write regularly. Building upon previous drafts tentatively titled "The Beat Generation" and "Gone on the Road," Kerouac completed what is now known as On the Road in April 1951, while living at 454 West 20th Street in Manhattan with his second wife, Joan Haverty. The book was largely autobiographical and describes Kerouac's road-trip adventures across the United States and Mexico with Neal Cassady in the late 40s and early 50s, as well as his relationships with other Beat writers and friends. Although some of the novel is focused on driving, Kerouac did not have a driver's license and Cassady did most of the cross-country driving. He learned to drive aged 34, but never had a formal license. Kerouac completed the first version of the novel during a three-week extended session of spontaneous confessional prose. Kerouac wrote the final draft in 20 days, with Joan, his wife, supplying him with benzedrine, cigarettes, bowls of pea soup, and mugs of coffee to keep him going. Before beginning, Kerouac cut sheets of tracing paper into long strips, wide enough for a typewriter, and taped them together into a long roll which he then fed into the machine. This allowed him to type continuously without the interruption of reloading pages. The resulting manuscript contained no chapter or paragraph breaks and was much more explicit than the version which was eventually published. Though "spontaneous," Kerouac had prepared long in advance before beginning to write. In fact, according to his Columbia professor and mentor Mark Van Doren, he had outlined much of the work in his journals over the several preceding years. Though the work was completed quickly, Kerouac had a long and difficult time finding a publisher. Before On the Road was accepted by Viking Press, Kerouac got a job as a "railroad brakeman and fire lookout" (see Desolation Peak (Washington)) traveling between the East and West coasts of the United States to earn money, frequently finding rest and the quiet space necessary for writing at the home of his mother. While employed in this way he met and befriended Abe Green, a young freight train jumper who later introduced Kerouac to Herbert Huncke, a Times Square street hustler and favorite of many Beat Generation writers. Publishers rejected On the Road because of its experimental writing style and its sexual content. Many editors were also uncomfortable with the idea of publishing a book that contained what were, for the era, graphic descriptions of drug use and homosexual behavior—a move that could result in obscenity charges being filed, a fate that later befell Burroughs' Naked Lunch and Ginsberg's Howl. According to Kerouac, On the Road "was really a story about two Catholic buddies roaming the country in search of God. And we found him. I found him in the sky, in Market Street San Francisco (those 2 visions), and Dean (Neal) had God sweating out of his forehead all the way. THERE IS NO OTHER WAY OUT FOR THE HOLY MAN: HE MUST SWEAT FOR GOD. And once he has found Him, the Godhood of God is forever Established and really must not be spoken about." According to his biographer, historian Douglas Brinkley, On the Road has been misinterpreted as a tale of companions out looking for kicks, but the most important thing to comprehend is that Kerouac was an American Catholic author – for example, virtually every page of his diary bore a sketch of a crucifix, a prayer, or an appeal to Christ to be forgiven. In the spring of 1951, while pregnant, Joan Haverty left and divorced Kerouac. In February 1952, she gave birth to Kerouac's only child, Jan Kerouac, whom he acknowledged as his daughter after a blood test confirmed it nine years later. For the next several years Kerouac continued writing and traveling, taking long trips through the U.S. and Mexico. He often experienced episodes of heavy drinking and depression. During this period, he finished drafts of what became ten more novels, including The Subterraneans, Doctor Sax, Tristessa, and Desolation Angels, which chronicle many of the events of these years. In 1953, he lived mostly in New York City, having a brief but passionate affair with an African-American woman. This woman was the basis for the character named "Mardou" in the novel The Subterraneans. At the request of his editors, Kerouac changed the setting of the novel from New York to San Francisco. In 1954, Kerouac discovered Dwight Goddard's A Buddhist Bible at the San Jose Library, which marked the beginning of his study of Buddhism. Between 1955 and 1956, he lived on and off with his sister, whom he called "Nin," and her husband, Paul Blake, at their home outside of Rocky Mount, N.C. ("Testament, Va." in his works) where he meditated on, and studied, Buddhism. He wrote Some of the Dharma, an imaginative treatise on Buddhism, while living there. However, Kerouac had earlier taken an interest in Eastern thought. In 1946 he read Heinrich Zimmer's Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. In 1955, Kerouac wrote a biography of Siddhartha Gautama, titled Wake Up: A Life of the Buddha, which was unpublished during his lifetime, but eventually serialized in Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, 1993–95. It was published by Viking in September 2008. Kerouac found enemies on both sides of the political spectrum, the right disdaining his association with drugs and sexual libertinism and the left contemptuous of his anti-communism and Catholicism; characteristically, he watched the 1954 Senate McCarthy hearings smoking marijuana and rooting for the anti-communist crusader, Senator Joseph McCarthy. In Desolation Angels he wrote, "when I went to Columbia all they tried to teach us was Marx, as if I cared" (considering Marxism, like Freudianism, to be an illusory tangent). In 1957, after being rejected by several other publishers, On the Road was finally purchased by Viking Press, which demanded major revisions prior to publication. Many of the more sexually explicit passages were removed and, fearing libel suits, pseudonyms were used for the book's "characters." These revisions have often led to criticisms of the alleged spontaneity of Kerouac's style. Later career: 1957–1969 In July 1957, Kerouac moved to a small house at 1418½ Clouser Avenue in the College Park section of Orlando, Florida, to await the release of On the Road. Weeks later, a review of the book by Gilbert Millstein appeared in The New York Times proclaiming Kerouac the voice of a new generation. Kerouac was hailed as a major American writer. His friendship with Allen Ginsberg, William S. Burroughs and Gregory Corso, among others, became a notorious representation of the Beat Generation. The term Beat Generation was invented by Kerouac during a conversation held with fellow novelist Herbert Huncke. Huncke used the term "beat" to describe a person with little money and few prospects. "I'm beat to my socks", he had said. Kerouac's fame came as an unmanageable surge that would ultimately be his undoing. Kerouac's novel is often described as the defining work of the post-World War II Beat Generation and Kerouac came to be called "the king of the beat generation," a term with which he never felt comfortable. He once observed, "I'm not a beatnik. I'm a Catholic", showing the reporter a painting of Pope Paul VI and saying, "You know who painted that? Me." The success of On the Road brought Kerouac instant fame. His celebrity status brought publishers desiring unwanted manuscripts that were previously rejected before its publication. After nine months, he no longer felt safe in public. He was badly beaten by three men outside the San Remo Cafe at 189 Bleecker Street in New York City one night. Neal Cassady, possibly as a result of his new notoriety as the central character of the book, was set up and arrested for selling marijuana. In response, Kerouac chronicled parts of his own experience with Buddhism, as well as some of his adventures with Gary Snyder and other San Francisco-area poets, in The Dharma Bums, set in California and Washington and published in 1958. It was written in Orlando between November 26 and December 7, 1957. To begin writing Dharma Bums, Kerouac typed onto a ten-foot length of teleprinter paper, to avoid interrupting his flow for paper changes, as he had done six years previously for On the Road. Kerouac was demoralized by criticism of Dharma Bums from such respected figures in the American field of Buddhism as Zen teachers Ruth Fuller Sasaki and Alan Watts. He wrote to Snyder, referring to a meeting with D.T. Suzuki, that "even Suzuki was looking at me through slitted eyes as though I was a monstrous imposter." He passed up the opportunity to reunite with Snyder in California, and explained to Philip Whalen "I'd be ashamed to confront you and Gary now I've become so decadent and drunk and don't give a shit. I'm not a Buddhist any more." In further reaction to their criticism, he quoted part of Abe Green's café recitation, Thrasonical Yawning in the Abattoir of the Soul: "A gaping, rabid congregation, eager to bathe, are washed over by the Font of Euphoria, and bask like protozoans in the celebrated light." Kerouac also wrote and narrated a beat movie titled Pull My Daisy (1959), directed by Robert Frank and Alfred Leslie. It starred poets Allen Ginsberg and Gregory Corso, musician David Amram and painter Larry Rivers among others. Originally to be called The Beat Generation, the title was changed at the last moment when MGM released a film by the same name in July 1959 that sensationalized beatnik culture. The television series Route 66 (1960–1964), featuring two untethered young men "on the road" in a Corvette seeking adventure and fueling their travels by apparently plentiful temporary jobs in the various U.S. locales framing the anthology-styled stories, gave the impression of being a commercially sanitized misappropriation of Kerouac's story model for On the Road. Even the leads, Buz and Todd, bore a resemblance to the dark,
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Garrett, Australian cricketer and lawyer (d. 1943) 1863 – Jāzeps Vītols, Latvian composer (d. 1948) 1865 – Philipp Scheidemann, German journalist and politician, 10th Chancellor of Germany (d. 1939) 1865 – Rajanikanta Sen, Indian poet and composer (d. 1910) 1874 – Serge Koussevitzky, Russian-American bassist, composer, and conductor (d. 1951) 1875 – Carl Jung, Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist (d. 1961) 1875 – Ernesta Di Capua, Italian botanist and explorer (d. 1943) 1875 – Antonio Machado, Spanish poet and academic (d. 1939) 1877 – Jesse Lauriston Livermore, American investor and security analyst, "Great Bear of Wall Street" (d. 1940) 1878 – Ernst Hoppenberg, German swimmer and water polo player (d. 1937) 1879 – Shunroku Hata, Japanese field marshal and politician, 48th Japanese Minister of War (d. 1962) 1880 – Volodymyr Vynnychenko, Ukrainian playwright and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Ukrainian People's Republic (d. 1951) 1882 – Albert Dunstan, Australian politician, 33rd Premier of Victoria (d. 1950) 1885 – Roy Castleton, American baseball player (d. 1967) 1885 – André Maurois, French soldier and author (d. 1967) 1886 – Lars Hanson, Swedish actor (d. 1965) 1888 – Reginald Hands, South African cricketer and rugby player (d. 1918) 1890 – Daniel J. Callaghan, American admiral, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1942) 1892 – Sad Sam Jones, American baseball player and manager (d. 1966) 1893 – George Grosz, German painter and illustrator (d. 1959) 1894 – Aldous Huxley, English novelist and philosopher (d. 1963) 1895 – Gracie Allen, American actress and comedian (d. 1964) 1896 – Tim Birkin, English soldier and race car driver (d. 1933) 1897 – Harold D. Cooley, American lawyer and politician (d. 1974) 1897 – Paul Gallico, American journalist and author (d. 1976) 1900 – Sarah Kafrit, Israeli politician and teacher (d. 1983) 1901–present 1903 – Estes Kefauver, American lawyer and politician (d. 1963) 1904 – Edwin Albert Link, American industrialist and entrepreneur, invented the flight simulator (d. 1981) 1906 – Irena Iłłakowicz, German-Polish lieutenant (d. 1943) 1908 – Lucien Wercollier, Luxembourger sculptor (d. 2002) 1909 – Peter Thorneycroft, Baron Thorneycroft, English lawyer and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1994) 1909 – Vivian Vance, American actress and singer (d. 1979) 1913 – Kan Yuet-keung, Hong Kong banker, lawyer, and politician (d. 2012) 1914 – C. Farris Bryant, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 34th Governor of Florida (d. 2002) 1914 – Erskine Hawkins, American trumpet player and bandleader (d. 1993) 1914 – Ellis Kinder, American baseball player (d. 1968) 1916 – Dean Brooks, American physician and actor (d. 2013) 1916 – Jaime Luiz Coelho, Brazilian archbishop (d. 2013) 1918 – Marjorie Lord, American actress (d. 2015) 1919 – Virginia Gilmore, American actress (d. 1986) 1919 – James Lovelock, English biologist and chemist 1920 – Bob Waterfield, American football player and coach (d. 1983) 1921 – Tom Saffell, American baseball player and manager (d. 2012) 1921 – Jean Shepherd, American radio host, actor, and screenwriter (d. 1999) 1922 – Blake Edwards, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1922 – Jim Foglesong, American record producer (d. 2013) 1922 – Jason Robards, American actor (d. 2000) 1923 – Jan Berenstain, American author and illustrator (d. 2012) 1923 – Bernice Rubens, Welsh author (d. 2004) 1923 – Hoyt Wilhelm, American baseball player and coach (d. 2002) 1925 – Jerzy Einhorn, Polish-Swedish physician and politician (d. 2000) 1925 – Joseph Engelberger, American physicist and engineer (d. 2015) 1925 – Gene Gutowski, Polish-American film producer (d. 2016) 1925 – Ana María Matute, Spanish author and academic (d. 2014) 1926 – James Best, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2015) 1926 – Dorothy E. Smith, Canadian sociologist 1927 – Gulabrai Ramchand, Indian cricketer (d. 2003) 1928 – Don Beauman, English race car driver (d. 1955) 1928 – Francesco Cossiga, Italian academic and politician, 8th President of Italy (d. 2010) 1928 – Elliott Erwitt, French-American photographer and director 1928 – Ibn-e-Safi, Indian-Pakistani author and poet (d. 1980) 1928 – Joe Jackson, American talent manager, father of Michael Jackson (d. 2018) 1928 – Stanley Kubrick, American director, producer, screenwriter, and cinematographer (d. 1999) 1928 – Peter Lougheed, Canadian lawyer and politician, 10th Premier of Alberta (d. 2012) 1928 – Sally Oppenheim-Barnes, Baroness Oppenheim-Barnes, Irish-born English politician 1929 – Marc Lalonde, Canadian lawyer and politician, 34th Canadian Minister of Justice 1929 – Alexis Weissenberg, Bulgarian-French pianist and educator (d. 2012) 1930 – Plínio de Arruda Sampaio, Brazilian lawyer and politician (d. 2014) 1930 – Barbara Jefford, English actress (d. 2020) 1931 – Telê Santana, Brazilian footballer and manager (d. 2006) 1934 – Tommy McDonald, American football player (d. 2018) 1936 – Tsutomu Koyama, Japanese volleyball player and coach (d. 2012) 1936 – Lawrie McMenemy, English footballer and manager 1938 – Bobby Hebb, American singer-songwriter (d. 2010) 1938 – Keith Peters, Welsh physician and academic 1939 – Jun Henmi, Japanese author and poet (d. 2011) 1939 – John Howard, Australian lawyer and politician, 25th Prime Minister of Australia 1939 – Bob Lilly, American football player and photographer 1939 – Richard Marlow, English organist and conductor (d. 2013) 1940 – Dobie Gray, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2011) 1940 – Brian Mawhinney, Baron Mawhinney, Northern Irish-British academic and politician, Secretary of State for Transport (d. 2019) 1940 – Bobby Rousseau, Canadian ice hockey player 1941 – Jean Baubérot, French historian and sociologist 1941 – Darlene Love, American singer and actress 1941 – Brenton Wood, American R&B singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1942 – Vladimír Mečiar, Slovak politician, 1st Prime Minister of Slovakia 1942 – Teddy Pilette, Belgian race car driver 1943 – Peter Hyams, American director, screenwriter, and cinematographer 1943 – Mick Jagger, English singer-songwriter, producer, and actor 1945 – Betty Davis, American singer-songwriter 1945 – Helen Mirren, English actress 1946 – Emilio de Villota, Spanish race car driver 1948 – Luboš Andršt, Czech guitarist and songwriter 1948 – Herbert Wiesinger, German figure skater 1949 – Thaksin Shinawatra, Thai businessman and politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Thailand 1949 – Roger Taylor, English singer-songwriter, drummer, and producer 1950 – Nelinho, Brazilian footballer and manager 1950 – Nicholas Evans, English journalist, screenwriter, and producer 1950 – Susan George, English actress and producer 1950 – Anne Rafferty, English lawyer and judge 1950 – Rich Vogler, American race car driver (d. 1990) 1951 – Rick Martin, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 2011) 1952 – Glynis Breakwell, English psychologist and academic 1953 – Felix Magath, German footballer and manager 1953 – Robert Phillips, American guitarist 1953 – Henk Bleker, Dutch politician 1953 – Earl Tatum, American professional basketball player 1954 – Vitas Gerulaitis, American tennis player and coach (d. 1994) 1955 – Aleksandrs Starkovs, Latvian footballer and coach 1955 – Asif Ali Zardari, Pakistani businessman and politician, 11th President of Pakistan 1956 – Peter Fincham, English screenwriter and producer 1956 – Dorothy Hamill, American figure skater 1956 – Tommy Rich, American wrestler 1956 – Tim Tremlett, English cricketer and coach 1957 – Norman Baker, Scottish politician 1957 – Nana Visitor, American actress 1958 – Monti Davis, American basketball player (d. 2013) 1958 – Angela Hewitt, Canadian-English pianist 1959 – Rick Bragg, American author and journalist 1959 – Kevin Spacey, American actor and director 1961 – Gary Cherone, American singer-songwriter 1961 – Andy Connell, English keyboard player and songwriter 1961 – Felix Dexter, Caribbean-English comedian and actor (d. 2013) 1963 – Jeff Stoughton, Canadian curler 1964 – Sandra Bullock, American actress and producer 1964 – Ralf Metzenmacher, German painter and designer (d. 2020) 1964 – Anne Provoost, Belgian author 1965 – Jeremy Piven, American actor and producer 1965 – Jim Lindberg, American singer and guitarist 1966 – Angelo di Livio, Italian footballer 1967 – Martin Baker, English organist and conductor 1967 – Tim Schafer, American video game designer, founded Double Fine Productions 1967 – Jason Statham, English actor 1968 – Frédéric Diefenthal, French actor and director 1968 – Jim Naismith, Scottish biologist and academic 1968 – Olivia Williams, English actress 1969 – Greg Colbrunn, American baseball player and coach 1969 – Tanni Grey-Thompson, Welsh baroness and wheelchair racer 1971 – Khaled Mahmud, Bangladeshi cricketer and coach 1971 – Chris Harrison, American television personality 1972 – Nathan Buckley, Australian footballer and coach 1973 – Kate Beckinsale, English actress 1973 – Mariano Raffo, Argentinian director and producer 1974 – Iron & Wine, American singer-songwriter 1974 – Kees Meeuws, New Zealand rugby player and coach 1974 – Dean Sturridge, English footballer and sportscaster 1975 – Ingo Schultz, German sprinter 1975 – Joe Smith, American basketball player 1975 – Elizabeth Truss, English accountant and politician, 1976 – Elena Kustarova, Russian ice dancer and coach 1977 – Joaquín Benoit, Dominican baseball player 1977 – Martin Laursen, Danish footballer and manager 1977 – Tanja Szewczenko, German figure skater 1979 – Friedrich Michau, German rugby player 1979 – Derek Paravicini, English pianist 1979 – Peter Sarno, Canadian ice hockey player 1979 – Erik Westrum, American ice hockey player 1979 – Juliet Rylance, English actress 1980 – Jacinda Ardern, 40th Prime Minister of New Zealand 1980 – Dave Baksh, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1980 – Robert Gallery, American football player 1981 – Abe Forsythe, Australian actor, director, and screenwriter 1981 – Maicon Sisenando, Brazilian footballer 1982 – Gilad Hochman, Israeli composer 1982 – Christopher Kane, Scottish fashion designer 1983 – Kelly Clark, American snowboarder 1983 – Stephen Makinwa, Nigerian footballer 1983 – Roderick Strong, American wrestler 1983 – Naomi van As, Dutch field hockey player 1983 – Ken Wallace, Australian kayaker 1983 – Delonte West, American basketball player 1984 – Kyriakos Ioannou, Cypriot high jumper 1984 – Benjamin Kayser, French rugby player 1984 – Sabri Sarıoğlu, Turkish footballer 1985 – Marcus Benard, American football player 1985 – Gaël Clichy, French footballer 1985 – Audrey De Montigny, Canadian singer-songwriter 1985 – Mat Gamel, American baseball player 1986 – Leonardo Ulloa, Argentinian footballer 1986 – John White, English footballer 1987 – Panagiotis Kone, Greek footballer 1987 – Jordie Benn, Canadian ice hockey player 1987 – Fredy Montero, Colombian footballer 1988 – Yurie Omi, Japanese announcer and news anchor 1988 – Sayaka Akimoto, Filipino–Japanese actress and singer 1991 – Tyson Barrie, Canadian ice hockey player 1992 – Marika Koroibete, Fijian rugby player 1993 – Raymond Faitala-Mariner, New Zealand rugby league player 1994 – Ella Leivo, Finnish tennis player 1996 – Olivia Breen, British Paralympic athlete 2000 – Thomasin McKenzie, New Zealand actress Deaths Pre-1600 342 – Cheng of Jin, emperor of the Jin Dynasty (b. 321) 811 – Nikephoros I, Byzantine emperor 899 – Li Hanzhi, Chinese warlord (b. 842) 943 – Motoyoshi, Japanese nobleman and poet (b. 890) 990 – Fujiwara no Kaneie, Japanese statesman (b. 929) 1380 – Kōmyō, emperor of Japan (b. 1322) 1450 – Cecily Neville, duchess of Warwick (b. 1424) 1471 – Paul II, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1417) 1533 – Atahualpa, Inca emperor abducted and murdered by Francisco Pizarro (b. ca. 1500) 1592 – Armand de Gontant, French marshal (b. 1524) 1601–1900 1605 – Miguel de Benavides, Spanish archbishop and sinologist (b. 1552) 1611 – Horio Yoshiharu, Japanese daimyō (b. 1542) 1630 – Charles Emmanuel I, duke of Savoy (b. 1562) 1659 – Mary Frith, English criminal (b. 1584) 1680 – John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, English poet and courtier (b. 1647) 1684 – Elena Cornaro Piscopia, Italian mathematician and philosopher (b. 1646) 1693 – Ulrika Eleonora of Denmark, queen of Sweden (b. 1656) 1712 – Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds, English politician, Lord High Treasurer (b. 1631) 1723 – Robert Bertie, 1st Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, English politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b. 1660) 1801 – Maximilian Francis, archduke of Austria (b. 1756) 1863 – Sam Houston, American general and politician, 7th Governor of Texas (b. 1793) 1867 – Otto, king of Greece (b. 1815) 1899 – Ulises Heureaux, 22nd, 26th, and 27th President of the Dominican Republic (b. 1845) 1901–present 1915 – James Murray,
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abdicates the throne, officially unveils the Canadian National Vimy Memorial. 1937 – Spanish Civil War: End of the Battle of Brunete with the Nationalist victory. 1941 – World War II: In response to the Japanese occupation of French Indochina, the United States, Britain and the Netherlands freeze all Japanese assets and cut off oil shipments. 1944 – World War II: The Red Army enters Lviv, a major city in western Ukraine, capturing it from the Nazis. Only 300 Jews survive out of 160,000 living in Lviv prior to occupation. 1945 – The Labour Party wins the United Kingdom general election of July 5 by a landslide, removing Winston Churchill from power. 1945 – World War II: The Potsdam Declaration is signed in Potsdam, Germany. 1945 – World War II: is the last British Royal Navy ship to be sunk in the war. 1945 – World War II: The arrives at Tinian with components and enriched uranium for the Little Boy nuclear bomb. 1946 – Aloha Airlines begins service from Honolulu International Airport. 1947 – Cold War: U.S. President Harry S. Truman signs the National Security Act of 1947 into United States law creating the Central Intelligence Agency, United States Department of Defense, United States Air Force, Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the United States National Security Council. 1948 – U.S. President Harry S. Truman signs Executive Order 9981, desegregating the military of the United States. 1951 – Walt Disney's 13th animated film, Alice in Wonderland, premieres in London, England, United Kingdom. 1952 – King Farouk of Egypt abdicates in favor of his son Fuad. 1953 – Cold War: Fidel Castro leads an unsuccessful attack on the Moncada Barracks, thus beginning the Cuban Revolution. The movement took the name of the date: 26th of July Movement 1953 – Arizona Governor John Howard Pyle orders an anti-polygamy law enforcement crackdown on residents of Short Creek, Arizona, which becomes known as the Short Creek raid. 1953 – Soldiers from the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment repel a number of Chinese assaults against a key position known as The Hook during the Battle of the Samichon River, just hours before the Armistice Agreement is signed, ending the Korean War. 1956 – Following the World Bank's refusal to fund building the Aswan Dam, Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal, sparking international condemnation. 1957 – Carlos Castillo Armas, dictator of Guatemala, is assassinated. 1958 – Explorer program: Explorer 4 is launched. 1963 – Syncom 2, the world's first geosynchronous satellite, is launched from Cape Canaveral on a Delta B booster. 1963 – An earthquake in Skopje, Yugoslavia (present-day North Macedonia) leaves 1,100 dead. 1963 – The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development votes to admit Japan. 1968 – Vietnam War: South Vietnamese opposition leader Trương Đình Dzu is sentenced to five years hard labor for advocating the formation of a coalition government as a way to move toward an end to the war. 1971 – Apollo program: Launch of Apollo 15 on the first Apollo "J-Mission", and first use of a Lunar Roving Vehicle. 1974 – Greek Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis forms the country's first civil government after seven years of military rule. 1977 – The National Assembly of Quebec imposes the use of French as the official language of the provincial government. 1989 – A federal grand jury indicts Cornell University student Robert T. Morris, Jr. for releasing the Morris worm, thus becoming the first person to be prosecuted under the 1986 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. 1990 – The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 is signed into law by President George H.W. Bush. 1993 – Asiana Airlines Flight 733 crashes into a ridge on Mt. Ungeo on its third attempt to land at Mokpo Airport, South Korea. Sixty-eight of the 116 people onboard are killed. 1999 – Kargil conflict officially comes to an end. The Indian Army announces the complete eviction of Pakistani intruders. 2005 – Space Shuttle program: STS-114 Mission: Launch of Discovery, NASA's first scheduled flight mission after the Columbia Disaster in 2003. 2005 – Mumbai, India receives 99.5cm of rain (39.17 inches) within 24 hours, resulting in floods killing over 5,000 people. 2008 – Fifty-six people are killed and over 200 people are injured, in the Ahmedabad bombings in India. 2009 – The militant Nigerian Islamist group Boko Haram attacks a police station in Bauchi, leading to reprisals by the Nigeria Police Force and four days of violence across multiple cities. 2011 – A Royal Moroccan Air Force Lockheed C-130 Hercules crashes near Guelmim Airport in Guelmim, Morocco. All 80 people on board are killed. 2016 – The Sagamihara stabbings occur in Kanagawa Prefecture in Japan. Nineteen people are killed. 2016 – Hillary Clinton becomes the first female nominee for President of the United States by a major political party at the Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia. 2016 – Solar Impulse 2 becomes the first solar-powered aircraft to circumnavigate the Earth. Births Pre-1600 1030 – Stanislaus of Szczepanów, Polish bishop and saint (d. 1079) 1400 – Isabel le Despenser, Countess of Worcester, English noble (d. 1439) 1502 – Christian Egenolff, German printer (d. 1555) 1601–1900 1678 – Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1711) 1711 – Lorenz Christoph Mizler, German physician, mathematician, and historian (d. 1778) 1739 – George Clinton, American general and politician, 4th Vice President of the United States (d. 1812) 1782 – John Field, Irish pianist and composer (d. 1837) 1791 – Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart, Austrian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1844) 1796 – George Catlin, American painter, author, and traveler (d. 1872) 1802 – Mariano Arista, Mexican general and politician, 42nd President of Mexico (d. 1855) 1819 – Justin Holland, American guitarist and educator (d. 1887) 1829 – Auguste Beernaert, Belgian politician, 14th Prime Minister of Belgium, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1912) 1841 – Carl Robert Jakobson, Estonian journalist and politician (d. 1882) 1842 – Alfred Marshall, English economist and academic (d. 1924) 1844 – Stefan Drzewiecki, Ukrainian-Polish engineer and journalist (d. 1938) 1854 – Philippe Gaucher, French dermatologist and academic (d. 1918) 1855 – Ferdinand Tönnies, German sociologist and philosopher (d. 1936) 1856 – George Bernard Shaw, Irish playwright and critic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1950) 1858 – Tom Garrett, Australian cricketer and lawyer (d. 1943) 1863 – Jāzeps Vītols, Latvian composer (d. 1948) 1865 – Philipp Scheidemann, German journalist and politician, 10th Chancellor of Germany (d. 1939) 1865 – Rajanikanta Sen, Indian poet and composer (d. 1910) 1874 – Serge Koussevitzky, Russian-American bassist, composer, and conductor (d. 1951) 1875 – Carl Jung, Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist (d. 1961) 1875 – Ernesta Di Capua, Italian botanist and explorer (d. 1943) 1875 – Antonio Machado, Spanish poet and academic (d. 1939) 1877 – Jesse Lauriston Livermore, American investor and security analyst, "Great Bear of Wall Street" (d. 1940) 1878 – Ernst Hoppenberg, German swimmer and water polo player (d. 1937) 1879 – Shunroku Hata, Japanese field marshal and politician, 48th Japanese Minister of War (d. 1962) 1880 – Volodymyr Vynnychenko, Ukrainian playwright and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Ukrainian People's Republic (d. 1951) 1882 – Albert Dunstan, Australian politician, 33rd Premier of Victoria (d. 1950) 1885 – Roy Castleton, American baseball player (d. 1967) 1885 – André Maurois, French soldier and author (d. 1967) 1886 – Lars Hanson, Swedish actor (d. 1965) 1888 – Reginald Hands, South African cricketer and rugby player (d. 1918) 1890 – Daniel J. Callaghan, American admiral, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1942) 1892 – Sad Sam Jones, American baseball player and manager (d. 1966) 1893 – George Grosz, German painter and illustrator (d. 1959) 1894 – Aldous Huxley, English novelist and philosopher (d. 1963) 1895 – Gracie Allen, American actress and comedian (d. 1964) 1896 – Tim Birkin, English soldier and race car driver (d. 1933) 1897 – Harold D. Cooley, American lawyer and politician (d. 1974) 1897 – Paul Gallico, American journalist and author (d. 1976) 1900 – Sarah Kafrit, Israeli politician and teacher (d. 1983) 1901–present 1903 – Estes Kefauver, American lawyer and politician (d. 1963) 1904 – Edwin Albert Link, American industrialist and entrepreneur, invented the flight simulator (d. 1981) 1906 – Irena Iłłakowicz, German-Polish lieutenant (d. 1943) 1908 – Lucien Wercollier, Luxembourger sculptor (d. 2002) 1909 –
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The Wizard at WDRQ and later at WJLB under the same name. He would highlight local techno artists, giving light to artists such as Derrick May, Kevin Saunderson and Juan Atkins. In his early career, Mills managed numerous residencies in the Detroit area. He credits The Necto as the residency where he was able to experiment with new ideas in techno music. Mills played The Necto where he began incorporating concepts such as different equipment setups, including positioning himself on the dance floor with the people. For his radio DJ spots, Mills had a music spending budget to use for his sets. Mills would also drive as far as Toronto or Chicago in order to purchase newly released music. Underground Resistance Mills is a founding member of Underground Resistance, a techno collective that he started with former Parliament bass player 'Mad' Mike Banks. The group embraced revolutionary rhetoric and only appeared in public dressed in ski masks and black combat suits. Mills never "officially" left the group, but did begin to pursue his own ventures outside of the collective. Many of Underground Resistance's labelmate's early releases were the product of various experiments by Banks and Mills, both solo and in collaboration, before Mills left the collective in 1991 to achieve international success as a solo artist and DJ. The collective continues to be a mainstay of Detroit's music scene. UR related the aesthetics of early Detroit Techno to the complex social, political, and economic circumstances which followed on from Reagan-era inner-city economic recession, producing uncompromising music geared toward promoting awareness and facilitating political change. UR's songs created a sense of self-exploration, experimentation and the ability to change yourself and circumstances. Additionally, UR wanted to establish a means of identification beyond traditional lines of race and ethnicity. Another form of UR's rebellion concerns the rejection of the commercialization of techno. This is evident in the messages scratched in UR's records, lyrics and sounds expressing economic independence from major record labels. Solo work and independent labels Mills left Underground Resistance in 1991 to pursue his own ventures. He relocated from Detroit, first to New York, then Berlin (as a resident at the Tresor club), and then Chicago. There in 1992, with fellow Detroit native Robert Hood, he set up the record label Axis, and later, sub-labels Purpose Maker, Tomorrow, and 6277, all aiming for a more minimal sound than most of the techno being produced in those years. Mills released Blue Potential in 2006, a live album of him playing with the 70 piece Montpelier Philharmonic Orchestra in 2005. The album was a remix for classical interpretation, following musical acts such as Radiohead. In 2013, he released Where Light Ends, an album inspired by the Japanese astronaut Mamoru Mohri and his first trip to space. In 2018, Mills recorded E.P. Tomorrow Comes The Harvest with legendary afro-jazz drummer Tony Allen. Film, soundtracks, and documentary Mills performed a live set in January 2015 at the Jewish Community Center in San Francisco, California. The set was performed with four turntables to create a cinemix soundtrack for Woman in the Moon, the 1929 silent film from Fritz Lang. The set was performed during a screening of the film at the center. Mills has previously completed work highlighting Lang's career, including composing, performing, and releasing a soundtrack to Lang's 1927 silent film Metropolis, releasing the soundtrack in 2000. Mills became involved in film with the help of French filmmaker Jacqueline Caux. He helped Caux produce the film Man From Tomorrow, a documentary about techno music that featured Mills. He continued in the film industry with the release of the independent film Life to Death and Back which he shot in the Egyptian wing of the Louvre Museum in France, the same museum where he had a four-month residency. Music style In his DJ sets, Mills usually uses three decks, a Roland TR-909 drum machine, and up to seventy records in one hour. Mills' Exhibitionist DVD, from 2004, features him mixing live on three decks and CD player in a studio. In 2011, Mills switched to using three or four CD decks for most of his club appearances, instead of the usual Technics turntables. Mixmag described Mills as the "master" of the 909. He was mentioned by Detroit rapper Eminem in his song "Groundhog Day", from his album The Marshall Mathers LP 2. Eminem says: "...and discovered this DJ who was mixing, I say it to this day, if you ain't listened to The Wizard, you ain't have a fucking clue what you was missing..." Art exhibits Mills is also an
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yourself and circumstances. Additionally, UR wanted to establish a means of identification beyond traditional lines of race and ethnicity. Another form of UR's rebellion concerns the rejection of the commercialization of techno. This is evident in the messages scratched in UR's records, lyrics and sounds expressing economic independence from major record labels. Solo work and independent labels Mills left Underground Resistance in 1991 to pursue his own ventures. He relocated from Detroit, first to New York, then Berlin (as a resident at the Tresor club), and then Chicago. There in 1992, with fellow Detroit native Robert Hood, he set up the record label Axis, and later, sub-labels Purpose Maker, Tomorrow, and 6277, all aiming for a more minimal sound than most of the techno being produced in those years. Mills released Blue Potential in 2006, a live album of him playing with the 70 piece Montpelier Philharmonic Orchestra in 2005. The album was a remix for classical interpretation, following musical acts such as Radiohead. In 2013, he released Where Light Ends, an album inspired by the Japanese astronaut Mamoru Mohri and his first trip to space. In 2018, Mills recorded E.P. Tomorrow Comes The Harvest with legendary afro-jazz drummer Tony Allen. Film, soundtracks, and documentary Mills performed a live set in January 2015 at the Jewish Community Center in San Francisco, California. The set was performed with four turntables to create a cinemix soundtrack for Woman in the Moon, the 1929 silent film from Fritz Lang. The set was performed during a screening of the film at the center. Mills has previously completed work highlighting Lang's career, including composing, performing, and releasing a soundtrack to Lang's 1927 silent film Metropolis, releasing the soundtrack in 2000. Mills became involved in film with the help of French filmmaker Jacqueline Caux. He helped Caux produce the film Man From Tomorrow, a documentary about techno music that featured Mills. He continued in the film industry with the release of the independent film Life to Death and Back which he shot in the Egyptian wing of the Louvre Museum in France, the same museum where he had a four-month residency. Music style In his DJ sets, Mills usually uses three decks, a Roland TR-909 drum machine, and up to seventy records in one hour. Mills' Exhibitionist DVD, from 2004, features him mixing live on three decks and CD player in a studio. In 2011, Mills switched to using three or four CD decks for most of his club appearances, instead of the usual Technics turntables. Mixmag described Mills as the "master" of the 909. He was mentioned by Detroit rapper Eminem in his song "Groundhog Day", from his album The Marshall Mathers LP 2. Eminem says: "...and discovered this DJ who was mixing, I say it to this day, if you ain't listened to The Wizard, you ain't have a fucking clue what you was missing..." Art exhibits Mills is also an artist and has shown his works at exhibits internationally. His works have included "Man of Tomorrow," a portrait of Mills that shows his perception of the future as well as "Critical Arrangements" exhibited at Pompidou Centre in 2008 as a part of "Le Futurisme à Paris – une avant-garde explosive." One of his most notable works was exhibited in 2015. Known as "The Visitor," it was a sculpture of a drum machine inspired by a UFO sighting in Los Angeles from the 1950s. Discography Studio albums Year, Title (Label) 1992, Waveform Transmission Vol.1 (Tresor) 1994, Waveform Transmission Vol. 3 (Tresor) 1995, Mix Up Vol. 2 Live at Liquid Room (Sony/React) 1997, The Other Day (Sony/React/Labels) 1997, Purpose Maker Compilation (React/Labels/NEWS/Neuton/Energy/Watts) 1998, From the 21st (Sony) 2000, Lifelike (Sony/Labels/NEWS) 2000, Art of Connecting (Next Era/Hardware) 2000, Metropolis (Tresor) 2001, Time Machine (Tomorrow) 2001, Every Dog Has Its Day CD (Sony/Labels/NEWS) 2002, Actual (Axis) 2002, At First Sight (Sony/React/NEWS/Energy/Intergroove) 2003, Medium (Axis) 2004, Exhibitionist (Axis/React/NEWS/Sonar) 2005, Three Ages (MK2) 2005, Contact Special (Cisco/Soundscape) 2006, One Man Spaceship (Cisco/Soundscape) 2008, X-102 Rediscovers the Rings of Saturn (Tresor) 2008, Gamma Player Compilation Vol. 1: The Universe by Night (Axis) 2009, Sleep Wakes (Third Ear) 2010, The Occurrence (Third Ear) 2011, The Power (Axis) 2011, 2087 (Axis) 2011 Jeff Mills/Dj Surgeles Something In The Sky Mix (Axis) 2011, Fantastic Voyage (Axis) 2012, The Messenger (Axis) 2012, Waveform Transmission Vol. 1 Remastered (Axis) 2012, Sequence – The Retrospective of Axis Records (Axis) 2013, The Jungle Planet (Axis) 2014, Emerging Crystal Universe (Axis) 2014, Woman In The Moon (Axis) 2015, When Time Splits (with Mikhail Rudy) (Axis) 2015, Proxima Centauri (Axis) 2016, Free Fall Galaxy (Axis) 2017, A Trip to the Moon (Axis) 2017, Planets (Axis) 2019, Moon - The Area of Influence (Axis) Extended plays Year, Title (Label) 1992, Tranquilizer (Axis) 1993, Mecca (Axis) 1993, Thera (Axis) 1994, Cycle 30 (Axis) 1994, Growth (Axis) 1995, Purpose Maker EP (Axis) 1995, Humana (Axis) 1995, Tephra (Axis) 1996, Other Day EP (Axis) 1996, Very (Axis) 1996, AX-009ab (Axis) 1996, Java (Purpose Maker) 1996, Kat Moda (Purpose Maker) 1997,
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off by the casual racism of some of the ex-pat workers there. In May 1967 he was involved in a serious car crash in which he broke a leg and had to be flown home. Leaving hospital, he split his time between Jean Kierans' house and a small rented flat in Mayfair, working at Standard Bank's London office and resuming his banking diploma and activities with the Young Conservatives in his spare time. Major stood again as Councillor in the 1968 Lambeth London Borough Council election, this time for Ferndale ward. Though a Labour stronghold, the Conservatives received a huge boost following Enoch Powell's anti-immigration 'Rivers of Blood speech' in April 1968 and Major won, despite strongly disapproving of Powell's views. Major took a major interest in housing matters, with Lambeth notorious for overcrowding and poor quality rented accommodation. In February 1970 Major became Chairman of the Housing Committee, being responsible for overseeing the building of several large council estates. He also promoted more openness at the council, initiating a series of public meetings with local residents. Major also undertook fact-finding trips to the Netherlands, Finland and the Soviet Union. Despite the Lambeth housing team being well-regarded nationally, Major lost his seat in the 1971 Lambeth London Borough Council election. Major met Norma Johnson at a Conservative party event in Brixton in April 1970, and the two became engaged shortly thereafter, marrying at St Matthew's Church in Brixton on 3 October 1970. John's mother died shortly before in September at the age of 65. John and Norma moved into a flat at Primrose Court, Streatham, which John had bought in 1969, and had their first child, Elizabeth, in November 1971. In 1974 the couple moved to a larger residence at West Oak, Beckenham, and had a second child, James, in January 1975. Meanwhile, Major continued to work at Standard Bank (renamed Standard Chartered from 1975), having completed his banking diploma in 1972. Major was promoted to head of the PR department in August 1976, and his duties necessitated the occasional foreign trip to East Asia. Despite his setback at the 1971 Lambeth Council election, Major continued to nurse political ambitions, and with help from friends in the Conservative Party managed to get onto the Conservative Central Office's list of potential MP candidates. Major was selected as the Conservative candidate for the Labour-dominated St Pancras North constituency, fighting both the February and October 1974 general elections, losing heavily both times to Labour's Albert Stallard. Major attempted to get selected as a candidate for a more promising seat, though despite numerous attempts was unsuccessful. Growing increasingly frustrated, Major resolved to make one last attempt, applying for selection to the safe Conservative seat of Huntingdonshire in December 1976, which he won. Major was in some ways an odd choice, being a born-and-bred Londoner in a largely rural constituency still home to many landed families, however he was seen as being the most likely to win-over the increasingly large numbers of upwardly mobile London over-spill families living in the area, and he was helped to familiarise himself with the area by local MP David Renton. In 1977 the Major family purchased a house at De Vere Close in the village of Hemingford Grey. Major took on a less demanding job at Standard Chartered, and started working part-time in 1978 so that he could devote more time to his constituency duties. Early Parliamentary career (1979–1987) Major won the Huntingdon seat by a large margin in the 1979 general election, which brought Margaret Thatcher to power. He made his maiden speech in the House of Commons on 13 June 1979, voicing his support for the government's budget. Major assiduously courted contacts at all levels of the party in this period, joining the informal 'Guy Fawkes club' of Conservative MPs and attending various Committees. He became Secretary of the Environment Committee and also assisted with work on the Housing Act 1980, which allowed council house tenants the Right to Buy their homes. At this time Major lived in De Vere Close, Hemingford Grey. Major's first promotion came when he was appointed as a Parliamentary Private Secretary in January 1981 to Patrick Mayhew and Timothy Raison, both Ministers of State at the Home Office. Seeking to gain more exposure to foreign affairs, he joined several Labour Party MPs on a fact-finding trip to the Middle East in April 1982. The group met with King Hussein of Jordan and Yasser Arafat of the Palestinian Liberation Organisation in Lebanon; in Israel they were briefly caught in the middle of a shooting incident between Israeli troops and a Palestinian rock-thrower. Major later became an assistant whip in January 1983, responsible for East Anglian MPs. During this period Major became also involved in the response to protests at RAF Molesworth, which lay in his constituency; various peace groups were opposed to the siting of cruise missiles at the base and had established a permanent 'peace camp' there. The protesters were later evicted and an electric fence installed around the base in early 1985. Major comfortably won re-election to the now slightly enlarged seat of Huntingdon at the 1983 general election. Shortly thereafter he and Norma moved to a larger house (Finings) in Great Stukeley; Major generally spent his weekends there, and weekdays at a rented flat in Durand Gardens, Stockwell. Major was invited to join the prestigious 'Blue Chip' group of rising stars in the Conservative Party, and he was promoted to Treasury Whip in October 1984. It was later revealed (in 2002) that during this period Major had conducted an affair with Edwina Currie, a Conservative backbencher and later Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State, Health and Social Security; the affair ended in 1988. Major narrowly avoided the IRA's Brighton hotel bombing in October 1984, having left the hotel only a few hours before the bomb went off. Also in this period Major stood in for a Foreign Office minister on a trip to South America, visiting Colombia, Peru and Venezuela. In September 1985 he was made Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the Department of Health and Social Security, before being promoted to become Minister of State in the same department in September 1986. The large size of the DHSS granted Ministers a greater degree of responsibility than in other departments, with Major assisting with work on the Social Security Act 1986 and improving provision for disabled people. Major began to gain a bigger profile, giving his first speech at the Conservative Party Conference in October 1986. He first attracted major national media attention in January 1987 over cold weather payments to the elderly, when Britain was in the depths of a severe winter. Amidst intense media criticism, Major discussed the issue with Margaret Thatcher and an increase in the payments was approved. In Cabinet (1987–1990) Chief Secretary to the Treasury (1987–1989) Following the June 1987 general election, in which Major retained his seat with an increased majority, he was promoted to the Cabinet as Chief Secretary to the Treasury, making him the first MP of the 1979 intake to reach the Cabinet. The then-Chancellor Nigel Lawson generally made major decisions with little input from others, and Major was put in charge of agreeing departmental budgets with the Secretaries of State. These discussions went well, and for the first time in several years budgets were agreed without recourse to the external adjudication of the 'Star Chamber'. Major successfully concluded a second round of such spending reviews in July 1988. Whilst Chief Secretary Major took part in discussions over the future funding of the NHS, against the background of an NHS strike in February 1988 over pay, resulting in the 'Working for Patients' white paper and subsequent National Health Service and Community Care Act 1990. Major also insisted in discussions with Thatcher that government assistance should be provided to support the sale of Short Brothers to Bombardier, an aerospace company and major employer in Northern Ireland which might otherwise have collapsed. Foreign Secretary (July–October 1989) In 1987–88 it became clear that Major had become a 'favourite' of Margaret Thatcher and he was widely tipped for further promotion. Nevertheless, Major's appointment to Foreign Secretary in July 1989 came as a surprise due to his relative lack of experience in the Cabinet and unfamiliarity with international affairs. Major found the prospect daunting, and unsuccessfully attempted to convince Thatcher to allow him to stay on at the Treasury. There were also fears within the Foreign Office (FCO) that Major would be Thatcher's 'hatchet-man', as her relations with the department under Geoffrey Howe had been poor and characterised by mutual distrust. Major accepted the job and began to settle into the department, living in an upstairs room at the FCO and devolving decision making where necessary, though he found the increased security burdensome and disliked the extensive ceremonial aspects of the role. Amongst Major's first acts as Foreign Secretary was to cancel the sale of Hawk aircraft to Iraq, over concerns they would be used for internal repression. He represented Britain at the Paris Peace Conference to determine the future of Cambodia. Major also met with US Secretary of State James Baker, with whom he primarily discussed the issue of Vietnamese boat people, and with Qian Qichen, Foreign Minister of China, becoming the first senior Western politician to meet with a Chinese official since the violent crackdown of pro-democracy protesters in Tiananmen Square the previous month. Discussions focused primarily on the future of Hong Kong, which Britain was scheduled to hand over to China in 1997. Major spent most of a summer holiday that year in Spain conducting extensive background reading on foreign affairs and British foreign policy. Upon his return to the UK he and Thatcher met with French president François Mitterrand, in which the future direction of the European Community was discussed. In September 1989 Major delivered a speech at the United Nations General Assembly, in which he pledged to support Colombia's effort to tackle the drugs trade and reiterated Britain's opposition to the apartheid regime in South Africa. Major also met US President George HW Bush in Washington, D.C. and Domingo Cavallo, the Argentine Foreign Minister, the first such meeting since the end of the Falklands War seven years earlier. Major's last major summit as Foreign Secretary was the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) in Malaysia. The meeting was dominated by the issue of sanctions on South Africa, with Britain being the only country to oppose them, on the grounds that they would end up hurting poorer South Africans far more than the apartheid regime at which they were aimed. The summit ended acrimoniously, with Thatcher controversially and against established precedent issuing a second final communiqué stating Britain's opposition to sanctions, with the press seizing on the apparent disagreement on the matter between Major and Thatcher. Chancellor of the Exchequer (1989–1990) After just three months as Foreign Secretary Major was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer on 26 October 1989 after the sudden resignation of Nigel Lawson, who had fallen out with Thatcher over what he saw as her excessive reliance on the advice of her Economic Adviser Alan Walters. The appointment meant that, despite only being in the Cabinet for a little over two years, Major had gone from the most junior position in the Cabinet to holding two of the Great Offices of State. Major made tackling inflation a priority, stating that tough measures were needed to bring it down and that "if it isn't hurting, it isn't working." He delivered his first Autumn Statement on 15 November, announcing a boost in spending (mainly for the NHS) and with interest rates to be kept as they were. As Chancellor, Major presented only one Budget, the first to be televised live, on 20 March 1990. He publicised it as a 'budget for savers', with the creations of the Tax-exempt special savings account (TESSA), arguing that measures were required to address the marked fall in the household savings ratio that had been apparent during the previous financial year. Major also abolished the composite rate tax and stamp duty on share trades, whilst increasing taxes on alcohol, cigarettes and petrol. Tax cuts were also made which benefited football associations, the aim being to increase funding on safety measures following the Bradford City stadium fire and Hillsborough disaster. Extra funding was also made available to Scotland in order to limit the impact of the Community Charge (widely dubbed the 'Poll Tax') which had been introduced there that year. The European Community's push for full Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) was another important factor in Major's time as Chancellor; in June 1990 he proposed that instead of a single European currency there could instead be a 'hard ECU', which different national currencies could compete against and, if the ECU was successful, could lead to a single currency. The move was seen as a wrecking tactic by France and Germany, especially when the increasingly Euro-sceptic Thatcher announced her outright opposition to EMU, and the idea was abandoned. More successfully, Major managed to get the new European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) located in London. By early 1990 Major had become convinced that the best way to combat inflation and restore macroeconomic stability would be if the British pound were to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), and he and Douglas Hurd (Major's successor as Foreign Secretary) set about trying to convince a reluctant Thatcher to join it. The move was supported by the Bank of England, the Treasury, most of the Cabinet, the Labour Party, several major business associations and much of the press. With the 'Lawson Boom' showing signs of running out of steam, exacerbated by rising oil prices following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, there were fears of a potential recession and pressure to cut interest rates. Thatcher finally agreed on 4 October, and Britain's entry into the ERM at a rate of DM 2.95 to £1.00 (with an agreed 6% floating 'band' either side) was announced the following day. An interest rate cut of 1% (from 15%) was also announced on the same day. The rest of Major's Chancellorship prior to the leadership contest was largely uneventful; he considered granting the Bank of England operational independence over monetary policy, with the ability to set interest rates, but decided against it. He also agreed a restructuring and write-off of some Third World debt at a Commonwealth Finance Ministers meeting in Trinidad and Tobago in September 1990. Conservative Party leadership contest Opposition within the Conservative Party to Margaret Thatcher had been brewing for some time, focusing on what was seen as her brusque, imperious style and the Poll Tax, which was facing serious opposition across the country. In December 1989 she had survived a leadership bid by Anthony Meyer; though she won easily, 60 MPs had not voted for her, and it was rumoured that many more had had to be strong-armed into supporting her. By early 1990 it was clear that bills for many under the new Poll Tax regime would be higher than anticipated, and opposition to the Tax grew, with a non-payment campaign gaining much support and an anti-Poll Tax demonstration in Trafalgar Square in March ending in rioting. The Conservatives lost the 1990 Mid Staffordshire by-election to Labour and the 1990 Eastbourne by-election to the Liberal Democrats, both Conservative seats, causing many Conservative MPs to worry about their prospects at the upcoming general election, due in 1991 or 1992. Thatcher's staunch anti-European stance also alienated pro-Europe Conservatives. On 1 November the pro-European Deputy Prime Minister Geoffrey Howe resigned, issuing a fiercely critical broadside against Thatcher in the House of Commons on 13 November. The day after Howe's speech Michael Heseltine, Thatcher's former Secretary of State for Defence who had acrimoniously resigned in 1986 over the Westland affair, challenged Thatcher for the leadership of the Conservative Party. Both John Major and Foreign Secretary Douglas Hurd supported Thatcher in the first round. Major was at home in Huntingdon recovering from a pre-arranged wisdom tooth operation during the first leadership ballot, which Thatcher won but not by the required threshold, necessitating a second round. Following discussions with her cabinet, in which many stated that though supporting her they doubted she could win, Thatcher withdrew from the contest and announced that she would resign as prime minister once a new leader had been elected. Major subsequently announced on 22 November that he would stand in the second ballot, with Thatcher's backing. Major's platform was one of moderation on Europe, a
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election, in which Major retained his seat with an increased majority, he was promoted to the Cabinet as Chief Secretary to the Treasury, making him the first MP of the 1979 intake to reach the Cabinet. The then-Chancellor Nigel Lawson generally made major decisions with little input from others, and Major was put in charge of agreeing departmental budgets with the Secretaries of State. These discussions went well, and for the first time in several years budgets were agreed without recourse to the external adjudication of the 'Star Chamber'. Major successfully concluded a second round of such spending reviews in July 1988. Whilst Chief Secretary Major took part in discussions over the future funding of the NHS, against the background of an NHS strike in February 1988 over pay, resulting in the 'Working for Patients' white paper and subsequent National Health Service and Community Care Act 1990. Major also insisted in discussions with Thatcher that government assistance should be provided to support the sale of Short Brothers to Bombardier, an aerospace company and major employer in Northern Ireland which might otherwise have collapsed. Foreign Secretary (July–October 1989) In 1987–88 it became clear that Major had become a 'favourite' of Margaret Thatcher and he was widely tipped for further promotion. Nevertheless, Major's appointment to Foreign Secretary in July 1989 came as a surprise due to his relative lack of experience in the Cabinet and unfamiliarity with international affairs. Major found the prospect daunting, and unsuccessfully attempted to convince Thatcher to allow him to stay on at the Treasury. There were also fears within the Foreign Office (FCO) that Major would be Thatcher's 'hatchet-man', as her relations with the department under Geoffrey Howe had been poor and characterised by mutual distrust. Major accepted the job and began to settle into the department, living in an upstairs room at the FCO and devolving decision making where necessary, though he found the increased security burdensome and disliked the extensive ceremonial aspects of the role. Amongst Major's first acts as Foreign Secretary was to cancel the sale of Hawk aircraft to Iraq, over concerns they would be used for internal repression. He represented Britain at the Paris Peace Conference to determine the future of Cambodia. Major also met with US Secretary of State James Baker, with whom he primarily discussed the issue of Vietnamese boat people, and with Qian Qichen, Foreign Minister of China, becoming the first senior Western politician to meet with a Chinese official since the violent crackdown of pro-democracy protesters in Tiananmen Square the previous month. Discussions focused primarily on the future of Hong Kong, which Britain was scheduled to hand over to China in 1997. Major spent most of a summer holiday that year in Spain conducting extensive background reading on foreign affairs and British foreign policy. Upon his return to the UK he and Thatcher met with French president François Mitterrand, in which the future direction of the European Community was discussed. In September 1989 Major delivered a speech at the United Nations General Assembly, in which he pledged to support Colombia's effort to tackle the drugs trade and reiterated Britain's opposition to the apartheid regime in South Africa. Major also met US President George HW Bush in Washington, D.C. and Domingo Cavallo, the Argentine Foreign Minister, the first such meeting since the end of the Falklands War seven years earlier. Major's last major summit as Foreign Secretary was the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) in Malaysia. The meeting was dominated by the issue of sanctions on South Africa, with Britain being the only country to oppose them, on the grounds that they would end up hurting poorer South Africans far more than the apartheid regime at which they were aimed. The summit ended acrimoniously, with Thatcher controversially and against established precedent issuing a second final communiqué stating Britain's opposition to sanctions, with the press seizing on the apparent disagreement on the matter between Major and Thatcher. Chancellor of the Exchequer (1989–1990) After just three months as Foreign Secretary Major was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer on 26 October 1989 after the sudden resignation of Nigel Lawson, who had fallen out with Thatcher over what he saw as her excessive reliance on the advice of her Economic Adviser Alan Walters. The appointment meant that, despite only being in the Cabinet for a little over two years, Major had gone from the most junior position in the Cabinet to holding two of the Great Offices of State. Major made tackling inflation a priority, stating that tough measures were needed to bring it down and that "if it isn't hurting, it isn't working." He delivered his first Autumn Statement on 15 November, announcing a boost in spending (mainly for the NHS) and with interest rates to be kept as they were. As Chancellor, Major presented only one Budget, the first to be televised live, on 20 March 1990. He publicised it as a 'budget for savers', with the creations of the Tax-exempt special savings account (TESSA), arguing that measures were required to address the marked fall in the household savings ratio that had been apparent during the previous financial year. Major also abolished the composite rate tax and stamp duty on share trades, whilst increasing taxes on alcohol, cigarettes and petrol. Tax cuts were also made which benefited football associations, the aim being to increase funding on safety measures following the Bradford City stadium fire and Hillsborough disaster. Extra funding was also made available to Scotland in order to limit the impact of the Community Charge (widely dubbed the 'Poll Tax') which had been introduced there that year. The European Community's push for full Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) was another important factor in Major's time as Chancellor; in June 1990 he proposed that instead of a single European currency there could instead be a 'hard ECU', which different national currencies could compete against and, if the ECU was successful, could lead to a single currency. The move was seen as a wrecking tactic by France and Germany, especially when the increasingly Euro-sceptic Thatcher announced her outright opposition to EMU, and the idea was abandoned. More successfully, Major managed to get the new European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) located in London. By early 1990 Major had become convinced that the best way to combat inflation and restore macroeconomic stability would be if the British pound were to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), and he and Douglas Hurd (Major's successor as Foreign Secretary) set about trying to convince a reluctant Thatcher to join it. The move was supported by the Bank of England, the Treasury, most of the Cabinet, the Labour Party, several major business associations and much of the press. With the 'Lawson Boom' showing signs of running out of steam, exacerbated by rising oil prices following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, there were fears of a potential recession and pressure to cut interest rates. Thatcher finally agreed on 4 October, and Britain's entry into the ERM at a rate of DM 2.95 to £1.00 (with an agreed 6% floating 'band' either side) was announced the following day. An interest rate cut of 1% (from 15%) was also announced on the same day. The rest of Major's Chancellorship prior to the leadership contest was largely uneventful; he considered granting the Bank of England operational independence over monetary policy, with the ability to set interest rates, but decided against it. He also agreed a restructuring and write-off of some Third World debt at a Commonwealth Finance Ministers meeting in Trinidad and Tobago in September 1990. Conservative Party leadership contest Opposition within the Conservative Party to Margaret Thatcher had been brewing for some time, focusing on what was seen as her brusque, imperious style and the Poll Tax, which was facing serious opposition across the country. In December 1989 she had survived a leadership bid by Anthony Meyer; though she won easily, 60 MPs had not voted for her, and it was rumoured that many more had had to be strong-armed into supporting her. By early 1990 it was clear that bills for many under the new Poll Tax regime would be higher than anticipated, and opposition to the Tax grew, with a non-payment campaign gaining much support and an anti-Poll Tax demonstration in Trafalgar Square in March ending in rioting. The Conservatives lost the 1990 Mid Staffordshire by-election to Labour and the 1990 Eastbourne by-election to the Liberal Democrats, both Conservative seats, causing many Conservative MPs to worry about their prospects at the upcoming general election, due in 1991 or 1992. Thatcher's staunch anti-European stance also alienated pro-Europe Conservatives. On 1 November the pro-European Deputy Prime Minister Geoffrey Howe resigned, issuing a fiercely critical broadside against Thatcher in the House of Commons on 13 November. The day after Howe's speech Michael Heseltine, Thatcher's former Secretary of State for Defence who had acrimoniously resigned in 1986 over the Westland affair, challenged Thatcher for the leadership of the Conservative Party. Both John Major and Foreign Secretary Douglas Hurd supported Thatcher in the first round. Major was at home in Huntingdon recovering from a pre-arranged wisdom tooth operation during the first leadership ballot, which Thatcher won but not by the required threshold, necessitating a second round. Following discussions with her cabinet, in which many stated that though supporting her they doubted she could win, Thatcher withdrew from the contest and announced that she would resign as prime minister once a new leader had been elected. Major subsequently announced on 22 November that he would stand in the second ballot, with Thatcher's backing. Major's platform was one of moderation on Europe, a review of the Poll Tax and the desire to build a 'classless society'. Unlike in the first ballot, a candidate only required a simple majority of Conservative MPs to win, in this case 187 of 372 MPs. The ballot was held on the afternoon of 27 November; although Major obtained 185 votes, 2 votes short of an overall majority, he polled far enough ahead of both Hurd and Heseltine to secure their immediate withdrawal. With no remaining challengers, Major was formally named Leader of the Conservative Party that evening and was duly appointed prime minister the following day. At 47 he was the youngest prime minister since Lord Rosebery some 95 years earlier. Prime minister (1990–1997) First Major ministry (1990–1992) Major became prime minister on 28 November 1990 when he accepted the Queen's invitation to form a government, succeeding Margaret Thatcher. He inherited a majority government from Margaret Thatcher who had been the prime minister for the previous eleven years. The Conservatives' popularity was low with some polling showing Labour's Neil Kinnock with a 23% lead over the Tories in April 1990 following the introduction of the Community Charge (poll tax) in 1989. By the time of Major's appointment, Labour's lead had shrunk to 14%. However, by 1991, the Conservatives had narrowly retaken Labour in the polls. Major's first ministry was dominated by the early 1990s recession which was believed to be caused by: high interest rates, falling house prices and an overvalued exchange rate. The high interest rates led to more saving, less spending and less investment in the UK's sectors. Falling house prices stalled construction in the housing sector. Economic growth wasn't re-established until early 1993. By December 1991, unemployment was at 2.5 million (compared to 1.6 million 18 months earlier). Additionally, inflation was in double digits and interest rates reached 15%. However, opinion polling for Major's government remained stable during this period. Second Major ministry (1992–1997) On 9 April 1992, Major called an election. To the surprise of many pollsters, the Conservatives won a majority with 336 seats earning 41.9% of the vote. With a high turnout, the Conservatives earned over 14 million votes which remains a record in any UK general election. This was the Conservatives' fourth consecutive election victory. Neil Kinnock was replaced by John Smith as Labour leader in 1992. On 16 September 1992, the pound sterling crashed out of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism after the Chancellor of the Exchequer Norman Lamont had invested heavily in trying to keep it there, adjusting interest rates four times in one day. This event would later be called Black Wednesday. Despite the recession finally being over in 1993, the Conservatives' popularity didn't improve. Major's second ministry was also defined by conflicts within the Conservative Party regarding Europe after the government's defeat on the Maastricht Treaty. On 12 May 1994, the Leader of the Opposition John Smith died from a heart attack and was replaced by Tony Blair who continued Labour's modernisation under the slogan of "New Labour". Some polling at the end of 1994 and the start of 1995 had Labour with a vote share of over 60%. The Tories remained divided over this era and with an attempt to silence his critics, Major resigned as Party leader. In the leadership election, Major comfortably beat John Redwood in June 1995. Following a string of by-election defeats, the Conservatives' majority of 21 had been eroded by 13 December 1996. In the 1997 election, Labour won a 179-seat majority, ending their eighteen years in opposition. This was the worst general election result of the 20th century for the Conservatives, seeing the loss of all the party's seats in Wales and Scotland. His term ended with his resignation on 2 May 1997. While serving as prime minister, Major also served as the first lord of the Treasury and minister for the civil service. He was succeeded by Tony Blair following the 1997 general election. The Conservatives would not win another election until 2010. Final years in Parliament (1997–2001) Although many Conservative MPs wanted Major to resign as leader immediately because of the election loss, there was a movement among the grassroots of the party, encouraged by his political allies, to have him stay on as leader until the autumn. Lord Cranborne, his chief of staff during the election, and the chief whip, Alastair Goodlad, both pleaded with him to stay on: they argued that remaining as leader for a few months would give the party time to come to terms with the scale of defeat before electing a successor. Major refused, saying: "It would be terrible, because I would be presiding with no authority over a number of candidates fighting for the crown. It would merely prolong the agony." Major served as Leader of the Opposition for seven weeks while the leadership election to replace him was underway. He formed a temporary Shadow Cabinet, but with seven of his Cabinet ministers having lost their seats at the election, and with few senior MPs left to replace them, several MPs had to hold multiple briefs. Major himself served as shadow foreign secretary (having served as foreign secretary for three months in 1989) and Shadow Secretary of State for Defence, and the office of Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland was left vacant until after the 2001 general election as the party no longer had any Scottish MPs. Major's resignation as Conservative Leader formally took effect on 19 June 1997 after the election of William Hague. Major's Resignation Honours were announced on 1 August 1997. He remained active in Parliament, regularly attending and contributing in debates. He stood down from the House of Commons at the 2001 general election, having announced his retirement from Parliament on 10 March 2000. Jonathan Djanogly took over as MP for Huntingdon, retaining the seat for the Conservatives at the 2001 election. Like some post-war former prime ministers (such as Edward Heath), Major turned down a peerage when he retired from the House of Commons in 2001. He said that he wanted a "firebreak from politics" and to focus on writing and his business, sporting and charity work. Post-parliamentary life (2001–present) Since leaving office, Major has tended to maintain a low profile in the media, occasionally commentating on political developments in the role of an elder statesman. In 1999 he published his autobiography, covering his early life and time in office, which was generally well received. Major went on to write a book about the history of cricket in 2007 (More Than a Game: The Story of Cricket's Early Years) and a book about music hall (My Old Man: A Personal History of Music Hall) in 2012. He has further indulged his love of cricket as President of Surrey County Cricket Club from 2000 to 2001 (and Honorary Life Vice-president since 2002). In March 2001 he gave the tribute to cricketer Colin Cowdrey at his memorial service in Westminster Abbey. In 2005 he was elected to the Committee of the Marylebone Cricket Club, historically the governing body of the sport, and still guardian of the laws of the game. Major left the committee in 2011, citing concerns with the planned redevelopment of Lord's Cricket Ground. John Major has also been actively engaged in charity work, being President of Asthma UK, and a Patron of the Prostate Cancer Charity, Sightsavers UK, Mercy Ships, Support for Africa 2000 and Afghan Heroes. In February 2012, Major became chairman of the Queen Elizabeth Diamond Jubilee Trust, which was formed as part of the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II and is intended to support charitable organisations and projects across the Commonwealth, focusing on areas such as cures for diseases and the promotion of culture and education. Major was a Patron of the sight loss and learning disability charity SeeAbility from 2006 to 2012 and has been a vice-president since 2013. Major has also pursued a variety of business interests, taking up appointments as Senior Adviser to Credit Suisse, chairman of the board of Senior Advisers at Global Infrastructure Partners, Global Adviser to AECOM, Chairman of the International Advisory Board of the National Bank of Kuwait, and Chairman of the European Advisory Council of the Emerson Electric Company. He was a member of the Carlyle Group's European Advisory Board from 1998 and was appointed Chairman of Carlyle Europe in May 2001. He stood down from the Group circa 2004–05. Major was also a director at the bus manufacturers the Mayflower Corporation from 2000 to 2003, which was liquidated in 2004 due to funding issues. Following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997, Major was appointed a special guardian to
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"except for the shoulders, which are quickly alternated back and forth". The dances that emerged during this period were the Charleston and the Lindy hop.The Charleston is "characterized by its toes-in, heels-out twisting steps". It can be done as a solo or with any number of people. The Lindy hop was a wild and spontaneous partner dance that was extremely rhythmically conscious. When the Great Depression began in October 1929, many people turned to dance. Because of this, the Aubrielle and the Lindy hop are now considered to be under the umbrella term "swing dance stylized, continuously flowing movements that developed the technique and style for the combinations that followed". Cole's style has been called hip, hard, and cool". Fosse combined "vaudeville, striptease, magic shows, nightclubs, film and Broadway musicals". Pop music and television Contemporary jazz became well known because of its television shows unlike So You Think You Can Dance. Mia Michaels's earlier work exemplifies this style. Some other companies and choreographers that create contemporary jazz dance are Sonya Tayeh, Mandy Moore, and Hubbard Street Dance Chicago. Commercial jazz, which has been popular since the 1980s, combines aspects of hip hop and jazz and is often done to pop music. This style can be seen in the music videos of Janet Jackson and Paula Abdul. Commercial jazz often includes more "tricks." Commercial jazz and contemporary jazz are both seen at dance competitions. Another variety of jazz is Latin jazz. "Maria Torres developed and popularized the fusion at Broadway Dance Center". Latin jazz has an emphasis on the movement of hips and isolations. It can be seen in the films El Cantante and Dance with Me, as well as on TV dance shows. Dancers, directors, choreographers Jack Cole influenced Matt Mattox, Bob Fosse, Jerome Robbins, and Gwen Verdon, and is credited with popularizing the theatrical form of jazz dance with his great number of choreographic works on television and Broadway. Katherine Dunham is an anthropologist, choreographer, and pioneer in black theatrical dance who introduced isolations jazz dance. Eugene Louis Faccuito also known as Luigi, was an
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conscious. When the Great Depression began in October 1929, many people turned to dance. Because of this, the Aubrielle and the Lindy hop are now considered to be under the umbrella term "swing dance stylized, continuously flowing movements that developed the technique and style for the combinations that followed". Cole's style has been called hip, hard, and cool". Fosse combined "vaudeville, striptease, magic shows, nightclubs, film and Broadway musicals". Pop music and television Contemporary jazz became well known because of its television shows unlike So You Think You Can Dance. Mia Michaels's earlier work exemplifies this style. Some other companies and choreographers that create contemporary jazz dance are Sonya Tayeh, Mandy Moore, and Hubbard Street Dance Chicago. Commercial jazz, which has been popular since the 1980s, combines aspects of hip hop and jazz and is often done to pop music. This style can be seen in the music videos of Janet Jackson and Paula Abdul. Commercial jazz often includes more "tricks." Commercial jazz and contemporary jazz are both seen at dance competitions. Another variety of jazz is Latin jazz. "Maria Torres developed and popularized the fusion at Broadway Dance Center". Latin jazz has an emphasis on the movement of hips and isolations. It can be seen in the films El Cantante and Dance with Me, as well as on TV dance shows. Dancers, directors, choreographers Jack Cole influenced Matt Mattox, Bob Fosse, Jerome Robbins, and Gwen Verdon, and is credited with popularizing the theatrical form of jazz dance with his great number of choreographic works on television and Broadway. Katherine Dunham is an anthropologist, choreographer, and pioneer in black theatrical dance who introduced isolations jazz dance. Eugene Louis Faccuito also known as Luigi, was an American jazz dancer, teacherm choreographer, and creator of the first codified jazz technique, the Luigi Technique.
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with narrative while lexical allusions swim under the surface of the poem. Marnie Parsons describes the work as a "semiotic catastrophe", arguing that the words create a discernible narrative within the structure of the poem, though the reader cannot know what they symbolise. She argues that Humpty Dumpty tries, after the recitation, to "ground" the unruly multiplicities of meaning with definitions, but cannot succeed as both the book and the poem are playgrounds for the "carnivalised aspect of language". Parsons suggests that this is mirrored in the prosody of the poem: in the tussle between the tetrameter in the first three lines of each stanza and trimeter in the last lines, such that one undercuts the other and we are left off balance, like the poem's hero. Carroll wrote many poem parodies such as "Twinkle, twinkle little bat", "You Are Old, Father William" and "How Doth the Little Crocodile?" Some have become generally better known than the originals on which they are based, and this is certainly the case with "Jabberwocky". The poems' successes do not rely on any recognition or association of the poems that they parody. Lucas suggests that the original poems provide a strong container but Carroll's works are famous precisely because of their random, surreal quality. Carroll's grave playfulness has been compared with that of the poet Edward Lear; there are also parallels with the work of Gerard Manley Hopkins in the frequent use of soundplay, alliteration, created-language and portmanteau. Both writers were Carroll's contemporaries. Translations History "Jabberwocky" has been translated into numerous languages, as the novel has been translated into 65 languages. The translation might be difficult because the poem holds to English syntax and many of the principal words of the poem are invented. Translators have generally dealt with them by creating equivalent words of their own. Often these are similar in spelling or sound to Carroll's while respecting the morphology of the language they are being translated into. In Frank L. Warrin's French translation, "'Twas brillig" becomes "Il brilgue". In instances like this, both the original and the invented words echo actual words of Carroll's lexicon, but not necessarily ones with similar meanings. Translators have invented words which draw on root words with meanings similar to the English roots used by Carroll. Douglas Hofstadter noted in his essay "Translations of Jabberwocky", the word 'slithy', for example, echoes the English 'slimy', 'slither', 'slippery', 'lithe' and 'sly'. A French translation that uses 'lubricilleux' for 'slithy', evokes French words like 'lubrifier' (to lubricate) to give an impression of a meaning similar to that of Carroll's word. In his exploration of the translation challenge, Hofstadter asks "what if a word does exist, but it is very intellectual-sounding and Latinate ('lubricilleux'), rather than earthy and Anglo-Saxon ('slithy')? Perhaps 'huilasse' would be better than 'lubricilleux'? Or does the Latin origin of the word 'lubricilleux' not make itself felt to a speaker of French in the way that it would if it were an English word ('lubricilious', perhaps)? ". Hofstadter also notes that it makes a great difference whether the poem is translated in isolation or as part of a translation of the novel. In the latter case the translator must, through Humpty Dumpty, supply explanations of the invented words. But, he suggests, "even in this pathologically difficult case of translation, there seems to be some rough equivalence obtainable, a kind of rough isomorphism, partly global, partly local, between the brains of all the readers". In 1967, D.G. Orlovskaya wrote a popular Russian translation of "Jabberwocky" entitled "Barmaglot" ("Бармаглот"). She translated "Barmaglot" for "Jabberwock", "Brandashmyg" for "Bandersnatch" while "myumsiki" ("мюмзики") echoes "mimsy". Full translations of "Jabberwocky" into French and German can be found in The Annotated Alice along with a discussion of why some translation decisions were made. Chao Yuen Ren, a Chinese linguist, translated the poem into Chinese by inventing characters to imitate what Rob Gifford of National Public Radio refers to as the "slithy toves that gyred and gimbled in the wabe of Carroll's original". Satyajit Ray, a film-maker, translated the work into Bengali and concrete poet Augusto de Campos created a Brazilian Portuguese version. There is also an Arabic translation by Wael Al-Mahdi, and at least two into Croatian. Multiple translations into Latin were made within the first weeks of Carroll's original publication. In a 1964 article, M. L. West published two versions of the poem in Ancient Greek that exemplify the respective styles of the epic poets Homer and Nonnus. Sample translations Sources: Reception According to Chesterton and Green and others, the original purpose of "Jabberwocky" was to satirise both pretentious verse and ignorant literary critics. It was designed as verse showing how not to write verse, but eventually became the subject of pedestrian translation or explanation and incorporated into classroom learning. It has also been interpreted as a parody of contemporary Oxford scholarship and specifically the story of how Benjamin Jowett, the notoriously agnostic Professor of Greek at Oxford, and Master of Balliol, came to sign the Thirty-Nine Articles, as an Anglican statement of faith, to save his job. The transformation of audience perception from satire to seriousness was in a large part predicted by G. K. Chesterton, who wrote in 1932, "Poor, poor, little Alice! She has not only been caught and made to do lessons; she has been forced to inflict lessons on others." It is often now cited as one of the greatest nonsense poems written in English, the source for countless parodies and tributes. In most cases the writers have changed the nonsense words into words relating to the parodied subject, as in Frank Jacobs's "If Lewis Carroll Were a Hollywood Press Agent in the Thirties" in Mad for Better or Verse. Other writers use the poem as a form, much like a sonnet, and create their own words for it as in "Strunklemiss" by Shay K. Azoulay or the poem "Oh Freddled Gruntbuggly" recited by Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz in Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, a 1979 book which contains numerous other references and homages to Carroll's work. Oh freddled gruntbuggly thy micturations are to me As plurdled gabbleblotchits on a lurgid bee. Groop I implore thee my foonting turlingdromes And hooptiously drangle me with crinkly bindlewurdles, Or I will rend thee in the gobberwarts with my blurglecruncheon, see if I don't!"Oh Freddled Gruntbuggly" by Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz. In Adams, Douglas (1988) Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Pocket Books p65 Some of the words that Carroll created, such as "chortled" and "galumphing", have entered the English language and are listed in the Oxford English Dictionary. The word "jabberwocky" itself has come to refer to nonsense language. In American Sign Language, Eric Malzkuhn invented the sign for "chortled". It unintentionally caught on and became a part of American Sign Language's lexicon as well. Music, film, television, anime, art, and video games A song called "Beware the Jabberwock" was written for Disney's Alice in Wonderland (1951), but it was discarded, replaced with "'Twas Brillig", sung by the Cheshire Cat, that includes the first stanza of "Jabberwocky". The Alice in Wonderland sculpture in Central Park in Manhattan, New York City, has at its base, among other inscriptions, a line from "Jabberwocky". The British group Boeing Duveen and The Beautiful Soup released a single (1968) called "Jabberwock" based on the poem. Singer and songwriter Donovan put the poem to music on his album HMS Donovan (1971). The poem was a source of inspiration for Jan Švankmajer's 1971 short film Žvahlav aneb šatičky slaměného Huberta or (Jabberwocky), and Terry Gilliam's 1977 film of the same name. In 1972, the American composer Sam Pottle put the poem to music. The stage musical Jabberwocky (1973) by Andrew Kay, Malcolm Middleton and Peter Phillips, follows the basic plot of the poem. In 1980, The Muppet Show staged a full version of "Jabberwocky" for TV viewing, with the Jabberwock and other creatures played by Muppets closely based on Tenniel's original illustrations. According to Jaques and Giddens, it distinguished itself by stressing the humor and nonsense of the poem. Keyboardists Clive Nolan and Oliver Wakeman released a musical version Jabberwocky (1999) with the poem read in segments by Rick Wakeman. "The Jabberwocky" (rather than "The Jabberwock") is a central character in Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland (2010), voiced by Christopher Lee. An abridged version of the poem is spoken by the Mad Hatter (played by Johnny Depp). The concept of Jabberwocky was modernized in the anime movie, Kuroko's Basketball The Movie: Last Game(2017). The monster Jabberwock was portrayed as a rival basketball team, called Jabberwock, and disgraced the Japanese basketball teams. To vindicate Japan, Kuroko, Kagami, and the Generation of Miracles formed a team, Vorpal Swords, and challenged Jabberwock. British contemporary lieder group Fall in Green set the poem to music for a single release (2021) on Cornutopia Music. In the fantasy franchise Dungeons & Dragons, vorpal swords are powerful magical swords with the ability to decapitate foes. English musician Cosmo Sheldrake mentioned "the Jabberwocky" in his debut single, "The Moss", in which it is described as having "small, green tentacles". See also Works based on Alice in Wonderland Translations of Through the Looking-Glass References Footnotes Sources Carpenter, Humphrey (1985). Secret Gardens: The Golden Age of Children's Literature. Houghton Mifflin. Medievil 1998 sony playstation 1 Further reading Alakay-Gut, Karen. "Carroll's Jabberwocky". Explicator, Fall 1987. Volume 46, issue 1. Borchers, Melanie. "A Linguistic Analysis of Lewis Carroll's Poem 'Jabberwocky'". The Carrollian: The Lewis Carroll Journal. Autumn 2009, No. 24, pp. 3–46. . Dolitsky, Marlene (1984). Under the tumtum tree: from nonsense to sense, a study in nonautomatic comprehension. J. Benjamins Pub. Co. Amsterdam, Philadelphia Gardner, Martin (1999). The Annotated Alice: The Definitive Edition. New York: W .W. Norton and Company. Green, Roger Lancelyn (1970). The Lewis Carroll Handbook, "Jabberwocky, and other parodies" : Dawson of Pall Mall, London Lucas, Peter J. (1997). "Jabberwocky back to Old English: Nonsense, Anglo-Saxon and Oxford" in Language History and Linguistic Modelling. . Richards, Fran. "The Poetic Structure of Jabberwocky". Jabberwocky: The Journal of the Lewis Carroll Society. 8:1 (1978/79):16–19. External links Essay: "Translations of Jabberwocky". Douglas R. Hofstadter, 1980 from Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid , Vintage Books, New York BBC Video (2 mins), "Jabberwocky" read by English actor Brian Blessed read by English author Neil Gaiman Poetry Foundation Biography of Lewis Carroll The Lewis Carroll Journal published by The Lewis Carroll Society. Jabberwocky by composer Sam Pottle 1871 poems Alice's Adventures in Wonderland British poems Fictional dragons Fictional monsters Fictional reptiles Gibberish language
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with its feathers sticking out all round, something like a live mop." In Mischmasch borogoves are described differently: "An extinct kind of Parrot. They had no wings, beaks turned up, and made their nests under sun-dials: lived on veal." In Hunting of the Snark, Carroll says that the initial syllable of borogove is pronounced as in borrow rather than as in worry. Brillig: Following the poem, the character of Humpty Dumpty comments: Brillig' means four o'clock in the afternoon, the time when you begin broiling things for dinner." According to Mischmasch, it is derived from the verb to bryl or broil. Burbled: In a letter of December 1877, Carroll notes that "burble" could be a mixture of the three verbs 'bleat', 'murmur', and 'warble', although he did not remember creating it. Chortled: "Combination of 'chuckle' and 'snort'." (OED) Frabjous: Possibly a blend of fair, fabulous, and joyous. Definition from Oxford English Dictionary, credited to Lewis Carroll. Frumious: Combination of "fuming" and "furious". In the Preface to The Hunting of the Snark Carroll comments, "[T]ake the two words 'fuming' and 'furious'. Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first. Now open your mouth and speak. If your thoughts incline ever so little towards 'fuming', you will say 'fuming-furious'; if they turn, by even a hair's breadth, towards 'furious', you will say 'furious-fuming'; but if you have the rarest of gifts, a perfectly balanced mind, you will say 'frumious'." Galumphing: Perhaps used in the poem as a blend of 'gallop' and 'triumphant'. Used later by Kipling, and cited by Webster as "To move with a clumsy and heavy tread" Gimble: Humpty Dumpty comments that it means: "to make holes like a gimlet." Gyre: "To 'gyre' is to go round and round like a gyroscope." Gyre is entered in the OED from 1420, meaning a circular or spiral motion or form; especially a giant circular oceanic surface current. Carroll also wrote in Mischmasch that it meant to scratch like a dog. The g is pronounced like the /g/ in gold, not like gem (since this was how "gyroscope" was pronounced in Carroll's day). Jabberwock: When a class in the Girls' Latin School in Boston asked Carroll's permission to name their school magazine The Jabberwock, he replied: "The Anglo-Saxon word 'wocer' or 'wocor' signifies 'offspring' or 'fruit'. Taking 'jabber' in its ordinary acceptation of 'excited and voluble discussion', this would give the meaning of 'the result of much excited and voluble discussion'..." It is often depicted as a monster similar to a dragon. John Tenniel's illustration depicts it with a long serpentine neck, rabbit-like teeth, spidery talons, bat-like wings and, as a humorous touch, a waistcoat. In the 2010 film version of Alice in Wonderland it is shown with large back legs, small dinosaur-like front legs, and on the ground it uses its wings as front legs like a pterosaur, and it breathes out lightning flashes rather than flame. Jubjub bird: 'A desperate bird that lives in perpetual passion', according to the Butcher in Carroll's later poem The Hunting of the Snark. 'Jub' is an ancient word for a jerkin or a dialect word for the trot of a horse (OED). It might make reference to the call of the bird resembling the sound "jub, jub". Manxome: Possibly 'fearsome'; Possibly a portmanteau of "manly" and "buxom", the latter relating to men for most of its history; or "three-legged" after the triskelion emblem of the Manx people from the Isle of Man. Mimsy: Humpty Dumpty comments that Mimsy' is 'flimsy and miserable. Mome: Humpty Dumpty is uncertain about this one: "I think it's short for 'from home', meaning that they'd lost their way, you know". The notes in Mischmasch give a different definition of 'grave' (via 'solemome', 'solemone' and 'solemn'). Outgrabe: Humpty Dumpty says outgribing' is something between bellowing and whistling, with a kind of sneeze in the middle". Carroll's book appendices suggest it is the past tense of the verb to 'outgribe', connected with the old verb to 'grike' or 'shrike', which derived 'shriek' and 'creak' and hence 'squeak'. Rath: Humpty Dumpty says following the poem: "A 'rath' is a sort of green pig". Carroll's notes for the original in Mischmasch state that a 'Rath' is "a species of land turtle. Head erect, mouth like a shark, the front forelegs curved out so that the animal walked on its knees, smooth green body, lived on swallows and oysters." In the 1951 animated film adaptation of the previous book, the raths are depicted as small, multi-coloured creatures with tufty hair, round eyes, and long legs resembling pipe stems. Slithy: Humpty Dumpty says: Slithy' means 'lithe and slimy'. 'Lithe' is the same as 'active'. You see it's like a portmanteau, there are two meanings packed up into one word." The original in Mischmasch notes that 'slithy' means "smooth and active". The i is long, as in writhe. Snicker-snack: possibly related to the large knife, the snickersnee. Tove: Humpty Dumpty says Toves' are something like badgers, they're something like lizards, and they're something like corkscrews. ... Also they make their nests under sun-dials, also they live on cheese." Pronounced so as to rhyme with groves. They "gyre and gimble", i.e., rotate and bore. Toves are described slightly differently in Mischmasch: "a species of Badger [which] had smooth white hair, long hind legs, and short horns like a stag [and] lived chiefly on cheese". Tulgey: Carroll himself said he could give no source for this word. It could be taken to mean thick, dense, dark. It has been suggested that it comes from the Anglo-Cornish word tulgu, 'darkness', which in turn comes from Cornish tewolgow 'darkness, gloominess'. Uffish: Carroll noted, "It seemed to suggest a state of mind when the voice is gruffish, the manner roughish, and the temper huffish". Vorpal: Carroll said he could not explain this word, though it has been noted that it can be formed by taking letters alternately from "verbal" and "gospel". Wabe: The characters in the poem suggest it means "The grass plot around a sundial", called a 'wa-be' because it "goes a long way before it, and a long way behind it". In the original Mischmasch text, Carroll states a 'wabe' is "the side of a hill (from its being soaked by rain)". Linguistics and poetics Though the poem contains many nonsensical words, English syntax and poetic forms are observed, such as the quatrain verses, the general ABAB rhyme scheme and the iambic meter. Linguist Peter Lucas believes the "nonsense" term is inaccurate. The poem relies on a distortion of sense rather than "non-sense", allowing the reader to infer meaning and therefore engage with narrative while lexical allusions swim under the surface of the poem. Marnie Parsons describes the work as a "semiotic catastrophe", arguing that the words create a discernible narrative within the structure of the poem, though the reader cannot know what they symbolise. She argues that Humpty Dumpty tries, after the recitation, to "ground" the unruly multiplicities of meaning with definitions, but cannot succeed as both the book and the poem are playgrounds for the "carnivalised aspect of language". Parsons suggests that this is mirrored in the prosody of the poem: in the tussle between the tetrameter in the first three lines of each stanza and trimeter in the last lines, such that one undercuts the other and we are left off balance, like the poem's hero. Carroll wrote many poem parodies such as "Twinkle, twinkle little bat", "You Are Old, Father William" and "How Doth the Little Crocodile?" Some have become generally better known than the originals on which they are based, and this is certainly the case with "Jabberwocky". The poems' successes do not rely on any recognition or association of the poems that they parody. Lucas suggests that the
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that was being pursued within Canada by the Continental Union Association, a group of Ontario and Quebec Liberals. Despite his concern, Thompson ultimately realized that the conspiracy to make Canada part of the United States was confined to a small and noisy minority within the opposition party. In March 1893, Thompson travelled to Paris, France as one of the judges on the tribunal to settle the dispute over the seal harvest in the Bering Sea. The tribunal ruled there was no justification for the American claim that the Bering Sea was closed to all but American seal hunters. Other matters of concern during Thompson's tenure as Prime Minister included the reduction of trade tariffs and questions over schooling in Manitoba and in the North West Territories, where serious disputes existed over the role of Catholics and Protestants in administering the school system. The issue in the North West Territories would be resolved to Thompson's satisfaction but only after his death. Supreme Court appointments While in office, Thompson chose the following jurists to sit as justices of the Supreme Court of Canada: Sir Samuel Henry Strong (as Chief Justice, December 13, 1892 – November 18, 1902; appointed a Puisne Justice under Prime Minister Mackenzie, September 30, 1875) Robert Sedgewick – (February 18, 1893 – August 4, 1906) George Edwin King – (September 21, 1893 – May 8, 1901) Death in office Thompson had been Prime Minister of Canada for only two years when he died suddenly from a heart attack at the age of 49 on December 12, 1894. He was at England's Windsor Castle, where Queen Victoria had just made him a member of her Privy Council. Thompson's physical condition had deteriorated during his time in Ottawa; he was significantly overweight when he died (standing , he weighed about ), and had always pushed himself very hard in his work. Thompson was the second of two Canadian prime ministers to die in office (the first being John A. Macdonald), and the first of three who did not die in Canada (the other two being Charles Tupper and R. B. Bennett). After an elaborate funeral was staged for him in the United Kingdom by Queen Victoria, Thompson's remains were transported back to Canada aboard the armoured cruiser , which was painted black for the occasion. He was buried on January 3, 1895, in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Despite having held prime ministerial office, Thompson had little estate, so Parliament set up a fund to support his widow and children. The Canadian politician Margaret Mitchell, who died March 8, 2017, is considered the last of Thompson's descendants. Family Thompson, then a young barrister, married in 1870 Annie E. Affleck, daughter of John Affleck, of Halifax, Nova Scotia, and his wife, Catherine Saunders. Annie was born and educated in Halifax, Nova Scotia. The couple had nine children, only five of whom survived early childhood. After she was widowed December 12, 1894, a fund of $30,000 was raised for Lady Thompson, headed by Lord Strathcona with a subscription of $5,000; the Parliament of Canada contributed $25,000. The Governor-General, the Earl of Aberdeen undertook the education of the sons. Lady Thompson cofounded, with the Countess of Aberdeen, the National Council of Women, and served as one of its presidents. She served as a governor of the Victorian Order of Nurses. As a widow, she lived at Derwent Lodge, 631 Sherbourne Street in Toronto. Legacy Thompson was designated a Person of National Historic Significance in 1937. His collected papers were donated in 1949 to the National Archives of Canada by his son, Colonel John Thompson. A ranking of the Canadian Prime Ministers was published by J.L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer in 1997. A survey of 26 Canadian historians determined that Thompson was ranked #10 of the 20 people who had at that time served as Canadian PM. He was identified as "The great "might-have-been" of Canadian Prime Ministers...", whose potentially promising career was cut short by his early death. A follow-up article co-authored by Hillmer in 2011 broadened the survey to include survey responses of over 100 historians; in this survey, Thompson was ranked 14th out the 22 who had by then served as PM. The high school in the Canadian sitcom Life with Derek, SJST, is named after Thompson. Sir John Thompson Catholic Junior High School in Edmonton is named for him. Thompson appears as a prominent character in Paul Marlowe's novel Knights of the Sea (set in 1887 when Thompson was Minister of Justice). Since 1996, Sir John Thompson's former home in Ottawa at 237 Metcalfe Street has served as the national office of the Canadian Soccer Association. Nova Scotian artist William Valentine painted Thompson's portrait. See also List of prime ministers of Canada List of books about prime ministers of Canada Notes References J. P. Heisler, 1955, Sir John Thompson, thesis, University of Toronto. J. Castell Hopkins, 1895, Life and Work of the Rt. Hon. Sir John Thompson, Toronto: United Publishing Houses. Attribution External links Sir John Thompson fonds at Library and Archives Canada Photograph: Funeral cortege of Sir John D. Thompson, 1895 – McCord Museum 1845 births 1894 deaths Canadian Roman Catholics Canadian Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George Canadian Queen's Counsel Converts to Roman Catholicism from Methodism Dalhousie University faculty Lawyers in Nova Scotia Leaders of the Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Nova Scotia Canadian members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada Progressive Conservative Association of Nova Scotia MLAs People from Halifax, Nova Scotia Pre-Confederation Nova Scotia people Attorneys General of Nova Scotia Premiers of Nova Scotia Prime Ministers of Canada Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada) Nova Scotia political party
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was a Cabinet crisis. The governor-general, Lord Stanley of Preston, asked Thompson to form a government, but Thompson declined because of religious prejudice against the Roman Catholicism to which he had converted at his marriage. Thompson recommended John Abbott, who ultimately accepted. After 1893 Prince Edward Island House of Assembly passage of the amalgamation "Bill respecting the Legislature," Thompson, still wary of a Protestant backlash, reported to the Canadian Governor General that almost every article of the Prince Edward Island "amalgamation" statute, save for a punitive clause that violated with "little injury" the separation of powers between the Legislative Assembly and provincial court system, was "unobjectionable, and may be left to their operation." In a rejoinder to Neil McLeod (Leader of the Opposition in the provincial legislature), he concluded that there was as much probability of an amendment to increase the supermajority requirement to unanimity (for amending the bill) as there was probability that the entire "section itself may be repealed at any time by statute passed in the ordinary way." Then, in a demonstration that his tenure as Prime Minister would not result in a papal majority government, Sir Thompson disregarded Conservative allegations of gerrymandering of French Acadian and otherwise Roman Catholic voters in Prince Edward Island. In 1894, Lord Stanley "approved" of this report--months before Thompson's fatal heart attack. Prime Minister (1892–1894) Thompson assumed the office of Prime Minister in 1892, a year later, when John Abbott retired. Thompson retained the post of Attorney General while he was prime minister. He came very close to bringing Newfoundland into Confederation, but that would not be achieved until 1949. His first major speech as Prime Minister was given in Toronto in January 1893 and covered the topics of tolerance and Canadian nationalism in conjunction with loyalty to the British crown. At the time, Thompson was concerned about the possibility of the annexation of Canada by the United States, a goal that was being pursued within Canada by the Continental Union Association, a group of Ontario and Quebec Liberals. Despite his concern, Thompson ultimately realized that the conspiracy to make Canada part of the United States was confined to a small and noisy minority within the opposition party. In March 1893, Thompson travelled to Paris, France as one of the judges on the tribunal to settle the dispute over the seal harvest in the Bering Sea. The tribunal ruled there was no justification for the American claim that the Bering Sea was closed to all but American seal hunters. Other matters of concern during Thompson's tenure as Prime Minister included the reduction of trade tariffs and questions over schooling in Manitoba and in the North West Territories, where serious disputes existed over the role of Catholics and Protestants in administering the school system. The issue in the North West Territories would be resolved to Thompson's satisfaction but only after his death. Supreme Court appointments While in office, Thompson chose the following jurists to sit as justices of the Supreme Court of Canada: Sir Samuel Henry Strong (as Chief Justice, December 13, 1892 – November 18, 1902; appointed a Puisne Justice under Prime Minister Mackenzie, September 30, 1875) Robert Sedgewick – (February 18, 1893 – August 4, 1906) George Edwin King – (September 21, 1893 – May 8, 1901) Death in office Thompson had been Prime Minister of Canada for only two years when he died suddenly from a heart attack at the age of 49 on December 12, 1894. He was at England's Windsor Castle, where Queen Victoria had just made him a member of her Privy Council. Thompson's physical condition had deteriorated during his time in Ottawa; he was significantly overweight when he died (standing , he weighed about ), and had always pushed himself very hard in his work. Thompson was the second of two Canadian prime ministers to die in office (the first being John A. Macdonald), and the first of three who did not die in Canada (the other two being Charles Tupper and R. B. Bennett). After an elaborate funeral was staged for him in the United Kingdom by Queen Victoria, Thompson's remains were transported back to Canada aboard the armoured cruiser , which was painted black for the occasion. He was buried on January 3, 1895, in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Despite having held prime ministerial office, Thompson had little estate, so Parliament set up a fund to support his widow and children. The Canadian politician Margaret Mitchell, who died March 8, 2017, is considered the last of Thompson's descendants. Family Thompson, then a young barrister, married in 1870 Annie E. Affleck, daughter of John Affleck, of Halifax, Nova Scotia, and his wife, Catherine Saunders. Annie was born and educated in Halifax, Nova Scotia. The couple had nine children, only five of whom survived early childhood. After she
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Bach digital website started to implement the new numbers of the 3rd edition of the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis, which has been announced for publication in 2020. For example, the Leipzig version of the Christ lag in Todes Banden cantata used to be BWV 4 in previous versions of the catalogue, and, in BWV3, has become BWV 4.2. NBA In the meantime, the New Bach Edition (Neue Bach-Ausgabe, abbreviated as NBA) was being published, offering a new system to refer to Bach's works, e.g. , which is Series IV, Volume 4, p. 2 (Prelude) and p. 105 (Fugue), for BWV 552. NBArev Some years after the completion of the NBA in 2007 its publisher Bärenreiter joined with the Bach Archive again to publish revised editions of some of Bach's scores. These revised editions, aligning with the NBA editions (format, layout), but outside that group of publications, were published under the name Johann Sebastian Bach: New Edition of the Complete Works – Revised Edition (Johann Sebastian Bach: Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke – Revidierte Edition), in short: New Bach Edition – Revised (Neue Bach-Ausgabe – Revidierte Edition), abbreviated as NBArev. Where the original NBA editions were exclusively in German, the volumes of the Revised series have their introductions both in German and English. Its first volume, NBArev 1, was a new edition of the Mass in B minor, appearing in 2010. BC The Bach Compendium (BC), a catalogue covering Bach's vocal works was published in 1985. Occasionally works that have no BWV number can be identified by their BC number, e.g. BC C 8 for "Der Gerechte kömmt um" an arrangement attributed to Bach on stylistic grounds, however unmentioned in the BWV. BNB Bachs Notenbibliothek (BNB) is a list of works Bach had at his disposition. Works of other composers which were arranged by Bach and/or which he (had) copied for performance usually have a BNB number. SBB The Berlin State Library (Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin = SBB) holds an important collection of composition manuscripts relating to Bach. Some versions of works are best known by their principal manuscript in the SBB, for instance = , or according to the abbreviations used at the Bach-digital website . By opus number, and chronological lists Apart from indicating his first published keyboard composition as Opus 1, Bach did not use opus numbers. Lists following publication chronologies are for example implied in the first list in Bach's obituary, and BG numbers (within the BGA sequence of publication) – overall lists covering all of Bach's compositions in order of first publication are however not a way Bach's compositions are usually presented. Listing Bach's works according to their time of composition cannot be done comprehensively: for many works the period in which they were composed is a very wide range. For Bach's larger vocal works (cantatas, Passions,...) research has led to some more or less generally accepted chronologies, covering most of these works: a catalogue in this sense is Philippe (and Gérard) Zwang's list giving a chronological number to the cantatas BWV 1–215 and 248–249. This list was published in 1982 as Guide pratique des cantates de Bach in Paris, . A revised edition was published in 2005 (). Other composers Various catalogues with works by other composers have intersections with collections of works associated with Bach: BR-WFB (or) BR Bach-Repertorium numbers for works by Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, e.g. BWV 970 = BR A49 Other BRs: BR-CPEB: works by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (for this composer Helm and/or Wotquenne numbers are however more often used) BR-JCFB: works by Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach Fk (or) F Falck catalogue numbers for works by Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, e.g. BWV 970 = F 25/2 H Helm numbers for works by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, e.g. BWV 1036 = H 569 HWV Works by George Frideric Handel, e.g. BWV Anh. 106 = HWV 605 TWV Compositions by Georg Philipp Telemann, e.g. BWV 824 = TWV 32:14 Warb (or) W Warburton numbers for works by Johann Christian Bach, e.g. = W A22 (or: ) Wq Wotquenne numbers for works by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, e.g. BWV 1036 = Wq 145 Works in Bach's catalogues and collections There are over 1500 works that feature in a catalogue of works by Bach, like the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis, and/or in a collection of works associated with Bach (e.g. in one of the Notebooks for Anna Magdalena Bach). Of these around a thousand are original compositions by Bach, that is: more than a mere copy or transcription of an earlier work by himself or another composer. |- id="BWV Chapter 1" style="background: #D8D8D8;" | data-sort-value="0000.z99" | 1. | data-sort-value="001.001" colspan="8" | Cantatas (see also: List of Bach cantatas, Church cantata (Bach) and List of secular cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach) | data-sort-value="0000a" | Up ↑ |- id="BWV Chapter 2" style="background: #D8D8D8;" | data-sort-value="0224.z99" | 2. | data-sort-value="228.001" colspan="8" | Motets (see also: List of motets by Johann Sebastian Bach) | data-sort-value="0281a" | Up ↑ |- id="BWV Chapter 5" style="background: #D8D8D8;" | data-sort-value="0249.z99" | 5. | data-sort-value="284.001" colspan="8" | Four-part chorales (see also: List of chorale harmonisations by Johann Sebastian Bach) | data-sort-value="0319a" | Up ↑ |- id="Three wedding chorales" style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="0250.000" | 250 | data-sort-value="284.002" | 5. | data-sort-value="1736-07-01" | 1734–1738 | chorale setting "Was Gott tut, das ist wohlgetan" (Three wedding chorales No. 1) | | data-sort-value="SATB Hnx2 Ob Oba Str Bc" | SATB 2Hn Ob Oba Str Bc | data-sort-value="000.13 1: 147" | 131: 147 | data-sort-value="III/02 1: 000a" | III/2.1: 3 | text by Rodigast | |- style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="0251.000" | 251 | data-sort-value="284.003" | 5. | data-sort-value="1736-07-01" | 1734–1738 | chorale setting "Sei Lob und Ehr dem höchsten Gut" (Three wedding chorales No. 2) | | data-sort-value="SATB Hnx2 Ob Oba Str Bc" | SATB 2Hn Ob Oba Str Bc | data-sort-value="000.13 1: 148" | 131: 148 | data-sort-value="III/02 1: 000b" | III/2.1: 4 | text by Schütz, J. J. | |- style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="0252.000" | 252 | data-sort-value="284.004" | 5. | data-sort-value="1736-07-01" | 1734–1738 | chorale setting "Nun danket alle Gott" (Three wedding chorales No. 3) | | data-sort-value="SATB Hnx2 Ob Oba Str Bc" | SATB 2Hn Ob Oba Str Bc | data-sort-value="000.13 1: 149" | 131: 149 | data-sort-value="III/02 1: 000c" | III/2.1: 5 | text by Rinkart | |- style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="0500.a00" | 500a | data-sort-value="302.003" | 5. | 1726-04-19 | chorale setting "So gehst du nun, mein Jesu, hin" (in Bach's Leipzig versions of St Mark Passion attributed to Keiser) | | SATB Str Bc | | data-sort-value="II/09: 075" | II/9: 75 | text by ; ↔ BWV 500 | |- style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="1084.000" | 1084 | data-sort-value="302.004" | 5. | 1726-04-19 | chorale setting "O hilf Christe, Gottes Sohn" (in Bach's Leipzig versions of St Mark Passion attributed to Keiser) | | SATB Str Bc | | data-sort-value="II/09: 076" | II/9: 76 | text by Weiße; after BC D 5a/14 | |- | data-sort-value="1089.000" | 1089 | data-sort-value="302.006" | 5. | | chorale setting "Da Jesus an dem Kreuze stund" | | SATB | | data-sort-value="III/02 2: 216" | III/2.2: 216 | text by | |- style="background: #F6E3CE;" | data-sort-value="1122.000" | 1122 | data-sort-value="303.003" | 5. | data-sort-value="1730-01-01" | or earlier | chorale setting "Denket doch, ihr Menschenkinder" | F maj. | SATB | | data-sort-value="III/02 1: 038" | III/2.1: 31III/2.2: 217 | text by Hübner? | |- style="background: #F6E3CE;" | data-sort-value="1123.000" | 1123 | data-sort-value="303.004" | 5. | data-sort-value="1730-01-01" | or earlier | chorale setting "Wo Gott zum Haus gibt nicht sein Gunst" | G maj. | SATB | | data-sort-value="III/02 1: 050" | III/2.1: 40 | data-sort-value="after Z 0305; text by Kolross" | after Z 305; text by Kolross | |- style="background: #F6E3CE;" | data-sort-value="1124.000" | 1124 | data-sort-value="303.005" | 5. | data-sort-value="1730-01-01" | or earlier | chorale setting "Ich ruf zu dir, Herr Jesu Christ" | E min. | SATB | | data-sort-value="III/02 1: 069" | III/2.1: 51 | after Z 7400; text by Agricola, J. | |- style="background: #F6E3CE;" | data-sort-value="1125.000" | 1125 | data-sort-value="303.006" | 5. | data-sort-value="1730-01-01" | or earlier | chorale setting "O Gott, du frommer Gott" | D maj. | SATB | | data-sort-value="III/02 1: 113" | III/2.1: 79 | after Z 5206b; text by Heermann | |- | data-sort-value="1126.000" | 1126 | data-sort-value="303.007" | 5. | | chorale setting "Lobet Gott, unsern Herren" | | SATB | | data-sort-value="III/02 2: 218" | III/2.2: 218 | | |- id="BWV Chapter 6" style="background: #D8D8D8;" | data-sort-value="0438.z99" | 6. | data-sort-value="304.001" colspan="8" | Songs, Arias and Quodlibet (see also: List of songs and arias of Johann Sebastian Bach) | data-sort-value="0508a" | Up ↑ |- id="BWV Chapter 7" style="background: #D8D8D8;" | data-sort-value="0524.z99" | 7. | data-sort-value="311.001" colspan="8" | Works for organ (see also: List of organ compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach) | data-sort-value="0596a" | Up ↑ |- id="BWV Chapter 10" style="background: #D8D8D8;" | data-sort-value="1000.z99" | 10. | data-sort-value="411.001" colspan="8" | Chamber music (see also: List of chamber music works by Johann Sebastian Bach) | data-sort-value="1178aa" | Up ↑ |- id="BWV Chapter 11" style="background: #D8D8D8;" | data-sort-value="1040.z99" | 11. | data-sort-value="424.001" colspan="8" | Works for orchestra (see also: List of orchestral works by Johann Sebastian Bach) | data-sort-value="1222a" | Up ↑ |- id="BWV Later" style="background: #D8D8D8;" | data-sort-value="1080.z99" | Later | data-sort-value="442.010" colspan="8" | Later additions to the main catalogue (above BWV 1128: BWV3) | data-sort-value="1266a" | Up ↑ |- id="Reconstructions" style="background: #D8D8D8;" | data-sort-value="A214.ZZZ999998" | R | data-sort-value="448.153" colspan="8" | Reconstructions (see also Reconstruction of music by Johann Sebastian Bach) | data-sort-value="1524a" | Up ↑ |- id="BWV deest" style="background: #D8D8D8;" | data-sort-value="A214.ZZZ999999" | — | data-sort-value="485.999" colspan="8" | | data-sort-value="1524b" | Up ↑ |- | data-sort-value="0655.B00" | 655b | data-sort-value="500.001" | – | data-sort-value="1748-12-31" | 1708–1789 | chorale setting "Herr Jesu Christ, dich zu uns wend" (alternative version "a" in BGA) | | Organ | data-sort-value="000.25 2: 159" | 252: 159 | | data-sort-value="after BWV 0655" | after BWV 655(a); ↔ 655c | |- | data-sort-value="0655.C00" | 655c | data-sort-value="500.002" | – | data-sort-value="1748-12-31" | 1708–1789 | chorale setting "Herr Jesu Christ, dich zu uns wend" (alternative version "b" in BGA) | | Organ | data-sort-value="000.25 2: 160" | 252: 160 | | data-sort-value="after BWV 0655" | after BWV 655(a); ↔ 655b | |- | data-sort-value="0813.A00" | 813a | data-sort-value="500.010" | – | | French Suites, No. 2 – Version B (early version): No. 6 Menuet II | C min. | Keyboard | data-sort-value="000.36: 236" | 36: 236 | data-sort-value="V/08: 079" | V/8: 79 | | |- | data-sort-value="A215.BCC.008.000" | deest | data-sort-value="503.080" | BCC 8 | data-sort-value="1736-12-31" | 1723–1750?(JSB?) | Motet Der Gerechte kömmt um (Wer ist der, so von Edom kömmt/39; funer. motet?) | E min. | data-sort-value="SSATB Flx2 Obx2 Str Bc" | SSATB 2Fl 2Ob Str Bc | | I/41: 127 | by Kuhnau? (Tristis est...); arr. by Bach? | |- | data-sort-value="A215.BCD.001.000" | deest | data-sort-value="504.010" | BCD 1 | data-sort-value="1717-03-28" | 1717-03-28? | Passion Weimarer Passion | | data-sort-value="stbSATB Flx2 Obx2 Str Bc" | ?stbSATB 2Fl 2Ob Str Bc | | | data-sort-value="→ BWV 0023/4" | → BWV 23/4 (and 55/3; 244/29; 245a–c; 283?) | |- style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="A215.BCD.005.A00" | deest | data-sort-value="505.051" | BCD 5a | data-sort-value="1712-12-31" | 1707 (Kei)before 1713(JSB) | Passion Jesus Christus ist um unsrer Missetat willen verwundet (St Mark Passion pastiche, Weimar version) | | SATB 2Vl 2Va Hc | | data-sort-value="II/9: 069" | II/9: 69 | Pasticcio (Keiser G.?, Bach) | |- style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="A215.BCD.005.B00" | deest | data-sort-value="505.052" | BCD 5b | 1726-04-19(JSB) | Passion Jesus Christus ist um unsrer Missetat willen verwundet (St Mark Passion pastiche, 1st Leipzig version) | | SATB 2Vl 2Va Org | | II/9 | Pasticcio after BC D 5a (Keiser G.?, Bach) adding BWV 500a and 1084) | |- | data-sort-value="A215.BCD.010.000" | deest | data-sort-value="505.100" | BCD 10 | data-sort-value="1750-07-01" | 1750? | Passion Wer ist der, so von Edom kömmt | D min. | data-sort-value="satbSSATB Flx2 Obx2 Str Bc" | satbSSATB 2Fl 2Ob Str Bc | | data-sort-value="I/41: 095" | I/41: 95 | Pasticcio (Graun, C. H.; Telemann; Bach; ...) | |- style="background: #F6E3CE;" | data-sort-value="0008.107" | deest(8/6*) | data-sort-value="507.131" | BC F 131 .1c | data-sort-value="1735-07-01" | | chorale setting "Liebster Gott, wenn werd ich sterben" | E♭ maj. | SATB | | data-sort-value="III/02 1: 148" | III/2.1: 100 | after Z 6634; text by Neumann | |- style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="A215.BGA.432.035" | | data-sort-value="643.535" | BGA | data-sort-value="1725-07-01" | 1725 (JSB) | Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 21 Menuet fait par Mons. Böhm | G maj. | Keyboard | data-sort-value="000.43 2: 035" | 432: 35 | data-sort-value="V/04: 082" | V/4: 82 | by Böhm | |- id="BNB I/B/48" style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="A215.BNB.01B.048" | | data-sort-value="710.248" | BNBI/B/48 | data-sort-value="1738-07-01" | 1738(JSB) | data-sort-value="Massx6" | 6 Masses without Benedictus and Agnus Dei from | | data-sort-value="SATBx2 Tbnx3 Str Bc" | 2SATB 3Tbn Str Bc | | | by Bassani; copied by Bach (BNB I/B/48), later adding BWV 1081 | |- id= "BNB I/C/1" style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="A215.BNB.01C.001" | | data-sort-value="710.301" | BNBI/C/1 | data-sort-value="1741-09-15" | 1740–1742 (JSB) | Magnificat | C maj. | data-sort-value="SATB Tbnx4 Tmp Bc" | SATB 4Tbn Tmp Bc | | | by Caldara; → BWV 1082; in DBB 2755/1 | |- style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="A215.BNB.01K.002" | deest | data-sort-value="711.102" | BNBI/K/2 | data-sort-value="1747-01-01" | before 1719(Han.)1743–1748(JSB) | Passion Jesus Christus ist um unsrer Missetat willen verwundet (St Mark Passion pastiche, 2nd Leipzig version) | | stSATB 2Ob 2Bas 2Vl 2Va
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1713(JSB) | Passion Jesus Christus ist um unsrer Missetat willen verwundet (St Mark Passion pastiche, Weimar version) | | SATB 2Vl 2Va Hc | | data-sort-value="II/9: 069" | II/9: 69 | Pasticcio (Keiser G.?, Bach) | |- style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="A215.BCD.005.B00" | deest | data-sort-value="505.052" | BCD 5b | 1726-04-19(JSB) | Passion Jesus Christus ist um unsrer Missetat willen verwundet (St Mark Passion pastiche, 1st Leipzig version) | | SATB 2Vl 2Va Org | | II/9 | Pasticcio after BC D 5a (Keiser G.?, Bach) adding BWV 500a and 1084) | |- | data-sort-value="A215.BCD.010.000" | deest | data-sort-value="505.100" | BCD 10 | data-sort-value="1750-07-01" | 1750? | Passion Wer ist der, so von Edom kömmt | D min. | data-sort-value="satbSSATB Flx2 Obx2 Str Bc" | satbSSATB 2Fl 2Ob Str Bc | | data-sort-value="I/41: 095" | I/41: 95 | Pasticcio (Graun, C. H.; Telemann; Bach; ...) | |- style="background: #F6E3CE;" | data-sort-value="0008.107" | deest(8/6*) | data-sort-value="507.131" | BC F 131 .1c | data-sort-value="1735-07-01" | | chorale setting "Liebster Gott, wenn werd ich sterben" | E♭ maj. | SATB | | data-sort-value="III/02 1: 148" | III/2.1: 100 | after Z 6634; text by Neumann | |- style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="A215.BGA.432.035" | | data-sort-value="643.535" | BGA | data-sort-value="1725-07-01" | 1725 (JSB) | Notebook A. M. Bach (1725) No. 21 Menuet fait par Mons. Böhm | G maj. | Keyboard | data-sort-value="000.43 2: 035" | 432: 35 | data-sort-value="V/04: 082" | V/4: 82 | by Böhm | |- id="BNB I/B/48" style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="A215.BNB.01B.048" | | data-sort-value="710.248" | BNBI/B/48 | data-sort-value="1738-07-01" | 1738(JSB) | data-sort-value="Massx6" | 6 Masses without Benedictus and Agnus Dei from | | data-sort-value="SATBx2 Tbnx3 Str Bc" | 2SATB 3Tbn Str Bc | | | by Bassani; copied by Bach (BNB I/B/48), later adding BWV 1081 | |- id= "BNB I/C/1" style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="A215.BNB.01C.001" | | data-sort-value="710.301" | BNBI/C/1 | data-sort-value="1741-09-15" | 1740–1742 (JSB) | Magnificat | C maj. | data-sort-value="SATB Tbnx4 Tmp Bc" | SATB 4Tbn Tmp Bc | | | by Caldara; → BWV 1082; in DBB 2755/1 | |- style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="A215.BNB.01K.002" | deest | data-sort-value="711.102" | BNBI/K/2 | data-sort-value="1747-01-01" | before 1719(Han.)1743–1748(JSB) | Passion Jesus Christus ist um unsrer Missetat willen verwundet (St Mark Passion pastiche, 2nd Leipzig version) | | stSATB 2Ob 2Bas 2Vl 2Va Vc Vne Hc | | II/9 | Pasticcio after BC D 5b (Keiser G.?, Bach) and HWV 48/9 /23 /41 /44 /47 /52 /55 (Handel) | |- style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="A215.NBA.209.013" | deest | data-sort-value="829.013" | NBA | data-sort-value="1742-07-01" | 1742(JSB) | Kyrie–Gloria Mass arranged from Missa sine nomine a 6 | E min. | SSATTB 2Co 4Tro Vne Hc Org | | data-sort-value="II/09: 013" | II/9: 13 | by Palestrina after anon. motet Beata Dei genitrix; arr. by Bach | |- id="NBA V-5" style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="A215.NBA.505.002" | | data-sort-value="855.002" | NBA | 1720-01-22 | data-sort-value="Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach No. 0" | Klavierbüchlein WFB, p. 3a: Claves signatae (introduction on clefs) | | | data-sort-value="000.45 1: 213" | 451: 213 | data-sort-value="V/05: 002" | V/5 | | |- style="background: #E3F6CE;" | data-sort-value="A215.NBA.505.003" | | data-sort-value="855.003" | NBA | 1720-01-22 | data-sort-value="Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach No. 00" | Klavierbüchlein WFB, p. 3b: Explication... (introduction on ornaments) | | | data-sort-value="000.45 1: 213" | 451: 213 | data-sort-value="V/05: 003" | V/5 | | |- style="background: #F5F6CE;" | data-sort-value="A215.NBA.505.040" | | data-sort-value="855.040" | NBA | data-sort-value="1720-07-01" | 1720 (WFB) | data-sort-value="Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach No. 30" | Klavierbüchlein WFB No. 25: Pièce pour le Clavecin | | Keyboard | data-sort-value="000.45 1: 218" | 451: 218 | data-sort-value="V/05: 040" | V/5: 40 | by | |- | data-sort-value="A215.NBA.505.045" | deest | data-sort-value="855.045" | NBA | data-sort-value="1720-07-01" | 1720 (anon) | data-sort-value="Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach No. 30" | Klavierbüchlein WFB No. 30: Bass sketch | G min. | | data-sort-value="000.45 1: 220" | 451: 220 | data-sort-value="V/05: 045" | V/5: 45 | | |- style="background: #F5F6CE;" | data-sort-value="A215.NBA.505.087" | | data-sort-value="855.087" | NBA | data-sort-value="1720-07-01" | 1720 (WFB) | data-sort-value="Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach No. 48a-d" | Klavierbüchlein WFB No. 48a–d: Partita | | Keyboard | data-sort-value="000.45 1: 223" | 451: 223 | data-sort-value="V/05: 087" | V/5: 82 | by Stölzel | |} By genre Cantatas (BWV 1–224) See #BWV Chapter 1 in the table above In the 1950 first edition of the BWV the cantatas were largely listed according to their BGA number: BWV 1–200: Church cantatas BWV 201–216: Secular cantatas BWV 217–224: Cantatas with various issues (lost, incomplete, spurious, doubtful) Additionally Anh. I of the first edition of the BWV started with a list of some 20 lost cantatas, while Anh. III of that edition listed a few cantata (movements) by other composers (Anh. 156–158). BWV2a added many more lost cantatas (BWV Anh. 190–199 and 209–212) and alternative versions to known works indicating (partially) lost cantatas or cantata versions, e.g. BWV 244a, the music of which was partially preserved in the St Matthew Passion, BWV 244. Motets (BWV 225–231) See #BWV Chapter 2 in the table above There are over a dozen motets attributed to Bach, about half of which are authentic by all accounts: BWV 225–230 are the six compositions that have always been considered motets composed by Bach BWV 231 was later renumbered to BWV 28/2a, a variant of the second movement of cantata BWV 28 BWV 118, published as a cantata in the 19th century, was later recategorised as a motet, following Bach's designation on the score. BWV Anh. 159–165 are motets with a doubtful or spurious assignation to Bach, the first of which is however most likely composed by Bach. Liturgical works in Latin (BWV 232–243) See #BWV Chapter 3 in the table above Bach's involvement with Latin church music, as composer, arranger or copyist, includes: BWV 232–242: Masses and Mass movements (Mass in B minor; Kyrie–Gloria Masses; separate Mass movements) BWV 243: Magnificat BWV 1081–1083: later additions to the BWV catalogue BWV Anh. 24–30, 166–168: doubtful and spurious works BNB I/B/48, I/C/1, I/P/2: copies and arrangements Passions and oratorios (BWV 244–249) See #BWV Chapter 4 in the table above Passions and oratorios composed or contributed to by Bach include: BWV 244–247: Passions (St Matthew Passion; St John Passion; St Mark Passion; St Luke Passion) BWV 248–249: Oratorios (Christmas Oratorio; Easter Oratorio) BWV 11: Ascension Oratorio BWV 127/1, 500a, 1084, 1088, deest: St Mark Passion (attributed to Keiser), Weimarer Passion, Wer ist der, so von Edom kömmt BWV Anh. 169: passion text by Picander (not set by Bach, apart from using some parts of this text in his St Matthew Passion) Four-part chorales (BWV 250–438) See #BWV Chapter 5 in the table above Bach's chorale settings (usually for SATB choir) are included in: BWV 250–438: separate chorale settings Cantatas (most prominently in the chorale cantatas), motets, passions, oratorios, Second Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach BWV 1089, 1122–1126: later additions to the BWV catalogue BWV Anh. 31, 201–204: doubtful and spurious Songs and arias (BWV 439–524) See #BWV Chapter 6 in the table above Songs and (separate) arias by Bach are included in several collections: BWV 439–507: Schemellis Gesangbuch BWV 508–518: Second Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach BWV 519–523: D-B Mus. ms. Bach P 802, a manuscript by Johann Ludwig Krebs BWV Anh. 32–39: Deutsche Übersetzungen und Gedichte (doubtful) BWV Anh. 40–41: Singende Muse an der Pleiße (doubtful) Associated with the Songs and Arias group: BWV 524: (Wedding) Quodlibet for four voices (incomplete) BWV 1127: "Alles mit Gott und nichts ohn' ihn" (strophic aria rediscovered in 2005) Works for organ (BWV 525–771) See #BWV Chapter 7 in the table above Bach's organ compositions include: BWV 525–530: Sonatas BWV 531–582: compositions of the type Prelude/Fantasia/Toccata/Adagio/Passacaglia and/or Fugue BWV 583–591: various free organ compositions (Trios/Aria/Canzona/Allabreve/Pastorale/Kleines harmonisches Labyrinth ) BWV 592–597: Concertos (transcriptions) BWV 598: Pedal-Exercitium BWV 599–764: Chorale preludes (Orgelbüchlein; Schübler Chorales; Great Eighteen Chorale Preludes or Leipzig Chorales; Chorale preludes from Clavier-Übung III; Kirnberger chorale preludes; other chorale preludes) BWV 765–768: Chorale partitas BWV 769–771: Chorale variations (includes Canonic Variations on "Vom Himmel hoch da komm' ich her") BWV 1085–1087, 1121, 1128: various later additions to the BWV catalogue BWV 1090–1120: Neumeister Chorales BWV Anh. 42–79, 171–178, 200, 206, 208, 213: lost, doubtful and spurious organ pieces Works for keyboard (BWV 772–994) See #BWV Chapter 8 in the table above Bach's works for harpsichord, clavichord and other keyboard instruments include: BWV 772–801: Inventions and Sinfonias BWV 802–805: Duets from Clavier-Übung III BWV 806–845: Suites and suite movements (English Suites; French Suites; Partitas = Clavier-Übung I; Overture in the French style from Clavier-Übung II; etc.) BWV 846–893: The Well-Tempered Clavier (book I, book II) BWV 894–962: compositions of the type Prelude/Fantasia/Concerto/Toccata and/or Fugue/Fughetta (includes Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue, Six Little Preludes, several parts of the Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, etc.) BWV 963–970: Sonatas and sonata movements BWV 971–987: Concertos (includes Italian Concerto from Clavier-Übung II and various concerto transcriptions) BWV 988–991: Variations (includes Goldberg Variations = Clavier-Übung IV and Aria variata alla maniera italiana) BWV 992–994: Capriccios and Applicatio (includes Capriccio on the departure of a beloved brother) Works for solo lute (BWV 995–1000) See #BWV Chapter 9 in the table above Bach's compositions for lute and/or lute-harpsichord (Lautenwerck) include: BWV 995–1000 suites and separate movements for lute and/or lute-harpsichord BWV 1006a: transcription of BWV 1006 Chamber music (BWV 1001–1040) See #BWV Chapter 10 in the table above Bach wrote chamber music for solo violin, cello or flute, sonatas for harpsichord and an instrumental soloist, and trio sonatas: BWV 1001–1006: Sonatas and partitas for solo violin BWV 1007–1012: Cello Suites BWV 1013: Partita for solo flute BWV 1014–1026: works for accompanied violin (sonatas, suite for violin and harpsichord; sonatas, fugue for violin and basso continuo) BWV 1027–1029: sonatas for viola da gamba and harpsichord BWV 1030–1035: sonatas for accompanied flute (sonatas for flute and harpsichord; sonatas for flute and basso continuo) BWV 1036–1040: trio sonatas Orchestral works (BWV 1041–1071) See #BWV Chapter 11 in the table above Bach wrote concertos and orchestral suites: BWV 1041–1045: Violin concertos (in A minor, in E major, Double Concerto); Triple Concerto; Concerto movement/Sinfonia fragment BWV 1046–1051: Brandenburg Concertos BWV 1052–1065: Harpsichord concertos BWV 1066–1071: Orchestral suites and Sinfonia (early version of BWV 1046) Canons (BWV 1072–1078) See #BWV Chapter 12 in the table above Separate canons by Bach are listed in the 12th chapter of the BWV: BWV 1072–1078: canons BWV 1086–1087: later additions Late contrapuntal works (BWV 1079–1080) See #BWV Chapter 13 in the table above The list of late contrapuntal works contains only two items: BWV 1079: The Musical Offering BWV 1080: The Art of Fugue 20th-century additions to the BWV catalogue and Anhang Additions as published in BWV2a Additions to the main catalogue (BWV 1081–1126) BWV 1081 – Credo in unum Deum in F major (for choir), included in Chapter 3 in BWV2a BWV 1082 – Suscepit Israel by Antonio Caldara (for choir), as copied by Bach; Included in Chapter 3 in BWV2a BWV 1083 – Tilge, Höchster, meine Sünden (motet, "parody", i.e., reworked version, of Pergolesi's Stabat Mater), included in Chapter 3 in BWV2a BWV 1084 – O hilf, Christe, Gottes Sohn (chorale from Bach's Leipzig versions of the St Mark Passion attributed to Keiser), included in Chapter 5 in BWV2a BWV 1085 – O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig (chorale prelude), included in Chapter 7 in BWV2a BWV 1086 – Canon Concordia discors, included in Chapter 12 in BWV2a BWV 1087 – 14 canons on the First Eight Notes of Goldberg Variations Ground (discovered 1974), included in Chapter 12 in BWV2a BWV 1088 – "So heb ich denn mein Auge sehnlich auf" (arioso for bass), No. 20 in Wer ist der, so von Edom kömmt (pasticcio Passion oratorio); Included in Chapter 4 in BWV2a BWV 1089 – Da Jesus an dem Kreutze stund (four-part chorale), included in Chapter 5 in BWV2a BWV 1090–1120 – 31 chorale preludes for organ from the Neumeister Collection, discovered in 1985 in the archives of the Yale University library; Included in Chapter 7 in BWV2a, except for BWV 1096, attributed to Johann Pachelbel, which was moved to Anh. III (spurious works). BWV 1121, previously Anh. 205 – Fantasie in C minor (organ), included in Chapter 7 in BWV2a BWV 1122–1126 – five four-part chorales, moved to Chapter 5 in BWV2a Additions to the Anhang (BWV Anh. 190–213) BWV Anh. 190–213 were added between the 1950 and 1990s editions of the catalogue BWV Anh. 190–197 – Cantatas added to Anh. I (music lost); see also List of Bach cantatas BWV Anh. 198 – Abandoned sketch of a cantata opening, renumbered to BWV 149/1a and added to Chapter 1 in BWV2a BWV Anh. 199 – Cantata added to Anh. I (music lost); see also List of Bach cantatas BWV Anh. 200 – Fragment of a chorale prelude O Traurigkeit, o herzeleid, added to Anh. I (unused sketch for the Orgelbüchlein) BWV Anh. 201–204 – Four-part chorales added to Anh. II (doubtful) BWV Anh. 205 – Fantasia in C minor, authenticated as BWV 1121 and added to Chapter 7 in BWV2a BWV Anh. 206 – Doubtful chorale prelude, added to Anh. II BWV Anh. 207 – Doubtful keyboard fugue, added to Anh. II BWV Anh. 208 – Spurious organ fugue, added to Anh. III BWV Anh. 209–212 – Lost cantatas added to Anh. I; see also List of Bach cantatas BWV Anh. 213 – Lost arrangement for organ of an unidentified Telemann concerto, added to Anh. I 21st-century additions to the BWV catalogue (BWV 1127 and higher) See also #BWV Later in the table above BWV numbers assigned after the publication of BWV2a: BWV 1127: strophic aria "Alles mit Gott und nichts ohn' ihn" (discovered June 2005) BWV Anh. 71, renumbered to BWV 1128: chorale fantasia for organ "Wo Gott der Herr nicht bei uns hält" ( was authenticated as a composition by Bach after Wilhelm Rust's 1877 copy was recovered in March 2008) BWV 1129 and higher: BWV3 numbers, see BWV#Numbers above BWV 1126 Derivative works There is not much system in the way works derived from Bach's compositions are listed. The "R" addition to the BWV number is only well-established for the reconstructions included in NBA VII/7 (e.g. solo violin reconstructions of BWV 565 are not usually indicated as BWV 565R, neither is the system used for reconstructed vocal works). For some series of transcriptions and arrangements works catalogues of these transcribers/arrangers may hold sublists with works derived from compositions by Bach. Reconstructed concertos See also #Reconstructions in the table above Each reconstructed concerto is created after the harpsichord concerto for the presumed original instrument. Such reconstructions are commonly referred to as, for example, BWV 1052R (where the R stands for 'reconstructed'). Other reconstructions and completions of for instance BWV 1059 have been indicated as BWV 1059, or BWV 1059a. Adaptations Transcriptions and arrangements in the catalogues of works by other composers include: Ferruccio Busoni Catalogue numbers BV B 20 to B 46 are arrangements of works by Bach, many of which published in the Bach-Busoni Editions. See also List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach printed during his lifetime List of fugal works by Johann Sebastian Bach References For abbreviations used in the references see also Bibliography at Bibliography Further reading Basso, Alberto.
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South African-English golfer 1981 – Nicky Hayden, American motorcycle racer (d. 2017) 1981 – Juan Smith, South African rugby union footballer 1981 – Hope Solo, American soccer player 1981 – Indrek Turi, Estonian decathlete 1982 – Jehad Al-Hussain, Syrian footballer 1982 – James Anderson, English cricketer 1982 – Yvonne Strahovski, Australian actress 1983 – Seán Dillon, Irish footballer 1984 – Marko Asmer, Estonian race car driver 1984 – Gabrielle Christian, American actress and singer 1984 – Trudy McIntosh, Australian artistic gymnast 1984 – Kevin Pittsnogle, American basketball player 1985 – Chris Guccione, Australian tennis player 1985 – Daniel Fredheim Holm, Norwegian footballer 1985 – Luca Lanotte, Italian ice dancer 1985 – Matthew Scott, Australian rugby league player 1986 – Tiago Alencar, Brazilian footballer 1986 – William Zillman, Australian rugby league player 1987 – Anton Fink, German footballer 1987 – Sam Saunders, American golfer 1988 – Wen Chean Lim, Malaysian rhythmic gymnast 1989 – Aleix Espargaró, Spanish motorcycle racer 1989 – Wayne Parnell, South African cricketer 1990 – Chris Maxwell, Welsh footballer 1991 – Diana Vickers, English singer-songwriter 1992 – Hannah Cockroft, English wheelchair racer 1993 – Jacob Faria, American baseball player 1993 – André Gomes, Portuguese footballer 1993 – Margarida Moura, Portuguese tennis player 1994 – Nelydia Senrose, Malaysian actress 1996 – Nina Stojanović, Serbian tennis player Deaths Pre-1600 578 – Jacob Baradaeus, Greek bishop 579 – Pope Benedict I 734 – Tatwine, English archbishop (b. 670) 829 – Shi Xiancheng, general of the Tang Dynasty 1286 – Bar Hebraeus, Syrian scholar and historian (b. 1226) 1393 – Alberto d'Este, Lord of Ferrara and Modena (b. 1347) 1516 – Johann V of Nassau-Vianden-Dietz (b. 1455) 1540 – Thomas Abel, English priest and martyr (b. 1497) 1540 – Robert Barnes, English martyr and reformer (b. 1495) 1550 – Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton, English politician, Lord Chancellor of the United Kingdom (b. 1505) 1566 – Guillaume Rondelet, French doctor (b. 1507) 1601–1900 1608 – Rory O'Donnell, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, last King of Tyrconnell (b. 1575) 1624 – Esmé Stewart, 3rd Duke of Lennox, British nobleman (b. 1579) 1652 – Charles Amadeus, Duke of Nemours (b. 1624) 1680 – Thomas Butler, 6th Earl of Ossory, Irish admiral and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1634) 1683 – Maria Theresa of Spain (b. 1638) 1691 – Daniel Georg Morhof, German scholar and academic (b. 1639) 1700 – Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, English royal (b. 1689) 1718 – William Penn, English businessman and philosopher, founded the Province of Pennsylvania (b. 1644) 1771 – Thomas Gray, English poet (b. 1716) 1811 – Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Mexican priest and soldier (b. 1753) 1832 – Lê Văn Duyệt, Vietnamese general, mandarin (b. 1763-4) 1870 – Aasmund Olavsson Vinje, Norwegian poet and journalist (b. 1818) 1875 – George Pickett, American general (b. 1825) 1889 – Charlie Absolom, England cricketer (b. 1846) 1898 – Otto von Bismarck, German lawyer and politician, 1st Chancellor of Germany (b. 1815) 1900 – Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (b. 1844) 1901–present 1912 – Emperor Meiji of Japan (b. 1852) 1918 – Joyce Kilmer, American soldier, journalist, and poet (b. 1886) 1920 – Albert Gustaf Dahlman, Swedish executioner (b. 1848) 1930 – Joan Gamper, Swiss-Spanish footballer and businessman, founded FC Barcelona (b. 1877) 1938 – John Derbyshire, English swimmer and water polo player (b. 1878) 1941 – Hugo Celmiņš, Latvian politician, former Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1877) 1947 – Joseph Cook, English-Australian miner and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1860) 1965 – Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Japanese author and playwright (b. 1886) 1970 – Walter Murdoch, Scottish-Australian academic (b. 1874) 1970 – George Szell, Hungarian-American conductor and composer (b. 1897) 1971 – Thomas Hollway, Australian politician, 36th Premier of Victoria (b. 1906) 1975 – James Blish, American author and critic (b. 1921) 1977 – Emory Holloway, American scholar, author, and educator (b. 1885) 1983 – Howard Dietz, American songwriter and publicist (b. 1896) 1983 – Lynn Fontanne, English actress (b. 1887) 1985 – Julia Robinson, American mathematician and theorist (b. 1919) 1989 – Lane Frost, American professional bull rider (b. 1963) 1990 – Ian Gow, British Member of Parliament who was assassinated by the IRA (b. 1937) 1992 – Brenda Marshall, Filipino-American actress and singer (b. 1915) 1992 – Joe Shuster, Canadian-American illustrator, co-created Superman (b. 1914) 1994 – Konstantin Kalser, German-American film producer and advertising executive (b. 1920) 1996 – Claudette Colbert, French-American actress (b. 1903) 1997 – Bảo Đại, Vietnamese emperor (b. 1913) 1998 – Buffalo Bob Smith, American television host (b. 1917) 2001 – Anton Schwarzkopf, German engineer (b. 1924) 2003 – Steve Hislop, Scottish motorcycle racer (b. 1962) 2003 – Sam Phillips, American record producer, founded Sun Records (b. 1923) 2005 – Ray Cunningham, American baseball player (b. 1905) 2005 – John Garang, Sudanese colonel and politician, 6th President of South Sudan (b. 1945) 2006 – Duygu Asena, Turkish journalist and author(b. 1946) 2006 – Al Balding, Canadian golfer (b. 1924) 2006 – Murray Bookchin, American philosopher and author (b. 1921) 2006 – Anthony Galla-Rini, American accordion player and composer (b. 1904) 2006 – Akbar Mohammadi, Iranian activist (b. 1972) 2007 – Michelangelo Antonioni, Italian director and screenwriter (b. 1912) 2007 – Teoctist Arăpașu, Romanian patriarch (b. 1915) 2007 – Ingmar Bergman, Swedish director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1918) 2007 – Bill Walsh, American football player and coach (b. 1931) 2008 – Anne Armstrong, American businesswoman and diplomat, United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom (b. 1927) 2009 – Mohammed Yusuf, Nigerian militant
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decathlete and trainer 1960 – Jennifer Barnes, American-English musicologist and academic 1960 – Richard Linklater, American director and screenwriter 1960 – Brillante Mendoza, Filipino independent film director 1961 – Laurence Fishburne, American actor and producer 1962 – Alton Brown, American chef, author, and producer 1962 – Jay Feaster, American ice hockey player and manager 1962 – Yakub Memon, Indian accountant and terrorist (d. 2015) 1963 – Peter Bowler, English-Australian cricketer 1963 – Lisa Kudrow, American actress and producer 1963 – Antoni Martí, Andorran architect and politician 1963 – Chris Mullin, American basketball player, coach, and executive 1964 – Ron Block, American singer-songwriter and banjo player 1964 – Vivica A. Fox, American actress 1964 – Alek Keshishian, Lebanese-American director, producer, and screenwriter 1964 – Jürgen Klinsmann, German footballer and manager 1964 – Laine Randjärv, Estonian lawyer and politician, 6th Estonian Minister of Culture 1965 – Tim Munton, English cricketer 1966 – Kerry Fox, New Zealand actress and screenwriter 1966 – Craig Gannon, English guitarist and songwriter 1966 – Allan Langer, Australian rugby league player and coach 1966 – Louise Wener, English author and singer-songwriter 1968 – Terry Crews, American football player and actor 1968 – Robert Korzeniowski, Polish race walker and coach 1968 – Sean Moore, Welsh drummer and songwriter 1969 – Simon Baker, Australian actor, director, and producer 1969 – Errol Stewart, South African cricketer and lawyer 1970 – Alun Cairns, Welsh businessman and politician 1970 – Dean Edwards, American comedian, actor, and singer 1970 – Christopher Nolan, English-American director, producer, and screenwriter 1971 – Elvis Crespo, American-Puerto Rican singer 1971 – Tom Green, Canadian comedian and actor 1972 – Jim McIlvaine, American basketball player and sportscaster 1973 – Kenton Cool, English mountaineer 1973 – Ümit Davala, Turkish footballer and manager 1973 – Anastasios Katsabis, Greek footballer 1973 – Markus Näslund, Swedish ice hockey player and manager 1973 – Sonu Nigam, Indian playback singer and actor 1973 – Clementa C. Pinckney, American minister and politician (d. 2015) 1974 – Radostin Kishishev, Bulgarian footballer and manager 1974 – Jason Robinson, English rugby league footballer, and rugby union footballer and coach 1974 – Hilary Swank, American actress and producer 1975 – Graham Nicholls, English author and activist 1975 – Kate Starbird, American basketball player and computer scientist 1977 – Diana Bolocco, Chilean model and journalist; 1977 – Misty May-Treanor, American volleyball player and coach 1977 – Jaime Pressly, American actress 1977 – Bootsy Thornton, American basketball player 1977 – Ian Watkins, Welsh singer-songwriter and child abuse convict 1979 – Carlos Arroyo, Puerto Rican basketball player and singer 1979 – Chad Keegan, South African cricketer and coach 1979 – Graeme McDowell, Northern Irish golfer 1979 – Maya Nasser, Syrian journalist (d. 2012) 1980 – Seth Avett, American folk-rock singer-songwriter and musician 1980 – Justin Rose, South African-English golfer 1981 – Nicky Hayden, American motorcycle racer (d. 2017) 1981 – Juan Smith, South African rugby union footballer 1981 – Hope Solo, American soccer player 1981 – Indrek Turi, Estonian decathlete 1982 – Jehad Al-Hussain, Syrian footballer 1982 – James Anderson, English cricketer 1982 – Yvonne Strahovski, Australian actress 1983 – Seán Dillon, Irish footballer 1984 – Marko Asmer, Estonian race car driver 1984 – Gabrielle Christian, American actress and singer 1984 – Trudy McIntosh, Australian artistic gymnast 1984 – Kevin Pittsnogle, American basketball player 1985 – Chris Guccione, Australian tennis player 1985 – Daniel Fredheim Holm, Norwegian footballer 1985 – Luca Lanotte, Italian ice dancer 1985 – Matthew Scott, Australian rugby league player 1986 – Tiago Alencar, Brazilian footballer 1986 – William Zillman, Australian rugby league player 1987 – Anton Fink, German footballer 1987 – Sam Saunders, American golfer 1988 – Wen Chean Lim, Malaysian rhythmic gymnast 1989 – Aleix Espargaró, Spanish motorcycle racer 1989 – Wayne Parnell, South African cricketer 1990 – Chris Maxwell, Welsh footballer 1991 – Diana Vickers, English singer-songwriter 1992 – Hannah Cockroft, English wheelchair racer 1993 – Jacob Faria, American baseball player 1993 – André Gomes, Portuguese footballer 1993 – Margarida Moura, Portuguese tennis player 1994 – Nelydia Senrose, Malaysian actress 1996 – Nina Stojanović, Serbian tennis player Deaths Pre-1600 578 – Jacob Baradaeus, Greek bishop 579 – Pope Benedict I 734 – Tatwine, English archbishop (b. 670) 829 – Shi Xiancheng, general of the Tang Dynasty 1286 – Bar Hebraeus, Syrian scholar and historian (b. 1226) 1393 – Alberto d'Este, Lord of Ferrara and Modena (b. 1347) 1516 – Johann V of Nassau-Vianden-Dietz (b. 1455) 1540 – Thomas Abel, English priest and martyr (b. 1497) 1540 – Robert Barnes, English martyr and reformer (b. 1495) 1550 – Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton, English politician, Lord Chancellor of the United Kingdom (b. 1505) 1566 – Guillaume Rondelet, French doctor (b. 1507) 1601–1900 1608 – Rory O'Donnell, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, last King of Tyrconnell (b. 1575) 1624 – Esmé Stewart, 3rd Duke of Lennox, British nobleman (b. 1579) 1652 – Charles Amadeus, Duke of Nemours (b. 1624) 1680 – Thomas Butler, 6th Earl of Ossory, Irish admiral and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1634) 1683 – Maria Theresa of Spain (b. 1638) 1691 – Daniel Georg Morhof, German scholar and academic (b. 1639) 1700 – Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, English royal (b. 1689) 1718 – William Penn, English businessman and philosopher, founded the Province of Pennsylvania (b. 1644) 1771 – Thomas Gray, English poet (b. 1716) 1811 – Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Mexican priest and soldier (b. 1753) 1832 – Lê Văn Duyệt, Vietnamese general, mandarin (b. 1763-4) 1870 – Aasmund Olavsson Vinje, Norwegian poet and journalist (b. 1818) 1875 – George Pickett, American general (b. 1825) 1889 – Charlie Absolom, England cricketer (b. 1846) 1898 – Otto von Bismarck, German lawyer and politician, 1st Chancellor of Germany (b. 1815) 1900 – Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (b. 1844) 1901–present 1912 – Emperor Meiji of Japan (b. 1852) 1918 – Joyce Kilmer, American soldier, journalist, and poet (b. 1886) 1920 – Albert Gustaf Dahlman, Swedish executioner (b. 1848) 1930 – Joan Gamper, Swiss-Spanish footballer and businessman, founded FC Barcelona (b. 1877) 1938 – John Derbyshire, English swimmer and water polo player (b. 1878) 1941 – Hugo Celmiņš, Latvian politician, former Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1877) 1947 – Joseph Cook, English-Australian miner and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1860) 1965 – Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Japanese author and playwright (b. 1886) 1970 – Walter Murdoch, Scottish-Australian academic (b. 1874) 1970 – George Szell, Hungarian-American conductor and composer (b. 1897) 1971 – Thomas Hollway, Australian politician, 36th Premier of Victoria (b. 1906) 1975 – James Blish, American author and critic (b. 1921) 1977 – Emory Holloway, American scholar, author, and educator (b. 1885) 1983 – Howard Dietz, American songwriter and publicist (b. 1896) 1983 – Lynn Fontanne, English actress (b. 1887) 1985 – Julia Robinson, American mathematician and theorist (b. 1919) 1989 – Lane Frost, American professional bull rider (b. 1963) 1990 – Ian Gow, British Member of Parliament who was assassinated by the IRA (b. 1937) 1992 – Brenda Marshall, Filipino-American actress and singer (b. 1915) 1992 – Joe Shuster, Canadian-American illustrator, co-created Superman (b. 1914) 1994 – Konstantin Kalser, German-American film producer and advertising executive (b. 1920) 1996 – Claudette Colbert, French-American actress (b. 1903) 1997 – Bảo Đại, Vietnamese emperor (b. 1913) 1998 – Buffalo Bob Smith, American television host (b. 1917) 2001 – Anton Schwarzkopf, German engineer (b. 1924) 2003 – Steve Hislop, Scottish motorcycle racer (b. 1962) 2003 – Sam Phillips, American record producer, founded Sun Records (b. 1923) 2005 – Ray Cunningham, American baseball player (b. 1905) 2005 – John Garang, Sudanese colonel and politician, 6th President of South Sudan (b. 1945) 2006 – Duygu Asena, Turkish journalist and author(b. 1946) 2006 – Al Balding, Canadian golfer (b. 1924) 2006 – Murray Bookchin, American philosopher and author (b. 1921) 2006 – Anthony Galla-Rini, American accordion player and composer (b. 1904) 2006 – Akbar Mohammadi, Iranian activist (b. 1972) 2007 – Michelangelo Antonioni, Italian director and screenwriter (b. 1912) 2007 – Teoctist Arăpașu, Romanian patriarch (b. 1915) 2007 – Ingmar Bergman, Swedish director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1918) 2007 – Bill Walsh, American football player and coach (b. 1931) 2008 – Anne Armstrong, American businesswoman and diplomat, United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom (b. 1927) 2009 – Mohammed Yusuf, Nigerian militant leader, founded Boko Haram (b. 1970) 2009 – Peter Zadek, German director and screenwriter (b. 1926) 2011 – 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death in 1891. In the 21st century, Macdonald has come under criticism for his role in the Chinese Head Tax and federal policies towards Indigenous peoples, including his actions during the North-West Rebellion that resulted in Riel's execution, and the development of the residential school system designed to assimilate Indigenous children. Macdonald, however, remains respected for his key role in the formation of Canada. Historical rankings in surveys of experts in Canadian political history have consistently placed Macdonald as one of the highest-rated prime ministers in Canadian history. Early years, 1815–1830 John Alexander Macdonald was born in Ramshorn parish in Glasgow, Scotland, on January 10 (official record) or 11 (father's journal) 1815. His father Hugh, an unsuccessful merchant, had married John's mother, Helen Shaw, on October 21, 1811. John Alexander Macdonald was the third of five children. After Hugh's business ventures left him in debt, the family immigrated to Kingston, in Upper Canada (today the southern and eastern portions of Ontario), in 1820, as the family had several relatives and connections there. The family initially lived together, then resided over a store which Hugh Macdonald ran. Soon after their arrival, John's younger brother James died from a blow to the head by a servant charged with taking care of the boys. After Hugh's store failed, the family moved to Hay Bay (south of Napanee, Ontario), west of Kingston, where Hugh unsuccessfully ran another shop. In 1829, his father was appointed as a magistrate for the Midland District. John Macdonald's mother was a lifelong influence on her son, helping him in his difficult first marriage and remaining influential in his life until her 1862 death. Macdonald initially attended local schools. When he was aged 10, his family gathered enough money to send him to Midland District Grammar School in Kingston. Macdonald's formal schooling ended at 15, a common school-leaving age at a time when only children from the most prosperous families were able to attend university. Macdonald later regretted leaving school when he did, remarking to his secretary Joseph Pope that if he had attended university, he might have embarked on a literary career. Legal career, 1830–1843 Legal training and early career, 1830–1837 Macdonald's parents decided he should become a lawyer after leaving school. As Donald Creighton (who penned a two-volume biography of Macdonald in the 1950s) wrote, "law was a broad, well-trodden path to comfort, influence, even to power". It was also "the obvious choice for a boy who seemed as attracted to study as he was uninterested in trade." Macdonald needed to start earning money immediately to support his family because his father's businesses were failing. "I had no boyhood," he complained many years later. "From the age of 15, I began to earn my own living." Macdonald travelled by steamboat to Toronto (known until 1834 as York), where he passed an examination set by The Law Society of Upper Canada. British North America had no law schools in 1830; students were examined when beginning and ending their tutelage. Between the two examinations, they were apprenticed, or articled to established lawyers. Macdonald began his apprenticeship with George Mackenzie, a prominent young lawyer who was a well-regarded member of Kingston's rising Scottish community. Mackenzie practised corporate law, a lucrative speciality that Macdonald himself would later pursue. Macdonald was a promising student, and in the summer of 1833, managed the Mackenzie office when his employer went on a business trip to Montreal and Quebec in Lower Canada (today the southern portion of the province of Quebec). Later that year, Macdonald was sent to manage the law office of a Mackenzie cousin who had fallen ill. In August 1834, George Mackenzie died of cholera. With his supervising lawyer dead, Macdonald remained at the cousin's law office in Hallowell (today Picton, Ontario). In 1835, Macdonald returned to Kingston, and even though not yet of age nor qualified, began his practice as a lawyer, hoping to gain his former employer's clients. Macdonald's parents and sisters also returned to Kingston. Soon after Macdonald was called to the Bar in February 1836, he arranged to take in two students; both became, like Macdonald, Fathers of Confederation. Oliver Mowat became premier of Ontario, and Alexander Campbell a federal cabinet minister and Lieutenant Governor of Ontario. One early client was Eliza Grimason, an Irish immigrant then aged sixteen, who sought advice concerning a shop she and her husband wanted to buy. Grimason would become one of Macdonald's richest and most loyal supporters, and may have also become his lover. Macdonald joined many local organisations, seeking to become well known in the town. He also sought out high-profile cases, representing accused child rapist William Brass. Brass was hanged for his crime, but Macdonald attracted positive press comments for the quality of his defence. According to one of his biographers, Richard Gwyn: As a criminal lawyer who took on dramatic cases, Macdonald got himself noticed well beyond the narrow confines of the Kingston business community. He was operating now in the arena where he would spend by far the greatest part of his life – the court of public opinion. And, while there, he was learning the arts of argument and of persuasion that would serve him all his political life. All male Upper Canadians between 18 and 60 years of age were members of the Sedentary Militia, which was called into active duty during the Rebellions of 1837. Macdonald served as a private in the 3rd Frontenac Militia, patrolling the area around Kingston, but the town saw no real action and Macdonald was not called upon to fire on the enemy. Sir Joseph Pope, Macdonald's private secretary, recalled Macdonald's account of his experience during the 1837 Upper Canada Rebellion: Professional prominence, 1837–1843 Although most of the trials resulting from the Upper Canada Rebellion took place in Toronto, Macdonald represented one of the defendants in the one trial to take place in Kingston. All the Kingston defendants were acquitted, and a local paper described Macdonald as "one of the youngest barristers in the Province [who] is rapidly rising in his profession". In late 1838, Macdonald agreed to advise one of a group of American raiders who had crossed the border to liberate Canada from what they saw as the yoke of British colonial oppression. The invaders had been captured after the Battle of the Windmill near Prescott, Upper Canada. Public opinion was inflamed against the prisoners, as they were accused of mutilating the body of a dead Canadian lieutenant. Macdonald could not represent the prisoners, as they were tried by court-martial and civilian counsel had no standing. At the request of Kingston relatives of Daniel George, paymaster of the ill-fated invasion, Macdonald agreed to advise George, who, like the other prisoners, had to conduct his own defence. George was convicted and hanged. According to Macdonald biographer Donald Swainson, "By 1838, Macdonald's position was secure. He was a public figure, a popular young man, and a senior lawyer." Macdonald continued to expand his practice while being appointed director of many companies, mainly in Kingston. Macdonald became both a director of and a lawyer for the new Commercial Bank of the Midland District. Throughout the 1840s, Macdonald invested heavily in real estate, including commercial properties in downtown Toronto. Meanwhile, he was suffering from some illness, and in 1841, his father died. Sick and grieving, he decided to take a lengthy holiday in Britain in early 1842. He left for the journey well supplied with money, as he spent the last three days before his departure gambling at the card game loo and winning substantially. Sometime during his two months in Britain, he met his first cousin, Isabella Clark. As Macdonald did not mention her in his letters home, the circumstances of their meeting are not known. In late 1842, Isabella journeyed to Kingston to visit with a sister. The visit stretched for nearly a year before John and Isabella Macdonald married on September 1, 1843. Political rise, 1843–1864 Parliamentary advancement, 1843–1857 On March 29, 1843, Macdonald was elected as alderman in Kingston's Fourth Ward, with 156 votes against 43 for his opponent, Colonel Jackson. He also suffered what he termed his first downfall, as his supporters, carrying the victorious candidate, accidentally dropped him onto a slushy street. The British Parliament had merged Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada in 1841. Kingston became the initial capital of the new province; Upper Canada and Lower Canada became known as Canada West and Canada East. In March 1844, Macdonald was asked by local businessmen to stand as Conservative candidate for Kingston in the upcoming legislative election. Macdonald followed the contemporary custom of supplying the voters with large quantities of alcohol. Votes were publicly declared in this election, and Macdonald defeated his opponent, Anthony Manahan, by 275 "shouts" to 42 when the election concluded on October 15, 1844. Macdonald was never an orator, and especially disliked the bombastic addresses of the time. Instead, he found a niche in becoming an expert on election law and parliamentary procedure. In 1844, Isabella fell ill. She recovered, but the illness recurred the following year, and she became an invalid. John took his wife to Savannah, Georgia, in the United States in 1845, hoping that the sea air and warmth would cure her ailments. John returned to Canada after six months and Isabella remained in the United States for three years. He visited her again in New York at the end of 1846 and returned several months later when she informed him she was pregnant. In August 1847 their son John Alexander Macdonald Jr. was born in New York, but as Isabella remained ill, relatives cared for the infant. Although he was often absent due to his wife's illness, Macdonald was able to gain professional and political advancement. In 1846, he was made a Queen's Counsel. The same year, he was offered the non-cabinet post of solicitor general, but declined it. In 1847, Macdonald became receiver general. Accepting the government post required Macdonald to give up his law firm income and spend most of his time in Montreal, away from Isabella. When elections were held in December 1848 and January 1849, Macdonald was easily reelected for Kingston, but the Conservatives lost seats and were forced to resign when the legislature reconvened in March 1848. Macdonald returned to Kingston when the legislature was not sitting, and Isabella joined him there in June. In August, their child died suddenly. In March 1850, Isabella Macdonald gave birth to another boy, Hugh John Macdonald, and his father wrote, "We have got Johnny back again, almost his image." Macdonald began to drink heavily around this time, both in public and in private, which Patricia Phenix, who studied Macdonald's private life, attributes to his family troubles. The Liberals, or Grits, maintained power in the 1851 election but were soon divided by a parliamentary scandal. In September, the government resigned, and a coalition government uniting parties from both parts of the province under Allan MacNab took power. Macdonald did much of the work of putting the government together and served as attorney general. The coalition, which came to power in 1854, became known as the Liberal-Conservatives (referred to, for short, as the Conservatives). In 1855, George-Étienne Cartier of Canada East (today Quebec) joined the Cabinet. Until Cartier's 1873 death, he would be Macdonald's political partner. In 1856, MacNab was eased out as premier by Macdonald, who became the leader of the Canada West Conservatives. Macdonald remained as attorney general when Étienne-Paschal Taché became premier. Colonial leader, 1858–1864 In July 1857, Macdonald departed for Britain to promote Canadian government projects. On his return to Canada, he was appointed premier in place of the retiring Taché, just in time to lead the Conservatives in a general election. Macdonald was elected in Kingston by 1,189 votes to 9 for John Shaw; other Conservatives, however, did badly in Canada West, and only French-Canadian support kept Macdonald in power. On December 28, Isabella Macdonald died, leaving John a widower with a seven-year-old son. Hugh John Macdonald would be principally raised by his paternal aunt and her husband. The Assembly had voted to move the seat of government permanently to Quebec City. Macdonald opposed this and used his power to force the Assembly to reconsider in 1857. Macdonald proposed that Queen Victoria decide which city should be Canada's capital. Opponents, especially from Canada East, argued that the Queen would not make the decision in isolation; she would be bound to receive informal advice from her Canadian ministers. Macdonald's scheme was adopted, with Canada East support assured by allowing Quebec City to serve a three-year term as the seat of government before the Assembly moved to the permanent capital. Macdonald privately asked the Colonial Office to ensure that the Queen would not respond for at least 10 months, or until after the general election. In February 1858, the Queen's choice was announced, much to the dismay of many legislators from both parts of the province: the isolated Canada West town of Ottawa became the capital. On July 28, 1858, an opposition Canada East member proposed an address to the Queen informing her that Ottawa was an unsuitable place for a national capital. Macdonald's Canada East party members crossed the floor to vote for the address, and the government was defeated. Macdonald resigned, and the Governor General, Sir Edmund Walker Head, invited opposition leader George Brown to form a government. Under the law at that time, Brown and his ministers lost their seats in the Assembly by accepting this position and had to face by-elections. This gave Macdonald a majority pending the by-elections, and he promptly defeated the government. Head refused Brown's request for a dissolution of the Assembly, and Brown and his ministers resigned. Head then asked Macdonald to form a government. The law allowed anyone who had held a ministerial position within the last thirty days to accept a new position without needing to face a by-election; Macdonald and his ministers accepted new positions, then completed what was dubbed the "Double Shuffle" by returning to their old posts. In an effort to give the appearance of fairness, Head insisted that Cartier be the titular premier, with Macdonald as his deputy. In the late 1850s and early 1860s, Canada enjoyed a period of great prosperity, while the railroad and telegraph improved communications. According to Macdonald biographer Richard Gwyn, "In short, Canadians began to become a single community." At the same time, the provincial government became increasingly difficult to manage. An act affecting both Canada East and Canada West required a "double majority"—a majority of legislators from each of the two sections of the province. This led to increasing deadlock in the Assembly. The two sections each elected 65 legislators, even though Canada West had a larger population. One of Brown's major demands was representation by population, which would lead to Canada West having more seats; this was bitterly opposed by Canada East. The American Civil War led to fears in Canada and in Britain that once the Americans had concluded their internal warfare, they would invade Canada again. Britain asked the Canadians to pay a part of the expense of defence, and a Militia Bill was introduced in the Assembly in 1862. The opposition objected to the expense, and Canada East representatives feared that French-Canadians would have to fight in a British-instigated war. Macdonald was drinking heavily and failed to provide much leadership on behalf of the bill. The government fell over the bill, and the Grits took over under the leadership of John Sandfield Macdonald (no relation to John A. Macdonald). The parties held an almost equal number of seats, with a handful of independents able to destroy any government. The new government fell in May 1863, but Head allowed a new election, which did little to change party standings. In December 1863, Canada West MP Albert Norton Richards accepted the post of solicitor general, and so had to face a by-election. John A. Macdonald campaigned against Richards personally, and Richards was defeated by a Conservative. The switch in seats cost the Grits their majority, and they resigned in March. John A. Macdonald returned to office with Taché as titular premier. The Taché-Macdonald government was defeated in June. The parties were deadlocked to such an extent that, according to Swainson, "It was clear to everybody that the constitution of the Province of Canada was dead". Confederation of Canada, 1864–1867 As his government had fallen again, Macdonald approached the new governor general, Lord Monck, to dissolve the legislature. Before Macdonald could act on this, he was approached by Brown through intermediaries; the Grit leader felt that the crisis gave the parties the opportunity to join together for constitutional reform. Brown had led a parliamentary committee on confederation among the British North American colonies, which had reported back just before the Taché-Macdonald government fell. Brown was more interested in representation by population; Macdonald's priority was a federation that the other colonies could join. The two compromised and agreed that the new government would support the "federative principle"—a conveniently elastic phrase. The discussions were not public knowledge and Macdonald stunned the Assembly by announcing that the dissolution was being postponed because of progress in negotiations with Brown—the two men were not only political rivals, but were known to hate each other. The parties resolved their differences, joining in the Great Coalition, with only the Parti rouge of Canada East, led by Jean-Baptiste-Éric Dorion, remaining apart. A conference, called by the Colonial Office, was scheduled for September 1, 1864 in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island; the Maritimes were to consider a union. The Canadians obtained permission to send a delegation—led by Macdonald, Cartier, and Brown—to what became known as the Charlottetown Conference. At its conclusion, the Maritime delegations expressed a willingness to join a confederation if the details could be successfully negotiated. In October 1864, delegates for confederation met in Quebec City for the Quebec Conference, where the Seventy-Two Resolutions were agreed to—they would form the basis of Canada's government. The Great Coalition was endangered by Taché's 1865 death: Lord Monck asked Macdonald to become premier, but Brown felt that he had as good a claim on the position as his coalition partner. The disagreement was resolved by appointing another compromise candidate to serve as titular premier, Narcisse-Fortunat Belleau. In 1865, after lengthy debates, Canada's legislative assembly approved confederation by 91 votes to 33. None of the Maritimes, however, had approved the plan. In 1866, Macdonald and his colleagues financed pro-confederation candidates in the New Brunswick general election, resulting in a pro-confederation assembly. Shortly after the election, Nova Scotia's premier, Charles Tupper, pushed a pro-confederation resolution through that colony's legislature. A final conference, to be held in London, was needed before the British parliament could formalise the union. Maritime delegates left for London in July 1866, but Macdonald, who was drinking heavily again, did not leave until November, angering the Maritimers. In December 1866, Macdonald both led the London Conference, winning acclaim for his handling of the discussions, and courted and married his second wife, Agnes Bernard. Bernard was the sister of Macdonald's private secretary, Hewitt Bernard; the couple first met in Quebec in 1860, but Macdonald had seen and admired her as early as 1856. In January 1867, while still in London, he was seriously burned in his hotel room when his candle set fire to the chair he had fallen asleep in, but Macdonald refused to miss any sessions of the conference. In February, he married Agnes at St George's, Hanover Square. On March 8, the British North America Act, 1867, which would thereafter serve as the major part of Canada's constitution, passed the House of Commons (it had previously passed the House of Lords). Queen Victoria gave the bill Royal Assent on March 29, 1867. Macdonald had favoured the union coming into force on July 15, fearing that the preparations would not be completed any earlier. The British favoured an earlier date and, on May 22, it was announced that Canada would come into existence on July 1. Lord Monck appointed Macdonald as the new nation's first prime minister. With the birth of the new nation, Canada East and Canada West became separate provinces, known as Quebec and Ontario, respectively. Macdonald was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) on that first observance of what came to be known as Dominion Day, later called Canada Day, on July 1, 1867. Prime Minister of Canada First majority, 1867–1871 Canada's economic growth was quite slow at only 1% annually 1867–1896. Canada verged on stagnation so many residents emigrated to the United States, where growth was much more rapid. Macdonald's solution was to build the transcontinental railway to stimulate growth, and to implement a "National Policy" of high tariffs that would protect the small Canadian firms from American competition. Macdonald and his government faced immediate problems upon the formation of the new country. Much work remained to do in creating a federal government. Nova Scotia was already threatening to withdraw from the union; the Intercolonial Railway, which would both conciliate the Maritimes and bind them closer to the rest of Canada, was not yet built. Anglo-American relations were in a poor state, and Canadian foreign relations were matters handled from London. The withdrawal of the Americans in 1866 from the Reciprocity Treaty had increased tariffs on Canadian goods in US markets. American and British opinion was that the experiment of Confederation would quickly unravel, and the nascent nation absorbed by the United States. In August 1867, the new nation's first general election was held; Macdonald's party won easily, with strong support in both large provinces, and a majority from New Brunswick. By 1869, Nova Scotia had agreed to remain part of Canada after a promise of better financial terms—the first of many provinces to negotiate concessions from Ottawa. Pressure from London and Ottawa failed to gain the accession of Newfoundland, whose voters rejected a Confederation platform in a general election in October 1869. In 1869, John
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John Macdonald's mother was a lifelong influence on her son, helping him in his difficult first marriage and remaining influential in his life until her 1862 death. Macdonald initially attended local schools. When he was aged 10, his family gathered enough money to send him to Midland District Grammar School in Kingston. Macdonald's formal schooling ended at 15, a common school-leaving age at a time when only children from the most prosperous families were able to attend university. Macdonald later regretted leaving school when he did, remarking to his secretary Joseph Pope that if he had attended university, he might have embarked on a literary career. Legal career, 1830–1843 Legal training and early career, 1830–1837 Macdonald's parents decided he should become a lawyer after leaving school. As Donald Creighton (who penned a two-volume biography of Macdonald in the 1950s) wrote, "law was a broad, well-trodden path to comfort, influence, even to power". It was also "the obvious choice for a boy who seemed as attracted to study as he was uninterested in trade." Macdonald needed to start earning money immediately to support his family because his father's businesses were failing. "I had no boyhood," he complained many years later. "From the age of 15, I began to earn my own living." Macdonald travelled by steamboat to Toronto (known until 1834 as York), where he passed an examination set by The Law Society of Upper Canada. British North America had no law schools in 1830; students were examined when beginning and ending their tutelage. Between the two examinations, they were apprenticed, or articled to established lawyers. Macdonald began his apprenticeship with George Mackenzie, a prominent young lawyer who was a well-regarded member of Kingston's rising Scottish community. Mackenzie practised corporate law, a lucrative speciality that Macdonald himself would later pursue. Macdonald was a promising student, and in the summer of 1833, managed the Mackenzie office when his employer went on a business trip to Montreal and Quebec in Lower Canada (today the southern portion of the province of Quebec). Later that year, Macdonald was sent to manage the law office of a Mackenzie cousin who had fallen ill. In August 1834, George Mackenzie died of cholera. With his supervising lawyer dead, Macdonald remained at the cousin's law office in Hallowell (today Picton, Ontario). In 1835, Macdonald returned to Kingston, and even though not yet of age nor qualified, began his practice as a lawyer, hoping to gain his former employer's clients. Macdonald's parents and sisters also returned to Kingston. Soon after Macdonald was called to the Bar in February 1836, he arranged to take in two students; both became, like Macdonald, Fathers of Confederation. Oliver Mowat became premier of Ontario, and Alexander Campbell a federal cabinet minister and Lieutenant Governor of Ontario. One early client was Eliza Grimason, an Irish immigrant then aged sixteen, who sought advice concerning a shop she and her husband wanted to buy. Grimason would become one of Macdonald's richest and most loyal supporters, and may have also become his lover. Macdonald joined many local organisations, seeking to become well known in the town. He also sought out high-profile cases, representing accused child rapist William Brass. Brass was hanged for his crime, but Macdonald attracted positive press comments for the quality of his defence. According to one of his biographers, Richard Gwyn: As a criminal lawyer who took on dramatic cases, Macdonald got himself noticed well beyond the narrow confines of the Kingston business community. He was operating now in the arena where he would spend by far the greatest part of his life – the court of public opinion. And, while there, he was learning the arts of argument and of persuasion that would serve him all his political life. All male Upper Canadians between 18 and 60 years of age were members of the Sedentary Militia, which was called into active duty during the Rebellions of 1837. Macdonald served as a private in the 3rd Frontenac Militia, patrolling the area around Kingston, but the town saw no real action and Macdonald was not called upon to fire on the enemy. Sir Joseph Pope, Macdonald's private secretary, recalled Macdonald's account of his experience during the 1837 Upper Canada Rebellion: Professional prominence, 1837–1843 Although most of the trials resulting from the Upper Canada Rebellion took place in Toronto, Macdonald represented one of the defendants in the one trial to take place in Kingston. All the Kingston defendants were acquitted, and a local paper described Macdonald as "one of the youngest barristers in the Province [who] is rapidly rising in his profession". In late 1838, Macdonald agreed to advise one of a group of American raiders who had crossed the border to liberate Canada from what they saw as the yoke of British colonial oppression. The invaders had been captured after the Battle of the Windmill near Prescott, Upper Canada. Public opinion was inflamed against the prisoners, as they were accused of mutilating the body of a dead Canadian lieutenant. Macdonald could not represent the prisoners, as they were tried by court-martial and civilian counsel had no standing. At the request of Kingston relatives of Daniel George, paymaster of the ill-fated invasion, Macdonald agreed to advise George, who, like the other prisoners, had to conduct his own defence. George was convicted and hanged. According to Macdonald biographer Donald Swainson, "By 1838, Macdonald's position was secure. He was a public figure, a popular young man, and a senior lawyer." Macdonald continued to expand his practice while being appointed director of many companies, mainly in Kingston. Macdonald became both a director of and a lawyer for the new Commercial Bank of the Midland District. Throughout the 1840s, Macdonald invested heavily in real estate, including commercial properties in downtown Toronto. Meanwhile, he was suffering from some illness, and in 1841, his father died. Sick and grieving, he decided to take a lengthy holiday in Britain in early 1842. He left for the journey well supplied with money, as he spent the last three days before his departure gambling at the card game loo and winning substantially. Sometime during his two months in Britain, he met his first cousin, Isabella Clark. As Macdonald did not mention her in his letters home, the circumstances of their meeting are not known. In late 1842, Isabella journeyed to Kingston to visit with a sister. The visit stretched for nearly a year before John and Isabella Macdonald married on September 1, 1843. Political rise, 1843–1864 Parliamentary advancement, 1843–1857 On March 29, 1843, Macdonald was elected as alderman in Kingston's Fourth Ward, with 156 votes against 43 for his opponent, Colonel Jackson. He also suffered what he termed his first downfall, as his supporters, carrying the victorious candidate, accidentally dropped him onto a slushy street. The British Parliament had merged Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada in 1841. Kingston became the initial capital of the new province; Upper Canada and Lower Canada became known as Canada West and Canada East. In March 1844, Macdonald was asked by local businessmen to stand as Conservative candidate for Kingston in the upcoming legislative election. Macdonald followed the contemporary custom of supplying the voters with large quantities of alcohol. Votes were publicly declared in this election, and Macdonald defeated his opponent, Anthony Manahan, by 275 "shouts" to 42 when the election concluded on October 15, 1844. Macdonald was never an orator, and especially disliked the bombastic addresses of the time. Instead, he found a niche in becoming an expert on election law and parliamentary procedure. In 1844, Isabella fell ill. She recovered, but the illness recurred the following year, and she became an invalid. John took his wife to Savannah, Georgia, in the United States in 1845, hoping that the sea air and warmth would cure her ailments. John returned to Canada after six months and Isabella remained in the United States for three years. He visited her again in New York at the end of 1846 and returned several months later when she informed him she was pregnant. In August 1847 their son John Alexander Macdonald Jr. was born in New York, but as Isabella remained ill, relatives cared for the infant. Although he was often absent due to his wife's illness, Macdonald was able to gain professional and political advancement. In 1846, he was made a Queen's Counsel. The same year, he was offered the non-cabinet post of solicitor general, but declined it. In 1847, Macdonald became receiver general. Accepting the government post required Macdonald to give up his law firm income and spend most of his time in Montreal, away from Isabella. When elections were held in December 1848 and January 1849, Macdonald was easily reelected for Kingston, but the Conservatives lost seats and were forced to resign when the legislature reconvened in March 1848. Macdonald returned to Kingston when the legislature was not sitting, and Isabella joined him there in June. In August, their child died suddenly. In March 1850, Isabella Macdonald gave birth to another boy, Hugh John Macdonald, and his father wrote, "We have got Johnny back again, almost his image." Macdonald began to drink heavily around this time, both in public and in private, which Patricia Phenix, who studied Macdonald's private life, attributes to his family troubles. The Liberals, or Grits, maintained power in the 1851 election but were soon divided by a parliamentary scandal. In September, the government resigned, and a coalition government uniting parties from both parts of the province under Allan MacNab took power. Macdonald did much of the work of putting the government together and served as attorney general. The coalition, which came to power in 1854, became known as the Liberal-Conservatives (referred to, for short, as the Conservatives). In 1855, George-Étienne Cartier of Canada East (today Quebec) joined the Cabinet. Until Cartier's 1873 death, he would be Macdonald's political partner. In 1856, MacNab was eased out as premier by Macdonald, who became the leader of the Canada West Conservatives. Macdonald remained as attorney general when Étienne-Paschal Taché became premier. Colonial leader, 1858–1864 In July 1857, Macdonald departed for Britain to promote Canadian government projects. On his return to Canada, he was appointed premier in place of the retiring Taché, just in time to lead the Conservatives in a general election. Macdonald was elected in Kingston by 1,189 votes to 9 for John Shaw; other Conservatives, however, did badly in Canada West, and only French-Canadian support kept Macdonald in power. On December 28, Isabella Macdonald died, leaving John a widower with a seven-year-old son. Hugh John Macdonald would be principally raised by his paternal aunt and her husband. The Assembly had voted to move the seat of government permanently to Quebec City. Macdonald opposed this and used his power to force the Assembly to reconsider in 1857. Macdonald proposed that Queen Victoria decide which city should be Canada's capital. Opponents, especially from Canada East, argued that the Queen would not make the decision in isolation; she would be bound to receive informal advice from her Canadian ministers. Macdonald's scheme was adopted, with Canada East support assured by allowing Quebec City to serve a three-year term as the seat of government before the Assembly moved to the permanent capital. Macdonald privately asked the Colonial Office to ensure that the Queen would not respond for at least 10 months, or until after the general election. In February 1858, the Queen's choice was announced, much to the dismay of many legislators from both parts of the province: the isolated Canada West town of Ottawa became the capital. On July 28, 1858, an opposition Canada East member proposed an address to the Queen informing her that Ottawa was an unsuitable place for a national capital. Macdonald's Canada East party members crossed the floor to vote for the address, and the government was defeated. Macdonald resigned, and the Governor General, Sir Edmund Walker Head, invited opposition leader George Brown to form a government. Under the law at that time, Brown and his ministers lost their seats in the Assembly by accepting this position and had to face by-elections. This gave Macdonald a majority pending the by-elections, and he promptly defeated the government. Head refused Brown's request for a dissolution of the Assembly, and Brown and his ministers resigned. Head then asked Macdonald to form a government. The law allowed anyone who had held a ministerial position within the last thirty days to accept a new position without needing to face a by-election; Macdonald and his ministers accepted new positions, then completed what was dubbed the "Double Shuffle" by returning to their old posts. In an effort to give the appearance of fairness, Head insisted that Cartier be the titular premier, with Macdonald as his deputy. In the late 1850s and early 1860s, Canada enjoyed a period of great prosperity, while the railroad and telegraph improved communications. According to Macdonald biographer Richard Gwyn, "In short, Canadians began to become a single community." At the same time, the provincial government became increasingly difficult to manage. An act affecting both Canada East and Canada West required a "double majority"—a majority of legislators from each of the two sections of the province. This led to increasing deadlock in the Assembly. The two sections each elected 65 legislators, even though Canada West had a larger population. One of Brown's major demands was representation by population, which would lead to Canada West having more seats; this was bitterly opposed by Canada East. The American Civil War led to fears in Canada and in Britain that once the Americans had concluded their internal warfare, they would invade Canada again. Britain asked the Canadians to pay a part of the expense of defence, and a Militia Bill was introduced in the Assembly in 1862. The opposition objected to the expense, and Canada East representatives feared that French-Canadians would have to fight in a British-instigated war. Macdonald was drinking heavily and failed to provide much leadership on behalf of the bill. The government fell over the bill, and the Grits took over under the leadership of John Sandfield Macdonald (no relation to John A. Macdonald). The parties held an almost equal number of seats, with a handful of independents able to destroy any government. The new government fell in May 1863, but Head allowed a new election, which did little to change party standings. In December 1863, Canada West MP Albert Norton Richards accepted the post of solicitor general, and so had to face a by-election. John A. Macdonald campaigned against Richards personally, and Richards was defeated by a Conservative. The switch in seats cost the Grits their majority, and they resigned in March. John A. Macdonald returned to office with Taché as titular premier. The Taché-Macdonald government was defeated in June. The parties were deadlocked to such an extent that, according to Swainson, "It was clear to everybody that the constitution of the Province of Canada was dead". Confederation of Canada, 1864–1867 As his government had fallen again, Macdonald approached the new governor general, Lord Monck, to dissolve the legislature. Before Macdonald could act on this, he was approached by Brown through intermediaries; the Grit leader felt that the crisis gave the parties the opportunity to join together for constitutional reform. Brown had led a parliamentary committee on confederation among the British North American colonies, which had reported back just before the Taché-Macdonald government fell. Brown was more interested in representation by population; Macdonald's priority was a federation that the other colonies could join. The two compromised and agreed that the new government would support the "federative principle"—a conveniently elastic phrase. The discussions were not public knowledge and Macdonald stunned the Assembly by announcing that the dissolution was being postponed because of progress in negotiations with Brown—the two men were not only political rivals, but were known to hate each other. The parties resolved their differences, joining in the Great Coalition, with only the Parti rouge of Canada East, led by Jean-Baptiste-Éric Dorion, remaining apart. A conference, called by the Colonial Office, was scheduled for September 1, 1864 in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island; the Maritimes were to consider a union. The Canadians obtained permission to send a delegation—led by Macdonald, Cartier, and Brown—to what became known as the Charlottetown Conference. At its conclusion, the Maritime delegations expressed a willingness to join a confederation if the details could be successfully negotiated. In October 1864, delegates for confederation met in Quebec City for the Quebec Conference, where the Seventy-Two Resolutions were agreed to—they would form the basis of Canada's government. The Great Coalition was endangered by Taché's 1865 death: Lord Monck asked Macdonald to become premier, but Brown felt that he had as good a claim on the position as his coalition partner. The disagreement was resolved by appointing another compromise candidate to serve as titular premier, Narcisse-Fortunat Belleau. In 1865, after lengthy debates, Canada's legislative assembly approved confederation by 91 votes to 33. None of the Maritimes, however, had approved the plan. In 1866, Macdonald and his colleagues financed pro-confederation candidates in the New Brunswick general election, resulting in a pro-confederation assembly. Shortly after the election, Nova Scotia's premier, Charles Tupper, pushed a pro-confederation resolution through that colony's legislature. A final conference, to be held in London, was needed before the British parliament could formalise the union. Maritime delegates left for London in July 1866, but Macdonald, who was drinking heavily again, did not leave until November, angering the Maritimers. In December 1866, Macdonald both led the London Conference, winning acclaim for his handling
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of Parliament. Diefenbaker, who had been confirmed as Conservative candidate, stood against King in the 1926 election, a rare direct electoral contest between two individuals who had or would become prime minister. King triumphed easily over Diefenbaker, the Liberals won the federal election, and King regained his position as prime minister. Perennial candidate (1929–1940) Diefenbaker stood for the Legislative Assembly in the 1929 provincial election. He was defeated, but Saskatchewan Conservatives formed their first government, with help from smaller parties. As the defeated Conservative candidate for Prince Albert City, he was given charge of political patronage there and was created a King's Counsel. Three weeks after his electoral defeat, he married Saskatoon teacher Edna Brower. Diefenbaker chose not to stand for the House of Commons in the 1930 federal election, citing health reasons. The Conservatives gained a majority in the election, and party leader R. B. Bennett became Prime Minister. Diefenbaker continued a high-profile legal practice, and in 1933, ran for mayor of Prince Albert. He was defeated by 48 votes in an election in which over 2,000 ballots were cast. In 1934, when the Crown prosecutor for Prince Albert resigned to become the Conservative Party's legislative candidate, Diefenbaker took his place as prosecutor. Diefenbaker did not stand in the 1934 provincial election, in which the governing Conservatives lost every seat. Six days after the election, Diefenbaker resigned as Crown prosecutor. The federal government of Bennett was defeated the following year and Mackenzie King returned as prime minister. Judging his prospects hopeless, Diefenbaker had declined a nomination to stand again against Mackenzie King in Prince Albert. In the waning days of the Bennett government, the Saskatchewan Conservative Party president was appointed a judge, leaving Diefenbaker, who had been elected the party's vice president, as acting president of the provincial party. Saskatchewan Conservatives eventually arranged a leadership convention for October 28, 1936. Eleven people were nominated, including Diefenbaker. The other ten candidates withdrew, and Diefenbaker won the position by default. Diefenbaker asked the federal party for $10,000 in financial support, but the funds were refused, and the Conservatives were shut out of the legislature in the 1938 provincial elections for the second consecutive time. Diefenbaker himself was defeated in the Arm River riding by 190 votes. With the province-wide Conservative vote having fallen to 12 percent, Diefenbaker offered his resignation to a post-election party meeting in Moose Jaw, but it was refused. Diefenbaker continued to run the provincial party out of his law office and paid the party's debts from his own pocket. Diefenbaker quietly sought the Conservative nomination for the federal riding of Lake Centre, but was unwilling to risk a divisive intra-party squabble. In what Diefenbaker biographer Smith states "appears to have been an elaborate and prearranged charade", Diefenbaker attended the nominating convention as keynote speaker, but withdrew when his name was proposed, stating a local man should be selected. The winner among the six remaining candidates, riding president W. B. Kelly, declined the nomination, urging the delegates to select Diefenbaker, which they promptly did. Mackenzie King called a general election for March 25, 1940. The incumbent in Lake Centre was Liberal John Frederick Johnston. Diefenbaker campaigned aggressively in Lake Centre, holding 63 rallies and seeking to appeal to members of all parties. On election day, he defeated Johnston by 280 votes on what was otherwise a disastrous day for the Conservatives, who won only 39 seats out of the 245 in the House of Commons—their lowest total since Confederation. Parliamentary rise (1940–1957) Mackenzie King years (1940–1948) Diefenbaker joined a shrunken and demoralized Conservative caucus in the House of Commons. The Conservative leader, Robert Manion, failed to win a place in the Commons in the election, which saw the Liberals take 181 seats. The Tories sought to be included in a wartime coalition government, but Mackenzie King refused. The House of Commons had only a slight role in the war effort; under the state of emergency, most business was accomplished through the Cabinet issuing Orders in Council. Diefenbaker was appointed to the House Committee on the Defence of Canada Regulations, an all-party committee which examined the wartime rules which allowed arrest and detention without trial. On June 13, 1940, Diefenbaker made his maiden speech in the House of Commons, supporting the regulations, and emphatically stating that most Canadians of German descent were loyal. In his memoirs, Diefenbaker wrote he waged an unsuccessful fight against the forced relocation and internment of many Japanese-Canadians, but historians say that the fight against the internment never took place. According to Diefenbaker's biographer, Denis Smith, the Conservative MP quietly admired Mackenzie King for his political skills. However, Diefenbaker proved a gadfly and an annoyance to Mackenzie King. Angered by the words of Diefenbaker and fellow Conservative MP Howard Green in seeking to censure the government, the Prime Minister referred to Conservative MPs as "a mob". When Diefenbaker accompanied two other Conservative leaders to a briefing by Mackenzie King on the war, the Prime Minister exploded at Diefenbaker (a constituent of his), "What business do you have to be here? You strike me to the heart every time you speak." The Conservatives elected a floor leader, and in 1941 approached former Prime Minister Meighen, who had been appointed as a senator by Bennett, about becoming party leader again. Meighen agreed, and resigned his Senate seat, but lost a by-election for an Ontario seat in the House of Commons. He remained as leader for several months, although he could not enter the chamber of the House of Commons. Meighen sought to move the Tories to the left, in order to undercut the Liberals and to take support away from the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF, the predecessor of the New Democratic Party (NDP)). To that end, he sought to draft the Liberal-Progressive premier of Manitoba, John Bracken, to lead the Conservatives. Diefenbaker objected to what he saw as an attempt to rig the party's choice of new leader and stood for the leadership himself at the party's 1942 leadership convention. Bracken was elected on the second ballot; Diefenbaker finished a distant third in both polls. At Bracken's request, the convention changed the party's name to "Progressive Conservative Party of Canada." Bracken chose not to seek entry to the House through a by-election, and when the Conservatives elected a new floor leader, Diefenbaker was defeated by one vote. Bracken was elected to the Commons in the 1945 general election, and for the first time in five years the Tories had their party leader in the House of Commons. The Progressive Conservatives won 67 seats to the Liberals' 125, with smaller parties and independents winning 52 seats. Diefenbaker increased his majority to over 1,000 votes, and had the satisfaction of seeing Mackenzie King defeated in Prince Albert—but by a CCF candidate. The Prime Minister was returned in an Ontario by-election within months. Diefenbaker staked out a position on the populist left of the PC party. Though most Canadians were content to look to Parliament for protection of civil liberties, Diefenbaker called for a Bill of Rights, calling it "the only way to stop the march on the part of the government towards arbitrary power". He objected to the great powers used by the Mackenzie King government to attempt to root out Soviet spies after the war, such as imprisonment without trial, and complained about the government's proclivity for letting its wartime powers become permanent. Leadership contender (1948–1956) In early 1948, Mackenzie King, by now aged 73, announced his retirement; later that year Louis St. Laurent succeeded him. Although Bracken had nearly doubled the Tory representation in the House, prominent Tories were increasingly unhappy with his leadership, and pressured him to stand down. These party bosses believed that Ontario Premier George A. Drew, who had won three successive provincial elections and had even made inroads in francophone ridings, was the man to lead the Progressive Conservatives to victory. When Bracken resigned on July 17, 1948, Diefenbaker announced his candidacy. The party's backers, principally financiers headquartered on Toronto's Bay Street, preferred Drew's conservative political stances to Diefenbaker's Western populism. Tory leaders packed the 1948 leadership convention in Ottawa in favour of Drew, appointing more than 300 delegates at-large. One cynical party member commented, "Ghost delegates with ghost ballots, marked by the ghostly hidden hand of Bay Street, are going to pick George Drew, and he'll deliver a ghost-written speech that'll cheer us all up, as we march briskly into a political graveyard." Drew easily defeated Diefenbaker on the first ballot. St. Laurent called an election for June 1949, and the Tories were decimated, falling to 41 seats, only two more than the party's 1940 nadir. Despite intense efforts to make the Progressive Conservatives appeal to Quebecers, the party won only two seats in the province. Newman argued that but for Diefenbaker's many defeats, he would never have become Prime Minister: If, as a neophyte lawyer, he had succeeded in winning the Prince Albert seat in the federal elections of 1925 or 1926, ... Diefenbaker would probably have been remembered only as an obscure minister in Bennett's Depression cabinet ... If he had carried his home-town mayoralty in 1933, ... he'd probably not be remembered at all ... If he had succeeded in his bid for the national leadership in 1942, he might have taken the place of John Bracken on his six-year march to oblivion as leader of a party that had not changed itself enough to follow a Prairie radical ... [If he had defeated Drew in 1948, he] would have been free to flounder before the political strength of Louis St. Laurent in the 1949 and 1953 campaigns. The governing Liberals repeatedly attempted to deprive Diefenbaker of his parliamentary seat. In 1948, Lake Centre was redistricted to remove areas which strongly supported Diefenbaker. In spite of that, he was returned in the 1949 election, the only PC member from Saskatchewan. In 1952, a redistricting committee dominated by Liberals abolished Lake Centre entirely, dividing its voters among three other ridings. Diefenbaker stated in his memoirs that he had considered retiring from the House; with Drew only a year older than he was, the Westerner saw little prospect of advancement, and had received tempting offers from Ontario law firms. However, the gerrymandering so angered him that he decided to fight for a seat. Diefenbaker's party had taken Prince Albert only once, in 1911, but he decided to stand in that riding for the 1953 election, and was successful. He would hold that seat for the rest of his life. Even though Diefenbaker campaigned nationally for party candidates, the Progressive Conservatives gained little, rising to 51 seats as St. Laurent led the Liberals to a fifth successive majority. In addition to trying to secure his departure from Parliament, the government opened a home for unwed Indian mothers next door to Diefenbaker's home in Prince Albert. Diefenbaker continued practising law. In 1951, he gained national attention by accepting the Atherton case, in which a young telegraph operator had been accused of negligently causing a train crash by omitting crucial information from a message. Twenty-one people were killed, mostly Canadian troops bound for Korea. Diefenbaker paid $1,500 and sat a token bar examination to join the Law Society of British Columbia to take the case, and gained an acquittal, prejudicing the jury against the Crown prosecutor and pointing out a previous case in which interference had caused information to be lost in transmission. Although Edna Diefenbaker had been devoted to advancing her husband's career, in the mid-1940s she began to suffer mental illness, and was placed in a private mental hospital for a time. She later fell ill from leukemia, and died in 1951. In 1953, Diefenbaker married Olive Palmer (formerly Olive Freeman), whom he had courted while living in Wakaw. Olive Diefenbaker became a great source of strength to her husband. There were no children born of either marriage. In 2013, claims were made that he fathered at least two sons out of wedlock, based on DNA testing showing a relationship between the two individuals, and that Diefenbaker employed both mothers. Diefenbaker won Prince Albert in 1953, even as the Tories suffered a second consecutive disastrous defeat under Drew. Speculation arose in the press that the leader might be pressured to step aside. Drew was determined to remain, however, and Diefenbaker was careful to avoid any action that might be seen as disloyal. However, Diefenbaker was never a member of the "Five O'clock Club" of Drew intimates who met the leader in his office for a drink and gossip each day. By 1955, there was a widespread feeling among Tories that Drew was not capable of leading the party to a victory. At the same time, the Liberals were in flux as the aging St. Laurent tired of politics. Drew was able to damage the government in a weeks-long battle over the TransCanada pipeline in 1956—the so-called Pipeline Debate—in which the government, in a hurry to obtain financing for the pipeline, imposed closure before the debate even began. The Tories and the CCF combined to obstruct business in the House for weeks before the Liberals were finally able to pass the measure. Diefenbaker played a relatively minor role in the Pipeline Debate, speaking only once. Leader of the Opposition; 1957 election By 1956, the Social Credit Party was becoming a potential rival to the Tories as Canada's main right-wing party. Canadian journalist and author Bruce Hutchison discussed the state of the Tories in 1956: When a party calling itself Conservative can think of nothing better than to outbid the Government's election promises; when it demands economy in one breath and increased spending in the next; when it proposes an immediate tax cut regardless of inflationary results ... when in short, the Conservative party no longer gives us a conservative alternative after twenty-one years ... then our political system desperately requires an opposition prepared to stand for something more than the improbable chance of quick victory. In August 1956, Drew fell ill and many within the party urged him to step aside, feeling that the Progressive Conservatives needed vigorous leadership with an election likely within a year. He resigned in late September, and Diefenbaker immediately announced his candidacy for the leadership. A number of Progressive Conservative leaders, principally from the Ontario wing of the party, started a "Stop Diefenbaker" movement, and wooed University of Toronto president Sidney Smith as a possible candidate. When Smith declined, they could find no one of comparable stature to stand against Diefenbaker. The only serious competition to Diefenbaker came from Donald Fleming, who had finished third at the previous leadership convention, but his having repeatedly criticised Drew's leadership ensured that the critical Ontario delegates would not back Fleming, all but destroying his chances of victory. At the leadership convention in Ottawa in December 1956, Diefenbaker won on the first ballot, and the dissidents reconciled themselves to his victory. After all, they reasoned, Diefenbaker was now 61 and unlikely to lead the party for more than one general election, an election they believed would be won by the Liberals regardless of who led the Tories. In January 1957, Diefenbaker took his place as Leader of the Official Opposition. In February, St. Laurent informed him that Parliament would be dissolved in April for an election on June 10. The Liberals submitted a budget in March; Diefenbaker attacked it for overly high taxes, failure to assist pensioners, and a lack of aid for the poorer provinces. Parliament was dissolved on April 12. St. Laurent was so confident of victory that he did not even bother to make recommendations to the Governor General to fill the 16 vacancies in the Senate. Diefenbaker ran on a platform which concentrated on changes in domestic policies. He pledged to work with the provinces to reform the Senate. He proposed a vigorous new agricultural policy, seeking to stabilize income for farmers. He sought to reduce dependence on trade with the United States, and to seek closer ties with the United Kingdom. St. Laurent called the Tory platform "a mere cream-puff of a thing—with more air than substance". Diefenbaker and the PC party used television adroitly, whereas St. Laurent stated that he was more interested in seeing people than in talking to cameras. Though the Liberals outspent the Progressive Conservatives three to one, according to Newman, their campaign had little imagination, and was based on telling voters that their only real option was to re-elect St. Laurent. Diefenbaker characterized the Tory program in a nationwide telecast on April 30: It is a program ... for a united Canada, for one Canada, for Canada first, in every aspect of our political and public life, for the welfare of the average man and woman. That is my approach to public affairs and has been throughout my life ... A Canada, united from Coast to Coast, wherein there will be freedom for the individual, freedom of enterprise and where there will be a Government which, in all its actions, will remain the servant and not the master of the people. The final Gallup poll before the election showed the Liberals ahead, 48% to 34%. Just before the election, Maclean's magazine printed its regular weekly issue, to go on sale the morning after the vote, editorializing that democracy in Canada was still strong despite a sixth consecutive Liberal victory. On election night, the Progressive Conservative advance started early, with the gain of two seats in reliably Liberal Newfoundland. The party picked up nine seats in Nova Scotia, five in Quebec, 28 in Ontario, and at least one seat in every other province. The Progressive Conservatives took 112 seats to the Liberals' 105: a plurality, but not a majority. While the Liberals finished some 200,000 votes ahead of the Tories nationally, that margin was mostly wasted in overwhelming victories in safe Quebec seats. St. Laurent could have attempted to form a government, however, with the minor parties pledging to cooperate with the Progressive Conservatives, he would have likely faced a quick defeat at the Commons. St. Laurent instead resigned, making Diefenbaker prime minister. Prime Minister (1957–1963) Domestic events and policies Minority government When John Diefenbaker took office as Prime Minister of Canada on June 21, 1957, only one Progressive Conservative MP, Earl Rowe, had served in federal governmental office, for a brief period under Bennett in 1935. Rowe was no friend of Diefenbaker — he had briefly served as the party's acting leader in-between Drew's resignation and Diefenbaker's election, and did not definitively rule himself out of running to succeed Drew permanently until a relatively late stage, contributing to Diefenbaker's mistrust of him — and was given no place in his government. Diefenbaker appointed Ellen Fairclough as Secretary of State for Canada, the first woman to be appointed to a Cabinet post, and Michael Starr as Minister of Labour, the first Canadian of Ukrainian descent to serve in Cabinet. As the Parliament buildings had been lent to the Universal Postal Union for its 14th congress, Diefenbaker was forced to wait until the fall to convene Parliament. However, the Cabinet approved measures that summer, including increased price supports for butter and turkeys, and raises for federal employees. Once the 23rd Canadian Parliament was opened on October 14 by Queen Elizabeth II – the first to be opened by any Canadian monarch – the government rapidly passed legislation, including tax cuts and increases in old age pensions. The Liberals were ineffective in opposition, with the party in the midst of a leadership race after St. Laurent's resignation as party leader. With the Conservatives leading in the polls, Diefenbaker wanted a new election, hopeful that his party would gain a majority of seats. The strong Liberal presence meant that the Governor General could refuse a dissolution request early in a parliament's term and allow them to form government if Diefenbaker resigned. Diefenbaker sought a pretext for a new election. Such an excuse presented itself when former Secretary of State for External Affairs Lester Pearson attended his first parliamentary session as Leader of the Opposition on January 20, 1958, four days after becoming the Liberal leader. In his first speech as leader, Pearson (recently returned from Oslo where he had been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize), moved an amendment to supply, and called, not for an election, but for the Progressive Conservatives to resign, allowing the Liberals to form a government. Pearson stated that the condition of the economy required "a Government pledged to implement Liberal policies". Government MPs laughed at Pearson, as did members of the press who were present. Pearson later recorded in his memoirs that he knew that his "first attack on the government had been a failure, indeed a fiasco". Diefenbaker spoke for two hours and three minutes, and devastated his Liberal opposition. He mocked Pearson, contrasting the party leader's address at the Liberal leadership convention with his speech to the House: On Thursday there was shrieking defiance, on the following Monday there is shrinking indecision ... The only reason that this motion is worded as it is [sic] is that my honourable friends opposite quake when they think of what will happen if an election comes ... It is the resignation from responsibility of a great party. Diefenbaker read from an internal report provided to the St. Laurent government in early 1957, warning that a recession was coming, and stated: Across the way, Mr. Speaker, sit the purveyors of gloom who would endeavour for political purposes, to panic the Canadian people ... They had a warning ... Did they tell us that? No. Mr. Speaker, why did they not reveal this? Why did they not act when the House was sitting in January, February, March, and April? They had the information ... You concealed the facts, that is what you did. According to the Minister of Finance, Donald Fleming, "Pearson looked at first merry, then serious, then uncomfortable, then disturbed, and finally sick." Pearson recorded in his memoirs that the Prime Minister "tore me to shreds". Prominent Liberal frontbencher Paul Martin called Diefenbaker's response "one of the greatest devastating speeches" and "Diefenbaker's great hour". On February 1, Diefenbaker asked the Governor General, Vincent Massey, to dissolve Parliament, alleging that though St. Laurent had promised cooperation, Pearson had made it clear he would not follow his predecessor's lead. Massey agreed to the dissolution, and Diefenbaker set an election date of March 31, 1958. 1958 election The 1958 election campaign saw a huge outpouring of public support for the Progressive Conservatives. At the opening campaign rally in Winnipeg on February 12 voters filled the hall until the doors had to be closed for safety reasons. They were promptly broken down by the crowd outside. At the rally, Diefenbaker called for "[a] new vision. A new hope. A new soul for Canada." He pledged to open the Canadian North, to seek out its resources and make it a place for settlements. The conclusion to his speech expounded on what became known as "The Vision", This is the vision: One Canada. One Canada, where Canadians will have preserved to them the control of their own economic and political destiny. Sir John A. Macdonald saw a Canada from east to west: he opened the west. I see a new Canada—a Canada of the North. This is the vision! Pierre Sévigny, who would be elected an MP in 1958, recalled the gathering, "When he had finished that speech, as he was walking to the door, I saw people kneel and kiss his coat. Not one, but many. People were in tears. People were delirious. And this happened many a time after." When Sévigny introduced Diefenbaker to a Montreal rally with the words "Levez-vous, levez-vous, saluez votre chef!" (Rise, rise, salute your chief!) according to Postmaster General William Hamilton "thousands and thousands of people, jammed into that auditorium, just tore the roof off in a frenzy." Michael Starr remembered, "That was the most fantastic election ... I went into little places. Smoky Lake, Alberta, where nobody ever saw a minister. Canora, Saskatchewan. Every meeting was jammed ... The halls would be filled with people and sitting there in the front would be the first Ukrainian immigrants with shawls and hands gnarled from work ... I would switch to Ukrainian and the tears would start to run down their faces ... I don't care who says what won the election; it was the emotional aspect that really caught on." Pearson and his Liberals faltered badly in the campaign. The Liberal Party leader tried to make an issue of the fact that Diefenbaker had called a winter election, generally
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not stand in the 1934 provincial election, in which the governing Conservatives lost every seat. Six days after the election, Diefenbaker resigned as Crown prosecutor. The federal government of Bennett was defeated the following year and Mackenzie King returned as prime minister. Judging his prospects hopeless, Diefenbaker had declined a nomination to stand again against Mackenzie King in Prince Albert. In the waning days of the Bennett government, the Saskatchewan Conservative Party president was appointed a judge, leaving Diefenbaker, who had been elected the party's vice president, as acting president of the provincial party. Saskatchewan Conservatives eventually arranged a leadership convention for October 28, 1936. Eleven people were nominated, including Diefenbaker. The other ten candidates withdrew, and Diefenbaker won the position by default. Diefenbaker asked the federal party for $10,000 in financial support, but the funds were refused, and the Conservatives were shut out of the legislature in the 1938 provincial elections for the second consecutive time. Diefenbaker himself was defeated in the Arm River riding by 190 votes. With the province-wide Conservative vote having fallen to 12 percent, Diefenbaker offered his resignation to a post-election party meeting in Moose Jaw, but it was refused. Diefenbaker continued to run the provincial party out of his law office and paid the party's debts from his own pocket. Diefenbaker quietly sought the Conservative nomination for the federal riding of Lake Centre, but was unwilling to risk a divisive intra-party squabble. In what Diefenbaker biographer Smith states "appears to have been an elaborate and prearranged charade", Diefenbaker attended the nominating convention as keynote speaker, but withdrew when his name was proposed, stating a local man should be selected. The winner among the six remaining candidates, riding president W. B. Kelly, declined the nomination, urging the delegates to select Diefenbaker, which they promptly did. Mackenzie King called a general election for March 25, 1940. The incumbent in Lake Centre was Liberal John Frederick Johnston. Diefenbaker campaigned aggressively in Lake Centre, holding 63 rallies and seeking to appeal to members of all parties. On election day, he defeated Johnston by 280 votes on what was otherwise a disastrous day for the Conservatives, who won only 39 seats out of the 245 in the House of Commons—their lowest total since Confederation. Parliamentary rise (1940–1957) Mackenzie King years (1940–1948) Diefenbaker joined a shrunken and demoralized Conservative caucus in the House of Commons. The Conservative leader, Robert Manion, failed to win a place in the Commons in the election, which saw the Liberals take 181 seats. The Tories sought to be included in a wartime coalition government, but Mackenzie King refused. The House of Commons had only a slight role in the war effort; under the state of emergency, most business was accomplished through the Cabinet issuing Orders in Council. Diefenbaker was appointed to the House Committee on the Defence of Canada Regulations, an all-party committee which examined the wartime rules which allowed arrest and detention without trial. On June 13, 1940, Diefenbaker made his maiden speech in the House of Commons, supporting the regulations, and emphatically stating that most Canadians of German descent were loyal. In his memoirs, Diefenbaker wrote he waged an unsuccessful fight against the forced relocation and internment of many Japanese-Canadians, but historians say that the fight against the internment never took place. According to Diefenbaker's biographer, Denis Smith, the Conservative MP quietly admired Mackenzie King for his political skills. However, Diefenbaker proved a gadfly and an annoyance to Mackenzie King. Angered by the words of Diefenbaker and fellow Conservative MP Howard Green in seeking to censure the government, the Prime Minister referred to Conservative MPs as "a mob". When Diefenbaker accompanied two other Conservative leaders to a briefing by Mackenzie King on the war, the Prime Minister exploded at Diefenbaker (a constituent of his), "What business do you have to be here? You strike me to the heart every time you speak." The Conservatives elected a floor leader, and in 1941 approached former Prime Minister Meighen, who had been appointed as a senator by Bennett, about becoming party leader again. Meighen agreed, and resigned his Senate seat, but lost a by-election for an Ontario seat in the House of Commons. He remained as leader for several months, although he could not enter the chamber of the House of Commons. Meighen sought to move the Tories to the left, in order to undercut the Liberals and to take support away from the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF, the predecessor of the New Democratic Party (NDP)). To that end, he sought to draft the Liberal-Progressive premier of Manitoba, John Bracken, to lead the Conservatives. Diefenbaker objected to what he saw as an attempt to rig the party's choice of new leader and stood for the leadership himself at the party's 1942 leadership convention. Bracken was elected on the second ballot; Diefenbaker finished a distant third in both polls. At Bracken's request, the convention changed the party's name to "Progressive Conservative Party of Canada." Bracken chose not to seek entry to the House through a by-election, and when the Conservatives elected a new floor leader, Diefenbaker was defeated by one vote. Bracken was elected to the Commons in the 1945 general election, and for the first time in five years the Tories had their party leader in the House of Commons. The Progressive Conservatives won 67 seats to the Liberals' 125, with smaller parties and independents winning 52 seats. Diefenbaker increased his majority to over 1,000 votes, and had the satisfaction of seeing Mackenzie King defeated in Prince Albert—but by a CCF candidate. The Prime Minister was returned in an Ontario by-election within months. Diefenbaker staked out a position on the populist left of the PC party. Though most Canadians were content to look to Parliament for protection of civil liberties, Diefenbaker called for a Bill of Rights, calling it "the only way to stop the march on the part of the government towards arbitrary power". He objected to the great powers used by the Mackenzie King government to attempt to root out Soviet spies after the war, such as imprisonment without trial, and complained about the government's proclivity for letting its wartime powers become permanent. Leadership contender (1948–1956) In early 1948, Mackenzie King, by now aged 73, announced his retirement; later that year Louis St. Laurent succeeded him. Although Bracken had nearly doubled the Tory representation in the House, prominent Tories were increasingly unhappy with his leadership, and pressured him to stand down. These party bosses believed that Ontario Premier George A. Drew, who had won three successive provincial elections and had even made inroads in francophone ridings, was the man to lead the Progressive Conservatives to victory. When Bracken resigned on July 17, 1948, Diefenbaker announced his candidacy. The party's backers, principally financiers headquartered on Toronto's Bay Street, preferred Drew's conservative political stances to Diefenbaker's Western populism. Tory leaders packed the 1948 leadership convention in Ottawa in favour of Drew, appointing more than 300 delegates at-large. One cynical party member commented, "Ghost delegates with ghost ballots, marked by the ghostly hidden hand of Bay Street, are going to pick George Drew, and he'll deliver a ghost-written speech that'll cheer us all up, as we march briskly into a political graveyard." Drew easily defeated Diefenbaker on the first ballot. St. Laurent called an election for June 1949, and the Tories were decimated, falling to 41 seats, only two more than the party's 1940 nadir. Despite intense efforts to make the Progressive Conservatives appeal to Quebecers, the party won only two seats in the province. Newman argued that but for Diefenbaker's many defeats, he would never have become Prime Minister: If, as a neophyte lawyer, he had succeeded in winning the Prince Albert seat in the federal elections of 1925 or 1926, ... Diefenbaker would probably have been remembered only as an obscure minister in Bennett's Depression cabinet ... If he had carried his home-town mayoralty in 1933, ... he'd probably not be remembered at all ... If he had succeeded in his bid for the national leadership in 1942, he might have taken the place of John Bracken on his six-year march to oblivion as leader of a party that had not changed itself enough to follow a Prairie radical ... [If he had defeated Drew in 1948, he] would have been free to flounder before the political strength of Louis St. Laurent in the 1949 and 1953 campaigns. The governing Liberals repeatedly attempted to deprive Diefenbaker of his parliamentary seat. In 1948, Lake Centre was redistricted to remove areas which strongly supported Diefenbaker. In spite of that, he was returned in the 1949 election, the only PC member from Saskatchewan. In 1952, a redistricting committee dominated by Liberals abolished Lake Centre entirely, dividing its voters among three other ridings. Diefenbaker stated in his memoirs that he had considered retiring from the House; with Drew only a year older than he was, the Westerner saw little prospect of advancement, and had received tempting offers from Ontario law firms. However, the gerrymandering so angered him that he decided to fight for a seat. Diefenbaker's party had taken Prince Albert only once, in 1911, but he decided to stand in that riding for the 1953 election, and was successful. He would hold that seat for the rest of his life. Even though Diefenbaker campaigned nationally for party candidates, the Progressive Conservatives gained little, rising to 51 seats as St. Laurent led the Liberals to a fifth successive majority. In addition to trying to secure his departure from Parliament, the government opened a home for unwed Indian mothers next door to Diefenbaker's home in Prince Albert. Diefenbaker continued practising law. In 1951, he gained national attention by accepting the Atherton case, in which a young telegraph operator had been accused of negligently causing a train crash by omitting crucial information from a message. Twenty-one people were killed, mostly Canadian troops bound for Korea. Diefenbaker paid $1,500 and sat a token bar examination to join the Law Society of British Columbia to take the case, and gained an acquittal, prejudicing the jury against the Crown prosecutor and pointing out a previous case in which interference had caused information to be lost in transmission. Although Edna Diefenbaker had been devoted to advancing her husband's career, in the mid-1940s she began to suffer mental illness, and was placed in a private mental hospital for a time. She later fell ill from leukemia, and died in 1951. In 1953, Diefenbaker married Olive Palmer (formerly Olive Freeman), whom he had courted while living in Wakaw. Olive Diefenbaker became a great source of strength to her husband. There were no children born of either marriage. In 2013, claims were made that he fathered at least two sons out of wedlock, based on DNA testing showing a relationship between the two individuals, and that Diefenbaker employed both mothers. Diefenbaker won Prince Albert in 1953, even as the Tories suffered a second consecutive disastrous defeat under Drew. Speculation arose in the press that the leader might be pressured to step aside. Drew was determined to remain, however, and Diefenbaker was careful to avoid any action that might be seen as disloyal. However, Diefenbaker was never a member of the "Five O'clock Club" of Drew intimates who met the leader in his office for a drink and gossip each day. By 1955, there was a widespread feeling among Tories that Drew was not capable of leading the party to a victory. At the same time, the Liberals were in flux as the aging St. Laurent tired of politics. Drew was able to damage the government in a weeks-long battle over the TransCanada pipeline in 1956—the so-called Pipeline Debate—in which the government, in a hurry to obtain financing for the pipeline, imposed closure before the debate even began. The Tories and the CCF combined to obstruct business in the House for weeks before the Liberals were finally able to pass the measure. Diefenbaker played a relatively minor role in the Pipeline Debate, speaking only once. Leader of the Opposition; 1957 election By 1956, the Social Credit Party was becoming a potential rival to the Tories as Canada's main right-wing party. Canadian journalist and author Bruce Hutchison discussed the state of the Tories in 1956: When a party calling itself Conservative can think of nothing better than to outbid the Government's election promises; when it demands economy in one breath and increased spending in the next; when it proposes an immediate tax cut regardless of inflationary results ... when in short, the Conservative party no longer gives us a conservative alternative after twenty-one years ... then our political system desperately requires an opposition prepared to stand for something more than the improbable chance of quick victory. In August 1956, Drew fell ill and many within the party urged him to step aside, feeling that the Progressive Conservatives needed vigorous leadership with an election likely within a year. He resigned in late September, and Diefenbaker immediately announced his candidacy for the leadership. A number of Progressive Conservative leaders, principally from the Ontario wing of the party, started a "Stop Diefenbaker" movement, and wooed University of Toronto president Sidney Smith as a possible candidate. When Smith declined, they could find no one of comparable stature to stand against Diefenbaker. The only serious competition to Diefenbaker came from Donald Fleming, who had finished third at the previous leadership convention, but his having repeatedly criticised Drew's leadership ensured that the critical Ontario delegates would not back Fleming, all but destroying his chances of victory. At the leadership convention in Ottawa in December 1956, Diefenbaker won on the first ballot, and the dissidents reconciled themselves to his victory. After all, they reasoned, Diefenbaker was now 61 and unlikely to lead the party for more than one general election, an election they believed would be won by the Liberals regardless of who led the Tories. In January 1957, Diefenbaker took his place as Leader of the Official Opposition. In February, St. Laurent informed him that Parliament would be dissolved in April for an election on June 10. The Liberals submitted a budget in March; Diefenbaker attacked it for overly high taxes, failure to assist pensioners, and a lack of aid for the poorer provinces. Parliament was dissolved on April 12. St. Laurent was so confident of victory that he did not even bother to make recommendations to the Governor General to fill the 16 vacancies in the Senate. Diefenbaker ran on a platform which concentrated on changes in domestic policies. He pledged to work with the provinces to reform the Senate. He proposed a vigorous new agricultural policy, seeking to stabilize income for farmers. He sought to reduce dependence on trade with the United States, and to seek closer ties with the United Kingdom. St. Laurent called the Tory platform "a mere cream-puff of a thing—with more air than substance". Diefenbaker and the PC party used television adroitly, whereas St. Laurent stated that he was more interested in seeing people than in talking to cameras. Though the Liberals outspent the Progressive Conservatives three to one, according to Newman, their campaign had little imagination, and was based on telling voters that their only real option was to re-elect St. Laurent. Diefenbaker characterized the Tory program in a nationwide telecast on April 30: It is a program ... for a united Canada, for one Canada, for Canada first, in every aspect of our political and public life, for the welfare of the average man and woman. That is my approach to public affairs and has been throughout my life ... A Canada, united from Coast to Coast, wherein there will be freedom for the individual, freedom of enterprise and where there will be a Government which, in all its actions, will remain the servant and not the master of the people. The final Gallup poll before the election showed the Liberals ahead, 48% to 34%. Just before the election, Maclean's magazine printed its regular weekly issue, to go on sale the morning after the vote, editorializing that democracy in Canada was still strong despite a sixth consecutive Liberal victory. On election night, the Progressive Conservative advance started early, with the gain of two seats in reliably Liberal Newfoundland. The party picked up nine seats in Nova Scotia, five in Quebec, 28 in Ontario, and at least one seat in every other province. The Progressive Conservatives took 112 seats to the Liberals' 105: a plurality, but not a majority. While the Liberals finished some 200,000 votes ahead of the Tories nationally, that margin was mostly wasted in overwhelming victories in safe Quebec seats. St. Laurent could have attempted to form a government, however, with the minor parties pledging to cooperate with the Progressive Conservatives, he would have likely faced a quick defeat at the Commons. St. Laurent instead resigned, making Diefenbaker prime minister. Prime Minister (1957–1963) Domestic events and policies Minority government When John Diefenbaker took office as Prime Minister of Canada on June 21, 1957, only one Progressive Conservative MP, Earl Rowe, had served in federal governmental office, for a brief period under Bennett in 1935. Rowe was no friend of Diefenbaker — he had briefly served as the party's acting leader in-between Drew's resignation and Diefenbaker's election, and did not definitively rule himself out of running to succeed Drew permanently until a relatively late stage, contributing to Diefenbaker's mistrust of him — and was given no place in his government. Diefenbaker appointed Ellen Fairclough as Secretary of State for Canada, the first woman to be appointed to a Cabinet post, and Michael Starr as Minister of Labour, the first Canadian of Ukrainian descent to serve in Cabinet. As the Parliament buildings had been lent to the Universal Postal Union for its 14th congress, Diefenbaker was forced to wait until the fall to convene Parliament. However, the Cabinet approved measures that summer, including increased price supports for butter and turkeys, and raises for federal employees. Once the 23rd Canadian Parliament was opened on October 14 by Queen Elizabeth II – the first to be opened by any Canadian monarch – the government rapidly passed legislation, including tax cuts and increases in old age pensions. The Liberals were ineffective in opposition, with the party in the midst of a leadership race after St. Laurent's resignation as party leader. With the Conservatives leading in the polls, Diefenbaker wanted a new election, hopeful that his party would gain a majority of seats. The strong Liberal presence meant that the Governor General could refuse a dissolution request early in a parliament's term and allow them to form government if Diefenbaker resigned. Diefenbaker sought a pretext for a new election. Such an excuse presented itself when former Secretary of State for External Affairs Lester Pearson attended his first parliamentary session as Leader of the Opposition on January 20, 1958, four days after becoming the Liberal leader. In his first speech as leader, Pearson (recently returned from Oslo where he had been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize), moved an amendment to supply, and called, not for an election, but for the Progressive Conservatives to resign, allowing the Liberals to form a government. Pearson stated that the condition of the economy required "a Government pledged to implement Liberal policies". Government MPs laughed at Pearson, as did members of the press who were present. Pearson later recorded in his memoirs that he knew that his "first attack on the government had been a failure, indeed a fiasco". Diefenbaker spoke for two hours and three minutes, and devastated his Liberal opposition. He mocked Pearson, contrasting the party leader's address at the Liberal leadership convention with his speech to the House: On Thursday there was shrieking defiance, on the following Monday there is shrinking indecision ... The only reason that this motion is worded as it is [sic] is that my honourable friends opposite quake when they think of what will happen if an election comes ... It is the resignation from responsibility of a great party. Diefenbaker read from an internal report provided to the St. Laurent government in early 1957, warning that a recession was coming, and stated: Across the way, Mr. Speaker, sit the purveyors of gloom who would endeavour for political purposes, to panic the Canadian people ... They had a warning ... Did they tell us that? No. Mr. Speaker, why did they not reveal this? Why did they not act when the House was sitting in January, February, March, and April? They had the information ... You concealed the facts, that is what you did. According to the Minister of Finance, Donald Fleming, "Pearson looked at first merry, then serious, then uncomfortable, then disturbed, and finally sick." Pearson recorded in his memoirs that the Prime Minister "tore me to shreds". Prominent Liberal frontbencher Paul Martin called Diefenbaker's response "one of the greatest devastating speeches" and "Diefenbaker's great hour". On February 1, Diefenbaker asked the Governor General, Vincent Massey, to dissolve Parliament, alleging that though St. Laurent had promised cooperation, Pearson had made it clear he would not follow his predecessor's lead. Massey agreed to the dissolution, and Diefenbaker set an election date of March 31, 1958. 1958 election The 1958 election campaign saw a huge outpouring of public support for the Progressive Conservatives. At the opening campaign rally in Winnipeg on February 12 voters filled the hall until the doors had to be closed for safety reasons. They were promptly broken down by the crowd outside. At the rally, Diefenbaker called for "[a] new vision. A new hope. A new soul for Canada." He pledged to open the Canadian North, to seek out its resources and make it a place for settlements. The conclusion to his speech expounded on what became known as "The Vision", This is the vision: One Canada. One Canada, where Canadians will have preserved to them the control of their own economic and political destiny. Sir John A. Macdonald saw a Canada from east to west: he opened the west. I see a new Canada—a Canada of the North. This is the vision! Pierre Sévigny, who would be elected an MP in 1958, recalled the gathering, "When he had finished that speech, as he was walking to the door, I saw people kneel and kiss his coat. Not one, but many. People were in tears. People were delirious. And this happened many a time after." When Sévigny introduced Diefenbaker to a Montreal rally with
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Marc Prozzo and together they created a children's book, written by Basquiat at the age of seven and illustrated by Prozzo. At the age of seven in 1968, Basquiat was hit by a car while playing in the street. His arm was broken and he suffered several internal injuries, which required a splenectomy. While he was hospitalized, his mother brought him a copy of Gray's Anatomy to keep him occupied. After his parents separated that year, Basquiat and his sisters were raised by their father. His mother was committed to a psychiatric hospital when he was ten and thereafter spent her life in and out of institutions. By the age of eleven, Basquiat was fluent in French, Spanish and English, and an avid reader of all three languages. Basquiat's family resided in the Brooklyn neighborhood of Boerum Hill and then in 1974, moved to Miramar, Puerto Rico. When they returned to Brooklyn in 1976, Basquiat attended Edward R. Murrow High School. He struggled to deal with his mother's instability and rebelled as a teenager. He ran away from home at 15 when his father caught him smoking pot in his room. He slept on park benches at Washington Square Park and took acid. Eventually, his father spotted him with a shaved head and called the police to bring him home. In the 10th grade, he enrolled at City-As-School, an alternative high school in Manhattan, home to many artistic students who found conventional schooling difficult. He would skip school with his friends, but still received encouragement from his teachers, and began to write and illustrate for the school newspaper. He developed the character SAMO to endorse a faux religion. The saying "SAMO" had started as a private joke between Basquiat and his schoolmate Al Diaz, as an abbreviation for the phrase "Same old shit." They drew a series of cartoons for their school paper before and after using SAMO©. Street art and Gray: 1978–1980 In May 1978, Basquiat and Diaz began spray painting graffiti on buildings in Lower Manhattan. Working under the pseudonym SAMO, they inscribed poetic and satirical advertising slogans such as "SAMO© AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO GOD." In June 1978, Basquiat was expelled from City-As-School for pieing the principal. At 17, his father kicked him out of the house when he decided to drop out of school. He worked for the Unique Clothing Warehouse in NoHo while continuing to create graffiti at night. On December 11, 1978, The Village Voice published an article about the SAMO graffiti. In 1979, Basquiat appeared on the live public-access television show TV Party hosted by Glenn O'Brien. Basquiat and O'Brien formed a friendship and he made regular appearances on the show over the next few years. Eventually, he began spending time writing graffiti around the School of Visual Arts, where he befriended students John Sex, Kenny Scharf, and Keith Haring. In April 1979, Basquiat met Michael Holman at the Canal Zone Party and they founded the noise rock band Test Pattern, which was later renamed Gray. Other members of Gray included Shannon Dawson, Nick Taylor, Wayne Clifford and Vincent Gallo. They performed at nightclubs such as Max's Kansas City, CBGB, Hurrah and the Mudd Club. Around this time, Basquiat lived in the East Village with his friend Alexis Adler, a Barnard biology graduate. He often copied diagrams of chemical compounds borrowed from Adler's science textbooks. She documented Basquiat's creative explorations as he transformed the floors, walls, doors and furniture into his artworks. He also made postcards with his friend Jennifer Stein. While selling postcards in SoHo, Basquiat spotted Andy Warhol at W.P.A. restaurant with art critic Henry Geldzahler. He sold Warhol a postcard titled Stupid Games, Bad Ideas. In October 1979, at Arleen Schloss's open space called A's, Basquiat showed his SAMO montages using color Xerox copies of his works. Schloss allowed Basquiat to use the space to create his "MAN MADE" clothing, which were painted upcycled garments. In November 1979, costume designer Patricia Field carried his clothing line in her upscale boutique on 8th Street in the East Village. Field also displayed his sculptures in the store window.When Basquiat and Diaz had a falling out, he inscribed "SAMO IS DEAD" on the walls of SoHo buildings in 1980. In June 1980, he appeared in High Times magazine, his first national publication, as part of an article titled "Graffiti '80: The State of the Outlaw Art" by Glenn O'Brien. Later that year, he began filming O'Brien's independent film Downtown 81 (2000), originally titled New York Beat, which featured some of Gray's recordings on its soundtrack. Rise to fame and success: 1980–1986 In June 1980, Basquiat participated in The Times Square Show, a multi-artist exhibition sponsored by Collaborative Projects Incorporated (Colab) and Fashion Moda. He was noticed by various critics and curators, including Jeffrey Deitch, who mentioned him in an article titled "Report from Times Square" in the September 1980 issue of Art in America. In February 1981, Basquiat participated in the New York/New Wave exhibition, curated by Diego Cortez at New York's P.S.1. Italian artist Sandro Chia recommended Basquiat's work to Italian dealer Emilio Mazzoli, who promptly bought 10 paintings for Basquiat to have a show at his gallery in Modena, Italy in May 1981. In December 1981, art critic Rene Ricard published "The Radiant Child" in Artforum magazine, the first extensive article on Basquiat. During this period, Basquiat painted many pieces on objects he found in the streets, such as discarded doors. Basquiat sold his first painting, Cadillac Moon (1981), to Debbie Harry, lead singer of the punk rock band Blondie, for $200 after they had filmed Downtown 81 together. He also appeared as a disc jockey in the 1981 Blondie music video "Rapture", a role originally intended for Grandmaster Flash. At the time, Basquiat was living with his girlfriend, Suzanne Mallouk, who financially supported him as a waitress. In September 1981, art dealer Annina Nosei invited Basquiat to join her gallery at the suggestion of Sandro Chia. Soon after, he participated in her group show Public Address. She provided him with materials and a space to work in the basement of her gallery. In 1982, Nosei arranged for him to move into a loft which also served as a studio at 101 Crosby Street in SoHo. He had his first American one-man show at the Annina Nosei Gallery in March 1982. He also painted in Modena for his second Italian exhibition in March 1982. Feeling exploited, that show was cancelled because he was expected to make eight paintings in one week. By the summer of 1982, Basquiat had left the Annina Nosei Gallery and gallerist Bruno Bischofberger became his worldwide art dealer. In June 1982, at 21, Basquiat became the youngest artist to ever take part in documenta in Kassel, Germany. His works were exhibited alongside Joseph Beuys, Anselm Kiefer, Gerhard Richter, Cy Twombly and Andy Warhol. Bischofberger gave Basquiat a one-man show at his Zurich gallery in September 1982, and arranged for him to meet Warhol for lunch on October 4, 1982. Warhol recalled, "I took a Polaroid and he went home and within two hours a painting was back, still wet, of him and me together." The painting, Dos Cabezas (1982), ignited a friendship between them. Basquiat was photographed by James Van Der Zee for an interview with Henry Geldzahler published in the January 1983 issue of Warhol's Interview magazine. In November 1982, Basquiat's solo exhibition opened at the Fun Gallery in the East Village. Among the works exhibited were A Panel of Experts (1982) and Equals Pi (1982). In December 1982, Basquiat began working at the studio space art dealer Larry Gagosian had built below his Venice, California home. There, he commenced a series of paintings for a March 1983 show, his second at the Gagosian Gallery in West Hollywood. He was accompanied by his girlfriend, then-unknown singer Madonna. Gagosian recalled: "Everything was going along fine. Jean-Michel was making paintings, I was selling them, and we were having a lot of fun. But then one day Jean-Michel said, 'My girlfriend is coming to stay with me.' ... So I said, 'Well, what's she like?' And he said, 'Her name is Madonna and she's going to be huge.' I'll never forget that he said that." Basquiat took considerable interest in the work that artist Robert Rauschenberg was producing at Gemini G.E.L. in West Hollywood. He visited him on several occasions and found inspiration in his accomplishments. While in Los Angeles, Basquiat painted Hollywood Africans (1983), which portrays him with graffiti artists Toxic and Rammellzee. He often painted portraits of other graffiti artists—and sometimes collaborators—in works such as Portrait of A-One A.K.A. King (1982), Toxic (1984), and ERO (1984). In 1983, he produced the hip-hop record "Beat Bop" featuring Rammellzee and rapper K-Rob. It was pressed in limited quantities on his Tartown Inc. imprint. He created the cover art for the single, making it highly desirable among both record and art collectors. In March 1983, at 22 years old, Basquiat became the youngest artist to participate in the Whitney Biennial exhibition of contemporary art. Paige Powell, an editor for Interview magazine, organized a show of his work at her apartment in April 1983. Around this time, he began a relationship with Powell, who was instrumental in fostering his friendship with Warhol. In August 1983, Basquiat moved into a loft owned by Warhol at 57 Great Jones Street in NoHo, which also served as a studio. In the summer of 1983, Basquiat invited Lee Jaffe, a former musician in Bob Marley's band, to join him on a trip throughout Asia and Europe. On his return to New York, he was deeply affected by the death of Michael Stewart, an aspiring black artist in the downtown club scene who was killed by transit police in September 1983. He painted Defacement (The Death of Michael Stewart) (1983) in response to the incident. He also participated in a Christmas benefit with various New York artists for the family of Michael Stewart in 1983. Having joined the Mary Boone's SoHo gallery in 1983, Basquiat had his first show there in May 1984. A large number of photographs depict a collaboration between Warhol and Basquiat in 1984 and 1985. When they collaborated, Warhol would start with something very concrete or a recognizable image and then Basquiat defaced it in his animated style. They made an homage to the 1984 Summer Olympics with Olympics (1984). Other collaborations include Taxi, 45th/Broadway (1984–85) and Zenith (1985). Their joint exhibition, Paintings, at the Tony Shafrazi Gallery, caused a rift in their friendship after it was panned by critics and Basquiat was called Warhol's mascot. Basquiat often painted in expensive Armani suits and would appear in public in the same paint-splattered clothes. He was a regular at the Area nightclub, where he sometimes worked the turntables as a DJ for fun. He also painted murals for the Palladium nightclub in New York City. His swift rise to fame was covered in the media. He appeared on the cover of the February 10, 1985, issue of The New York Times Magazine in a feature titled "New Art, New Money: The Marketing of an American Artist". His work appeared in GQ and Esquire, and he was interviewed for MTV's "Art Break" segment. In the mid-1980s, Basquiat was earning $1.4 million a year and he was receiving lump sums of $40,000 from art dealers. Despite his success, his emotional instability continued to haunt him. "The more money Basquiat made, the more paranoid and deeply involved with drugs he became," wrote journalist Michael Shnayerson. Basquiat's cocaine use became so excessive that he blew a hole in his nasal septum. A friend claimed that Basquiat confessed he was on heroin in late 1980. Many of his peers speculated that his drug use was a means of coping with the demands of his newfound fame, the exploitative nature of the art industry, and the pressures of being a black man in the white-dominated art world. For what would be his last exhibition on the West Coast, Basquiat returned to Los Angeles for his show at the Gagosian Gallery in January 1986. In February 1986, Basquiat traveled to Atlanta, Georgia for an exhibition of his drawings at Fay Gold Gallery. That month, he participated in Limelight's Art Against Apartheid benefit. In the summer, he had a solo exhibition at Galerie Thaddaeus Ropac in Salzburg. In the fall, he walked the runway for Rei Kawakubo at the Comme des Garçons Homme Plus show in Paris. In October 1986, Basquiat flew to Ivory Coast for an exhibition of his work organized by Bruno Bischofberger at the French Cultural Institute in Abidjan. He was accompanied by his girlfriend Jennifer Goode, who worked at his frequent hangout, Area nightclub. In November 1986, at 25 years old, Basquiat became the youngest artist given an
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in the (Re)Mix," Kellie Jones posits that Basquiat's "mischievous, complex, and neologistic side, with regard to the fashioning of modernity and the influence and effluence of black culture" are often elided by critics and viewers, and thus "lost in translation." Reception Shortly after his death, The New York Times indicated that Basquiat was "the most famous of only a small number of young black artists who have achieved national recognition." Art critic Bonnie Rosenberg wrote that Basquiat experienced a good taste of fame in his last years when he was a "critically embraced and popularly celebrated artistic phenomenon"; and that some people focused on the "superficial exoticism of his work", missing the fact that it "held important connections to expressive precursors." Traditionally, the interpretation of Basquiat's works at the visual level comes from the subdued emotional tone of what they represent compared to what is actually depicted. For example, the figures in his paintings, as stated by writer Stephen Metcalf, "are shown frontally, with little or no depth of field, and nerves and organs are exposed, as in an anatomy textbook. Are these creatures dead and being clinically dissected, one wonders, or alive and in immense pain?" Writer Olivia Laing noted that "words jumped out at him, from the back of cereal boxes or subway ads, and he stayed alert to their subversive properties, their double and hidden meaning." A second recurrent reference to Basquiat's aesthetics comes from the artist's intention to share, in the words of gallerist Niru Ratnam, a "highly individualistic, expressive view of the world". Art historian Luis Alberto Mejia Clavijo believes Basquiat's work inspires people to "paint like a child, don't paint what is in the surface but what you are re-creating inside. Art critics have also compared Basquiat's work to the emergence of hip-hop during the same era. "Basquiat's art—like the best hip-hop—takes apart and reassembles the work that came before it," said art critic Franklin Sirmans in a 2005 essay, "In the Cipher: Basquiat and the Hip-Hop Culture". Art critic Rene Ricard wrote in his 1981 article "The Radiant Child":I'm always amazed at how people come up with things. Like Jean-Michel. How did he come up with the words he puts all over everything, his way of making a point without overstating the case, using one or two words he reveals a political acuity, gets the viewer going in the direction he wants, the illusion of the bombed-over wall. One or two words containing a full body. One or two words on a Jean-Michel contain the entire history of graffiti. What he incorporates into his pictures, whether found or made, is specific and selective. He has a perfect idea of what he's getting across, using everything that collates to his vision.Curator Marc Mayer wrote in the 2005 essay "Basquiat in History":Basquiat speaks articulately while dodging the full impact of clarity like a matador. We can read his pictures without strenuous effort—the words, the images, the colors and the construction—but we cannot quite fathom the point they belabor. Keeping us in this state of half-knowing, of mystery-within-familiarity, had been the core technique of his brand of communication since his adolescent days as the graffiti poet SAMO. To enjoy them, we are not meant to analyze the pictures too carefully. Quantifying the encyclopedic breadth of his research certainly results in an interesting inventory, but the sum cannot adequately explain his pictures, which requires an effort outside the purview of iconography ... he painted a calculated incoherence, calibrating the mystery of what such apparently meaning-laden pictures might ultimately mean. Criticism In the 1980s, art critic Robert Hughes dismissed Basquiat's work as absurd. In a 1997 review for The Daily Telegraph, art critic Hilton Kramer begins his first paragraph by stating that Basquiat had no idea what the word "quality" meant. The criticisms which follow relentlessly label Basquiat as a "talentless hustler" and "street-smart but otherwise invincibly ignorant", arguing that art dealers of the time were "as ignorant about art as Basquiat himself." In saying that Basquiat's work never rose above "that lowly artistic station" of graffiti "even when his paintings were fetching enormous prices," Kramer argued that graffiti art "acquired a cult status in certain New York art circles." He further opined, "As a result of the campaign waged by these art-world entrepreneurs on Basquiat's behalf—and their own, of course—there was never any doubt that the museums, the collectors and the media would fall into line" when talking about the marketing of Basquiat's name. Exhibitions Basquiat's first public exhibition was at The Times Square Show in New York in June 1980. In May 1981, he had his first solo exhibition at Galleria d'Arte Emilio Mazzoli in Modena. In late 1981, he joined the Annina Nosei Gallery in New York, where he had his first American one-man show from March 6 to April 1, 1982. In 1982, he also had shows at the Gagosian Gallery in West Hollywood, Galerie Bruno Bischofberger in Zurich, and the Fun Gallery in the East Village. Major exhibitions of his work have included Jean-Michel Basquiat: Paintings 1981–1984 at the Fruitmarket Gallery, Edinburgh in 1984, which traveled to the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London; Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam in 1985. In 1985, the University Art Museum, Berkeley hosted Basquiat's first solo American museum exhibition. His work was showcased at Kestner-Gesellschaft, Hannover in 1987 and 1989. The first retrospective of his work was Jean-Michel Basquiat at the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York from October 1992 to February 1993; sponsored by AT&T, MTV and Madonna. It subsequently traveled to the Menil Collection in Texas; the Des Moines Art Center in Iowa; and the Montgomery Museum of Fine Arts in Alabama, from 1993 to 1994. The exhibition's catalog was edited by Richard Marshall and included several essays from different perspectives. An exhibition of his work was held at London's Serpentine Galley in 1996; sponsored by Madonna. In March 2005, the retrospective Basquiat was mounted by the Brooklyn Museum in New York. It traveled to the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, and the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston. From October 2006 to January 2007, the first Basquiat exhibition in Puerto Rico took place at the Museo de Arte de Puerto Rico (MAPR), produced by ArtPremium, Corinne Timsit and Eric Bonici. Basquiat remains an important source of inspiration for a younger generation of contemporary artists all over the world, such as Rita Ackermann and Kader Attia—as shown, for example, at the exhibition Street and Studio: From Basquiat to Séripop co-curated by Cathérine Hug and Thomas Mießgang and previously exhibited at Kunsthalle Wien, Austria, in 2010. Basquiat and the Bayou, a 2014 show presented by the Ogden Museum of Southern Art in New Orleans, focused on the artist's works with themes of the American South. The Brooklyn Museum exhibited Basquiat: The Unknown Notebooks in 2015. In 2017, Basquiat Before Basquiat: East 12th Street, 1979–1980 exhibited as Museum of Contemporary Art Denver, which displayed works created during the year Basquiat lived with his friend Alexis Adler. Later that year, the Barbican Centre in London exhibited Basquiat: Boom for Real. In 2019, the Brant Foundation in New York, hosted an extensive exhibition of Basquiat's works with free admission. All 50,000 tickets were claimed before the exhibition opened, so additional tickets were released. In June 2019, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York presented Basquiat's "Defacement": The Untold Story. Later that year, the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne opened the exhibition Keith Haring and Jean-Michel Basquiat: Crossing Lines. The Lotte Museum of Art hosted the first major exhibition of Jean-Michel Basquiat in Seoul from October 2020 to February 2021. The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston exhibited Writing the Future: Basquiat and the Hip-Hop Generation from October 2020 to July 2021. The Basquiat family announced an exhibition of 200 personal and rare works, Jean-Michel Basquiat: King Pleasure© coupled with an accompanying Rizzoli coffee table book, opening on April 9, 2022, in New York City. Art market Basquiat sold his first painting to singer Debbie Harry for $200 in 1981. Advised by Italian artist Sandro Chia, gallerist Emilio Mazzoli purchased ten of Basquiat's works for $10,000 and held an exhibition at his gallery in Modena in May 1981. Spurred by the Neo-expressionism art boom, his work was in great demand by 1982, which is considered his most valuable year. A majority of his highest-selling paintings at auction date to 1982. Recalling that year, Basquiat said, "I had some money; I made the best paintings ever." His paintings were priced at $5,000 to $10,000 in 1983—lowered from the range of $10,000 to $15,000 when he joined Mary Boone's gallery to reflect what she felt was consistent with those of other artist in her gallery. In 1984, it was reported that in two years his work appreciated in value by 500%. In the mid-1980s, Basquiat was earning $1.4 million a year as an artist. By 1985, his paintings were selling for $10,000 to $25,000 each. Basquiat's rise to fame in the international art market landed him on the cover of The New York Times Magazine in 1985, which was unprecedented for a young African-American artist. Since Basquiat's death in 1988, the market for his work has developed steadily—in line with overall art market trends—with a dramatic peak in 2007 when, at the height of the art market boom, the global auction volume for his work was over $115 million. Brett Gorvy, deputy chairman of Christie's, is quoted describing Basquiat's market as "two-tiered ... The most coveted material is rare, generally dating from the best period, 1981–83." Until 2002, the highest amount paid for an original work of Basquiat's was $3.3 million for Self-Portrait (1982), sold at Christie's in 1998. In 2002, Basquiat's Profit I (1982) was sold at Christie's by drummer Lars Ulrich of the heavy metal band Metallica for $5.5 million. The proceedings of the auction were documented in the 2004 film Metallica: Some Kind of Monster. In June 2002, New York con-artist Alfredo Martinez was charged by the Federal Bureau of Investigation with attempting to deceive two art dealers by selling them $185,000 worth of fake Basquiat drawings. The charges against Martinez, which landed him in Manhattan's Metropolitan Correction Center for 21 months, involved a scheme to sell drawings he copied from authentic artworks, accompanied by forged certificates of authenticity. Martinez claimed he got away with selling fake Basquiat drawings for 18 years. In 2007, Basquiat's painting Hannibal (1982) was seized by federal authorities as part of an embezzlement scheme by convicted Brazilian money launderer and former banker Edemar Cid Ferreira. Ferreira had purchased the painting with illegally acquired funds while he controlled Banco Santos in Brazil. It was shipped to a Manhattan warehouse, via the Netherlands, with a false shipping invoice stating it was worth $100. The painting was later sold at Sotheby's for $13.1 million. Between 2007 and 2012, the price of Basquiat's work continued to steadily increase up to $16.3 million. The sale of Untitled (1981) for $20.1 million in 2012 elevated his market to a new stratosphere. Soon other works in his oeuvre outpaced that record. Another work, Untitled (1981), depicting a fisherman, sold for $26.4 million in November 2012. In May 2013, Dustheads (1982) sold for $48.8 million at Christie's. In May 2016, Untitled (1982), depicting a devil, sold at Christie's for $57.3 million to Japanese businessman Yusaku Maezawa. In May 2017, Maezawa also purchased Basquiat's Untitled (1982), a powerful depiction of a black skull with red and yellow rivulets, at auction for a record-setting $110.5 million. It is the most ever paid for an American artwork, and the sixth most expensive artwork sold at an auction, surpassing Andy Warhol's Silver Car Crash (Double Disaster), which sold for $105 million in 2013. In May 2018, Flexible (1984) sold for $45.3 million, becoming Basquiat's first post-1983 painting to surpass the $20 million mark. In June 2020, Untitled (Head) (1982), sold for $15.2 million; a record for a Sotheby's online sale and a record for a Basquiat work on paper. In July 2020, Loïc Gouzer's Fair Warning app announced that an untitled drawing on paper sold for $10.8 million, which is a record high for an in-app purchase. Earlier that year, American businessman Ken Griffin purchased Boy and Dog in a Johnnypump (1982) for upwards of $100 million from art collector Peter Brant. In March 2021, Basquiat's Warrior (1982) sold for $41.8 million at Christie's in Hong Kong, which is the most expensive Western work of art sold at auction in Asia. In May 2021, Basquiat's In This Case (1983), sold for $93.1 million at Christie's in New York. In December 2021, his painting Donut Revenge (1982) sold for $20.9 million at Christie's in Hong Kong. Authentication committee The authentication committee of the estate of Jean-Michel Basquiat was formed by the Robert Miller Gallery, the gallery that was assigned to handle Basquiat's estate after his death, in part to wage battle against the growing number of fakes and forgeries in the Basquiat market. The cost of the committee's opinion was $100. The committee was headed by Basquiat's father Gérard Basquiat. Members varied depending on who was available at the time when a piece was being authenticated, but they have included the curators and gallerists Diego Cortez, Jeffrey Deitch, Annina Nosei, John Cheim, Richard Marshall, Fred Hoffman, and publisher Larry Warsh. In 2008, the authentication committee was sued by collector Gerard De Geer, who claimed the committee breached its contract by refusing to offer an opinion on the authenticity of the painting Fuego Flores (1983). After the lawsuit was dismissed, the committee ruled the work genuine. In January 2012, the committee announced that after eighteen years it would dissolve in September of that year and no longer consider applications. Sexuality Basquiat had many romantic relationships with women. Although he never publicly identified as bisexual, he had sexual relationships with men according to several friends. Biographer Phoebe Hoban stated that his first sexual experiences were homosexual while he was a minor in Puerto Rico; he had been orally raped by a barber dressed in drag, then he got involved with a deejay. Art critic Rene Ricard, who helped launch Basquiat's career, said that Basquiat was into everything and had "turned tricks" in Condado when he lived in Puerto Rico. As a teenager, Basquiat told a friend that he worked as a prostitute on 42nd Street in Manhattan when he ran away from home. Basquiat's former girlfriend Suzanne Mallouk described his sexual interest as "not monochromatic. It did not rely on visual stimulation, such as a pretty girl. It was a very rich multichromatic sexuality. He was attracted to people for all different reasons. They could be boys, girls, thin, fat, pretty, ugly ... He was attracted to intelligence more than anything and to pain. He was very attracted to people who silently bore some sort of inner pain as he did, and he loved people who were one of a kind, people who had a unique vision of things." Legacy In 2015, Basquiat was featured on the cover of Vanity Fair's Art and Artists Special Edition. In 2016, the Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation placed a plaque commemorating Basquiat's life outside his former residence at 57 Great Jones Street in Manhattan. Before the exhibition Basquiat: Boom for Real at London's Barbican Centre in 2017, graffiti artist Banksy created two artworks inspired by Basquiat on the walls of the Barbican. The first artwork depicts Basquiat's painting Boy and Dog in a Johnnypump (1982) being searched by two police officers. The second artwork depicts a carousel with the carriages replaced with crowns, Basquiat's signature motif. In 2018, a public square in the 13th arrondissement of Paris was named Place Jean-Michel Basquiat in his memory. For the 2020–21 NBA season, the Brooklyn Nets honored Basquiat with a basketball jersey and a court design inspired by his art. In 2021, the Joe and Clara Tsai Foundation funded a Basquiat educational arts program developed in partnership between the Brooklyn Nets, the New York City Department of Education and the Fund for Public Schools. Fashion In 2007, Basquiat was listed among GQ's 50 Most Stylish Men of the Past 50 Years. Basquiat often painted in expensive Armani suits and he did a photo shoot for Issey Miyake. Comme des Garçons was one of his favorite brands; he was a model for the Comme des Garçons Homme Plus Spring/Summer 1987 show. To commemorate Basquiat's runway appearance, Comme des Garçons featured his prints in the brand's Fall/Winter 2018 collection. In 2015, Basquiat was featured on the cover of T: The New York Times Style Magazine Men's Style issue. Valentino's Fall/Winter 2006 collection paid homage to Basquiat. Sean John created a capsule collection for the 30th anniversary of Basquiat's death in 2018. Apparel and accessories companies that have featured Basquiat's work include Uniqlo, Urban Outfitters, Supreme, Herschel Supply Co., Alice + Olivia, Olympia Le-Tan, DAEM, Coach New York, and Saint Laurent. Footwear companies such as Dr. Martens, Reebok, and Vivobarefoot have also collaborated with Basquiat's estate. Film, television and theater Basquiat starred in Downtown 81, a vérité movie written by Glenn O'Brien and shot by Edo Bertoglio in 1980–81, but not released until 2000. In 1996, painter Julian Schnabel made his filmmaking debut with the biopic Basquiat. It stars actor Jeffrey Wright as Basquiat and David Bowie as Andy Warhol. Jean-Michel Basquiat: The Radiant Child, a documentary film directed by Tamra Davis, premiered at the 2010 Sundance Film Festival and was shown on the PBS series Independent Lens in 2011. Sara Driver directed the documentary film Boom for Real: The Late Teenage Years of Jean-Michel Basquiat, which premiered at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival. In 2018, PBS aired the documentary Basquiat: Rage to Riches as part of the American Masters series. In January 2022, it was reported that actor Kelvin Harrison Jr. will star as Basquiat in an upcoming biopic titled Samo Lives, which will be written, directed and produced by Julius Onah. In February 2022, it was announced that actor Stephan James will star and co-produce a limited series about Basquiat. From February to April 2022, The Collaboration, a play about Basquiat and Warhol will run at London's Young Vic Theatre with Jeremy Pope portraying Basquiat. Literature In 1991, poet Kevin Young published the book To Repel Ghosts, a compendium of 117 poems relating to Basquiat's life, individual paintings, and social themes found in the artist's work. He published a "remix" of the book in 2005. In 1993, a children's book was released titled Life Doesn't Frighten Me, which combines a poem written by Maya Angelou with art made by Basquiat. In 1998, journalist Phoebe Hoban published the unauthorized biography Basquiat: A Quick Killing in Art. In 2000, author Jennifer Clement wrote the memoir Widow Basquiat: A Love Story, based on the narratives told to her by Basquiat's former girlfriend Suzanne Mallouk. In 2005, poet M. K. Asante published the poem "SAMO", dedicated to Basquiat, in his book Beautiful. And Ugly Too. The children's book Radiant Child: The Story of Young Artist Jean-Michel Basquiat, written and illustrated by Javaka Steptoe, was released in 2016. The picture book won the Caldecott Medal in 2017. In 2019, illustrator Paolo Parisi wrote the graphic novel Basquiat: A Graphic Novel, following Basquiat's journey from street-art legend SAMO to international art-scene darling, up until his death. Music Shortly after Basquiat's death, guitarist Vernon Reid of the funk metal band Living Colour wrote a song called "Desperate People", released on
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and sixteen-member Legislative Assembly took place at Newark (now Niagara-on-the-Lake) on 17 September 1792. Following Simcoe's work precipitated by the Chloe Cooley incident, the Assembly passed the Act Against Slavery in 1793, the first legislation to limit slavery in the British Empire; the English colonists of Upper Canada took pride in this distinction with respect to the French-Canadian populace of Lower Canada. The Upper Canadians valued their common law legal system, as opposed to the civil law of Quebec, which had chafed them ever since 1763. This was one of the primary reasons for the partition of 1791. Simcoe collaborated extensively with his Attorney-General John White on the file. Slavery was thus ended in Upper Canada long before it was abolished in the British Empire as a whole. By 1810, there were no slaves in Upper Canada, but the Crown did not abolish slavery throughout the Empire until 1834. Simcoe's priority was the Northwest Indian War between the United States and the "Western Confederacy" of Native Americans west of the Appalachian Mountains and south of the Great Lakes (the Shawnee, Miami, Wyandot, and other tribes). This conflict had begun in 1785, and was still raging when Simcoe arrived in 1792. Simcoe had hoped to form an Indian buffer state between the two countries, even though he distrusted Joseph Brant, the main Indian leader. Simcoe rejected the section of the Treaty of Paris (1783) which awarded that area to the US, on the grounds that American actions had nullified the treaty. However, the French Revolutionary Wars broke out in 1793. The government in London decided to seek good terms with the United States. Simcoe was instructed to avoid giving the US reason to mistrust Britain but, at the same time, to keep the Natives on both sides of the border friendly to Britain. The Indians asked for British military support, which was initially refused, but in 1794 Britain supplied the Indians with rifles and ammunition. In February 1794, the governor general, Lord Dorchester, expecting the US to ally with France, said that war was likely to break out between the US and Britain before the year was out. This encouraged the Indians in their war. Dorchester ordered Simcoe to rally the Indians and arm British vessels on the Great Lakes. He also built Fort Miami (present-day Maumee, Ohio) to supply the Indians. Simcoe expelled Americans from a settlement on the southern shore of Lake Erie which had threatened British control of the lake. US President Washington denounced the "irregular and high-handed proceeding of Mr. Simcoe." While Dorchester planned for a defensive war, Simcoe urged London to declare war: "Upper Canada is not to be defended by remaining within the boundary line." Dorchester was officially reprimanded by the Crown for his strong speech against the Americans in 1794. Simcoe realised that Newark made an unsuitable capital because it was on the Canada–US border and subject to attack. He proposed moving the capital to a more defensible position, in the middle of Upper Canada's southwestern peninsula between Lake Erie and Lake Huron. He named the new location London, and renamed the river there the Thames in anticipation of the change. Dorchester rejected this proposal, but accepted Simcoe's second choice, the present site of Toronto. Simcoe moved the capital there in 1793, and renamed the settlement York after Frederick, Duke of York, King George III's second son. The town was severely underdeveloped at the time of its founding so he brought with him politicians, builders, Nova Scotia timber men, and Englishmen skilled in whipsawing and cutting joists and rafters. Simcoe began construction of two roads through Upper Canada, for defence and to encourage settlement and trade. Yonge Street (named after British Minister of War Sir George Yonge) ran north–south from York to Lake Simcoe. Soldiers of the Queen's Rangers began cutting the road in August 1793, reaching Holland Landing in 1796. Dundas Street (named for Colonial Secretary Henry Dundas) ran east–west, between York and London. The Northwest Indian War ended after the United States defeated the Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. They made peace under the Treaty of Greenville. While still at war with France, Britain could not afford to antagonise the US in the Jay Treaty of 1794, and agreed to withdraw north of the Great Lakes, as agreed in the Treaty of Paris (1783). Simcoe evacuated the frontier forts. Later career In 1794, Simcoe was appointed to the rank of major-general. In July 1796, poor health (gout and neuralgia) forced him to return to Britain. He was unable to return to Upper Canada and resigned his office in 1798. From October 1796 until March 1797, Simcoe briefly served as the commander of the British expeditionary force which was dispatched to captured the French colony of Saint-Domingue (modern-day Haiti), which was in the midst of a slave rebellion. Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville, who was the Secretary of State for War for prime minister William Pitt the Younger, had instructed Sir Adam Williamson, the lieutenant-governor of Jamaica, to sign an agreement with representatives of the French colonists that promised to restore the ancien regime, slavery and discrimination against mixed-race colonists, a move that drew criticism from abolitionists William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson. After assuming control of the British forces in Saint-Domingue, Simcoe was attacked by Haitian forces under the command of Toussaint Louverture, who at the time was fighting on behalf of the French Republic. An assault on the British-held town of Saint-Marc was repulsed, though Haitian forces captured Mirebalais and the Central Plateau. Simcoe was eventually replaced as leader of the expeditionary force in March. Simcoe was appointed colonel of the 81st Foot in 1798, but exchanged the position for the 22nd Foot less than six months later. He was also promoted to lieutenant-general and was made commander of the Western District. In 1806, he was appointed Commander-in-Chief, India (to succeed Lord Cornwallis, who had died shortly after arriving in India). Simcoe died in Exeter', England, before assuming the post. Gerard Lake, 1st Viscount Lake, was reappointed to replace Simcoe. Simcoe was buried in Wolford Chapel on the Simcoe family estate near Honiton, Devon. The Ontario Heritage Foundation acquired title to the chapel in 1982. Many of Simcoe's personal effects including his sword, sabre, and walking cane, may be viewed by appointment at the Archives of Ontario in Toronto. Elizabeth Simcoe's personal effects and hundreds of her watercolour paintings are also available there. Legacy In the winter of 1779, the first known Valentine's Day letter in America was given by then Lieutenant Colonel John Simcoe to Sarah 'Sally' Townsend. Simcoe Street in Oyster Bay, New York is named after him for his destruction of a vast apple orchard and reconstruction of a hill fort on the site. Act Against Slavery passed in 1793, leading to the abolition of slavery in Upper Canada by 1810. It was superseded by the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 that abolished slavery across the
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School and Eton College. He spent a year at Merton College, Oxford; he was then admitted to Lincoln's Inn, but decided to follow the military career for which his father had intended him. He was initiated into Freemasonry in Union Lodge, Exeter on 2 November 1773. Military career in American Revolutionary War In 1770, Simcoe entered the British Army as an ensign in the 35th Regiment of Foot, and his unit was dispatched to the Thirteen Colonies. Later, he saw action in the American Revolutionary War during the Siege of Boston. After the siege, in July 1776, he was promoted captain in the 40th Regiment of Foot. He saw action with the grenadier company of the 40th Foot in the New York and New Jersey campaign and the Philadelphia campaign. Simcoe commanded the 40th's Grenadiers at the Battle of Brandywine on 11 September 1777, where he was wounded. Legend has it that Simcoe ordered his men at Brandywine not to fire upon three fleeing rebels, among whom was George Washington. In 1777, Simcoe sought to form a Loyalist regiment of free blacks from Boston but instead was offered the command of the Queen's Rangers formed on Staten Island on 15 October 1777. It was a well-trained light infantry unit comprising 11 companies of 30 men, 1 grenadier, and 1 hussar, and the rest light infantry. The Queen's Rangers saw extensive action during the Philadelphia campaign, including a successful surprise attack (planned and executed by Simcoe) at the Battle of Crooked Billet. In 1778, Simcoe led an attack on Judge William Hancock's house during a foraging expedition opposed by Patriot militia. The attack killed 10 militiamen in their sleep and wounded five others. Hancock was also killed, although he was not with the Americans. The attack took place at night and with bayonets. On 28 June of that year, Simcoe and his Queen's Rangers took part in the Battle of Monmouth, in and near Freehold, New Jersey. On 31 August 1778, Lieut. Col. Simcoe led a massacre of forty Native Americans, allied with the Continental Army, in what is today the Bronx, New York. This place is known as Indian Field in Van Cortlandt Park, Bronx, New York. On 26 October 1779, Simcoe and 80 men launched an attack on central New Jersey from southern Staten Island known as Simcoe's Raid, from what is known today as the Conference House, resulting in the burning of Patriot supplies inside a Dutch Reformed Church in Finderne, including hay and grain; the release of Loyalist prisoners from the Somerset County Courthouse; and Simcoe's capture by Armand Tuffin de La Rouërie. Simcoe was released at the end of 1779 and rejoined his unit in Virginia. He participated in the Raid on Richmond with Benedict Arnold in January 1781 and was involved in a skirmish near Williamsburg and was at the Siege of Yorktown. He was invalided back to England in December of that year as a lieutenant-colonel, having been promoted in March 1782. Simcoe wrote a book on his experiences with the Queen's Rangers, titled A Journal of the Operations of the Queen's Rangers from the end of the year 1777 to the conclusion of the late American War, which was published in 1787. He served briefly as Inspector General of Recruitment for the British Army, from 1789 until his departure for Upper Canada two years later. Marriage and family Simcoe convalesced at the Devon home of his godfather, Admiral Samuel Graves. In 1782, Simcoe married Elizabeth Posthuma Gwillim, his godfather's ward. Elizabeth was a wealthy heiress, who acquired a estate at Honiton in Devon and built Wolford Lodge. Wolford was the Simcoe family seat until 1923. The Simcoes had five daughters before their posting in Canada. Son Francis was born in 1791. Their Canadian-born daughter, Katherine, died in infancy in York. She is buried in the Victoria Square Memorial Park on Portland Avenue, Toronto. Francis returned with his father to England when his tenure expired and joined the army. He was killed in an infantry charge during the Peninsular War in 1812. Son Henry Addington Simcoe became an English theologian. Member of Parliament Simcoe entered politics in 1790. He was elected Member of Parliament for St Mawes in Cornwall, as a supporter of the government (led by William Pitt the Younger). As MP, he proposed raising a militia force like the Queen's Rangers. He also proposed to lead an invasion of Spain. But instead he was to be made lieutenant governor of the new loyalist province of Upper Canada. He resigned from Parliament in 1792 on taking up his new post. Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada The Constitutional Act 1791 divided Canada into the Provinces of Upper Canada (Ontario) and Lower Canada (Quebec). The Act established separate governments and legislative assemblies for each province. Lower Canada was the French-speaking eastern portion, which retained the French civil law and protections for the Roman Catholic Church established when Britain took over the area after its defeat of the French in the Seven Years' War. Upper Canada was the western area, newly settled after the American Revolutionary War. The settlers were mostly English speakers, including Loyalists from the Thirteen Colonies, and also the Six Nations of the Iroquois, who had been British allies during the war. The Crown had purchased land from the Mississauga and other First Nations to give the Loyalists land grants in partial compensation for property lost in the United States, and to help them set up new communities and develop this territory. Simcoe was appointed Lieutenant-Governor on 12 September 1791, and left for Canada with his wife Elizabeth and daughter Sophia, leaving three daughters behind in England with their aunt. They left England in September and arrived in Canada on 11 November. Due to severe weather, the Simcoes spent the winter in Quebec City. Simcoe finally reached Kingston, Upper Canada, on 24 June 1792. In a
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Lady of Lyons (May 22). Following his performance of Richard III on May 12, the Boston Transcript's review the next day called Booth "the most promising young actor on the American stage". Starting in January 1863, he returned to the Boston Museum for a series of plays, including the role of villain Duke Pescara in The Apostate, that won him acclaim from audiences and critics. Back in Washington in April, he played the title roles in Hamlet and Richard III, one of his favorites. He was billed as "The Pride of the American People, A Star of the First Magnitude," and the critics were equally enthusiastic. The National Republican drama critic said that Booth "took the hearts of the audience by storm" and termed his performance "a complete triumph". At the beginning of July 1863, Booth finished the acting season at Cleveland's Academy of Music, as the Battle of Gettysburg raged in Pennsylvania. Between September and November 1863, Booth played a hectic schedule in the northeastern United States, appearing in Boston, Providence, Rhode Island, and Hartford, Connecticut. Every day he received fan mail from infatuated women. Family friend John T. Ford opened 1,500-seat Ford's Theatre on November 9 in Washington, D.C. Booth was one of the first leading men to appear there, playing in Charles Selby's The Marble Heart. In this play, Booth portrayed a Greek sculptor in costume, making marble statues come to life. Lincoln watched the play from his box. At one point during the performance, Booth was said to have shaken his finger in Lincoln's direction as he delivered a line of dialogue. Lincoln's sister-in-law was sitting with him in the same presidential box where he was later slain; she turned to him and said, "Mr. Lincoln, he looks as if he meant that for you." The President replied, "He does look pretty sharp at me, doesn't he?" On another occasion, Lincoln's son Tad saw Booth perform. He said that the actor thrilled him, prompting Booth to give Tad a rose. Booth ignored an invitation to visit Lincoln between acts. On November 25, 1864, Booth performed for the only time with his brothers Edwin and Junius in a single engagement production of Julius Caesar at the Winter Garden Theatre in New York. He played Mark Antony and his brother Edwin had the larger role of Brutus in a performance acclaimed as "the greatest theatrical event in New York history." The proceeds went towards a statue of William Shakespeare for Central Park, which still stands today (2019). In January 1865, he acted in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet in Washington, again garnering rave reviews. The National Intelligencer called Booth's Romeo "the most satisfactory of all renderings of that fine character," especially praising the death scene. Booth made the final appearance of his acting career at Ford's on March 18, 1865, when he again played Duke Pescara in The Apostate. Business ventures Booth invested some of his growing wealth in various enterprises during the early 1860s, including land speculation in Boston's Back Bay section. He also started a business partnership with John A. Ellsler, manager of the Cleveland Academy of Music, and with Thomas Mears to develop oil wells in northwestern Pennsylvania, where an oil boom had started in August 1859, following Edwin Drake's discovery of oil there, initially calling their venture Dramatic Oil but later renaming it Fuller Farm Oil. The partners invested in a site along the Allegheny River at Franklin, Pennsylvania in late 1863 for drilling. By early 1864, they had a producing deep oil well named Wilhelmina for Mears' wife, yielding 25 barrels (4 kL) of crude oil daily, then considered a good yield. The Fuller Farm Oil company was selling shares with a prospectus featuring the well-known actor's celebrity status as "Mr. J. Wilkes Booth, a successful and intelligent operator in oil lands". The partners were impatient to increase the well's output and attempted the use of explosives, which wrecked the well and ended production. Booth was already growing more obsessed with the South's worsening situation in the Civil War and angered at Lincoln's re-election. He withdrew from the oil business on November 27, 1864, with a substantial loss of his $6,000 investment ($81,400 in 2010 dollars). Civil War years Booth was strongly opposed to the abolitionists who sought to end slavery in the United States. He attended the hanging of abolitionist leader John Brown on December 2, 1859, who was executed for treason, murder, and inciting a slave insurrection, charges resulting from his raid on the Federal armory at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (since 1863, West Virginia). Booth had been rehearsing at the Richmond Theatre when he read in a newspaper about Brown's upcoming execution. So as to gain access that the public would not have, he donned a borrowed uniform of the Richmond Grays, a volunteer militia of 1,500 men traveling to Charles Town for Brown's hanging, to guard against a possible attempt to rescue Brown from the gallows by force. When Brown was hanged without incident, Booth stood near the scaffold and afterwards expressed great satisfaction with Brown's fate, although he admired the condemned man's bravery in facing death stoically. Lincoln was elected president on November 6, 1860, and the following month Booth drafted a long speech, apparently never delivered, that decried Northern abolitionism and made clear his strong support of the South and the institution of slavery. On April 12, 1861, the Civil War began, and eventually 11 Southern states seceded from the Union. In Booth's native Maryland, some of the slaveholding portion of the population favored joining the Confederate States of America. Although the Maryland legislature voted decisively (53–13) against secession on April 28, 1861, it also voted not to allow federal troops to pass south through the state by rail, and it requested that Lincoln remove the growing numbers of federal troops in Maryland. The legislature seems to have wanted to remain in the Union while also wanting to avoid involvement in a war against Southern neighbors. Adhering to Maryland's demand that its infrastructure not be used to wage war on seceding neighbors would have left the federal capital of Washington, D.C., exposed, and would have made the prosecution of war against the South impossible, which was no doubt the legislature's intention. Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus and imposed martial law in Baltimore and other portions of the state, ordering the imprisonment of many Maryland political leaders at Fort McHenry and the stationing of Federal troops in Baltimore. Many Marylanders, including Booth, agreed with the ruling of Marylander and U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, in Ex parte Merryman, that Lincoln's suspension of habeas corpus in Maryland was unconstitutional. As a popular actor in the 1860s, Booth continued to travel extensively to perform in the North and South, and as far west as New Orleans. According to his sister Asia, Booth confided to her that he also used his position to smuggle the anti-malarial drug quinine, which was crucial to the lives of residents of the Gulf coast, to the South during his travels there, since it was in short supply due to the Northern blockade. Booth was pro-Confederate, but his family was divided, like many Marylanders. He was outspoken in his love of the South, and equally outspoken in his hatred of Lincoln. As the Civil War went on, Booth increasingly quarreled with his brother Edwin, who declined to make stage appearances in the South and refused to listen to John Wilkes' fiercely partisan denunciations of the North and Lincoln. In early 1863, Booth was arrested in St. Louis while on a theatre tour, when he was heard saying that he "wished the President and the whole damned government would go to hell." He was charged with making "treasonous" remarks against the government, but was released when he took an oath of allegiance to the Union and paid a substantial fine. Booth is alleged to have been a member of the Knights of the Golden Circle, a secret society whose initial objective was to acquire territories as slave states. In February 1865, Booth became infatuated with Lucy Lambert Hale, the daughter of U.S. Senator John P. Hale of New Hampshire, and they became secretly engaged when Booth received his mother's blessing for their marriage plans. "You have so often been dead in love," his mother counseled Booth in a letter, "be well assured she is really and truly devoted to you." Booth composed a handwritten Valentine card for his fiancée on February 13, expressing his "adoration". She was unaware of Booth's deep antipathy towards Lincoln. Plot to kidnap Lincoln As the 1864 presidential election drew near, the Confederacy's prospects for victory were ebbing, and the tide of war increasingly favored the North. The likelihood of Lincoln's re-election filled Booth with rage towards the President, whom Booth blamed for the war and all of the South's troubles. Booth had promised his mother at the outbreak of war that he would not enlist as a soldier, but he increasingly chafed at not fighting for the South, writing in a letter to her, "I have begun to deem myself a coward and to despise my own existence." He began to formulate plans to kidnap Lincoln from his summer residence at the Old Soldiers Home, from the White House, and to smuggle him across the Potomac River and into Richmond, Virginia. Once in Confederate hands, Lincoln would be exchanged for Confederate Army prisoners of war held in Northern prisons and, Booth reasoned, bring the war to an end by emboldening opposition to the war in the North or forcing Union recognition of the Confederate government. Throughout the Civil War, the Confederacy maintained a network of underground operators in southern Maryland, particularly Charles and St. Mary's Counties, smuggling recruits across the Potomac River into Virginia and relaying messages for Confederate agents as far north as Canada. Booth recruited his friends Samuel Arnold and Michael O'Laughlen as accomplices. They met often at the house of Confederate sympathizer Maggie Branson at 16 North Eutaw Street in Baltimore. He also met with several well-known Confederate sympathizers at The Parker House in Boston. In October, Booth made an unexplained trip to Montreal, which was a center of clandestine Confederate activity. He spent ten days in the city, staying for a time at St. Lawrence Hall, a rendezvous for the Confederate Secret Service, and meeting several Confederate agents there. No conclusive proof has linked Booth's kidnapping or assassination plots to a conspiracy involving the leadership of the Confederate government, but historian David Herbert Donald states that "at least at the lower levels of the Southern secret service, the abduction of the Union President was under consideration." Historian Thomas Goodrich concludes that Booth entered the Confederate Secret Service as a spy and courier. Lincoln won a landslide re-election in early November 1864, on a platform that advocated abolishing slavery altogether, by Constitutional amendment. Booth, meanwhile, devoted increased energy and money to his kidnapping plot. He assembled a loose-knit band of Confederate sympathizers, including David Herold, George Atzerodt, Lewis Powell (also known as Lewis Payne or Paine), and rebel agent John Surratt. They began to meet routinely at the boarding house of Surratt's mother, Mary Surratt. By this time, John was arguing vehemently with his older, pro-Union brother Edwin about Lincoln and the war, and Edwin finally told him that he was no longer welcome at his New York home. Booth also railed against Lincoln in conversations with his sister Asia. "That man's appearance, his pedigree, his coarse low jokes and anecdotes, his vulgar similes, and his policy are a disgrace to the seat he holds. He is made the tool of the North, to crush out slavery." Asia recalled that he decried Lincoln's re-election, "making himself a king", and that he went on "wild tirades" in 1865, as the Confederacy's defeat became more certain. Booth attended Lincoln's second inauguration on March 4 as the guest of his secret fiancée Lucy Hale. In the crowd below were Powell, Atzerodt, and Herold. There was no attempt to assassinate Lincoln during the inauguration. Later, Booth remarked about his "excellent chance...to kill the President, if I had wished." On March 17, he learned that Lincoln would be attending a performance of the play Still Waters Run Deep at a hospital near the Soldier's Home. He assembled his team on a stretch of road near the Soldier's Home in hope of kidnapping Lincoln en route to the hospital, but the President did not appear. Booth later learned that Lincoln had changed his plans at the last moment to attend a reception at the National Hotel in Washington — where Booth was staying. Assassination of Lincoln On April 12, 1865, Booth heard the news that Robert E. Lee had surrendered at Appomattox Court House. He told Louis J. Weichmann, a friend of John Surratt and a boarder at Mary Surratt's house, that he was done with the stage and that the only play he wanted to present henceforth was Venice Preserv'd. Weichmann did not understand the reference; Venice Preserv'd is about an assassination plot. Booth's scheme to kidnap Lincoln was no longer feasible with the Union Army's capture of Richmond and Lee's surrender, and he changed his goal to assassination. The previous day, Booth was in the crowd outside the White House when Lincoln gave an impromptu speech from his window. During the speech, Lincoln stated that he was in favor of granting suffrage to the former slaves; infuriated, Booth declared that it would be the last speech that Lincoln would ever make. On the morning of Good Friday, April 14, 1865, Booth went to Ford's Theatre to get his mail. While there, he was told by John Ford's brother that the President and Mrs. Lincoln would be attending the play Our American Cousin at Ford's Theatre that evening, accompanied by Gen. and Mrs. Ulysses S. Grant. He immediately set about making plans for the assassination, which included making arrangements with livery stable owner James W. Pumphrey for a getaway horse and an escape route. Later that night, at 8:45 pm, Booth informed Powell, Herold, and Atzerodt of his intention to kill Lincoln. He assigned Powell to assassinate Secretary of State William H. Seward and Atzerodt to do so to Vice President Andrew Johnson. Herold would assist in their escape into Virginia. Historian Michael W. Kauffman wrote that, by targeting Lincoln and his two immediate successors to the presidency, Booth seems to have intended to decapitate the Union government and throw it into a state of panic and confusion. In 1865, however, the second presidential successor would have been the president pro tempore of the U.S. Senate, Lafayette S. Foster, rather than Secretary Seward. The possibility of assassinating the Union Army's commanding general as well was foiled when Grant declined the theatre invitation at his wife's insistence. Instead, the Grants departed Washington by train that evening for a visit to relatives in New Jersey. Booth had hoped that the assassinations would create sufficient chaos within the Union that the Confederate government could reorganize and continue the war if one Confederate army remained in the field or, that failing, would avenge the South's defeat. Booth had free access to all parts of Ford's Theatre as a famous and popular actor who had frequently performed there and who was well known to its owner John T. Ford, even having his mail sent there. Many believe that Booth had bored a spyhole into the door of the presidential box earlier that day, so that he could observe the box's occupants and verify that the President had made it to the play. Conversely, an April 1962 letter from Frank Ford, son of the theatre manager Harry Clay Ford, to George Olszewski, a National Park Service historian, includes: "Booth did not bore the hole in the door leading to the box [...]. The hole was bored by my father ... [to] allow the guard ... to look into the box". After spending time at the saloon during intermission, Booth entered Ford's Theater one last time at 10:10 pm. In the theater, he slipped into Lincoln's box at around 10:14 p.m. as the play progressed and shot the President in the back of the head with a .41 caliber Deringer pistol. Booth's escape was almost thwarted by Major Henry Rathbone, who was in the presidential box with Mary Todd Lincoln. Booth stabbed Rathbone when the startled officer lunged at him. Rathbone's fiancée Clara Harris was also in the box but was not harmed. Booth then jumped from the President's box to the stage, where he raised his knife and shouted "Sic semper tyrannis". (Latin for "Thus always to tyrants," attributed to Brutus at Caesar's assassination; state motto of Virginia and mentioned in the new "Maryland, My Maryland", future anthem of Booth's Maryland.) According to some accounts, Booth added, "I have done it, the South is avenged!" Some witnesses reported that Booth fractured or otherwise injured his leg when his spur snagged a decorative U.S. Treasury Guard flag while leaping to the stage. Historian Michael W. Kauffman questioned this legend in his book American Brutus: John Wilkes Booth and the Lincoln Conspiracies, writing that eyewitness accounts of Booth's hurried stage exit made it unlikely that his leg was broken then. Kauffman contends that Booth was injured later that night during his flight to escape when his horse tripped and fell on him, calling Booth's claim to the contrary an exaggeration to portray his own actions as heroic. Booth was the only one of the assassins to succeed. Powell was able to stab Seward, who was bedridden as a result of an earlier carriage accident; Seward was seriously wounded, but survived. Atzerodt lost his nerve and spent the evening drinking alcohol, never making an attempt to kill Johnson. Reaction and pursuit In the ensuing pandemonium inside Ford's Theatre, Booth fled by a stage door to the alley, where his getaway horse was held for him by Joseph "Peanuts" Burroughs. The owner of the horse had warned Booth
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U.S. Treasury Guard flag while leaping to the stage. Historian Michael W. Kauffman questioned this legend in his book American Brutus: John Wilkes Booth and the Lincoln Conspiracies, writing that eyewitness accounts of Booth's hurried stage exit made it unlikely that his leg was broken then. Kauffman contends that Booth was injured later that night during his flight to escape when his horse tripped and fell on him, calling Booth's claim to the contrary an exaggeration to portray his own actions as heroic. Booth was the only one of the assassins to succeed. Powell was able to stab Seward, who was bedridden as a result of an earlier carriage accident; Seward was seriously wounded, but survived. Atzerodt lost his nerve and spent the evening drinking alcohol, never making an attempt to kill Johnson. Reaction and pursuit In the ensuing pandemonium inside Ford's Theatre, Booth fled by a stage door to the alley, where his getaway horse was held for him by Joseph "Peanuts" Burroughs. The owner of the horse had warned Booth that the horse was high spirited and would break halter if left unattended. Booth left the horse with Edmund Spangler and Spangler arranged for Burroughs to hold it. The fleeing assassin galloped into southern Maryland, accompanied by David Herold, having planned his escape route to take advantage of the sparsely settled area's lack of telegraphs and railroads, along with its predominantly Confederate sympathies. He thought that the area's dense forests and the swampy terrain of Zekiah Swamp made it ideal for an escape route into rural Virginia. At midnight, Booth and Herold arrived at Surratt's Tavern on the Brandywine Pike, from Washington, where they had stored guns and equipment earlier in the year as part of the kidnap plot. The fugitives then continued southward, stopping before dawn on April 15 for treatment of Booth's injured leg at the home of Dr. Samuel Mudd in St. Catharine, from Washington. Mudd later said that Booth told him the injury occurred when his horse fell. The next day, Booth and Herold arrived at the home of Samuel Cox around 4 am. As the two fugitives hid in the woods nearby, Cox contacted Thomas A. Jones, his foster brother and a Confederate agent in charge of spy operations in the southern Maryland area since 1862. The War Department advertised a $100,000 reward ($ in USD) by order of Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton for information leading to the arrest of Booth and his accomplices, and Federal troops were dispatched to search southern Maryland extensively, following tips reported by Federal intelligence agents to Col. Lafayette Baker. Federal troops combed the rural area's woods and swamps for Booth in the days following the assassination, as the nation experienced an outpouring of grief. On April 18, mourners waited seven abreast in a mile-long line outside the White House for the public viewing of the slain president, reposing in his open walnut casket in the black-draped East Room. A cross of lilies was at the head and roses covered the coffin's lower half. Thousands of mourners arriving on special trains jammed Washington for the next day's funeral, sleeping on hotel floors and even resorting to blankets spread outdoors on the Capitol's lawn. Prominent African-American abolitionist leader and orator Frederick Douglass called the assassination an "unspeakable calamity". Great indignation was directed towards Booth as the assassin's identity was telegraphed across the nation. Newspapers called him an "accursed devil," "monster," "madman," and a "wretched fiend." Historian Dorothy Kunhardt writes: "Almost every family who kept a photograph album on the parlor table owned a likeness of John Wilkes Booth of the famous Booth family of actors. After the assassination Northerners slid the Booth card out of their albums: some threw it away, some burned it, some crumpled it angrily." Even in the South, sorrow was expressed in some quarters. In Savannah, Georgia, the mayor and city council addressed a vast throng at an outdoor gathering to express their indignation, and many in the crowd wept. Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston called Booth's act "a disgrace to the age". Robert E. Lee also expressed regret at Lincoln's death by Booth's hand. Not all were grief-stricken. In New York City, a man was attacked by an enraged crowd when he shouted, "It served Old Abe right!" after hearing the news of Lincoln's death. Elsewhere in the South, Lincoln was hated in death as in life, and Booth was viewed as a hero as many rejoiced at news of his deed. Other Southerners feared that a vengeful North would exact a terrible retribution upon the defeated former Confederate states. "Instead of being a great Southern hero, his deed was considered the worst possible tragedy that could have befallen the South as well as the North," writes Kunhardt. Booth lay in hiding in the Maryland woods, waiting for an opportunity to cross the Potomac River into Virginia. He read the accounts of national mourning reported in the newspapers brought to him by Jones each day. By April 20, he was aware that some of his co-conspirators had already been arrested: Mary Surratt, Powell (or Paine), Arnold, and O'Laughlen. Booth was surprised to find little public sympathy for his action, especially from those anti-Lincoln newspapers that had previously excoriated the President in life. News of the assassination reached the far corners of the nation, and indignation was aroused against Lincoln's critics, whom many blamed for encouraging Booth to act. The San Francisco Chronicle editorialized: Booth wrote of his dismay in a journal entry on April 21, as he awaited nightfall before crossing the Potomac River into Virginia (see map): That same day, the nine-car funeral train bearing Lincoln's body departed Washington on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, arriving at Baltimore's Camden Station at 10 am, the first stop on a 13-day journey to Springfield, Illinois, its final destination. The funeral train slowly made its way westward through seven states, stopping en route at Harrisburg, Philadelphia, Trenton, New York, Albany, Buffalo, Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis during the following days. About 7 million people lined the railroad tracks along the route, holding aloft signs with legends such as "We mourn our loss," "He lives in the hearts of his people," and "The darkest hour in history." In the cities where the train stopped, 1.5 million people viewed Lincoln in his coffin. Aboard the train was Chauncey Depew, a New York politician and later president of the New York Central Railroad, who said, "As we sped over the rails at night, the scene was the most pathetic ever witnessed. At every crossroads the glare of innumerable torches illuminated the whole population, kneeling on the ground." Dorothy Kunhardt called the funeral train's journey "the mightiest outpouring of national grief the world had yet seen." Mourners were viewing Lincoln's remains when the funeral train steamed into Harrisburg at 8:20 pm, while Booth and Herold were provided with a boat and compass by Jones to cross the Potomac at night on April 21. Instead of reaching Virginia, they mistakenly navigated upriver to a bend in the broad Potomac River, coming ashore again in Maryland on April 22. The 23-year-old Herold knew the area well, having frequently hunted there, and recognized a nearby farm as belonging to a Confederate sympathizer. The farmer led them to his son-in-law, Col. John J. Hughes, who provided the fugitives with food and a hideout until nightfall, for a second attempt to row across the river to Virginia. Booth wrote in his diary: The pair finally reached the Virginia shore near Machodoc Creek before dawn on April 23. There, they made contact with Thomas Harbin, whom Booth had previously brought into his erstwhile kidnapping plot. Harbin took Booth and Herold to another Confederate agent in the area named William Bryant who supplied them with horses. While Lincoln's funeral train was in New York City on April 24, Lieutenant Edward P. Doherty was dispatched from Washington at 2 p.m. with a detachment of 26 Union soldiers from the 16th New York Cavalry Regiment to capture Booth in Virginia, accompanied by Lieutenant Colonel Everton Conger, an intelligence officer assigned by Lafayette Baker. The detachment steamed down the Potomac River on the boat John S. Ide, landing at Belle Plain, Virginia, at 10 pm. The pursuers crossed the Rappahannock River and tracked Booth and Herold to Richard H. Garrett's farm, about south of Port Royal, Virginia. Booth and Herold had been led to the farm on April 24 by William S. Jett, a former private in the 9th Virginia Cavalry, whom they had met before crossing the Rappahannock. The Garretts were unaware of Lincoln's assassination; Booth was introduced to them as "James W. Boyd", a Confederate soldier, they were told, who had been wounded in the battle of Petersburg and was returning home. Garrett's 11-year-old son Richard was an eyewitness to the event. In later years, he became a Baptist minister and widely lectured on the events of Booth's demise at his family's farm. In 1921, Garrett's lecture was published in the Confederate Veteran as the "True Story of the Capture of John Wilkes Booth." According to his account, Booth and Herold arrived at the Garretts' farm, located on the road to, and close to, Bowling Green. around 3 p.m. on Monday afternoon. Confederate mail delivery had ceased with the collapse of the Confederacy, he explained, so the Garretts were unaware of Lincoln's assassination. After having dinner with the Garretts that evening, Booth learned of the surrender of Johnston's army, the last Confederate armed force of any size. Its capitulation meant that the Civil War was unquestionably over and Booth's attempt to save the Confederacy by Lincoln's assassination had failed. The Garretts also finally learned of Lincoln's death and the substantial reward for Booth's capture. Booth, said Garrett, displayed no reaction other than to ask if the family would turn in the fugitive should they have the opportunity. Still not aware of their guest's true identity, one of the older Garrett sons averred that they might, if only because they needed the money. The next day, Booth told the Garretts that he intended to reach Mexico, drawing a route on a map of theirs. Biographer Theodore Roscoe said of Garrett's account, "Almost nothing written or testified in respect to the doings of the fugitives at Garrett's farm can be taken at face value. Nobody knows exactly what Booth said to the Garretts, or they to him." Death Conger tracked down Jett and interrogated him, learning of Booth's location at the Garrett farm. Before dawn on April 26, the soldiers caught up with the fugitives, who were hiding in Garrett's tobacco barn. David Herold surrendered, but Booth refused Conger's demand to surrender, saying, "I prefer to come out and fight." The soldiers then set the barn on fire. As Booth moved about inside the blazing barn, Sergeant Boston Corbett shot him. According to Corbett's later account, he fired at Booth because the fugitive "raised his pistol to shoot" at them. Conger's report to Stanton stated that Corbett shot Booth "without order, pretext or excuse," and recommended that Corbett be punished for disobeying orders to take Booth alive. Booth, fatally wounded in the neck, was dragged from the barn to the porch of Garrett's farmhouse, where he died three hours later, aged 26. The bullet had pierced three vertebrae and partially severed his spinal cord, paralyzing him. In his dying moments, he reportedly whispered, "Tell my mother I died for my country." Asking that his hands be raised to his face so that he could see them, Booth uttered his last words, "Useless, useless," and died as dawn was breaking of asphyxiation as a result of his wounds. In Booth's pockets were found a compass, a candle, pictures of five women (actresses Alice Grey, Helen Western, Effie Germon, Fannie Brown, and Booth's fiancée Lucy Hale), and his diary, where he had written of Lincoln's death, "Our country owed all her troubles to him, and God simply made me the instrument of his punishment." Shortly after Booth's death, his brother Edwin wrote to his sister Asia, "Think no more of him as your brother; he is dead to us now, as he soon must be to all the world, but imagine the boy you loved to be in that better part of his spirit, in another world." Asia also had in her possession a sealed letter that Booth had given her in January 1865 for safekeeping, only to be opened upon his death. In the letter, Booth had written: Booth's letter was seized by Federal troops, along with other family papers at Asia's house, and published by The New York Times while the manhunt was still underway. It explained his reasons for plotting against Lincoln. In it he decried Lincoln's war policy as one of "total annihilation", and said: Aftermath Booth's body was shrouded in a blanket and tied to the side of an old farm wagon for the trip back to Belle Plain. There, his corpse was taken aboard the ironclad USS Montauk and brought to the Washington Navy Yard for identification and an autopsy. The body was identified there as Booth's by more than ten people who knew him. Among the identifying features used to make sure that the man that was killed was Booth was a tattoo on his left hand with his initials J.W.B., and a distinct scar on the back of his neck. The third, fourth, and fifth vertebrae were removed during the autopsy to allow access to the bullet. These bones are still on display at the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Washington, D.C. The body was then buried in a storage room at the Old Penitentiary, later moved to a warehouse at the Washington Arsenal on October 1, 1867. In 1869, the remains were once again identified before being released to the Booth family, where they were buried in the family plot at Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore, after a burial ceremony conducted by Fleming James, minister of Christ Episcopal Church, in the presence of more than 40 people. Russell Conwell visited homes in the vanquished former Confederate states during this time, and he found that hatred of Lincoln still smoldered. "Photographs of Wilkes Booth, with the last words of great martyrs printed upon its borders...adorn their drawing rooms". Eight others implicated in Lincoln's assassination were tried by a military tribunal in Washington, D.C., and found guilty on June 30, 1865. Mary Surratt, Lewis Powell, David Herold, and George Atzerodt were hanged in the Old Arsenal Penitentiary on July 7, 1865. Samuel Mudd, Samuel Arnold, and Michael O'Laughlen were sentenced to life imprisonment at Fort Jefferson in Florida's isolated Dry Tortugas. Edmund Spangler was given a six-year term in prison. O'Laughlen died in a yellow fever epidemic there in 1867. The others were eventually pardoned in February 1869 by President Andrew Johnson. Forty years later, when the centenary of Lincoln's birth was celebrated in 1909, a border state official reflected on Booth's assassination of Lincoln: "Confederate veterans held public services and gave public expression to the sentiment, that 'had Lincoln lived' the days of Reconstruction might have been softened and the era of good feeling ushered in earlier." The majority of Northerners viewed Booth as a madman or monster who murdered the savior of the Union, while in the South, many cursed Booth for bringing upon them the harsh revenge of an incensed North instead of the reconciliation promised by Lincoln. A century later, Goodrich concluded in 2005, "For millions of people, particularly in the South, it would be decades before the impact of the Lincoln assassination began to release its terrible hold on their lives". Theories of Booth's motivation Author Francis Wilson was 11 years old at the time of Lincoln's assassination. He wrote an epitaph of Booth in his 1929 book John Wilkes Booth: "In the terrible deed he committed, he was actuated by no thought of monetary gain, but by a self-sacrificing, albeit wholly fanatical devotion to a cause he thought supreme." Others have seen more selfish motives, such as shame, ambition, and sibling rivalry for achievement and fame. Theories of Booth's escape In 1907, Finis L. Bates wrote Escape and Suicide of John Wilkes Booth, contending that a Booth look-alike was mistakenly killed at the Garrett farm while Booth eluded his pursuers. Booth, said Bates, assumed the pseudonym "John St. Helen" and settled on the Paluxy River near Glen Rose, Texas, and later moved to Granbury, Texas. He fell gravely ill and made a deathbed confession that he was the fugitive assassin, but he then recovered and fled, eventually committing suicide in 1903 in Enid, Oklahoma, under the alias "David E. George". By 1913, more than 70,000 copies of the book had been sold, and Bates exhibited St. Helen's mummified body in carnival sideshows. In response, the Maryland Historical Society published an account in 1913 by Baltimore mayor William M. Pegram, who had viewed Booth's remains upon the casket's arrival at the Weaver funeral home in Baltimore on February 18, 1869, for burial at Green Mount Cemetery. Pegram had known Booth well as a young man; he submitted a sworn statement that the body which he had seen in 1869 was Booth's. Others positively identified this body as Booth at the funeral home, including Booth's mother, brother, and sister, along with his dentist and other Baltimore acquaintances. In 1911, The New York Times had published an account by their reporter detailing the burial of Booth's body at the cemetery and those who were witnesses. The rumor periodically revived, as in the 1920s when a corpse was exhibited on a national tour by a carnival promoter and advertised as the "Man Who Shot Lincoln". According to a 1938 article in the Saturday Evening Post, the exhibitor said that he obtained St. Helen's corpse from Bates' widow. The Lincoln Conspiracy (1977) contended that there was a government plot to conceal Booth's escape, reviving interest in the story and prompting the display of St. Helen's mummified body in Chicago that year. The book sold more than one million copies and was made into a feature film called The Lincoln Conspiracy which was theatrically released later that year. The 1998 book The Curse of Cain: The Untold Story of John Wilkes Booth contended that Booth had escaped, sought refuge in Japan, and eventually returned to the United States. In 1994 two historians together with several descendants sought a court order for the exhumation of Booth's body at Green Mount Cemetery which was, according to their lawyer, "intended to prove or disprove longstanding theories on Booth's escape" by conducting a photo-superimposition analysis. The application was blocked by Baltimore Circuit Court Judge Joseph H. H. Kaplan, who cited, among other things, "the unreliability of petitioners' less-than-convincing escape/cover-up theory" as a major factor in his decision. The Maryland Court of Special Appeals upheld the ruling. In December 2010, descendants of Edwin Booth reported that they obtained permission to exhume the Shakespearean actor's body to obtain DNA samples to compare with a sample of his brother John's DNA to refute the rumor that John had escaped after the assassination. Bree Harvey, a spokesman from the Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where Edwin Booth is buried, denied reports that the family had contacted them and requested to exhume Edwin's body. The family hoped to obtain samples of John Wilkes's DNA from remains such as vertebrae stored at the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Maryland. On March 30, 2013, museum spokeswoman Carol Johnson announced that the family's request to extract DNA from the vertebrae had been rejected. In popular culture Film Booth was portrayed by Raoul Walsh in the 1915 film The Birth of a Nation. John Wilkes Booth is played by John Derek in the film Prince of Players (1955), a biography of Edwin Booth (played by Richard Burton). James Marsden plays Booth in a flashback cameo in the comedy Zoolander (2001). Chris Conner portrayed John Wilkes Booth in the director's cut of the 2003 film Gods and Generals. Christian Camargo depicts Booth in National Treasure: Book of Secrets (2007). Booth is portrayed by Toby Kebbell in the Robert Redford film The Conspirator (2010). Jesse Johnson plays Booth in the telefim Killing Lincoln (2013), where he is the main character. Literature In G. J. A. O'Toole's 1979 historical fiction-mystery novel The Cosgrove Report, a present-day private detective investigates the authenticity of a 19th-century manuscript that alleges Booth survived the aftermath of the Lincoln assassination. () In Abraham Lincoln, Vampire Hunter by Seth Grahame-Smith, Booth is transformed into a vampire a few years before the Civil War, and assassinates Lincoln out of natural sympathy for the Confederate States, whose slave population provides America's vampires with an abundant source of blood. Stage productions Booth is featured as a central character of Stephen Sondheim's musical Assassins, in which his assassination of Lincoln is depicted in a musical number called "The Ballad of Booth". Austin-based theatre company The Hidden Room developed a staged reading of John Wilkes Booth's Richard III based on the manuscript promptbook in the collection of the Harry Ransom Center. The promptbook is one of only two known surviving promptbooks created by John Wilkes Booth, and uses the Colley Cibber adaptation of Shakespeare's text. The full book with the actor's handwritten notations has been digitized. The other promptbook is also for Richard III, and can be found in the Harvard Theatre Collection. Television Jack Lemmon played Booth in the 1956 television movie The Day Lincoln
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dropping 250 tons of burning rocket remains around the launch pad. 1998 – Clinton–Lewinsky scandal: Matt Drudge breaks the story of the Bill Clinton–Monica Lewinsky affair on his Drudge Report website. 2002 – Mount Nyiragongo erupts in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, displacing an estimated 400,000 people. 2007 – The Doomsday Clock is set to five minutes to midnight in response to North Korea's nuclear testing. 2010 – Rioting begins between Muslim and Christian groups in Jos, Nigeria, results in at least 200 deaths. 2013 – Former cyclist Lance Armstrong confesses to his doping in an airing of Oprah's Next Chapter. 2016 – President Barack Obama announces the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action. 2017 – The search for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 is announced to be suspended. Births Pre-1600 1342 – Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (d. 1404) 1429 – Antonio del Pollaiolo, Italian artist (d.c. 1498) 1463 – Frederick III, Elector of Saxony (d. 1525) 1463 – Antoine Duprat, French cardinal (d. 1535) 1472 – Guidobaldo da Montefeltro, Italian captain (d. 1508) 1484 – George Spalatin, German priest and reformer (d. 1545) 1501 – Leonhart Fuchs, German physician and botanist (d. 1566) 1504 – Pope Pius V (d. 1572) 1517 – Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, English Duke (d. 1554) 1560 – Gaspard Bauhin, Swiss botanist, physician, and academic (d. 1624) 1574 – Robert Fludd, English physician, astrologer, and mathematician (d. 1637) 1593 – William Backhouse, English alchemist and astrologer (d. 1662) 1600 – Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Spanish playwright and poet (d. 1681) 1601–1900 1612 – Thomas Fairfax, English general and politician (d. 1671) 1640 – Jonathan Singletary Dunham, American settler (d. 1724) 1659 – Antonio Veracini, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1745) 1666 – Antonio Maria Valsalva, Italian anatomist and physician (d. 1723) 1686 – Archibald Bower, Scottish historian and author (d. 1766) 1706 – Benjamin Franklin, American publisher, inventor, and politician, 6th President of Pennsylvania (d. 1790) 1712 – John Stanley, English organist and composer (d. 1786) 1719 – William Vernon, American businessman (d. 1806) 1728 – Johann Gottfried Müthel, German pianist and composer (d. 1788) 1732 – Stanisław August Poniatowski, Polish-Lithuanian king (d. 1798) 1734 – François-Joseph Gossec, French composer and conductor (d. 1829) 1761 – Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet, Scottish geologist and geophysicist (d. 1832) 1789 – August Neander, German historian and theologian (d. 1850) 1793 – Antonio José Martínez, Spanish-American priest, rancher and politician (d. 1867) 1814 – Ellen Wood, English author (d. 1887) 1820 – Anne Brontë, English author and poet (d. 1849) 1828 – Lewis A. Grant, American lawyer and general, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1918) 1828 – Ede Reményi, Hungarian violinist and composer (d. 1898) 1832 – Henry Martyn Baird, American historian and academic (d. 1906) 1834 – August Weismann, German biologist, zoologist, and geneticist (d. 1914) 1850 – Joaquim Arcoverde de Albuquerque Cavalcanti, Brazilian cardinal (d. 1930) 1850 – Alexander Taneyev, Russian pianist and composer (d. 1918) 1851 – A. B. Frost, American author and illustrator (d. 1928) 1853 – Alva Belmont, American suffragist (d. 1933) 1853 – T. Alexander Harrison, American painter and academic (d. 1930) 1857 – Wilhelm Kienzl, Austrian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1941) 1857 – Eugene Augustin Lauste, French-American engineer (d. 1935) 1858 – Tomás Carrasquilla, Colombian author (d. 1940) 1860 – Douglas Hyde, Irish academic and politician, 1st President of Ireland (d. 1949) 1863 – David Lloyd George, Welsh lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1945) 1863 – Konstantin Stanislavski, Russian actor and director (d. 1938) 1865 – Sir Charles Fergusson, 7th Baronet, English general and politician, 3rd Governor-General of New Zealand (d. 1951) 1867 – Carl Laemmle, German-born American film producer, co-founded Universal Studios (d. 1939) 1867 – Sir Alfred Rawlinson, 3rd Baronet, English colonel, pilot, and polo player (d. 1934) 1871 – David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty, English admiral (d. 1936) 1871 – Nicolae Iorga, Romanian historian and politician, 34th Prime Minister of Romania (d. 1940) 1875 – Florencio Sánchez, Uruguayan journalist and playwright (d. 1910) 1876 – Frank Hague, American lawyer and politician, 30th Mayor of Jersey City (d. 1956) 1877 – Marie Zdeňka Baborová-Čiháková, Czech botanist and zoologist (d. 1937) 1877 – May Gibbs, English-Australian author and illustrator (d. 1969) 1880 – Mack Sennett, Canadian-American actor, director, and producer (d. 1960) 1881 – Antoni Łomnicki, Polish mathematician and academic (d. 1941) 1881 – Harry Price, English psychologist and author (d. 1948) 1882 – Noah Beery, Sr., American actor (d. 1946) 1883 – Compton Mackenzie, English-Scottish author, poet, and playwright (d. 1972) 1886 – Glenn L. Martin, American pilot and businessman, founded the Glenn L. Martin Company (d. 1955) 1887 – Ola Raknes, Norwegian psychoanalyst and philologist (d. 1975) 1888 – Babu Gulabrai, Indian philosopher and author (d. 1963) 1897 – Marcel Petiot, French physician and serial killer (d. 1946) 1898 – Lela Mevorah, Serbian librarian (d. 1972) 1899 – Al Capone, American mob boss (d. 1947) 1899 – Robert Maynard Hutchins, American philosopher and academic (d. 1977) 1899 – Nevil Shute, English engineer and author (d. 1960) 1901–present 1901 – Aron Gurwitsch, Lithuanian-American philosopher and author (d. 1973) 1904 – Hem Vejakorn, Thai painter and illustrator (d. 1969) 1905 – Ray Cunningham, American baseball player (d. 2005) 1905 – Peggy Gilbert, American saxophonist and bandleader (d. 2007) 1905 – Eduard Oja, Estonian composer, conductor, educator, and critic (d. 1950) 1905 – Guillermo Stábile, Argentinian footballer and manager (d. 1966) 1905 – Jan Zahradníček, Czech poet and translator (d. 1960) 1907 – Henk Badings, Indonesian-Dutch composer and engineer (d. 1987) 1907 – Alfred Wainwright, British fellwalker, guidebook author and illustrator (d. 1991) 1908 – Cus D'Amato, American boxing manager and trainer (d. 1985) 1911 – Busher Jackson, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1966) 1911 – John S. McCain Jr., American admiral (d. 1981) 1911 – George Stigler, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991) 1914 – Anacleto Angelini, Italian-Chilean businessman (d. 2007) 1914 – Irving Brecher, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2008) 1914 – Paul Royle, Australian lieutenant and pilot (d. 2015) 1914 – William Stafford, American poet and author (d. 1993) 1916 – Peter Frelinghuysen Jr., American lieutenant and politician (d. 2011) 1917 – M. G. Ramachandran, Indian actor, director, and politician, 3rd Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (d. 1987) 1918 – Keith Joseph, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Education (d. 1994) 1918 – George M. Leader, American soldier and politician, 36th Governor of Pennsylvania (d. 2013) 1920 – Georges Pichard, French author and illustrator (d. 2003) 1921 – Asghar Khan, Pakistani general and politician (d. 2018) 1921 – Jackie Henderson, Scottish footballer (d. 2005) 1921 – Charlie Mitten, English footballer and manager (d. 2002) 1921 – Antonio Prohías, Cuban cartoonist (d. 1998) 1922 – Luis Echeverría, Mexican academic and politician, 50th President of Mexico 1922 – Nicholas Katzenbach, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 65th United States Attorney General (d. 2012) 1922 – Betty White, American actress, game show panelist, television personality, and animal rights activist (d. 2021) 1923 – Rangeya Raghav, Indian author and playwright (d. 1962) 1924 – Rik De Saedeleer, Belgian footballer and journalist (d. 2013) 1924 – Jewel Plummer Cobb, American biologist, cancer researcher, and academic (d. 2017) 1925 – Gunnar Birkerts, Latvian-American architect (d. 2017) 1925 – Robert Cormier, American author and journalist (d. 2000) 1925 – Abdul Hafeez Kardar, Pakistani cricketer and author (d. 1996) 1926 – Newton N. Minow, American lawyer and politician 1926 – Moira Shearer, Scottish-English ballerina and actress (d. 2006) 1926 – Clyde Walcott, Barbadian cricketer (d. 2006) 1927 – Thomas Anthony Dooley III, American physician and humanitarian (d. 1961) 1927 – Eartha Kitt, American actress and singer (d. 2008) 1927 – Harlan Mathews, American lawyer and politician (d. 2014) 1927 – E. W. Swackhamer, American director and producer (d. 1994) 1928 – Jean Barraqué, French composer (d. 1973) 1928 – Vidal Sassoon, English-American hairdresser and businessman (d. 2012) 1929 – Jacques Plante, Canadian-Swiss ice hockey player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 1986) 1929 – Tan Boon Teik, Malaysian-Singaporean lawyer and politician, Attorney-General of Singapore (d. 2012) 1931 – James Earl Jones, American actor 1931 – Douglas Wilder, American sergeant and politician, 66th Governor of Virginia 1931 – Don Zimmer, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2014) 1932 – Sheree North, American actress and dancer (d. 2005) 1933 – Dalida, Egyptian-French singer and actress (d. 1987) 1933 – Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, French-Pakistani diplomat, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (d. 2003) 1933 – Shari Lewis, American actress, puppeteer/ventriloquist, and television host (d. 1998) 1934 – Donald Cammell, Scottish-American director and screenwriter (d. 1996) 1935 – Ruth Ann Minner, American businesswoman and politician, 72nd Governor of Delaware 1936 – John Boyd, English academic and diplomat, British ambassador to Japan (d. 2019) 1936 – A. Thangathurai, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (d. 1997) 1937 – Alain Badiou, French philosopher and academic 1938 – John Bellairs, American author and academic (d. 1991) 1938 – Toini Gustafsson, Swedish cross country skier 1939 – Christodoulos of Athens, Greek archbishop (d. 2008) 1939 – Maury Povich, American talk show host and producer 1940 – Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni, Egyptian-Armenian patriarch (d. 2015) 1940 – Kipchoge Keino, Kenyan athlete 1940 – Tabaré Vázquez, Uruguayan physician and politician, 39th President of Uruguay (d. 2020) 1941 – István Horthy, Jr., Hungarian physicist and architect 1942 – Muhammad Ali, American boxer and activist (d. 2016) 1942 – Ita Buttrose, Australian journalist and author 1942 – Ulf Hoelscher, German violinist and educator 1942 – Nigel McCulloch, English bishop 1943 – Chris Montez, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1943 – René Préval, Haitian agronomist and politician, 52nd President of Haiti (d. 2017) 1944 – Ann Oakley, English sociologist, author, and academic 1945 – Javed Akhtar, Indian poet, playwright, and composer 1945 – Anne Cutler, Australian psychologist and academic 1948 – Davíð Oddsson, Icelandic politician, 21st Prime Minister of Iceland 1949 – Anita Borg, American computer scientist and academic (d. 2003) 1949 – Gyude Bryant, Liberian businessman and politician (d. 2014) 1949 – Augustin Dumay, French violinist and conductor 1949 – Andy Kaufman, American actor and comedian (d. 1984) 1949 – Mick Taylor, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1950 – Luis López Nieves, Puerto Rican-American author and academic 1952 – Tom Deitz, American author (d. 2009) 1952 – Darrell Porter, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2002) 1952
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Saint Roseline, Carthusian nun (b. 1263) 1334 – John of Brittany, Earl of Richmond (b. 1266) 1345 – Henry of Asti, Greek patriarch 1345 – Martino Zaccaria, Genoese Lord of Chios 1369 – Peter I of Cyprus (b. 1328) 1456 – Elisabeth of Lorraine-Vaudémont, French translator (b. 1395) 1468 – Skanderbeg, Albanian soldier and politician (b. 1405) 1588 – Qi Jiguang, Chinese general (b. 1528) 1598 – Feodor I of Russia (b. 1557) 1601–1900 1617 – Fausto Veranzio, Croatian bishop and lexicographer (b. 1551) 1705 – John Ray, English botanist and historian (b. 1627) 1718 – Benjamin Church, American colonel (b. 1639) 1737 – Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann, German architect (b. 1662) 1738 – Jean-François Dandrieu, French organist and composer (b. 1682) 1751 – Tomaso Albinoni, Italian violinist and composer (b. 1671) 1826 – Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga, Spanish-French composer (b. 1806) 1834 – Giovanni Aldini, Italian physicist and academic (b. 1762) 1850 – Elizabeth Simcoe, English-Canadian painter and author (b. 1762) 1861 – Lola Montez, Irish actress and dancer (b. 1821) 1863 – Horace Vernet, French painter (b. 1789) 1869 – Alexander Dargomyzhsky, Russian composer (b. 1813) 1878 – Edward Shepherd Creasy, English historian and jurist (b. 1812) 1884 – Hermann Schlegel, German ornithologist and herpetologist (b. 1804) 1887 – William Giblin, Australian lawyer and politician, 13th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1840) 1888 – Big Bear, Canadian tribal chief (b. 1825) 1891 – George Bancroft, American historian and politician, 17th United States Secretary of the Navy (b. 1800) 1893 – Rutherford B. Hayes, American general, lawyer, and politician, 19th President of the United States (b. 1822) 1896 – Augusta Hall, Baroness Llanover, Welsh writer and patron of the arts (b. 1802) 1901–present 1903 – Ignaz Wechselmann, Hungarian architect and philanthropist (b. 1828) 1908 – Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b. 1835) 1909 – Agathon Meurman, Finnish politician and journalist (b. 1826) 1909 – Francis Smith, Australian lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1819) 1911 – Francis Galton, English polymath, anthropologist, and geographer (b. 1822) 1927 – Juliette Gordon Low, American founder of the Girl Scouts of the USA (b. 1860) 1930 – Gauhar Jaan, One of the first performers to record music on 78 rpm records in India. (b. 1873) 1931 – Grand Duke Peter Nikolaevich of Russia (b. 1864) 1932 – Ahmet Derviş, Turkish general (b. 1881) 1932 – Albert Jacka, Australian captain, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1893) 1933 – Louis Comfort Tiffany, American stained glass artist (b. 1848) 1936 – Mateiu Caragiale, Romanian journalist, author, and poet (b. 1885) 1942 – Walther von Reichenau, German field marshal (b. 1884) 1947 – Pyotr Krasnov, Russian historian and general (b. 1869) 1947 – Jean-Marie-Rodrigue Villeneuve, Canadian cardinal (b. 1883) 1951 – Jyoti Prasad Agarwala, Indian poet, playwright, and director (b. 1903) 1952 – Walter Briggs Sr., American businessman (b. 1877) 1961 – Patrice Lumumba, Congolese politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (b. 1925) 1970 – Simon Kovar, Russian-American bassoon player and educator (b. 1890) 1970 – Billy Stewart, American rhythm and blues singer and pianist (b. 1937) 1972 – Betty Smith, American author and playwright (b. 1896) 1977 – Dougal Haston, Scottish mountaineer (b. 1940) 1977 – Gary Gilmore, American murderer (b. 1940) 1981 – Loukas Panourgias, Greek footballer and lawyer (b. 1899) 1984 – Kostas Giannidis, Greek pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1903) 1987 – Hugo Fregonese, Argentinian director and screenwriter (b. 1908) 1988 – Percy Qoboza, South African journalist and author (b. 1938) 1991 – Olav V of Norway (b. 1903) 1992 – Frank Pullen, English soldier and businessman (b. 1915) 1993 – Albert Hourani, English-Lebanese historian and academic (b. 1915) 1994 – Yevgeni Ivanov, Russian spy (b. 1926) 1994 – Helen Stephens, American runner, shot putter, and discus thrower (b. 1918) 1996 – Barbara Jordan, American lawyer and politician (b. 1936) 1996 – Sylvia Lawler, English geneticist (b. 1922) 1997 – Bert Kelly, Australian farmer and politician, 20th Australian Minister for the Navy (b. 1912) 1997 – Clyde Tombaugh, American astronomer and academic, discovered Pluto (b. 1906) 2000 – Philip Jones, English trumpet player and educator (b. 1928) 2000 – Ion Rațiu, Romanian journalist and politician (b. 1917) 2002 – Camilo José Cela, Spanish author and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1916) 2002 – Roman Personov, Russian physicist and academic (b. 1932) 2003 – Richard Crenna, American actor and director (b. 1926) 2004 – Raymond Bonham Carter, English banker (b. 1929) 2004 – Harry Brecheen, American baseball player and coach (b. 1914) 2004 – Ray Stark, American film producer (b. 1915) 2004 – Noble Willingham, American actor (b. 1931) 2005 – Charlie Bell, Australian businessman (b. 1960) 2005 – Virginia Mayo, American actress, singer, and dancer (b. 1920) 2005 – Albert Schatz, American microbiologist and academic (b. 1920) 2005 – Zhao Ziyang, Chinese politician, 3rd Premier of the People's Republic of China (b. 1919) 2006 – Pierre Grondin, Canadian surgeon (b. 1925) 2007 – Art Buchwald, American journalist and author (b. 1925) 2007 – Yevhen Kushnaryov, Ukrainian engineer and politician (b. 1951) 2007 – Uwe Nettelbeck, German record producer, journalist and film critic (b. 1940) 2008 – Bobby Fischer, American chess player and author (b. 1943) 2008 – Ernie Holmes, American football player, wrestler, and actor (b. 1948) 2009 – Anders Isaksson, Swedish journalist and historian (b. 1943) 2010 – Gaines Adams, American football player (b. 1983) 2010 – Jyoti Basu, Indian politician and 9th Chief Minister of West Bengal (b. 1914) 2010 – Michalis Papakonstantinou, Greek journalist and politician, Foreign Minister of Greece (b. 1919) 2010 – Erich Segal, American author and screenwriter (b. 1937) 2011 – Don Kirshner, American songwriter and producer (b. 1934) 2012 – Julius Meimberg, German soldier and pilot (b. 1917) 2012 – Johnny Otis, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1921) 2012 – Marty Springstead, American baseball player and umpire (b. 1937) 2013 – Mehmet Ali Birand, Turkish journalist and author (b. 1941) 2013 – Jakob Arjouni, German author (b. 1964) 2013 – Yves Debay, Belgian journalist (b. 1954) 2013 – John Nkomo, Zimbabwean politician, Vice President of Zimbabwe (b. 1934) 2013 – Lizbeth Webb, English soprano and actress (b. 1926) 2014 – Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin, Indian spiritual leader, 52nd Da'i al-Mutlaq (b. 1915) 2014 – Francine Lalonde, Canadian educator and politician (b. 1940) 2014 – Alistair McAlpine, Baron McAlpine of West Green, English businessman and politician (b. 1942) 2014 – John J. McGinty III, American captain, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1940) 2014 – Sunanda Pushkar, Indian-Canadian businesswoman (b. 1962) 2014 – Suchitra Sen, Indian film actress (b. 1931) 2015 – Ken Furphy, English footballer and manager (b. 1931) 2015 – Faten Hamama, Egyptian actress and producer (b. 1931) 2015 – Don Harron, Canadian actor and screenwriter (b. 1924) 2016 – Blowfly, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1939) 2016 – Melvin Day, New Zealand painter and historian (b. 1923) 2016 – V. Rama Rao, Indian lawyer and politician, 12th Governor of Sikkim (b. 1935) 2016 – Sudhindra Thirtha, Indian religious leader (b. 1926) 2017 – Tirrel Burton, American football player and coach (b. 1929) 2018 – Jessica Falkholt, Australian actress (b. 1988) 2019 – S. Balakrishnan, Malayalam movie composer (b. 1948) 2020 – Derek Fowlds, British actor (b.1937) 2021 – Rasheed Naz, Pakistani film and television actor (b. 1948) 2022 – Birju Maharaj, Indian dancer (b. 1937) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Anthony the Great Blessed Angelo Paoli Blessed Gamelbert of Michaelsbuch Charles Gore (Church of England) Jenaro Sánchez Delgadillo (one of Saints of the Cristero War) Mildgyth Our Lady of Pontmain Sulpitius the Pious January 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) National Day (Menorca, Spain) The opening ceremony of Patras Carnival, celebrated until Clean Monday. (Patras) References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on January 17 Today in Canadian
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1502 – Francesco Corteccia, Italian composer (d. 1571) 1578 – Frances Howard, Duchess of Richmond (d. 1639) 1601–1900 1612 – Murad IV, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1640) 1625 – Edward Montagu, 1st Earl of Sandwich (d. 1672) 1667 – Johann Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician and academic (d. 1748) 1733 – Jeremiah Dixon, English surveyor and astronomer (d. 1779) 1740 – Jeanne Baré, French explorer (d. 1803) 1741 – François-Hippolyte Barthélémon, French-English violinist and composer (d. 1808) 1752 – Samuel Smith, American general and politician (d. 1839) 1768 – Charlotte Corday, French assassin of Jean-Paul Marat (d. 1793) 1768 – Joseph Anton Koch, Austrian painter (d. 1839) 1773 – Jacob Aall, Norwegian economist and politician (d. 1844) 1777 – Thomas Campbell, Scottish-French poet and academic (d. 1844) 1777 – Henry Trevor, 21st Baron Dacre, English general (d. 1853) 1781 – Mauro Giuliani, Italian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1828) 1784 – Denis Davydov, Russian general and poet (d. 1839) 1812 – Thomas Lanier Clingman, American general and politician (d. 1897) 1818 – Agostino Roscelli, Italian priest and saint (d. 1902) 1824 – Alexandre Dumas, fils, French novelist and playwright (d. 1895) 1833 – Thomas George Bonney, English geologist, mountaineer, and academic (d. 1923) 1834 – Miguel Grau Seminario, Peruvian admiral (d. 1879) 1835 – Giosuè Carducci, Italian poet and educator, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1907) 1848 – Loránd Eötvös, Hungarian physicist and politician, Minister of Education of Hungary (d. 1919) 1848 – Friedrich Ernst Dorn, German physicist (d.1916) 1853 – Vladimir Korolenko, Ukrainian journalist, author, and activist (d. 1921) 1853 – Elizabeth Plankinton, American philanthropist (d. 1923) 1854 – Takahashi Korekiyo, Japanese accountant and politician, 20th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1936) 1857 – José Celso Barbosa, Puerto Rican physician, sociologist, and politician (d. 1921) 1857 – Ernest Alfred Thompson Wallis Budge, English Egyptologist, Orientalist, and philologist (d.1934) 1858 – George Lyon, Canadian golfer and cricketer (d. 1938) 1866 – António José de Almeida, Portuguese physician and politician, 6th President of Portugal (d. 1929) 1867 – Enrique Granados, Spanish pianist and composer (d. 1916) 1870 – Hilaire Belloc, French-born British writer and historian (d. 1953) 1872 – Stanislav Binički, Serbian composer, conductor, and pedagogue. (d. 1942) 1879 – Francesco Gaeta, Italian poet (d. 1927) 1877 – Ernő Dohnányi, Hungarian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1960) 1881 – Hans Fischer, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1945) 1882 – Geoffrey de Havilland, English pilot and engineer, founded the de Havilland Aircraft Company (d. 1965) 1886 – Ernst May, German architect and urban planner (d. 1970) 1889 – Vera Karalli, Russian ballerina, choreographer, and actress (d. 1972) 1890 – Benjamin Miessner, American radio engineer and inventor (d. 1976) 1890 – Armas Taipale, Finnish discus thrower and shot putter (d. 1976) 1891 – Jacob van der Hoeden, Dutch-Israeli veterinarian and academic (d. 1968) 1893 – Ugo Agostoni, Italian cyclist (d. 1941) 1894 – Mientje Kling, Dutch actress (d. 1966) 1896 – Robert George, Scottish air marshal and politician, 24th Governor of South Australia (d. 1967) 1896 – Henri Longchambon, French lawyer and politician (d. 1969) 1899 – Percy Hornibrook, Australian cricketer (d. 1976) 1901–present 1902 – Yaroslav Halan, Ukrainian playwright and publicist (d. 1949) 1903 – Nikolay Cherkasov, Russian actor (d. 1966) 1903 – Michail Stasinopoulos, Greek jurist and politician, President of Greece (d. 2002) 1903 – Mārtiņš Zīverts, Latvian playwright (d. 1990) 1904 – Lyudmila Rudenko, Soviet chess player (d. 1986) 1905 – Leo Durocher, American baseball player and manager (d. 1991) 1906 – Jerzy Giedroyc, Polish author and activist (d. 2000) 1906 – Herbert Jasper, Canadian psychologist and neurologist (d. 1999) 1907 – Ross Alexander, American stage and film actor (d. 1937) 1907 – Carl McClellan Hill, American educator and academic administrator (d. 1995) 1907 – Irene Fischer, Austrian-American geodesist and mathematician (d. 2009) 1908 – Joseph Mitchell, American journalist and author (d. 1996) 1910 – Julien Gracq, French author and critic (d. 2007) 1910 – Lupita Tovar, Mexican-American actress (d. 2016) 1911 – Rayner Heppenstall, English author and poet (d. 1981) 1912 – Vernon Elliott, English bassoon player, composer, and conductor (d. 1996) 1913 – George L. Street III, American captain, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2000) 1914 – August Sang, Estonian poet and translator (d. 1969) 1915 – Mario Del Monaco, Italian tenor (d. 1982) 1915 – Josef Priller, German colonel and pilot (d. 1961) 1916 – Elizabeth Hardwick, American literary critic, novelist, and short story writer (d. 2007) 1916 – Skippy Williams, American saxophonist and arranger (d. 1994) 1916 – Keenan Wynn, American actor (d. 1986) 1918 – Leonard Rose, American cellist and educator (d. 1984) 1920 – Henry D. "Homer" Haynes, American comedian and musician (d. 1971) 1921 – Garry Davis, American pilot and activist, created the World Passport (d. 2013) 1921 – Émile Genest, Canadian-American actor (d. 2003) 1922 – Adolfo Celi, Italian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1986) 1922 – Norman Lear, American screenwriter and producer 1923 – Mas Oyama, South Korean-Japanese martial artist (d. 1994) 1924 – Vincent Canby, American historian and critic (d. 2000) 1924 – Otar Taktakishvili, Georgian composer and conductor (d. 1989) 1927 – Guy Carawan, American singer and musicologist (d. 2015) 1927 – Pierre Granier-Deferre, French director and screenwriter (d. 2007) 1927 – Will Jordan, American comedian and actor (d. 2018) 1927 – C. Rajadurai, Sri Lankan journalist and politician, 1st Mayor of Batticaloa 1927 – John Seigenthaler, American journalist and academic (d. 2014) 1928 – Joseph Kittinger, American colonel and pilot 1929 – Jean Baudrillard, French sociologist and philosopher (d. 2007) 1929 – Harvey Fuqua, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2010) 1929 – Jack Higgins, English author and academic 1929 – Marc Wilkinson, French-Australian composer and conductor 1930 – Joy Whitby, English director, producer, and screenwriter 1930 – Shirley Williams, English academic and politician, Secretary of State for Education (d. 2021) 1931 – Khieu Samphan, Cambodian academic and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Cambodia 1931 – Jerry Van Dyke, American actor (d. 2018) 1932 – Forest Able, American basketball player 1932 – Diane Webber, American model, dancer and actress (d. 2008) 1933 – Nick Reynolds, American singer and bongo player (d. 2008) 1933 – Ted Whitten, Australian football player and journalist (d. 1995) 1935 – Hillar Kärner, Estonian chess player (d. 2017) 1935 – Billy McCullough, Northern Irish footballer 1936 – J. Robert Hooper, American businessman and politician (d. 2008) 1937 – Anna Dawson, English actress and singer 1937 – Don Galloway, American actor (d. 2009) 1937 – Robert Holmes à Court, South African-Australian businessman and lawyer (d. 1990) 1938 – Gary Gygax, American game designer, co-created Dungeons & Dragons (d. 2008) 1939 – William Eggleston, American photographer and academic 1939 – Michael Longley, Northern Irish poet and academic 1939 – Paulo Silvino, Brazilian comedian, composer and actor (d. 2017) 1940 – Pina Bausch, German dancer and choreographer (d. 2009) 1941 – Christian Boesch, Austrian opera singer 1941 – Johannes Fritsch, German viola player and composer (d. 2010) 1942 – Édith Butler, Canadian singer-songwriter 1942 – John Pleshette, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1942 – Dennis Ralston, American tennis player (d. 2020) 1943 – Jeremy Greenstock, English diplomat, British Ambassador to the United Nations 1944 – Bobbie Gentry, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1944 – Jean-Marie Leblanc, French cyclist and journalist 1944 – Barbara Thomson, English saxophonist and composer 1946 – Peter Reading, English poet and author (d. 2011) 1947 – Kazuyoshi Miura, Japanese businessman (d. 2008) 1947 – Giora Spiegel, Israeli footballer and coach 1947 – Betty Thomas, American actress, director, and producer 1948 – Peggy Fleming, American figure skater and sportscaster 1948 – James Munby, English lawyer and judge 1948 – Henny Vrienten, Dutch singer-songwriter and bass player 1949 – Maury Chaykin, American-Canadian actor (d. 2010) 1949 – André Dupont, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1949 – Rory MacDonald, Scottish singer-songwriter and bass player 1949 – Maureen McGovern, American singer and actress 1949 – Robert Rankin, English author and illustrator 1950 – Simon Jones, English actor 1951 – Roseanna Cunningham, Scottish lawyer and politician, Minister for Community Safety and Legal Affairs 1951 – Bob Diamond, American-English banker and businessman 1951 – Rolf Thung, Dutch tennis player 1952 – Marvin Barnes, American basketball player (d. 2014) 1952 – Roxanne Hart, American actress 1953 – Chung Dong-young, South Korean journalist and politician, 31st South Korean Minister of Unification 1953 – Yahoo Serious, Australian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1954 – Philippe Alliot, French race car driver and sportscaster 1954 – G. S. Bali, Indian lawyer and politician 1954 – Mark Stanway, English keyboard player 1954 – Ricardo Uceda, Peruvian journalist and author 1955 – Cat Bauer, American journalist, author, and playwright 1955 – Allan Border, Australian cricketer and coach 1955 – John Howell, English journalist and politician 1955 – Bobby Rondinelli, American drummer 1956 – Carol Leifer, American actress, comedian, screenwriter, and producer 1957 – Bill Engvall, American comedian, actor, and producer 1958 – Christopher Dean, English figure skater and choreographer 1958 – Kimmo Hakola, Finnish composer 1959 – Joe DeSa, American baseball player (d. 1986) 1959 – Hugh Green, American football player 1959 – Yiannos Papantoniou, French-Greek economist and politician, Greek Minister of National Defence 1960 – Jo Durie, English tennis player and sportscaster 1960 – Conway Savage, Australian singer-songwriter and keyboard player (d. 2018) 1960 – Emily Thornberry, English lawyer and politician 1961 – Ed Orgeron, American football coach 1962 – Neil Brooks, Australian swimmer 1962 – Karl Mueller, American bass player (d. 2005) 1963 – Donnie Yen, Chinese-Hong Kong actor, director, producer, and martial artist 1964 – Rex Brown, American bass player and songwriter 1965 – José Luis Chilavert, Paraguayan footballer 1966 – Steve Tilson, English footballer and manager 1967 – Rahul Bose, Indian journalist, actor, director, and screenwriter 1967 – Juliana Hatfield, American singer-songwriter and musician 1967 – Hans Mathisen, Norwegian guitarist and composer 1967 – Neil Smith, English cricketer 1967 – Craig Wolanin, American ice hockey player 1968 – Maria Grazia Cucinotta, Italian actress and producer 1968 – Tom Goodwin, American baseball player and coach 1968 – Sabina Jeschke, Swedish-German engineer and academic 1968 – Julian McMahon, Australian actor and producer 1968 – Ricardo Rosset, Brazilian race car driver 1969 – Triple H, American wrestler and actor 1969 – Jonty Rhodes, South African cricketer and coach 1970 – Nikolaj Coster-Waldau, Danish actor and producer 1970 – David Davies, English-Welsh politician 1971 – Matthew Johns, Australian rugby league player, sportscaster and television host 1971 – Anna Menconi, Italian Paralympic archer 1972 – Clint Robinson, Australian kayaker 1972 – Maya Rudolph, American actress 1972 – Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor, Malaysian surgeon and astronaut 1973 – Cassandra Clare, American journalist and author 1973 – Erik Nys, Belgian long jumper 1973 – Gorden Tallis, Australian rugby league player and coach 1974 – Eason Chan, Hong Kong singer, actor, and producer 1974 – Pete Yorn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1975 – Serkan Çeliköz, Turkish keyboard player and songwriter 1975 – Shea Hillenbrand, American baseball player 1975 – Fred Mascherino, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1975 – Alessandro Pistone, Italian footballer 1975 – Alex Rodriguez, American baseball player 1976 – Demis Hassabis, English computer scientist and academic 1976 –
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– Loránd Eötvös, Hungarian physicist and politician, Minister of Education of Hungary (d. 1919) 1848 – Friedrich Ernst Dorn, German physicist (d.1916) 1853 – Vladimir Korolenko, Ukrainian journalist, author, and activist (d. 1921) 1853 – Elizabeth Plankinton, American philanthropist (d. 1923) 1854 – Takahashi Korekiyo, Japanese accountant and politician, 20th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1936) 1857 – José Celso Barbosa, Puerto Rican physician, sociologist, and politician (d. 1921) 1857 – Ernest Alfred Thompson Wallis Budge, English Egyptologist, Orientalist, and philologist (d.1934) 1858 – George Lyon, Canadian golfer and cricketer (d. 1938) 1866 – António José de Almeida, Portuguese physician and politician, 6th President of Portugal (d. 1929) 1867 – Enrique Granados, Spanish pianist and composer (d. 1916) 1870 – Hilaire Belloc, French-born British writer and historian (d. 1953) 1872 – Stanislav Binički, Serbian composer, conductor, and pedagogue. (d. 1942) 1879 – Francesco Gaeta, Italian poet (d. 1927) 1877 – Ernő Dohnányi, Hungarian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1960) 1881 – Hans Fischer, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1945) 1882 – Geoffrey de Havilland, English pilot and engineer, founded the de Havilland Aircraft Company (d. 1965) 1886 – Ernst May, German architect and urban planner (d. 1970) 1889 – Vera Karalli, Russian ballerina, choreographer, and actress (d. 1972) 1890 – Benjamin Miessner, American radio engineer and inventor (d. 1976) 1890 – Armas Taipale, Finnish discus thrower and shot putter (d. 1976) 1891 – Jacob van der Hoeden, Dutch-Israeli veterinarian and academic (d. 1968) 1893 – Ugo Agostoni, Italian cyclist (d. 1941) 1894 – Mientje Kling, Dutch actress (d. 1966) 1896 – Robert George, Scottish air marshal and politician, 24th Governor of South Australia (d. 1967) 1896 – Henri Longchambon, French lawyer and politician (d. 1969) 1899 – Percy Hornibrook, Australian cricketer (d. 1976) 1901–present 1902 – Yaroslav Halan, Ukrainian playwright and publicist (d. 1949) 1903 – Nikolay Cherkasov, Russian actor (d. 1966) 1903 – Michail Stasinopoulos, Greek jurist and politician, President of Greece (d. 2002) 1903 – Mārtiņš Zīverts, Latvian playwright (d. 1990) 1904 – Lyudmila Rudenko, Soviet chess player (d. 1986) 1905 – Leo Durocher, American baseball player and manager (d. 1991) 1906 – Jerzy Giedroyc, Polish author and activist (d. 2000) 1906 – Herbert Jasper, Canadian psychologist and neurologist (d. 1999) 1907 – Ross Alexander, American stage and film actor (d. 1937) 1907 – Carl McClellan Hill, American educator and academic administrator (d. 1995) 1907 – Irene Fischer, Austrian-American geodesist and mathematician (d. 2009) 1908 – Joseph Mitchell, American journalist and author (d. 1996) 1910 – Julien Gracq, French author and critic (d. 2007) 1910 – Lupita Tovar, Mexican-American actress (d. 2016) 1911 – Rayner Heppenstall, English author and poet (d. 1981) 1912 – Vernon Elliott, English bassoon player, composer, and conductor (d. 1996) 1913 – George L. Street III, American captain, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2000) 1914 – August Sang, Estonian poet and translator (d. 1969) 1915 – Mario Del Monaco, Italian tenor (d. 1982) 1915 – Josef Priller, German colonel and pilot (d. 1961) 1916 – Elizabeth Hardwick, American literary critic, novelist, and short story writer (d. 2007) 1916 – Skippy Williams, American saxophonist and arranger (d. 1994) 1916 – Keenan Wynn, American actor (d. 1986) 1918 – Leonard Rose, American cellist and educator (d. 1984) 1920 – Henry D. "Homer" Haynes, American comedian and musician (d. 1971) 1921 – Garry Davis, American pilot and activist, created the World Passport (d. 2013) 1921 – Émile Genest, Canadian-American actor (d. 2003) 1922 – Adolfo Celi, Italian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1986) 1922 – Norman Lear, American screenwriter and producer 1923 – Mas Oyama, South Korean-Japanese martial artist (d. 1994) 1924 – Vincent Canby, American historian and critic (d. 2000) 1924 – Otar Taktakishvili, Georgian composer and conductor (d. 1989) 1927 – Guy Carawan, American singer and musicologist (d. 2015) 1927 – Pierre Granier-Deferre, French director and screenwriter (d. 2007) 1927 – Will Jordan, American comedian and actor (d. 2018) 1927 – C. Rajadurai, Sri Lankan journalist and politician, 1st Mayor of Batticaloa 1927 – John Seigenthaler, American journalist and academic (d. 2014) 1928 – Joseph Kittinger, American colonel and pilot 1929 – Jean Baudrillard, French sociologist and philosopher (d. 2007) 1929 – Harvey Fuqua, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2010) 1929 – Jack Higgins, English author and academic 1929 – Marc Wilkinson, French-Australian composer and conductor 1930 – Joy Whitby, English director, producer, and screenwriter 1930 – Shirley Williams, English academic and politician, Secretary of State for Education (d. 2021) 1931 – Khieu Samphan, Cambodian academic and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Cambodia 1931 – Jerry Van Dyke, American actor (d. 2018) 1932 – Forest Able, American basketball player 1932 – Diane Webber, American model, dancer and actress (d. 2008) 1933 – Nick Reynolds, American singer and bongo player (d. 2008) 1933 – Ted Whitten, Australian football player and journalist (d. 1995) 1935 – Hillar Kärner, Estonian chess player (d. 2017) 1935 – Billy McCullough, Northern Irish footballer 1936 – J. Robert Hooper, American businessman and politician (d. 2008) 1937 – Anna Dawson, English actress and singer 1937 – Don Galloway, American actor (d. 2009) 1937 – Robert Holmes à Court, South African-Australian businessman and lawyer (d. 1990) 1938 – Gary Gygax, American game designer, co-created Dungeons & Dragons (d. 2008) 1939 – William Eggleston, American photographer and academic 1939 – Michael Longley, Northern Irish poet and academic 1939 – Paulo Silvino, Brazilian comedian, composer and actor (d. 2017) 1940 – Pina Bausch, German dancer and choreographer (d. 2009) 1941 – Christian Boesch, Austrian opera singer 1941 – Johannes Fritsch, German viola player and composer (d. 2010) 1942 – Édith Butler, Canadian singer-songwriter 1942 – John Pleshette, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1942 – Dennis Ralston, American tennis player (d. 2020) 1943 – Jeremy Greenstock, English diplomat, British Ambassador to the United Nations 1944 – Bobbie Gentry, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1944 – Jean-Marie Leblanc, French cyclist and journalist 1944 – Barbara Thomson, English saxophonist and composer 1946 – Peter Reading, English poet and author (d. 2011) 1947 – Kazuyoshi Miura, Japanese businessman (d. 2008) 1947 – Giora Spiegel, Israeli footballer and coach 1947 – Betty Thomas, American actress, director, and producer 1948 – Peggy Fleming, American figure skater and sportscaster 1948 – James Munby, English lawyer and judge 1948 – Henny Vrienten, Dutch singer-songwriter and bass player 1949 – Maury Chaykin, American-Canadian actor (d. 2010) 1949 – André Dupont, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1949 – Rory MacDonald, Scottish singer-songwriter and bass player 1949 – Maureen McGovern, American singer and actress 1949 – Robert Rankin, English author and illustrator 1950 – Simon Jones, English actor 1951 – Roseanna Cunningham, Scottish lawyer and politician, Minister for Community Safety and Legal Affairs 1951 – Bob Diamond, American-English banker and businessman 1951 – Rolf Thung, Dutch tennis player 1952 – Marvin Barnes, American basketball player (d. 2014) 1952 – Roxanne Hart, American actress 1953 – Chung Dong-young, South Korean journalist and politician, 31st South Korean Minister of Unification 1953 – Yahoo Serious, Australian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1954 – Philippe Alliot, French race car driver and sportscaster 1954 – G. S. Bali, Indian lawyer and politician 1954 – Mark Stanway, English keyboard player 1954 – Ricardo Uceda, Peruvian journalist and author 1955 – Cat Bauer, American journalist, author, and playwright 1955 – Allan Border, Australian cricketer and coach 1955 – John Howell, English journalist and politician 1955 – Bobby Rondinelli, American drummer 1956 – Carol Leifer, American actress, comedian, screenwriter, and producer 1957 – Bill Engvall, American comedian, actor, and producer 1958 – Christopher Dean, English figure skater and choreographer 1958 – Kimmo Hakola, Finnish composer 1959 – Joe DeSa, American baseball player (d. 1986) 1959 – Hugh Green, American football player 1959 – Yiannos Papantoniou, French-Greek economist and politician, Greek Minister of National Defence 1960 – Jo Durie, English tennis player and sportscaster 1960 – Conway Savage, Australian singer-songwriter and keyboard player (d. 2018) 1960 – Emily Thornberry, English lawyer and politician 1961 – Ed Orgeron, American football coach 1962 – Neil Brooks, Australian swimmer 1962 – Karl Mueller, American bass player (d. 2005) 1963 – Donnie Yen, Chinese-Hong Kong actor, director, producer, and martial artist 1964 – Rex Brown, American bass player and songwriter 1965 – José Luis Chilavert, Paraguayan footballer 1966 – Steve Tilson, English footballer and manager 1967 – Rahul Bose, Indian journalist, actor, director, and screenwriter 1967 – Juliana Hatfield, American singer-songwriter and musician 1967 – Hans Mathisen, Norwegian guitarist and composer 1967 – Neil Smith, English cricketer 1967 – Craig Wolanin, American ice hockey player 1968 – Maria Grazia Cucinotta, Italian actress and producer 1968 – Tom Goodwin, American baseball player and coach 1968 – Sabina Jeschke, Swedish-German engineer and academic 1968 – Julian McMahon, Australian actor and producer 1968 – Ricardo Rosset, Brazilian race car driver 1969 – Triple H, American wrestler and actor 1969 – Jonty Rhodes, South African cricketer and coach 1970 – Nikolaj Coster-Waldau, Danish actor and producer 1970 – David Davies, English-Welsh politician 1971 – Matthew Johns, Australian rugby league player, sportscaster and television host 1971 – Anna Menconi, Italian Paralympic archer 1972 – Clint Robinson, Australian kayaker 1972 – Maya Rudolph, American actress 1972 – Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor, Malaysian surgeon and astronaut 1973 – Cassandra Clare, American journalist and author 1973 – Erik Nys, Belgian long jumper 1973 – Gorden Tallis, Australian rugby league player and coach 1974 – Eason Chan, Hong Kong singer, actor, and producer 1974 – Pete Yorn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1975 – Serkan Çeliköz, Turkish keyboard player and songwriter 1975 – Shea Hillenbrand, American baseball player 1975 – Fred Mascherino, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1975 – Alessandro Pistone, Italian footballer 1975 – Alex Rodriguez, American baseball player 1976 – Demis Hassabis, English computer scientist and academic 1976 – Scott Mason, Australian cricketer (d. 2005) 1977 – Foo Swee Chin, Singaporean illustrator 1977 – Björn Dreyer, German footballer 1977 – Jonathan Rhys Meyers, Irish actor 1978 – Diarmuid O'Sullivan, Irish hurler and manager 1979 – Marielle Franco, Brazilian politician, feminist, and human rights activist (d. 2018) 1979 – Jorge Arce, Mexican boxer 1979 – Sidney Govou, French footballer 1979 – Shannon Moore, American wrestler and singer 1980 – Allan Davis, Australian cyclist 1980 – Wesley Gonzales, Filipino basketball player 1981 – Susan King Borchardt, American basketball player 1981 – Collins Obuya, Kenyan cricketer 1981 – Dash Snow, American painter and photographer (d. 2009) 1981 – Christopher Weselek, German rugby player 1982 – Neil Harbisson, English-Catalan painter, composer, and activist 1983 – Lorik Cana, Albanian footballer 1983 – Martijn
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Manion was nominated for the Seventh Circuit of the U.S. Court of Appeals by President Ronald Reagan on February 21, 1986, and confirmed by the Senate on June 26, 1986. Vice Presidency (1989–1993) 1988 campaign On August 16, 1988, at the Republican convention in New Orleans, Louisiana, George H. W. Bush chose Quayle to be his running mate in the 1988 United States presidential election. The choice immediately became controversial. Outgoing President Reagan praised Quayle for his "energy and enthusiasm". Press coverage of the convention was dominated by questions about "the three Quayle problems". The questions involved his military service, a golf holiday in Florida where he and several other politicians shared a house with lobbyist Paula Parkinson, and whether he had enough experience to be vice president. Quayle seemed at times rattled and at other times uncertain or evasive as he responded to questions. Delegates to the convention generally blamed television and newspapers for the focus on Quayle's problems, but Bush's staff said they thought Quayle had mishandled the questions about his military record, leaving questions dangling. Although Bush was trailing by up to 15 points in public opinion polls taken before the convention, in August the Bush–Quayle ticket took the lead, which it did not relinquish for the rest of the campaign. In the October 1988 vice-presidential debate, Quayle debated Democratic candidate Lloyd Bentsen. During the debate, Quayle's strategy was to criticize Dukakis as too liberal. When the debate turned to Quayle's relatively limited experience in public life, he compared the length of his congressional service (12 years) with that of President John F. Kennedy (14 years); Kennedy had less experience than his rivals during the 1960 presidential nomination. It was a factual comparison, although Quayle's advisers cautioned beforehand that it could be used against him. Bentsen's response—"I served with Jack Kennedy. I knew Jack Kennedy. Jack Kennedy was a friend of mine. Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy"—subsequently became a part of the political lexicon. The Bush–Quayle ticket won the November election by a 53–46 percent margin, sweeping 40 states and capturing 426 electoral votes. He was sworn in on January 20, 1989. Quayle cast no tie-breaking votes as president of the Senate, becoming only the second vice-president (after Charles W. Fairbanks) not to do so while serving a complete term. Tenure During his vice presidency, Quayle made official trips to 47 countries. Bush named Quayle head of the Council on Competitiveness and the first chairman of the National Space Council. As head of the NSC he called for greater efforts to protect Earth against the danger of potential asteroid impacts. After a briefing by Lt. General Daniel O. Graham, (USA Ret.), Max Hunter, and Jerry Pournelle, Quayle sponsored the development of an experimental Single Stage to Orbit X-Program, which resulted in the building of the McDonnell Douglas DC-X. Quayle has since described the vice presidency as "an awkward office. You're president of the Senate. You're not even officially part of the executive branch—you're part of the legislative branch. You're paid by the Senate, not by the executive branch. And it's the president's agenda. It's not your agenda. You're going to disagree from time to time, but you salute and carry out the orders the best you can". Murphy Brown On May 19, 1992, Quayle gave a speech titled Reflections on Urban America to the Commonwealth Club of California on the subject of the Los Angeles riots. In the speech he blamed the violence on a decay of moral values and family structure in American society. In an aside, he cited the single mother title character in the television program Murphy Brown as an example of how popular culture contributes to this "poverty of values", saying, "It doesn't help matters when prime-time TV has Murphy Brown—a character who supposedly epitomizes today's intelligent, highly paid, professional woman—mocking the importance of fathers, by bearing a child alone, and calling it just another 'lifestyle choice'." The "Murphy Brown speech" became one of the most memorable of the 1992 campaign. Long after the outcry had ended, the comment continued to have an effect on U.S. politics. Stephanie Coontz, a professor of family history and the author of several books and essays about the history of marriage, said that this brief remark by Quayle about Murphy Brown "kicked off more than a decade of outcries against the 'collapse of the family. In 2002, Candice Bergen, the actress who played Brown, said "I never have really said much about the whole episode, which was endless, but his speech was a perfectly intelligent speech about fathers not being dispensable and nobody agreed with that more than I did." Others interpreted it differently; singer Tanya Tucker was widely quoted as saying "Who the hell is Dan Quayle to come after single mothers?" Gaffes Throughout his time as vice president, Quayle was widely ridiculed in the media and by many in the general public, both in the U.S. and overseas, as an intellectual lightweight and an incompetent individual. Contributing greatly to the perception of Quayle's incompetence was his tendency to make public statements that were
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by Quayle about Murphy Brown "kicked off more than a decade of outcries against the 'collapse of the family. In 2002, Candice Bergen, the actress who played Brown, said "I never have really said much about the whole episode, which was endless, but his speech was a perfectly intelligent speech about fathers not being dispensable and nobody agreed with that more than I did." Others interpreted it differently; singer Tanya Tucker was widely quoted as saying "Who the hell is Dan Quayle to come after single mothers?" Gaffes Throughout his time as vice president, Quayle was widely ridiculed in the media and by many in the general public, both in the U.S. and overseas, as an intellectual lightweight and an incompetent individual. Contributing greatly to the perception of Quayle's incompetence was his tendency to make public statements that were either impossible ("I have made good judgments in the past. I have made good judgments in the future"), self-contradictory ("I believe we are on an irreversible trend toward more freedom and democracy, but that could change"), self-contradictory and confused ("The Holocaust was an obscene period in our nation's history. ... No, not our nation's, but in World War II. I mean, we all lived in this century. I didn't live in this century, but in this century's history"), or just confused (such as the comments he made in a May 1989 address to the United Negro College Fund (UNCF). Commenting on the UNCF's slogan—which is "a mind is a terrible thing to waste"—Quayle said, "You take the UNCF model that what a waste it is to lose one's mind or not to have a mind is being very wasteful. How true that is"). Shortly after Bush announced the Space Exploration Initiative, which included a crewed landing on Mars, Quayle was asked his thoughts on sending humans to Mars. In his response, he made a series of scientifically incorrect statements: "Mars is essentially in the same orbit [as Earth]. ... Mars is somewhat the same distance from the Sun, which is very important. We have seen pictures where there are canals, we believe, and water. If there is water, that means there is oxygen. If oxygen, that means we can breathe." On June 15, 1992, Quayle altered 12-year-old student William Figueroa's correct spelling of "potato" to "potatoe" at the Muñoz Rivera Elementary School spelling bee in Trenton, New Jersey. He was the subject of widespread ridicule for his error. According to The New York Times and Quayle's memoirs, he was relying on cards provided by the school, which Quayle says included the misspelling. Quayle said he was uncomfortable with the version he gave, but did so because he decided to trust the school's incorrect written materials instead of his own judgment. 1992 campaign In the 1992 election, Bush and Quayle were challenged in their bid for reelection by the Democratic ticket of Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton and Tennessee Senator Al Gore and the independent ticket of Texas businessman Ross Perot and retired Vice Admiral James Stockdale. As Bush lagged in the polls in the weeks preceding the August 1992 Republican National Convention, some Republican strategists (led by Secretary of State James Baker) viewed Quayle as a liability to the ticket and pushed for his replacement. Quayle ultimately survived the challenge and secured renomination. During the 1992 presidential campaign, Quayle told the news media that he believed homosexuality was a choice, and "the wrong choice". Quayle faced off against Gore and Stockdale in the vice presidential debate on October 13, 1992. He attempted to avoid the one-sided outcome of his debate with Bentsen four years earlier by staying on the offensive. Quayle criticized Gore's book Earth in the Balance with specific page references, though his claims were subsequently criticized by the liberal group FAIR for inaccuracy. In Quayle's closing argument, he sharply asked voters, "Do you really believe Bill Clinton will tell the truth?" and "Do you trust Bill Clinton to be your president?" Gore and Stockdale talked more about the policies and philosophies they espoused. Republican loyalists were largely relieved and pleased with Quayle's performance, and his camp attempted to portray it as an upset triumph against a veteran debater, but post-debate polls were mixed on whether Gore or Quayle had won. It ultimately proved to be a minor factor in the election, which Bush and Quayle lost, 168 electoral votes to 370. Post–vice presidency (1993–present) Initial activities Quayle authored a 1994 memoir, Standing Firm, which became a bestseller. His second book, The American Family: Discovering the Values That Make Us Strong, was published in 1996 and a third book, Worth Fighting For, was published in 1999. Quayle considered but decided against running for governor of Indiana in 1996. He decided against running for the 1996 Republican presidential nomination, citing health problems related to phlebitis. From 1993 to January 1999, he served on the board of Central Newspapers, Inc. From 1995 until January 1999, Quayle headed the Campaign America political action committee. In 1997 and 1998, he was a "distinguished visiting professor of international studies" at the Thunderbird School of Global Management. In 1993, he became the trustee of the Hudson Institute. Quayle authored the book Standing Firm in 1994, and co-authored the book The American Family: Discovering the Values that Make Us Strong in 1996 with Diane Medved. Quayle moved to Arizona in 1996. 2000 presidential campaign During a January 1999 appearance on Larry King Live, Quayle announced his candidacy for president in 2000. On January 28, 1999, he officially created an exploratory committee. Early on, Quayle criticized fellow candidate George W. Bush for, among other things, his use of the term "compassionate conservative". On April 14, 1999, at a rally held at his alma mater Huntington North High School's gymnasium, Quayle officially announced his formal campaign for the 2000 Republican presidential nomination, attacking Bush by saying "we do not want another candidate who needs on-the-job training". In June 1999, Kirk Fordice, who had been the campaign's national co-chair, stepped down from the campaign after revelations of an extramarital affair. In July, Quayle published his book Worth Fighting For. In the Ames Straw Poll of August 1999, he finished eighth. Quayle withdrew from the race the next month and supported Bush. Subsequent activities Quayle, then working as an investment banker in Phoenix, was mentioned as a candidate for governor of Arizona before the 2002 election, but declined to run. On January 31, 2011, Quayle wrote a letter to President Barack Obama urging him to commute Jonathan Pollard's sentence. In December 2011, Quayle endorsed Mitt Romney for the 2012 Republican presidential nomination. In the 2016 presidential election, Quayle endorsed Jeb Bush. After Bush failed to win the nomination, Quayle endorsed Donald Trump; he was later seen visiting with Trump at Trump Tower in Manhattan before Trump's inauguration. The Dan Quayle Center and Museum, in Huntington, Indiana, features information on Quayle and all U.S. vice presidents. Quayle is an Honorary Trustee Emeritus of the Hudson Institute and president of Quayle and Associates. He has also been a member of the board of directors of Heckmann Corporation, a water-sector company, since the company's inception and serves as chair of the company's Compensation and Nominating & Governance Committees. Quayle is a director of Aozora Bank, based in Tokyo, Japan. He has also been on the boards of directors of other companies, including K2 Sports, AmTran Inc., Central Newspapers Inc., BTC Inc. and Carvana Co. According to the book Peril, by Bob Woodward and Robert Costa, Quayle played a central role in advising Vice President Mike Pence to certify the 2020 United States presidential election as per the Senate rules. Quayle attended President Joe Biden's inauguration on January 20, 2021. Cerberus Capital Management In 1999, Quayle
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him command of four legions. The term of his governorship, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one. When his consulship ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his province. Conquest of Gaul Caesar was still deeply in debt, but there was money to be made as a governor, whether by extortion or by military adventurism. Caesar had four legions under his command, two of his provinces bordered on unconquered territory, and parts of Gaul were known to be unstable. Some of Rome's Gallic allies had been defeated by their rivals at the Battle of Magetobriga, with the help of a contingent of Germanic tribes. The Romans feared these tribes were preparing to migrate south, closer to Italy, and that they had warlike intent. Caesar raised two new legions and defeated these tribes. In response to Caesar's earlier activities, the tribes in the north-east began to arm themselves. Caesar treated this as an aggressive move and, after an inconclusive engagement against the united tribes, he conquered the tribes piecemeal. Meanwhile, one of his legions began the conquest of the tribes in the far north, directly opposite Britain. During the spring of 56 BC, the Triumvirs held a conference, as Rome was in turmoil and Caesar's political alliance was coming undone. The Lucca Conference renewed the First Triumvirate and extended Caesar's governorship for another five years. The conquest of the north was soon completed, while a few pockets of resistance remained. Caesar now had a secure base from which to launch an invasion of Britain. In 55 BC, Caesar repelled an incursion into Gaul by two Germanic tribes, and followed it up by building a bridge across the Rhine and making a show of force in Germanic territory, before returning and dismantling the bridge. Late that summer, having subdued two other tribes, he crossed into Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided one of his enemies the previous year, possibly the Veneti of Brittany. His knowledge of Britain was poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the coast, he could not advance further. He raided out from his beachhead and destroyed some villages, then returned to Gaul for the winter. He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force, and achieved more. He advanced inland, and established a few alliances, but poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul, forcing Caesar to leave Britain for the last time. Though the Gallic tribes were just as strong as the Romans militarily, the internal division among the Gauls guaranteed an easy victory for Caesar. Vercingetorix's attempt in 52 BC to unite them against Roman invasion came too late. He proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar at the Battle of Gergovia, but Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the Battle of Alesia finally forced his surrender. Despite scattered outbreaks of warfare the following year, Gaul was effectively conquered. Plutarch claimed that during the Gallic Wars the army had fought against three million men (of whom one million died, and another million were enslaved), subjugated 300 tribes, and destroyed 800 cities. The casualty figures are disputed by modern historians. Civil war While Caesar was in Britain his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife, had died in childbirth. Caesar tried to re-secure Pompey's support by offering him his great-niece in marriage, but Pompey declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed leading a failed invasion of the east. Rome was on the brink of civil war. Pompey was appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married the daughter of a political opponent of Caesar. The Triumvirate was dead. In 51 BC, the consul Marcellus ensured that Caesar's command would not be extended, but tribunes vetoed his proposal that it be ended at once. As 50 BC progressed, fears of civil war grew. In the autumn, Cicero and others sought disarmament by both Caesar and Pompey, and on 1 December 50 BC this was formally proposed in the senate by Caesar's supporter Curio. It received overwhelming support but was itself vetoed. At the start of 49 BC, Caesar's renewed offer that he and Pompey disarm was read to the senate, which refused to vote on it. His supportive tribunes were driven out of Rome, the Senate declared Caesar an enemy and it issued its senatus consultum ultimum. There is scholarly disagreement as to the specific reasons why Caesar marched on Rome; the possibility of prosecution for actions in his consulship of 59 BC was unlikely. His objectives prior to the civil war were to secure himself an immediate second consulship and a triumph, having given up his triumph in 60 BC to stand for his first consulship. Caesar feared that his opponents – then holding both consulships for 50 BC – would reject his candidacy, refuse to ratify an election result in which he was a victor, or deny him a triumph for Gaul. On about 10 January 49 BC, Caesar crossed the Rubicon river (the frontier boundary of Italy) with only a single legion, the Legio XIII Gemina, and ignited civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwright Menander, in Greek, "the die is cast". Erasmus, however, notes that the more accurate Latin translation of the Greek imperative mood would be "alea iacta esto", let the die be cast. Pompey and many of the Senate fled to the south, having little confidence in Pompey's newly raised troops. Pompey, despite greatly outnumbering Caesar, who had only his Thirteenth Legion with him, did not intend to fight. Caesar pursued Pompey, hoping to capture Pompey before his legions could escape. Pompey managed to escape before Caesar could capture him. Heading for Hispania, Caesar left Italy under the control of Mark Antony. After an astonishing 27-day route-march, Caesar defeated Pompey's lieutenants, then returned east, to challenge Pompey in Illyria, where, on 10 July 48 BC in the battle of Dyrrhachium, Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat. In an exceedingly short engagement later that year, he decisively defeated Pompey at Pharsalus, in Greece on 9 August 48 BC. In Rome, Caesar was appointed dictator, with Antony as his Master of the Horse (second in command); Caesar presided over his own election to a second consulship and then, after 11 days, resigned this dictatorship. Caesar then pursued Pompey to Egypt, arriving soon after the murder of the general. There, Caesar was presented with Pompey's severed head and seal-ring, receiving these with tears. He then had Pompey's assassins put to death. Caesar then became involved with an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaoh and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, Cleopatra. Perhaps as a result of the pharaoh's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra. He withstood the Siege of Alexandria and later he defeated the pharaoh's forces at the Battle of the Nile in 47 BC and installed Cleopatra as ruler. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory with a triumphal procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 BC. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, and Caesar was introduced to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs. Caesar and Cleopatra were not married. Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage—in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery—and probably fathered a son called Caesarion. Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the Tiber. Late in 48 BC, Caesar was again appointed dictator, with a term of one year. After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, Caesar went to the Middle East, where he annihilated the king of Pontus; his victory was so swift and complete that he mocked Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies. On his way to Pontus, Caesar visited Tarsus from 27 to 29 May 47 BC (25–27 Maygreg.), where he met enthusiastic support, but where, according to Cicero, Cassius was planning to kill him at this point. Thence, he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters. He was defeated by Titus Labienus at Ruspina on 4 January 46 BC but recovered to gain a significant victory at Thapsus on 6 April 46 BC over Cato, who then committed suicide. After this victory, he was appointed dictator for 10 years. Pompey's sons escaped to Hispania; Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the Battle of Munda in March 45 BC. During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC and 45 BC (this last time without a colleague). Dictatorship and assassination While he was still campaigning in Hispania, the Senate began bestowing honours on Caesar. Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there was no serious public opposition to him. Great games and celebrations were held in April to honour Caesar's victory at Munda. Plutarch writes that many Romans found the triumph held following Caesar's victory to be in poor taste, as those defeated in the civil war had not been foreigners, but instead fellow Romans. On Caesar's return to Italy in September 45 BC, he filed his will, naming his grandnephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian, later known as Augustus Caesar) as his principal heir, leaving his vast estate and property including his name. Caesar also wrote that if Octavian died before Caesar did, Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus would be the next heir in succession. In his will, he also left a substantial gift to the citizens of Rome. Between his crossing of the Rubicon in 49 BC, and his assassination in 44 BC, Caesar established a new constitution, which was intended to accomplish three separate goals. First, he wanted to suppress all armed resistance out in the provinces, and thus bring order back to the Republic. Second, he wanted to create a strong central government in Rome. Finally, he wanted to knit together all of the provinces into a single cohesive unit. The first goal was accomplished when Caesar defeated Pompey and his supporters. To accomplish the other two goals, he needed to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed, so he assumed these powers by increasing his own authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions. Finally, he enacted a series of reforms that were meant to address several long-neglected issues, the most important of which was his reform of the calendar. Dictatorship When Caesar returned to Rome, the Senate granted him triumphs for his victories, ostensibly those over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces, and Juba, rather than over his Roman opponents. When Arsinoe IV, Egypt's former queen, was paraded in chains, the spectators admired her dignified bearing and were moved to pity. Triumphal games were held, with beast-hunts involving 400 lions, and gladiator contests. A naval battle was held on a flooded basin at the Field of Mars. At the Circus Maximus, two armies of war captives, — each of 2,000 people, 200 horses, and 20 elephants — fought to the death. Again, some bystanders complained, this time at Caesar's wasteful extravagance. A riot broke out, and stopped only when Caesar had two rioters sacrificed by the priests on the Field of Mars. After the triumph, Caesar set out to pass an ambitious legislative agenda. He ordered a census be taken, which forced a reduction in the grain dole, and decreed that jurors could come only from the Senate or the equestrian ranks. He passed a sumptuary law that restricted the purchase of certain luxuries. After this, he passed a law that rewarded families for having many children, to speed up the repopulation of Italy. Then, he outlawed professional guilds, except those of ancient foundation, since many of these were subversive political clubs. He then passed a term-limit law applicable to governors. He passed a debt-restructuring law, which ultimately eliminated about a fourth of all debts owed. The Forum of Caesar, with its Temple of Venus Genetrix, was then built, among many other public works. Caesar also tightly regulated the purchase of state-subsidised grain and reduced the number of recipients to a fixed number, all of whom were entered into a special register. From 47 to 44 BC, he made plans for the distribution of land to about 15,000 of his veterans. The most important change, however, was his reform of the calendar. The Roman calendar at the time was regulated by the movement of the moon. By replacing it with the Egyptian calendar, based on the sun, Roman farmers were able to use it as the basis of consistent seasonal planting from year to year. He set the length of the year to 365.25 days by adding an intercalary/leap day at the end of February every fourth year. To bring the calendar into alignment with the seasons, he decreed that three extra months be inserted into 46 BC (the ordinary intercalary month at the end of February, and two extra months after November). Thus, the Julian calendar opened on 1 January 45 BC. This calendar is almost identical to the current Western calendar. Shortly before his assassination, he passed a few more reforms. He appointed officials to carry out his land reforms and ordered the rebuilding of Carthage and Corinth. He also extended Latin rights throughout the Roman world, and then abolished the tax system and reverted to the earlier version that allowed cities to collect tribute however they wanted, rather than needing Roman intermediaries. His assassination prevented further and larger schemes, which included the construction of an unprecedented temple to Mars, a huge theatre, and a library on the scale of the Library of Alexandria. He also wanted to convert Ostia to a major port, and cut a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth. Militarily, he wanted to conquer the Dacians and Parthians, and avenge the loss at Carrhae. Thus, he instituted a massive mobilisation. Shortly before his assassination, the Senate named him censor for life and Father of the Fatherland, and the month of Quintilis was renamed July in his honour. He was granted further honours, which were later used to justify his assassination as a would-be divine monarch: coins were issued bearing his image and his statue was placed next to those of the kings. He was granted a golden chair in the Senate, was allowed to wear triumphal dress whenever he chose, and was offered a form of semi-official or popular cult, with Antony as his high priest. Political reforms The history of Caesar's political appointments is complex and uncertain. Caesar held both the dictatorship and the tribunate, but alternated between the consulship and the proconsulship. His powers within the state seem to have rested upon these magistracies. He was first appointed dictator in 49 BC, possibly to preside over elections, but resigned his dictatorship within 11 days. In 48 BC, he was reappointed dictator, only this time for an indefinite period, and in 46 BC, he was appointed dictator for 10 years. In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers, which made his person sacrosanct and allowed him to veto the Senate, although on at least one occasion, tribunes did attempt to obstruct him. The offending tribunes in this case were brought before the Senate and divested of their office. This was not the first time Caesar had violated a tribune's sacrosanctity. After he had first marched on Rome in 49 BC, he forcibly opened the treasury, although a tribune had the seal placed on it. After the impeachment of the two obstructive tribunes, Caesar, perhaps unsurprisingly, faced no further opposition from other members of the Tribunician College. When Caesar returned to Rome in 47 BC, the ranks of the Senate had been severely depleted, so he used his censorial powers to appoint many new senators, which eventually raised the Senate's membership to 900. All the appointments were of his own partisans, which robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made the Senate increasingly subservient to him. To minimise the risk that another general might attempt to challenge him, Caesar passed a law that subjected governors to term limits. In 46 BC, Caesar gave himself the title of "Prefect of the Morals", which was an office that was new only in name, as its powers were identical to those of the censors. Thus, he could hold censorial powers, while technically not subjecting himself to the same checks to which the ordinary censors were subject, and he used these powers to fill the Senate with his own partisans. He also set the precedent, which his imperial successors followed, of requiring the Senate to bestow various titles and honours upon him. He was, for example, given the title of "Father of the Fatherland" and "imperator". Coins bore his likeness, and he was given the right to speak first during Senate meetings. Caesar then increased the number of magistrates who were elected each year, which created a large pool of experienced magistrates, and allowed Caesar to reward his supporters. Caesar even took steps to transform Italy into a province, and to link more tightly the other provinces of the empire into a single cohesive unit. This process, of fusing the entire Roman Empire into a single unit, rather than maintaining it as a network of unequal principalities, would ultimately be completed by Caesar's successor, the Emperor Augustus. In October 45 BC, Caesar resigned his position as sole consul, and facilitated the election of two successors for the remainder of the year, which theoretically restored the ordinary consulship, since the constitution did not recognize a single consul without a colleague. In February 44 BC, one month before his assassination, he was appointed dictator in perpetuity. Under Caesar, a significant amount of authority was vested in his lieutenants, mostly because Caesar was frequently out of Italy. Near the end of his life, Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire. Since his absence from Rome might limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates, and all consuls and tribunes. This, in effect, transformed the magistrates from being representatives of the people to being representatives of the dictator. Assassination On the Ides of March (15 March; see Roman calendar) of 44 BC, Caesar was due to appear at a session of the Senate. Several Senators had conspired to assassinate Caesar. Antony, having vaguely learned of the plot the night before from a terrified liberator named Servilius Casca, and fearing the worst, went to head Caesar off. The plotters, however, had anticipated this and, fearing that Antony would come to Caesar's aid, had arranged for Trebonius to intercept him just as he approached the portico of the Theatre of Pompey, where the session was to be held, and detain him outside (Plutarch, however, assigns this action of delaying Antony to Brutus Albinus). When he heard the commotion from the Senate chamber, Antony fled. According to Plutarch, as Caesar arrived at the Senate, Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition to recall his exiled brother. The other conspirators crowded round to offer support. Both Plutarch and Suetonius say that Caesar waved him away, but Cimber grabbed his shoulders and pulled down Caesar's tunic. Caesar then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!" ("Ista quidem vis est!"). Casca simultaneously produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm. According to Plutarch, he said in Latin, "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?" Casca, frightened, shouted, "Help, brother!" in Greek ("", "adelphe, boethei"). Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was striking out at the dictator. Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lower steps of the portico. According to Eutropius, around 60 men participated in the assassination. He was stabbed 23 times. According to Suetonius, a physician later established that only one wound, the second one to his chest, had been lethal. The dictator's last words are not known with certainty, and are a contested subject among scholars and historians alike.
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was granted a golden chair in the Senate, was allowed to wear triumphal dress whenever he chose, and was offered a form of semi-official or popular cult, with Antony as his high priest. Political reforms The history of Caesar's political appointments is complex and uncertain. Caesar held both the dictatorship and the tribunate, but alternated between the consulship and the proconsulship. His powers within the state seem to have rested upon these magistracies. He was first appointed dictator in 49 BC, possibly to preside over elections, but resigned his dictatorship within 11 days. In 48 BC, he was reappointed dictator, only this time for an indefinite period, and in 46 BC, he was appointed dictator for 10 years. In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers, which made his person sacrosanct and allowed him to veto the Senate, although on at least one occasion, tribunes did attempt to obstruct him. The offending tribunes in this case were brought before the Senate and divested of their office. This was not the first time Caesar had violated a tribune's sacrosanctity. After he had first marched on Rome in 49 BC, he forcibly opened the treasury, although a tribune had the seal placed on it. After the impeachment of the two obstructive tribunes, Caesar, perhaps unsurprisingly, faced no further opposition from other members of the Tribunician College. When Caesar returned to Rome in 47 BC, the ranks of the Senate had been severely depleted, so he used his censorial powers to appoint many new senators, which eventually raised the Senate's membership to 900. All the appointments were of his own partisans, which robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made the Senate increasingly subservient to him. To minimise the risk that another general might attempt to challenge him, Caesar passed a law that subjected governors to term limits. In 46 BC, Caesar gave himself the title of "Prefect of the Morals", which was an office that was new only in name, as its powers were identical to those of the censors. Thus, he could hold censorial powers, while technically not subjecting himself to the same checks to which the ordinary censors were subject, and he used these powers to fill the Senate with his own partisans. He also set the precedent, which his imperial successors followed, of requiring the Senate to bestow various titles and honours upon him. He was, for example, given the title of "Father of the Fatherland" and "imperator". Coins bore his likeness, and he was given the right to speak first during Senate meetings. Caesar then increased the number of magistrates who were elected each year, which created a large pool of experienced magistrates, and allowed Caesar to reward his supporters. Caesar even took steps to transform Italy into a province, and to link more tightly the other provinces of the empire into a single cohesive unit. This process, of fusing the entire Roman Empire into a single unit, rather than maintaining it as a network of unequal principalities, would ultimately be completed by Caesar's successor, the Emperor Augustus. In October 45 BC, Caesar resigned his position as sole consul, and facilitated the election of two successors for the remainder of the year, which theoretically restored the ordinary consulship, since the constitution did not recognize a single consul without a colleague. In February 44 BC, one month before his assassination, he was appointed dictator in perpetuity. Under Caesar, a significant amount of authority was vested in his lieutenants, mostly because Caesar was frequently out of Italy. Near the end of his life, Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire. Since his absence from Rome might limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates, and all consuls and tribunes. This, in effect, transformed the magistrates from being representatives of the people to being representatives of the dictator. Assassination On the Ides of March (15 March; see Roman calendar) of 44 BC, Caesar was due to appear at a session of the Senate. Several Senators had conspired to assassinate Caesar. Antony, having vaguely learned of the plot the night before from a terrified liberator named Servilius Casca, and fearing the worst, went to head Caesar off. The plotters, however, had anticipated this and, fearing that Antony would come to Caesar's aid, had arranged for Trebonius to intercept him just as he approached the portico of the Theatre of Pompey, where the session was to be held, and detain him outside (Plutarch, however, assigns this action of delaying Antony to Brutus Albinus). When he heard the commotion from the Senate chamber, Antony fled. According to Plutarch, as Caesar arrived at the Senate, Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition to recall his exiled brother. The other conspirators crowded round to offer support. Both Plutarch and Suetonius say that Caesar waved him away, but Cimber grabbed his shoulders and pulled down Caesar's tunic. Caesar then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!" ("Ista quidem vis est!"). Casca simultaneously produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm. According to Plutarch, he said in Latin, "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?" Casca, frightened, shouted, "Help, brother!" in Greek ("", "adelphe, boethei"). Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was striking out at the dictator. Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lower steps of the portico. According to Eutropius, around 60 men participated in the assassination. He was stabbed 23 times. According to Suetonius, a physician later established that only one wound, the second one to his chest, had been lethal. The dictator's last words are not known with certainty, and are a contested subject among scholars and historians alike. Suetonius reports that others have said Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase "" (transliterated as "Kai sy, teknon?": "You too, child?" in English). However, Suetonius' own opinion was that Caesar said nothing. Plutarch also reports that Caesar said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators. The version best known in the English-speaking world is the Latin phrase "Et tu, Brute?" ("And you, Brutus?", commonly rendered as "You too, Brutus?"); best known from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, where it actually forms the first half of a macaronic line: "Et tu, Brute? Then fall, Caesar." This version was already popular when the play was written, as it appears in Richard Edes's Latin play Caesar Interfectus of 1582 and The True Tragedie of Richarde Duke of Yorke & etc. of 1595, Shakespeare's source work for other plays. According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say something to his fellow senators; they, however, fled the building. Brutus and his companions then marched to the Capitol while crying out to their beloved city: "People of Rome, we are once again free!" They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumour of what had taken place had begun to spread. Caesar's dead body lay where it fell on the Senate floor for nearly three hours before other officials arrived to remove it. Caesar's body was cremated. A crowd which had gathered at the cremation started a fire, which badly damaged the forum and neighbouring buildings. On the site of his cremation, the Temple of Caesar was erected a few years later (at the east side of the main square of the Roman Forum). Only its altar now remains. A life-size wax statue of Caesar was later erected in the forum displaying the 23 stab wounds. In the chaos following the death of Caesar, Antony, Octavian (later Augustus Caesar), and others fought a series of five civil wars, which would culminate in the formation of the Roman Empire. Aftermath of the assassination The result, unforeseen by the assassins, was that Caesar's death precipitated the end of the Roman Republic. The Roman middle and lower classes, with whom Caesar was immensely popular and had been since before Gaul, became enraged that a small group of aristocrats had killed their champion. Antony, who had been drifting apart from Caesar, capitalised on the grief of the Roman mob and threatened to unleash them on the Optimates, perhaps with the intent of taking control of Rome himself. To his surprise and chagrin, Caesar had named his grandnephew Gaius Octavius his sole heir (hence the name Octavian), bequeathing him the immensely potent Caesar name and making him one of the wealthiest citizens in the Republic. The crowd at the funeral boiled over, throwing dry branches, furniture, and even clothing on to Caesar's funeral pyre, causing the flames to spin out of control, seriously damaging the Forum. The mob then attacked the houses of Brutus and Cassius, where they were repelled only with considerable difficulty, ultimately providing the spark for the civil war, fulfilling at least in part Antony's threat against the aristocrats. Antony did not foresee the ultimate outcome of the next series of civil wars, particularly with regard to Caesar's adopted heir. Octavian, aged only 18 when Caesar died, proved to have considerable political skills, and while Antony dealt with Decimus Brutus in the first round of the new civil wars, Octavian consolidated his tenuous position. To combat Brutus and Cassius, who were massing an enormous army in Greece, Antony needed soldiers, the cash from Caesar's war chests, and the legitimacy that Caesar's name would provide for any action he took against them. With the passage of the lex Titia on 27 November 43 BC, the Second Triumvirate was officially formed, composed of Antony, Octavian, and Caesar's loyal cavalry commander Lepidus. It formally deified Caesar as Divus Iulius in 42 BC, and Caesar Octavian henceforth became Divi filius ("Son of the divine"). Because Caesar's clemency had resulted in his murder, the Second Triumvirate reinstated the practice of proscription, abandoned since Sulla. It engaged in the legally sanctioned killing of a large number of its opponents to secure funding for its 45 legions in the second civil war against Brutus and Cassius. Antony and Octavian defeated them at Philippi. Afterward, Antony formed an alliance with Caesar's lover, Cleopatra, intending to use the fabulously wealthy Egypt as a base to dominate Rome. A third civil war broke out between Octavian on one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the other. This final civil war, culminating in the latter's defeat at Actium in 31 BC and suicide in Egypt in 30 BC, resulted in the permanent ascendancy of Octavian, who became the first Roman emperor, under the name Caesar Augustus, a name conveying religious, rather than political, authority. Julius Caesar had been preparing to invade Parthia and Scythia, and then march back to Germania through Eastern Europe. These plans were thwarted by his assassination. His successors did attempt the conquests of Parthia and Germania, but without lasting results. Deification Julius Caesar was the first historical Roman to be officially deified. He was posthumously granted the title Divus Iulius (the divine/deified Julius) by decree of the Roman Senate on 1 January 42 BC. The appearance of a comet during games in his honour was taken as confirmation of his divinity. Though his temple was not dedicated until after his death, he may have received divine honours during his lifetime: and shortly before his assassination, Antony had been appointed as his flamen (priest). Both Octavian and Antony promoted the cult of Divus Iulius. After the death of Caesar, Octavian, as the adoptive son of Caesar, assumed the title of Divi Filius (Son of the Divine). Personal life Health and physical appearance Based on remarks by Plutarch, Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from epilepsy. Modern scholarship is sharply divided on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s BC. Other scholars contend his epileptic seizures were due to a parasitic infection in the brain by a tapeworm. Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have had absence seizures in his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of hypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures. In 2003, psychiatrist Harbour F. Hodder published what he termed as the "Caesar Complex" theory, arguing that Caesar was a sufferer of temporal lobe epilepsy and the debilitating symptoms of the condition were a factor in Caesar's conscious decision to forgo personal safety in the days leading up to his assassination. A line from Shakespeare has sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: "Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf". No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with Caesar. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily made. By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defence. Francesco M. Galassi and Hutan Ashrafian suggest that Caesar's behavioral manifestations—headaches, vertigo, falls (possibly caused by muscle weakness due to nerve damage), sensory deficit, giddiness and insensibility—and syncopal episodes were the results of cerebrovascular episodes, not epilepsy. Pliny the Elder reports in his Natural History that Caesar's father and forefather died without apparent cause while putting on their shoes. These events can be more readily associated with cardiovascular complications from a stroke episode or lethal heart attack. Caesar possibly had a genetic predisposition for cardiovascular disease. Suetonius, writing more than a century after Caesar's death, describes Caesar as "tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes". Name and family The name Gaius Julius Caesar Using the Latin alphabet of the period, which lacked the letters J and U, Caesar's name would be rendered GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR; the form CAIVS is also attested, using the older Roman representation of G by C. The standard abbreviation was C. IVLIVS CÆSAR, reflecting the older spelling. (The letterform Æ is a ligature of the letters A and E, and is often used in Latin inscriptions to save space.) In Classical Latin, it was pronounced [ˈɡaː.i.ʊs ˈjuːl.i.ʊs ˈkae̯sar]. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin, Brutus. In Greek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written Καίσαρ (Kaísar), reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German Kaiser () or Dutch keizer ().
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majority of the Irish House of Commons wanted the 1652 Cromwellian Act of Settlement repealed in its entirety, with ownership returned to that prevailing in 1641. The minority of the Catholic elite, on the other hand, who had benefited from the land grants of the 1662 Act of Settlement; a group that included James himself, Tyrconnell and other members of the Lords, favoured Tyrconnell's suggestion to return half the estates of those dispossessed in the 1650s, with compensation for the remainder. However, with the Commons overwhelmingly in favour of complete restoration of Catholic owned lands, Tyrconnell persuaded the Lords to approve the bill. More serious were differences between Parliament and James, whose priority was to regain England and therefore resisted any measures that might "dissatisfy his Protestant subjects" in England and Scotland. These conflicted with the demands of the Irish Parliament, which in addition to land restoration included toleration for Catholicism and Irish autonomy. A French diplomat observed James had 'a heart too English to do anything that might vex the English.' He therefore resisted measures that might "dissatisfy his Protestant subjects" in England and Scotland, complaining "he was fallen into the hands of a people who would ram many hard things down his throat". When Parliament made it clear, however it would only vote war taxes if he complied with their minimum demands, James reluctantly approved the restoration of pre-1650s Catholic landowners to their estates and passed a Bill of attainder, confiscating estates from 2,000 mostly Protestant "rebels". James assented to the Parliament's resolution Ireland was a "distinct kingdom" and laws passed in England did not apply there, James refused to abolish Poynings' Law, which required Irish legislation be approved by the English Parliament. Despite his own Catholicism, James viewed the Protestant Church of Ireland as an important part of his support base; he insisted on retaining its legal pre-eminence, although agreeing landowners would only have to pay tithes to clergy of their own religion. However, the price for these concessions was to largely remove the Protestant element from Irish Jacobitism, which thereafter became almost entirely a Catholic ideology. After 1690, Irish Jacobites were also split between Tyrconnell's 'Peace party' who continued to seek a negotiated solution, and a 'War party' led by Patrick Sarsfield who favoured fighting on to the end. James left Ireland after defeat at the Boyne in 1690, telling his supporters to "shift for themselves". This led some to depict him as "Séamus an chaca", "James of the shit", who had deserted his loyal followers. However, Gaelic scholar Breandán Ó Buachalla claims his reputation subsequently recovered as "the rightful king...destined to return' and upper-class Irish Jacobite writers like Charles O'Kelly and Nicholas Plunkett blamed "corrupt English and Scottish advisors" for his apparent desertion. After 1691, measures passed by the 1689 Parliament were annulled, penal laws barred Catholics from public life, while the Act of Attainder was used to justify further land confiscations. 12,000 Jacobite soldiers went into exile in the diaspora known as the Flight of the Wild Geese, the majority of whom were later absorbed into the French Irish Brigade. About 1,000 men were recruited for the French and Spanish armies annually, many with a "tangible commitment to the Stuart cause". Elements of the French Irish Brigade participated in the Scottish Jacobite rising of 1745. Irish language poets, especially in Munster, continued to champion the cause after James' death; in 1715, Eoin O Callanain described his son James Francis Edward Stuart as "taoiseach na nGaoidheal" or "chieftain of the Gaels". As in England, throughout the 1720s, James' birthday on 10 June was marked by celebrations in Dublin, and towns like Kilkenny and Galway. These were often accompanied by rioting, suggested as proof of popular pro-Jacobite sympathies. Others argue riots were common in 18th century urban areas and see them as a "series of ritualised clashes". Combined with Jacobite rhetoric and symbolism among rapparees or bandits, some historians claim this provides evidence of continuing popular support for a Stuart restoration. Other however argue that it is hard to discern "how far rhetorical Jacobitism reflected support for the Stuarts, as opposed to discontent with the status quo". Nevertheless, fears of resurgent Catholic Jacobitism among the ruling Protestant minority meant anti-Catholic Penal Laws remained in place for most of the eighteenth century. There was no Irish rising in either 1715 or 1745 to accompany those in England and Scotland; one suggestion is after 1691, for various reasons Irish Jacobites looked to European allies, rather than relying on a domestic revolt. From the 1720s on, many Catholics were willing to swear loyalty to the Hanoverian regime, but not the Oath of Abjuration, which required renouncing the authority of the Pope, as well as the Stuarts. After the effective demise of the Jacobite cause in the 1750s, many Catholic gentry withdrew support from the Stuarts. Instead, they created organisations like the Catholic Convention, which worked within the existing state for redress of Catholic grievances. When Charles died in 1788, Irish nationalists looked for alternative liberators, among them the French First Republic, Napoleon Bonaparte and Daniel O'Connell. England and Wales In England and Wales, Jacobitism was often associated with the Tories, many of whom supported James's right to the throne during the Exclusion Crisis. Tory ideology implied that neither "time nor statute law [...] could ameliorate the sin of usurpation", while shared Tory and Jacobite themes of divine right and sacred kingship may have provided an alternative to Whig concepts of "liberty and property". A minority of academics, including Eveline Cruickshanks, have argued that until the late 1750s, the Tories were a crypto-Jacobite party, others that Jacobitism was a "limb of Toryism". However, the supremacy of the Church of England was also central to Tory ideology: when this had seemed threatened by James's policies, they became closely involved in his removal. The 1701 Act of Settlement excluding Catholics from the English throne was passed by a Tory administration; for the vast majority, Stuart Catholicism was an insuperable barrier to active support, while the Tory doctrine of non-resistance also discouraged them from supporting the exiles against a reigning monarch. For most of the period from 1690 to 1714, Parliament was either controlled by the Tories, or evenly split with the Whigs; when George I succeeded Anne, most hoped to reconcile with the new regime. The Earl of Mar, who led the 1715 rising, observed "Jacobitisme, which they used to brand the Tories with, is now I presum out of doors". However, George blamed the 1710 to 1714 Tory government for the Peace of Utrecht, which he viewed as damaging to his home state of Hanover. His isolation of former Tory ministers like Lord Bolingbroke and the Earl of Mar drove them first into opposition, then exile. Exclusion from power between 1714 and 1742 meant many Tories sought opportunities to change the existing government, including contact with the Jacobite court. In 1715, there were co-ordinated celebrations on 29 May, Restoration Day, and 10 June, James Stuart's birthday, especially in Tory-dominated towns like Bristol, Oxford, Manchester and Norwich, although they remained quiet in the 1715 Rising. In the 1730s, many 'Jacobite' demonstrations in Wales and elsewhere were driven by local tensions, especially hostility to Methodism, and featured attacks on Nonconformist chapels. Most English participants in 1715 came from traditionally Catholic areas in the Northwest, like Lancashire. By 1720, there were fewer than 115,000 in England and Wales, and most remained loyal in 1745, including the Duke of Norfolk, head of the English Catholic community, sentenced to death for his role in 1715 but pardoned. Even so, sympathies were complex; Norfolk's agent Andrew Blood joined the Manchester Regiment, and he later employed another ex-officer, John Sanderson, as his master of horse. English Catholics continued to provide the exiles with financial support well into the 1770s. In 1689, around 2% of clergy in the Church of England refused to take the oath of allegiance to William and Mary; one list identifies a total of 584 clergy, schoolmasters and university dons as Non Jurors. This almost certainly understates their numbers, since many sympathisers remained within the Church of England, but Non Jurors were disproportionately represented in Jacobite risings and riots, and provided many "martyrs". By the late 1720s, arguments over doctrine and the death of its originators reduced the church to a handful, but several of those executed in 1745 came from Manchester, the last significant congregation in England. The Quaker leader, William Penn was a prominent non-conformist supporter of James, although this was based on their personal relationship and did not survive his deposition. Another element in English Jacobitism was a handful of disaffected radicals, for whom the exiled Stuarts provided a potential alternative to the Whig establishment. An example was John Matthews, a Jacobite printer executed in 1719; his pamphlet Vox Populi vox Dei emphasised the Lockean theory of the social contract, a doctrine very few Tories of the period would have supported. Scotland Scottish Jacobitism had wider and more extensive roots than in England. 20,000 Scots fought for the Jacobites in 1715, compared to 11,000 who joined the government army, and were the majority of the 9,000 to 14,000 who served in 1745. One reason was the persistence of feudalism in parts of rural Scotland, where tenants could be compelled to provide their landlords with military service. Many of the Highland clansmen who were a feature of Jacobite armies were raised this way: in all three major risings, the bulk of the rank and file were supplied by a small number of north-western clans whose leaders joined the rebellion. Despite this, many Jacobites were Protestant Lowlanders, rather than the Catholic, Gaelic-speaking Highlanders of legend. By 1745, fewer than 1% of Scots were Catholic, restricted to the far north-west and a few noble families. The majority of the rank and file, as well as many Jacobite leaders, belonged to Protestant Episcopalian congregations. Throughout the 17th century, the close connection between Scottish politics and religion meant changes of regime were accompanied by the losers being expelled from the kirk. In 1690, over 200 clergy lost their positions, mostly in Aberdeenshire and Banffshire, a strongly Episcopalian area since the 1620s. In 1745, around 25% of Jacobite recruits came from this part of the country. Episcopalianism was popular among social conservatives, as it emphasised indefeasible hereditary right, absolute obedience, and implied deposition of the senior Stuart line was a breach of natural order. The church continued to offer prayers for the Stuarts until 1788, while many refused to swear allegiance to the Hanoverians in 1714. However, even in 1690, a substantial minority accommodated to the new regime, a number that increased significantly after the establishment of the Scottish Episcopal Church in 1712. Episcopalian ministers, such as Professor James Garden of Aberdeen, presented the 1707 Union as one in a series of disasters to befall Scotland, provoked by "the sins [...] of rebellion, injustice, oppression, schism and perjury". Opposition was boosted by measures imposed by the post-1707 Parliament of Great Britain, including the Treason Act 1708, the 1711 ruling that barred Scots peers from the House of Lords, and tax increases. Despite their own preferences, the Stuarts tried to appeal to this group; in 1745, Charles issued declarations dissolving the "pretended Union", despite concerns this would alienate his English supporters. However, opposition to post-Union legislation was not restricted to Jacobites. Many Presbyterians opposed the establishment of the Episcopal Church in 1712 and other measures of indulgence, while the worst tax riots took place in Glasgow, a town noted for its antipathy to the Stuarts. As in England, some objected less to the Union than the Hanoverian connection; Lord George Murray, a senior Jacobite commander in 1745, was a Unionist who repeatedly disagreed with Charles, but opposed "wars [...] on account of the Electors of Hanover". Community While Jacobite agents continued in their attempts to recruit the disaffected, the most committed Jacobites were often linked by relatively small family networks, particularly in Scotland; Jacobite activities in areas like Perthshire and Aberdeenshire centred on a limited number of influential families heavily involved in 1715 and 1745. Some of the most powerful landowning families preserved their establishment loyalties, but maintained traditions of Stuart allegiance by permitting younger sons to become involved in active Jacobitism; in 1745, Lewis Gordon was widely believed to be a proxy for his brother, the Duke of Gordon. Many Jacobite leaders were closely linked to each other and the exile community by marriage or blood. This has led some historians, notably Bruce Lenman, to characterise the Jacobite risings as French-backed coup attempts by a small network drawn from the elite, though this view is not universally accepted. Family traditions of Jacobite sympathy were reinforced through objects such as inscribed glassware or rings with hidden symbols, although many of those that survive are in fact 19th century neo-Jacobite creations. Other family heirlooms contained reference to executed Jacobite martyrs, for which the movement preserved an unusual level of veneration. Tartan cloth, widely adopted by the Jacobite army in 1745, was used in portraiture as a symbol of Stuart sympathies, even before the Rising. Outside elite social circles, the Jacobite community circulated propaganda and symbolic objects through a network of clubs, print-sellers and pedlars, aimed at the provincial gentry and middling sort. In 1745, Prince Charles ordered commemorative medals and miniature pictures for clandestine distribution. Among the more visible elements of the Jacobite community were drinking clubs established in the early 18th century, such as the Scottish Bucks Club or the "Cycle of the White Rose", led by Welsh Tory Sir Watkin Williams-Wynn. Others included the "Sea Serjeants", largely composed of South Wales gentry or the "Independent Electors of Westminster" led by the Glamorganshire lawyer David Morgan, executed for his role in 1745. Other than Morgan, the vast majority of their members took no part in the 1745 Rising; Charles later suggested he "will do for the Welsh Jacobites what they did for me. I will drink their health". Oak Apple Day on 29 May commemorated Charles II and was an occasion for displays of Stuart sympathy, as was "White Rose Day", the Old Pretender's birthday on 10 June. Symbols were commonly employed by Jacobites, since they could not be prosecuted for their use, the most common being the White rose of York, adopted after 1688 for reasons now unclear. Various origins have been suggested, including its use as an ancient Scottish royal device, its association with James II as Duke of York, or Charles I being styled as the "White King". Jacobite military units often used plain white standards or cockades, while green ribbons were another recognised Stuart symbol despite their association with the Whig Green Ribbon Club. Post 1745 decline Despite being greeted as a hero on his return to Paris, Charles' reception behind the scenes was more muted. D’Éguilles, unofficial French envoy to the Jacobites, had a low opinion of him and other senior Jacobites, describing Lochgarry as "a bandit", and suggesting George Murray was a British spy. For their part, the Scots were disillusioned by lack of meaningful English or French support, despite constant assurances of both. Events also highlighted the reality that a low level, ongoing insurgency was far more cost-effective for the French than a restoration, a form of warfare potentially devastating to the local populace. By exposing the divergence between Scottish, French and Stuart objectives, as well as the lack of support in England, the 1745 Rising ended Jacobitism as a viable political alternative in England and Scotland. The British authorities enacted a series of measures designed to prevent the Scottish Highlands being used for another rising. New forts were built, the military road network finally completed and William Roy made the first comprehensive survey of the Highlands. Much of the power held by the Highland chiefs derived from their ability to require military service from their clansmen and even before 1745 the clan system had been under severe stress due to changing economic conditions; the Heritable Jurisdictions Act removed such feudal controls by Highland chiefs. This was far more significant than the better known Act of Proscription which outlawed Highland dress unless worn in military service: its impact is debated and the was law repealed in 1782. As early as 1745, the French were struggling with the costs of the War of the Austrian Succession, and in June 1746, they began peace negotiations with Britain at Breda. Victories in Flanders in 1747 and 1748 actually worsened their position by drawing in the previously neutral Dutch Republic, whose shipping they relied on to avoid the British naval blockade. By 1748, food shortages among the French population made peace a matter of urgency, but the British refused to sign the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle while Charles remained in France. After he ignored requests to leave, the French lost patience; in December 1748, he was briefly jailed before being deported. In June 1747, his brother Henry became a Catholic priest; since Charles had no legitimate heir, this was seen as tacit acceptance by their father the Jacobite cause was finished. Charles continue to explore options for a rising in England, including his conversion to Anglicanism, a proposal that had outraged his father James when previously suggested. He "secretly" visited London in 1750 to meet supporters, and was inducted into the Non Juror church. However, the decline of Jacobitism is demonstrated by the fact the government and George II were well aware of his presence and did nothing to intervene. The English Jacobites made it clear they would do nothing without foreign backing, which despite Charles's overtures to Frederick II of Prussia seemed unlikely. A plot to capture or assassinate George II, headed by Alexander Murray of Elibank, was betrayed to the government by Alastair Ruadh MacDonnell, or "Pickle the Spy", but not before Charles had sent two exiles as agents. One was Archibald Cameron, responsible for recruiting the Cameron regiment in 1745, who was allegedly betrayed by his own clansmen and executed on 7 June 1753. In a 1754 dispute with the English conspirators, a drunken and increasingly desperate Charles threatened to publish their names for having "betrayed" him; most remaining English sympathisers now left the cause. During the Seven Years' War in 1759, Charles met Choiseul, then Chief minister of France to discuss another invasion, but Choiseul dismissed him as "incapacitated by drink". The Jacobite cause was abandoned by the French, while British supporters stopped providing funds; Charles, who had returned to Catholicism, now relied on the Papacy to fund his lifestyle. However, with the death of Charles’s father in 1766, the Hanoverians received the Pope’s de facto recognition. Despite Henry's urgings, Clement XIII refused to recognise his brother as Charles III; Charles died of a stroke in Rome in January 1788, a disappointed and embittered man. Following Charles’s death, Scottish Catholics swore allegiance to the House of Hanover, and resolved two years later to pray for King George by name. The Stuart claim passed to Henry, now a Cardinal, who styled himself King Henry IX of England. After falling into financial difficulty during the French Revolution, he was granted a stipend by George III. However, his refusal to renounce his claim to be ‘Henry IX’ prevented a full reconciliation
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the Pope and with Protestant nonconformists, since both argued there was an authority above the king. The 17th century belief that 'true religion' and 'good government' were one and the same meant disputes in one area fed into the other; Millenarianism and belief in the imminence of the Second Coming meant many Protestants viewed such issues as urgent and real. As the first step towards union, James began creating standard practices between the churches of England, Scotland and Ireland. This continued after 1625 under Charles I, but enforcing Laudian practices on the Church of England, and ruling without Parliament led to a political crisis. Similar measures in Scotland caused the 1639–1640 Bishops' Wars, and installation of a Covenanter government. Organised by a small group of Catholic nobility, the October 1641 Irish Rebellion was the cumulative effect of land confiscation, loss of political control, anti-Catholic measures and economic decline. Intended as a bloodless coup, its leaders quickly lost control, leading to atrocities on both sides. In May, a Covenanter army landed in Ulster to support Scots settlers; the English Parliament refused to fund an army, fearing Charles would use it against them, and the First English Civil War began in August. In 1642, the Catholic Confederacy representing the Irish insurgents proclaimed allegiance to Charles, but the Stuarts were an unreliable ally, since concessions in Ireland cost them Protestant support in all three kingdoms. In addition, the Adventurers' Act, approved by Charles in March 1642, funded suppression of the revolt by confiscating land from Irish Catholics, much of it owned by members of the Confederacy. The result was a three-way contest between the Confederacy, Royalist forces under the Protestant Duke of Ormond, and a Covenanter-led army in Ulster. The latter were increasingly at odds with the English government; after Charles' execution in January 1649, Ormond combined these factions to resist the 1649 to 1652 Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. Charles II repudiated his alliance with the Confederacy, in return for Scottish support in the Third English Civil War, and Ormond went into exile in 1650. Defeat in 1652 led to the mass confiscation of Catholic and Royalist land, and its re-distribution among English Parliamentary soldiers and Protestant settlers. The three kingdoms were combined into the Commonwealth of England, regaining their separate status when the monarchy was restored in 1660. Charles's reign was dominated by the expansionist policies of Louis XIV of France, seen as a threat to Protestant Europe. When his brother and heir James announced his conversion to Catholicism in 1677, an attempt was made to bar him from the English throne. Nevertheless, he became king in February 1685 with widespread support in England and Scotland; a Catholic monarch was preferable to excluding the 'natural heir', and rebellions by Protestant dissidents quickly suppressed. It was also viewed as temporary; James was 52, his second marriage was childless after 11 years, and his Protestant daughter Mary was heir. His religion made James popular among Irish Catholics, whose position had not improved under his brother. By 1685, Catholic land ownership had fallen to 22%, versus 90% in 1600, and after 1673, a series of proclamations deprived them of the right to bear arms or hold public office. The Catholic Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell was appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland in 1687, and began building a Catholic establishment that could survive James. Fearing a short reign, Tyrconnell moved at a speed that destabilised all three kingdoms. James dismissed the English and Scottish Parliaments when they refused to approve his measures of religious tolerance, which he enforced using the Royal Prerogative. Doing so threatened to re-open disputes over religion, reward those who rebelled in 1685 and undermine his own supporters. It also ignored the impact of the 1685 Edict of Fontainebleau, which revoked tolerance for French Protestants and created an estimated 400,000 refugees, 40,000 of whom settled in London. Two events turned discontent into rebellion, the first being the birth of James's son on 10 June 1688, which created the prospect of a Catholic dynasty. The second was James' prosecution of the Seven Bishops, which seemed to go beyond tolerance for Catholicism and actively attack the Church of England; their acquittal on 30 June caused widespread rejoicing throughout England and Scotland, and destroyed James's political authority. In 1685, many feared civil war if James were bypassed; by 1688, even the Earl of Sunderland, his chief minister, felt only his removal could prevent it. Sunderland secretly co-ordinated an Invitation to William, assuring Mary and her husband William of Orange of English support for armed intervention. William landed in Brixham on 5 November with 14,000 men; as he advanced, James's army deserted and he went into exile on 23 December. In February 1689, the English Parliament appointed William and Mary joint monarchs of England, while the Scots followed suit in March. Most of Ireland was still controlled by Tyrconnell, where James landed on 12 March 1689 with 6,000 French troops. The 1689 to 1691 Williamite War in Ireland highlighted two recurring trends; for James and his successors, the main prize was England, with Ireland and Scotland secondary to that, while the primary French objective was to absorb British resources, not necessarily restore the Stuarts. Elections in May 1689 produced the first Irish Parliament with a Catholic majority since 1613. It repealed the Cromwellian land seizures, confiscated land from Williamites, and proclaimed Ireland a 'distinct kingdom from England', measures annulled after defeat in 1691. A Jacobite rising in Scotland achieved some initial success but was ultimately suppressed. Several days after the Irish Jacobites were defeated at The Battle of the Boyne in July 1690, victory at Beachy Head gave the French temporary control of the English Channel. James returned to France to urge an immediate invasion of England, but the Anglo-Dutch fleet soon regained maritime supremacy, and the opportunity was lost. The Irish Jacobites and their French allies were finally defeated at the battle of Aughrim in 1691 and the Treaty of Limerick ended the war in Ireland; future risings on behalf of the exiled Stuarts were confined to England and Scotland. The 1701 Act of Settlement barred Catholics from the English throne, and when Anne became the last Stuart monarch in 1702, her heir was her Protestant cousin Sophia of Hanover, not her Catholic half-brother James. Ireland retained a separate Parliament until 1800, but the 1707 Union combined England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain. Anne viewed this as the unified Protestant kingdom which her predecessors had failed to achieve. The exiled Stuarts continued to agitate for a return to power, based on the support they retained within the three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland. Doing so required external help, most consistently supplied by France, while Spain backed the 1719 Rising. While talks were also held at different times with Sweden, Prussia, and Russia, these never produced concrete results. Although the Stuarts were useful as a lever, their foreign backers generally had little interest in their restoration. Ideology Historian Frank McLynn identifies seven primary drivers in Jacobitism, noting that while the movement contained "sincere men [..] who aimed solely to restore the Stuarts", it "provided a source of legitimacy for political dissent of all kinds". Establishing the ideology of active participants is complicated by the fact that "by and large, those who wrote most did not act, and those who acted wrote little, if anything." Later historians have characterised Jacobitism in a variety of ways, including as a revolutionary extension of anti-Court ideology; an aristocratic reaction against a growth in executive power; feudal opposition to the growth of capitalism; or as a product of nationalist feeling in Scotland and Ireland. Jacobitism's main ideological tenets drew on a political theology shared by High church Anglicans and Scots Episcopalians. They were, firstly, the divine right of kings, their accountability to God, not man or Parliament; secondly that monarchy was a divine institution; thirdly, the crown's descent by indefeasible hereditary right, which could not be overturned or annulled; and lastly the scriptural injunction of passive obedience and non-resistance, even towards monarchs of which the subject might disapprove. Jacobite propagandists argued such divinely sanctioned authority was the main moral safeguard of society, while its absence led to party strife. They claimed the 1688 Revolution had allowed self-interested minorities, such as Whigs, religious dissenters, and foreigners, to take control of the state and oppress the common people. However, views on the 'correct' balance of rights and duties between monarch and subject varied, and Jacobites attempted to distinguish between 'arbitrary' and 'absolute' power. Nonjuror Charles Leslie was perhaps the most extreme divine right theorist, although even he argued the monarch was bound by "his oath to God, as well as his promise to his people" and "the laws of justice and honour". Another common theme in Jacobite pamphlets was the implication that economic or other upheavals in England or Scotland were punishment for ejecting a divinely appointed monarch, although after 1710, their writers began blaming a "malevolent" Whig faction for exiling the Stuarts, rather than the nation collectively. Such sentiments were not always consistently held within the Jacobite community, or restricted to Jacobites alone: many Whigs and Church of England clergy also argued the post 1688 succession was "divinely ordained". After the Act of Settlement, Jacobite propagandists deemphasised the purely legitimist elements in their writing and by 1745, active promotion of hereditary and indefeasible right was restricted largely to a few Scots Episcopalians such as Lords Pitsligo and Balmerino. Instead they began to focus on populist themes such as opposition to a standing army, electoral corruption and social injustice. By the 1750s, Charles himself promised triannual parliaments, disbanding the army and legal guarantees on press freedom. Such tactics broadened their appeal but also carried risks, since they could always be undercut by a government prepared to offer similar concessions. The ongoing Stuart focus on England and regaining a united British throne led to tensions with their broader-based supporters in 1745, when the primary goal of most Scots Jacobites was ending the 1707 Union. This meant that following victory at Prestonpans in September, they preferred to negotiate, rather than invade England as Charles wanted. More generally, Jacobite theorists reflected a broader conservative current in Enlightenment thought, appealing to those attracted to a monarchist solution to perceived modern decadence. Populist songs and tracts presented the Stuarts as capable of correcting a wide range of ills and restoring social harmony, as well as contrasting Dutch and Hanoverian "foreigners" with a man who even in exile continued to consume English beef and beer. While particularly calculated to appeal to Tories, the wide range of themes adopted by Jacobite pamphleteers and agents periodically drew in disaffected Whigs and former radicals. Such "Whig-Jacobites" were highly valued by the exiled court, although many viewed James II as a potentially weak king from whom it would be easy to extract concessions in the event of a restoration. Jacobite supporters in the three kingdoms Ireland The role of Jacobitism in Irish political history is debated; some argue it was a broad-based popular movement and the main driver of Irish Catholic nationalism between 1688 and 1795. Others see it as part of "a pan-British movement, rooted in confessional and dynastic loyalties," very different from 19th century Irish nationalism. Historian Vincent Morely describes Irish Jacobitism as a distinctive ideology within the broader movement that "emphasised the Milesian ancestry of the Stuarts, their loyalty to Catholicism, and Ireland's status as a kingdom with a Crown of its own." In the first half of the 18th century, Jacobitism was "the primary allegiance of politically conscious Catholics". Irish Catholic support for James was based primarily on his religion and willingness to deliver their demands. In 1685, Gaelic poet Dáibhí Ó Bruadair celebrated his accession as ensuring the supremacy of Catholicism and the Irish language. Tyrconnell's expansion of the army by the creation of Catholic regiments was welcomed by Diarmuid Mac Carthaigh, as enabling the native Irish 'Tadhg' to be armed and to assert their dominance over "John" the English Protestant. Conversely, most Irish Protestants viewed his policies as designed to "utterly ruin the Protestant interest and the English interest in Ireland". This restricted Protestant Jacobitism to "doctrinaire clergymen, disgruntled Tory landowners and Catholic converts", who opposed Catholicism but still viewed James' removal as unlawful. A few Church of Ireland ministers refused to swear allegiance to the new regime and became Non-Jurors, the most famous being propagandist Charles Leslie. Although James viewed Ireland as a strategic dead-end, he was persuaded by Louis XIV it was the best place to launch a war, since the administration was controlled by Tyrconnell and the Jacobite cause popular among the
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experience of seeing his childhood memories reenacted and reinterpreted as bizarre. Ballard continued to write until the end of his life, and also contributed occasional journalism and criticism to the British press. Of his later novels, Super-Cannes (2000) was particularly well received, winning the regional Commonwealth Writers' Prize. These later novels often marked a move away from science fiction, instead engaging with elements of a traditional crime novel. Ballard was offered a CBE in 2003, but refused, calling it "a Ruritanian charade that helps to prop up our top-heavy monarchy". In June 2006, he was diagnosed with terminal prostate cancer, which metastasised to his spine and ribs. The last of his books published in his lifetime was the autobiography Miracles of Life, written after his diagnosis. His final published short story, "The Dying Fall", appeared in the 1996 issue 106 of Interzone, a British sci-fi magazine. It was reproduced in The Guardian on 25 April 2009. He was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery. Posthumous publication In October 2008, before his death, Ballard's literary agent, Margaret Hanbury, brought an outline for a book by Ballard with the working title Conversations with My Physician: The Meaning, if Any, of Life to the Frankfurt Book Fair. The physician in question is oncologist Professor Jonathan Waxman of Imperial College, London, who was treating Ballard for prostate cancer. While it was to be in part a book about cancer, and Ballard's struggle with it, it reportedly was to move on to broader themes. In April 2009 The Guardian reported that HarperCollins announced that Ballard's Conversations with My Physician could not be finished and plans to publish it were abandoned. In 2013, a 17-page untitled typescript listed as "Vermilion Sands short story in draft" in the British Library catalogue and edited into an 8,000-word text by Bernard Sigaud appeared in a short-lived French reissue of the collection () under the title "Le labyrinthe Hardoon" as the first story of the cycle, tentatively dated "late 1955/early 1956" by Sigaud and others. Archive In June 2010 the British Library acquired Ballard's personal archives under the British government's acceptance in lieu scheme for death duties. The archive contains eighteen holograph manuscripts for Ballard's novels, including the 840-page manuscript for Empire of the Sun, plus correspondence, notebooks, and photographs from throughout his life. In addition, two typewritten manuscripts for The Unlimited Dream Company are held at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin. Dystopian fiction With the exception of his autobiographical novels, Ballard most commonly wrote in the post-apocalyptic dystopia genre. His most celebrated novel in this regard is Crash, in which cars symbolise the mechanisation of the world and man's capacity to destroy himself with the technology he creates. The characters (the protagonist, called Ballard, included) become increasingly obsessed with the violent psychosexuality of car crashes in general, and celebrity car crashes in particular. Ballard's novel was turned into a controversial film by David Cronenberg. Particularly revered among Ballard's admirers is his short story collection Vermilion Sands (1971), set in an eponymous desert resort town inhabited by forgotten starlets, insane heirs, very eccentric artists, and the merchants and bizarre servants who provide for them. Each story features peculiarly exotic technology such as cloud-carving sculptors performing for a party of eccentric onlookers, poetry-composing computers, orchids with operatic voices and egos to match, phototropic self-painting canvases, etc. In keeping with Ballard's central themes, most notably technologically-mediated masochism, these tawdry and weird technologies service the dark and hidden desires and schemes of the human castaways who occupy Vermilion Sands, typically with psychologically grotesque and physically fatal results. In his introduction to Vermilion Sands, Ballard cites this as his favourite collection. In a similar vein, his collection Memories of the Space Age explores many varieties of individual and collective psychological fallout from—and initial deep archetypal motivations for—the American space exploration boom of the 1960s and 1970s. Will Self has described much of his fiction as being concerned with "idealised gated communities; the affluent, and the ennui of affluence [where] the virtualised world is concretised in the shape of these gated developments." He added in these fictional settings "there is no real pleasure to be gained; sex is commodified and devoid of feeling and there is no relationship with the natural world. These communities then implode into some form of violence." Budrys, however, mocked his fiction as "call[ing] for people who don't think ... to be the protagonist of a J. G. Ballard novel, or anything more than a very minor character therein, you must have cut yourself off from the entire body of scientific education". In addition to his novels, Ballard made extensive use of the short story form. Many of his earliest published works in the 1950s and 1960s were short stories, including influential works like Chronopolis. In an essay on Ballard, Will Wiles notes how his short stories "have a lingering fascination with the domestic interior, with furnishing and appliances", adding, "it's a landscape that he distorts until it shrieks with anxiety". He concludes that "what Ballard saw, and what he expressed in his novels, was nothing less than the effect that the technological world, including our built environment, was having upon our minds and bodies." Ballard coined the term inverted Crusoeism. Whereas the original Robinson Crusoe became a castaway against his own will, Ballard's protagonists often choose to maroon themselves; hence inverted Crusoeism (e.g., Concrete Island). The concept provides a reason as to why people would deliberately maroon themselves on a remote island; in Ballard's work, becoming a castaway is as much a healing and empowering process as an entrapping one, enabling people to discover a more meaningful and vital existence. Television On 13 December 1965, BBC Two screened an adaptation of the short story "Thirteen to Centaurus" directed by Peter Potter. The one-hour drama formed part of the first season of Out of the Unknown and starred Donald Houston as Dr. Francis and James Hunter as Abel Granger. In 2003, Ballard's short story "The Enormous Space" (first published in the science fiction magazine Interzone in 1989, subsequently printed in the collection of Ballard's short stories War Fever) was adapted into an hour-long television film for the BBC entitled Home by Richard Curson Smith, who also directed it. The plot follows a middle-class man who chooses to abandon the outside world and restrict himself to his house, becoming a hermit. Influence Ballard is cited as an important forebear of the cyberpunk movement by Bruce Sterling in his introduction to the seminal Mirrorshades anthology, and by author William Gibson. Ballard's parody of American politics, the pamphlet "Why I Want to Fuck Ronald Reagan", which was subsequently included as a chapter in his experimental novel The Atrocity Exhibition, was photocopied and distributed by pranksters at the 1980 Republican National Convention. In the early 1970s, Bill Butler, a bookseller in Brighton, was prosecuted under UK obscenity laws for selling the pamphlet. In his 2002 book Straw Dogs, the philosopher John Gray acknowledges Ballard as a major influence on his ideas. Ballard described the book as a "clear-eyed assessment of human nature and our almost unlimited gift for self-delusion". According to literary theorist Brian McHale, The Atrocity Exhibition is a "postmodernist text based on science fiction topoi". Lee Killough directly cites Ballard's seminal Vermilion Sands short stories as the inspiration for her collection Aventine, also a backwater resort for celebrities and eccentrics where bizarre or frivolous novelty technology facilitates the expression of dark intents and drives. Terry Dowling's milieu of Twilight Beach is also influenced by the stories of Vermilion Sands and other Ballard works. In Simulacra and Simulation, Jean Baudrillard hailed Crash as the "first great novel of the universe of simulation". Ballard also had an interest in the relationship between various media. In the early 1970s, he was one of the trustees of the Institute for Research in Art and Technology. In popular music Ballard has had a notable influence on popular music, where his work has been used as a basis for lyrical imagery, particularly amongst British post-punk and industrial groups. Examples include albums such as Metamatic by John Foxx, various songs by Joy Division (most famously "Atrocity Exhibition" from Closer and "Interzone" from Unknown Pleasures), "High Rise" by Hawkwind, "Miss the Girl" by The Creatures (based on Crash), "Down in the Park" by Gary Numan, "Chrome Injury" by The Church, "Drowned World" by Madonna, "Warm Leatherette" by The Normal and Atrocity Exhibition by Danny Brown. Songwriters Trevor Horn and Bruce Woolley credit Ballard's story "The Sound-Sweep" with inspiring The Buggles' hit "Video Killed the Radio Star", and the Buggles' second album included a song entitled "Vermillion Sands". The 1978 post-punk band Comsat Angels took their name from one of Ballard's short stories. An early instrumental track by British electronic music group The Human League "4JG" bears Ballard's initials as a homage to the author (intended as a response to "2HB" by Roxy Music). Manic Street Preachers include a sample from an interview with Ballard in their song "Mausoleum". Additionally, the Manic Street Preachers song, "A Billion Balconies Facing the Sun", is taken from a line in the JG Ballard novel, Cocaine Nights. Klaxons named their debut album Myths of the Near Future after one of Ballard's short story collections. The band Empire of the Sun took their name from Ballard's novel. The Sound of Animals Fighting took the name of the song "The Heraldic Beak of the Manufacturer's Medallion" from Crash. UK based Drum and Bass producer Fortitude released an EP in 2016 called "Kline Coma Xero" named after characters in The Atrocity Exhibition. The song "Terminal Beach" by the American band Yacht is a tribute to his short story collection that goes by the same name.. US indie musician and comic book artist Jeffrey Lewis mentions Ballard by name in his song "Cult Boyfriend", on the record "A Turn in The Dream-Songs" (2011), in reference to Ballard's Cult following as an author. Awards and honours 1984 Guardian Fiction Prize for Empire of the Sun 1984 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction for Empire of the Sun 1984 Empire of the Sun shortlisted for the Booker Prize for Fiction 1997 De Montfort University Honorary doctorate. 2001 Commonwealth Writers' Prize (Europe & South Asia region) for Super-Cannes 2008 Golden PEN Award 2009 Royal Holloway University of London Posthumous honorary doctorate. Works Novels Short story collections Non-fiction A User's Guide to the Millennium: Essays and Reviews (1996) Miracles of Life (autobiography; 2008) Interviews Paris Review – J.G. Ballard (1984) Re/Search No. 8/9: J.G. Ballard (1985) J.G. Ballard: Quotes (2004) J.G. Ballard: Conversations (2005) Extreme Metaphors (interviews; 2012) Adaptations Films When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth (1970 Val Guest) Empire of the Sun (1987 Steven Spielberg) Crash (1996 David Cronenberg) The Atrocity Exhibition (2000 Jonathan Weiss) Low-Flying Aircraft (2002 Solveig Nordlund) High-Rise (2015 Ben Wheatley) Television "Thirteen to Centaurus" (1965) from the short story of the same name – dir. Peter Potter (BBC Two) Crash! (1971) dir. Harley Cokliss "Minus One" (1991) from the story of the same name – short film dir. by Simon Brooks. "Home" (2003) primarily based on "The Enormous Space" – dir. Richard Curson Smith (BBC Four) "The Drowned Giant" (2021) from the short story of the same name, as an
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short film in which he appeared with Gabrielle Drake in 1971. His fascination with the topic culminated in the novel Crash in 1973. The main character of Crash is called James Ballard and lives in Shepperton, though other biographical details do not match the writer, and curiosity about the relationship between the character and his author increased when Ballard suffered a serious automobile accident shortly after completing the novel. Regardless of real-life basis, Crash, like The Atrocity Exhibition, was also controversial upon publication. In 1996, the film adaptation by David Cronenberg was met by a tabloid uproar in the UK, with the Daily Mail campaigning actively for it to be banned. In the years following the initial publication of Crash, Ballard produced two further novels: 1974's Concrete Island, about a man who becomes stranded in the waste area of a high-speed motorway, and High-Rise, about a modern luxury high rise apartment building's descent into tribal warfare. Although Ballard published several novels and short story collections throughout the 1970s and 1980s, his breakthrough into the mainstream came only with Empire of the Sun in 1984, based on his years in Shanghai and the Lunghua internment camp. It became a best-seller, was shortlisted for the Booker Prize and awarded the Guardian Fiction Prize and James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction. It made Ballard known to a wider audience, although the books that followed failed to achieve the same degree of success. Empire of the Sun was filmed by Steven Spielberg in 1987, starring a young Christian Bale as Jim (Ballard). Ballard himself appears briefly in the film, and he has described the experience of seeing his childhood memories reenacted and reinterpreted as bizarre. Ballard continued to write until the end of his life, and also contributed occasional journalism and criticism to the British press. Of his later novels, Super-Cannes (2000) was particularly well received, winning the regional Commonwealth Writers' Prize. These later novels often marked a move away from science fiction, instead engaging with elements of a traditional crime novel. Ballard was offered a CBE in 2003, but refused, calling it "a Ruritanian charade that helps to prop up our top-heavy monarchy". In June 2006, he was diagnosed with terminal prostate cancer, which metastasised to his spine and ribs. The last of his books published in his lifetime was the autobiography Miracles of Life, written after his diagnosis. His final published short story, "The Dying Fall", appeared in the 1996 issue 106 of Interzone, a British sci-fi magazine. It was reproduced in The Guardian on 25 April 2009. He was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery. Posthumous publication In October 2008, before his death, Ballard's literary agent, Margaret Hanbury, brought an outline for a book by Ballard with the working title Conversations with My Physician: The Meaning, if Any, of Life to the Frankfurt Book Fair. The physician in question is oncologist Professor Jonathan Waxman of Imperial College, London, who was treating Ballard for prostate cancer. While it was to be in part a book about cancer, and Ballard's struggle with it, it reportedly was to move on to broader themes. In April 2009 The Guardian reported that HarperCollins announced that Ballard's Conversations with My Physician could not be finished and plans to publish it were abandoned. In 2013, a 17-page untitled typescript listed as "Vermilion Sands short story in draft" in the British Library catalogue and edited into an 8,000-word text by Bernard Sigaud appeared in a short-lived French reissue of the collection () under the title "Le labyrinthe Hardoon" as the first story of the cycle, tentatively dated "late 1955/early 1956" by Sigaud and others. Archive In June 2010 the British Library acquired Ballard's personal archives under the British government's acceptance in lieu scheme for death duties. The archive contains eighteen holograph manuscripts for Ballard's novels, including the 840-page manuscript for Empire of the Sun, plus correspondence, notebooks, and photographs from throughout his life. In addition, two typewritten manuscripts for The Unlimited Dream Company are held at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin. Dystopian fiction With the exception of his autobiographical novels, Ballard most commonly wrote in the post-apocalyptic dystopia genre. His most celebrated novel in this regard is Crash, in which cars symbolise the mechanisation of the world and man's capacity to destroy himself with the technology he creates. The characters (the protagonist, called Ballard, included) become increasingly obsessed with the violent psychosexuality of car crashes in general, and celebrity car crashes in particular. Ballard's novel was turned into a controversial film by David Cronenberg. Particularly revered among Ballard's admirers is his short story collection Vermilion Sands (1971), set in an eponymous desert resort town inhabited by forgotten starlets, insane heirs, very eccentric artists, and the merchants and bizarre servants who provide for them. Each story features peculiarly exotic technology such as cloud-carving sculptors performing for a party of eccentric onlookers, poetry-composing computers, orchids with operatic voices and egos to match, phototropic self-painting canvases, etc. In keeping with Ballard's central themes, most notably technologically-mediated masochism, these tawdry and weird technologies service the dark and hidden desires and schemes of the human castaways who occupy Vermilion Sands, typically with psychologically grotesque and physically fatal results. In his introduction to Vermilion Sands, Ballard cites this as his favourite collection. In a similar vein, his collection Memories of the Space Age explores many varieties of individual and collective psychological fallout from—and initial deep archetypal motivations for—the American space exploration boom of the 1960s and 1970s. Will Self has described much of his fiction as being concerned with "idealised gated communities; the affluent, and the ennui of affluence [where] the virtualised world is concretised in the shape of these gated developments." He added in these fictional settings "there is no real pleasure to be gained; sex is commodified and devoid of feeling and there is no relationship with the natural world. These communities then implode into some form of violence." Budrys, however, mocked his fiction as "call[ing] for people who don't think ... to be the protagonist of a J. G. Ballard novel, or anything more than a very minor character therein, you must have cut yourself off from the entire body of scientific education". In addition to his novels, Ballard made extensive use of the short story form. Many of his earliest published works in the 1950s and 1960s were short stories, including influential works like Chronopolis. In an essay on Ballard, Will Wiles notes how his short stories "have a lingering fascination with the domestic interior, with furnishing and appliances", adding, "it's a landscape that he distorts until it shrieks with anxiety". He concludes that "what Ballard saw, and what he expressed in his novels, was nothing less than the effect that the technological world, including our built environment, was having upon our minds and bodies." Ballard coined the term inverted Crusoeism. Whereas the original Robinson Crusoe became a castaway against his own will, Ballard's protagonists often choose to maroon themselves; hence inverted Crusoeism (e.g., Concrete Island). The concept provides a reason as to why people would deliberately maroon themselves on a remote island; in Ballard's work, becoming a castaway is as much a healing and empowering process as an entrapping one, enabling people to discover a more meaningful and vital existence. Television On 13 December 1965, BBC Two screened an adaptation of the short story "Thirteen to Centaurus" directed by Peter Potter. The one-hour drama formed part of the first season of Out of the Unknown and starred Donald Houston as Dr. Francis and James Hunter as Abel Granger. In 2003, Ballard's short story "The Enormous Space" (first published in the science fiction magazine Interzone in 1989, subsequently printed in the collection of Ballard's short stories War Fever) was adapted into an hour-long television film for the BBC entitled Home by Richard Curson Smith, who also directed it. The plot follows a middle-class man who chooses to abandon the outside world and restrict himself to his house, becoming a hermit. Influence Ballard is cited as an important forebear of the cyberpunk movement by Bruce Sterling in his introduction to the seminal Mirrorshades anthology, and by author William Gibson. Ballard's parody of American politics, the pamphlet "Why I Want to Fuck Ronald Reagan", which was subsequently included as a chapter in his experimental novel The Atrocity Exhibition, was photocopied and distributed by pranksters at the 1980 Republican National Convention. In the early 1970s, Bill Butler, a bookseller in Brighton, was prosecuted under UK obscenity laws for selling the pamphlet. In his 2002 book Straw Dogs, the philosopher John Gray acknowledges Ballard as a major influence on his ideas. Ballard described the book as a "clear-eyed assessment of human nature and our almost unlimited gift for self-delusion". According to literary theorist Brian McHale, The Atrocity Exhibition is a "postmodernist text based on science fiction topoi". Lee Killough directly cites Ballard's seminal Vermilion Sands short stories as the inspiration for her collection Aventine, also a backwater resort for celebrities and eccentrics where bizarre or frivolous novelty technology facilitates the expression of dark intents and drives. Terry Dowling's milieu of Twilight Beach is also influenced by the stories of Vermilion Sands and other Ballard works. In Simulacra and Simulation, Jean Baudrillard hailed Crash as the "first great novel of the universe of simulation". Ballard also had an interest in the relationship between various media. In the early 1970s, he was one of the trustees of the Institute for Research in Art and Technology. In popular music Ballard has had a notable influence on popular music, where his work has been used as a basis for lyrical imagery, particularly amongst British post-punk and industrial groups. Examples include albums such as Metamatic by John Foxx, various songs by Joy Division (most famously "Atrocity Exhibition" from Closer and "Interzone" from Unknown Pleasures), "High Rise" by Hawkwind, "Miss the Girl" by The Creatures (based on Crash), "Down in the Park" by Gary Numan, "Chrome Injury" by The Church, "Drowned World" by Madonna, "Warm Leatherette" by The Normal and Atrocity Exhibition by Danny Brown. Songwriters Trevor Horn and Bruce Woolley credit Ballard's story "The Sound-Sweep" with inspiring The Buggles' hit "Video Killed the Radio Star", and the Buggles' second album included a song entitled "Vermillion Sands". The 1978 post-punk band Comsat Angels took their name from one of Ballard's short stories. An early instrumental track by British electronic music group The Human League "4JG" bears Ballard's initials as a homage to the author (intended as a response to "2HB" by Roxy Music). Manic Street Preachers include a sample from an interview with Ballard in their song "Mausoleum". Additionally, the Manic Street Preachers song, "A Billion Balconies Facing the Sun", is taken from a line in the JG Ballard novel, Cocaine Nights. Klaxons named their debut album Myths of the Near Future after one of Ballard's short story collections. The band Empire of the Sun took their name from Ballard's novel. The Sound of Animals Fighting took the name of the song "The Heraldic Beak of the Manufacturer's Medallion" from Crash. UK based Drum and Bass producer Fortitude released an EP in 2016 called "Kline Coma Xero" named after characters in The Atrocity Exhibition. The song "Terminal Beach" by the American
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until the mid-19th century. As newspaper publication became a more and more established practice, publishers would increase publication to a weekly or daily rate. Newspapers were more heavily concentrated in cities that were centres of trade, such as Amsterdam, London, and Berlin. The first newspapers in Latin America would be established in the mid-to-late 19th century. News media and the revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries Newspapers played a significant role in mobilizing popular support in favor of the liberal revolutions of the late 18th and 19th centuries. In the American Colonies, newspapers motivated people to revolt against British rule by publishing grievances against the British crown and republishing pamphlets by revolutionaries such as Thomas Paine, while loyalist publications motivated support against the American Revolution. News publications in the United States would remain proudly and publicly partisan throughout the 19th century. In France, political newspapers sprang up during the French Revolution, with L'Ami du peuple, edited by Jean-Paul Marat, playing a particularly famous role in arguing for the rights of the revolutionary lower classes. Napoleon would reintroduce strict censorship laws in 1800, but after his reign print publications would flourish and play an important role in political culture. As part of the Revolutions of 1848, radical liberal publications such as the Rheinische Zeitung, Pesti Hírlap, and Morgenbladet would motivate people toward deposing the aristocratic governments of Central Europe. Other liberal publications played a more moderate role: The Russian Bulletin praised Alexander II of Russia's liberal reforms in the late 19th century, and supported increased political and economic freedoms for peasants as well as the establishment of a parliamentary system in Russia. Farther to the left, socialist and communist newspapers had wide followings in France, Russia and Germany despite being outlawed by the government. Early 20th century China Journalism in China before 1910 primarily served the international community. The overthrow of the old imperial regime in 1911 produced a surge in Chinese nationalism, an end to censorship, and a demand for professional, nation-wide journalism. All the major cities launched such efforts. By the late 1920s, however, there was a much greater emphasis on advertising and expanding circulation, and much less interest in the sort of advocacy journalism that had inspired the revolutionaries. France The Parisian newspapers were largely stagnant after the First World War; circulation inched up to six million a day from five million in 1910. The major postwar success story was Paris Soir; which lacked any political agenda and was dedicated to providing a mix of sensational reporting to aid circulation, and serious articles to build prestige. By 1939 its circulation was over 1.7 million, double that of its nearest rival the tabloid Le Petit Parisien. In addition to its daily paper Paris Soir sponsored a highly successful women's magazine Marie-Claire. Another magazine Match was modeled after the photojournalism of the American magazine Life. Great Britain By 1900 popular journalism in Britain aimed at the largest possible audience, including the working class, had proven a success and made its profits through advertising. Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe (1865–1922), "More than anyone... shaped the modern press. Developments he introduced or harnessed remain central: broad contents, exploitation of advertising revenue to subsidize prices, aggressive marketing, subordinate regional markets, independence from party control. His Daily Mail held the world record for daily circulation until his death. Prime Minister Lord Salisbury quipped it was "written by office boys for office boys". Described as "the scoop of the century", as a rookie journalist for The Daily Telegraph in 1939 Clare Hollingworth was the first to report the outbreak of World War II. While travelling from Poland to Germany, she spotted and reported German forces massed on the Polish border; The Daily Telegraph headline read: "1,000 tanks massed on Polish border "; three days later she was the first to report the German invasion of Poland. During World War II, George Orwell worked as a journalist at The Observer for seven years, and its editor David Astor gave a copy of Orwell’s essay "Politics and the English Language"—a critique of vague, slovenly language—to every new recruit. In 2003, literary editor at the newspaper Robert McCrum wrote, "Even now, it is quoted in our style book". India The first newspaper of India, Hicky's Bengal Gazette, was published on 29 January 1780. This first effort at journalism enjoyed only a short stint yet it was a momentous development, as it gave birth to modern journalism in India. Following Hicky's efforts which had to be shut down just within two years of circulation, several English newspapers started publication in the aftermath. Most of them enjoyed a circulation figure of about 400 and were weeklies giving personal news items and classified advertisements about a variety of products. Later on, in the 1800s, English newspapers were started by Indian publishers with English-speaking Indians as the target audience. During that era vast differences in language was a major problem in facilitating smooth communication among the people of the country. This is because they hardly knew the languages prevalent in other parts of this vast land. However, English became a lingua franca across the country. Notable among this breed is the one named 'Bengal Gazette' started by Gangadhar Bhattacharyya in 1816. United States The late 19th and early 20th century in the United States saw the advent of media empires controlled by the likes of William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer. Realizing that they could expand their audience by abandoning politically polarized content, thus making more money off of advertising, American newspapers began to abandon their partisan politics in favor of less political reporting starting around 1900. Newspapers of this era embraced sensationalized reporting and larger headline typefaces and layouts, a style that would become dubbed "yellow journalism". Newspaper publishing became much more heavily professionalized in this era, and issues of writing quality and workroom discipline saw vast improvement. This era saw the establishment of freedom of the press as a legal norm, as President Theodore Roosevelt tried and failed to sue newspapers for reporting corruption in his handling of the purchase of the Panama Canal. Still, critics note that although government's ability to suppress journalistic speech is heavily limited, the concentration of newspaper (and general media) ownership in the hands of a small number of private business owners leads to other biases in reporting and media self-censorship that benefits the interests of corporations and the government. African-American press The rampant discrimination and segregation against African-Americans led to the founding their own daily and weekly newspapers, especially in large cities. While the first Black newspapers in America were established in the early 19th century, in the 20th century these newspapers truly flourished in major cities, with publishers playing a major role in politics and business affairs. Representative leaders included Robert Sengstacke Abbott (1870–1940), publisher of the Chicago Defender; John Mitchell, Jr. (1863–1929), editor of the Richmond Planet and president of the National Afro-American Press Association; Anthony Overton (1865–1946), publisher of the Chicago Bee, and Robert Lee Vann (1879–1940), the publisher and editor of the Pittsburgh Courier. College Although it is not completely necessary to have attended college to be a journalist, over the past few years it has become more common to attend. With this becoming more popular, jobs are starting to require a degree to be hired. As it is a very popular degree in 2021, the first school of Journalism opened as part of the University of Missouri in 1908. In the History Of Journalism page, it goes into depth on how journalism has evolved into what it is today. As of right now, there are a couple different routes one can take if interested in journalism. If one wanting to expand their skills as a journalist, there are many college courses and workshops one can take. If going the full college route, the average time is takes to graduate with a journalism degree is 4 years. The top 5 ranked journalism schools in the US for the school year of 2022 are: 1. Washington and Lee University. 2. Northwestern University. 3. Georgetown University. 4. Columbia University in the City of New York. 5. University of Wisconsin - Madison. Writing for experts or for ordinary citizens In the 1920s in the United States, as newspapers dropped their blatant partisanship in search of new subscribers, political analyst Walter Lippmann and philosopher John Dewey debated the role of journalism in a democracy. Their differing philosophies still characterize an ongoing debate about the role of journalism in society. Lippmann's views prevailed for decades, helping to bolster the Progressives' confidence in decision-making by experts, with the general public standing by. Lippmann argued that high-powered journalism was wasted on ordinary citizens, but was of genuine value to an elite class of administrators and experts. Dewey, on the other hand, believed not only that the public was capable of understanding the issues created or responded to by the elite, but also that it was in the public forum that decisions should be made after discussion and debate. When issues were thoroughly vetted, then the best ideas would bubble to the surface. The danger of demagoguery and false news did not trouble Dewey. His faith in popular democracy has been implemented in various degrees, and is now known as "community journalism". The 1920s debate has been endlessly repeated across the globe, as journalists wrestle with their roles. Radio Radio broadcasting increased in popularity starting in the 1920s, becoming widespread in the 1930s. While most radio programming was oriented toward music, sports, and entertainment, radio also broadcast speeches and occasional news programming. Radio reached the peak of its importance during World War II, as radio and newsreels were major sources of up-to-date information on the ongoing war. In the Soviet Union, radio would be heavily utilized by the state to broadcast political speeches by leadership. These broadcasts would very rarely have any additional editorial content or analysis, setting them apart from modern news reporting. The radio would however soon be eclipsed by broadcast television starting in the 1950s. Television Starting in the 1940s, United States broadcast television channels would air 10-to-15-minute segments of news programming one or two times per evening. The era of live-TV news coverage would begin in the 1960s with the assassination of John F. Kennedy, broadcast and reported to live on a variety of nationally syndicated television channels. During the 60s and 70s, television channels would begin adding regular morning or midday news shows. Starting in 1980 with the establishment of CNN, news channels began providing 24-hour news coverage, a format which persists through today. Digital age The role and status of journalism, as well as mass media, has undergone changes over the last two decades, together with the advancement of digital technology and publication of news on the Internet. This has created a shift in the consumption of print media channels, as people increasingly consume news through e-readers, smartphones, and other electronic devices. News organizations are challenged to fully monetize their digital wing, as well as improvise on the context in which they publish in print. Newspapers have seen print revenues sink at a faster pace than the rate of
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the Rheinische Zeitung, Pesti Hírlap, and Morgenbladet would motivate people toward deposing the aristocratic governments of Central Europe. Other liberal publications played a more moderate role: The Russian Bulletin praised Alexander II of Russia's liberal reforms in the late 19th century, and supported increased political and economic freedoms for peasants as well as the establishment of a parliamentary system in Russia. Farther to the left, socialist and communist newspapers had wide followings in France, Russia and Germany despite being outlawed by the government. Early 20th century China Journalism in China before 1910 primarily served the international community. The overthrow of the old imperial regime in 1911 produced a surge in Chinese nationalism, an end to censorship, and a demand for professional, nation-wide journalism. All the major cities launched such efforts. By the late 1920s, however, there was a much greater emphasis on advertising and expanding circulation, and much less interest in the sort of advocacy journalism that had inspired the revolutionaries. France The Parisian newspapers were largely stagnant after the First World War; circulation inched up to six million a day from five million in 1910. The major postwar success story was Paris Soir; which lacked any political agenda and was dedicated to providing a mix of sensational reporting to aid circulation, and serious articles to build prestige. By 1939 its circulation was over 1.7 million, double that of its nearest rival the tabloid Le Petit Parisien. In addition to its daily paper Paris Soir sponsored a highly successful women's magazine Marie-Claire. Another magazine Match was modeled after the photojournalism of the American magazine Life. Great Britain By 1900 popular journalism in Britain aimed at the largest possible audience, including the working class, had proven a success and made its profits through advertising. Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe (1865–1922), "More than anyone... shaped the modern press. Developments he introduced or harnessed remain central: broad contents, exploitation of advertising revenue to subsidize prices, aggressive marketing, subordinate regional markets, independence from party control. His Daily Mail held the world record for daily circulation until his death. Prime Minister Lord Salisbury quipped it was "written by office boys for office boys". Described as "the scoop of the century", as a rookie journalist for The Daily Telegraph in 1939 Clare Hollingworth was the first to report the outbreak of World War II. While travelling from Poland to Germany, she spotted and reported German forces massed on the Polish border; The Daily Telegraph headline read: "1,000 tanks massed on Polish border "; three days later she was the first to report the German invasion of Poland. During World War II, George Orwell worked as a journalist at The Observer for seven years, and its editor David Astor gave a copy of Orwell’s essay "Politics and the English Language"—a critique of vague, slovenly language—to every new recruit. In 2003, literary editor at the newspaper Robert McCrum wrote, "Even now, it is quoted in our style book". India The first newspaper of India, Hicky's Bengal Gazette, was published on 29 January 1780. This first effort at journalism enjoyed only a short stint yet it was a momentous development, as it gave birth to modern journalism in India. Following Hicky's efforts which had to be shut down just within two years of circulation, several English newspapers started publication in the aftermath. Most of them enjoyed a circulation figure of about 400 and were weeklies giving personal news items and classified advertisements about a variety of products. Later on, in the 1800s, English newspapers were started by Indian publishers with English-speaking Indians as the target audience. During that era vast differences in language was a major problem in facilitating smooth communication among the people of the country. This is because they hardly knew the languages prevalent in other parts of this vast land. However, English became a lingua franca across the country. Notable among this breed is the one named 'Bengal Gazette' started by Gangadhar Bhattacharyya in 1816. United States The late 19th and early 20th century in the United States saw the advent of media empires controlled by the likes of William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer. Realizing that they could expand their audience by abandoning politically polarized content, thus making more money off of advertising, American newspapers began to abandon their partisan politics in favor of less political reporting starting around 1900. Newspapers of this era embraced sensationalized reporting and larger headline typefaces and layouts, a style that would become dubbed "yellow journalism". Newspaper publishing became much more heavily professionalized in this era, and issues of writing quality and workroom discipline saw vast improvement. This era saw the establishment of freedom of the press as a legal norm, as President Theodore Roosevelt tried and failed to sue newspapers for reporting corruption in his handling of the purchase of the Panama Canal. Still, critics note that although government's ability to suppress journalistic speech is heavily limited, the concentration of newspaper (and general media) ownership in the hands of a small number of private business owners leads to other biases in reporting and media self-censorship that benefits the interests of corporations and the government. African-American press The rampant discrimination and segregation against African-Americans led to the founding their own daily and weekly newspapers, especially in large cities. While the first Black newspapers in America were established in the early 19th century, in the 20th century these newspapers truly flourished in major cities, with publishers playing a major role in politics and business affairs. Representative leaders included Robert Sengstacke Abbott (1870–1940), publisher of the Chicago Defender; John Mitchell, Jr. (1863–1929), editor of the Richmond Planet and president of the National Afro-American Press Association; Anthony Overton (1865–1946), publisher of the Chicago Bee, and Robert Lee Vann (1879–1940), the publisher and editor of the Pittsburgh Courier. College Although it is not completely necessary to have attended college to be a journalist, over the past few years it has become more common to attend. With this becoming more popular, jobs are starting to require a degree to be hired. As it is a very popular degree in 2021, the first school of Journalism opened as part of the University of Missouri in 1908. In the History Of Journalism page, it goes into depth on how journalism has evolved into what it is today. As of right now, there are a couple different routes one can take if interested in journalism. If one wanting to expand their skills as a journalist, there are many college courses and workshops one can take. If going the full college route, the average time is takes to graduate with a journalism degree is 4 years. The top 5 ranked journalism schools in the US for the school year of 2022 are: 1. Washington and Lee University. 2. Northwestern University. 3. Georgetown University. 4. Columbia University in the City of New York. 5. University of Wisconsin - Madison. Writing for experts or for ordinary citizens In the 1920s in the United States, as newspapers dropped their blatant partisanship in search of new subscribers, political analyst Walter Lippmann and philosopher John Dewey debated the role of journalism in a democracy. Their differing philosophies still characterize an ongoing debate about the role of journalism in society. Lippmann's views prevailed for decades, helping to bolster the Progressives' confidence in decision-making by experts, with the general public standing by. Lippmann argued that high-powered journalism was wasted on ordinary citizens, but was of genuine value to an elite class of administrators and experts. Dewey, on the other hand, believed not only that the public was capable of understanding the issues created or responded to by the elite, but also that it was in the public forum that decisions should be made after discussion and debate. When issues were thoroughly vetted, then the best ideas would bubble to the surface. The danger of demagoguery and false news did not trouble Dewey. His faith in popular democracy has been implemented in various degrees, and is now known as "community journalism". The 1920s debate has been endlessly repeated across the globe, as journalists wrestle with their roles. Radio Radio broadcasting increased in popularity starting in the 1920s, becoming widespread in the 1930s. While most radio programming was oriented toward music, sports, and entertainment, radio also broadcast speeches and occasional news programming. Radio reached the peak of its importance during World War II, as radio and newsreels were major sources of up-to-date information on the ongoing war. In the Soviet Union, radio would be heavily utilized by the state to broadcast political speeches by leadership. These broadcasts would very rarely have any additional editorial content or analysis, setting them apart from modern news reporting. The radio would however soon be eclipsed by broadcast television starting in the 1950s. Television Starting in the 1940s, United States broadcast television channels would air 10-to-15-minute segments of news programming one or two times per evening. The era of live-TV news coverage would begin in the 1960s with the assassination of John F. Kennedy, broadcast and reported to live on a variety of nationally syndicated television channels. During the 60s and 70s, television channels would begin adding regular morning or midday news shows. Starting in 1980 with the establishment of CNN, news channels began providing 24-hour news coverage, a format which persists through today. Digital age The role and status of journalism, as well as mass media, has undergone changes over the last two decades, together with the advancement of digital technology and publication of news on the Internet. This has created a shift in the consumption of print media channels, as people increasingly consume news through e-readers, smartphones, and other electronic devices. News organizations are challenged to fully monetize their digital wing, as well as improvise on the context in which they publish in print. Newspapers have seen print revenues sink at a faster pace than the rate of growth for digital revenues. Notably, in the American media landscape,
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waved it over the crowd, which gave the appearance that he was taking power and initiating a coup d'état. The insurrection was soon over when another syndic appeared and ordered Perrin to go with him to the town hall. Perrin and other leaders were forced to flee the city. With the approval of Calvin, the other plotters who remained in the city were found and executed. The opposition to Calvin's church polity came to an end. Final years (1555–1564) Calvin's authority was practically uncontested during his final years, and he enjoyed an international reputation as a reformer distinct from Martin Luther. Initially, Luther and Calvin had mutual respect for each other. A doctrinal conflict had developed between Luther and Zurich reformer Huldrych Zwingli on the interpretation of the eucharist. Calvin's opinion on the issue forced Luther to place him in Zwingli's camp. Calvin actively participated in the polemics that were exchanged between the Lutheran and Reformed branches of the Reformation movement. At the same time, Calvin was dismayed by the lack of unity among the reformers. He took steps toward rapprochement with Bullinger by signing the Consensus Tigurinus, a concordat between the Zurich and Geneva churches. He reached out to England when Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer called for an ecumenical synod of all the evangelical churches. Calvin praised the idea, but ultimately Cranmer was unable to bring it to fruition. Calvin sheltered Marian exiles (those who fled the reign of Catholic Mary Tudor in England) in Geneva starting in 1555. Under the city's protection, they were able to form their own reformed church under John Knox and William Whittingham and eventually carried Calvin's ideas on doctrine and polity back to England and Scotland. Within Geneva, Calvin's main concern was the creation of a collège, an institute for the education of children. A site for the school was selected on 25 March 1558 and it opened the following year on 5 June 1559. Although the school was a single institution, it was divided into two parts: a grammar school called the collège or schola privata and an advanced school called the académie or schola publica. Calvin tried to recruit two professors for the institute, Mathurin Cordier, his old friend and Latin scholar who was now based in Lausanne, and Emmanuel Tremellius, the former Regius professor of Hebrew in Cambridge. Neither was available, but he succeeded in obtaining Theodore Beza as rector. Within five years there were 1,200 students in the grammar school and 300 in the advanced school. The collège eventually became the Collège Calvin, one of the college preparatory schools of Geneva; the académie became the University of Geneva. Impact on France Calvin was deeply committed to reforming his homeland, France. The Protestant movement had been energetic, but lacked central organizational direction. With financial support from the church in Geneva, Calvin turned his enormous energies toward uplifting the French Protestant cause. As one historian explains: He supplied the dogma, the liturgy, and the moral ideas of the new religion, and he also created ecclesiastical, political, and social institutions in harmony with it. A born leader, he followed up his work with personal appeals. His vast correspondence with French Protestants shows not only much zeal but infinite pains and considerable tact and driving home the lessons of his printed treatises. Between 1555 and 1562, more than 100 ministers were sent to France. Nevertheless French King Henry II severely persecuted Protestants under the Edict of Chateaubriand and when the French authorities complained about the missionary activities, the city fathers of Geneva disclaimed official responsibility. Last illness In late 1558, Calvin became ill with a fever. Since he was afraid that he might die before completing the final revision of the Institutes, he forced himself to work. The final edition was greatly expanded to the extent that Calvin referred to it as a new work. The expansion from the 21 chapters of the previous edition to 80 was due to the extended treatment of existing material rather than the addition of new topics. Shortly after he recovered, he strained his voice while preaching, which brought on a violent fit of coughing. He burst a blood-vessel in his lungs, and his health steadily declined. He preached his final sermon in St. Pierre on 6 February 1564. On 25 April, he made his will, in which he left small sums to his family and to the collège. A few days later, the ministers of the church came to visit him, and he bade his final farewell, which was recorded in Discours d'adieu aux ministres. He recounted his life in Geneva, sometimes recalling bitterly some of the hardships he had suffered. Calvin died on 27 May 1564 aged 54. At first his body lay in state, but since so many people came to see it, the reformers were afraid that they would be accused of fostering a new saint's cult. On the following day, he was buried in an unmarked grave in the Cimetière des Rois. The exact location of the grave is unknown; a stone was added in the 19th century to mark a grave traditionally thought to be Calvin's. Theology Calvin developed his theology in his biblical commentaries as well as his sermons and treatises, but the most comprehensive expression of his views is found in his magnum opus, the Institutes of the Christian Religion. He intended that the book be used as a summary of his views on Christian theology and that it be read in conjunction with his commentaries. The various editions of that work spanned nearly his entire career as a reformer, and the successive revisions of the book show that his theology changed very little from his youth to his death. The first edition from 1536 consisted of only six chapters. The second edition, published in 1539, was three times as long because he added chapters on subjects that appear in Melanchthon's Loci Communes. In 1543, he again added new material and expanded a chapter on the Apostles' Creed. The final edition of the Institutes appeared in 1559. By then, the work consisted of four books of eighty chapters, and each book was named after statements from the creed: Book 1 on God the Creator, Book 2 on the Redeemer in Christ, Book 3 on receiving the Grace of Christ through the Holy Spirit, and Book 4 on the Society of Christ or the Church. The first statement in the Institutes acknowledges its central theme. It states that the sum of human wisdom consists of two parts: the knowledge of God and of ourselves. Calvin argues that the knowledge of God is not inherent in humanity nor can it be discovered by observing this world. The only way to obtain it is to study scripture. Calvin writes, "For anyone to arrive at God the Creator he needs Scripture as his Guide and Teacher." He does not try to prove the authority of scripture but rather describes it as autopiston or self-authenticating. He defends the trinitarian view of God and, in a strong polemical stand against the Catholic Church, argues that images of God lead to idolatry. John Calvin famously said "the human heart is a perpetual idol factory". At the end of the first book, he offers his views on providence, writing, "By his Power God cherishes and guards the World which he made and by his Providence rules its individual Parts." Humans are unable to fully comprehend why God performs any particular action, but whatever good or evil people may practise, their efforts always result in the execution of God's will and judgments. The second book includes several essays on original sin and the fall of man, which directly refer to Augustine, who developed these doctrines. He often cited the Church Fathers in order to defend the reformed cause against the charge that the reformers were creating new theology. In Calvin's view, sin began with the fall of Adam and propagated to all of humanity. The domination of sin is complete to the point that people are driven to evil. Thus fallen humanity is in need of the redemption that can be found in Christ. But before Calvin expounded on this doctrine, he described the special situation of the Jews who lived during the time of the Old Testament. God made a covenant with Abraham, promising the coming of Christ. Hence, the Old Covenant was not in opposition to Christ, but was rather a continuation of God's promise. Calvin then describes the New Covenant using the passage from the Apostles' Creed that describes Christ's suffering under Pontius Pilate and his return to judge the living and the dead. For Calvin, the whole course of Christ's obedience to the Father removed the discord between humanity and God. In the third book, Calvin describes how the spiritual union of Christ and humanity is achieved. He first defines faith as the firm and certain knowledge of God in Christ. The immediate effects of faith are repentance and the remission of sin. This is followed by spiritual regeneration, which returns the believer to the state of holiness before Adam's transgression. Complete perfection is unattainable in this life, and the believer should expect a continual struggle against sin. Several chapters are then devoted to the subject of justification by faith alone. He defined justification as "the acceptance by which God regards us as righteous whom he has received into grace." In this definition, it is clear that it is God who initiates and carries through the action and that people play no role; God is completely sovereign in salvation. Near the end of the book, Calvin describes and defends the doctrine of predestination, a doctrine advanced by Augustine in opposition to the teachings of Pelagius. Fellow theologians who followed the Augustinian tradition on this point included Thomas Aquinas and Martin Luther, though Calvin's formulation of the doctrine went further than the tradition that went before him. The principle, in Calvin's words, is that "All are not created on equal terms, but some are preordained to eternal life, others to eternal damnation; and, accordingly, as each has been created for one or other of these ends, we say that he has been predestinated to life or to death." Calvin believed that God's absolute decree was double predestination, but he also confessed that this was a horrible decree: "The decree is dreadful indeed, I confess. (latin. "Decretum quidem horribile, fateor."; French. "Je confesse que ce decret nous doit epouvanter.") The final book describes what he considers to be the true Church and its ministry, authority, and sacraments. He denied the papal claim to primacy and the accusation that the reformers were schismatic. For Calvin, the Church was defined as the body of believers who placed Christ at its head. By definition, there was only one "catholic" or "universal" Church. Hence, he argued that the reformers "had to leave them in order that we might come to Christ." The ministers of the Church are described from a passage from Ephesians, and they consisted of apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and doctors. Calvin regarded the first three offices as temporary, limited in their existence to the time of the New Testament. The latter two offices were established in the church in Geneva. Although Calvin respected the work of the ecumenical councils, he considered them to be subject to God's Word found in scripture. He also believed that the civil and church authorities were separate and should not interfere with each other. Calvin defined a sacrament as an earthly sign associated with a promise from God. He accepted only two sacraments as valid under the new covenant: baptism and the Lord's Supper (in opposition to the Catholic acceptance of seven sacraments). He completely rejected the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation and the treatment of the Supper as a sacrifice. He also could not accept the Lutheran doctrine of sacramental union in which Christ was "in, with and under" the elements. His own view was close to Zwingli's symbolic view, but it was not identical. Rather than holding a purely symbolic view, Calvin noted that with the participation of the Holy Spirit, faith was nourished and strengthened by the sacrament. In his words, the eucharistic rite was "a secret too sublime for my mind to understand or words to express. I experience it rather than understand it." Controversies Calvin's theology caused controversy. Pierre Caroli, a Protestant minister in Lausanne accused Calvin as well as Viret and Farel of Arianism in 1536. Calvin defended his beliefs on the Trinity in Confessio de Trinitate propter calumnias P. Caroli. In 1551 Jérôme-Hermès Bolsec, a physician in Geneva, attacked Calvin's doctrine of predestination and accused him of making God the author of sin. Bolsec was banished from the city, and after Calvin's death, he wrote a biography which severely maligned Calvin's character. In the following year, Joachim Westphal, a Gnesio-Lutheran pastor in Hamburg, condemned Calvin and Zwingli as heretics in denying the eucharistic doctrine of the union of Christ's body with the elements. Calvin's Defensio sanae et orthodoxae doctrinae de sacramentis (A Defence of the Sober and Orthodox Doctrine of the Sacrament) was his response in 1555. In 1556 Justus Velsius, a Dutch dissident, held a public disputation with Calvin during his visit to Frankfurt, in which Velsius defended free will against Calvin's doctrine of predestination. Following the execution of Servetus, a close associate of Calvin, Sebastian Castellio, broke with him on the issue of the treatment of heretics. In Castellio's Treatise on Heretics (1554), he argued for a focus on Christ's moral teachings in place of the vanity of theology, and he afterward developed a theory of tolerance based on biblical principles. Calvin and the Jews Scholars have debated Calvin's view of the Jews and Judaism. Some have argued that Calvin was the least anti-semitic among all the major reformers of his time, especially in comparison to Martin Luther. Others have argued that Calvin was firmly within the anti-semitic camp. Scholars agree that it is important to distinguish between Calvin's views toward the biblical Jews and his attitude toward contemporary Jews. In his theology, Calvin does not differentiate between God's covenant with Israel and the New Covenant. He stated, "all the children of the promise, reborn of God, who have obeyed the commands by faith working through love, have belonged to the New Covenant since the world began." Nevertheless, he was a covenant theologian and argued that the Jews are a rejected people who must embrace Jesus to re-enter the covenant. Most of Calvin's statements on the Jewry of his era were polemical. For example, Calvin once wrote, "I have had much conversation with many Jews: I have never seen either a drop of piety or a grain of truth or ingenuousness—nay, I have never found common sense in any Jew." In this respect, he differed little from other Protestant and Catholic theologians of his day. Among his extant writings, Calvin only dealt explicitly with issues of contemporary Jews and Judaism in one treatise, Response to Questions and Objections of a Certain Jew. In it, he argued that Jews misread their own scriptures because they miss the unity of the Old and New Testaments. Political thought The aim of Calvin's political theory was to safeguard the rights and freedoms of ordinary people. Although he was convinced that the Bible contained no blueprint for a certain form of government, Calvin favored a combination of democracy and aristocracy (mixed government). He appreciated the advantages of democracy. To further minimize the misuse of political power, Calvin proposed to divide it among several political institutions like the aristocracy, lower estates, or magistrates in a system of checks and balances (separation of powers). Finally, Calvin taught that if rulers rise up against God they lose their divine right and must be deposed. State and church are separate, though they have to cooperate to the benefit of the people. Christian magistrates have to make sure that the church can fulfill its duties in freedom. In extreme cases the magistrates have to expel or execute dangerous heretics. But nobody can be forced to become a Protestant. Calvin thought that agriculture and the traditional crafts were normal human activities. With regard to trade and the financial world he was more liberal than Luther, but both were strictly opposed to usury. Calvin allowed the charging of modest interest rates on loans. Like the other Reformers Calvin understood work as a means through which the believers expressed their gratitude to God for their redemption in Christ and as a service to their neighbors. Everybody was obliged to work; loafing and begging were rejected. The idea that economic success was a visible sign of God's grace played only a minor role in Calvin's thinking. It became more important in later, partly secularized forms of Calvinism and became the starting-point of Max Weber's theory about the rise of capitalism. Selected works Calvin's first published work was a commentary of Seneca the Younger's De Clementia. Published at his own expense in 1532, it showed that he was a humanist in the tradition of Erasmus with a thorough understanding of classical scholarship. His first theological work, the Psychopannychia, attempted to refute the doctrine of soul sleep as promulgated by the Anabaptists. Calvin probably wrote it during the period following Cop's speech, but it was not published until 1542 in Strasbourg. Calvin produced commentaries on most of the books of the Bible. His first commentary on Romans was published in 1540, and he planned to write commentaries on the entire New Testament. Six years passed before he wrote his second, a commentary on First Epistle to the Corinthians, but after that he devoted more attention to
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of Geneva. At the end of January 1546, Pierre Ameaux, a maker of playing cards who had already been in conflict with the Consistory, attacked Calvin by calling him a "Picard", an epithet denoting anti-French sentiment, and accused him of false doctrine. Ameaux was punished by the council and forced to make expiation by parading through the city and begging God for forgiveness. A few months later Ami Perrin, the man who had brought Calvin to Geneva, moved into open opposition. Perrin had married Françoise Favre, daughter of François Favre, a well-established Genevan merchant. Both Perrin's wife and father-in-law had previous conflicts with the Consistory. The court noted that many of Geneva's notables, including Perrin, had breached a law against dancing. Initially, Perrin ignored the court when he was summoned, but after receiving a letter from Calvin, he appeared before the Consistory. By 1547, opposition to Calvin and other French refugee ministers had grown to constitute the majority of the syndics, the civil magistrates of Geneva. On 27 June an unsigned threatening letter in Genevan dialect was found at the pulpit of St. Pierre Cathedral where Calvin preached. Suspecting a plot against both the church and the state, the council appointed a commission to investigate. Jacques Gruet, a Genevan member of Favre's group, was arrested and incriminating evidence was found when his house was searched. Under torture, he confessed to several crimes including writing the letter left in the pulpit which threatened the church leaders. A civil court condemned Gruet to death and he was beheaded on 26 July. Calvin was not opposed to the civil court's decision. The libertines continued organizing opposition, insulting the appointed ministers, and challenging the authority of the Consistory. The council straddled both sides of the conflict, alternately admonishing and upholding Calvin. When Perrin was elected first syndic in February 1552, Calvin's authority appeared to be at its lowest point. After some losses before the council, Calvin believed he was defeated; on 24 July 1553 he asked the council to allow him to resign. Although the libertines controlled the council, his request was refused. The opposition realised that they could curb Calvin's authority, but they did not have enough power to banish him. Michael Servetus (1553) The turning point in Calvin's fortunes occurred when Michael Servetus, a brilliant Spanish polymath who introduced the Islamic idea of Pulmonary circulation to Europe, and a fugitive from ecclesiastical authorities, appeared in Geneva on 13 August 1553. Servetus was a fugitive on the run after he published The Restoration of Christianity (1553), Calvin scholar Bruce Gordon commented "Among its offenses were a denial of original sin and a bizarre and hardly comprehensible view of the Trinity." Decades earlier, in July 1530 he disputed with Johannes Oecolampadius in Basel and was eventually expelled. He went to Strasbourg, where he published a pamphlet against the Trinity. Bucer publicly refuted it and asked Servetus to leave. After returning to Basel, Servetus published Two Books of Dialogues on the Trinity () which caused a sensation among Reformers and Catholics alike. When John Calvin alerted the Inquisition in Spain about this publication, an order was issued for Servetus's arrest. Calvin and Servetus were first brought into contact in 1546 through a common acquaintance, Jean Frellon of Lyon; they exchanged letters debating doctrine; Calvin used a pseudonym as Charles d' Espeville and Servetus used the moniker Michel de Villeneuve. Eventually, Calvin lost patience and refused to respond; by this time Servetus had written around thirty letters to Calvin. Calvin was particularly outraged when Servetus sent him a copy of the Institutes of the Christian Religion heavily annotated with arguments pointing to errors in the book. When Servetus mentioned that he would come to Geneva, "Espeville" (Calvin) wrote a letter to Farel on 13 February 1546 noting that if Servetus were to come, he would not assure him safe conduct: "for if he came, as far as my authority goes, I would not let him leave alive." In 1553 Servetus published Christianismi Restitutio (English: The Restoration of Christianity), in which he rejected the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and the concept of predestination. In the same year, Calvin's representative, Guillaume de Trie, sent letters alerting the French Inquisition to Servetus. Calling him a "Spanish-Portuguese", suspecting and accusing him of his recently proved Jewish converso origin. De Trie wrote down that "his proper name is Michael Servetus, but he currently calls himself Villeneuve, practising medicine. He stayed for some time in Lyon, and now he is living in Vienne." When the inquisitor-general of France learned that Servetus was hiding in Vienne, according to Calvin under an assumed name, he contacted Cardinal François de Tournon, the secretary of the archbishop of Lyon, to take up the matter. Servetus was arrested and taken in for questioning. His letters to Calvin were presented as evidence of heresy, but he denied having written them, and later said he was not sure it was his handwriting. He said, after swearing before the holy gospel, that "he was Michel De Villeneuve Doctor in Medicine about 42 years old, native of Tudela of the kingdom of Navarre, a city under the obedience to the Emperor". The following day he said: "..although he was not Servetus he assumed the person of Servet for debating with Calvin". He managed to escape from prison, and the Catholic authorities sentenced him in absentia to death by slow burning. On his way to Italy, Servetus stopped in Geneva to visit "d'Espeville", where he was recognized and arrested. Calvin's secretary, Nicholas de la Fontaine, composed a list of accusations that was submitted before the court. The prosecutor was Philibert Berthelier, a member of a libertine family and son of a famous Geneva patriot, and the sessions were led by Pierre Tissot, Perrin's brother-in-law. The libertines allowed the trial to drag on in an attempt to harass Calvin. The difficulty in using Servetus as a weapon against Calvin was that the heretical reputation of Servetus was widespread and most of the cities in Europe were observing and awaiting the outcome of the trial. This posed a dilemma for the libertines, so on 21 August the council decided to write to other Swiss cities for their opinions, thus mitigating their own responsibility for the final decision. While waiting for the responses, the council also asked Servetus if he preferred to be judged in Vienne or in Geneva. He begged to stay in Geneva. On 20 October the replies from Zurich, Basel, Bern, and Schaffhausen were read and the council condemned Servetus as a heretic. The following day he was sentenced to burning at the stake, the same sentence as in Vienne. Some scholars claim that Calvin and other ministers asked that he be beheaded instead of burnt, knowing that burning at the stake was the only legal recourse. This plea was refused and on 27 October, Servetus was burnt alive at the Plateau of Champel at the edge of Geneva. Securing the Protestant Reformation (1553–1555) After the death of Servetus, Calvin was acclaimed a defender of Christianity, but his ultimate triumph over the libertines was still two years away. He had always insisted that the Consistory retain the power of excommunication, despite the council's past decision to take it away. During Servetus's trial, Philibert Berthelier asked the council for permission to take communion, as he had been excommunicated the previous year for insulting a minister. Calvin protested that the council did not have the legal authority to overturn Berthelier's excommunication. Unsure of how the council would rule, he hinted in a sermon on 3 September 1553 that he might be dismissed by the authorities. The council decided to re-examine the Ordonnances and on 18 September it voted in support of Calvin—excommunication was within the jurisdiction of the Consistory. Berthelier applied for reinstatement to another Genevan administrative assembly, the Deux Cents (Two Hundred), in November. This body reversed the council's decision and stated that the final arbiter concerning excommunication should be the council. The ministers continued to protest, and as in the case of Servetus, the opinions of the Swiss churches were sought. The affair dragged on through 1554. Finally, on 22 January 1555, the council announced the decision of the Swiss churches: the original Ordonnances were to be kept and the Consistory was to regain its official powers. The libertines' downfall began with the February 1555 elections. By then, many of the French refugees had been granted citizenship and with their support, Calvin's partisans elected the majority of the syndics and the councillors. On 16 May the libertines took to the streets in a drunken protest and attempted to burn down a house that was supposedly full of Frenchmen. The syndic Henri Aulbert tried to intervene, carrying with him the baton of office that symbolised his power. Perrin seized the baton and waved it over the crowd, which gave the appearance that he was taking power and initiating a coup d'état. The insurrection was soon over when another syndic appeared and ordered Perrin to go with him to the town hall. Perrin and other leaders were forced to flee the city. With the approval of Calvin, the other plotters who remained in the city were found and executed. The opposition to Calvin's church polity came to an end. Final years (1555–1564) Calvin's authority was practically uncontested during his final years, and he enjoyed an international reputation as a reformer distinct from Martin Luther. Initially, Luther and Calvin had mutual respect for each other. A doctrinal conflict had developed between Luther and Zurich reformer Huldrych Zwingli on the interpretation of the eucharist. Calvin's opinion on the issue forced Luther to place him in Zwingli's camp. Calvin actively participated in the polemics that were exchanged between the Lutheran and Reformed branches of the Reformation movement. At the same time, Calvin was dismayed by the lack of unity among the reformers. He took steps toward rapprochement with Bullinger by signing the Consensus Tigurinus, a concordat between the Zurich and Geneva churches. He reached out to England when Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer called for an ecumenical synod of all the evangelical churches. Calvin praised the idea, but ultimately Cranmer was unable to bring it to fruition. Calvin sheltered Marian exiles (those who fled the reign of Catholic Mary Tudor in England) in Geneva starting in 1555. Under the city's protection, they were able to form their own reformed church under John Knox and William Whittingham and eventually carried Calvin's ideas on doctrine and polity back to England and Scotland. Within Geneva, Calvin's main concern was the creation of a collège, an institute for the education of children. A site for the school was selected on 25 March 1558 and it opened the following year on 5 June 1559. Although the school was a single institution, it was divided into two parts: a grammar school called the collège or schola privata and an advanced school called the académie or schola publica. Calvin tried to recruit two professors for the institute, Mathurin Cordier, his old friend and Latin scholar who was now based in Lausanne, and Emmanuel Tremellius, the former Regius professor of Hebrew in Cambridge. Neither was available, but he succeeded in obtaining Theodore Beza as rector. Within five years there were 1,200 students in the grammar school and 300 in the advanced school. The collège eventually became the Collège Calvin, one of the college preparatory schools of Geneva; the académie became the University of Geneva. Impact on France Calvin was deeply committed to reforming his homeland, France. The Protestant movement had been energetic, but lacked central organizational direction. With financial support from the church in Geneva, Calvin turned his enormous energies toward uplifting the French Protestant cause. As one historian explains: He supplied the dogma, the liturgy, and the moral ideas of the new religion, and he also created ecclesiastical, political, and social institutions in harmony with it. A born leader, he followed up his work with personal appeals. His vast correspondence with French Protestants shows not only much zeal but infinite pains and considerable tact and driving home the lessons of his printed treatises. Between 1555 and 1562, more than 100 ministers were sent to France. Nevertheless French King Henry II severely persecuted Protestants under the Edict of Chateaubriand and when the French authorities complained about the missionary activities, the city fathers of Geneva disclaimed official responsibility. Last illness In late 1558, Calvin became ill with a fever. Since he was afraid that he might die before completing the final revision of the Institutes, he forced himself to work. The final edition was greatly expanded to the extent that Calvin referred to it as a new work. The expansion from the 21 chapters of the previous edition to 80 was due to the extended treatment of existing material rather than the addition of new topics. Shortly after he recovered, he strained his voice while preaching, which brought on a violent fit of coughing. He burst a blood-vessel in his lungs, and his health steadily declined. He preached his final sermon in St. Pierre on 6 February 1564. On 25 April, he made his will, in which he left small sums to his family and to the collège. A few days later, the ministers of the church came to visit him, and he bade his final farewell, which was recorded in Discours d'adieu aux ministres. He recounted his life in Geneva, sometimes recalling bitterly some of the hardships he had suffered. Calvin died on 27 May 1564 aged 54. At first his body lay in state, but since so many people came to see it, the reformers were afraid that they would be accused of fostering a new saint's cult. On the following day, he was buried in an unmarked grave in the Cimetière des Rois. The exact location of the grave is unknown; a stone was added in the 19th century to mark a grave traditionally thought to be Calvin's. Theology Calvin developed his theology in his biblical commentaries as well as his sermons and treatises, but the most comprehensive expression of his views is found in his magnum opus, the Institutes of the Christian Religion. He intended that the book be used as a summary of his views on Christian theology and that it be read in conjunction with his commentaries. The various editions of that work spanned nearly his entire career as a reformer, and the successive revisions of the book show that his theology changed very little from his youth to his death. The first edition from 1536 consisted of only six chapters. The second edition, published in 1539, was three times as long because he added chapters on subjects that appear in Melanchthon's Loci Communes. In 1543, he again added new material and expanded a chapter on the Apostles' Creed. The final edition of the Institutes appeared in 1559. By then, the work consisted of four books of eighty chapters, and each book was named after statements from the creed: Book 1 on God the Creator, Book 2 on the Redeemer in Christ, Book 3 on receiving the Grace of Christ through the Holy Spirit, and Book 4 on the Society of Christ or the Church. The first statement in the Institutes acknowledges its central theme. It states that the sum of human wisdom consists of two parts: the knowledge of God and of ourselves. Calvin argues that the knowledge of God is not inherent in humanity nor can it be discovered by observing this world. The only way to obtain it is to study scripture. Calvin writes, "For anyone to arrive at God the Creator he needs Scripture as his Guide and Teacher." He does not try to prove the authority of scripture but rather describes it as autopiston or self-authenticating. He defends the trinitarian view of God and, in a strong polemical stand against the Catholic Church, argues that images of God lead to idolatry. John Calvin famously said "the human heart is a perpetual idol factory". At the end of the first book, he offers his views on providence, writing, "By his Power God cherishes and guards the World which he made and by his Providence rules its individual Parts." Humans are unable to fully comprehend why God performs any particular action, but whatever good or evil people may practise, their efforts always result in the execution of God's will and judgments. The second book includes several essays on original sin and the fall of man, which directly refer to Augustine, who developed these doctrines. He often cited the Church Fathers in order to defend the reformed cause against the charge that the reformers were creating new theology. In Calvin's view, sin began with the fall of Adam and propagated to all of humanity. The domination of sin is complete to the point that people are driven to evil. Thus fallen humanity is in need of the redemption that can be found in Christ. But before Calvin expounded on this doctrine, he described the special situation of the Jews who lived during the time of the Old Testament. God made a covenant with Abraham, promising the coming of Christ. Hence, the Old Covenant was not in opposition to Christ, but was rather a continuation of God's promise. Calvin then describes the New Covenant using the passage from the Apostles' Creed that describes Christ's suffering under Pontius Pilate and his return to judge the living and the dead. For Calvin, the whole course of Christ's obedience to the Father removed the discord between humanity and God. In the third book, Calvin describes how the spiritual union of Christ and humanity is achieved. He first defines faith as the firm and certain knowledge of God in Christ. The immediate effects of faith are repentance and the remission of sin. This is followed by spiritual regeneration, which returns the believer to the state of holiness before Adam's transgression. Complete perfection is unattainable in this life, and the believer should expect a continual struggle against sin. Several chapters are then devoted to the subject of justification by faith alone. He defined justification as "the acceptance by which God regards us as righteous whom he has received into grace." In this definition, it is clear that it is God who initiates and carries through the action and that people play no role; God is completely sovereign in salvation. Near the end of the book, Calvin describes and defends the doctrine of predestination, a doctrine advanced by Augustine in opposition to the teachings of Pelagius. Fellow theologians who followed the Augustinian tradition on this point included Thomas Aquinas and Martin Luther, though Calvin's formulation of the doctrine went further than the tradition that went before him. The principle, in Calvin's words, is that "All are not created on equal terms, but some are preordained to eternal life, others to eternal damnation; and, accordingly, as each has been created for one or other of these ends, we say that he has been predestinated to life or to death." Calvin believed that God's absolute decree was double predestination, but he also confessed that this was a horrible decree: "The decree is dreadful indeed, I confess. (latin. "Decretum quidem horribile, fateor."; French. "Je confesse que ce decret nous doit epouvanter.") The final book describes what he considers to be the true Church and its ministry, authority, and sacraments. He denied the papal claim to primacy and the accusation that the reformers were schismatic. For Calvin, the Church was defined as the body of believers who placed Christ at its head. By definition, there was only one "catholic" or "universal" Church. Hence, he argued that the reformers "had to leave them in order that we might come to Christ." The ministers of the Church are described from a passage from Ephesians, and they consisted of apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and doctors. Calvin regarded the first three offices as temporary, limited in their existence to the time of the New Testament. The latter two offices were established in the church in Geneva. Although Calvin respected the work of the ecumenical councils, he considered them to be subject to God's Word found in scripture. He also believed that the civil and church authorities were separate and should not interfere with each other. Calvin defined a sacrament as an earthly sign associated with a promise from God. He accepted only two sacraments as valid under the new covenant: baptism and the Lord's Supper (in opposition to the Catholic acceptance of seven sacraments). He completely rejected the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation and the treatment of the Supper as a sacrifice. He also could not accept the Lutheran doctrine of sacramental union in which Christ was "in, with and under" the elements. His own view was close to Zwingli's symbolic view, but it was not identical. Rather than holding a purely symbolic view, Calvin noted that with the participation of the Holy Spirit, faith was nourished and strengthened by the sacrament. In his words, the eucharistic rite was "a secret too sublime for my mind to understand or words to express. I experience it rather than understand it." Controversies Calvin's theology caused controversy. Pierre Caroli, a Protestant minister in Lausanne accused Calvin as well as Viret and Farel of Arianism in 1536. Calvin defended his beliefs on the Trinity in Confessio de Trinitate propter calumnias P. Caroli. In 1551 Jérôme-Hermès Bolsec, a physician in Geneva, attacked Calvin's doctrine of predestination and accused him of making God the author of sin. Bolsec was banished from the city, and after Calvin's death, he wrote a biography which severely maligned Calvin's character. In the following year, Joachim Westphal, a Gnesio-Lutheran pastor in Hamburg, condemned Calvin and Zwingli as heretics in denying the eucharistic doctrine of the union of Christ's body with the elements. Calvin's Defensio sanae et orthodoxae doctrinae de sacramentis (A Defence of the Sober and Orthodox Doctrine of the Sacrament) was his response in 1555. In 1556 Justus Velsius, a Dutch dissident, held a public disputation with Calvin during his visit to Frankfurt, in which Velsius defended free will against Calvin's doctrine of predestination. Following the execution of Servetus, a close associate of Calvin, Sebastian Castellio, broke with him on the issue of the treatment of heretics. In Castellio's Treatise on Heretics (1554), he argued for a focus on Christ's moral teachings in place of the vanity of theology, and he afterward developed a theory of tolerance based on biblical principles. Calvin and the Jews Scholars have debated Calvin's view of the Jews and Judaism. Some have argued that Calvin was the least anti-semitic among all the major reformers of his time, especially in comparison to Martin Luther. Others have argued that Calvin was firmly within the anti-semitic camp. Scholars agree that it is important to distinguish between Calvin's views toward the biblical Jews and his attitude toward contemporary Jews. In his theology, Calvin does not differentiate between God's covenant with Israel and the New Covenant. He stated, "all the children of the promise, reborn of God, who have obeyed the commands by faith working through love, have belonged to the New Covenant since the world began." Nevertheless, he was a covenant theologian and argued that the Jews are a rejected people who must embrace Jesus to re-enter the covenant. Most of Calvin's statements on the Jewry of his era were polemical. For example, Calvin once wrote, "I have had much conversation with many Jews: I have never seen either a drop of piety or a grain of truth or ingenuousness—nay, I have never found common sense in any Jew." In this respect, he differed little from other Protestant and Catholic theologians of his day. Among his extant writings, Calvin only dealt explicitly with issues of contemporary Jews and Judaism in one treatise, Response to Questions and Objections of a Certain Jew. In it, he argued that Jews misread their own scriptures because they miss the unity of the Old and New Testaments. Political thought The aim of Calvin's political theory was to safeguard the rights and freedoms of ordinary people. Although he was convinced that the Bible contained no blueprint for a certain form of government, Calvin favored a combination of democracy and aristocracy (mixed government). He appreciated the advantages of democracy. To further minimize the misuse of political power, Calvin proposed to divide it among several political institutions like the aristocracy, lower estates, or magistrates in a system of checks and balances (separation of powers). Finally, Calvin taught that if rulers rise up against God they lose their divine right and must be deposed. State and church are separate, though they have to cooperate to the benefit of the people. Christian magistrates have to make sure that the church can fulfill its duties in freedom. In extreme cases the magistrates have to expel or execute dangerous heretics. But nobody can be forced to become a Protestant. Calvin thought that agriculture and the traditional crafts were normal human activities. With regard to trade and the financial world he was more liberal than Luther, but both were strictly opposed to usury. Calvin allowed the charging of modest interest rates on loans.
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Louisbourg in Louisbourg, New France (Old Style date). 1746 – War of the Austrian Succession: Austria and Sardinia defeat a Franco-Spanish army at the Battle of Piacenza. 1755 – French and Indian War: The French surrender Fort Beauséjour to the British, leading to the expulsion of the Acadians. 1760 – French and Indian War: Robert Rogers and his Rangers surprise French held Fort Sainte Thérèse on the Richelieu River near Lake Champlain. The fort is raided and burned. 1779 – Spain declares war on the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the Great Siege of Gibraltar begins. 1795 – French Revolutionary Wars: In what became known as Cornwallis's Retreat, a British Royal Navy squadron led by Vice Admiral William Cornwallis strongly resists a much larger French Navy force and withdraws largely intact, setting up the French Navy defeat at the Battle of Groix six days later. 1811 – Survivors of an attack the previous day by Tla-o-qui-aht on board the Pacific Fur Company's ship Tonquin, intentionally detonate a powder magazine on the ship, destroying it and killing about 100 attackers. 1815 – Battle of Ligny and Battle of Quatre Bras, two days before the Battle of Waterloo. 1819 – A major earthquake strikes the Kutch district of western India, killing over 1,543 people and raising a 6 m high, 6 km wide, ridge, extending for at least 80 km, that was known as the Allah Bund ("Dam of God"). 1836 – The formation of the London Working Men's Association gives rise to the Chartist Movement. 1846 – The Papal conclave of 1846 elects Pope Pius IX, beginning the longest reign in the history of the papacy. 1858 – Abraham Lincoln delivers his House Divided speech in Springfield, Illinois. 1871 – The Universities Tests Act 1871 allows students to enter the universities of Oxford, Cambridge and Durham without religious tests (except for those intending to study theology). 1883 – The Victoria Hall theatre panic in Sunderland, England, kills 183 children. 1884 – The first purpose-built roller coaster, LaMarcus Adna Thompson's "Switchback Railway", opens in New York's Coney Island amusement park. 1897 – A treaty annexing the Republic of Hawaii to the United States is signed; the Republic would not be dissolved until a year later. 1901–present 1903 – The Ford Motor Company is incorporated. 1903 – Roald Amundsen leaves Oslo, Norway, to commence the first east–west navigation of the Northwest Passage. 1904 – Eugen Schauman assassinates Nikolay Bobrikov, Governor-General of Finland. 1904 – Irish author James Joyce begins a relationship with Nora Barnacle and subsequently uses the date to set the actions for his novel Ulysses; this date is now traditionally called "Bloomsday". 1911 – IBM founded as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company in Endicott, New York. 1922 – General election in the Irish Free State: The pro-Treaty Sinn Féin party wins a large majority. 1925 – The most famous Young Pioneer camp of the Soviet Union, Artek, is established. 1930 – Sovnarkom establishes decree time in the USSR. 1933 – The National Industrial Recovery Act is passed in the United States, allowing businesses to avoid antitrust prosecution if they establish voluntary wage, price, and working condition regulations on an industry-wide basis. 1940 – World War II: Marshal Henri Philippe Pétain becomes Chief of State of Vichy France (Chef de l'État Français). 1940 – A Communist government is installed in Lithuania. 1944 – In a gross miscarriage of justice, George Junius Stinney Jr., age 14, becomes the youngest person executed in the United States in the 20th century after being convicted in a two-hour trial for the rape and murder of two teenage white girls. 1948 – Members of the Malayan Communist Party kill three British plantation managers in Sungai Siput; in response, British Malaya declares a state of emergency. 1955 – In a futile effort to topple Argentine President Juan Perón, rogue aircraft pilots of the Argentine Navy drop several bombs upon an unarmed crowd demonstrating in favor of Perón in Buenos Aires, killing 364 and injuring at least 800. At the same time on the ground, some soldiers attempt to stage a coup but are suppressed by loyal forces. 1958 – Imre Nagy, Pál Maléter and other leaders of the 1956 Hungarian Uprising are executed. 1961 – While on tour with the Kirov Ballet in Paris, Rudolf Nureyev defects from the Soviet Union. 1963 – Soviet Space Program: Vostok 6 mission: Cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova becomes the first woman in space. 1963 – In an attempt to resolve the Buddhist crisis in South Vietnam, a Joint Communique was signed between President Ngo Dinh Diem and Buddhist leaders. 1972 – The largest single-site hydroelectric power project in Canada is inaugurated at Churchill Falls Generating Station. 1976 – Soweto uprising: A non-violent march by 15,000 students in Soweto, South Africa, turns into days of rioting when police open fire on the crowd. 1977 – Oracle Corporation is incorporated in Redwood Shores, California, as Software Development Laboratories (SDL), by Larry Ellison, Bob Miner and Ed Oates. 1981 – US President Ronald Reagan awards the Congressional Gold Medal to Ken Taylor, Canada's former ambassador to Iran, for helping six Americans escape from Iran during the hostage crisis of 1979–81; he is the first foreign citizen bestowed the honor. 1989 – Revolutions of 1989: Imre Nagy, the former Hungarian prime minister, is reburied in Budapest following the collapse of Communism in Hungary. 1997 – Fifty people are killed in the Daïat Labguer (M'sila) massacre in Algeria. 2000 – The Secretary-General of the UN reports that Israel has complied with United Nations Security Council Resolution 425, 22 years after its issuance, and completely withdrew from Lebanon. The Resolution does not encompass the Shebaa farms, which is claimed by Israel, Syria and Lebanon. 2002 – Padre Pio is canonized by the Roman Catholic Church. 2010 – Bhutan becomes the first country to institute a total ban on tobacco. 2012 – China successfully launches its Shenzhou 9 spacecraft, carrying three astronauts, including the first female Chinese astronaut Liu Yang, to the Tiangong-1 orbital module. 2012 – The United States Air Force's robotic Boeing X-37B spaceplane returns to Earth after a classified 469-day orbital mission. 2013 – A multi-day cloudburst, centered on the North Indian state of Uttarakhand, causes devastating floods and landslides, becoming the country's worst natural disaster since the 2004 tsunami. 2015 – American businessman Donald Trump announces his campaign to run for President of the United States in the upcoming election. 2016 – Shanghai Disneyland Park, the first Disney Park in Mainland China, opens to the public. 2019 – Upwards of 2,000,000 people participate in the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests, the largest in Hong Kong's history. Births Pre-1600 1139 – Emperor Konoe of Japan (d. 1155) 1332 – Isabella de Coucy, English daughter of Edward III of England (d. 1379) 1454 – Joanna of Aragon, Queen of Naples (d. 1517) 1514 – John Cheke, English academic and politician, English Secretary of State (d. 1557) 1516 – Yang Jisheng, Ming dynasty official and Confucian martyr (d. 1555) 1583 – Axel Oxenstierna, Swedish politician, Lord High Chancellor of Sweden (d. 1654) 1591 – Joseph Solomon Delmedigo, Greek-Italian physician, mathematician, and theorist (d. 1655) 1601–1900 1606 – Arthur Chichester, 1st Earl of Donegall, Irish soldier and politician (d. 1675) 1613 – John Cleveland, English poet and educator (d. 1658) 1625 – Samuel Chappuzeau, French scholar (d. 1701) 1633 – Jean de Thévenot, French linguist and botanist (d. 1667) 1644 – Henrietta Anne Stuart, Princess of Scotland, England and Ireland (d. 1670) 1653 – James Bertie, 1st Earl of Abingdon, English nobleman (d. 1699) 1713 – Meshech Weare, American farmer, lawyer, and politician, 1st Governor of New Hampshire (d. 1786) 1723 – Adam Smith, Scottish philosopher and economist (d. 1790) 1738 – Mary Katherine Goddard, American publisher (d. 1816) 1754 – Salawat Yulayev, Russian poet (d. 1800) 1792 – John Linnell, English painter and engraver (d. 1882) 1801 – Julius Plücker, German mathematician and physicist (d. 1868) 1806 – Edward Davy, English physician and chemist (d. 1885) 1813 – Otto Jahn, German archaeologist and philologist (d. 1869) 1820 – Athanase Josué Coquerel, Dutch-French preacher and theologian (d. 1875) 1821 – Old Tom Morris, Scottish golfer and architect (d. 1908) 1826 – Constantin von Ettingshausen, Austrian geologist and botanist (d. 1897) 1836 – Wesley Merritt, American general and politician, Military Governor of the Philippines (d. 1910) 1837 – Ernst Laas, German philosopher and academic (d. 1885) 1838 – Frederic Archer, English organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1901) 1838 – Cushman Kellogg Davis, American lieutenant and politician, 7th Governor of Minnesota (d. 1900) 1840 – Ernst Otto Schlick, German engineer and author (d. 1913) 1850 – Max Delbrück, German chemist and academic (d. 1919) 1857 – Arthur Arz von Straußenburg, Austrian-Hungarian general (d. 1935) 1858 – Gustaf V of Sweden (d. 1950) 1863 – Francisco León de la Barra, Mexican politician and diplomat (d. 1939) 1866 – Germanos Karavangelis, Greek-Austrian metropolitan (d. 1935) 1874 – Arthur Meighen, Canadian lawyer and politician, 9th Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1960) 1880 – Otto Eisenschiml, Austrian-American chemist and author (d. 1963) 1882 – Mohammad Mosaddegh, Iranian educator and politician, 60th Prime Minister of Iran (d. 1967) 1885 – Erich Jacoby, Estonian-Polish architect (d. 1941) 1888 – Alexander Friedmann, Russian physicist and mathematician (d. 1925) 1888 – Peter Stoner, American mathematician and astronomer (d. 1980) 1890 – Stan Laurel, English actor and comedian (d. 1965) 1896 – Murray Leinster, American author and screenwriter (d. 1976) 1897 – Georg Wittig,
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general and politician, Military Governor of the Philippines (d. 1910) 1837 – Ernst Laas, German philosopher and academic (d. 1885) 1838 – Frederic Archer, English organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1901) 1838 – Cushman Kellogg Davis, American lieutenant and politician, 7th Governor of Minnesota (d. 1900) 1840 – Ernst Otto Schlick, German engineer and author (d. 1913) 1850 – Max Delbrück, German chemist and academic (d. 1919) 1857 – Arthur Arz von Straußenburg, Austrian-Hungarian general (d. 1935) 1858 – Gustaf V of Sweden (d. 1950) 1863 – Francisco León de la Barra, Mexican politician and diplomat (d. 1939) 1866 – Germanos Karavangelis, Greek-Austrian metropolitan (d. 1935) 1874 – Arthur Meighen, Canadian lawyer and politician, 9th Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1960) 1880 – Otto Eisenschiml, Austrian-American chemist and author (d. 1963) 1882 – Mohammad Mosaddegh, Iranian educator and politician, 60th Prime Minister of Iran (d. 1967) 1885 – Erich Jacoby, Estonian-Polish architect (d. 1941) 1888 – Alexander Friedmann, Russian physicist and mathematician (d. 1925) 1888 – Peter Stoner, American mathematician and astronomer (d. 1980) 1890 – Stan Laurel, English actor and comedian (d. 1965) 1896 – Murray Leinster, American author and screenwriter (d. 1976) 1897 – Georg Wittig, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987) 1899 – Helen Traubel, American operatic soprano (d. 1972) 1901–present 1902 – Barbara McClintock, American geneticist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1992) 1902 – George Gaylord Simpson, American paleontologist and author (d. 1984) 1906 – Alan Fairfax, Australian cricketer (d. 1955) 1907 – Jack Albertson, American actor (d. 1981) 1909 – Archie Carr, American ecologist and zoologist (d. 1987) 1910 – Juan Velasco Alvarado, Peruvian general and politician, 1st President of Peru (d. 1977) 1912 – Albert Chartier, Canadian illustrator (d. 2004) 1912 – Enoch Powell, English soldier and politician, Secretary of State for Health (d. 1998) 1914 – Eleanor Sokoloff, American pianist and teacher (d. 2020) 1915 – John Tukey, American mathematician and academic (d. 2000) 1915 – Marga Faulstich, German glass chemist (d. 1998) 1917 – Phaedon Gizikis, Greek general and politician, President of Greece (d. 1999) 1917 – Katharine Graham, American publisher (d. 2001) 1917 – Aurelio Lampredi, Italian automobile and aircraft engine designer (d. 1989) 1917 – Irving Penn, American photographer (d. 2009) 1920 – Isabelle Holland, Swiss-American author (d. 2002) 1920 – Raymond Lemieux, Canadian chemist and academic (d. 2002) 1920 – José López Portillo, Mexican lawyer and politician, 31st President of Mexico (d. 2004) 1920 – Hemanta Mukherjee, Indian singer and music director (d. 1989) 1922 – Ilmar Kullam, Estonian basketball player and coach (d. 2011) 1923 – Ron Flockhart, Scottish race car driver (d. 1962) 1924 – Faith Domergue, American actress (d. 1999) 1925 – Jean d'Ormesson, French journalist and author (d. 2017) 1925 – Otto Muehl, Austrian-Portuguese painter and director (d. 2013) 1926 – Efraín Ríos Montt, Guatemalan general and politician, 26th President of Guatemala (d. 2018) 1927 – Tom Graveney, English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2015) 1927 – Ya'akov Hodorov, Israeli footballer (d. 2006) 1927 – Herbert Lichtenfeld, German author and screenwriter (d. 2001) 1927 – Ariano Suassuna, Brazilian author and playwright (d. 2014) 1929 – Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, Emir of Kuwait (d. 2020) 1930 – Vilmos Zsigmond, Hungarian-American cinematographer and producer (d. 2016) 1934 – Eileen Atkins, English actress and screenwriter 1934 – Roger Neilson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2003) 1935 – Jim Dine, American painter and illustrator 1937 – Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Bulgarian politician, 48th Prime Minister of Bulgaria 1937 – Erich Segal, American author and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1938 – Thomas Boyd-Carpenter, English general 1938 – Torgny Lindgren, Swedish author and poet (d. 2017) 1938 – Joyce Carol Oates, American novelist, short story writer, critic, and poet 1939 – Billy "Crash" Craddock, American singer-songwriter 1940 – Māris Čaklais, Latvian poet, writer, and journalist (d. 2003) 1940 – Neil Goldschmidt, American lawyer and politician, 33rd Governor of Oregon 1941 – Lamont Dozier, American songwriter and producer 1941 – Tommy Horton, English golfer (d. 2017) 1941 – Mumtaz Hamid Rao, Pakistani journalist (d. 2011) 1942 – Giacomo Agostini, Italian motorcycle racer and manager 1942 – Eddie Levert, American R&B/soul singer-songwriter, musician, and actor 1944 – Henri Richelet, French painter and etcher (d. 2020) 1945 – Claire Alexander, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1945 – Lucienne Robillard, Canadian social worker and politician, 59th Secretary of State for Canada 1946 – Rick Adelman, American basketball player and coach 1946 – John Astor, 3rd Baron Astor of Hever, English businessman and politician 1946 – Karen Dunnell, English statistician and academic 1946 – Tom Harrell, American trumpet player and composer 1946 – Neil MacGregor, Scottish historian and curator 1946 – Iain Matthews, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1946 – Jodi Rell, American politician, 87th Governor of Connecticut 1946 – Mark Ritts, American actor, puppeteer, and producer (d. 2009) 1946 – Derek Sanderson, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1946 – Simon Williams, English actor and playwright 1947 – Tom Malone, American trombonist, composer, and producer 1947 – Buddy Roberts, American wrestler (d. 2012) 1947 – Al Cowlings, American ex-NFL player and close friend of O. J. Simpson and Nicole Brown Simpson 1947 – Tom Wyner, English-American voice actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1948 – Ron LeFlore, American baseball player and manager 1949 – Caju, Brazilian footballer 1949 – Ralph Mann, American hurdler and author 1950 – Mithun Chakraborty, Indian actor and politician 1950 – Michel Clair, Canadian lawyer and politician 1950 – Jerry Petrowski, American politician and farmer 1951 – Charlie Dominici, American singer and guitarist 1951 – Roberto Durán, Panamanian boxer 1952 – George Papandreou, Greek sociologist and politician, 182nd Prime Minister of Greece 1952 – Gino Vannelli, Canadian singer-songwriter 1953 – Valerie Mahaffey, American actress 1953 – Ian Mosley, English drummer 1954 – Matthew Saad Muhammad, American boxer and trainer (d. 2014) 1954 – Garry Roberts, Irish guitarist 1955 – Grete Faremo, Norwegian politician, Norwegian Minister of Defence 1955 – Laurie Metcalf, American actress 1955 – Artemy Troitsky, Russian journalist and critic 1957 – Ian Buchanan, Scottish-American actor 1957 – Leeona Dorrian, Lady Dorrian, Scottish lawyer and judge 1958 – Darrell Griffith, American basketball player 1958 – Ulrike Tauber, German swimmer 1958 – Warren Rodwell, Australian soldier, educator and musician 1959 – The Ultimate Warrior, American wrestler (d. 2014) 1960 – Peter Sterling, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster 1961 – Can Dündar, Turkish journalist and author 1961 – Robbie Kerr, Australian cricketer 1961 – Steve Larmer, Canadian ice hockey player 1961 – Margus Metstak, Estonian basketball player and coach 1962 – Wally Joyner, American baseball player and
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U.S. state. 1844 – Charles Goodyear receives a patent for vulcanization, a process to strengthen rubber. 1846 – The Oregon Treaty extends the border between the United States and British North America, established by the Treaty of 1818, westward to the Pacific Ocean. 1859 – Ambiguity in the Oregon Treaty leads to the "Northwestern Boundary Dispute" between American and British/Canadian settlers. 1864 – American Civil War: The Second Battle of Petersburg begins. 1864 – Arlington National Cemetery is established when of the Arlington estate (formerly owned by Confederate General Robert E. Lee) are officially set aside as a military cemetery by U.S. Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton. 1877 – Henry Ossian Flipper becomes the first African American cadet to graduate from the United States Military Academy. 1878 – Eadweard Muybridge takes a series of photographs to prove that all four feet of a horse leave the ground when it runs; the study becomes the basis of motion pictures. 1888 – Crown Prince Wilhelm becomes Kaiser Wilhelm II; he will be the last Emperor of the German Empire. Due to the death of his predecessors Wilhelm I and Frederick III, 1888 is the Year of the Three Emperors. 1896 – The deadliest tsunami in Japan's history kills more than 22,000 people. 1901–present 1904 – A fire aboard the steamboat in New York City's East River kills 1,000. 1916 – United States President Woodrow Wilson signs a bill incorporating the Boy Scouts of America, making them the only American youth organization with a federal charter. 1919 – John Alcock and Arthur Brown complete the first nonstop transatlantic flight when they reach Clifden, County Galway, Ireland. 1920 – Following the 1920 Schleswig plebiscites, Northern Schleswig is transferred from Germany to Denmark. 1921 – Bessie Coleman earns her pilot's license, becoming the first female pilot of African-American descent. 1934 – The United States Great Smoky Mountains National Park is founded. 1936 – First flight of the Vickers Wellington bomber. 1937 – A German expedition led by Karl Wien loses sixteen members in an avalanche on Nanga Parbat. It is the worst single disaster to occur on an 8000m peak. 1940 – World War II: Operation Aerial begins: Allied troops start to evacuate France, following Germany's takeover of Paris and most of the nation. 1944 – World War II: The United States invades Saipan, capital of Japan's South Seas Mandate. 1944 – In the Saskatchewan general election, the CCF, led by Tommy Douglas, is elected and forms the first socialist government in North America. 1970 – Charles Manson goes on trial for the Sharon Tate murders. 1972 – Red Army Faction co-founder Ulrike Meinhof is captured by police in Langenhagen. 1972 – Cathay Pacific Flight 700Z is destroyed by a bomb over Pleiku, Vietnam (then South Vietnam) kills 81 people. 1977 – After the death of dictator Francisco Franco in 1975, the first democratic elections took place in Spain. 1978 – King Hussein of Jordan marries American Lisa Halaby, who takes the name Queen Noor. 1985 – Rembrandt's painting Danaë is attacked by a man (later judged insane) who throws sulfuric acid on the canvas and cuts it twice with a knife. 1991 – In the Philippines, Mount Pinatubo erupts in the second largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century, killing over 800 people. 1992 – The United States Supreme Court rules in United States v. Álvarez-Machaín that it is permissible for the United States to forcibly extradite suspects in foreign countries and bring them to the United States for trial, without approval from those other countries. 1994 – Israel and Vatican City establish full diplomatic relations. 1996 – The Troubles: The Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) detonates a powerful truck bomb in the middle of Manchester, England, devastating the city centre and injuring 200 people. 2001 – Leaders of China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan formed the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. 2007 – The Nokkakivi Amusement Park was opened in Lievestuore, Laukaa, Finland. 2012 – Nik Wallenda becomes the first person to successfully tightrope walk directly over Niagara Falls. 2013 – A bomb explodes on a bus in the Pakistani city of Quetta, killing at least 25 people and wounding 22 others. Births Pre-1600 1330 – Edward, the Black Prince of England (d. 1376) 1479 – Lisa del Giocondo, Italian model, subject of the Mona Lisa (d. 1542) 1519 – Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1536) 1542 – Richard Grenville, English captain and explorer (d. 1591) 1549 – Elizabeth Knollys, English noblewoman (d. 1605) 1553 – Archduke Ernest of Austria (d. 1595) 1601–1900 1605 – Thomas Randolph, English poet and playwright (d. 1635) 1618 – François Blondel, French architect (d. 1686) 1623 – Cornelis de Witt, Dutch politician (d. 1672) 1624 – Hiob Ludolf, German orientalist and philologist (d. 1704) 1640 – Bernard Lamy, French mathematician and theologian (d. 1715) 1645 – Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin, English politician (d. 1712) 1749 – Georg Joseph Vogler, German organist, composer, and theorist (d. 1814) 1754 – Juan José Elhuyar, Spanish chemist and mineralogist (d. 1796) 1755 – Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, French chemist and entomologist (d. 1809) 1763 – Franz Danzi, German cellist, composer, and conductor (d. 1826) 1763 – Kobayashi Issa, Japanese priest and poet (d. 1827) 1765 – Henry Thomas Colebrooke, English orientalist (d. 1837) 1767 – Rachel Jackson, American wife of Andrew Jackson (d. 1828) 1777 – David Daniel Davis, Welsh physician and academic (d. 1841) 1789 – Josiah Henson, American minister, author, and activist (d. 1883) 1790 – Charles-Amédée Kohler, Swiss chocolatier (d. 1874) 1792 – Thomas Mitchell, Scottish-Australian colonel and explorer (d. 1855) 1801 – Benjamin Wright Raymond, American merchant and politician, 3rd Mayor of Chicago (d. 1883) 1805 – William B. Ogden, American businessman and politician, 1st Mayor of Chicago (d. 1877) 1809 – François-Xavier Garneau, Canadian poet and historian (d. 1866) 1835 – Adah Isaacs Menken, American actress, painter, and poet (d. 1868) 1843 – Edvard Grieg, Norwegian pianist and composer (d. 1907) 1848 – Gheevarghese Mar Gregorios of Parumala, Indian bishop and saint (d. 1902) 1872 – Thomas William Burgess, English swimmer and water polo player (d. 1950) 1875 – Herman Smith-Johannsen, Norwegian-Canadian skier (d. 1987) 1878 – Margaret Abbott, Indian-American golfer (d. 1955) 1881 – Kesago Nakajima, Japanese lieutenant general in the Imperial Japanese Army (d. 1945) 1884 – Harry Langdon, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1944) 1886 – Frank Clement, British racing driver (d. 1970) 1888 – Ramón López Velarde, Mexican poet and author (d. 1921) 1890 – Georg Wüst, German oceanographer and academic (d. 1977) 1894 – Robert Russell Bennett, American composer and conductor (d. 1981) 1894 – Nikolai Chebotaryov, Ukrainian-Russian mathematician and theorist (d. 1947) 1898 – Hubertus Strughold, German-American physiologist and academic (d. 1986) 1900 – Gotthard Günther, German philosopher and academic (d. 1984) 1900 – Otto Luening, German-American composer and conductor (d. 1996) 1901–present 1901 – Elmar Lohk, Russian-Estonian architect (d. 1963) 1902 – Erik Erikson, German-American psychologist and psychoanalyst (d. 1994) 1906 – Gordon Welchman, English-American mathematician and author (d. 1985) 1906 – Léon Degrelle, Belgian SS officer (d. 1994) 1907 – James Robertson Justice, English actor and educator (d. 1975) 1909 – Elena Nikolaidi, Greek-American soprano and educator (d. 2002) 1910 – David Rose, English-American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1990) 1911 – Wilbert Awdry, English author, created The Railway Series, the basis for Thomas The Tank Engine (d. 1997) 1913 – Tom Adair, American songwriter, composer, and screenwriter (d. 1988) 1914 – Yuri Andropov, Russian politician (d. 1984) 1914 – Saul Steinberg, Romanian-American cartoonist (d. 1999) 1914 – Hilda Terry, American cartoonist (d. 2006) 1915 – Nini Theilade, Danish ballet dancer, choreographer, and educator (d. 2018) 1915 – Thomas Huckle Weller, American biologist and virologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2008) 1916 – Olga Erteszek, Polish-American fashion designer
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is attacked by a man (later judged insane) who throws sulfuric acid on the canvas and cuts it twice with a knife. 1991 – In the Philippines, Mount Pinatubo erupts in the second largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century, killing over 800 people. 1992 – The United States Supreme Court rules in United States v. Álvarez-Machaín that it is permissible for the United States to forcibly extradite suspects in foreign countries and bring them to the United States for trial, without approval from those other countries. 1994 – Israel and Vatican City establish full diplomatic relations. 1996 – The Troubles: The Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) detonates a powerful truck bomb in the middle of Manchester, England, devastating the city centre and injuring 200 people. 2001 – Leaders of China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan formed the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. 2007 – The Nokkakivi Amusement Park was opened in Lievestuore, Laukaa, Finland. 2012 – Nik Wallenda becomes the first person to successfully tightrope walk directly over Niagara Falls. 2013 – A bomb explodes on a bus in the Pakistani city of Quetta, killing at least 25 people and wounding 22 others. Births Pre-1600 1330 – Edward, the Black Prince of England (d. 1376) 1479 – Lisa del Giocondo, Italian model, subject of the Mona Lisa (d. 1542) 1519 – Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1536) 1542 – Richard Grenville, English captain and explorer (d. 1591) 1549 – Elizabeth Knollys, English noblewoman (d. 1605) 1553 – Archduke Ernest of Austria (d. 1595) 1601–1900 1605 – Thomas Randolph, English poet and playwright (d. 1635) 1618 – François Blondel, French architect (d. 1686) 1623 – Cornelis de Witt, Dutch politician (d. 1672) 1624 – Hiob Ludolf, German orientalist and philologist (d. 1704) 1640 – Bernard Lamy, French mathematician and theologian (d. 1715) 1645 – Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin, English politician (d. 1712) 1749 – Georg Joseph Vogler, German organist, composer, and theorist (d. 1814) 1754 – Juan José Elhuyar, Spanish chemist and mineralogist (d. 1796) 1755 – Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, French chemist and entomologist (d. 1809) 1763 – Franz Danzi, German cellist, composer, and conductor (d. 1826) 1763 – Kobayashi Issa, Japanese priest and poet (d. 1827) 1765 – Henry Thomas Colebrooke, English orientalist (d. 1837) 1767 – Rachel Jackson, American wife of Andrew Jackson (d. 1828) 1777 – David Daniel Davis, Welsh physician and academic (d. 1841) 1789 – Josiah Henson, American minister, author, and activist (d. 1883) 1790 – Charles-Amédée Kohler, Swiss chocolatier (d. 1874) 1792 – Thomas Mitchell, Scottish-Australian colonel and explorer (d. 1855) 1801 – Benjamin Wright Raymond, American merchant and politician, 3rd Mayor of Chicago (d. 1883) 1805 – William B. Ogden, American businessman and politician, 1st Mayor of Chicago (d. 1877) 1809 – François-Xavier Garneau, Canadian poet and historian (d. 1866) 1835 – Adah Isaacs Menken, American actress, painter, and poet (d. 1868) 1843 – Edvard Grieg, Norwegian pianist and composer (d. 1907) 1848 – Gheevarghese Mar Gregorios of Parumala, Indian bishop and saint (d. 1902) 1872 – Thomas William Burgess, English swimmer and water polo player (d. 1950) 1875 – Herman Smith-Johannsen, Norwegian-Canadian skier (d. 1987) 1878 – Margaret Abbott, Indian-American golfer (d. 1955) 1881 – Kesago Nakajima, Japanese lieutenant general in the Imperial Japanese Army (d. 1945) 1884 – Harry Langdon, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1944) 1886 – Frank Clement, British racing driver (d. 1970) 1888 – Ramón López Velarde, Mexican poet and author (d. 1921) 1890 – Georg Wüst, German oceanographer and academic (d. 1977) 1894 – Robert Russell Bennett, American composer and conductor (d. 1981) 1894 – Nikolai Chebotaryov, Ukrainian-Russian mathematician and theorist (d. 1947) 1898 – Hubertus Strughold, German-American physiologist and academic (d. 1986) 1900 – Gotthard Günther, German philosopher and academic (d. 1984) 1900 – Otto Luening, German-American composer and conductor (d. 1996) 1901–present 1901 – Elmar Lohk, Russian-Estonian architect (d. 1963) 1902 – Erik Erikson, German-American psychologist and psychoanalyst (d. 1994) 1906 – Gordon Welchman, English-American mathematician and author (d. 1985) 1906 – Léon Degrelle, Belgian SS officer (d. 1994) 1907 – James Robertson Justice, English actor and educator (d. 1975) 1909 – Elena Nikolaidi, Greek-American soprano and educator (d. 2002) 1910 – David Rose, English-American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1990) 1911 – Wilbert Awdry, English author, created The Railway Series, the basis for Thomas The Tank Engine (d. 1997) 1913 – Tom Adair, American songwriter, composer, and screenwriter (d. 1988) 1914 – Yuri Andropov, Russian politician (d. 1984) 1914 – Saul Steinberg, Romanian-American cartoonist (d. 1999) 1914 – Hilda Terry, American cartoonist (d. 2006) 1915 – Nini Theilade, Danish ballet dancer, choreographer, and educator (d. 2018) 1915 – Thomas Huckle Weller, American biologist and virologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2008) 1916 – Olga Erteszek, Polish-American fashion designer (d. 1989) 1916 – Horacio Salgán, Argentinian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2016) 1916 – Herbert A. Simon, American political scientist and economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2001) 1917 – John Fenn, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2010) 1917 – Michalis Genitsaris, Greek singer-songwriter (d. 2005) 1917 – Lash LaRue, American actor and producer (d. 1996) 1918 – François Tombalbaye, Chadian politician, 1st President of Chad (d. 1975) 1920 – Keith Andrews, American race car driver (d. 1957) 1920 – Alla Kazanskaya, Russian actress (d. 2008) 1920 – Sam Sniderman, Canadian businessman, founded Sam the Record Man (d. 2012) 1920 – Alberto Sordi, Italian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2003) 1921 – Erroll Garner, American pianist and composer (d. 1977) 1922 – Jaki Byard, American pianist and composer (d. 1999) 1923 – Erland Josephson, Swedish actor and director (d. 2012) 1923 – Ninian Stephen, English-Australian lieutenant, judge, and politician, 20th Governor-General of Australia (d. 2017) 1924 – Hédi Fried, Swedish author and psychologist 1924 – Ezer Weizman, Israeli general and politician, 7th President of Israel (d. 2005) 1925 – Richard Baker, English journalist and author (d. 2018) 1925 – Attilâ İlhan, Turkish poet, author, and critic (d. 2005) 1926 – Alfred Duraiappah, Sri Lankan Tamil lawyer and politician (d. 1975) 1927 – Ross Andru, American illustrator (d. 1993) 1927 – Ibn-e-Insha, Indian-Pakistani poet and author (d. 1978) 1927 – Hugo Pratt, Italian author and illustrator (d. 1995) 1930 – Miguel Méndez, American author and academic (d. 2013) 1930 – Marcel Pronovost, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2015) 1931 – Joseph Gilbert, English air marshal 1932 – David Alliance, Baron Alliance, Iranian-English businessman and politician 1932 – Mario Cuomo, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Governor of New York (d. 2015) 1932 – Zia Fariduddin Dagar, Indian singer (d. 2013) 1932 – Bernie Faloney, American-Canadian football player and sportscaster (d. 1999) 1933 – Mohammad-Ali Rajai, Iranian politician, 2nd President of Iran (d. 1981) 1933 – Predrag Koraksić Corax, Serbian political caricaturist 1934 – Ruby Nash Garnett, American R&B singer 1936 – William Levada, American cardinal (d. 2019) 1937 – Pierre Billon, Swiss-Canadian author and screenwriter 1937 – Waylon Jennings, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002) 1938 – Billy Williams, American baseball player and coach 1939 – Ward Connerly, American activist and businessman, founded the American Civil Rights Institute 1941 – Neal Adams, American illustrator 1941 – Harry Nilsson, American singer-songwriter (d. 1994) 1942 – Ian Greenberg, Canadian broadcaster, founded Astral Media 1942 – John E. McLaughlin, American diplomat 1942 – Peter Norman, Australian sprinter (d. 2006) 1943 – Johnny Hallyday, French singer and actor (d. 2017) 1943 – Poul Nyrup Rasmussen, Danish politician, 38th Prime Minister of Denmark 1944 – Robert D. Keppel, American police officer and academic (d. 2021) 1945 – Miriam Defensor Santiago, Filipino judge and politician (d. 2016) 1945 – Robert Sarah, Guinean cardinal 1945 – Lawrence Wilkerson, American colonel 1946 – Noddy Holder, English rock singer-songwriter, musician, and actor 1946 – John Horner, American paleontologist and academic 1946 – Demis Roussos, Egyptian-Greek singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2015) 1947 – John Hoagland, American photographer and journalist (d. 1984) 1948 – Mike Holmgren, American football player and coach 1948 – Alan Huckle, English politician and diplomat, Governor of Anguilla 1948 – Henry McLeish, Scottish footballer, academic, and politician, 2nd First Minister of Scotland 1949 – Dusty Baker, American baseball player and manager 1949 – Simon Callow, English actor and director 1949 – Russell Hitchcock, Australian singer-songwriter 1949 – Jim Varney, American actor, comedian, and screenwriter (d. 2000) 1950 – Uğur Erdener, Turkish ophthalmologist and professor 1950 – Juliana Azumah-Mensah, Ghanaian nurse and politician 1950 – Deney Terrio, American choreographer and television host 1950 – Lakshmi Mittal, Indian-English businessman 1951 – Jane Amsterdam, American magazine and newspaper editor (Manhattan, inc., New York Post) 1951 – Vance A. Larson, American painter (d. 2000) 1951 – John Redwood, English politician, Secretary of State for Wales 1951 – Steve Walsh, American rock singer-songwriter and musician 1952 – Satya Pal Jain, Indian lawyer and politician, Additional Solicitor General of India 1953 – Vilma Bardauskienė, Lithuanian long jumper 1953 – Marc Brickman, American lighting and production designer 1953 – Eje Elgh, Swedish racing driver and sportscaster 1953 – Xi Jinping, Chinese engineer and politician, General Secretary of the Communist Party and President of China 1953 – Raphael Wallfisch, English cellist and educator 1954 – Jim Belushi, American actor 1954 – Terri Gibbs, American country music singer and keyboard player 1954 – Paul Rusesabagina, Rwandan humanitarian 1954 – Zdeňka Šilhavá, Czech discus thrower and shot putter 1954 – Beverley Whitfield, Australian swimmer (d. 1996) 1955 – Polly Draper, American actress, producer, and screenwriter 1955 – Julie Hagerty, American model and actress 1956 – Yevgeny
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three or four greatest chess prodigies in history". However, Kasparov expressed early doubts: "She has fantastic chess talent, but she is, after all, a woman. It all comes down to the imperfections of the feminine psyche. No woman can sustain a prolonged battle." Later in life, however, after he had lost a rapid game against Polgár himself in 2002, Kasparov revised his opinion: "The Polgárs showed that there are no inherent limitations to their aptitude—an idea that many male players refused to accept until they had unceremoniously been crushed by a twelve-year-old with a ponytail." In 1989, Polgár tied with Boris Gelfand for third in the OHRA Open in Amsterdam, earning her first Grandmaster norm. By now, numerous books and articles had been written about the Polgár sisters, making them famous even outside of the world of chess. In 1989, American President George H. W. Bush and his wife Barbara met with the Polgárs during their visit to Hungary. Although not released until 1996, in 1990 a documentary about children playing chess, Chess Kids, featuring Polgár, was filmed. The documentary did not include an interview with Polgár as her father required payment. In 1990, Judit won the Boys section of the under-14 in the World Youth Chess Festival in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin. Also in 1990, Judit and her sisters represented Hungary in the Women's Olympiad, winning the gold medal. It was the last women-only tournament in which Judit would ever participate. In October 1991, Judit finished with 5½–3½, tied for third for fifth position with Zoltán Ribli and John Nunn, at a tournament in Vienna. Grandmaster In December 1991, Polgár achieved the grandmaster title by winning the Hungarian National Championship, at the time the youngest ever at 15 years, 5 months to have achieved the title. This beat Fischer's record by a month. This made her the first woman to be the youngest-ever grandmaster, and the fourth woman to become a grandmaster (after Nona Gaprindashvili, Maia Chiburdanidze and Polgar's sister Susan). With this, Polgar beat her sister Susan's record for youngest-ever female grandmaster, obtained earlier in January 1991, by over 7 years. Hungary, one of the strongest chess-playing countries, had all but one of their strongest players participate in that year's championship, as only Zoltán Ribli was missing. Going into the last round, Polgár needed only a draw to achieve the GM title, but she won her game against GM Tibor Tolnai to finish first, with six points in nine games. Judit's sister Susan had earned the GM title in January 1991. In 1992, Polgár tied for second, behind Anatoly Karpov at the Madrid International in Linares. She and Russian GM Vladimir Epishin finished with 5½–3½. In July 1992, she placed second in the Reshevsky Memorial in Manhattan finishing with four wins, five draws and no losses. In September 1992, Polgár participated in a tournament held in Aruba in which a team of senior men's players competed against a team of top women players. The men's team consisted of Lev Polugaevsky, Wolfgang Uhlmann, Oscar Panno, Efim Geller, Borislav Ivkov and Vasily Smyslov. The women's team consisted of Judit and Zsuzsa Polgár, Pia Cramling, Chiburdanidze, Ketevan Arakhamia and Alisa Galliamova. The men won the tournament 39–33. The overall high scorer was Polugaevsky, 57 years old with Polgár, 16, finishing second with 7½–4½. Polgár then tied for first in the Hastings tournament held over New Year's, 1992–93. Russian GM Evgeny Bareev, at the time ranked eighth in the world, led going into tournament's last round, but was defeated by Polgár in their second individual game, allowing her to share first. Immediately following the Hastings tournament, Polgár played an exhibition match in February against former World Champion, Boris Spassky. She won the match 5½–4½ and won the largest prize money to that point in her career of $110,000. Polgár also participated in the Melody Amber tournament in Monaco which featured a blindfold tournament of 12 grandmasters. Anand and Karpov finished first, Ljubojević third, while Polgár finished in clear fourth with 6½ points from 11 rounds, ahead of other strong GMs such as Ivanchuk, Short, Korchnoi and her sister Susan. In 1993, Polgár became the first woman to ever qualify for an Interzonal tournament. In March, she finished in a four-way tie for second place in the Budapest Zonal and won the tiebreaking tournament. She then confirmed her status as one of the world's leading players, narrowly failing to qualify for the Candidates Tournaments at the rival FIDE and PCA Interzonal tournaments. In the summer of 1993, Bobby Fischer stayed for a time in the Polgár household. He had been living in seclusion in Yugoslavia due to an arrest warrant issued by the United States for violating the U.N. blockade of Yugoslavia with his 1992 match against Spassky. Susan Polgár met Bobby with her family and persuaded him to come out of hiding "in a cramped hotel room in a small Yugoslavian village". During his stay, he played many games of Fischer Random Chess and helped the sisters analyse their games. Susan said, while he was friendly on a personal level and recalled mostly pleasant moments as their guest, there were conflicts due to his political views. On the suggestion of a friend of Fischer, a match of blitz chess between Fischer and Polgár was arranged and announced to the press. However, problems ensued between Fischer and László Polgár and Fischer cancelled the match, saying to a friend on whether the match would take place, "No, they're Jewish." In the summer of 1994, Polgár had the greatest success of her career to that point, when she won the Madrid International in Spain. Against a field which included Gata Kamsky, Evgeny Bareev, Valery Salov and Ivan Sokolov, she finished 7–2 and 1½ points ahead of second place. Her performance rating for the tournament was 2778 against an opposition rated at 2672. In October 1994, she played in a tournament in Buenos Aires which was a tribute to an ailing Polugaevsky. Eight grandmasters participated, all considered contenders for the world championship: Karpov, Anand, Salov, Ivanchuk, Kamsky, Shirov, Ljubojević and Polgár. The tournament was unusual as Black in each game was required to play a Sicilian Defence, since Polugaevsky was considered the all-time authority on the opening. This was to Polgár's advantage as it was her favourite. Against the elite competition she finished tied for third with Ivanchuk. In September 1995, Polgár finished third with a score of 7–4 in the Donner Memorial in Amsterdam, behind Jan Timman and Julio Granda Zuniga, who tied for first, and ahead of Yasser Seirawan, Alexander Huzman, Alexei Shirov, Alexander Khalifman, Alexander Morozevich and Valery Salov. She secured a clear third place with a 21-move win over Shirov in her last game. In the Antillean island of Aruba in November 1995, she played in a friendly match against Jeroen Piket of the Netherlands, at the time one of the top players in Europe. Despite being closely matched in ratings, Polgár won the match 6–2. In 1995, the Isle of Lewis chess club in Scotland attempted to arrange a game between Polgár and Nigel Short in which the famous Lewis chessmen would be used. The Lewis chessmen is a chess set carved in the 12th century. However, the British Museum refused to release the set despite assurances that the players would wear gloves. Scottish member of parliament Calum MacDonald pointed out that the set would be safe, especially as chess was not a contact sport. In the end, the Museum allowed the chess set to be displayed at the Isle of Lewis festival tournament, but they were not used in any games. Polgár won the double round-robin tournament of four GMs, scoring five points in the six games and winning both her games against Short. Kasparov touch-move controversy At Linares 1994, Polgár lost a controversial game to the World Champion Garry Kasparov. The tournament marked the first time the 17-year-old Polgár was invited to compete with the world's strongest players. After four games she had two points. During her game with Kasparov in the fifth round, Kasparov gradually outplayed her and had a clear advantage after 35 moves. On his 36th move, the World Champion reportedly changed his mind about the move of a knight, and moved the piece to a different square. According to chess rules, once a player has released a piece, the move must stand, so if Kasparov did remove his hand, he should have been required to play his original move. Polgár did not challenge Kasparov in the moment, because, she stated, "I was playing the World Champion and didn't want to cause unpleasantness during my first invitation to such an important event. I was also afraid that if my complaint was overruled I would be penalized on the clock when we were in time pressure." She did, however, look questioningly at the arbiter, Carlos Falcon, who witnessed the incident and took no action. The incident was caught on tape by a crew from the Spanish television company PVS, and the videotape showed that Kasparov's fingers had left the knight. Tournament director Carlos Falcon did not forfeit Kasparov when this evidence was made available to him. As U.S. chess journalist Shelby Lyman pointed out, in the majority of sports "instant replays" do not overrule a referee's original decision and chess is no exception. The video has never been publicly released, at the request of tournament sponsor Luis Rentero. At one point Polgár reportedly confronted Kasparov in the hotel bar, asking him, "How could you do this to me?" Following this incident, Kasparov bluntly told an interviewer "... she just publicly said I was cheating. ... I think a girl of her age should be taught some good manners before making such statements." Subsequently, Kasparov refused to speak to her for three years. Kasparov told reporters that his conscience was clear, as he was not aware of his hand leaving the piece. Although Polgár recovered by the end of the tournament, she went into a slump over the next six rounds, gaining only half a point. The incident may also have had an effect on Kasparov, who turned out a subpar performance in the tournament. Strongest female player ever Polgár is generally considered the strongest female chess player of all time. In January 1996, she became the only woman ever to be ranked in the top ten of all chess players. In August 1996, she participated in a very strong 10-player tournament in Vienna. There was a three-way tie for first between Karpov, Topalov and Boris Gelfand and a three-way tie for fourth between Kramnik, Polgár and Lékó. In December 1996, Polgár played a match in São Paulo against Brazil's champion Gilbert Milos. The four games were played at 30 moves an hour with 30 minutes for the remainder of the game. Polgár won two, drew one and lost one and won $12,000 in prize money. In February 1997, she played in the Linares "supertournament" which Kasparov won by edging out Kramnik. Polgár finished in clear fifth position in the 12-GM tournament, ahead of Anand, Ivanchuk, Gelfand and Shirov. Her result was considered exceptional considering the strength of the tournament, average 2701, and she was praised for her tactical skills in her game against Ivanchuk. In April 1997, she played in the Dos Hermanas Chess tournament, a single-round robin category XIX event of 10 of the world's best players. She finished in sixth place with an even score of 4½–4½. In June 1997, she finished with an even score, 4½–4½, in the Madrid 10-player GM tournament won by Topalov. In July 1997, Polgár competed in the elite Dortmund International Tournament. She finished in fifth in the strong field of ten, ahead of players such as Anatoly Karpov. In the tournament, she won playing with the black pieces against Veselin Topalov, at the time ranked fourth in the world. Topalov had the advantage until Polgár executed a deep positional sacrifice. In October 1997, she tied for second in a double round-robin tournament of four grandmasters in the VAM International Tournament in Hoogeveen, the Netherlands. "There has long been a lively debate about who is the strongest player of all", wrote GM Robert Byrne in his New York Times column of 26 August 1997. "Prominent candidates are Bobby Fischer, Garry Kasparov, Jose Raul Capablanca, Alexander Alekhine or Emanuel Lasker. But there is no argument about the greatest female player: she is 21-year-old Judit Polgár." In January 1998, she played in the category XVII event, the Hoogovens in Wijk aan Zee, Netherlands, in which 14 of the world's top grandmasters participated. She finished in the middle of the pack, tied for sixth–tenth position with Karpov, Topalov and Jeroen Piket and an even score of 6½ points in thirteen games. Polgár handed co-winner Vishwanathan Anand his only loss of the tournament. In June 1998 in Budapest, Polgár played an eight-game match of "action" chess, which is 30 minutes for the entire game, against Anatoly Karpov. She won the match 5–3 by winning two games with the remaining ending in draws. At the time Karpov was the FIDE World Champion. In August 1998, Polgár became the first woman to ever win the U.S. Open, which was held at the Kona Surf Resort in Kailua-Kona, Hawaii. She shared the tournament victory with GM Boris Gulko as each scored 8–1. Typical of her aggressive style was her victory against GM Georgi Kacheishvili in which she sacrificed her queen for the attack. In October 1998, Polgár won the VAM four-grandmaster tournament in Hoogeveen, Netherlands by 1½ points over Jan Timman. In November 1998, Polgár played in the Wydra Memorial Rapid chess tournament in Israel. She tied for first with Viswanathan Anand as both scored 11½ out of the 14 games. Anand won the tournament in a tie-break game over Polgár. In the two years since Polgár became the first woman to ever break into the top 10, her rating had dropped. Although she was in the top 20, this had the effect of her being invited less frequently to the strongest tournaments. In October 1999, Polgár participated in the four-player GM section of the VAM Chess tournament in Hoogeveen, Netherlands. Jan Timman led early in the tournament, but Polgár staged a comeback scoring 3 points in the last 4 games to share first place. Anatoly Karpov finished in third and Darmen Sadvakasov fourth. In January 2000, Polgár had, for her, a disappointing result in a tournament in Pamplona, Spain, which was won by Nigel Short. She finished with only 4 points from 9 games, tied for 6–7 place with Jan Timman, who had also played below his rating. Polgár had another disappointing result later in the month in the category XVIII tournament in Corus Wijk aan Zee which was won by Kasparov. She did not win her first game until the 11th round and finished with 5 points in 13 games, tied with Victor Korchnoi for 11–12 position among the fourteen GMs. However, in the European Teams Championship in Batumi, Georgia, also in January, she won the gold medal playing Board 2, scoring 6½–2½. In April and May 2000, Polgár won one of the strongest tournaments ever held in Asia. The Japfa Classic in Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia, was a category XVI event of 10 players which included Alexander Khalifman–at the time FIDE world champion– and Anatoly Karpov–his predecessor. Going into the last round four players, Polgár, Khalifman, Karpov and Gilberto Milos were tied, but Polgár won her game over Brazilian GM Milos while Khalifman and Karpov played against each other in a draw. Polgár finished clear first with 6½–2½, winning the $20,000 first place prize money. At the end of May, she won the Sigeman & Company International Tournament in Malmö, Sweden. She finished the four-player double
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even score of 4½–4½. In June 1997, she finished with an even score, 4½–4½, in the Madrid 10-player GM tournament won by Topalov. In July 1997, Polgár competed in the elite Dortmund International Tournament. She finished in fifth in the strong field of ten, ahead of players such as Anatoly Karpov. In the tournament, she won playing with the black pieces against Veselin Topalov, at the time ranked fourth in the world. Topalov had the advantage until Polgár executed a deep positional sacrifice. In October 1997, she tied for second in a double round-robin tournament of four grandmasters in the VAM International Tournament in Hoogeveen, the Netherlands. "There has long been a lively debate about who is the strongest player of all", wrote GM Robert Byrne in his New York Times column of 26 August 1997. "Prominent candidates are Bobby Fischer, Garry Kasparov, Jose Raul Capablanca, Alexander Alekhine or Emanuel Lasker. But there is no argument about the greatest female player: she is 21-year-old Judit Polgár." In January 1998, she played in the category XVII event, the Hoogovens in Wijk aan Zee, Netherlands, in which 14 of the world's top grandmasters participated. She finished in the middle of the pack, tied for sixth–tenth position with Karpov, Topalov and Jeroen Piket and an even score of 6½ points in thirteen games. Polgár handed co-winner Vishwanathan Anand his only loss of the tournament. In June 1998 in Budapest, Polgár played an eight-game match of "action" chess, which is 30 minutes for the entire game, against Anatoly Karpov. She won the match 5–3 by winning two games with the remaining ending in draws. At the time Karpov was the FIDE World Champion. In August 1998, Polgár became the first woman to ever win the U.S. Open, which was held at the Kona Surf Resort in Kailua-Kona, Hawaii. She shared the tournament victory with GM Boris Gulko as each scored 8–1. Typical of her aggressive style was her victory against GM Georgi Kacheishvili in which she sacrificed her queen for the attack. In October 1998, Polgár won the VAM four-grandmaster tournament in Hoogeveen, Netherlands by 1½ points over Jan Timman. In November 1998, Polgár played in the Wydra Memorial Rapid chess tournament in Israel. She tied for first with Viswanathan Anand as both scored 11½ out of the 14 games. Anand won the tournament in a tie-break game over Polgár. In the two years since Polgár became the first woman to ever break into the top 10, her rating had dropped. Although she was in the top 20, this had the effect of her being invited less frequently to the strongest tournaments. In October 1999, Polgár participated in the four-player GM section of the VAM Chess tournament in Hoogeveen, Netherlands. Jan Timman led early in the tournament, but Polgár staged a comeback scoring 3 points in the last 4 games to share first place. Anatoly Karpov finished in third and Darmen Sadvakasov fourth. In January 2000, Polgár had, for her, a disappointing result in a tournament in Pamplona, Spain, which was won by Nigel Short. She finished with only 4 points from 9 games, tied for 6–7 place with Jan Timman, who had also played below his rating. Polgár had another disappointing result later in the month in the category XVIII tournament in Corus Wijk aan Zee which was won by Kasparov. She did not win her first game until the 11th round and finished with 5 points in 13 games, tied with Victor Korchnoi for 11–12 position among the fourteen GMs. However, in the European Teams Championship in Batumi, Georgia, also in January, she won the gold medal playing Board 2, scoring 6½–2½. In April and May 2000, Polgár won one of the strongest tournaments ever held in Asia. The Japfa Classic in Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia, was a category XVI event of 10 players which included Alexander Khalifman–at the time FIDE world champion– and Anatoly Karpov–his predecessor. Going into the last round four players, Polgár, Khalifman, Karpov and Gilberto Milos were tied, but Polgár won her game over Brazilian GM Milos while Khalifman and Karpov played against each other in a draw. Polgár finished clear first with 6½–2½, winning the $20,000 first place prize money. At the end of May, she won the Sigeman & Company International Tournament in Malmö, Sweden. She finished the four-player double round-robin tournament scoring 4 points, with Jan Timman at 3½ with Ulf Andersson and Tiger Hillarp-Persson finishing in that order. In June 2000, she played in the GM Tournament Mérida, State of Yucatán, finishing in second place a half point behind Alexei Shirov. In September 2000, she shared first place in the Najdorf Chess Festival with Viktor Bologan, ahead of Nigel Short and Anatoly Karpov. In October and November, she represented Hungary playing board 3 in the 34th Chess Olympiad. While the Hungarian team narrowly missed winning the bronze medal, Polgár finished 10/13 for the second highest points total of any player in the Olympiad and a rated performance level of 2772. In late February and early March 2001, Polgár played in the elite Linares double round-robin invitational of six of the world's strongest players. The tournament was Kasparov's triumph as he scored 7½ points in 10 games. The other five participants, Polgár, Karpov, Shirov, Grischuk and Lékó all finished with 4½ for second and last position. However, Polgár drew both her games with Kasparov, the first time in her career she had done this under tournament time controls. In March 2001, she reached the semifinals of the World Cup rapid play tournament in Cannes. She made it to the final four from the 16 grandmasters in the tournament. She lost the semifinal match to Evgeny Bareev, who in turn lost to Kasparov. In a quarterfinal playoff blitz game, she forced Joël Lautier, France's strongest player, to resign in 12 moves when she won his queen which resulted in the audience of several hundred bursting into applause. In June 2001, Polgár finished fourth in the European Championship in Ohrid, Macedonia, a 13-round Swiss-system tournament of 143 Grandmasters and 38 IMs. In October 2001, she tied for first with GM Loek van Wely in the Essent Tourney in Hoogeveen, the Netherlands. Making history In September 2002, in the Russia versus the Rest of the World Match, Polgár finally defeated Garry Kasparov in a game. The tournament was played under rapid rules with 25 minutes per game and a 10-second bonus per move. She won the game with exceptional positional play. Kasparov with black chose the Berlin Defence instead of his usual Sicilian, and Polgár proceeded with a line which Kasparov has used himself. Polgár was able to attack with her rooks on Kasparov's king, which was still in the centre of the board, and when he was two pawns down, Kasparov resigned. The game helped the World team win the match 52–48. Upon resigning, Kasparov immediately left by a passageway barred to journalists and photographers. Kasparov had once described Polgár as a "circus puppet" and asserted that women chess players should stick to having children. Polgár called the game "one of the most remarkable moments of [her] career". The game was historic as it was the first time in chess history that a female player beat the world's No. 1 player in competitive play. An interview with Polgár including video of the match was included in the BBC Witness radio program in 2016. In October and November 2002, Polgár played on second board (with Péter Lékó on first) for Hungary in the 35th Chess Olympiad. While not having the stunning performance as she had in the 2000 Olympiad, she helped Hungary attain the silver medal for the event. While the Hungarians had the best win–loss record of the tournament as a team and lost only a single game of the 56 they played, they had won most of their matches by 2½–1½ scores, while the Russian team won gold as they piled up the points. However, Hungary gave the gold-winning Russian team its only defeat. Polgár's fourth-round game against Azerbaijan's Shakhriyar Mamedyarov included a brilliant 12.Nxf7, drawing his king into the center of the board. By early 2003, Polgár had worked her way back into the top 10 rated players in the world. In 2003, Polgár scored one of her best results: an undefeated clear second place in the Category XIX Corus chess tournament in Wijk aan Zee, Netherlands, just a half-point behind future World Champion Viswanathan Anand and a full point ahead of then-world champion Vladimir Kramnik. One of the highlight games of the tournament was Polgár's fourth round crushing victory over Anatoly Karpov. She played a novelty in the opening which she devised over the board. The game lasted 33 moves with Karpov down two pawns and his king exposed. Polgár admitted to "enjoying herself" by the end of the game. In April 2003, Polgár finished second in The Hunguest Hotels Super Tournament in Budapest behind Nigel Short. She appeared headed for a first-place victory in the tournament, but lost her game against compatriot Péter Lékó. In June 2003, Polgár finished tied for third with Boris Gelfand, in the Enghien-les-Bains International Tournament in France, scoring 5½–3½, behind Evgeny Bareev who won the tournament and GM Michael Adams. In August 2003, Polgár played an eight-game rapid chess match in Mainz, Germany against Viswanathan Anand, billed as the "Battle of the Sexes". After six games each player had won three games. Anand won the final two games to win the match. In October 2003, Polgár won the 4–grandmaster Essent tournament in Hoogeveen, Netherlands. In one of her games against Karpov, he blundered, allowing Polgár to utilize a famous double bishop sacrifice first employed by Emanuel Lasker against Bauer in 1889. In 2004, Polgár took some time off from chess to give birth to her son, Olivér. She was consequently considered inactive and not listed on the January 2005 FIDE rating list. Her sister Susan reactivated her playing status during this period, and temporarily became the world's No. 1 ranked women's player again. Polgár returned to chess at the prestigious Corus chess tournament on 15 January 2005. The tournament, which was now considered by some as the most important in Europe, was won by fellow Hungarian Péter Lékó while Polgár scored 7/13 to tie for fourth with Alexander Grischuk, Michael Adams and Kramnik. She was therefore relisted in the April 2005 FIDE rating list, gaining a few rating points for her better-than-par performance at Corus. In May she also had a better-than-par performance at a strong tournament in Sofia, Bulgaria, finishing third. This brought her to her highest ever rating, 2735, in the July 2005 FIDE list and enabled her to retain her spot as the eighth ranked player in the world. In September 2005, Polgár once again made history as she became the first woman to play in the final stages of the World Chess Championship qualification; she had previously participated in large, 100+ player knockout tournaments for the world championship, but this was a small 8-player invitational. However, she performed poorly, coming last of the eight competitors. However, in her game against Veselin Topalov, Polgár pushed the eventual tournament winner and world champion to a seven-hour marathon before succumbing. She did not play at the 2006 Linares tournament because she was pregnant again. On 6 July 2006, she gave birth to a girl, Hanna. Polgár participitated in the FIDE world blitz championship on 5–7 September 2006 in Rishon Le Zion, Israel. Blitz chess is played with each player having only 5 minutes for all moves. The round-robin tournament of 16 of some of the strongest players in the world, concluded with Alexander Grischuk finally edging out Peter Svidler in a tie-break to win the tournament. Polgár finished tied for fifth/sixth place, winning $5,625 for the three-day tournament. Polgár tied with Boris Gelfand with 9½ points and won her individual game against Viswanathan Anand, at the time the world's No. 2 player. In October 2006, Polgár scored another excellent result: tied for first place in the Essent Chess Tournament, Hoogeveen, the Netherlands. She scored 4½ out of 6 in a double round-robin tournament that included two wins against the world's top-rated player, Veselin Topalov. In December 2006, Polgár played a six-game match of blindfold rapid chess against former FIDE world champion Veselin Topalov. Topalov won the match 3½–2½ with two wins to Polgár's one. Nearly 1,000 spectators attended the event. In May–June 2007 she played in the Candidates Tournament for the FIDE World Chess Championship 2007. She was eliminated in the first round, losing 3½–2½ to Evgeny Bareev. Some chess pundits said she was unprepared for the tournament and appeared affected by the fact that she had played less chess in the last three years to concentrate on her two children. However, she was still credited with the most beautiful attack of the tournament in her fifth game victory. In July 2007, Polgár played in the Biel Chess Festival which was won by 16-year-old Magnus Carlsen. Polgár finished the 9 round tournament at 5–4 in a four-way tie for third to sixth place. A highlight game for her was actually a draw. Polgár was playing an endgame of knight against knight and two connected passed pawns of Alexander Grischuk, but she was able to eliminate both pawns. In October 2007, Polgár played in the Blindfold World Cup in Bilbao, Spain. Polgár finished in fourth place of the six players with three wins, four losses, and three draws. The tournament was won by Bu Xiangzhi of China, whose only loss was to Polgár. In November 2007, she took part in Chess Champions League – Playing for a Better World in Vitoria Gasteiz, Spain a tournament to raise funds for equipment for a Hospital in Mbuji-Mayi, DR Congo. Polgár finished tied for third in the strong six-player tournament and handed tournament winner Veselin Topalov his only loss. In January 2008 she competed in the strong Corus Wijk aan Zee tournament, scoring a respectable 6/13 and tied 9–11 in the 14 player tournament. In November 2008, Polgár had a terrible result in The World Chess Blitz Championship in Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan, finished last of the 16 players with only 2½ points. In November 2008, Polgár played the number 2 board for the Hungarian open ("men's") team in the 38th Chess Olympiad in Dresden, finishing 3½/8. In November 2009, Polgár participated in the FIDE World Cup at Khanty Mansiysk in Siberia. Polgár made it to the third round of the knockout tournament until she was eliminated by tournament winner Boris Gelfand. She handed Gelfand his only loss of the tournament. Return to competition In 2010, Polgár began her return to competitive chess and would play more than she had in recent years. In March 2010, Polgár played a four-game match against GM Gregory Kaidanov at Hilton Head, South Carolina. It was required that each game begin with the Sicilian Defense. The match was drawn with each player winning two games. In April 2010, Polgár played an eight-game rapid chess match against Czech GM David Navara which was part of the ČEZ Chess Trophy 2010 festival of the Prague Chess Society. Despite slightly higher ranking, 2708 to Polgár's 2682, Navara lost the match 6–2. Polgár participated in the rapid chess tournament of the Presidential Chess Cup in Baku, Azerbaijan from 29 April to 1 May 2010. She finished with one win, two losses and four draws, tied for fifth position in the eight-player round robin. The tournament finished with a three-way tie for first with the winner, Kramnik, being decided by Elo over Mamedyarov and Kamsky. In June 2010, it was reported Polgár was assisting GM Zoltán Almási in training for the Olympiad. In September and October 2010, Polgár played 3rd board for the Hungarian Men's team in the 39th Chess Olympiad in Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia. The team finished in fourth place, losing the Bronze medal to Israel on tie-break. Playing more in 2010 than in recent years, Polgár finished fourth overall among Board three players with a 6/10 score. The highlight for the Hungarian Men's team was a fifth-round victory over Russia I. In November 2010, Polgár won the four-player rapid tournament which was held to celebrate the National University of Mexico's 100th anniversary. Polgár won a close opening match against Vassily Ivanchuk. She then crushed Veselin Topalov, a former world champion and ranked No. 1 in the world in 2009, 3½–½ to win the tournament. On 2 April 2011, Polgár finished in a four-way tie for first in the European Individual Chess Championship in Aix-les-Bains, France. The tournament, featuring 393 players of which 167 were Grandmasters, was won by Russian Vladimir Potkin on tie-break; GM Radosław Wojtaszek won the silver, while Polgár placed third, winning the bronze. Polgár was praised for her creative attacks and endgame technique. Polgár became the first woman ever to finish in the top three of the male championship. Continuing Polgár's return to competitive chess, in July 2011 she participated in the 39th Greek Team National Championship, scoring 3½ out of 4 games. Also in July 2011, Polgár played Board 3 for Hungary in the World Team Championships. Hungary finished in fifth place of the ten teams and individually Polgár finished sixteenth of the fifty players. In September 2011, Polgár competed in the
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British defeat. 1879 – The Battle of Rorke's Drift, also during the Anglo-Zulu War and just some 15 km away from Isandlwana, results in a British victory. 1890 – The United Mine Workers of America is founded in Columbus, Ohio. 1901–present 1901 – Edward VII is proclaimed King of the United Kingdom after the death of his mother, Queen Victoria. 1905 – Bloody Sunday in Saint Petersburg, beginning of the 1905 revolution. 1906 – runs aground on rocks on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, killing more than 130. 1915 – Over 600 people are killed in Guadalajara, Mexico, when a train plunges off the tracks into a deep canyon. 1917 – American entry into World War I: President Woodrow Wilson of the still-neutral United States calls for "peace without victory" in Europe. 1919 – Act Zluky is signed, unifying the Ukrainian People's Republic and the West Ukrainian National Republic. 1924 – Ramsay MacDonald becomes the first Labour Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. 1927 – Teddy Wakelam gives the first live radio commentary of a football match, between Arsenal F.C. and Sheffield United at Highbury. 1941 – World War II: British and Commonwealth troops capture Tobruk from Italian forces during Operation Compass. 1943 – World War II: Australian and American forces defeat Japanese army and navy units in the bitterly fought Battle of Buna–Gona. 1944 – World War II: The Allies commence Operation Shingle, an assault on Anzio and Nettuno, Italy. 1946 – In Iran, Qazi Muhammad declares the independent people's Republic of Mahabad at Chahar Cheragh Square in the Kurdish city of Mahabad; he becomes the new president and Haji Baba Sheikh becomes the prime minister. 1946 – Creation of the Central Intelligence Group, forerunner of the Central Intelligence Agency. 1947 – KTLA, the first commercial television station west of the Mississippi River, begins operation in Hollywood. 1957 – Israel withdraws from the Sinai Peninsula. 1957 – The New York City "Mad Bomber", George P. Metesky, is arrested in Waterbury, Connecticut and charged with planting more than 30 bombs. 1963 – The Élysée Treaty of cooperation between France and West Germany is signed by Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer. 1968 – Apollo 5 lifts off carrying the first Lunar module into space. 1968 – Operation Igloo White, a US electronic surveillance system to stop communist infiltration into South Vietnam begins installation. 1970 – The Boeing 747, the world's first "jumbo jet", enters commercial service for launch customer Pan American Airways with its maiden voyage from New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport to London Heathrow Airport. 1971 – The Singapore Declaration, one of the two most important documents to the uncodified constitution of the Commonwealth of Nations, is issued. 1973 – The Supreme Court of the United States delivers its decisions in Roe v. Wade and Doe v. Bolton, legalizing elective abortion in all fifty states. 1973 – The crew of Apollo 17 addresses a joint session of Congress after the completion of the final Apollo moon landing mission. 1973 – A chartered Boeing 707 explodes in flames upon landing at Kano Airport, Nigeria, killing 176. 1973 – In a bout for the world heavyweight boxing championship in Kingston, Jamaica, challenger George Foreman knocks down champion Joe Frazier six times in the first two rounds before the fight is stopped by referee Arthur Mercante. 1984 – The Apple Macintosh, the first consumer computer to popularize the computer mouse and the graphical user interface, is introduced during a Super Bowl XVIII television commercial. 1987 – Philippine security forces open fire on a crowd of 10,000–15,000 demonstrators at Malacañang Palace, Manila, killing 13. 1992 – Rebel forces occupy Zaire's national radio station in Kinshasa and broadcast a demand for the government's resignation. 1992 – Space Shuttle program: The space shuttle Discovery launches on STS-42 carrying Dr. Roberta Bondar, who becomes the first Canadian woman and the first neurologist in space. 1995 – Israeli–Palestinian conflict: Beit Lid suicide bombing: In central Israel, near Netanya, two Gazans blow themselves up at a military transit point, killing 19 Israeli soldiers. 1998 – Space Shuttle program: space shuttle Endeavour launches on STS-89 to dock with the Russian space station Mir. 1999 – Australian missionary Graham Staines and his two sons are burned alive by radical Hindus while sleeping in their car in Eastern India. 2002 – Kmart becomes the largest retailer in United States history to file for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. 2006 – Evo Morales is inaugurated as President of Bolivia, becoming the country's first indigenous president. 2007 – At least 88 people are killed when two car bombs explode in the Bab Al-Sharqi market in central Baghdad, Iraq. 2009 – President Barack Obama signs an executive order to close the Guantanamo Bay detention camp; congressional opposition will prevent it being implemented. Births Pre-1600 1263 – Ibn Taymiyyah, Syrian scholar and theologian (d. 1328) 1440 – Ivan III of Russia (d. 1505) 1522 – Charles II de Valois, Duke of Orléans, (d. 1545) 1552 – Walter Raleigh, English poet, soldier, courtier, and explorer (d. 1618) 1561 – Francis Bacon, English philosopher and politician, Attorney General for England and Wales (d. 1626) 1570 – Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington, English historian and politician, founded the Cotton library (d. 1631) 1573 – John Donne, English poet and cleric in the Church of England, wrote the Holy Sonnets (d. 1631) 1592 – Pierre Gassendi, French mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher (d. 1655) 1601–1900 1645 – William Kidd, Scottish sailor and pirate hunter (probable; d. 1701) 1654 – Richard Blackmore, English physician and poet (d. 1729) 1690 – Nicolas Lancret, French painter (d. 1743) 1729 – Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, German philosopher and author (d. 1781) 1733 – Philip Carteret, English admiral and explorer (d. 1796) 1740 – Noah Phelps, American soldier, lawyer, and judge (d. 1809) 1781 – François Habeneck, French violinist and conductor (d. 1849) 1788 – Lord Byron, English poet and playwright (d. 1824) 1792 – Lady Lucy Whitmore, English noblewoman, hymn writer (d. 1840) 1796 – Karl Ernst Claus, Estonian-Russian chemist, botanist, and academic (d. 1864) 1797 – Maria Leopoldina of Austria (d. 1826) 1799 – Ludger Duvernay, Canadian journalist, publisher, and politician (d. 1852) 1802 – Richard Upjohn, English-American architect (d. 1878) 1828 – Dayrolles Eveleigh-de-Moleyns, 4th Baron Ventry, Irish hereditary peer (d. 1914) 1831 – Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (d. 1917) 1840 – Ernest Wilberforce, English bishop (d. 1907) 1849 – August Strindberg, Swedish novelist, poet, and playwright (d. 1912) 1858 – Beatrice Webb, English sociologist and economist (d. 1943) 1861 – George Fuller, Australian politician, 22nd Premier of New South Wales (d. 1940) 1865 – Wilbur Scoville, American chemist and pharmacist (d. 1942) 1867 – Gisela Januszewska, Jewish-Austrian physician (d. 1943) 1869 – José Vicente de Freitas, Portuguese colonel and politician, 97th Prime Minister of Portugal (d. 1952) 1874 – Edward Harkness, American philanthropist (d. 1940) 1874 – Jay Hughes, American baseball player and coach (d. 1924) 1875 – D. W. Griffith, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1948) 1877 – Tom Jones, American baseball player and manager (d. 1923) 1879 – Francis Picabia, French painter and poet (d. 1953) 1880 – Bill O'Neill, Canadian-American baseball player (d. 1920) 1880 – Frigyes Riesz, Hungarian mathematician and academic (d. 1956) 1881 – Ira Thomas, American baseball player and manager (d. 1958) 1886 – John J. Becker, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1961) 1887 – Helen Hoyt, American poet and author (d. 1972) 1889 – Henri Pélissier, French cyclist (d. 1935) 1889 – Amos Strunk, American baseball player and manager (d. 1979) 1890 – Fred M. Vinson, American judge and politician, 13th Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1953) 1891 – Antonio Gramsci, Italian philosopher and politician (d. 1937) 1892 – Marcel Dassault, French businessman, founded Dassault Aviation (d. 1986) 1893 – Conrad Veidt, German-American actor, director, and producer (d. 1943) 1897 – Rosa Ponselle, American operatic soprano (d. 1981) 1897 – Dilipkumar Roy, a Bengali Indian musician, musicologist, novelist, poet and essayist. (d. 1980) 1898 – Ross Barnett, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Governor of Mississippi (d. 1987) 1898 – Sergei Eisenstein, Russian director and screenwriter (d. 1948) 1898 – Denise Legeay, French actress (d. 1968) 1899 – Martti Haavio, Finnish poet and mythologist (d. 1973) 1900 – Ernst Busch, German actor and singer (d. 1980) 1901–present 1902 – Daniel Kinsey, American hurdler, coach, and academic (d. 1970) 1903 – Fritz Houtermans, Polish-German physicist and academic (d. 1966) 1904 – George Balanchine, Georgian-American dancer, choreographer, and director, co-founded the New York City Ballet (d. 1983) 1904 – Arkady Gaidar, Russian journalist and author (d. 1941) 1905 – Willy Hartner, German physicist, historian, and academic (d. 1981) 1906 – Robert E. Howard, American author and poet (d. 1936) 1907 – Douglas Corrigan, American pilot and engineer (d. 1995) 1907 – Dixie Dean, English footballer (d. 1980) 1908 – Lev Landau, Azerbaijani-Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1968) 1908 – Prince Oana, American baseball player and manager (d. 1976) 1909 – Martha Norelius, Swedish-born American swimmer (d. 1955) 1909 – Porfirio Rubirosa, Dominican racing driver, polo player, and diplomat (d. 1965) 1909 – Ann Sothern, American actress and singer (d. 2001) 1909 – U Thant, Burmese educator and diplomat, 3rd United Nations Secretary-General (d. 1974) 1911 – Bruno Kreisky, Austrian lawyer and politician, 22nd Chancellor of Austria (d. 1990) 1913 – Henry Bauchau, Belgian psychoanalyst and author (d. 2012) 1913 – William Conway, Irish cardinal (d. 1977) 1913 – Carl F. H. Henry, American theologian and publisher (d. 2003) 1914 – Dimitris Dragatakis, Greek violinist and composer (d. 2001) 1915 – Heinrich Albertz, German theologian and politician, Mayor of Berlin (d. 1993) 1916 – Bill Durnan, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1972) 1916 – Henri Dutilleux, French pianist, composer, and educator (d. 2013) 1916 – Harilal Upadhyay, Indian author, poet, and astrologist (d. 1994) 1918 – Elmer Lach, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2015) 1919 – Diomedes Olivo, Dominican baseball player and scout (d. 1977) 1920 – Irving Kristol, American journalist, author, and academic, founded The National Interest (d. 2009) 1920 – Alf Ramsey, English footballer and coach (d. 1999) 1922 – Howard Moss, American poet, playwright and critic (d. 1987) 1923 – Diana Douglas, British-American actress (d. 2015) 1924 – J. J. Johnson, American trombonist and composer (d. 2001) 1924 – Ján Chryzostom Korec, Slovak cardinal (d. 2015) 1924 – Charles Lisanby, American production designer and art director (d. 2013) 1925 – Johnny Bucha, American baseball player (d. 1996) 1925 – Bobby Young, American baseball player (d. 1985) 1927 – Lou Creekmur, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2009) 1927 – Joe Perry, American footballer (d. 2011) 1928 – Yoshihiko Amino, Japanese historian, author, and academic (d. 2004) 1929 – Petr Eben, Czech composer, organist and choirmaster (d. 2007) 1930 – Mariví Bilbao, Spanish actress (d. 2013) 1930 – Éamon de Buitléar, Irish accordion player and director (d. 2013) 1930 – Daniel Camargo Barbosa, Colombian serial killer (d. 1994) 1931 – Sam Cooke, American singer-songwriter (d. 1964) 1931 – Galina Zybina, Russian shot putter and javelin thrower 1932 – Berthold Grünfeld, Norwegian psychiatrist and academic (d. 2007) 1932 – Piper Laurie, American actress 1932 – Tom Fisher Railsback, American politician (d. 2020) 1933 – Yuri Chesnokov, Russian volleyball player and coach (d. 2010) 1934 – Vijay Anand, Indian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2004) 1934 – Bill Bixby, American actor and director (d. 1993) 1935 – Alexander Men, Russian priest and scholar (d. 1990) 1936 – Ong Teng Cheong, Singaporean architect and politician, 5th President of Singapore (d. 2002) 1936 – Alan J. Heeger, American physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate 1937 – Alma Delia Fuentes, Mexican actress (d. 2017) 1937 – Edén Pastora, Nicaraguan politician (d. 2020) 1937 – Joseph Wambaugh, American police officer and author 1938 – Peter Beard, Australian photographer and author (d. 2020) 1938 – Joe Esposito, American
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also during the Anglo-Zulu War and just some 15 km away from Isandlwana, results in a British victory. 1890 – The United Mine Workers of America is founded in Columbus, Ohio. 1901–present 1901 – Edward VII is proclaimed King of the United Kingdom after the death of his mother, Queen Victoria. 1905 – Bloody Sunday in Saint Petersburg, beginning of the 1905 revolution. 1906 – runs aground on rocks on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, killing more than 130. 1915 – Over 600 people are killed in Guadalajara, Mexico, when a train plunges off the tracks into a deep canyon. 1917 – American entry into World War I: President Woodrow Wilson of the still-neutral United States calls for "peace without victory" in Europe. 1919 – Act Zluky is signed, unifying the Ukrainian People's Republic and the West Ukrainian National Republic. 1924 – Ramsay MacDonald becomes the first Labour Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. 1927 – Teddy Wakelam gives the first live radio commentary of a football match, between Arsenal F.C. and Sheffield United at Highbury. 1941 – World War II: British and Commonwealth troops capture Tobruk from Italian forces during Operation Compass. 1943 – World War II: Australian and American forces defeat Japanese army and navy units in the bitterly fought Battle of Buna–Gona. 1944 – World War II: The Allies commence Operation Shingle, an assault on Anzio and Nettuno, Italy. 1946 – In Iran, Qazi Muhammad declares the independent people's Republic of Mahabad at Chahar Cheragh Square in the Kurdish city of Mahabad; he becomes the new president and Haji Baba Sheikh becomes the prime minister. 1946 – Creation of the Central Intelligence Group, forerunner of the Central Intelligence Agency. 1947 – KTLA, the first commercial television station west of the Mississippi River, begins operation in Hollywood. 1957 – Israel withdraws from the Sinai Peninsula. 1957 – The New York City "Mad Bomber", George P. Metesky, is arrested in Waterbury, Connecticut and charged with planting more than 30 bombs. 1963 – The Élysée Treaty of cooperation between France and West Germany is signed by Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer. 1968 – Apollo 5 lifts off carrying the first Lunar module into space. 1968 – Operation Igloo White, a US electronic surveillance system to stop communist infiltration into South Vietnam begins installation. 1970 – The Boeing 747, the world's first "jumbo jet", enters commercial service for launch customer Pan American Airways with its maiden voyage from New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport to London Heathrow Airport. 1971 – The Singapore Declaration, one of the two most important documents to the uncodified constitution of the Commonwealth of Nations, is issued. 1973 – The Supreme Court of the United States delivers its decisions in Roe v. Wade and Doe v. Bolton, legalizing elective abortion in all fifty states. 1973 – The crew of Apollo 17 addresses a joint session of Congress after the completion of the final Apollo moon landing mission. 1973 – A chartered Boeing 707 explodes in flames upon landing at Kano Airport, Nigeria, killing 176. 1973 – In a bout for the world heavyweight boxing championship in Kingston, Jamaica, challenger George Foreman knocks down champion Joe Frazier six times in the first two rounds before the fight is stopped by referee Arthur Mercante. 1984 – The Apple Macintosh, the first consumer computer to popularize the computer mouse and the graphical user interface, is introduced during a Super Bowl XVIII television commercial. 1987 – Philippine security forces open fire on a crowd of 10,000–15,000 demonstrators at Malacañang Palace, Manila, killing 13. 1992 – Rebel forces occupy Zaire's national radio station in Kinshasa and broadcast a demand for the government's resignation. 1992 – Space Shuttle program: The space shuttle Discovery launches on STS-42 carrying Dr. Roberta Bondar, who becomes the first Canadian woman and the first neurologist in space. 1995 – Israeli–Palestinian conflict: Beit Lid suicide bombing: In central Israel, near Netanya, two Gazans blow themselves up at a military transit point, killing 19 Israeli soldiers. 1998 – Space Shuttle program: space shuttle Endeavour launches on STS-89 to dock with the Russian space station Mir. 1999 – Australian missionary Graham Staines and his two sons are burned alive by radical Hindus while sleeping in their car in Eastern India. 2002 – Kmart becomes the largest retailer in United States history to file for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. 2006 – Evo Morales is inaugurated as President of Bolivia, becoming the country's first indigenous president. 2007 – At least 88 people are killed when two car bombs explode in the Bab Al-Sharqi market in central Baghdad, Iraq. 2009 – President Barack Obama signs an executive order to close the Guantanamo Bay detention camp; congressional opposition will prevent it being implemented. Births Pre-1600 1263 – Ibn Taymiyyah, Syrian scholar and theologian (d. 1328) 1440 – Ivan III of Russia (d. 1505) 1522 – Charles II de Valois, Duke of Orléans, (d. 1545) 1552 – Walter Raleigh, English poet, soldier, courtier, and explorer (d. 1618) 1561 – Francis Bacon, English philosopher and politician, Attorney General for England and Wales (d. 1626) 1570 – Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington, English historian and politician, founded the Cotton library (d. 1631) 1573 – John Donne, English poet and cleric in the Church of England, wrote the Holy Sonnets (d. 1631) 1592 – Pierre Gassendi, French mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher (d. 1655) 1601–1900 1645 – William Kidd, Scottish sailor and pirate hunter (probable; d. 1701) 1654 – Richard Blackmore, English physician and poet (d. 1729) 1690 – Nicolas Lancret, French painter (d. 1743) 1729 – Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, German philosopher and author (d. 1781) 1733 – Philip Carteret, English admiral and explorer (d. 1796) 1740 – Noah Phelps, American soldier, lawyer, and judge (d. 1809) 1781 – François Habeneck, French violinist and conductor (d. 1849) 1788 – Lord Byron, English poet and playwright (d. 1824) 1792 – Lady Lucy Whitmore, English noblewoman, hymn writer (d. 1840) 1796 – Karl Ernst Claus, Estonian-Russian chemist, botanist, and academic (d. 1864) 1797 – Maria Leopoldina of Austria (d. 1826) 1799 – Ludger Duvernay, Canadian journalist, publisher, and politician (d. 1852) 1802 – Richard Upjohn, English-American architect (d. 1878) 1828 – Dayrolles Eveleigh-de-Moleyns, 4th Baron Ventry, Irish hereditary peer (d. 1914) 1831 – Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (d. 1917) 1840 – Ernest Wilberforce, English bishop (d. 1907) 1849 – August Strindberg, Swedish novelist, poet, and playwright (d. 1912) 1858 – Beatrice Webb, English sociologist and economist (d. 1943) 1861 – George Fuller, Australian politician, 22nd Premier of New South Wales (d. 1940) 1865 – Wilbur Scoville, American chemist and pharmacist (d. 1942) 1867 – Gisela Januszewska, Jewish-Austrian physician (d. 1943) 1869 – José Vicente de Freitas, Portuguese colonel and politician, 97th Prime Minister of Portugal (d. 1952) 1874 – Edward Harkness, American philanthropist (d. 1940) 1874 – Jay Hughes, American baseball player and coach (d. 1924) 1875 – D. W. Griffith, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1948) 1877 – Tom Jones, American baseball player and manager (d. 1923) 1879 – Francis Picabia, French painter and poet (d. 1953) 1880 – Bill O'Neill, Canadian-American baseball player (d. 1920) 1880 – Frigyes Riesz, Hungarian mathematician and academic (d. 1956) 1881 – Ira Thomas, American baseball player and manager (d. 1958) 1886 – John J. Becker, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1961) 1887 – Helen Hoyt, American poet and author (d. 1972) 1889 – Henri Pélissier, French cyclist (d. 1935) 1889 – Amos Strunk, American baseball player and manager (d. 1979) 1890 – Fred M. Vinson, American judge and politician, 13th Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1953) 1891 – Antonio Gramsci, Italian philosopher and politician (d. 1937) 1892 – Marcel Dassault, French businessman, founded Dassault Aviation (d. 1986) 1893 – Conrad Veidt, German-American actor, director, and producer (d. 1943) 1897 – Rosa Ponselle, American operatic soprano (d. 1981) 1897 – Dilipkumar Roy, a Bengali Indian musician, musicologist, novelist, poet and essayist. (d. 1980) 1898 – Ross Barnett, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Governor of Mississippi (d. 1987) 1898 – Sergei Eisenstein, Russian director and screenwriter (d. 1948) 1898 – Denise Legeay, French actress (d. 1968) 1899 – Martti Haavio, Finnish poet and mythologist (d. 1973) 1900 – Ernst Busch, German actor and singer (d. 1980) 1901–present 1902 – Daniel Kinsey, American hurdler, coach, and academic (d. 1970) 1903 – Fritz Houtermans, Polish-German physicist and academic (d. 1966) 1904 – George Balanchine, Georgian-American dancer, choreographer, and director, co-founded the New York City Ballet (d. 1983) 1904 – Arkady Gaidar, Russian journalist and author (d. 1941) 1905 – Willy Hartner, German physicist, historian, and academic (d. 1981) 1906 – Robert E. Howard, American author and poet (d. 1936) 1907 – Douglas Corrigan, American pilot and engineer (d. 1995) 1907 – Dixie Dean, English footballer (d. 1980) 1908 – Lev Landau, Azerbaijani-Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1968) 1908 – Prince Oana, American baseball player and manager (d. 1976) 1909 – Martha Norelius, Swedish-born American swimmer (d. 1955) 1909 – Porfirio Rubirosa, Dominican racing driver, polo player, and diplomat (d. 1965) 1909 – Ann Sothern, American actress and singer (d. 2001) 1909 – U Thant, Burmese educator and diplomat, 3rd United Nations Secretary-General (d. 1974) 1911 – Bruno Kreisky, Austrian lawyer and politician, 22nd Chancellor of Austria (d. 1990) 1913 – Henry Bauchau, Belgian psychoanalyst and author (d. 2012) 1913 – William Conway, Irish cardinal (d. 1977) 1913 – Carl F. H. Henry, American theologian and publisher (d. 2003) 1914 – Dimitris Dragatakis, Greek violinist and composer (d. 2001) 1915 – Heinrich Albertz, German theologian and politician, Mayor of Berlin (d. 1993) 1916 – Bill Durnan, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1972) 1916 – Henri Dutilleux, French pianist, composer, and educator (d. 2013) 1916 – Harilal Upadhyay, Indian author, poet, and astrologist (d. 1994) 1918 – Elmer Lach, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2015) 1919 – Diomedes Olivo, Dominican baseball player and scout (d. 1977) 1920 – Irving Kristol, American journalist, author, and academic, founded The National Interest (d. 2009) 1920 – Alf Ramsey, English footballer and coach (d. 1999) 1922 – Howard Moss, American poet, playwright and critic (d. 1987) 1923 – Diana Douglas, British-American actress (d. 2015) 1924 – J. J. Johnson, American trombonist and composer (d. 2001) 1924 – Ján Chryzostom Korec, Slovak cardinal (d. 2015) 1924 – Charles Lisanby, American production designer and art director (d. 2013) 1925 – Johnny Bucha, American baseball player (d. 1996) 1925 – Bobby Young, American baseball player (d. 1985) 1927 – Lou Creekmur, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2009) 1927 – Joe Perry, American footballer (d. 2011) 1928 – Yoshihiko Amino, Japanese historian, author, and academic (d. 2004) 1929 – Petr Eben, Czech composer, organist and choirmaster (d. 2007) 1930 – Mariví Bilbao, Spanish actress (d. 2013) 1930 – Éamon de Buitléar, Irish accordion player and director (d. 2013) 1930 – Daniel Camargo Barbosa, Colombian serial killer (d. 1994) 1931 – Sam Cooke, American singer-songwriter (d. 1964) 1931 – Galina Zybina, Russian shot putter and javelin thrower 1932 – Berthold Grünfeld, Norwegian psychiatrist and academic (d. 2007) 1932 – Piper Laurie, American
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the political faction surrounding his mistress, Madame de Pompadour. Even with them, however, Rousseau went too far, courting rejection when he criticized the practice of tax farming, in which some of them engaged. Rousseau's 800-page novel of sentiment, Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse, was published in 1761 to immense success. The book's rhapsodic descriptions of the natural beauty of the Swiss countryside struck a chord in the public and may have helped spark the subsequent nineteenth-century craze for Alpine scenery. In 1762, Rousseau published Du Contrat Social, Principes du droit politique (in English, literally Of the Social Contract, Principles of Political Right) in April. Even his friend Antoine-Jacques Roustan felt impelled to write a polite rebuttal of the chapter on Civil Religion in the Social Contract, which implied that the concept of a Christian republic was paradoxical since Christianity taught submission rather than participation in public affairs. Rousseau helped Roustan find a publisher for the rebuttal. Rousseau published Emile, or On Education in May. A famous section of Emile, "The Profession of Faith of a Savoyard Vicar", was intended to be a defense of religious belief. Rousseau's choice of a Catholic vicar of humble peasant background (plausibly based on a kindly prelate he had met as a teenager) as a spokesman for the defense of religion was in itself a daring innovation for the time. The vicar's creed was that of Socinianism (or Unitarianism as it is called today). Because it rejected original sin and divine revelation, both Protestant and Catholic authorities took offense. Moreover, Rousseau advocated the opinion that, insofar as they lead people to virtue, all religions are equally worthy, and that people should therefore conform to the religion in which they have been brought up. This religious indifferentism caused Rousseau and his books to be banned from France and Geneva. He was condemned from the pulpit by the Archbishop of Paris, his books were burned and warrants were issued for his arrest. Former friends such as Jacob Vernes of Geneva could not accept his views, and wrote violent rebuttals. A sympathetic observer, David Hume "professed no surprise when he learned that Rousseau's books were banned in Geneva and elsewhere". Rousseau, he wrote, "has not had the precaution to throw any veil over his sentiments; and, as he scorns to dissemble his contempt for established opinions, he could not wonder that all the zealots were in arms against him. The liberty of the press is not so secured in any country... as not to render such an open attack on popular prejudice somewhat dangerous." Voltaire and Frederick the Great After Rousseau's Emile had outraged the French parliament, an arrest order was issued by parliament against him, causing him to flee to Switzerland. Subsequently, when the Swiss authorities also proved unsympathetic to him—condemning both Emile, and also The Social Contract—Voltaire issued an invitation to Rousseau to come and reside with him, commenting that: "I shall always love the author of the 'Vicaire savoyard' whatever he has done, and whatever he may do...Let him come here [to Ferney]! He must come! I shall receive him with open arms. He shall be master here more than I. I shall treat him like my own son." Rousseau later expressed regret that he had not replied to Voltaire's invitation. In July 1762, after Rousseau was informed that he could not continue to reside in Bern, d'Alembert advised him to move to the Principality of Neuchâtel, ruled by Frederick the Great of Prussia. Subsequently, Rousseau accepted an invitation to reside in Môtiers, fifteen miles from Neuchâtel. On 11 July 1762, Rousseau wrote to Frederick, describing how he had been driven from France, from Geneva, and from Bern; and seeking Frederick's protection. He also mentioned that he had criticized Frederick in the past and would continue to be critical of Frederick in the future, stating however: "Your Majesty may dispose of me as you like." Frederick, still in the middle of the Seven Years' War, then wrote to the local governor of Neuchâtel, Marischal Keith, who was a mutual friend of theirs: Rousseau, touched by the help he received from Frederick, stated that from then onwards he took a keen interest in Frederick's activities. As the Seven Years' War was about to end, Rousseau wrote to Frederick again, thanking him for the help received and urging him to put an end to military activities and to endeavor to keep his subjects happy instead. Frederick made no known reply, but commented to Keith that Rousseau had given him a "scolding". Fugitive For more than two years (1762–1765) Rousseau lived at Môtiers, spending his time in reading and writing and meeting visitors such as James Boswell (December 1764). In the meantime, the local ministers had become aware of the apostasies in some of his writings, and resolved not to let him stay in the vicinity. The Neuchâtel Consistory summoned Rousseau to answer a charge of blasphemy. He wrote back asking to be excused due to his inability to sit for a long time due to his ailment. Subsequently, Rousseau's own pastor, Frédéric-Guillaume de Montmollin, started denouncing him publicly as the Antichrist. In one inflammatory sermon, Montmollin quoted Proverbs 15:8: "The sacrifice of the wicked is an abomination to the Lord, but the prayer of the upright is his delight"; this was interpreted by everyone to mean that Rousseau's taking communion was detested by the Lord. The ecclesiastical attacks inflamed the parishioners, who proceeded to pelt Rousseau with stones when he would go out for walks. Around midnight of 6–7 September 1765, stones were thrown at the house Rousseau was staying in, and some glass windows were shattered. When a local official, Martinet, arrived at Rousseau's residence he saw so many stones on the balcony that he exclaimed "My God, it's a quarry!" At this point, Rousseau's friends in Môtiers advised him to leave the town. Since he wanted to remain in Switzerland, Rousseau decided to accept an offer to move to a tiny island, the Île de St.-Pierre, having a solitary house. Although it was within the Canton of Bern, from where he had been expelled two years previously, he was informally assured that he could move into this island house without fear of arrest, and he did so (10 September 1765). Here, despite the remoteness of his retreat, visitors sought him out as a celebrity. However, on 17 October 1765, the Senate of Bern ordered Rousseau to leave the island and all Bernese territory within fifteen days. He replied, requesting permission to extend his stay, and offered to be incarcerated in any place within their jurisdiction with only a few books in his possession and permission to walk occasionally in a garden while living at his own expense. The Senate's response was to direct Rousseau to leave the island, and all Bernese territory, within twenty four hours. On 29 October 1765 he left the Île de St.-Pierre and moved to Strasbourg. At this point: He subsequently decided to accept Hume's invitation to go to England. Back in Paris On 9 December 1765, having secured a passport from the French government to come to Paris, Rousseau left Strasbourg for Paris where he arrived after a week, and lodged in a palace of his friend, the Prince of Conti. Here he met Hume, and also numerous friends, and well wishers, and became a very conspicuous figure in the city. At this time, Hume wrote: One significant meeting could have taken place at this time: Diderot wanted to reconcile and make amends with Rousseau. However, both Diderot and Rousseau wanted the other person to take the initiative, so the two did not meet. Letter of Walpole On 1 January 1766, Grimm wrote a report to his clientele, in which he included a letter said to have been written by Frederick the Great to Rousseau. This letter had actually been composed by Horace Walpole as a playful hoax. Walpole had never met Rousseau, but he was well acquainted with Diderot and Grimm. The letter soon found wide publicity; Hume is believed to have been present, and to have participated in its creation. On 16 February 1766, Hume wrote to the Marquise de Brabantane: "The only pleasantry I permitted myself in connection with the pretended letter of the King of Prussia was made by me at the dinner table of Lord Ossory." This letter was one of the reasons for the later rupture in Hume's relations with Rousseau. In Britain On 4 January 1766 Rousseau left Paris with Hume, the merchant De Luze (an old friend of Rousseau), and Rousseau's pet dog Sultan. After a four-day journey to Calais, where they stayed for two nights, the travelers embarked on a ship to Dover. On 13 January 1766 they arrived in London. Soon after their arrival, David Garrick arranged a box at the Drury Lane Theatre for Hume and Rousseau on a night when the King and Queen also attended. Garrick was himself performing in a comedy by himself, and also in a tragedy by Voltaire. Rousseau became so excited during the performance that he leaned too far and almost fell out of the box; Hume observed that the King and Queen were looking at Rousseau more than at the performance. Afterwards, Garrick served supper for Rousseau, who commended Garrick's acting: "Sir, you have made me shed tears at your tragedy, and smile at your comedy, though I scarce understood a word of your language." At this time, Hume had a favorable opinion of Rousseau; in a letter to Madame de Brabantane, Hume wrote that after observing Rousseau carefully he had concluded that he had never met a more affable and virtuous person. According to Hume, Rousseau was "gentle, modest, affectionate, disinterested, of extreme sensitivity". Initially, Hume lodged Rousseau in the house of Madam Adams in London, but Rousseau began receiving so many visitors that he soon wanted to move to a quieter location. An offer came to lodge him in a Welsh monastery, and he was inclined to accept it, but Hume persuaded him to move to Chiswick. Rousseau now asked for Thérèse to rejoin him. Meanwhile, James Boswell, then in Paris, offered to escort Thérèse to Rousseau. (Boswell had earlier met Rousseau and Thérèse at Motiers; he had subsequently also sent Thérèse a garnet necklace and had written to Rousseau seeking permission to occasionally communicate with her.) Hume foresaw what was going to happen: "I dread some event fatal to our friend's honor." Boswell and Thérèse were together for more than a week, and as per notes in Boswell's diary they consummated the relationship, having intercourse several times. On one occasion, Thérèse told Boswell: "Don't imagine you are a better lover than Rousseau." Since Rousseau was keen to relocate to a more remote location, Richard Davenport—a wealthy and elderly widower who spoke French—offered to accommodate Thérèse and Rousseau at Wootton Hall in Staffordshire. On 22 March 1766 Rousseau and Thérèse set forth for Wootton, against Hume's advice. Hume and Rousseau would never meet again. Initially Rousseau liked his new accommodation at Wootton Hall, and wrote favorably about the natural beauty of the place, and how he was feeling reborn, forgetting past sorrows. Quarrel with Hume On 3 April 1766 a daily newspaper published the letter constituting Horace Walpole's hoax on Rousseau – without mentioning Walpole as the actual author; that the editor of the publication was Hume's personal friend compounded Rousseau's grief. Gradually articles critical of Rousseau started appearing in the British press; Rousseau felt that Hume, as his host, ought to have defended him. Moreover, in Rousseau's estimate, some of the public criticism contained details to which only Hume was privy. Further, Rousseau was aggrieved to find that Hume had been lodging in London with François Tronchin, son of Rousseau's enemy in Geneva. About this time, Voltaire anonymously published his Letter to Dr. J.-J. Pansophe in which he gave extracts from many of Rousseau's prior statements which were critical of life in England; the most damaging portions of Voltaire's writeup were reprinted in a London periodical. Rousseau now decided that there was a conspiracy afoot to defame him. A further cause for Rousseau's displeasure was his concern that Hume might be tampering with his mail. The misunderstanding had arisen because Rousseau tired of receiving voluminous correspondence whose postage he had to pay. Hume offered to open Rousseau's mail himself and to forward the important letters to Rousseau; this offer was accepted. However, there is some evidence of Hume intercepting even Rousseau's outgoing mail. After some correspondence with Rousseau, which included an eighteen-page letter from Rousseau describing the reasons for his resentment, Hume concluded that Rousseau was losing his mental balance. On learning that Rousseau had denounced him to his Parisian friends, Hume sent a copy of Rousseau's long letter to Madame de Boufflers. She replied stating that, in her estimate, Hume's alleged participation in the composition of Horace Walpole's faux letter was the reason for Rousseau's anger. When Hume learnt that Rousseau was writing the Confessions, he assumed that the present dispute would feature in the book. Adam Smith, Turgot, Marischal Keith, Horace Walpole, and Mme de Boufflers advised Hume not to make his quarrel with Rousseau public; however, many members of d'Holbach's coterie—particularly, d'Alembert—urged him to reveal his version of the events. In October 1766 Hume's version of the quarrel was translated into French and published in France; in November it was published in England. Grimm included it in his correspondance; ultimately, After the dispute became public, due in part to comments from notable publishers like Andrew Millar, Walpole told Hume that quarrels such as this only end up becoming a source of amusement for Europe. Diderot took a charitable view of the mess: "I knew these two philosophers well. I could write a play about them that would make you weep, and it would excuse them both." Amidst the controversy surrounding his quarrel with Hume, Rousseau maintained a public silence; but he resolved now to return to France. To encourage him to do so swiftly, Thérèse advised him that the servants at Wootton Hall sought to poison him. On 22 May 1767 Rousseau and Thérèse embarked from Dover for Calais. In Grenoble On 22 May 1767, Rousseau reentered France even though an arrest warrant against him was still in place. He had taken an assumed name, but was recognized, and a banquet in his honor was held by the city of Amiens. French nobles offered him a residence at this time. Initially, Rousseau decided to stay in an estate near Paris belonging to Mirabeau. Subsequently, on 21 June 1767, he moved to a chateau of the Prince of Conti in Trie. Around this time, Rousseau started developing feelings of paranoia, anxiety, and of a conspiracy against him. Most of this was just his imagination at work, but on 29 January 1768, the theatre at Geneva was destroyed through burning, and Voltaire mendaciously accused Rousseau of being the culprit. In June 1768, Rousseau left Trie, leaving Thérèse behind, and went first to Lyon, and subsequently to Bourgoin. He now invited Thérèse to this place and married her, under his alias "Renou" in a faux civil ceremony in Bourgoin on 30 August 1768. In January 1769, Rousseau and Thérèse went to live in a farmhouse near Grenoble. Here he practiced botany and completed the Confessions. At this time he expressed regret for placing his children in an orphanage. On 10 April 1770, Rousseau and Thérèse left for Lyon where he befriended Horace Coignet, a fabric designer and amateur musician. At Rousseau's suggestion, Coignet composed musical interludes for Rousseau's prose poem Pygmalion; this was performed in Lyon together with Rousseau's romance The Village Soothsayer to public acclaim. On 8 June, Rousseau and Thérèse left Lyon for Paris; they reached Paris on 24 June. In Paris, Rousseau and Thérèse lodged in an unfashionable neighborhood of the city, the Rue Platrière—now called the Rue Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He now supported himself financially by copying music, and continued his study of botany. At this time also, he wrote his Letters on the Elements of Botany. These consisted of a series of letters Rousseau wrote to Mme Delessert in Lyon to help her daughters learn the subject. These letters received widespread acclaim when they were eventually published posthumously. "It's a true pedagogical model, and it complements Emile," commented Goethe. In order to defend his reputation against hostile gossip, Rousseau had begun writing the Confessions in 1765. In November 1770, these were completed, and although he did not wish to publish them at this time, he began to offer group readings of certain portions of the book. Between December 1770, and May 1771, Rousseau made at least four group readings of his book with the final reading lasting seventeen hours. A witness to one of these sessions, Claude Joseph Dorat, wrote: After May 1771, there were no more group readings because Madame d'Épinay wrote to the chief of police, who was her friend, to put a stop to Rousseau's readings so as to safeguard her privacy. The police called on Rousseau, who agreed to stop the readings. The Confessions were finally published posthumously in 1782. In 1772, Rousseau was invited to present recommendations for a new constitution for the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the Considerations on the Government of Poland, which was to be his last major political work. Also in 1772, Rousseau began writing his Dialogues: Rousseau, Judge of Jean-Jacques, which was another attempt to reply to his critics. He completed writing it in 1776. The book is in the form of three dialogues between two characters; a Frenchman and Rousseau, who argue about the merits and demerits of a third character—an author called Jean-Jacques. It has been described as his most unreadable work; in the foreword to the book, Rousseau admits that it may be repetitious and disorderly, but he begs the reader's indulgence on the grounds that he needs to defend his reputation from slander before he dies. Final years In 1766, Rousseau had impressed Hume with his physical prowess by spending ten hours at night on the deck in severe weather during the journey by ship from Calais to Dover while Hume was confined to his bunk. "When all the seamen were almost frozen to death...he caught no harm...He is one of the most robust men I have ever known," Hume noted. By 1770, Rousseau's urinary disease had also been greatly alleviated after he stopped listening to the advice of doctors. At that time, notes Damrosch, it was often better to let nature take its own course rather than subject oneself to medical procedures. His general health had also improved. However, on 24 October 1776, as he was walking on a narrow street in Paris a nobleman's carriage came rushing by from the opposite direction; flanking the carriage was a galloping Great Dane belonging to the nobleman. Rousseau was unable to dodge both the carriage and the dog, and was knocked down by the Great Dane. He seems to have suffered a concussion and neurological damage. His health began to decline; Rousseau's friend Corancez described the appearance of certain symptoms which indicate that Rousseau started suffering from epileptic seizures after the accident. In 1777, Rousseau received a royal visitor, when the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II came to meet him. His free entry to the Opera had been renewed by this time and he would go there occasionally. At this time also (1777–78), he composed one of his finest works, Reveries of a Solitary Walker. In the spring of 1778, the Marquis Girardin invited Rousseau to live in a cottage in his château at Ermenonville. Rousseau and Thérèse went there on 20 May. Rousseau spent his time at the château in collecting botanical specimens, and teaching botany to Girardin's son. He ordered books from Paris on grasses, mosses and mushrooms, and made plans to complete his unfinished Emile and Sophie and Daphnis and Chloe. On 1 July, a visitor commented that "men are wicked", to which Rousseau replied with "men are wicked, yes, but man is good"; in the evening there was a concert in the château in which Rousseau played on the piano his own composition of the Willow Song from Othello. On this day also, he had a hearty meal with Girardin's family; the next morning, as he was about to go teach music to Girardin's daughter, he died of cerebral bleeding resulting in an apoplectic stroke. It is now believed that repeated falls, including the accident involving the Great Dane, may have contributed to Rousseau's stroke. Following his death, Grimm, Madame de Staël and others spread the false news that Rousseau had committed suicide; according to other gossip, Rousseau was insane when he died. All those who met him in his last days agree that he was in a serene frame of mind at this time. On 4 July 1778, Rousseau was buried on the , which became a place of pilgrimage for his many admirers. On 11 October 1794, his remains were moved to the Panthéon, where they were placed near the remains of Voltaire. Philosophy Influences Rousseau later noted, that when he read the question for the essay competition of the Academy of Dijon, which he would go on to win: "Has the rebirth of the arts and sciences contributed to the purification of the morals?", he felt that "the moment I read this announcement I saw another universe and became a different man". The essay he wrote in response led to one of the central themes of Rousseau's thought, which was that perceived social and cultural progress had in fact led only to the moral degradation of humanity. His influences to this conclusion included Montesquieu, François Fénelon, Michel de Montaigne, Seneca the Younger, Plato, and Plutarch. Rousseau based his political philosophy on contract theory and his reading of Thomas Hobbes. Reacting to the ideas of Samuel von Pufendorf and John Locke was also driving his thought. All three thinkers had believed that humans living without central authority were facing uncertain conditions in a state of mutual competition. In contrast, Rousseau believed that there was no explanation for why this would be the case, as there would have been no conflict or property. Rousseau especially criticized Hobbes for asserting that since man in the "state of nature... has no idea of goodness he must be naturally wicked; that he is vicious because he does not know virtue". On the contrary, Rousseau holds that "uncorrupted morals" prevail in the "state of nature". Human nature In common with other philosophers of the day, Rousseau looked to a hypothetical "state of nature" as a normative guide. In the original condition, humans would have had "no moral relations with or determinate obligations to one another". Because of their rare contact with each other, differences between individuals would have been of little significance. Living separately, there would have been no feelings of envy or distrust, and no existence of property or conflict. According to Rousseau, humans have two traits in common with other animals: the amour de soi, which describes the self-preservation instinct; and pitié, which is empathy for the rest of one's species, both of which precede reason and sociability. Only humans who are morally deprived would care only about their relative status to others, leading to amour-propre, or vanity. He did not believe humans to be innately superior to other species. However, human beings did have the unique ability to change their nature through free choice, instead of being confined to natural instincts. Another aspect separating humans from other animals is the ability of perfectability, which allows humans to choose in a way which improves their condition. These improvements could be lasting, leading not only to individual, but also collective change for the better. Together with human freedom, the ability to improve makes possible the historic evolution of humanity. However, there is no guarantee that this evolution will be for the better. Human development Rousseau asserted that the stage of human development associated with what he called "savages" was the best or optimal in human development, between the less-than-optimal extreme of brute animals on the one hand and the extreme of decadent civilization on the other. "...[N]othing is so gentle as man in his primitive state, when placed by nature at an equal distance from the stupidity of brutes and the fatal enlightenment of civil man". This has led some critics to attribute to Rousseau the invention of the idea of the noble savage, which Arthur Lovejoy claimed misrepresents Rousseau's thought. According to Rousseau, as savages had grown less dependent on nature, they had instead become dependent on each other, with society leading to the loss of freedom through the misapplication of perfectability. When living together, humans would have gone from a nomadic lifestyle to a settled one, leading to the invention of private property. However, the resulting inequality was not a natural outcome, but rather the product of human choice. Rousseau's ideas of human development were highly interconnected with forms of mediation, or the processes that individual humans use to interact with themselves and others while using an alternate perspective or thought process. According to Rousseau, these were developed through the innate perfectibility of humanity. These include a sense of self, morality, pity, and imagination. Rousseau's writings are purposely ambiguous concerning the formation of these processes to the point that mediation is always intrinsically part of humanity's development. An example of this is the notion that an individual needs an alternative perspective to come to the realization that he or she is a 'self'. As long as differences in wealth and status among families were minimal, the first coming together in groups was accompanied by a fleeting golden age of human flourishing. The development of agriculture, metallurgy, private property, and the division of labour and resulting dependency on one another, however, led to economic inequality and conflict. As population pressures forced them to associate more and more closely, they underwent a psychological transformation: they began to see themselves through the eyes of others and came to value the good opinion of others as essential to their self-esteem. As humans started to compare themselves with each other, they began to notice that some had qualities differentiating them from others. However, only when moral significance was attached to these qualities did they start to create esteem and envy, and thereby, social hierarchies. Rousseau noted that whereas "the savage lives within himself, sociable man, always outside himself, can only live in the opinion of others". This then resulted in the corruption of humankind, "producing combinations fatal to innocence and happiness". Following the attachment of importance to human difference, they would have started forming social institutions, according to Rousseau. Metallurgy and agriculture would have subsequently increased the inequalities between those with and without property. After all land had been converted into private properties, a zero-sum game would have resulted in competition for it, leading to conflict. This would have led to the creation and perpetuation of the 'hoax' of the political system by the rich which perpetuated their power. Political theory According to Rousseau, the original forms of government to emerge, monarchy, aristocracy, democracy, were all products of the differing levels of inequality in their societies. However, they would always end up with ever worse levels of inequality, until a revolution would have overthrown it and new leaders would have emerged with further extremes of injustice. Nevertheless, the human capacity for self-improvement remained. As the problems of humanity were the product of political choice, they could also be improved by a better political system. The Social Contract outlines the basis for a legitimate political order within a framework of classical republicanism. Published in 1762, it became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition. It developed some of the ideas mentioned in an earlier work, the article Économie Politique (Discourse on Political Economy), featured in Diderot's Encyclopédie. In the book, Rousseau sketched the image of a new political system for regaining human freedom. Rousseau claimed that the state of nature was a primitive condition without law or morality, which human beings left for the benefits and necessity of cooperation. As society developed, the division of labor and private property required the human race to adopt institutions of law. In the degenerate phase of society, man is prone to be in frequent competition with his fellow men while also becoming increasingly dependent on them. This double pressure threatens both his survival and his freedom. According to Rousseau, by joining together into civil society through the social contract and abandoning their claims of natural right, individuals can both preserve themselves and remain free. This is because submission to the authority of the general will of the people as a whole guarantees individuals against being subordinated to the wills of others and also ensures that they obey themselves because they are, collectively, the authors of the law. Although Rousseau argues that sovereignty (or the power to make the laws) should be in the hands of the people, he also makes a sharp distinction between the sovereign and the government. The government is composed of magistrates, charged with implementing and enforcing the general will. The "sovereign" is the rule of law, ideally decided on by direct democracy in an assembly. Rousseau opposed the idea that the people should exercise sovereignty via a representative assembly (Book III, Chapter XV). He approved the kind of republican government of the city-state, for which Geneva provided a model—or would have done if renewed on Rousseau's principles. France could not meet Rousseau's criterion of an ideal state because it was too big. Much subsequent controversy about Rousseau's work has hinged on disagreements concerning his claims that citizens constrained to obey the general will are thereby rendered free: The notion of the general will is wholly central to Rousseau's theory of political legitimacy. ... It is, however, an unfortunately obscure and controversial notion. Some commentators see it as no more than the dictatorship of the proletariat or the tyranny of the urban poor (such as may perhaps be seen in the French Revolution). Such was not Rousseau's meaning. This is clear from the Discourse on Political Economy, where Rousseau emphasizes that the general will exists to protect individuals against the mass, not to require them to be sacrificed to it. He is, of course, sharply aware that men have selfish and sectional interests which will lead them to try to oppress others. It is for this reason that loyalty to the good of all alike must be a supreme (although not exclusive) commitment by everyone, not only if a truly general will is to be heeded but also if it is to be formulated successfully in the first place". A remarkable peculiarity of Social Contract is its logical rigor, which Rousseau had learned in his twenties from mathematics: Education and child rearing Rousseau's philosophy of education concerns itself not with particular techniques of imparting information and concepts, but rather with developing the pupil's character and moral sense, so that he may learn to practice self-mastery and remain virtuous even in the unnatural and imperfect society in which he will have to live. A hypothetical boy, Émile, is to be raised in the countryside, which, Rousseau believes, is a more natural and healthy environment than the city, under the guardianship of a tutor who will guide him through various learning experiences arranged by the tutor. Today we would call this the disciplinary method of "natural consequences". Rousseau felt that children learn right and wrong through experiencing the consequences of their acts rather than through physical punishment. The tutor will make sure that no harm results to Émile through his learning experiences. Rousseau became an early advocate of developmentally appropriate education; his description of the stages of child development mirrors his conception of the evolution of culture. He divides childhood into stages: the first to the age of about 12, when children are guided by their emotions and impulses during the second stage, from 12 to about 16, reason starts to develop finally the third stage, from the age of 16 onwards, when the child develops into an adult Rousseau recommends that the young adult learn a manual skill such as carpentry, which requires creativity and thought, will keep him out of trouble, and will supply a fallback means of making a living in the event of a change of fortune (the most illustrious aristocratic youth to have been educated this way may have been Louis XVI, whose parents had him learn the skill of locksmithing). The sixteen-year-old is also ready to have a companion of the opposite sex. Although his ideas foreshadowed modern ones in many ways, in one way they do not: Rousseau was a believer in the moral superiority of the patriarchal family on the antique Roman model. Sophie, the young woman Émile is destined to marry, as his representative of ideal womanhood, is educated to be governed by her husband while Émile, as his representative of the ideal man, is educated to be self-governing. This is not an accidental feature of Rousseau's educational and political philosophy; it is essential to his account of the distinction between private, personal relations and the public world of political relations. The private sphere as Rousseau imagines it depends on the subordination of women, for both it and the public political sphere (upon which it depends) to function as Rousseau imagines it could and should. Rousseau anticipated the modern idea of the bourgeois nuclear family, with the mother at home taking responsibility for the household and for childcare and early education. Feminists, beginning in the late 18th century with Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792, have criticized Rousseau for his confinement of women to the domestic sphere—unless women were domesticated and constrained by modesty and shame, he feared "men would be tyrannized by women ... For, given the ease with which women arouse men's senses—men would finally be their victims ..." His contemporaries saw it differently because Rousseau thought that mothers should breastfeed their children. Marmontel wrote that his wife thought, "One must forgive something," she said, "in one who has taught us to be mothers." Rousseau's ideas have influenced progressive "child-centered" education. John Darling's 1994 book Child-Centered Education and its Critics portrays the history of modern educational theory as a series of footnotes to Rousseau, a development he regards as bad. The theories of educators such as Rousseau's near contemporaries Pestalozzi, Mme. de Genlis and, later, Maria Montessori and John Dewey, which have directly influenced modern educational practices, have significant points in common with those of Rousseau. Religion Having converted to Roman Catholicism early in life and returned to the austere Calvinism of his native Geneva as part of his period of moral reform, Rousseau maintained a profession of that religious philosophy and of John Calvin as a modern lawgiver throughout the remainder of his life. Unlike many of the more agnostic Enlightenment philosophers, Rousseau affirmed the necessity of religion. His views on religion presented in his works of philosophy, however, may strike some as discordant with the doctrines of both Catholicism and
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this only end up becoming a source of amusement for Europe. Diderot took a charitable view of the mess: "I knew these two philosophers well. I could write a play about them that would make you weep, and it would excuse them both." Amidst the controversy surrounding his quarrel with Hume, Rousseau maintained a public silence; but he resolved now to return to France. To encourage him to do so swiftly, Thérèse advised him that the servants at Wootton Hall sought to poison him. On 22 May 1767 Rousseau and Thérèse embarked from Dover for Calais. In Grenoble On 22 May 1767, Rousseau reentered France even though an arrest warrant against him was still in place. He had taken an assumed name, but was recognized, and a banquet in his honor was held by the city of Amiens. French nobles offered him a residence at this time. Initially, Rousseau decided to stay in an estate near Paris belonging to Mirabeau. Subsequently, on 21 June 1767, he moved to a chateau of the Prince of Conti in Trie. Around this time, Rousseau started developing feelings of paranoia, anxiety, and of a conspiracy against him. Most of this was just his imagination at work, but on 29 January 1768, the theatre at Geneva was destroyed through burning, and Voltaire mendaciously accused Rousseau of being the culprit. In June 1768, Rousseau left Trie, leaving Thérèse behind, and went first to Lyon, and subsequently to Bourgoin. He now invited Thérèse to this place and married her, under his alias "Renou" in a faux civil ceremony in Bourgoin on 30 August 1768. In January 1769, Rousseau and Thérèse went to live in a farmhouse near Grenoble. Here he practiced botany and completed the Confessions. At this time he expressed regret for placing his children in an orphanage. On 10 April 1770, Rousseau and Thérèse left for Lyon where he befriended Horace Coignet, a fabric designer and amateur musician. At Rousseau's suggestion, Coignet composed musical interludes for Rousseau's prose poem Pygmalion; this was performed in Lyon together with Rousseau's romance The Village Soothsayer to public acclaim. On 8 June, Rousseau and Thérèse left Lyon for Paris; they reached Paris on 24 June. In Paris, Rousseau and Thérèse lodged in an unfashionable neighborhood of the city, the Rue Platrière—now called the Rue Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He now supported himself financially by copying music, and continued his study of botany. At this time also, he wrote his Letters on the Elements of Botany. These consisted of a series of letters Rousseau wrote to Mme Delessert in Lyon to help her daughters learn the subject. These letters received widespread acclaim when they were eventually published posthumously. "It's a true pedagogical model, and it complements Emile," commented Goethe. In order to defend his reputation against hostile gossip, Rousseau had begun writing the Confessions in 1765. In November 1770, these were completed, and although he did not wish to publish them at this time, he began to offer group readings of certain portions of the book. Between December 1770, and May 1771, Rousseau made at least four group readings of his book with the final reading lasting seventeen hours. A witness to one of these sessions, Claude Joseph Dorat, wrote: After May 1771, there were no more group readings because Madame d'Épinay wrote to the chief of police, who was her friend, to put a stop to Rousseau's readings so as to safeguard her privacy. The police called on Rousseau, who agreed to stop the readings. The Confessions were finally published posthumously in 1782. In 1772, Rousseau was invited to present recommendations for a new constitution for the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the Considerations on the Government of Poland, which was to be his last major political work. Also in 1772, Rousseau began writing his Dialogues: Rousseau, Judge of Jean-Jacques, which was another attempt to reply to his critics. He completed writing it in 1776. The book is in the form of three dialogues between two characters; a Frenchman and Rousseau, who argue about the merits and demerits of a third character—an author called Jean-Jacques. It has been described as his most unreadable work; in the foreword to the book, Rousseau admits that it may be repetitious and disorderly, but he begs the reader's indulgence on the grounds that he needs to defend his reputation from slander before he dies. Final years In 1766, Rousseau had impressed Hume with his physical prowess by spending ten hours at night on the deck in severe weather during the journey by ship from Calais to Dover while Hume was confined to his bunk. "When all the seamen were almost frozen to death...he caught no harm...He is one of the most robust men I have ever known," Hume noted. By 1770, Rousseau's urinary disease had also been greatly alleviated after he stopped listening to the advice of doctors. At that time, notes Damrosch, it was often better to let nature take its own course rather than subject oneself to medical procedures. His general health had also improved. However, on 24 October 1776, as he was walking on a narrow street in Paris a nobleman's carriage came rushing by from the opposite direction; flanking the carriage was a galloping Great Dane belonging to the nobleman. Rousseau was unable to dodge both the carriage and the dog, and was knocked down by the Great Dane. He seems to have suffered a concussion and neurological damage. His health began to decline; Rousseau's friend Corancez described the appearance of certain symptoms which indicate that Rousseau started suffering from epileptic seizures after the accident. In 1777, Rousseau received a royal visitor, when the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II came to meet him. His free entry to the Opera had been renewed by this time and he would go there occasionally. At this time also (1777–78), he composed one of his finest works, Reveries of a Solitary Walker. In the spring of 1778, the Marquis Girardin invited Rousseau to live in a cottage in his château at Ermenonville. Rousseau and Thérèse went there on 20 May. Rousseau spent his time at the château in collecting botanical specimens, and teaching botany to Girardin's son. He ordered books from Paris on grasses, mosses and mushrooms, and made plans to complete his unfinished Emile and Sophie and Daphnis and Chloe. On 1 July, a visitor commented that "men are wicked", to which Rousseau replied with "men are wicked, yes, but man is good"; in the evening there was a concert in the château in which Rousseau played on the piano his own composition of the Willow Song from Othello. On this day also, he had a hearty meal with Girardin's family; the next morning, as he was about to go teach music to Girardin's daughter, he died of cerebral bleeding resulting in an apoplectic stroke. It is now believed that repeated falls, including the accident involving the Great Dane, may have contributed to Rousseau's stroke. Following his death, Grimm, Madame de Staël and others spread the false news that Rousseau had committed suicide; according to other gossip, Rousseau was insane when he died. All those who met him in his last days agree that he was in a serene frame of mind at this time. On 4 July 1778, Rousseau was buried on the , which became a place of pilgrimage for his many admirers. On 11 October 1794, his remains were moved to the Panthéon, where they were placed near the remains of Voltaire. Philosophy Influences Rousseau later noted, that when he read the question for the essay competition of the Academy of Dijon, which he would go on to win: "Has the rebirth of the arts and sciences contributed to the purification of the morals?", he felt that "the moment I read this announcement I saw another universe and became a different man". The essay he wrote in response led to one of the central themes of Rousseau's thought, which was that perceived social and cultural progress had in fact led only to the moral degradation of humanity. His influences to this conclusion included Montesquieu, François Fénelon, Michel de Montaigne, Seneca the Younger, Plato, and Plutarch. Rousseau based his political philosophy on contract theory and his reading of Thomas Hobbes. Reacting to the ideas of Samuel von Pufendorf and John Locke was also driving his thought. All three thinkers had believed that humans living without central authority were facing uncertain conditions in a state of mutual competition. In contrast, Rousseau believed that there was no explanation for why this would be the case, as there would have been no conflict or property. Rousseau especially criticized Hobbes for asserting that since man in the "state of nature... has no idea of goodness he must be naturally wicked; that he is vicious because he does not know virtue". On the contrary, Rousseau holds that "uncorrupted morals" prevail in the "state of nature". Human nature In common with other philosophers of the day, Rousseau looked to a hypothetical "state of nature" as a normative guide. In the original condition, humans would have had "no moral relations with or determinate obligations to one another". Because of their rare contact with each other, differences between individuals would have been of little significance. Living separately, there would have been no feelings of envy or distrust, and no existence of property or conflict. According to Rousseau, humans have two traits in common with other animals: the amour de soi, which describes the self-preservation instinct; and pitié, which is empathy for the rest of one's species, both of which precede reason and sociability. Only humans who are morally deprived would care only about their relative status to others, leading to amour-propre, or vanity. He did not believe humans to be innately superior to other species. However, human beings did have the unique ability to change their nature through free choice, instead of being confined to natural instincts. Another aspect separating humans from other animals is the ability of perfectability, which allows humans to choose in a way which improves their condition. These improvements could be lasting, leading not only to individual, but also collective change for the better. Together with human freedom, the ability to improve makes possible the historic evolution of humanity. However, there is no guarantee that this evolution will be for the better. Human development Rousseau asserted that the stage of human development associated with what he called "savages" was the best or optimal in human development, between the less-than-optimal extreme of brute animals on the one hand and the extreme of decadent civilization on the other. "...[N]othing is so gentle as man in his primitive state, when placed by nature at an equal distance from the stupidity of brutes and the fatal enlightenment of civil man". This has led some critics to attribute to Rousseau the invention of the idea of the noble savage, which Arthur Lovejoy claimed misrepresents Rousseau's thought. According to Rousseau, as savages had grown less dependent on nature, they had instead become dependent on each other, with society leading to the loss of freedom through the misapplication of perfectability. When living together, humans would have gone from a nomadic lifestyle to a settled one, leading to the invention of private property. However, the resulting inequality was not a natural outcome, but rather the product of human choice. Rousseau's ideas of human development were highly interconnected with forms of mediation, or the processes that individual humans use to interact with themselves and others while using an alternate perspective or thought process. According to Rousseau, these were developed through the innate perfectibility of humanity. These include a sense of self, morality, pity, and imagination. Rousseau's writings are purposely ambiguous concerning the formation of these processes to the point that mediation is always intrinsically part of humanity's development. An example of this is the notion that an individual needs an alternative perspective to come to the realization that he or she is a 'self'. As long as differences in wealth and status among families were minimal, the first coming together in groups was accompanied by a fleeting golden age of human flourishing. The development of agriculture, metallurgy, private property, and the division of labour and resulting dependency on one another, however, led to economic inequality and conflict. As population pressures forced them to associate more and more closely, they underwent a psychological transformation: they began to see themselves through the eyes of others and came to value the good opinion of others as essential to their self-esteem. As humans started to compare themselves with each other, they began to notice that some had qualities differentiating them from others. However, only when moral significance was attached to these qualities did they start to create esteem and envy, and thereby, social hierarchies. Rousseau noted that whereas "the savage lives within himself, sociable man, always outside himself, can only live in the opinion of others". This then resulted in the corruption of humankind, "producing combinations fatal to innocence and happiness". Following the attachment of importance to human difference, they would have started forming social institutions, according to Rousseau. Metallurgy and agriculture would have subsequently increased the inequalities between those with and without property. After all land had been converted into private properties, a zero-sum game would have resulted in competition for it, leading to conflict. This would have led to the creation and perpetuation of the 'hoax' of the political system by the rich which perpetuated their power. Political theory According to Rousseau, the original forms of government to emerge, monarchy, aristocracy, democracy, were all products of the differing levels of inequality in their societies. However, they would always end up with ever worse levels of inequality, until a revolution would have overthrown it and new leaders would have emerged with further extremes of injustice. Nevertheless, the human capacity for self-improvement remained. As the problems of humanity were the product of political choice, they could also be improved by a better political system. The Social Contract outlines the basis for a legitimate political order within a framework of classical republicanism. Published in 1762, it became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition. It developed some of the ideas mentioned in an earlier work, the article Économie Politique (Discourse on Political Economy), featured in Diderot's Encyclopédie. In the book, Rousseau sketched the image of a new political system for regaining human freedom. Rousseau claimed that the state of nature was a primitive condition without law or morality, which human beings left for the benefits and necessity of cooperation. As society developed, the division of labor and private property required the human race to adopt institutions of law. In the degenerate phase of society, man is prone to be in frequent competition with his fellow men while also becoming increasingly dependent on them. This double pressure threatens both his survival and his freedom. According to Rousseau, by joining together into civil society through the social contract and abandoning their claims of natural right, individuals can both preserve themselves and remain free. This is because submission to the authority of the general will of the people as a whole guarantees individuals against being subordinated to the wills of others and also ensures that they obey themselves because they are, collectively, the authors of the law. Although Rousseau argues that sovereignty (or the power to make the laws) should be in the hands of the people, he also makes a sharp distinction between the sovereign and the government. The government is composed of magistrates, charged with implementing and enforcing the general will. The "sovereign" is the rule of law, ideally decided on by direct democracy in an assembly. Rousseau opposed the idea that the people should exercise sovereignty via a representative assembly (Book III, Chapter XV). He approved the kind of republican government of the city-state, for which Geneva provided a model—or would have done if renewed on Rousseau's principles. France could not meet Rousseau's criterion of an ideal state because it was too big. Much subsequent controversy about Rousseau's work has hinged on disagreements concerning his claims that citizens constrained to obey the general will are thereby rendered free: The notion of the general will is wholly central to Rousseau's theory of political legitimacy. ... It is, however, an unfortunately obscure and controversial notion. Some commentators see it as no more than the dictatorship of the proletariat or the tyranny of the urban poor (such as may perhaps be seen in the French Revolution). Such was not Rousseau's meaning. This is clear from the Discourse on Political Economy, where Rousseau emphasizes that the general will exists to protect individuals against the mass, not to require them to be sacrificed to it. He is, of course, sharply aware that men have selfish and sectional interests which will lead them to try to oppress others. It is for this reason that loyalty to the good of all alike must be a supreme (although not exclusive) commitment by everyone, not only if a truly general will is to be heeded but also if it is to be formulated successfully in the first place". A remarkable peculiarity of Social Contract is its logical rigor, which Rousseau had learned in his twenties from mathematics: Education and child rearing Rousseau's philosophy of education concerns itself not with particular techniques of imparting information and concepts, but rather with developing the pupil's character and moral sense, so that he may learn to practice self-mastery and remain virtuous even in the unnatural and imperfect society in which he will have to live. A hypothetical boy, Émile, is to be raised in the countryside, which, Rousseau believes, is a more natural and healthy environment than the city, under the guardianship of a tutor who will guide him through various learning experiences arranged by the tutor. Today we would call this the disciplinary method of "natural consequences". Rousseau felt that children learn right and wrong through experiencing the consequences of their acts rather than through physical punishment. The tutor will make sure that no harm results to Émile through his learning experiences. Rousseau became an early advocate of developmentally appropriate education; his description of the stages of child development mirrors his conception of the evolution of culture. He divides childhood into stages: the first to the age of about 12, when children are guided by their emotions and impulses during the second stage, from 12 to about 16, reason starts to develop finally the third stage, from the age of 16 onwards, when the child develops into an adult Rousseau recommends that the young adult learn a manual skill such as carpentry, which requires creativity and thought, will keep him out of trouble, and will supply a fallback means of making a living in the event of a change of fortune (the most illustrious aristocratic youth to have been educated this way may have been Louis XVI, whose parents had him learn the skill of locksmithing). The sixteen-year-old is also ready to have a companion of the opposite sex. Although his ideas foreshadowed modern ones in many ways, in one way they do not: Rousseau was a believer in the moral superiority of the patriarchal family on the antique Roman model. Sophie, the young woman Émile is destined to marry, as his representative of ideal womanhood, is educated to be governed by her husband while Émile, as his representative of the ideal man, is educated to be self-governing. This is not an accidental feature of Rousseau's educational and political philosophy; it is essential to his account of the distinction between private, personal relations and the public world of political relations. The private sphere as Rousseau imagines it depends on the subordination of women, for both it and the public political sphere (upon which it depends) to function as Rousseau imagines it could and should. Rousseau anticipated the modern idea of the bourgeois nuclear family, with the mother at home taking responsibility for the household and for childcare and early education. Feminists, beginning in the late 18th century with Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792, have criticized Rousseau for his confinement of women to the domestic sphere—unless women were domesticated and constrained by modesty and shame, he feared "men would be tyrannized by women ... For, given the ease with which women arouse men's senses—men would finally be their victims ..." His contemporaries saw it differently because Rousseau thought that mothers should breastfeed their children. Marmontel wrote that his wife thought, "One must forgive something," she said, "in one who has taught us to be mothers." Rousseau's ideas have influenced progressive "child-centered" education. John Darling's 1994 book Child-Centered Education and its Critics portrays the history of modern educational theory as a series of footnotes to Rousseau, a development he regards as bad. The theories of educators such as Rousseau's near contemporaries Pestalozzi, Mme. de Genlis and, later, Maria Montessori and John Dewey, which have directly influenced modern educational practices, have significant points in common with those of Rousseau. Religion Having converted to Roman Catholicism early in life and returned to the austere Calvinism of his native Geneva as part of his period of moral reform, Rousseau maintained a profession of that religious philosophy and of John Calvin as a modern lawgiver throughout the remainder of his life. Unlike many of the more agnostic Enlightenment philosophers, Rousseau affirmed the necessity of religion. His views on religion presented in his works of philosophy, however, may strike some as discordant with the doctrines of both Catholicism and Calvinism. Rousseau's strong endorsement of religious toleration, as expounded in Émile, was interpreted as advocating indifferentism, a heresy, and led to the condemnation of the book in both Calvinist Geneva and Catholic Paris. Although he praised the Bible, he was disgusted by the Christianity of his day. Rousseau's assertion in The Social Contract that true followers of Christ would not make good citizens may have been another reason for his condemnation in Geneva. He also repudiated the doctrine of original sin, which plays a large part in Calvinism. In his "Letter to Beaumont", Rousseau wrote, "there is no original perversity in the human heart." In the 18th century, many deists viewed God merely as an abstract and impersonal creator of the universe, likened to a giant machine. Rousseau's deism differed from the usual kind in its emotionality. He saw the presence of God in the creation as good, and separate from the harmful influence of society. Rousseau's attribution of a spiritual value to the beauty of nature anticipates the attitudes of 19th-century Romanticism towards nature and religion. (Historians—notably William Everdell, Graeme Garrard, and Darrin McMahon—have additionally situated Rousseau within the Counter-Enlightenment.) Rousseau was upset that his deism was so forcefully condemned, while those of the more atheistic philosophers were ignored. He defended himself against critics of his religious views in his "Letter to Mgr de Beaumont, the Archbishop of Paris", "in which he insists that freedom of discussion in religious matters is essentially more religious than the attempt to impose belief by force." Composer Rousseau was a successful composer of music, who wrote seven operas as well as music in other forms, and made contributions to music as a theorist. As a composer, his music was a blend of the late Baroque style and the emergent Classical fashion, i.e. Galant, and he belongs to the same generation of transitional composers as Christoph Willibald Gluck and C. P. E. Bach. One of his more well-known works is the one-act opera The Village Soothsayer. It contains the duet "Non, Colette n'est point trompeuse," which was later rearranged as a standalone song by Beethoven, and the gavotte in scene no. 8 is the source of the tune of the folk song "Go Tell Aunt Rhody". He also composed several noted motets, some of which were sung at the Concert Spirituel in Paris. Rousseau's Aunt Suzanne was passionate about music and heavily influenced Rousseau's interest in music. In his Confessions, Rousseau claims he is "indebted" to her for his passion of music. Rousseau took formal instruction in music at the house of Françoise-Louise de Warens. She housed Rousseau on and off for about 13 years, giving him jobs and responsibilities. In 1742, Rousseau developed a system of musical notation that was compatible with typography and numbered. He presented his invention to the Academie Des Sciences, but they rejected it, praising his efforts and pushing him to try again. In 1743, Rousseau wrote his first opera, , which was first performed in 1745. Rousseau and Jean-Philippe Rameau argued over the superiority of Italian music over French. Rousseau argued that Italian music was superior based on the principle that melody must have priority over harmony. Rameau argued that French music was superior based on the principle that harmony must have priority over melody. Rousseau's plea for melody introduced the idea that in art, the free expression of a creative person is more important than the strict adherence to traditional rules and procedures. This is now known today as a characteristic of Romanticism. Rousseau argued for musical freedom, and changed people's attitudes towards music. His works were acknowledged by composers such as Christoph Willibald Gluck and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. After composing The Village Soothsayer in 1752, Rousseau felt he could not go on working for the theater because he was a moralist who had decided to break from worldly values. Musical compositions (1743) Les Fetes de Remire (1745) Symphonie à Cors de Chasse (1751) Le Devin du village (1752) – opera in 1 act Salve Regina (1752) – antiphone Chansons de Bataille (1753) Pygmalion (1762/1770) – melodrama Avril – aire a poesía de Rémy Belleau Les Consolations des Misères de Ma Vie (1781) Daphnis et Chloé Que le jour me dure! Le Printemps de Vivaldi (1775) Legacy General will Rousseau's idea of the volonté générale ("general will") was not original but rather belonged to a well-established technical vocabulary of juridical and theological writings in use at the time. The phrase was used by Diderot and also by Montesquieu (and by his teacher, the Oratorian friar Nicolas Malebranche). It served to designate the common interest embodied in legal tradition, as distinct from and transcending people's private and particular interests at any particular time. It displayed a rather democratic ideology, as it declared that the citizens of a given nation should carry out whatever actions they deem necessary in their own sovereign assembly. The concept was also an important aspect of the more radical 17th-century republican tradition of Spinoza, from whom Rousseau differed in important respects, but not in his insistence on the importance of equality: French Revolution Robespierre and Saint-Just, during the Reign of Terror, regarded themselves to be principled egalitarian republicans, obliged to do away with superfluities and corruption; in this they were inspired most prominently by Rousseau. According to Robespierre, the deficiencies in individuals were rectified by upholding the 'common good' which he conceptualized as the collective will of the people; this idea was derived from Rousseau's General Will. The revolutionaries were also inspired by Rousseau to introduce Deism as the new official civil religion of France: Rousseau's influence on the French Revolution was noted by Edmund Burke, who critiqued Rousseau in "Reflections on the Revolution in France," and this critique reverberated throughout Europe, leading Catherine the Great to ban his works. This connection between Rousseau and the French Revolution (especially the Terror) persisted through the next century. As François Furet notes that "we can see that for the whole of the nineteenth century Rousseau was at the heart of the interpretation of the Revolution for both its admirers and its critics." Effect on the American Revolution According to some scholars, Rousseau exercised minimal influence on the Founding Fathers of the United States, despite similarities between their ideas. They shared beliefs regarding the self-evidence that "all men are created equal," and the conviction that citizens of a republic be educated at public expense. A parallel can be drawn between the United States Constitution's concept of the "general welfare" and Rousseau's concept of the "general will". Further commonalities exist between Jeffersonian democracy and Rousseau's praise of Switzerland and Corsica's economies of isolated and independent homesteads, and his endorsement of a well-regulated militia, such as those of the Swiss cantons. However, Will and Ariel Durant have opined that Rousseau had a definite political influence on America. According to them: One of Rousseau's most important American followers was textbook writer Noah Webster (1758–1843), who was influenced by Rousseau's ideas on pedagogy in Emile (1762). Webster structured his Speller in accord with Rousseau's ideas about the stages of a child's intellectual development. Rousseau's writings perhaps had an indirect influence on American literature through the writings of Wordsworth and Kant, whose works were important to the New England transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson, as well as on Unitarians such as theologian William Ellery Channing. The Last of the Mohicans and other American novels reflect republican and egalitarian ideals present alike in Thomas Paine and in English Romantic primitivism. Criticisms of Rousseau The first to criticize Rousseau were his fellow Philosophes, above all, Voltaire. According to Jacques Barzun, Voltaire was annoyed by the first discourse, and outraged by the second. Voltaire's reading of the second discourse was that Rousseau would like the reader to "walk on all fours" befitting a savage. Samuel Johnson told his biographer James Boswell, "I think him one of the worst of men; a rascal, who ought to be hunted out of society, as he has been". Jean-Baptiste Blanchard was his leading Catholic opponent. Blanchard rejects Rousseau's negative education, in which one must wait until a child has grown to develop reason. The child would find more benefit from learning in his earliest years. He also disagreed with his ideas about female education, declaring that women are a dependent lot. So removing them from their motherly path is unnatural, as it would lead to the unhappiness of both men and women. Historian Jacques Barzun states that, contrary to myth, Rousseau was no primitivist; for him:<blockquote>The model man is the independent farmer, free of superiors and self-governing. This was cause enough for the philosophes''' hatred of their former friend. Rousseau's unforgivable crime was his rejection of the graces and luxuries of civilized existence. Voltaire had sung "The superfluous, that most necessary thing." For the high bourgeois standard of living Rousseau would substitute the middling peasant's. It was the country versus the city—an exasperating idea for them, as was the amazing fact that every new work of Rousseau's was a huge success, whether the subject was politics, theater, education, religion, or a novel about love.</blockquote> As early as 1788, Madame de Staël published her Letters on the works and character of J.-J. Rousseau. In 1819, in his famous speech "On Ancient and Modern Liberty", the political philosopher Benjamin Constant, a proponent of constitutional monarchy and representative democracy, criticized Rousseau, or rather his more radical followers (specifically the Abbé de Mably), for allegedly believing that "everything should give way to collective will, and that all restrictions on individual rights would be amply compensated by participation in social power." Frédéric Bastiat severely criticized Rousseau in several of his works, most notably in "The Law", in which, after analyzing Rousseau's own passages, he stated that: And what part do persons play in all this? They are merely the machine that is set in motion. In fact, are they not merely considered to be the raw material of which the machine is made? Thus the same relationship exists between the legislator and the prince as exists between the agricultural expert and the farmer; and the relationship between the prince and his subjects is the same as that between the farmer and his land. How high above mankind, then, has this writer on public affairs been placed? Bastiat believed that Rousseau wished to ignore forms of social order created by the people—viewing them as a thoughtless mass to be shaped by philosophers. Bastiat, who is considered by thinkers associated with the Austrian School of Economics to be one of the precursors of the "spontaneous order", presented his own vision of what he considered to be the "Natural Order" in a simple economic chain in which multiple parties might interact without necessarily even knowing each other, cooperating and fulfilling each other's needs in accordance with basic economic laws such as supply and demand. In such a chain, to produce clothing, multiple parties have to act independently—e.g. farmers to fertilize and cultivate land to produce fodder for the sheep, people to shear them, transport the wool, turn it into cloth, and another to tailor and sell it. Those persons engage in economic exchange by nature, and don't need to be ordered to, nor do their efforts need to be centrally coordinated. Such chains are present in every branch of human activity, in which individuals produce or exchange goods and services, and together, naturally create a complex social order that does not require external inspiration, central coordination of efforts, or bureaucratic control to benefit society as a whole. Bastiat also believed that Rousseau contradicted himself when presenting his views concerning human nature; if nature is "sufficiently invincible to regain its empire", why then would it need philosophers to direct it back to a natural state? Another point of criticism Bastiat raised was that living purely in nature would doom mankind to suffer unnecessary hardships. The Marquis de Sade's Justine, or the Misfortunes of Virtue (1791) partially parodied and used as inspiration Rousseau's sociological and political concepts in the Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract. Concepts such as the state of nature, civilization being the catalyst for corruption and evil, and humans "signing" a contract to mutually give up freedoms for the protection of rights, particularly referenced. The Comte de Gernande in Justine, for instance, after Thérèse asks him how he justifies abusing and torturing women, states: The necessity mutually to render one another happy cannot legitimately exist save between two persons equally furnished with the capacity to do one another hurt and, consequently, between two persons of commensurate strength: such an association can never come into being unless a contract [un pacte] is immediately formed between these two persons, which obligates each to employ against each other no kind of force but what will not be injurious to either. . . [W]hat sort of a fool would the stronger have to be to subscribe to such an agreement? Edmund Burke formed an unfavorable impression of Rousseau when the latter visited England with Hume and later drew a connection between Rousseau's egoistic philosophy and his personal vanity, saying Rousseau "entertained no principle... but vanity. With this vice he was possessed to a degree little short of madness". Charles Dudley Warner wrote about Rousseau in his essay, Equality; "Rousseau borrowed from Hobbes as well as from Locke in his conception of popular sovereignty; but this was not his only lack of originality. His discourse on primitive society, his unscientific and unhistoric notions about the original condition of man, were those common in the middle of the eighteenth century." In 1919, Irving Babbitt, founder of a movement called the "New Humanism", wrote a critique of what he called "sentimental humanitarianism", for which he blamed Rousseau. Babbitt's depiction of Rousseau was countered in a celebrated and much reprinted essay by A.O. Lovejoy in 1923. In France, conservative theorist Charles Maurras, founder of Action Française, "had no compunctions in laying the blame for both Romantisme et Révolution firmly on Rousseau in 1922." During the Cold War, Rousseau was criticized for his association with nationalism and its attendant abuses, for example in . This came to be known among scholars as the "totalitarian thesis". Political scientist J.S. Maloy states that "the twentieth century added Nazism and Stalinism to Jacobinism on the list of horrors for which Rousseau could be blamed. ... Rousseau was considered to have advocated just
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to apply this to locally compact groups. He also gave a new proof for the Radon–Nikodym theorem. His lecture notes on measure theory at the Institute for Advanced Study were an important source for knowledge on the field in America at the time, and were later published. Topological groups Using his previous work on measure theory von Neumann made several contributions to the theory of topological groups, beginning with a paper on almost periodic functions on groups, where von Neumann extended Bohr's theory of almost periodic functions to arbitrary groups. He continued this work with another paper in conjunction with Bochner that improved the theory of almost periodicity to include functions that took on elements of linear spaces as values rather than numbers. In 1938, he was awarded the Bôcher Memorial Prize for his work in analysis in relation to these papers. In a 1933 paper, he used the newly discovered Haar measure in the solution of Hilbert's fifth problem for the case of compact groups. The basic idea behind this was discovered several years earlier when von Neumann published a paper on the analytic properties of groups of linear transformations and found that closed subgroups of a general linear group are Lie groups. This was later extended by Cartan to arbitrary Lie groups in the form of the closed-subgroup theorem. Functional analysis Von Neumann was the first one to come up with an “abstract” Hilbert space in a formal and axiomatic fashion. It was defined as a complex vector space with a hermitian scalar product, with the corresponding norm being both separable and complete. He continued with the development of the spectral theory of operators in Hilbert space in 3 seminal papers between 1929 and 1932. For twenty years von Neumann was considered the 'undisputed master' of this area. These developments were primarily prompted by needs in quantum mechanics where von Neumann realized the need to extend the spectral theory of Hermitian operators from the bounded to the unbounded case. Other major achievements in these papers include a complete elucidation of spectral theory for normal operators, a generalisation of Riesz’s presentation of Hilbert’s spectral theorems at the time, and the discovery of hermitian operators in a Hilbert space, as distinct from self-adjoint operators, which enabled him to give a description of all hermitian operators which extend a given hermitian operator. In addition he wrote a paper detailing how the usage of infinite matrices, common at the time in spectral theory, was inadequate as a representation for hermitian operators. His work on operator theory lead to his most profound invention in pure mathematics, the study of von Neumann algebras and in general of operator algebras. In other work in functional analysis von Neumann was also the first mathematician to apply new topological ideas from Hausdorff to Hilbert spaces. He also gave the first general definition of locally convex spaces. His later work on rings of operators lead to him revisiting his earlier work on spectral theory and providing a new way of working through the geometric content of the spectral theory by the use of direct integrals of Hilbert spaces. Operator algebras Von Neumann founded the study of rings of operators, through the von Neumann algebras. A von Neumann algebra is a *-algebra of bounded operators on a Hilbert space that is closed in the weak operator topology and contains the identity operator. The von Neumann bicommutant theorem shows that the analytic definition is equivalent to a purely algebraic definition as being equal to the bicommutant. After elucidating the study of the commutative algebra case, von Neumann embarked in 1936, with the partial collaboration of F.J. Murray, on the noncommutative case, the general study of factors classification of von Neumann algebras. The six major papers in which he developed that theory between 1936 and 1940 "rank among the masterpieces of analysis in the twentieth century". The direct integral was later introduced in 1949 by John von Neumann for his work on operator theory. His work here lead on to the next two major topics. Geometry Von Neumann founded the field of continuous geometry. It followed his path-breaking work on rings of operators. In mathematics, continuous geometry is a substitute of complex projective geometry, where instead of the dimension of a subspace being in a discrete set 0, 1, ..., n, it can be an element of the unit interval [0,1]. Earlier, Menger and Birkhoff had axiomatized complex projective geometry in terms of the properties of its lattice of linear subspaces. Von Neumann, following his work on rings of operators, weakened those axioms to describe a broader class of lattices, the continuous geometries. While the dimensions of the subspaces of projective geometries are a discrete set (the non-negative integers), the dimensions of the elements of a continuous geometry can range continuously across the unit interval [0,1]. Von Neumann was motivated by his discovery of von Neumann algebras with a dimension function taking a continuous range of dimensions, and the first example of a continuous geometry other than projective space was the projections of the hyperfinite type II factor. Lattice theory Between 1937 and 1939, von Neumann worked on lattice theory, the theory of partially ordered sets in which every two elements have a greatest lower bound and a least upper bound. Garrett Birkhoff writes: "John von Neumann's brilliant mind blazed over lattice theory like a meteor". Von Neumann provided an abstract exploration of dimension in completed complemented modular topological lattices (properties that arise in the lattices of subspaces of inner product spaces): "Dimension is determined, up to a positive linear transformation, by the following two properties. It is conserved by perspective mappings ("perspectivities") and ordered by inclusion. The deepest part of the proof concerns the equivalence of perspectivity with "projectivity by decomposition"—of which a corollary is the transitivity of perspectivity." Additionally, "[I]n the general case, von Neumann proved the following basic representation theorem. Any complemented modular lattice having a "basis" of pairwise perspective elements, is isomorphic with the lattice of all principal right-ideals of a suitable regular ring . This conclusion is the culmination of 140 pages of brilliant and incisive algebra involving entirely novel axioms. Anyone wishing to get an unforgettable impression of the razor edge of von Neumann's mind, need merely try to pursue this chain of exact reasoning for himself—realizing that often five pages of it were written down before breakfast, seated at a living room writing-table in a bathrobe." Physics Quantum mechanics Von Neumann was the first to establish a rigorous mathematical framework for quantum mechanics, known as the Dirac–von Neumann axioms, in his 1932 work Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics. After having completed the axiomatization of set theory, he began to confront the axiomatization of quantum mechanics. He realized in 1926 that a state of a quantum system could be represented by a point in a (complex) Hilbert space that, in general, could be infinite-dimensional even for a single particle. In this formalism of quantum mechanics, observable quantities such as position or momentum are represented as linear operators acting on the Hilbert space associated with the quantum system. The physics of quantum mechanics was thereby reduced to the mathematics of Hilbert spaces and linear operators acting on them. For example, the uncertainty principle, according to which the determination of the position of a particle prevents the determination of its momentum and vice versa, is translated into the non-commutativity of the two corresponding operators. This new mathematical formulation included as special cases the formulations of both Heisenberg and Schrödinger. When Heisenberg was informed von Neumann had clarified the difference between an unbounded operator that was a self-adjoint operator and one that was merely symmetric, Heisenberg replied "Eh? What is the difference?" Von Neumann's abstract treatment permitted him also to confront the foundational issue of determinism versus non-determinism, and in the book he presented a proof that the statistical results of quantum mechanics could not possibly be averages of an underlying set of determined "hidden variables," as in classical statistical mechanics. In 1935, Grete Hermann published a paper arguing that the proof contained a conceptual error and was therefore invalid. Hermann's work was largely ignored until after John S. Bell made essentially the same argument in 1966. In 2010, Jeffrey Bub argued that Bell had misconstrued von Neumann's proof, and pointed out that the proof, though not valid for all hidden variable theories, does rule out a well-defined and important subset. Bub also suggests that von Neumann was aware of this limitation and did not claim that his proof completely ruled out hidden variable theories. The validity of Bub's argument is, in turn, disputed. In any case, Gleason's theorem of 1957 fills the gaps in von Neumann's approach. Von Neumann's proof inaugurated a line of research that ultimately led, through Bell's theorem and the experiments of Alain Aspect in 1982, to the demonstration that quantum physics either requires a notion of reality substantially different from that of classical physics, or must include nonlocality in apparent violation of special relativity. In a chapter of The Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, von Neumann deeply analyzed the so-called measurement problem. He concluded that the entire physical universe could be made subject to the universal wave function. Since something "outside the calculation" was needed to collapse the wave function, von Neumann concluded that the collapse was caused by the consciousness of the experimenter. He argued that the mathematics of quantum mechanics allows the collapse of the wave function to be placed at any position in the causal chain from the measurement device to the "subjective consciousness" of the human observer. Although this view was accepted by Eugene Wigner, the Von Neumann–Wigner interpretation never gained acceptance among the majority of physicists. The Von Neumann–Wigner interpretation has been summarized as follows: The rules of quantum mechanics are correct but there is only one system which may be treated with quantum mechanics, namely the entire material world. There exist external observers which cannot be treated within quantum mechanics, namely human (and perhaps animal) minds, which perform measurements on the brain causing wave function collapse. Though theories of quantum mechanics continue to evolve, there is a basic framework for the mathematical formalism of problems in quantum mechanics underlying most approaches that can be traced back to the mathematical formalisms and techniques first used by von Neumann. In other words, discussions about interpretation of the theory, and extensions to it, are now mostly conducted on the basis of shared assumptions about the mathematical foundations. Von Neumann entropy Von Neumann entropy is extensively used in different forms (conditional entropy, relative entropy, etc.) in the framework of quantum information theory. Entanglement measures are based upon some quantity directly related to the von Neumann entropy. Given a statistical ensemble of quantum mechanical systems with the density matrix , it is given by Many of the same entropy measures in classical information theory can also be generalized to the quantum case, such as Holevo entropy and conditional quantum entropy. Quantum mutual information Quantum information theory is largely concerned with the interpretation and uses of von Neumann entropy. The von Neumann entropy is the cornerstone in the development of quantum information theory, while the Shannon entropy applies to classical information theory. This is considered a historical anomaly, as Shannon entropy might have been expected to be discovered before Von Neumann entropy, given the latter's more widespread application to quantum information theory. But Von Neumann discovered von Neumann entropy first, and applied it to questions of statistical physics. Decades later, Shannon developed an information-theoretic formula for use in classical information theory, and asked von Neumann what to call it. Von Neumann said to call it Shannon entropy, as it was a special case of von Neumann entropy. Density matrix The formalism of density operators and matrices was introduced by von Neumann in 1927 and independently, but less systematically by Lev Landau and Felix Bloch in 1927 and 1946 respectively. The density matrix is an alternative way to represent the state of a quantum system, which could otherwise be represented using the wavefunction. The density matrix allows the solution of certain time-dependent problems in quantum mechanics. Von Neumann measurement scheme The von Neumann measurement scheme, the ancestor of quantum decoherence theory, represents measurements projectively by taking into account the measuring apparatus which is also treated as a quantum object. The 'projective measurement' scheme introduced by von Neumann led to the development of quantum decoherence theories. Fluid dynamics Von Neumann made fundamental contributions in the field of fluid dynamics. Von Neumann's contributions to fluid dynamics included his discovery of the classic flow solution to blast waves, and the co-discovery (independently of Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich and Werner Döring) of the ZND detonation model of explosives. During the 1930s, von Neumann became an authority on the mathematics of shaped charges. Later with Robert D. Richtmyer, von Neumann developed an algorithm defining artificial viscosity that improved the understanding of shock waves. When computers solved hydrodynamic or aerodynamic problems, they tried to put too many computational grid points at regions of sharp discontinuity (shock waves). The mathematics of artificial viscosity smoothed the shock transition without sacrificing basic physics. Von Neumann soon applied computer modelling to the field, developing software for his ballistics research. During WW2, he arrived one day at the office of R.H. Kent, the Director of the US Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory, with a computer program he had created for calculating a one-dimensional model of 100 molecules to simulate a shock wave. Von Neumann then gave a seminar on his computer program to an audience which included his friend Theodore von Kármán. After von Neumann had finished, von Kármán said "Well, Johnny, that's very interesting. Of course you realize Lagrange also used digital models to simulate continuum mechanics." It was evident from von Neumann's face, that he had been unaware of Lagrange's Mécanique analytique. Applied mathematics Game theory Von Neumann founded the field of game theory as a mathematical discipline. He proved his minimax theorem in 1928. It establishes that in zero-sum games with perfect information (i.e., in which players know at each time all moves that have taken place so far), there exists a pair of strategies for both players that allows each to minimize his maximum losses. When examining every possible strategy, a player must consider all the possible responses of his adversary. The player then plays out the strategy that will result in the minimization of his maximum loss. Such strategies, which minimize the maximum loss for each player, are called optimal. Von Neumann showed that their minimaxes are equal (in absolute value) and contrary (in sign). He improved and extended the minimax theorem to include games involving imperfect information and games with more than two players, publishing this result in his 1944 Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, written with Oskar Morgenstern. Morgenstern wrote a paper on game theory and thought he would show it to von Neumann because of his interest in the subject. He read it and said to Morgenstern that he should put more in it. This was repeated a couple of times, and then von Neumann became a coauthor and the paper became 100 pages long. Then it became a book. The public interest in this work was such that The New York Times ran a front-page story. In this book, von Neumann declared that economic theory needed to use functional analysis, especially convex sets and the topological fixed-point theorem, rather than the traditional differential calculus, because the maximum-operator did not preserve differentiable functions. Independently, Leonid Kantorovich's functional analytic work on mathematical economics also focused attention on optimization theory, non-differentiability, and vector lattices. Von Neumann's functional-analytic techniques—the use of duality pairings of real vector spaces to represent prices and quantities, the use of supporting and separating hyperplanes and convex sets, and fixed-point theory—have been the primary tools of mathematical economics ever since. Quantum logic Von Neumann first proposed a quantum logic in his 1932 treatise Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, where he noted that projections on a Hilbert space can be viewed as propositions about physical observables. The field of quantum logic was subsequently inaugurated, in a famous paper of 1936 by von Neumann and Garrett Birkhoff, the first work ever to introduce quantum logics, wherein von Neumann and Birkhoff first proved that quantum mechanics requires a propositional calculus substantially different from all classical logics and rigorously isolated a new algebraic structure for quantum logics. The concept of creating a propositional calculus for quantum logic was first outlined in a short section in von Neumann's 1932 work, but in 1936, the need for the new propositional calculus was demonstrated through several proofs. For example, photons cannot pass through two successive filters that are polarized perpendicularly (e.g., horizontally and vertically), and therefore, a fortiori, it cannot pass if a third filter polarized diagonally is added to the other two, either before or after them in the succession, but if the third filter is added between the other two, the photons will indeed pass through. This experimental fact is translatable into logic as the non-commutativity of conjunction . It was also demonstrated that the laws of distribution of classical logic, and , are not valid for quantum theory. The reason for this is that a quantum disjunction, unlike the case for classical disjunction, can be true even when both of the disjuncts are false and this is in turn attributable to the fact that it is frequently the case in quantum mechanics that a pair of alternatives are semantically determinate, while each of its members is necessarily indeterminate. This latter property can be illustrated by a simple example. Suppose we are dealing with particles (such as electrons) of semi-integral spin (spin angular momentum) for which there are only two possible values: positive or negative. Then, a principle of indetermination establishes that the spin, relative to two different directions (e.g., x and y) results in a pair of incompatible quantities. Suppose that the state ɸ of a certain electron verifies the proposition "the spin of the electron in the x direction is positive." By the principle of indeterminacy, the value of the spin in the direction y will be completely indeterminate for ɸ. Hence, ɸ can verify neither the proposition "the spin in the direction of y is positive" nor the proposition "the spin in the direction of y is negative." Nevertheless, the disjunction of the propositions "the spin in the direction of y is positive or the spin in the direction of y is negative" must be true for ɸ. In the case of distribution, it is therefore possible to have a situation in which , while . As Hilary Putnam writes, von Neumann replaced classical logic with a logic constructed in orthomodular lattices (isomorphic to the lattice of subspaces of the Hilbert space of a given physical system). Mathematical economics Von Neumann raised the intellectual and mathematical level of economics in several influential publications. For his model of an expanding economy, he proved the existence and uniqueness of an equilibrium using his generalization of the Brouwer fixed-point theorem. Von Neumann's model of an expanding economy considered the matrix pencil A − λB with nonnegative matrices A and B; von Neumann sought probability vectors p and q and a positive number λ that would solve the complementarity equation along with two inequality systems expressing economic efficiency. In this model, the (transposed) probability vector p represents the prices of the goods while the probability vector q represents the "intensity" at which the production process would run. The unique solution λ represents the growth factor which is 1 plus the rate of growth of the economy; the rate of growth equals the interest rate. Von Neumann's results have been viewed as a special case of linear programming, where his model uses only nonnegative matrices. The study of his model of an expanding economy continues to interest mathematical economists with interests in computational economics. This paper has been called the greatest paper in mathematical economics by several authors, who recognized its introduction of fixed-point theorems, linear inequalities, complementary slackness, and saddlepoint duality. In the proceedings of a conference on von Neumann's growth model, Paul Samuelson said that many mathematicians had developed methods useful to economists, but that von Neumann was unique in having made significant contributions to economic theory itself. Von Neumann's famous 9-page paper started life as a talk at Princeton and then became a paper in German that was eventually translated into English. His interest in economics that led to that paper began while he was lecturing at Berlin in 1928 and 1929. He spent his summers back home in Budapest, as did the economist Nicholas Kaldor, and they hit it off. Kaldor recommended that von Neumann read a book by the mathematical economist Léon Walras. Von Neumann found some faults in the book and corrected them–for example, replacing equations by inequalities. He noticed that Walras's General Equilibrium Theory and Walras's Law, which led to systems of simultaneous linear equations, could produce the absurd result that profit could be maximized by producing and selling a negative quantity of a product. He replaced the equations by inequalities, introduced dynamic equilibria, among other things, and eventually produced the paper. Linear programming Building on his results on matrix games and on his model of an expanding economy, von Neumann invented the theory of duality in linear programming when George Dantzig described his work in a few minutes, and an impatient von Neumann asked him to get to the point. Dantzig then listened dumbfounded while von Neumann provided an hourlong lecture on convex sets, fixed-point theory, and duality, conjecturing the equivalence between matrix games and linear programming. Later, von Neumann suggested a new method of linear programming, using the homogeneous linear system of Paul Gordan (1873), which was later popularized by Karmarkar's algorithm. Von Neumann's method used a pivoting algorithm between simplices, with the pivoting decision determined by a nonnegative least squares subproblem with a convexity constraint (projecting the zero-vector onto the convex hull of the active simplex). Von Neumann's algorithm was the first interior point method of linear programming. Mathematical statistics Von Neumann made fundamental contributions to mathematical statistics. In 1941, he derived the exact distribution of the ratio of the mean square of successive differences to the sample variance for independent and identically normally distributed variables. This ratio was applied to the residuals from regression models and is commonly known as the Durbin–Watson statistic for testing the null hypothesis that the errors are serially independent against the alternative that they follow a stationary first order autoregression. Subsequently, Denis Sargan and Alok Bhargava extended the results for testing if the errors on a regression model follow a Gaussian random walk (i.e., possess a unit root) against the alternative that they are a stationary first order autoregression. Computer science Von Neumann was a founding figure in computing. Von Neumann was the inventor, in 1945, of the merge sort algorithm, in which the first and second halves of an array are each sorted recursively and then merged. Von Neumann wrote the 23 pages long sorting program for the EDVAC in ink. On the first page, traces of the phrase "TOP SECRET", which was written in pencil and later erased, can still be seen. He also worked on the philosophy of artificial intelligence with Alan Turing when the latter visited Princeton in the 1930s. Von Neumann's hydrogen bomb work was played out in the realm of computing, where he and Stanisław Ulam developed simulations on von Neumann's digital computers for the hydrodynamic computations. During this time he contributed to the development of the Monte Carlo method, which allowed solutions to complicated problems to be approximated using random numbers. Von Neumann's algorithm for simulating a fair coin with a biased coin is used in the "software whitening" stage of some hardware random number generators. Because using lists of "truly" random numbers was extremely slow, von Neumann developed a form of making pseudorandom numbers, using the middle-square method. Though this method has been criticized as crude, von Neumann was aware of this: he justified it as being faster than any other method at his disposal, writing that "Anyone who considers arithmetical methods of producing random digits is, of course, in a state of sin." Von Neumann also noted that when this method went awry it did so obviously, unlike other methods which could be subtly incorrect. While consulting for the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania on the EDVAC project, von Neumann wrote an incomplete First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC. The paper, whose premature distribution nullified the patent claims of EDVAC designers J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, described a computer architecture in which the data and the program are both stored in the computer's memory in the same address space. This architecture is the basis of most modern computer designs, unlike the earliest computers that were "programmed" using a separate memory device such as a paper tape or plugboard. Although the single-memory, stored program architecture is commonly called von Neumann architecture as a result of von Neumann's paper, the architecture was based on the work of Eckert and Mauchly, inventors of the ENIAC computer at the University of Pennsylvania. Von Neumann consulted for the Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory, most notably on the ENIAC project, as a member of its Scientific Advisory Committee. The electronics of the new ENIAC ran at one-sixth the speed, but this in no way degraded the ENIAC's performance, since it was still entirely I/O bound. Complicated programs could be developed and debugged in days rather than the weeks required for plugboarding the old ENIAC. Some of von Neumann's early computer programs have been preserved. The next computer that von Neumann designed was the IAS machine at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. He arranged its financing, and the components were designed and built at the RCA Research Laboratory nearby. Von Neumann recommended that the IBM 701, nicknamed the defense computer, include a magnetic drum. It was a faster version of the IAS machine and formed the basis for the commercially successful IBM 704. Stochastic computing was first introduced in a pioneering paper by von Neumann in 1953. However, the theory could not be implemented until advances in computing of the 1960s. Cellular automata, DNA and the universal constructor Von Neumann's rigorous mathematical analysis of the structure of self-replication (of the semiotic relationship between constructor, description and that which is constructed), preceded the discovery of the structure of DNA. Von Neumann created the field of cellular automata without the aid of computers, constructing the first self-replicating automata with pencil and graph paper. The detailed proposal for a physical non-biological self-replicating system was first put forward in lectures von Neumann delivered in 1948 and 1949, when he first only proposed a kinematic self-reproducing automaton. While qualitatively sound, von Neumann was evidently dissatisfied with this model of a self-replicator due to the difficulty of analyzing it with mathematical rigor. He went on to instead develop a more abstract model self-replicator based on his original concept of cellular automata. Subsequently, the concept of the Von Neumann universal constructor based on the von Neumann cellular automaton was fleshed out in his posthumously published lectures Theory of Self Reproducing Automata. Ulam and von Neumann created a method for calculating liquid motion in the 1950s. The driving concept of the method was to consider a liquid as a group of discrete units and calculate the motion of each based on its neighbors' behaviors. Like Ulam's lattice network, von Neumann's cellular automata are two-dimensional, with his self-replicator implemented algorithmically. The result was a universal copier and constructor working within a cellular automaton with a small neighborhood (only those cells that touch are neighbors; for von Neumann's cellular automata, only orthogonal cells), and with 29 states per cell. Von Neumann gave an existence proof that a particular pattern would make infinite copies of itself within the given cellular universe by designing a 200,000 cell configuration that could do so. Von Neumann addressed the evolutionary growth of complexity amongst his self-replicating machines. His "proof-of-principle" designs showed how it is logically possible, by using a general purpose programmable ("universal") constructor, to exhibit an indefinitely large class of self-replicators, spanning a wide range of complexity, interconnected by a network of potential mutational pathways, including pathways from the most simple to the most complex. This is an important result, as prior to that it might have been conjectured that there is a fundamental logical barrier to the existence of such pathways; in which case, biological organisms, which do support such pathways, could not be "machines", as conventionally understood. Von Neumann considers the potential for conflict between his self-reproducing machines, stating that "our models lead to such conflict situations", indicating it as a field of further study. The cybernetics movement highlighted the question of what it takes for self-reproduction to occur autonomously, and in 1952, John von Neumann designed an elaborate 2D cellular automaton that would automatically make a copy of its initial configuration of cells. The von Neumann neighborhood, in which each cell in a two-dimensional grid has the four orthogonally adjacent grid cells as neighbors, continues to be used for other cellular automata. Von Neumann proved that the most effective way of performing large-scale mining operations such as mining an entire moon or asteroid belt would be by using self-replicating spacecraft, taking advantage of their exponential growth. Von Neumann investigated the question of whether modelling evolution on a digital computer could solve the complexity problem in programming. Beginning in 1949, von Neumann's design for a self-reproducing computer program is considered the world's first computer virus, and he is considered to be the theoretical father of computer virology. Weather systems and global warming As part of his research into weather forecasting, von Neumann founded the "Meteorological Program" in Princeton in 1946, securing funding for his project from the US Navy. Von Neumann and his appointed assistant on this project, Jule Gregory Charney, wrote the world's first climate modelling software, and used it to perform the world's first numerical weather forecasts on the ENIAC computer; von Neumann and his team published the results as Numerical Integration of the Barotropic Vorticity Equation in 1950. Together they played a leading role in efforts to integrate sea-air exchanges of energy and moisture into the study of climate. Von Neumann proposed as the research program for climate modeling: "The approach is to first try short-range forecasts, then long-range forecasts of those properties of the circulation that can perpetuate themselves over arbitrarily long periods of time, and only finally to attempt forecast for medium-long time periods which are too long to treat by simple hydrodynamic theory and too short to treat by the general principle of equilibrium theory." Von Neumann's research into weather systems and meteorological prediction led him to propose manipulating the environment by spreading colorants on the polar ice caps to enhance absorption of solar radiation (by reducing the albedo), thereby inducing global warming. Von Neumann proposed a theory of global warming as a result of the activity of humans, noting that the Earth was only colder during the last glacial period, he wrote in 1955: "Carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by industry's burning of coal and oil - more than half of it during the last generation - may have changed the atmosphere's composition sufficiently to account for a general warming of the world by about one degree Fahrenheit." However, von Neumann urged a degree of caution in any program of intentional human weather manufacturing: "What could be done, of course, is no index to what should be done... In fact, to evaluate the ultimate consequences of either a general cooling or a general heating would be a complex matter. Changes would affect the level of the seas, and hence the habitability of the continental coastal shelves; the evaporation of the seas, and hence general precipitation and glaciation levels; and so on... But there is little doubt that one could carry out the necessary analyses needed to predict the results, intervene on any desired scale, and ultimately achieve rather fantastic results." Technological singularity hypothesis The first use of the concept of a singularity in the technological context is attributed to von Neumann, who according to Ulam discussed the "ever accelerating progress of technology and changes in the mode of human life, which gives the appearance of approaching some essential singularity in the history of the race beyond which human affairs, as we know them, could not continue." This concept was fleshed out later in the book Future Shock by Alvin Toffler. Defense work Manhattan Project Beginning in the late 1930s, von Neumann developed an expertise in explosions—phenomena that are difficult to model mathematically. During this period, von Neumann was the leading authority of the mathematics of shaped charges. This led him to a large number of military consultancies, primarily for the Navy, which in turn led to his involvement in the Manhattan Project. The involvement included frequent trips by train to the project's secret research facilities at the Los Alamos Laboratory in a remote part of New Mexico. Von Neumann made his principal contribution to the atomic bomb in the concept and design of the explosive lenses that were needed to compress the plutonium core of the Fat Man weapon that was later dropped on Nagasaki. While von Neumann did not originate the "implosion" concept, he was one of its most persistent proponents, encouraging its continued development against the instincts of many of his colleagues, who felt such a design to be unworkable. He also eventually came up with the idea of using more powerful shaped charges and less fissionable material to greatly increase the speed of "assembly". When it turned out that there would not be enough uranium-235 to make more than one bomb, the implosive lens project was greatly expanded and von Neumann's idea was implemented. Implosion was the only method that could be used with the plutonium-239 that was available from the Hanford Site. He established the design of the explosive lenses required, but there remained concerns about "edge effects" and imperfections in the explosives. His calculations showed that implosion would work if it did not depart by more than 5% from spherical symmetry. After a series of failed attempts with models, this was achieved by George Kistiakowsky, and the construction of the Trinity bomb was completed in July 1945. In a visit to Los Alamos in September 1944, von Neumann showed that the pressure increase from explosion shock wave reflection from solid objects was greater than previously believed if the angle of incidence of the shock wave was between 90° and some limiting angle. As a result, it was determined that the effectiveness of an atomic bomb would be enhanced with detonation some kilometers above the target, rather than at ground level. Von Neumann, four other scientists, and various military personnel were included in the target selection committee that was responsible for choosing the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as the first targets of the atomic bomb. Von Neumann oversaw computations related to the expected size of the bomb blasts, estimated death tolls, and the distance above the ground at which the bombs should be detonated for optimum shock wave propagation and thus maximum effect. The cultural capital Kyoto, which had been spared the bombing inflicted upon militarily significant cities, was von Neumann's first choice, a selection seconded by Manhattan Project leader General Leslie Groves. However, this target was dismissed by Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson. On July 16, 1945, von Neumann and numerous other Manhattan Project personnel were eyewitnesses to the first test
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natural numbers (through the use of restrictions on induction). He continued looking for a more general proof of the consistency of classical mathematics using methods from proof theory. A strongly negative answer to whether it was definitive arrived in September 1930 at the historic Second Conference on the Epistemology of the Exact Sciences of Königsberg, in which Kurt Gödel announced his first theorem of incompleteness: the usual axiomatic systems are incomplete, in the sense that they cannot prove every truth expressible in their language. Moreover, every consistent extension of these systems necessarily remains incomplete. Less than a month later, von Neumann, who had participated in the Conference, communicated to Gödel an interesting consequence of his theorem: that the usual axiomatic systems are unable to demonstrate their own consistency. Gödel had already discovered this consequence, now known as his second incompleteness theorem, and sent von Neumann a preprint of his article containing both theorems. Von Neumann acknowledged Gödel's priority in his next letter. He never thought much of "the American system of claiming personal priority for everything." However von Neumann's method of proof differed from Gödel's, as his used polynomials to explain consistency. With this discovery, von Neumann ceased work in mathematical logic and foundations of mathematics and instead spent time on problems connected with applications. Ergodic theory In a series of papers published in 1932, von Neumann made foundational contributions to ergodic theory, a branch of mathematics that involves the states of dynamical systems with an invariant measure. Of the 1932 papers on ergodic theory, Paul Halmos wrote that even "if von Neumann had never done anything else, they would have been sufficient to guarantee him mathematical immortality". By then von Neumann had already written his articles on operator theory, and the application of this work was instrumental in the von Neumann mean ergodic theorem. Measure theory In measure theory, the "problem of measure" for an -dimensional Euclidean space may be stated as: "does there exist a positive, normalized, invariant, and additive set function on the class of all subsets of ?" The work of Felix Hausdorff and Stefan Banach had implied that the problem of measure has a positive solution if or and a negative solution (because of the Banach–Tarski paradox) in all other cases. Von Neumann's work argued that the "problem is essentially group-theoretic in character": the existence of a measure could be determined by looking at the properties of the transformation group of the given space. The positive solution for spaces of dimension at most two, and the negative solution for higher dimensions, comes from the fact that the Euclidean group is a solvable group for dimension at most two, and is not solvable for higher dimensions. "Thus, according to von Neumann, it is the change of group that makes a difference, not the change of space." In a number of von Neumann's papers, the methods of argument he employed are considered even more significant than the results. In anticipation of his later study of dimension theory in algebras of operators, von Neumann used results on equivalence by finite decomposition, and reformulated the problem of measure in terms of functions. A major contribution von Neumann made to measure theory was the result of a paper written to answer a question of Haar regarding whether there existed an algebra of all bounded functions on the real number line such that they form "a complete system of representatives of the classes of almost everywhere-equal measurable bounded functions". He proved this in the positive, and in later papers with Stone discussed various generalizations and algebraic aspects of this problem. He also proved by new methods the existence of disintegrations for various general types of measures. Von Neumann also gave a new proof on the uniqueness of Haar measures by using the mean values of functions, although this method only worked for compact groups. He had to create entirely new techniques to apply this to locally compact groups. He also gave a new proof for the Radon–Nikodym theorem. His lecture notes on measure theory at the Institute for Advanced Study were an important source for knowledge on the field in America at the time, and were later published. Topological groups Using his previous work on measure theory von Neumann made several contributions to the theory of topological groups, beginning with a paper on almost periodic functions on groups, where von Neumann extended Bohr's theory of almost periodic functions to arbitrary groups. He continued this work with another paper in conjunction with Bochner that improved the theory of almost periodicity to include functions that took on elements of linear spaces as values rather than numbers. In 1938, he was awarded the Bôcher Memorial Prize for his work in analysis in relation to these papers. In a 1933 paper, he used the newly discovered Haar measure in the solution of Hilbert's fifth problem for the case of compact groups. The basic idea behind this was discovered several years earlier when von Neumann published a paper on the analytic properties of groups of linear transformations and found that closed subgroups of a general linear group are Lie groups. This was later extended by Cartan to arbitrary Lie groups in the form of the closed-subgroup theorem. Functional analysis Von Neumann was the first one to come up with an “abstract” Hilbert space in a formal and axiomatic fashion. It was defined as a complex vector space with a hermitian scalar product, with the corresponding norm being both separable and complete. He continued with the development of the spectral theory of operators in Hilbert space in 3 seminal papers between 1929 and 1932. For twenty years von Neumann was considered the 'undisputed master' of this area. These developments were primarily prompted by needs in quantum mechanics where von Neumann realized the need to extend the spectral theory of Hermitian operators from the bounded to the unbounded case. Other major achievements in these papers include a complete elucidation of spectral theory for normal operators, a generalisation of Riesz’s presentation of Hilbert’s spectral theorems at the time, and the discovery of hermitian operators in a Hilbert space, as distinct from self-adjoint operators, which enabled him to give a description of all hermitian operators which extend a given hermitian operator. In addition he wrote a paper detailing how the usage of infinite matrices, common at the time in spectral theory, was inadequate as a representation for hermitian operators. His work on operator theory lead to his most profound invention in pure mathematics, the study of von Neumann algebras and in general of operator algebras. In other work in functional analysis von Neumann was also the first mathematician to apply new topological ideas from Hausdorff to Hilbert spaces. He also gave the first general definition of locally convex spaces. His later work on rings of operators lead to him revisiting his earlier work on spectral theory and providing a new way of working through the geometric content of the spectral theory by the use of direct integrals of Hilbert spaces. Operator algebras Von Neumann founded the study of rings of operators, through the von Neumann algebras. A von Neumann algebra is a *-algebra of bounded operators on a Hilbert space that is closed in the weak operator topology and contains the identity operator. The von Neumann bicommutant theorem shows that the analytic definition is equivalent to a purely algebraic definition as being equal to the bicommutant. After elucidating the study of the commutative algebra case, von Neumann embarked in 1936, with the partial collaboration of F.J. Murray, on the noncommutative case, the general study of factors classification of von Neumann algebras. The six major papers in which he developed that theory between 1936 and 1940 "rank among the masterpieces of analysis in the twentieth century". The direct integral was later introduced in 1949 by John von Neumann for his work on operator theory. His work here lead on to the next two major topics. Geometry Von Neumann founded the field of continuous geometry. It followed his path-breaking work on rings of operators. In mathematics, continuous geometry is a substitute of complex projective geometry, where instead of the dimension of a subspace being in a discrete set 0, 1, ..., n, it can be an element of the unit interval [0,1]. Earlier, Menger and Birkhoff had axiomatized complex projective geometry in terms of the properties of its lattice of linear subspaces. Von Neumann, following his work on rings of operators, weakened those axioms to describe a broader class of lattices, the continuous geometries. While the dimensions of the subspaces of projective geometries are a discrete set (the non-negative integers), the dimensions of the elements of a continuous geometry can range continuously across the unit interval [0,1]. Von Neumann was motivated by his discovery of von Neumann algebras with a dimension function taking a continuous range of dimensions, and the first example of a continuous geometry other than projective space was the projections of the hyperfinite type II factor. Lattice theory Between 1937 and 1939, von Neumann worked on lattice theory, the theory of partially ordered sets in which every two elements have a greatest lower bound and a least upper bound. Garrett Birkhoff writes: "John von Neumann's brilliant mind blazed over lattice theory like a meteor". Von Neumann provided an abstract exploration of dimension in completed complemented modular topological lattices (properties that arise in the lattices of subspaces of inner product spaces): "Dimension is determined, up to a positive linear transformation, by the following two properties. It is conserved by perspective mappings ("perspectivities") and ordered by inclusion. The deepest part of the proof concerns the equivalence of perspectivity with "projectivity by decomposition"—of which a corollary is the transitivity of perspectivity." Additionally, "[I]n the general case, von Neumann proved the following basic representation theorem. Any complemented modular lattice having a "basis" of pairwise perspective elements, is isomorphic with the lattice of all principal right-ideals of a suitable regular ring . This conclusion is the culmination of 140 pages of brilliant and incisive algebra involving entirely novel axioms. Anyone wishing to get an unforgettable impression of the razor edge of von Neumann's mind, need merely try to pursue this chain of exact reasoning for himself—realizing that often five pages of it were written down before breakfast, seated at a living room writing-table in a bathrobe." Physics Quantum mechanics Von Neumann was the first to establish a rigorous mathematical framework for quantum mechanics, known as the Dirac–von Neumann axioms, in his 1932 work Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics. After having completed the axiomatization of set theory, he began to confront the axiomatization of quantum mechanics. He realized in 1926 that a state of a quantum system could be represented by a point in a (complex) Hilbert space that, in general, could be infinite-dimensional even for a single particle. In this formalism of quantum mechanics, observable quantities such as position or momentum are represented as linear operators acting on the Hilbert space associated with the quantum system. The physics of quantum mechanics was thereby reduced to the mathematics of Hilbert spaces and linear operators acting on them. For example, the uncertainty principle, according to which the determination of the position of a particle prevents the determination of its momentum and vice versa, is translated into the non-commutativity of the two corresponding operators. This new mathematical formulation included as special cases the formulations of both Heisenberg and Schrödinger. When Heisenberg was informed von Neumann had clarified the difference between an unbounded operator that was a self-adjoint operator and one that was merely symmetric, Heisenberg replied "Eh? What is the difference?" Von Neumann's abstract treatment permitted him also to confront the foundational issue of determinism versus non-determinism, and in the book he presented a proof that the statistical results of quantum mechanics could not possibly be averages of an underlying set of determined "hidden variables," as in classical statistical mechanics. In 1935, Grete Hermann published a paper arguing that the proof contained a conceptual error and was therefore invalid. Hermann's work was largely ignored until after John S. Bell made essentially the same argument in 1966. In 2010, Jeffrey Bub argued that Bell had misconstrued von Neumann's proof, and pointed out that the proof, though not valid for all hidden variable theories, does rule out a well-defined and important subset. Bub also suggests that von Neumann was aware of this limitation and did not claim that his proof completely ruled out hidden variable theories. The validity of Bub's argument is, in turn, disputed. In any case, Gleason's theorem of 1957 fills the gaps in von Neumann's approach. Von Neumann's proof inaugurated a line of research that ultimately led, through Bell's theorem and the experiments of Alain Aspect in 1982, to the demonstration that quantum physics either requires a notion of reality substantially different from that of classical physics, or must include nonlocality in apparent violation of special relativity. In a chapter of The Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, von Neumann deeply analyzed the so-called measurement problem. He concluded that the entire physical universe could be made subject to the universal wave function. Since something "outside the calculation" was needed to collapse the wave function, von Neumann concluded that the collapse was caused by the consciousness of the experimenter. He argued that the mathematics of quantum mechanics allows the collapse of the wave function to be placed at any position in the causal chain from the measurement device to the "subjective consciousness" of the human observer. Although this view was accepted by Eugene Wigner, the Von Neumann–Wigner interpretation never gained acceptance among the majority of physicists. The Von Neumann–Wigner interpretation has been summarized as follows: The rules of quantum mechanics are correct but there is only one system which may be treated with quantum mechanics, namely the entire material world. There exist external observers which cannot be treated within quantum mechanics, namely human (and perhaps animal) minds, which perform measurements on the brain causing wave function collapse. Though theories of quantum mechanics continue to evolve, there is a basic framework for the mathematical formalism of problems in quantum mechanics underlying most approaches that can be traced back to the mathematical formalisms and techniques first used by von Neumann. In other words, discussions about interpretation of the theory, and extensions to it, are now mostly conducted on the basis of shared assumptions about the mathematical foundations. Von Neumann entropy Von Neumann entropy is extensively used in different forms (conditional entropy, relative entropy, etc.) in the framework of quantum information theory. Entanglement measures are based upon some quantity directly related to the von Neumann entropy. Given a statistical ensemble of quantum mechanical systems with the density matrix , it is given by Many of the same entropy measures in classical information theory can also be generalized to the quantum case, such as Holevo entropy and conditional quantum entropy. Quantum mutual information Quantum information theory is largely concerned with the interpretation and uses of von Neumann entropy. The von Neumann entropy is the cornerstone in the development of quantum information theory, while the Shannon entropy applies to classical information theory. This is considered a historical anomaly, as Shannon entropy might have been expected to be discovered before Von Neumann entropy, given the latter's more widespread application to quantum information theory. But Von Neumann discovered von Neumann entropy first, and applied it to questions of statistical physics. Decades later, Shannon developed an information-theoretic formula for use in classical information theory, and asked von Neumann what to call it. Von Neumann said to call it Shannon entropy, as it was a special case of von Neumann entropy. Density matrix The formalism of density operators and matrices was introduced by von Neumann in 1927 and independently, but less systematically by Lev Landau and Felix Bloch in 1927 and 1946 respectively. The density matrix is an alternative way to represent the state of a quantum system, which could otherwise be represented using the wavefunction. The density matrix allows the solution of certain time-dependent problems in quantum mechanics. Von Neumann measurement scheme The von Neumann measurement scheme, the ancestor of quantum decoherence theory, represents measurements projectively by taking into account the measuring apparatus which is also treated as a quantum object. The 'projective measurement' scheme introduced by von Neumann led to the development of quantum decoherence theories. Fluid dynamics Von Neumann made fundamental contributions in the field of fluid dynamics. Von Neumann's contributions to fluid dynamics included his discovery of the classic flow solution to blast waves, and the co-discovery (independently of Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich and Werner Döring) of the ZND detonation model of explosives. During the 1930s, von Neumann became an authority on the mathematics of shaped charges. Later with Robert D. Richtmyer, von Neumann developed an algorithm defining artificial viscosity that improved the understanding of shock waves. When computers solved hydrodynamic or aerodynamic problems, they tried to put too many computational grid points at regions of sharp discontinuity (shock waves). The mathematics of artificial viscosity smoothed the shock transition without sacrificing basic physics. Von Neumann soon applied computer modelling to the field, developing software for his ballistics research. During WW2, he arrived one day at the office of R.H. Kent, the Director of the US Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory, with a computer program he had created for calculating a one-dimensional model of 100 molecules to simulate a shock wave. Von Neumann then gave a seminar on his computer program to an audience which included his friend Theodore von Kármán. After von Neumann had finished, von Kármán said "Well, Johnny, that's very interesting. Of course you realize Lagrange also used digital models to simulate continuum mechanics." It was evident from von Neumann's face, that he had been unaware of Lagrange's Mécanique analytique. Applied mathematics Game theory Von Neumann founded the field of game theory as a mathematical discipline. He proved his minimax theorem in 1928. It establishes that in zero-sum games with perfect information (i.e., in which players know at each time all moves that have taken place so far), there exists a pair of strategies for both players that allows each to minimize his maximum losses. When examining every possible strategy, a player must consider all the possible responses of his adversary. The player then plays out the strategy that will result in the minimization of his maximum loss. Such strategies, which minimize the maximum loss for each player, are called optimal. Von Neumann showed that their minimaxes are equal (in absolute value) and contrary (in sign). He improved and extended the minimax theorem to include games involving imperfect information and games with more than two players, publishing this result in his 1944 Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, written with Oskar Morgenstern. Morgenstern wrote a paper on game theory and thought he would show it to von Neumann because of his interest in the subject. He read it and said to Morgenstern that he should put more in it. This was repeated a couple of times, and then von Neumann became a coauthor and the paper became 100 pages long. Then it became a book. The public interest in this work was such that The New York Times ran a front-page story. In this book, von Neumann declared that economic theory needed to use functional analysis, especially convex sets and the topological fixed-point theorem, rather than the traditional differential calculus, because the maximum-operator did not preserve differentiable functions. Independently, Leonid Kantorovich's functional analytic work on mathematical economics also focused attention on optimization theory, non-differentiability, and vector lattices. Von Neumann's functional-analytic techniques—the use of duality pairings of real vector spaces to represent prices and quantities, the use of supporting and separating hyperplanes and convex sets, and fixed-point theory—have been the primary tools of mathematical economics ever since. Quantum logic Von Neumann first proposed a quantum logic in his 1932 treatise Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, where he noted that projections on a Hilbert space can be viewed as propositions about physical observables. The field of quantum logic was subsequently inaugurated, in a famous paper of 1936 by von Neumann and Garrett Birkhoff, the first work ever to introduce quantum logics, wherein von Neumann and Birkhoff first proved that quantum mechanics requires a propositional calculus substantially different from all classical logics and rigorously isolated a new algebraic structure for quantum logics. The concept of creating a propositional calculus for quantum logic was first outlined in a short section in von Neumann's 1932 work, but in 1936, the need for the new propositional calculus was demonstrated through several proofs. For example, photons cannot pass through two successive filters that are polarized perpendicularly (e.g., horizontally and vertically), and therefore, a fortiori, it cannot pass if a third filter polarized diagonally is added to the other two, either before or after them in the succession, but if the third filter is added between the other two, the photons will indeed pass through. This experimental fact is translatable into logic as the non-commutativity of conjunction . It was also demonstrated that the laws of distribution of classical logic, and , are not valid for quantum theory. The reason for this is that a quantum disjunction, unlike the case for classical disjunction, can be true even when both of the disjuncts are false and this is in turn attributable to the fact that it is frequently the case in quantum mechanics that a pair of alternatives are semantically determinate, while each of its members is necessarily indeterminate. This latter property can be illustrated by a simple example. Suppose we are dealing with particles (such as electrons) of semi-integral spin (spin angular momentum) for which there are only two possible values: positive or negative. Then, a principle of indetermination establishes that the spin, relative to two different directions (e.g., x and y) results in a pair of incompatible quantities. Suppose that the state ɸ of a certain electron verifies the proposition "the spin of the electron in the x direction is positive." By the principle of indeterminacy, the value of the spin in the direction y will be completely indeterminate for ɸ. Hence, ɸ can verify neither the proposition "the spin in the direction of y is positive" nor the proposition "the spin in the direction of y is negative." Nevertheless, the disjunction of the propositions "the spin in the direction of y is positive or the spin in the direction of y is negative" must be true for ɸ. In the case of distribution, it is therefore possible to have a situation in which , while . As Hilary Putnam writes, von Neumann replaced classical logic with a logic constructed in orthomodular lattices (isomorphic to the lattice of subspaces of the Hilbert space of a given physical system). Mathematical economics Von Neumann raised the intellectual and mathematical level of economics in several influential publications. For his model of an expanding economy, he proved the existence and uniqueness of an equilibrium using his generalization of the Brouwer fixed-point theorem. Von Neumann's model of an expanding economy considered the matrix pencil A − λB with nonnegative matrices A and B; von Neumann sought probability vectors p and q and a positive number λ that would solve the complementarity equation along with two inequality systems expressing economic efficiency. In this model, the (transposed) probability vector p represents the prices of the goods while the probability vector q represents the "intensity" at which the production process would run. The unique solution λ represents the growth factor which is 1 plus the rate of growth of the economy; the rate of growth equals the interest rate. Von Neumann's results have been viewed as a special case of linear programming, where his model uses only nonnegative matrices. The study of his model of an expanding economy continues to interest mathematical economists with interests in computational economics. This paper has been called the greatest paper in mathematical economics by several authors, who recognized its introduction of fixed-point theorems, linear inequalities, complementary slackness, and saddlepoint duality. In the proceedings of a conference on von Neumann's growth model, Paul Samuelson said that many mathematicians had developed methods useful to economists, but that von Neumann was unique in having made significant contributions to economic theory itself. Von Neumann's famous 9-page paper started life as a talk at Princeton and then became a paper in German that was eventually translated into English. His interest in economics that led to that paper began while he was lecturing at Berlin in 1928 and 1929. He spent his summers back home in Budapest, as did the economist Nicholas Kaldor, and they hit it off. Kaldor recommended that von Neumann read a book by the mathematical economist Léon Walras. Von Neumann found some faults in the book and corrected them–for example, replacing equations by inequalities. He noticed that Walras's General Equilibrium Theory and Walras's Law, which led to systems of simultaneous linear equations, could produce the absurd result that profit could be maximized by producing and selling a negative quantity of a product. He replaced the equations by inequalities, introduced dynamic equilibria, among other things, and eventually produced the paper. Linear programming Building on his results on matrix games and on his model of an expanding economy, von Neumann invented the theory of duality in linear programming when George Dantzig described his work in a few minutes, and an impatient von Neumann asked him to get to the point. Dantzig then listened dumbfounded while von Neumann provided an hourlong lecture on convex sets, fixed-point theory, and duality, conjecturing the equivalence between matrix games and linear programming. Later, von Neumann suggested a new method of linear programming, using the homogeneous linear system of Paul Gordan (1873), which was later popularized by Karmarkar's algorithm. Von Neumann's method used a pivoting algorithm between simplices, with the pivoting decision determined by a nonnegative least squares subproblem with a convexity constraint (projecting the zero-vector onto the convex hull of the active simplex). Von Neumann's algorithm was the first interior point method of linear programming. Mathematical statistics Von Neumann made fundamental contributions to mathematical statistics. In 1941, he derived the exact distribution of the ratio of the mean square of successive differences to the sample variance for independent and identically normally distributed variables. This ratio was applied to the residuals from regression models and is commonly known as the Durbin–Watson statistic for testing the null hypothesis that the errors are serially independent against the alternative that they follow a stationary first order autoregression. Subsequently, Denis Sargan and Alok Bhargava extended the results for testing if the errors on a regression model follow a Gaussian random walk (i.e., possess a unit root) against the alternative that they are a stationary first order autoregression. Computer science Von Neumann was a founding figure in computing. Von Neumann was the inventor, in 1945, of the merge sort algorithm, in which the first and second halves of an array are each sorted recursively and then merged. Von Neumann wrote the 23 pages long sorting program for the EDVAC in ink. On the first page, traces of the phrase "TOP SECRET", which was written in pencil and later erased, can still be seen. He also worked on the philosophy of artificial intelligence with Alan Turing when the latter visited Princeton in the 1930s. Von Neumann's hydrogen bomb work was played out in the realm of computing, where he and Stanisław Ulam developed simulations on von Neumann's digital computers for the hydrodynamic computations. During this time he contributed to the development of the Monte Carlo method, which allowed solutions to complicated problems to be approximated using random numbers. Von Neumann's algorithm for simulating a fair coin with a biased coin is used in the "software whitening" stage of some hardware random number generators. Because using lists of "truly" random numbers was extremely slow, von Neumann developed a form of making pseudorandom numbers, using the middle-square method. Though this method has been criticized as crude, von Neumann was aware of this: he justified it as being faster than any other method at his disposal, writing that "Anyone who considers arithmetical methods of producing random digits is, of course, in a state of sin." Von Neumann also noted that when this method went awry it did so obviously, unlike other methods which could be subtly incorrect. While consulting for the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania on the EDVAC project, von Neumann wrote an incomplete First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC. The paper, whose premature distribution nullified the patent claims of EDVAC designers J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, described a computer architecture in which the data and the program are both stored in the computer's memory in the same address space. This architecture is the basis of most modern computer designs, unlike the earliest computers that were "programmed" using a separate memory device such as a paper tape or plugboard. Although the single-memory, stored program architecture is commonly called von Neumann architecture as a result of von Neumann's paper, the architecture was based on the work of Eckert and Mauchly, inventors of the ENIAC computer at the University of Pennsylvania. Von Neumann consulted for the Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory, most notably on the ENIAC project, as a member of its Scientific Advisory Committee. The electronics of the new ENIAC ran at one-sixth the speed, but this in no way degraded the ENIAC's performance, since it was still entirely I/O bound. Complicated programs could be developed and debugged in days rather than the weeks required for plugboarding the old ENIAC. Some of von Neumann's early computer programs have been preserved. The next computer that von Neumann designed was the IAS machine at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. He arranged its financing, and the components were designed and built at the RCA Research Laboratory nearby. Von Neumann recommended that the IBM 701, nicknamed the defense computer, include a magnetic drum. It was a faster version of the IAS machine and formed the basis for the commercially successful IBM 704. Stochastic computing was first introduced in a pioneering paper by von Neumann in 1953. However, the theory could not be implemented until advances in computing of the 1960s. Cellular automata, DNA and the universal constructor Von Neumann's rigorous mathematical analysis of the structure of self-replication (of the semiotic relationship between constructor, description and that which is constructed), preceded the discovery of the structure of DNA. Von Neumann created the field of cellular automata without the aid of computers, constructing the first self-replicating automata with pencil and graph paper. The detailed proposal for a physical non-biological self-replicating system was first put forward in lectures von Neumann delivered in 1948 and 1949, when he first only proposed a kinematic self-reproducing automaton. While qualitatively sound, von Neumann was evidently dissatisfied with this model of a self-replicator due to the difficulty of analyzing it with mathematical rigor. He went on to instead develop a more abstract model self-replicator based on his original concept of cellular automata. Subsequently, the concept of the Von Neumann universal constructor based on the von Neumann cellular automaton was fleshed out in his posthumously published lectures Theory of Self Reproducing Automata. Ulam and von Neumann created a method for calculating liquid motion in the 1950s. The driving concept of the method was to consider a liquid as a group of discrete units and calculate the motion of each based on its neighbors' behaviors. Like Ulam's lattice network, von Neumann's cellular automata are two-dimensional, with his self-replicator implemented algorithmically. The result was a universal copier and constructor working within a cellular automaton with a small neighborhood (only those cells that touch are neighbors; for von Neumann's cellular automata, only orthogonal cells), and with 29 states per cell. Von Neumann gave an existence proof that a particular pattern would make infinite copies of itself within the given cellular universe by designing a 200,000 cell configuration that could do so. Von Neumann addressed the evolutionary growth of complexity amongst his self-replicating machines. His "proof-of-principle" designs showed how it is logically possible, by using a general purpose programmable ("universal") constructor, to exhibit an indefinitely large class of self-replicators, spanning a wide range of complexity, interconnected by a network of potential mutational pathways, including pathways from the most simple to the most complex. This is an important result, as prior to that it might have been conjectured that there is a fundamental logical barrier to the existence of such pathways; in which case, biological organisms, which do support such pathways, could not be "machines", as conventionally understood. Von Neumann considers the potential for conflict between his self-reproducing machines, stating that "our models lead to such conflict situations", indicating it as a field of further study. The cybernetics movement highlighted the question of what it takes for self-reproduction to occur autonomously, and in 1952, John von Neumann designed an elaborate 2D cellular automaton that would automatically make a copy of its initial configuration of cells. The von Neumann neighborhood, in which each cell in a two-dimensional grid has the four orthogonally adjacent grid cells as neighbors, continues to be used for other cellular automata. Von Neumann proved that the most effective way of performing large-scale mining operations such as mining an entire moon or asteroid belt would be by using self-replicating spacecraft, taking advantage of their exponential growth. Von Neumann investigated the question of whether modelling evolution on a digital computer could solve the complexity problem in programming. Beginning in 1949, von Neumann's design for a self-reproducing computer program is considered the world's first computer virus, and he is considered to be the theoretical father of computer virology. Weather systems and global warming As part of his research into weather forecasting, von Neumann founded the "Meteorological Program" in Princeton in 1946, securing funding for his project from the US Navy. Von Neumann and his appointed assistant on this project, Jule Gregory Charney, wrote the world's first climate modelling software, and used it to perform the world's first numerical weather forecasts on the ENIAC computer; von Neumann and his team published the results as Numerical Integration of the Barotropic Vorticity Equation in 1950. Together they played a leading role in efforts to integrate sea-air exchanges of energy and moisture into the study of climate. Von Neumann proposed as the research program for climate modeling: "The approach is to first try short-range forecasts, then long-range forecasts of those properties of the circulation that can perpetuate themselves over arbitrarily long periods of time, and only finally to attempt forecast for medium-long time periods which are too long to treat by simple hydrodynamic theory and too short to treat by the general principle of equilibrium theory." Von Neumann's research into weather systems and meteorological prediction led him to propose manipulating the environment by spreading colorants on the polar ice caps to enhance absorption of solar radiation (by reducing the albedo), thereby inducing global warming. Von Neumann proposed a theory of global warming as a result of the activity of humans, noting that the Earth was only colder during the last glacial period, he wrote in 1955: "Carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by industry's burning of coal and oil - more than half of it during the last generation - may have changed the atmosphere's composition sufficiently to account for a general warming of the world by about one degree Fahrenheit." However, von Neumann urged a degree of caution in any program of intentional human weather manufacturing: "What could be done, of course, is no index to what should be done... In fact, to evaluate the ultimate consequences of either a general cooling or a general heating would be a complex matter. Changes would affect the level of the seas, and hence the habitability of the continental coastal shelves; the evaporation of the seas, and hence general precipitation and glaciation levels; and so on... But there is little doubt that one could carry out the necessary analyses needed to predict the results, intervene on any desired scale, and ultimately achieve rather fantastic results." Technological singularity hypothesis The first use of the concept of a singularity in the technological context is attributed to von Neumann, who according to Ulam discussed the "ever accelerating progress of technology and changes in the mode of human life, which gives the appearance of approaching some essential singularity in the history of the race beyond which human affairs, as we know them, could not continue."
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so many respectable persons have already engaged to use their utmost influence, for the suppression of a traffic, which contradicts the feelings of humanity; that it is hoped, this stain of our National character will soon be wiped out." Marriage and family On 12 February 1750 Newton married his childhood sweetheart, Mary Catlett, at St. Margaret's Church, Rochester. Newton adopted his two orphaned nieces, Elizabeth Cunningham and Eliza Catlett, both from the Catlett side of the family. Newton's niece Alys Newton later married Mehul, a prince from India. Anglican priest In 1755 Newton was appointed as tide surveyor (a tax collector) of the Port of Liverpool, again through the influence of Manesty. In his spare time, he studied Greek, Hebrew, and Syriac, preparing for serious religious study. He became well known as an evangelical lay minister. In 1757, he applied to be ordained as a priest in the Church of England, but it was more than seven years before he was eventually accepted. During this period, he also applied to the Methodists, Independents and Presbyterians. He mailed applications directly to the Bishops of Chester and Lincoln and the Archbishops of Canterbury and York. Eventually, in 1764, he was introduced by Thomas Haweis to The 2nd Earl of Dartmouth, who was influential in recommending Newton to William Markham, Bishop of Chester. Haweis suggested Newton for the living of Olney, Buckinghamshire. On 29 April 1764 Newton received deacon's orders, and finally was ordained as a priest on 17 June. As curate of Olney, Newton was partly sponsored by John Thornton, a wealthy merchant and evangelical philanthropist. He supplemented Newton's stipend of £60 a year with £200 a year "for hospitality and to help the poor". Newton soon became well known for his pastoral care, as much as for his beliefs. His friendship with Dissenters and evangelical clergy led to his being respected by Anglicans and Nonconformists alike. He spent sixteen years at Olney. His preaching was so popular that the congregation added a gallery to the church to accommodate the many persons who flocked to hear him. Some five years later, in 1772, Thomas Scott took up the curacy of the neighbouring parishes of Stoke Goldington and Weston Underwood. Newton was instrumental in converting Scott from a cynical ‘career priest’ to a true believer, a conversion which Scott related in his spiritual autobiography The Force Of Truth (1779). Later Scott became a biblical commentator and co-founder of the Church Missionary Society. In 1779 Newton was invited by John Thornton to become Rector of St Mary Woolnoth, Lombard Street, London, where he officiated until his death. The church had been built by Nicholas Hawksmoor in 1727 in the fashionable Baroque style. Newton was one of only two evangelical Anglican priests in the capital, and he soon found himself gaining in popularity amongst the growing evangelical party. He was a strong supporter of evangelicalism in the Church of England. He remained a friend of Dissenters (such as Methodists and Baptists) as well as Anglicans. Young churchmen and people struggling with faith sought his advice, including such well-known social figures as the writer and philanthropist Hannah More, and the young William Wilberforce, a Member of Parliament (MP) who had recently suffered a crisis of conscience and religious conversion while contemplating leaving politics. The younger man consulted with Newton, who encouraged Wilberforce to stay in Parliament and "serve God where he was". In 1792, Newton was presented with the degree of Doctor of Divinity by the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University). Abolitionist In 1788, 34 years after he had retired from the slave trade, Newton broke a long silence on the subject with the publication of a forceful pamphlet Thoughts Upon the Slave Trade, in which he described the horrific conditions of the slave ships during the Middle Passage. He apologised for "a confession, which ... comes too late ... It will always be a subject of humiliating reflection to me, that I was once an active instrument in a business at which my heart now shudders." He had copies sent to every MP, and the pamphlet sold so well that it swiftly required reprinting. Newton became an ally of William Wilberforce, leader of the Parliamentary campaign to abolish the African slave trade. He lived to see the British passage of the Slave Trade Act 1807, which enacted this event. Newton came to believe that during the first five of his nine years as a slave trader he had not been a Christian in the full sense of the term. In 1763 he wrote: "I was greatly deficient in many respects ... I cannot consider myself to have been a believer in the full sense of the word, until a considerable time afterwards." Writer and hymnist In 1767 William Cowper, the poet, moved to Olney. He worshipped in Newton's church, and collaborated with the priest on a volume of hymns; it was published as Olney Hymns in 1779. This work had a great influence on English hymnology. The volume included Newton's well-known hymns: "Glorious Things of Thee Are Spoken,"
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the crew of Pegasus. In 1745 they left him in West Africa with Amos Clowe, a slave dealer. Clowe took Newton to the coast and gave him to his wife, Princess Peye of the Sherbro people. She abused and mistreated Newton just as much as she did her other slaves. Newton later recounted this period as the time he was "once an infidel and libertine, a servant of slaves in West Africa." Early in 1748 he was rescued by a sea captain who had been asked by Newton's father to search for him, and returned to England on the merchant ship Greyhound, which was carrying beeswax and dyer's wood, now referred to as camwood. Spiritual conversion In 1748, during his return voyage to England aboard the ship Greyhound, Newton had a spiritual conversion. He awoke to find the ship caught in a severe storm off the coast of Donegal, Ireland and about to sink. In response, Newton began praying for God's mercy, after which the storm began to die down. After four weeks at sea the Greyhound made it to port in Lough Swilly, Ireland. This experience marked the beginning of his conversion to Christianity. He began to read the Bible and other religious literature. By the time he reached Britain, he had accepted the doctrines of evangelical Christianity. The date was 10 March 1748, an anniversary he marked for the rest of his life. From that point on, he avoided profanity, gambling and drinking. Although he continued to work in the slave trade, he had gained sympathy for the slaves during his time in Africa. He later said that his true conversion did not happen until some time later: "I cannot consider myself to have been a believer in the full sense of the word, until a considerable time afterwards." Slave trading Newton returned in 1748 to Liverpool, a major port for the Triangle Trade. Partly due to the influence of his father's friend Joseph Manesty, he obtained a position as first mate aboard the slave ship Brownlow, bound for the West Indies via the coast of Guinea. Newton continued to work in the slave trade. After his return to England in 1750, he made three voyages as captain of the slave ships Duke of Argyle (1750) and African (1752–53 and 1753–54). After suffering a severe stroke in 1754, he gave up seafaring, while continuing to invest in Manesty's slaving operations. In 1780 Newton moved to the City of London as rector of St Mary Woolnoth Church, where he contributed to the work of the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade, formed in 1787. During this time he wrote Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade. In it he states; "So much light has been thrown upon the subject, by many able pens; and so many respectable persons have already engaged to use their utmost influence, for the suppression of a traffic, which contradicts the feelings of humanity; that it is hoped, this stain of our National character will soon be wiped out." Marriage and family On 12 February 1750 Newton married his childhood sweetheart, Mary Catlett, at St. Margaret's Church, Rochester. Newton adopted his two orphaned nieces, Elizabeth Cunningham and Eliza Catlett, both from the Catlett side of the family. Newton's niece Alys Newton later married Mehul, a prince from India. Anglican priest In 1755 Newton was appointed as tide surveyor (a tax collector) of the Port of Liverpool, again through the influence of Manesty. In his spare time, he studied Greek, Hebrew, and Syriac, preparing for serious religious study. He became well known as an evangelical lay minister. In 1757, he applied to be ordained as a priest in the Church of England, but it was more than seven years before he was eventually accepted. During this period, he also applied to the Methodists, Independents and Presbyterians. He mailed applications directly to the Bishops of Chester and Lincoln and the Archbishops of Canterbury and York. Eventually, in 1764, he was introduced by Thomas Haweis to The 2nd Earl of Dartmouth, who was influential in recommending Newton to William Markham, Bishop of Chester. Haweis suggested Newton for the living of Olney, Buckinghamshire. On 29 April 1764 Newton received deacon's orders, and
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connecting the different parts. How well the individual components contribute to turning fuel into thrust is quantified by measures like efficiencies for the compressors, turbines and combustor and pressure losses for the ducts. These are shown as lines on a Thermodynamic cycle diagram. The engine efficiency, or thermal efficiency, known as . is dependent on the Thermodynamic cycle parameters, maximum pressure and temperature, and on component efficiencies, , and and duct pressure losses. The engine needs compressed air for itself just to run successfully. This air comes from its own compressor and is called secondary air. It does not contribute to making thrust so makes the engine less efficient. It is used to preserve the mechanical integrity of the engine, to stop parts overheating and to prevent oil escaping from bearings for example. Only some of this air taken from the compressors returns to the turbine flow to contribute to thrust production. Any reduction in the amount needed improves the engine efficiency. Again, it will be known for a particular engine design that a reduced requirement for cooling flow of x% will reduce the specific fuel consumption by y%. In other words, less fuel will be required to give take-off thrust, for example. The engine is more efficient. All of the above considerations are basic to the engine running on its own and, at the same time, doing nothing useful, i.e. it is not moving an aircraft or supplying energy for the aircraft's electrical, hydraulic and air systems. In the aircraft the engine gives away some of its thrust-producing potential, or fuel, to power these systems. These requirements, which cause installation losses, reduce its efficiency. It is using some fuel that does not contribute to the engine's thrust. Finally, when the aircraft is flying the propelling jet itself contains wasted kinetic energy after it has left the engine. This is quantified by the term propulsive, or Froude, efficiency and may be reduced by redesigning the engine to give it bypass flow and a lower speed for the propelling jet, for example as a turboprop or turbofan engine. At the same time forward speed increases the by increasing the Overall pressure ratio. The overall efficiency of the engine at flight speed is defined as . The at flight speed depends on how well the intake compresses the air before it is handed over to the engine compressors. The intake compression ratio, which can be as high as 32:1 at Mach 3, adds to that of the engine compressor to give the Overall pressure ratio and for the Thermodynamic cycle. How well it does this is defined by its pressure recovery or measure of the losses in the intake. Mach 3 manned flight has provided an interesting illustration of how these losses can increase dramatically in an instant. The North American XB-70 Valkyrie and Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird at Mach 3 each had pressure recoveries of about 0.8, due to relatively low losses during the compression process, i.e. through systems of multiple shocks. During an 'unstart' the efficient shock system would be replaced by a very inefficient single shock beyond the inlet and an intake pressure recovery of about 0.3 and a correspondingly low pressure ratio. The propelling nozzle at speeds above about Mach 2 usually has extra internal thrust losses because the exit area is not big enough as a trade-off with external afterbody drag. Although a bypass engine improves propulsive efficiency it incurs losses of its own inside the engine itself. Machinery has to be added to transfer energy from the gas generator to a bypass airflow. The low loss from the propelling nozzle of a turbojet is added to with extra losses due to inefficiencies in the added turbine and fan. These may be included in a transmission, or transfer, efficiency . However, these losses are more than made up by the improvement in propulsive efficiency. There are also extra pressure losses in the bypass duct and an extra propelling nozzle. With the advent of turbofans with their loss-making machinery what goes on inside the engine has been separated by Bennett, for example, between gas generator and transfer machinery giving . The energy efficiency () of jet engines installed in vehicles has two main components: propulsive efficiency (): how much of the energy of the jet ends up in the vehicle body rather than being carried away as kinetic energy of the jet. cycle efficiency (): how efficiently the engine can accelerate the jet Even though overall energy efficiency is: for all jet engines the propulsive efficiency is highest as the exhaust jet velocity gets closer to the vehicle speed as this gives the smallest residual kinetic energy. For an airbreathing engine an exhaust velocity equal to the vehicle velocity, or a equal to one, gives zero thrust with no net momentum change. The formula for air-breathing engines moving at speed with an exhaust velocity , and neglecting fuel flow, is: And for a rocket: In addition to propulsive efficiency, another factor is cycle efficiency; a jet engine is a form of heat engine. Heat engine efficiency is determined by the ratio of temperatures reached in the engine to that exhausted at the nozzle. This has improved constantly over time as new materials have been introduced to allow higher maximum cycle temperatures. For example, composite materials, combining metals with ceramics, have been developed for HP turbine blades, which run at the maximum cycle temperature. The efficiency is also limited by the overall pressure ratio that can be achieved. Cycle efficiency is highest in rocket engines (~60+%), as they can achieve extremely high combustion temperatures. Cycle efficiency in turbojet and similar is nearer to 30%, due to much lower peak cycle temperatures. The combustion efficiency of most aircraft gas turbine engines at sea level takeoff conditions is almost 100%. It decreases nonlinearly to 98% at altitude cruise conditions. Air-fuel ratio ranges from 50:1 to 130:1. For any type of combustion chamber there is a rich and weak limit to the air-fuel ratio, beyond which the flame is extinguished. The range of air-fuel ratio between the rich and weak limits is reduced with an increase of air velocity. If the increasing air mass flow reduces the fuel ratio below certain value, flame extinction occurs. Consumption of fuel or propellant A closely related (but different) concept to energy efficiency is the rate of consumption of propellant mass. Propellant consumption in jet engines is measured by specific fuel consumption, specific impulse, or effective exhaust velocity. They all measure the same thing. Specific impulse and effective exhaust velocity are strictly proportional, whereas specific fuel consumption is inversely proportional to the others. For air-breathing engines such as turbojets, energy efficiency and propellant (fuel) efficiency are much the same thing, since the propellant is a fuel and the source of energy. In rocketry, the propellant is also the exhaust, and this means that a high energy propellant gives better propellant efficiency but can in some cases actually give lower energy efficiency. It can be seen in the table (just below) that the subsonic turbofans such as General Electric's CF6 turbofan use a lot less fuel to generate thrust for a second than did the Concorde's Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 turbojet. However, since energy is force times distance and the distance per second was greater for the Concorde, the actual power generated by the engine for the same amount of fuel was higher for the Concorde at Mach 2 than the CF6. Thus, the Concorde's engines were more efficient in terms of energy per mile. Thrust-to-weight ratio The thrust-to-weight ratio of jet engines with similar configurations varies with scale, but is mostly a function of engine construction technology. For a given engine, the lighter the engine, the better the thrust-to-weight is, the less fuel is used to compensate for drag due to the lift needed to carry the engine weight, or to accelerate the mass of the engine. As can be seen in the following table, rocket engines generally achieve much higher thrust-to-weight ratios than duct engines such as turbojet and turbofan engines. This is primarily because rockets almost universally use dense liquid or solid reaction mass which gives a much smaller volume and hence the pressurization system that supplies the nozzle is much smaller and lighter for the same performance. Duct engines have to deal with air which is two to three orders of magnitude less dense and this gives pressures over much larger areas, which in turn results in more engineering materials being needed to hold the engine together and for the air compressor. Comparison of types Propeller engines handle larger air mass flows, and give them smaller acceleration, than jet engines. Since the increase in air speed is small, at high flight speeds the thrust available to propeller-driven aeroplanes is small. However, at low speeds, these engines benefit from relatively high propulsive efficiency. On the other hand, turbojets accelerate a much smaller mass flow of intake air and burned fuel, but they then reject it at very high speed. When a de Laval nozzle is used to accelerate a hot engine exhaust, the outlet velocity may be locally supersonic. Turbojets are particularly suitable for aircraft travelling at very high speeds. Turbofans have a mixed exhaust consisting of the bypass air and the hot combustion product gas from the core engine. The amount of air that bypasses the core engine compared to the amount flowing into the engine determines what is called a turbofan's bypass ratio (BPR). While a turbojet engine uses all of the engine's output to produce thrust in the form of a hot high-velocity exhaust gas jet, a turbofan's cool low-velocity bypass air yields between 30% and 70% of the total thrust produced by a turbofan system. The net thrust (FN) generated by a turbofan can also be expanded as: where: Rocket engines have extremely high exhaust velocity and thus are best suited for high speeds (hypersonic) and great altitudes. At any given throttle, the thrust and efficiency of a rocket motor improves slightly with increasing altitude (because the back-pressure falls thus increasing net thrust at the nozzle exit plane), whereas with a turbojet (or turbofan) the falling density of the air entering the intake (and the hot gases leaving the nozzle) causes the net thrust to decrease with increasing altitude. Rocket engines are more efficient than even scramjets above roughly Mach 15. Altitude and speed With the exception of scramjets, jet engines, deprived of their inlet systems can only accept air at around half the speed of sound. The inlet system's job for transonic and supersonic aircraft is to slow the air and perform some of the compression. The limit on maximum altitude for engines is set by flammability – at very high altitudes the air becomes too thin to burn, or after compression, too hot. For turbojet engines altitudes of about 40 km appear to be possible, whereas for ramjet engines 55 km may be achievable. Scramjets may theoretically manage 75 km. Rocket engines of course have no upper limit. At more modest altitudes, flying faster compresses the air at the front of the engine, and this greatly heats the air. The upper limit is usually thought to be about Mach 5–8, as above about Mach 5.5, the atmospheric nitrogen tends to react due to the high temperatures at the inlet and this consumes significant energy. The exception to this is scramjets which may be able to achieve about Mach 15 or more, as they avoid slowing the air, and rockets again have no particular speed limit. Noise The noise emitted by a jet engine has many sources. These include, in the case of gas turbine engines, the fan, compressor, combustor, turbine and propelling jet/s. The propelling jet produces jet noise which is caused by the violent mixing action of the high speed jet with the surrounding air. In the subsonic case the noise is produced by eddies and in the supersonic case by Mach waves. The sound power radiated from a jet varies with the jet velocity raised to the eighth power for velocities up to 2,000 ft/sec and varies with the velocity cubed above 2,000 ft/sec. Thus, the lower speed exhaust jets emitted from engines such as high bypass turbofans are the quietest, whereas the fastest jets, such as rockets, turbojets, and ramjets, are the loudest. For commercial jet aircraft the jet noise has reduced from the turbojet through bypass engines to turbofans as a result of a progressive reduction in propelling jet velocities. For example, the JT8D, a bypass engine, has a jet velocity of 1450 ft/sec whereas the JT9D, a turbofan, has jet velocities of 885 ft/sec (cold) and 1190 ft/sec (hot). The advent of the turbofan replaced the very distinctive jet noise with another sound known as "buzz saw" noise. The origin is the shockwaves originating at the supersonic fan blades at takeoff thrust. Cooling Adequate heat transfer away from the working parts of the jet engine is critical to maintaining strength of engine materials and ensuring long life for the engine. After 2016, research is ongoing in the development of transpiration cooling techniques to jet engine components. Operation In a jet engine, each major rotating section usually has a separate gauge devoted to monitoring its speed of rotation. Depending on the make and model, a jet engine may have an N gauge that monitors the low-pressure compressor section and/or fan speed in turbofan engines. The gas generator section may be monitored by an N gauge, while triple spool engines may have an N gauge as well. Each engine section rotates at many thousands RPM. Their gauges therefore are calibrated in percent of a nominal speed rather than actual RPM, for ease of display and interpretation. See also Air turboramjet Balancing machine Components of jet engines Rocket engine nozzle Rocket turbine engine Spacecraft propulsion Thrust reversal Turbojet development at the RAE Variable cycle
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rocket engines they power fireworks, model rocketry, spaceflight, and military missiles. Jet engines have propelled high speed cars, particularly drag racers, with the all-time record held by a rocket car. A turbofan powered car, ThrustSSC, currently holds the land speed record. Jet engine designs are frequently modified for non-aircraft applications, as industrial gas turbines or marine powerplants. These are used in electrical power generation, for powering water, natural gas, or oil pumps, and providing propulsion for ships and locomotives. Industrial gas turbines can create up to 50,000 shaft horsepower. Many of these engines are derived from older military turbojets such as the Pratt & Whitney J57 and J75 models. There is also a derivative of the P&W JT8D low-bypass turbofan that creates up to 35,000 Horse power (HP) . Jet engines are also sometimes developed into, or share certain components such as engine cores, with turboshaft and turboprop engines, which are forms of gas turbine engines that are typically used to power helicopters and some propeller-driven aircraft. Types of jet engine There are a large number of different types of jet engines, all of which achieve forward thrust from the principle of jet propulsion. Airbreathing Commonly aircraft are propelled by airbreathing jet engines. Most airbreathing jet engines that are in use are turbofan jet engines, which give good efficiency at speeds just below the speed of sound. Turbine powered Gas turbines are rotary engines that extract energy from a flow of combustion gas. They have an upstream compressor coupled to a downstream turbine with a combustion chamber in-between. In aircraft engines, those three core components are often called the "gas generator". There are many different variations of gas turbines, but they all use a gas generator system of some type. Turbojet A turbojet engine is a gas turbine engine that works by compressing air with an inlet and a compressor (axial, centrifugal, or both), mixing fuel with the compressed air, burning the mixture in the combustor, and then passing the hot, high pressure air through a turbine and a nozzle. The compressor is powered by the turbine, which extracts energy from the expanding gas passing through it. The engine converts internal energy in the fuel to kinetic energy in the exhaust, producing thrust. All the air ingested by the inlet is passed through the compressor, combustor, and turbine, unlike the turbofan engine described below. Turbofan Turbofans differ from turbojets in that they have an additional fan at the front of the engine, which accelerates air in a duct bypassing the core gas turbine engine. Turbofans are the dominant engine type for medium and long-range airliners. Turbofans are usually more efficient than turbojets at subsonic speeds, but at high speeds their large frontal area generates more drag. Therefore, in supersonic flight, and in military and other aircraft where other considerations have a higher priority than fuel efficiency, fans tend to be smaller or absent. Because of these distinctions, turbofan engine designs are often categorized as low-bypass or high-bypass, depending upon the amount of air which bypasses the core of the engine. Low-bypass turbofans have a bypass ratio of around 2:1 or less. Ram compression Ram compression jet engines are airbreathing engines similar to gas turbine engines and they both follow the Brayton cycle. Gas turbine and ram powered engines differ, however, in how they compress the incoming airflow. Whereas gas turbine engines use axial or centrifugal compressors to compress incoming air, ram engines rely only on air compressed through the inlet or diffuser. A ram engine thus requires a substantial initial forward airspeed before it can function. Ram powered engines are considered the most simple type of air breathing jet engine because they can contain no moving parts. Ramjets are ram powered jet engines. They are mechanically simple, and operate less efficiently than turbojets except at very high speeds. Scramjets differ mainly in the fact that the air does not slow to subsonic speeds. Rather, they use supersonic combustion. They are efficient at even higher speed. Very few have been built or flown. Non-continuous combustion Other types of jet propulsion Rocket The rocket engine uses the same basic physical principles of thrust as a form of reaction engine, but is distinct from the jet engine in that it does not require atmospheric air to provide oxygen; the rocket carries all components of the reaction mass. However some definitions treat it as a form of jet propulsion. Because rockets do not breathe air, this allows them to operate at arbitrary altitudes and in space. This type of engine is used for launching satellites, space exploration and manned access, and permitted landing on the moon in 1969. Rocket engines are used for high altitude flights, or anywhere where very high accelerations are needed since rocket engines themselves have a very high thrust-to-weight ratio. However, the high exhaust speed and the heavier, oxidizer-rich propellant results in far more propellant use than turbofans. Even so, at extremely high speeds they become energy-efficient. An approximate equation for the net thrust of a rocket engine is: Where is the net thrust, is the specific impulse, is a standard gravity, is the propellant flow in kg/s, is the cross-sectional area at the exit of the exhaust nozzle, and is the atmospheric pressure. Hybrid Combined-cycle engines simultaneously use two or more different principles of jet propulsion. Water jet A water jet, or pump-jet, is a marine propulsion system that utilizes a jet of water. The mechanical arrangement may be a ducted propeller with nozzle, or a centrifugal compressor and nozzle. The pump-jet must be driven by a separate engine such as a Diesel or gas turbine. General physical principles All jet engines are reaction engines that generate thrust by emitting a jet of fluid rearwards at relatively high speed. The forces on the inside of the engine needed to create this jet give a strong thrust on the engine which pushes the craft forwards. Jet engines make their jet from propellant stored in tanks that are attached to the engine (as in a 'rocket') as well as in duct engines (those commonly used on aircraft) by ingesting an external fluid (very typically air) and expelling it at higher speed. Propelling nozzle The propelling nozzle is the key component of all jet engines as it creates the exhaust jet. Propelling nozzles turn internal and pressure energy into high velocity kinetic energy. The total pressure and temperature don't change through the nozzle but their static values drop as the gas speeds up. The velocity of the air entering the nozzle is low, about Mach 0.4, a prerequisite for minimizing pressure losses in the duct leading to the nozzle. The temperature entering the nozzle may be as low as sea level ambient for a fan nozzle in the cold air at cruise altitudes. It may be as high as the 1000K exhaust gas temperature for a supersonic afterburning engine or 2200K with afterburner lit. The pressure entering the nozzle may vary from 1.5 times the pressure outside the nozzle, for a single stage fan, to 30 times for the fastest manned aircraft at mach 3+. Convergent nozzles are only able to accelerate the gas up to local sonic (Mach 1) conditions. To reach high flight speeds, even greater exhaust velocities are required, and so a convergent-divergent nozzle is often used on high-speed aircraft. The nozzle thrust is highest if the static pressure of the gas reaches the ambient value as it leaves the nozzle. This only happens if the nozzle exit area is the correct value for the nozzle pressure ratio (npr). Since the npr changes with engine thrust setting and flight speed this is seldom the case. Also at supersonic speeds the divergent area is less than required to give complete internal expansion to ambient pressure as a trade-off with external body drag. Whitford gives the F-16 as an example. Other underexpanded examples were the XB-70 and SR-71. The nozzle size, together with the area of the turbine nozzles, determines the operating pressure of the compressor. Thrust Energy efficiency relating to aircraft jet engines This overview highlights where energy losses occur in complete jet aircraft powerplants or engine installations. A jet engine at rest, as on a test stand, sucks in fuel and generates thrust. How well it does this is judged by how much fuel it uses and what force is required to restrain it. This is a measure of its efficiency. If something deteriorates inside the engine (known as performance deterioration) it will be less efficient and this will show when the fuel produces less thrust. If a change is made to an internal part which allows the air/combustion gases to flow more smoothly the engine will be more efficient and use less fuel. A standard definition is used to assess how different things change engine efficiency and also to allow comparisons to be made between different engines. This definition is called specific fuel consumption, or how much fuel is needed to produce one unit of thrust. For example, it will be known for a particular engine design that if some bumps in a bypass duct are smoothed out the air will flow more smoothly giving a pressure loss reduction of x% and y% less fuel will be needed to get the take-off thrust, for example. This understanding comes under the engineering discipline Jet engine performance. How efficiency is affected by forward speed and by supplying energy to aircraft systems is mentioned later. The efficiency of the engine is controlled primarily by the operating conditions inside the engine which are the pressure produced by the compressor and the temperature of the combustion gases at the first set of rotating turbine blades. The pressure is the highest air pressure in the engine. The turbine rotor temperature is not the highest in the engine but is the highest at which energy transfer takes place ( higher temperatures occur in the combustor). The above pressure and temperature are shown on a Thermodynamic cycle diagram. The efficiency is further modified by how smoothly the air and the combustion gases flow through the engine, how well the flow is aligned (known as incidence angle) with the moving and stationary passages in the compressors and turbines. Non-optimum angles, as well as non-optimum passage and blade shapes can cause thickening and separation of Boundary layers and formation of Shock waves. It is important to slow the flow (lower speed means less pressure losses or Pressure drop) when it travels through ducts connecting the different parts. How well the individual components contribute to turning fuel into thrust is quantified by measures like efficiencies for the compressors, turbines and combustor and pressure losses for the ducts. These are shown as lines on a Thermodynamic cycle diagram. The engine efficiency, or thermal efficiency, known as . is dependent on the Thermodynamic cycle parameters, maximum pressure and temperature, and on component efficiencies, , and and duct pressure losses. The engine needs compressed air for itself just to run successfully. This air comes from its own compressor and is called secondary air. It does not contribute to making thrust so makes the engine less efficient. It is used to preserve the mechanical integrity of the engine, to stop parts overheating and to prevent oil escaping from bearings for example. Only some of this air taken from the compressors returns to the turbine flow to contribute to thrust production. Any reduction in the amount needed improves the engine efficiency. Again, it will be known for a particular engine design that a reduced requirement for cooling flow of x% will reduce the specific fuel consumption by y%. In other words, less fuel will be required to give take-off thrust, for example. The engine is more efficient. All of the above considerations are basic to the engine running on its own and, at the same time, doing nothing useful, i.e. it is not moving an aircraft or supplying energy for the aircraft's electrical, hydraulic and air systems. In the aircraft the engine gives away some of its thrust-producing potential, or fuel, to power these systems. These requirements, which cause installation losses, reduce its efficiency. It is using some fuel that does not contribute to the engine's thrust. Finally, when the aircraft is flying the propelling jet itself contains wasted kinetic energy after it has left the engine. This is quantified by the term propulsive, or Froude, efficiency and may be reduced by redesigning the engine to give it bypass flow and a lower speed for the propelling jet, for example as a turboprop or turbofan engine. At the same time forward speed increases the by increasing the Overall pressure ratio. The overall efficiency of the engine at flight speed is defined as . The at flight speed depends on how well the intake compresses the air before it is handed over to the engine compressors. The intake compression ratio, which can be as high as 32:1 at Mach 3, adds to that of the engine compressor to give the Overall pressure ratio and for the Thermodynamic cycle. How well it does this is defined by its pressure recovery or measure of the losses in the intake. Mach 3 manned flight has provided an interesting illustration of how these losses can increase dramatically in an instant. The North American XB-70 Valkyrie and Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird at Mach 3 each had pressure recoveries of about 0.8, due to relatively low losses during the compression process, i.e. through systems of multiple shocks. During an 'unstart' the efficient shock system would be replaced by a very inefficient single shock beyond the inlet and an intake pressure recovery of about 0.3 and a correspondingly low pressure ratio. The propelling nozzle at speeds above about Mach 2 usually has extra internal thrust losses because the exit area is not big enough as a trade-off with external afterbody drag. Although a bypass engine improves propulsive efficiency it incurs losses of its own inside the engine itself. Machinery has to be added to transfer energy from the gas generator to a bypass airflow. The low loss from the propelling nozzle of a turbojet is added to with extra losses due to inefficiencies in the added turbine and fan. These may be included in a transmission, or transfer, efficiency . However, these losses are more than made up by the improvement in propulsive efficiency. There are also extra pressure losses in the bypass duct and an extra propelling nozzle. With the advent of turbofans with their loss-making machinery what goes on inside the engine has been separated by Bennett, for
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Tepper, American author and poet (died 2016) 1929 – Gaby Tanguy, French swimmer (d. 1981) 1930 – Guy Béart, Egyptian-French singer-songwriter (died 2015) 1930 – Michael Bilirakis, American lawyer and politician 1930 – Bert Rechichar, American football defensive back and kicker (died 2019) 1931 – Fergus Gordon Kerr, Scottish Roman Catholic priest of the English Dominican Province 1931 – Norm Sherry, American baseball player, manager, and coach (died 2021) 1932 – John Chilton, English trumpet player and composer (died 2016) 1932 – Max McGee, American football player and sportscaster (died 2007) 1932 – Dick Thornburgh, American lawyer and politician, 76th United States Attorney General (died 2020) 1933 – Julian A. Brodsky, American businessman 1934 – Tomás Eloy Martínez, Argentine journalist (died 2010) 1934 – Katherine D. Ortega, 38th Treasurer of the United States 1934 – Donald M. Payne, American educator and politician (died 2012) 1935 – Carl Epting Mundy Jr., American general (died 2014) 1935 – Lynn Wyatt, American socialite and philanthropist 1936 – Yasuo Fukuda, Japanese politician, 91st Prime Minister of Japan 1936 – Buddy Merrill, American guitarist (d. 2021) 1936 – Jerry Norman, American sinologist and linguist (died 2012) 1936 – Venkataraman Subramanya, Indian-Australian cricketer 1937 – Richard Bryan, American lawyer and politician, 25th Governor of Nevada 1937 – John Daly, English director, producer, and screenwriter (died 2008) 1938 – Cynthia Enloe, American author and academic 1938 – Tony Jackson, English singer and bass player (died 2003) 1939 – William Bell, American singer-songwriter 1939 – Ali Khamenei, Iranian cleric and politician, 2nd Supreme Leader of Iran 1939 – Lido Vieri, Italian football manager and football player 1939 – Denise LaSalle, American singer-songwriter and producer (died 2018) 1939 – Ruth Perry, president of Liberia (died 2017) 1939 – Shringar Nagaraj, Indian actor and producer (died 2013) 1939 – Corin Redgrave, English actor and activist (died 2010) 1939 – Mariele Ventre, Italian singer and conductor (died 1995) 1941 – Desmond Dekker, Jamaican singer-songwriter (died 2006) 1941 – Dag Solstad, Norwegian author and playwright 1941 – Hans Wiegel, Dutch journalist and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands 1941 – Sir George Young, 6th Baronet, English banker and politician, Secretary of State for Transport 1942 – Margaret Court, Australian tennis player and minister 1943 – Reinaldo Arenas, Cuban-American author, poet, and playwright (died 1990) 1943 – Vernon Bogdanor, English political scientist and academic 1943 – Jimmy Johnson, American football player and coach 1944 – Angharad Rees, English-Welsh actress and jewellery designer (died 2012) 1946 – Louise Fréchette, Canadian civil servant and diplomat, Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations 1946 – Barbara Lee, American politician 1946 – Ron Yary, American football player 1947 – Don Burke, Australian television host and producer 1947 – Alexis Herman, American businesswoman and politician, 23rd United States Secretary of Labor 1947 – Assata Shakur, American-Cuban criminal and activist 1948 – Rubén Blades, Panamanian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1948 – Lars Lagerbäck, Swedish footballer and manager 1948 – Kevin McKenzie, South African cricketer 1948 – Pinchas Zukerman, Israeli violinist and conductor 1949 – Alan Fitzgerald, American guitarist and keyboardist 1950 – Pierre Paradis, Canadian lawyer and politician 1950 – Dennis Priestley, English darts player 1950 – Frances Spalding, English historian and academic 1950 – Tom Terrell, American journalist and photographer (died 2007) 1951 – Jean-Luc Mongrain, Canadian journalist 1951 – Che Rosli, Malaysian politician 1952 – Stewart Copeland, American drummer and songwriter 1952 – Richard Egielski, American author and illustrator 1952 – Marc Esposito, French director and screenwriter 1952 – Ken McEwan, South African cricketer 1953 – Douglas J. Feith, American lawyer and politician, Under Secretary of Defense for Policy 1954 – Jeanette Mott Oxford, American politician 1955 – Susan Wheeler, American poet and academic 1955 – Saw Swee Leong, Malaysian badminton player 1956 – Tony Kushner, American playwright and screenwriter 1957 – Faye Grant, American actress 1957 – Alexandra Marinina, Ukrainian-Russian colonel and author 1958 – Mick Cornett, American politician 1958 – Michael Flatley, American-Irish dancer and choreographer 1958 – Mike Rogers, American politician 1959 – Gary Anderson, South African-American football player 1959 – James MacMillan, Scottish composer and conductor 1959 – Zoran Jolevski, Macedonian economist, politician, and diplomat, Macedonian Ambassador to the United States 1959 – Jürgen Ligi, Estonian economist and politician, 25th Estonian Minister of Defence 1960 – Terry Pendleton, American baseball player and coach 1962 – Grigory Leps, Russian singer-songwriter 1963 – Phoebe Cates, American actress 1963 – Srečko Katanec, Slovenian footballer and coach 1963 – Mikael Pernfors, Swedish tennis player 1964 – Phil Hellmuth, American poker player 1964 – Miguel Induráin, Spanish cyclist 1965 – Michel Desjoyeaux, French sailor 1965 – Claude Lemieux, Canadian ice hockey player 1965 – Sherri Stoner, American actress, producer, and screenwriter 1966 – Jyrki Lumme, Finnish ice hockey player 1967 – Will Ferrell, American actor, comedian, and producer 1968 – Dhanraj Pillay, Indian field hockey player and manager 1968 – Barry Sanders, American football player 1968 – Larry Sanger, American philosopher and businessman, co-founded Wikipedia and Citizendium 1968 – Michael Searle, Australian rugby league player and businessman 1968 – Robert Sherman, American songwriter and businessman 1968 – Olga Souza, Brazilian singer and dancer 1969 – Jules De Martino, English singer-songwriter and bass player 1969 – Kathryn Harby-Williams, Australian netball player and sportscaster 1970 – Raimonds Miglinieks, Latvian basketball player and coach 1970 – Apichatpong Weerasethakul, Thai director, producer, and screenwriter 1971 – Corey Feldman, American actor 1971 – Ed Kowalczyk, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1972 – Ben Cahoon, American-Canadian football player and coach 1972 – François Drolet, Canadian speed skater 1973 – Shaun Pollock, South African cricketer 1973 – Graham Robertson, American director and producer 1973 – Tim Ryan, American politician 1974 – Jeremy Enigk, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1974 – Maret Maripuu, Estonian politician, Estonian Minister of Social Affairs 1974 – Ryan McCombs, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1974 – Wendell Sailor, Australian rugby player 1975 – Bas Leinders, Belgian race car driver 1976 – Tomasz Kuchar, Polish race car driver 1976 – Carlos Humberto Paredes, Paraguayan footballer 1976 – Anna Smashnova, Belarusian-Israeli tennis player 1977 – Bryan Budd, Northern Ireland-born English soldier, Victoria Cross recipient (died 2006) 1979 – Chris Mihm, American basketball player 1979 – Mai Nakamura, Japanese swimmer 1979 – Kim Rhode, American sport shooter 1979 – Nathan Rogers, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1979 – Konstantin Skrylnikov, Russian footballer 1980 – Adam Scott, Australian golfer 1981 – Giuseppe Di Masi, Italian footballer 1981 – Robert Kranjec, Slovenian ski jumper 1981 – Zach Randolph, American basketball player 1981 – Vicente Rodríguez, Spanish footballer 1982 – André Greipel, German cyclist 1982 – Carli Lloyd, American soccer player 1982 – Michael Umaña, Costa Rican footballer 1983 – Katrina Kaif, British Indian actress and model 1983 – Duncan Keith, Canadian ice hockey player 1984 – Hayanari Shimoda, Japanese race car driver 1984 – Attila Szabó, Hungarian decathlete 1985 – Mārtiņš Kravčenko, Latvian basketball player 1986 – Dustin Boyd, Canadian ice hockey player 1986 – Misako Uno, Japanese actress, singer, and fashion designer 1987 – Mousa Dembélé, Belgian footballer 1987 – AnnaLynne McCord, American actress and producer 1987 – Knowshon Moreno, American football player 1988 – Sergio Busquets, Spanish footballer 1989 – Gareth Bale, Welsh footballer 1990 – Bureta Faraimo, New Zealand rugby league player 1990 – Wizkid, Nigerian singer and songwriter 1990 – Johann Zarco, French motorcycle racer 1991 – Nate Schmidt, American ice hockey player 1991 – Andros Townsend, English footballer 1996 – Daniel Pearson, English actor and presenter Deaths Pre-1600 784 – Fulrad, Frankish diplomat and saint (born 710) 851 – Sisenandus, Cordoban deacon and martyr (born c. 825) 866 – Irmgard, Frankish abbess 1212 – William de Brus, 3rd Lord of Annandale 1216 – Pope Innocent III (born 1160) 1324 – Emperor Go-Uda of Japan (born 1267) 1342 – Charles I of Hungary (born 1288) 1344 – An-Nasir Ahmad, Sultan of Egypt (born 1316) 1509 – João da Nova, Portuguese explorer (born 1460) 1546 – Anne Askew, English author and poet (born 1520) 1557 – Anne of Cleves, Queen consort of England (born 1515) 1576 – Isabella de' Medici, Italian noble (born 1542) 1601–1900 1647 – Masaniello, Italian rebel (born 1622) 1664 – Andreas Gryphius, German poet and playwright (born 1616) 1686 – John Pearson, English bishop and scholar (born 1612) 1691 – François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois, French politician, French Secretary of State for War (born 1641) 1729 – Johann David Heinichen, German composer and theorist (born 1683) 1747 – Giuseppe Crespi, Italian painter (born 1665) 1770 – Francis Cotes, English painter and academic (born 1726) 1796 – George Howard, English field marshal and politician (born 1718) 1831 – Louis Alexandre Andrault de Langeron, French-Russian general (born 1763) 1849 – Sarah Allen, African-American missionary for the African Methodist Episcopal Church (born 1764) 1868 – Dmitry Pisarev, Russian author and critic (born 1840) 1879 – Edward Deas Thomson, Scottish-Australian politician, 3rd Chief Secretary of New South Wales (born 1800) 1882 – Mary Todd Lincoln, First Lady of the United States 1861–1865 (born 1818) 1885 – Rosalía de Castro, Spanish poet (born 1837) 1886 – Ned Buntline, American journalist and author (born 1823) 1896 – Edmond
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was born and raised in Baltimore, Maryland. Some of his books said that he was born in Norfolk, Virginia although he later claimed that was a mistake; he attended high school at the Baltimore City College. Chalker earned a BA degree in English from Towson University in Towson, Maryland, where he was a theater critic for the school newspaper, The Towerlight. During 2003, Towson University named Chalker their Liberal Arts Alumnus of the Year. He received a Master of Arts in Liberal Studies from Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. Chalker intended to become a lawyer, but financial problems caused him to become a teacher instead. He taught history and geography in the Baltimore City Public Schools from 1966 to 1978, most notably at Baltimore City College and the now defunct Southwest Senior High School. Chalker lectured on science fiction and technology at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland, and numerous universities. Chalker was married in 1978 and had two children, David, a game designer, and Samantha, a computer security consultant. Chalker's hobbies included esoteric audio, travel, and working on science-fiction convention committees. He also had a great interest in ferryboats; at his fiancée's suggestion, their marriage was performed on the Roaring Bull boat, part of the Millersburg Ferry, in the middle of the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania. Science fiction Chalker joined the Washington Science Fiction Association during 1958, and during 1963 he and two friends founded the Baltimore Science Fiction Society. Chalker attended every World Science Fiction Convention, except one, from 1965 until 2004. He published an amateur SF journal, Mirage, from 1960 to 1971 (a finalist nominee for the 1963 Hugo Award for Best Fanzine), producing ten issues. Another journal, Interjection, was published 1968–1987 in association with the Fantasy Amateur Press Association. Chalker also initiated a publishing house, Mirage Press, Ltd., for releasing nonfiction and bibliographic works concerning science fiction and fantasy. Chalker's awards included the Daedalus Award (1983), The Gold Medal of the West Coast Review of Books (1984), Skylark Award (1980), and the Hamilton-Brackett Memorial Award (1979). He was twice a nominee for the John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer and for the Hugo Award twice. Chalker was posthumously awarded the Phoenix Award by the Southern Fandom Confederation on April 9, 2005. Chalker was a three-term treasurer of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America. Chalker was also the co-author (with Mark Owings) of The Science Fantasy Publishers (third edition during 1991, updated annually), published by Mirage Press, Ltd, a bibliographic guide to genre small press publishers which was a Hugo Award nominee during 1992. The Maryland Young Writers Contest, sponsored by the
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an American science fiction author. Chalker was also a Baltimore City Schools history teacher in Maryland for 12 years, retiring during 1978 to write full-time. He also was a member of the Washington Science Fiction Association and was involved in the founding of the Baltimore Science Fiction Society. Career and family life Chalker was born and raised in Baltimore, Maryland. Some of his books said that he was born in Norfolk, Virginia although he later claimed that was a mistake; he attended high school at the Baltimore City College. Chalker earned a BA degree in English from Towson University in Towson, Maryland, where he was a theater critic for the school newspaper, The Towerlight. During 2003, Towson University named Chalker their Liberal Arts Alumnus of the Year. He received a Master of Arts in Liberal Studies from Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. Chalker intended to become a lawyer, but financial problems caused him to become a teacher instead. He taught history and geography in the Baltimore City Public Schools from 1966 to 1978, most notably at Baltimore City College and the now defunct Southwest Senior High School. Chalker lectured on science fiction and technology at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland, and numerous universities. Chalker was married in 1978 and had two children, David, a game designer, and Samantha, a computer security consultant. Chalker's hobbies included esoteric audio, travel, and working on science-fiction convention committees. He also had a great interest in ferryboats; at his fiancée's suggestion, their marriage was performed on the Roaring
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time edited Kalki, the journal of the Cabell Society. In his works of science fiction, Blish developed many ideas and terms which have influenced other writers and on occasion have been adopted more widely, such as faster than light communication via the dirac communicator, introduced in the short story "Beep" (1954). The dirac is comparable to Ursula K. Le Guin's ansible. Blish is also credited with coining the term gas giant, first used in the story "Solar Plexus", collected in the anthology Beyond Human Ken, edited by Judith Merril. The story was originally published in 1941, but did not contain the term. Blish reworked the story, changing the description of a large magnetic field to "a magnetic field of some strength nearby, one that didn't belong to the invisible gas giant revolving half a million miles away". Honors, awards and recognition The British Science Fiction Foundation inaugurated the James Blish Award for science fiction criticism in 1977, recognizing Brian W. Aldiss. The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted him in 2002. Awards and nominations 1959 Hugo Award for Best Novel, for A Case of Conscience. 1965 Nebula Award nomination for Best Novelette, for "The Shipwrecked Hotel", with Norman L. Knight. 1968 Nebula Award nomination for Best Novel, for Black Easter. 1970 Hugo Award nomination for Best Novella, for We All Die Naked. 1970 Nebula Award nomination for Best Novella, for A Style in Treason. Posthumous Awards and nominations 2001 [1951] Retro-Hugo Award nomination for Best Novelette, for "Okie". 2004 [1954] Retro-Hugo Award for Best Novella, for A Case of Conscience. 2004 [1954] Retro-Hugo Award for Best Novelette, for "Earthman, Come Home". Guest of Honor 1960 Guest of Honor, 18th World Science Fiction Convention. 1970 Guest of Honor, Scicon 70. Bibliography Blish's work was published by a variety of publishers in the United Kingdom and the United States, often with variations between editions, and with different titles. Blish also expanded and re-published his older work on numerous occasions. His works continued to be re-published after his death. Note: Very few of Blish's first editions were assigned ISBN numbers. Short fiction and novellas (1935–1986) Novels published in complete form, or serialized, in fiction magazines are included for completeness, and to avoid confusion. Novelette, Novella, Novel. The Planeteer (1935–36) "Neptunian Refuge" (November 1935) "Mad Vision" (December 1935) "Pursuit into Nowhere" (January 1936) "Threat from Copernicus" (February 1936) "Trail of the Comet" (March 1936) "Bat-Shadow Shroud" (April 1936) Super Science Stories (1940) "Emergency Refueling" (March 1940) "Bequest of the Angel" (May 1940) "Sunken Universe" (May 1942),rewritten as "Surface Tension" (1952) Stirring Science Stories (1941) "Citadel of Thought" (February 1941) "Callistan Cabal" (April 1941) Science Fiction Quarterly (1941) "Weapon Out of Time" (April 1941) "When Anteros Came" (December 1941) Cosmic Stories (1941) "Phoenix Planet" (May 1941) "The Real Thrill" (July 1941) Future (1941–1953) "The Topaz Gate" (August 1941) "The Solar Comedy" (June 1942) "The Air Whale" (August 1942) "Struggle in the Womb" (May 1950) "The Secret People" (November 1950) "Elixir" (September 1951) "Testament of Andros" (January 1953) Astonishing Stories (1941) "Solar Plexus" (September 1941) Super Science and Fantastic Stories (1944) "The Bounding Crown" (December 1944) Science*Fiction (1946) "Knell", as by Arthur Lloyd Merlyn (January 1946) Astounding Science Fiction (1946–1957) "Chaos, Co-Ordinated" as by John MacDougal, with Robert A. W. Lowndes (October 1946) "Tiger Ride" with Damon Knight (October 1948) "Okie" (April 1950) "Bindlestiff" (December 1950) "Bridge" (February 1952) "Earthman, Come Home" (November 1953) "At Death's End" (May 1954) "One-Shot" (August 1955) "Tomb Tapper" (July 1956) Get Out of My Sky (January 1957),included in Get out of My Sky Panther ed. (1980) Startling Stories (1948) "Mistake Inside" (April 1948) Planet Stories (1948–1951) "Against the Stone Beasts" (August 1948) "Blackout in Cygni" (July 1951) Thrilling Wonder Stories (1948–1950) "No Winter, No Summer" as by Donald Laverty, with Damon Knight (October 1948) "The Weakness of RVOG" (February 1949),expanded as VOR (1958) "The Box" (April 1949) "The Homesteader" (June 1949) Let the Finder Beware (December 1949) "There Shall Be No Darkness" (April 1950),included in Get Out of My Sky Panther ed. (1980) Jungle Stories (1948) "Serpent's Fetish" (December 1948) Fantastic Story Quarterly (1950) "The Bore" (July 1950) Imagination (1951) "The Void Is My Coffin" (June 1951) Two Complete Science-Adventure Books (1951) The Warriors of Day (August 1951) Sargasso of Lost Cities (April 1953) Other Worlds Science Stores (1952) "Nightride and Sunrise" with Jerome Bixby (June 1952) Galaxy Science Fiction (1952–1970) "Surface Tension" (August 1952),collected in The Seedling Stars (1957) "Beep" (February 1954),expanded as The Quincunx of Time (1973) "The Writing of the Rat" (July 1956) "The Genius Heap" (August 1956) "On the Wall of the Lodge" with Virginia Kidd (June 1962) "The Shipwrecked Hotel" with Norman L. Knight, (August 1965),expanded as A Torrent of Faces (1967) "The Piper of Dis" with Norman L. Knight, (August 1966),expanded as A Torrent of Faces (1967) "Our Binary Brothers" (February 1969) "The City That Was the World" (July 1969) "A Style in Treason" (May 1970) The Day After Judgment (September 1970),collected in The Devil's Day (1990) "Darkside Crossing" (December 1970) "The Glitch" (June 1974) "The Art of the Sneeze" (November 1982) Dynamic Science Fiction (1953) "Turn of a Century" (March 1953) The Duplicated Man with Robert A. W. Lowndes (August 1953) Worlds of If (1953–1968) A Case of Conscience (September 1953),expanded as A Case of Conscience (1958) "The Thing in the Attic" (July 1954),collected in The Seedling Stars (1957) "Watershed" (May 1955),collected in The Seedling Stars (1957) "To Pay the Piper" (February 1956) Welcome to Mars (July 1966) Black Easter (August 1967),collected in The Devil's Day (1990) "Now That Man Is Gone" (November 1968) Star Science Fiction Stories (1953) "F.Y.I." (December 1953) The Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy (1953–1980) "First Strike" (June 1953) "The Book of Your Life" (March 1955) "With Malice to Come (3 vignettes)" (May 1955) "A Time to Survive" (February 1956),collected in The Seedling Stars Signet ed. (1959) "This Earth of Hours" (June 1959) "The Masks" (November 1959) "The Oath" (October 1960) "Who's in Charge Here?" (May 1962) "No Jokes on Mars" (October 1965) Midsummer Century (November 1982) Fantastic Universe (1955) "Translation" (March 1955) Infinity Science Fiction (1955–1957) "King of the Hill" (November 1955) "Sponge Dive" (June 1956) "Detour to the Stars" (December 1956) "Nor Iron Bars" (November 1957),expanded as Galactic Cluster (1959) Science Fiction Stories (1956) "A Work of Art" (July 1956) Science Fiction Adventures (1957) Two Worlds in Peril (February 1957) Amazing Stories (1960–61) … And All the Stars a Stage (June 1960) "And Some Were Savages" (November 1960) "A Dusk of Idols" (March 1961) Impulse (1966) "A Hero's Life" (March 1966) Analog (1967–68) "To Love Another" (April 1967),expanded as A Torrent of
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Laverty, John MacDougal, and Arthur Lloyd Merlyn. Life Blish was born on May 23, 1921, at East Orange, New Jersey. While in high school, Blish self-published a fanzine using a hectograph, called The Planeteer. The fanzine ran for six issues. Blish attended meetings of the Futurian Science Fiction Society in New York City during this period. Futurian members Damon Knight and Cyril M. Kornbluth became close friends. However, Blish's relationships with other members were often bitter. A personal target was fellow member Judith Merril, with whom he would debate politics. Merril would frequently dismiss Blish's self-description of being a "paper fascist". She wrote in Better to Have Loved (2002), "Of course [Blish] was not fascist, antisemitic, or any of those terrible things, but every time he used the phrase, I saw red." Blish studied microbiology at Rutgers University, graduating in 1942. He was drafted into Army service, and he served briefly as a medical laboratory technician. The United States Army discharged him for refusing orders to clean a grease trap in 1944. Following discharge, Blish entered Columbia University as a masters student of zoology. He did not complete the program, opting to write fiction full-time. In 1947, he married Virginia Kidd, a fellow Futurian. They divorced in 1963. Blish then married artist J. A. Lawrence in 1964, moving to England that same year. From 1962 to 1968, Blish worked for the Tobacco Institute, as a writer and critic. Much of his work for the institute went uncredited. Blish died on July 30, 1975 from complications related to lung cancer. He was buried in Holywell Cemetery, Oxford. The Bodleian Library at Oxford is the custodian of Blish's papers. The library also has a complete catalog of Blish's published works. Career Throughout the 1940s, Blish published most of his stories in the few pulp magazines still in circulation. His first story was sold to fellow Futurian Frederik Pohl for Super Science Stories (1940), called "Emergency Refueling". Other stories were published intermittently, but with little circulation. Blish's "Chaos, Co-Ordinated", co-written with Robert A. W. Lowndes, was sold to Astounding Science Fiction, appearing in the October 1946 issue, earning Blish national circulation for the first time. Pantropy (1942–1956) Blish was what Andrew Litpack called a "practical writer". He would revisit, revise, and often expand on previously written stories. An example is "Sunken Universe" published in Super Science Stories in 1942. The story reappeared in Galaxy Science Fiction as "Surface Tension", in an altered form in 1952. The premise emphasized Blish's understanding of microbiology, and featured microscopic humans engineered to live on a hostile planet's shallow pools of water. The story proved to be among Blish's more popular and was anthologized in the first volume of Robert Silverberg The Science Fiction Hall of Fame. It was also anthologized in The Big Book of Science Fiction (2016), edited by Ann and Jeff VanderMeer. The world of microscopic humans continued in "The Thing in the Attic" in 1954, and "Watershed" the following year. The fourth entry, "A Time to Survive", was published by The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction in 1957. The stories were collected, edited together, and published as the fix-up The Seedling Stars (1956), by Gnome Press. John Clute said of all of Blish's "deeply felt work" explored "confronting the Faustian (or Frankensteinian) man". Cities in Flight (1950–1958) The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction asserts that it was not until the 1950s, and the Okie sequence of stories beginning their run, "did it become clear [Blish] would become a [science fiction] writer of unusual depth". The stories were loosely based on the Okie migration following the Dust Bowl of the 1930s, and were influenced by Oswald Spengler's two-part Der Untergang des Abendlandes (The Decline of the West). The stories detail the life of the Okies, humans who migrate throughout space looking for work in vast city-ships, powered by spindizzies, a type of anti-gravity engine. The premise and plot reflected Blish's feelings on the state of western civilization, and his personal politics. The first two stories, "Okie", and "Bindlestiff", were published in 1950, by Astounding. "Sargasso of Lost Cities" appeared in Two Complete Science-Adventure Books in April 1953. "Earthman, Come Home" followed a few months later, published by Astounding. In 1955, Blish collected the four stories together into an omnibus titled Earthman, Come Home, published by Putnam. More stories followed: In 1956, They Shall Have Stars, which edited together "Bridge" and "At Death’s End", and in 1958, Blish published The Triumph of Time. Four years later, he published a new Okies novel, A Life for the Stars. The Okies sequence was edited together and published as Cities In Flight (1970). Clute notes, "the brilliance of Cities in Flight does not lie in the assemblage of its parts, but in the momentum of the ideas embodied in it (albeit sometimes obscurely)." After Such Knowledge (1958–1971) Blish continued to rework older stories, and did so for one of his best known works, A Case of Conscience (1958). The novel originated as a novella, originally published in an issue of If, in 1953. The story follows a Jesuit priest, Ramon Ruiz-Sanchez, who visits the planet Lithia as a technical member of an expedition. While on the planet they discover a race of bipedal reptilians that have perfected morality in what Ruiz-Sanchez says is "the absence of God", and theological complications ensue. The book is one of the first major works in the genre to explore religion and its implications. It was the first of a series including Doctor Mirabilis (1964) and the two-part story Black Easter (1968), and The Day After Judgment (1971). The latter two were collected as The Devil's Day (1980). An omnibus of all four entries in the series was published by Legend in 1991, titled After Such Knowledge. A Case of Conscience won the 1959 Hugo Award for Best Novel, and was collected as part of Library of America’s omnibus American Science Fiction: Five Classic Novels 1956-1958. Star Trek (1967–1977) Blish was commissioned by Bantam Books to adapt episodes of Star Trek. The adapted short stories were generally based on draft scripts, and contained differing plot elements, and situations present in the aired television episodes. The stories were collected into twelve volumes, and published as a title series of the same name from 1967 to 1977. The adaptations were largely written by Blish; however, his declining health during this period proved problematic. His wife, J. A. Lawrence, wrote a number of installments; however, her work remained uncredited until the final volume, Star Trek 12, published in 1977, two years after Blish's death. The first original novel for adults based on the television series, Spock Must Die! (1970), was also written by Blish, and he planned to release more. According to Lawrence, two episodes featuring popular character Harry Mudd, "I, Mudd" and "Mudd's Women", were held back by Blish for adaptation to be included in the follow-up to Spock Must Die!. However, Blish died before a novel could be completed. Lawrence did eventually adapt the two episodes, as Mudd's Angels (1978), which included an original novella The Business, as Usual, During Altercations by Lawrence. In her introduction to Star Trek 12, Lawrence states that Blish "did indeed write" adaptations of the two episodes. The introduction to Mudd's Angels acknowledges this, stating that Blish left the two stories in various stages of completion and they were finished by Lawrence; Blish does not receive author credit on the book. Blish credited his financial stability later in life to the Star Trek commission and the advance he received for Spock Must Die!. Literary criticism and legacy Blish was among the first literary critics of science fiction, and he judged works in the genre by the standards applied to "serious" literature. He took to task his fellow authors for deficiencies, such as bad grammar and a misunderstanding of scientific concepts, and the magazine editors, who accepted and published such material without editorial intervention. His critiques were published in "fanzines" in the 1950s under the pseudonym William Atheling Jr. The essays were collected in The Issue at Hand (1964) and More Issues at Hand (1970). Reviewing The Issue at Hand, Algis Budrys said that Atheling had, along with Damon Knight, "transformed the reviewer's trade in this field". He described the persona of Atheling as "acidulous, assertive, categorical, conscientious and occasionally idiosyncratic". Blish was a fan of the works of James Branch Cabell, and for a time edited Kalki, the journal of the Cabell Society. In his works of science fiction, Blish developed many ideas and terms which have influenced other writers and on occasion have been adopted more widely, such as faster than light communication via the dirac communicator, introduced in the short story "Beep" (1954). The dirac is comparable to Ursula K. Le Guin's ansible. Blish is also credited with coining the term gas giant, first used in the story "Solar Plexus", collected in the anthology Beyond Human Ken, edited by Judith Merril. The story was originally published in 1941, but did not contain the term. Blish reworked the story, changing the description of a large magnetic field to "a magnetic field of some strength nearby, one that didn't belong to the invisible gas giant revolving half a million miles away". Honors, awards and recognition The British Science Fiction Foundation inaugurated the James Blish Award for science fiction criticism in 1977, recognizing Brian W. Aldiss. The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted him in 2002. Awards and nominations 1959 Hugo Award for Best Novel, for A Case of Conscience. 1965 Nebula Award nomination for Best Novelette, for "The Shipwrecked Hotel", with Norman L. Knight. 1968 Nebula
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retain control of it. On June 1, 1812, Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war, stating that the United States could no longer tolerate Britain's "state of war against the United States". The declaration of war was passed along sectional and party lines, with opposition to the declaration coming from Federalists and from some Democratic-Republicans in the Northeast. In the years prior to the war, Jefferson and Madison had reduced the size of the military, leaving the country with a military force consisting mostly of poorly trained militia members. Madison asked Congress to quickly put the country "into an armor and an attitude demanded by the crisis," specifically recommending expansion of the army and navy. Military action Madison and his advisers initially believed the war would be a quick American victory, while the British were occupied fighting in the Napoleonic Wars. Madison ordered an invasion of Canada at Detroit, designed to defeat British control around American held Fort Niagara and destroy the British supply lines from Montreal. These actions would give leverage for British concessions on the Atlantic high seas. Madison believed state militias would rally to the flag and invade Canada, but the governors in the Northeast failed to cooperate, and the militias either sat out the war or refused to leave their respective states. As a result, Madison's first Canadian campaign ended in failure. On August 16, Major General William Hull surrendered to British and Native American forces at Detroit. On October 13, a separate force from the United States was defeated at Queenton Heights. Commanding General Henry Dearborn, hampered by mutinous New England infantry, retreated to winter quarters near Albany, after failing to destroy Montreal's vulnerable British supply lines. Lacking adequate revenue to fund the war, the Madison administration was forced to rely on high-interest loans furnished by bankers based in New York City and Philadelphia. In leading up to the 1812 presidential election, held during the early stages of the War of 1812, the poorly-attended 1812 Democratic-Republican congressional caucus met in May 1812, and Madison was re-nominated without opposition. A dissident group of New York Democratic-Republicans nominated DeWitt Clinton, the Lieutenant Governor of New York and the nephew of recently deceased Vice President George Clinton, to oppose Madison in the 1812 election. This faction of Democratic-Republicans hoped to unseat the president by forging a coalition among Republicans opposed to the coming war, Democratic-Republicans angry with Madison for not moving more decisively toward war, northerners weary of the Virginia dynasty and southern control of the White House, and disgruntled New Englanders who wanted almost anyone over Madison. Dismayed about their prospects of beating Madison, a group of top Federalists met with Clinton's supporters to discuss a unification strategy. Difficult as it was for them to join forces, they nominated Clinton for President and Jared Ingersoll, a Philadelphia lawyer, for vice president. Hoping to shore up his support in the Northeast, where the War of 1812 was unpopular, Madison selected Governor Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts as his running mate. Despite the maneuverings of Clinton and the Federalists, Madison won re-election, though by the narrowest margin of any election since the election of 1800. He received 128 electoral votes to 89 for Clinton. Federalists made gains in most states outside of the South, but Pennsylvania's support for Madison ensured that the incumbent won a majority of the electoral vote. Clinton won most of the Northeast, but Madison won the election by sweeping the South and the West and winning the key state of Pennsylvania. After the disastrous start to the War of 1812, Madison accepted Russia's invitation to arbitrate the war, and he sent a delegation led by Gallatin and John Quincy Adams (the son of former President John Adams) to Europe to negotiate a peace treaty. While Madison worked to end the war, the United States experienced some impressive naval successes, boosting American morale, by the , and other warships. With a victory at the Battle of Lake Erie, the U.S. crippled the supply and reinforcement of British military forces in the western theater of the war. In the aftermath of the Battle of Lake Erie, General William Henry Harrison defeated the forces of the British and of Tecumseh's Confederacy at the Battle of the Thames. The death of Tecumseh in that battle marked the permanent end of armed Native American resistance in the Old Northwest. In March 1814, General Andrew Jackson broke the resistance of the British-allied Muscogee in the Old Southwest with his victory at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. Despite those successes, the British continued to repel American attempts to invade Canada, and a British force captured Fort Niagara and burned the American city of Buffalo in late 1813. The British agreed to begin peace negotiations in the town of Ghent in early 1814, but at the same time, they shifted soldiers to North America following Napoleon's defeat in the Battle of Paris. Under General George Izard and General Jacob Brown, the U.S. launched another invasion of Canada in mid-1814. Despite an American victory at the Battle of Chippawa, the invasion stalled once again. Making matters worse, Madison had failed to muster his new Secretary of War John Armstrong to fortify Washington D.C. At the same time, Madison, according to historian Ketcham, also put into command an "inexperienced and incompetent" Brig. General William Winder to stop the impending British invasion. In August 1814, the British landed a large force off the Chesapeake Bay and routed Winder's army at the Battle of Bladensburg. The Madisons escaped capture, fleeing to Virginia by horseback, in the aftermath of the battle, but the British burned Washington and other buildings. The charred remains of the capital by the British were a humiliating defeat for Madison and America. The British army next moved on Baltimore, but the U.S. repelled the British attack in the Battle of Baltimore, and the British army departed from the Chesapeake region in September. That same month, U.S. forces repelled a British invasion from Canada with a victory at the Battle of Plattsburgh. The British public began to turn against the war in North America, and British leaders began to look for a quick exit from the conflict. In January 1815, an American force under General Jackson defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans. Just over a month later, Madison learned that his negotiators had reached the Treaty of Ghent, ending the war without major concessions by either side. Madison quickly sent the Treaty of Ghent to the Senate, and the Senate ratified the treaty on February 16, 1815. To most Americans, the quick succession of events at the end of the war, including the burning of the capital, the Battle of New Orleans, and the Treaty of Ghent, appeared as though American valor at New Orleans had forced the British to surrender. This view, while inaccurate, strongly contributed to a feeling of post-war euphoria that bolstered Madison's reputation as president. Napoleon's defeat at the June 1815 Battle of Waterloo brought a final close to the Napoleonic Wars, ending the danger of attacks on American shipping by British and French forces. Postwar period and decline of the Federalist opposition The postwar period of Madison's second term saw the transition into the "Era of Good Feelings," as the Federalists ceased to act as an effective opposition party. During the war, delegates from the states of New England held the Hartford Convention, where they asked for several amendments to the Constitution. Though the Hartford Convention did not explicitly call for the secession of New England, the Hartford Convention became a political millstone around the Federalist Party as Americans celebrated what they saw as a successful "second war of independence" from Britain. Madison hastened the decline of the Federalists by adopting several programs he had previously opposed, weakening the ideological divisions between the two major parties. Recognizing the difficulties of financing the war and the necessity of an institution to regulate the currency, Madison proposed the re-establishment of a national bank. He also called for increased spending on the army and the navy, a tariff designed to protect American goods from foreign competition, and a constitutional amendment authorizing the federal government to fund the construction of internal improvements such as roads and canals. His initiatives were opposed by strict constructionists such as John Randolph, who stated that Madison's proposals "out-Hamiltons Alexander Hamilton". Responding to Madison's proposals, the 14th Congress compiled one of the most productive legislative records up to that point in history. Congress granted the Second Bank of the United States a twenty-five-year charter and passed the Tariff of 1816, which set high import duties for all goods that were produced outside the United States. Madison approved federal spending on the Cumberland Road, which provided a link to the country's western lands, but in his last act before leaving office, he blocked further federal spending on internal improvements by vetoing the Bonus Bill of 1817. In making the veto, Madison argued that the General Welfare Clause did not broadly authorize federal spending on internal improvements. Native American policy Upon becoming president, Madison said the federal government's duty was to convert Native Americans by the "participation of the improvements of which the human mind and manners are susceptible in a civilized state". On September 30, 1809, a little more than six months into his first term, Madison agreed to the Treaty of Fort Wayne, negotiated and signed by Indiana Territory Governor Harrison. The treaty began with "James Madison, President of the United States," on the first sentence of the first paragraph. The American Indian tribes were compensated $5,200 ($109,121.79 for year 2020) in goods and $500 and $250 annual subsidies to the various tribes, for 3 million acres of land (approximately 12,140 square kilometers). The treaty angered Shawnee leader Tecumseh, who said, "Sell a country! Why not sell the air, the clouds and the great sea, as well as the earth?" Harrison responded that the Miami tribe was the owner of the land and could sell it to whomever they wished. Like Jefferson, Madison had a paternalistic attitude toward American Indians, encouraging the men to give up hunting and become farmers. Madison believed the adoption of European-style agriculture would help Native Americans assimilate the values of British-U.S. civilization. As pioneers and settlers moved West into large tracts of Cherokee, Choctaw, Creek, and Chickasaw territory, Madison ordered the U.S. Army to protect Native lands from intrusion by settlers, to the chagrin of his military commander Andrew Jackson, who wanted Madison to ignore Indian pleas to stop the invasion of their lands. Tensions mounted between the United States and Tecumseh over the 1809 Treaty of Fort Wayne, which ultimately led to Tecumseh's alliance with the British and the Battle of Tippecanoe, on November 7, 1811, in the Northwest Territory. Tecumseh was defeated and Indians were pushed off their tribal lands, replaced entirely by white settlers. In addition to the Battle of the Thames and the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, other American Indian battles took place, including the Peoria War, and the Creek War. Settled by General Jackson, the Creek War added 20 million acres of land to the United States (approximately 80,937 square kilometers) in Georgia and Alabama, by the Treaty of Fort Jackson on August 9, 1814. Privately, Madison did not believe American Indians could be civilized. Madison believed that Native Americans may have been unwilling to make "the transition from the hunter, or even the herdsman state, to the agriculture". Madison feared that Native Americans had too great an influence on the settlers they interacted with, who in his view were "irresistibly attracted by that complete liberty, that freedom from bonds, obligations, duties, that absence of care and anxiety which characterize the savage state". In March 1816, Madison's Secretary of War William Crawford advocated for the government to encourage intermarriages between Native Americans and whites as a way of assimilating the former. This prompted public outrage and exacerbated anti-Indigenous bigotry among white Americans, as seen in hostile letters sent to Madison, who remained publicly silent on the issue. General Wilkinson misconduct In 1810, the House investigated Commanding General James Wilkinson for misconduct over his ties with Spain. Wilkinson was a hold-over of the Jefferson administration. In 1806, Jefferson was told Wilkinson was under a financial retainer with Spain. Wilkinson had also been rumored to have ties to Spain during both the Washington and Adams administrations. Jefferson removed Wilkinson from his position of Governor of the Louisiana territory in 1807 for his ties with the Burr conspiracy. The 1810 House investigation was not a formal report but documents incriminating Wilkinson were given to Madison. Wilkinson's military request for a court-martial was denied by Madison. Wilkinson then asked for 14 officers to testify on his behalf in Washington, but Madison refused, in essence, acquitting Wilkinson of malfeasance. Later in 1810 the House investigated Wilkinson's public record, and charged him with a high casualty rate among soldiers. Wilkinson was acquitted again. However, in 1811, Madison launched a formal court-martial of Wilkinson, that suspended him from active duty. The military court in December 1811 acquitted Wilkinson of misconduct. Madison approved of Wilkinson's acquittal, and restored him to active duty. After Wilkinson failed a command during the War of 1812, Madison dismissed him from his command for incompetence. However, Madison retained Wilkinson in the Army, but replaced him with Henry Dearborn as its commander. Not until 1815, when Wilkinson was court-martialled and acquitted again, did Madison finally remove him from the Army. Historical evidence brought forth in the 20th century proved Wilkinson was under the pay of Spain. Retrospectively, in 1974, historian James Banner criticized Madison for his protection of General James Wilkinson in the Army. Wilkinson had been involved in the Aaron Burr conspiracy during the Jefferson Administration, was on retainer of Spain, and had a high mortality rate among soldiers. Wilkinson had also botched a campaign during the War of 1812. Madison finally mustered Wilkinson out of the Army in 1815. Election of 1816 In the 1816 presidential election, Madison and Jefferson both favored the candidacy of Secretary of State James Monroe and he defeated Secretary of War William H. Crawford in the party's congressional nominating caucus. As the Federalist Party continued to collapse as a national party, Monroe easily defeated Federalist candidate Rufus King in the 1816 election. Madison left office as a popular president; former president Adams wrote that Madison had "acquired more glory, and established more union, than all his three predecessors, Washington, Adams, and Jefferson, put together". Post-presidency (1817–1836) When Madison left office in 1817 at age 65, he retired to Montpelier, his tobacco plantation in Orange County, Virginia, not far from Jefferson's Monticello. As with both Washington and Jefferson, Madison left the presidency a poorer man than when elected. His plantation experienced a steady financial collapse, due to the continued price declines in tobacco and also due to his stepson's mismanagement. In his retirement, Madison occasionally became involved in public affairs, advising Andrew Jackson and other presidents. He remained out of the public debate over the Missouri Compromise, though he privately complained about the North's opposition to the extension of slavery. Madison had warm relations with all four of the major candidates in the 1824 presidential election, but, like Jefferson, largely stayed out of the race. During Jackson's presidency, Madison publicly disavowed the Nullification movement and argued that no state had the right to secede. Madison also helped Jefferson establish the University of Virginia. In 1826, after the death of Jefferson, Madison was appointed as the second rector of the university. He retained the position as college chancellor for ten years until his death in 1836. In 1829, at the age of 78, Madison was chosen as a representative to the Virginia Constitutional Convention for revision of the commonwealth's constitution. It was his last appearance as a statesman. Apportionment was the central issue at the convention. The western districts of Virginia complained that they were underrepresented because the state constitution apportioned voting districts by county. The increased population in the Piedmont and western parts of the state were not proportionately represented by delegates in the legislature. Western reformers also wanted to extend suffrage to all white men, in place of the prevailing property ownership requirement. Madison tried in vain to effect a compromise. Eventually, suffrage rights were extended to renters as well as landowners, but the eastern planters refused to adopt citizen population apportionment. They added slaves held as property to the population count, to maintain a permanent majority in both houses of the legislature, arguing that there must be a balance between population and property represented. Madison was disappointed at the failure of Virginians to resolve the issue more equitably. In his later years, Madison became highly concerned about his historic legacy. He resorted to modifying letters and other documents in his possession, changing days and dates, adding and deleting words and sentences, and shifting characters. By the time he had reached his late seventies, Madison's self-editing of his own archived letters and older materials had become almost an obsession. As an example, he edited a letter written to Jefferson criticizing Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette—Madison not only inked out original passages, but even forged Jefferson's handwriting. Historian Drew R. McCoy wrote that, "During the final six years of his life, amid a sea of personal [financial] troubles that were threatening to engulf him ... At times mental agitation issued in physical collapse. For the better part of a year in 1831 and 1832 he was bedridden, if not silenced ... Literally sick with anxiety, he began to despair of his ability to make himself understood by his fellow citizens." Death Madison's health slowly deteriorated. In a coincidence, the calendar date of the Fourth of July was the day of the year on which former presidents Jefferson, Adams, and Monroe had all died. In his final week, his doctors advised Madison to take stimulants which might prolong his life to July 4, 1836. However, Madison refused. He died of congestive heart failure at Montpelier on the morning of June 28, 1836, at the age of 85. By one common account of his final moments, he was given his breakfast, which he tried eating but was unable to swallow. His favorite niece, who sat by to keep him company, asked him, "What is the matter, Uncle James?" Madison died immediately after he replied, "Nothing more than a change of mind, my dear." He is buried in the family cemetery at Montpelier. He was one of the last prominent members of the Revolutionary War generation to die. His last will and testament left significant sums to the American Colonization Society, Princeton, and the University of Virginia, as well as $30,000 ($897 thousand corrected for inflation in 2021) to his wife, Dolley. Left with a smaller sum than Madison had intended, Dolley suffered financial troubles until her death in 1849. Political and religious views Federalism During his first stint in Congress in the 1780s, Madison came to favor amending the Articles of Confederation to provide for a stronger central government. In the 1790s, he led the opposition to Hamilton's centralizing policies and the Alien and Sedition Acts. According to historian Ron Chernow, Madison's support of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions in the 1790s "was a breathtaking evolution for a man who had pleaded at the Constitutional Convention that the federal government should possess a veto over state laws". Historian Gordon S. Wood says that Lance Banning, as in his Sacred Fire of Liberty (1995), is the "only present-day scholar to maintain that Madison did not change his views in the 1790s". During and after the War of 1812, Madison came to support several policies he had opposed in the 1790s, including the national bank, a strong navy, and direct taxes. Wood notes that many historians struggle to understand Madison, but Wood looks at him in the terms of Madison's own times—as a nationalist but one with a different conception of nationalism from that of the Federalists. Gary Rosen uses other approaches to suggest Madison's consistency. Religion Although baptized as an Anglican and educated by Presbyterian clergymen, young Madison was an avid reader of English deist tracts. As an adult, Madison paid little attention to religious matters. Though most historians have found little indication of his religious leanings after he left college, some scholars indicate he leaned toward deism. Others maintain that Madison accepted Christian tenets and formed his outlook on life with a Christian world view. Regardless of his own religious beliefs, Madison believed in religious liberty, and he advocated for Virginia's disestablishment of the Anglican Church throughout the late 1770s and 1780s. He also opposed the appointments of chaplains for Congress and the armed forces, arguing that the appointments produce religious exclusion as well as political disharmony. In 1819, Madison said, "The number, the industry, and the morality of the priesthood & the devotion of the people have been manifestly increased by the total separation of the Church from the State." Slavery Madison grew up on a plantation that made use of slave labor and he viewed slavery as a necessary part of the Southern economy, though he was troubled by the instability of a society that depended on a large slave population. During the Revolutionary War, Madison responded to a proposal of providing slaves to soldiers as a recruitment bonus by advocating enlisting blacks in exchange for their freedom instead, writing "would it not be as well to liberate and make soldiers at once of the blacks themselves as to make them instruments for enlisting white Soldiers? It would certainly be more consonant to the principles of liberty which ought never to be loss sight of in a contest for liberty." At the Philadelphia Convention, Madison wrote "Where slavery exists the republican Theory becomes still more fallacious." He favored an immediate end to the importation of slaves, though the final document barred Congress from interfering with the international slave trade until 1808,. Madison initially opposed the 20-year ban on ending the international slave trade. However, he eventually accepted it as a necessary compromise to get the South to ratify the constitution, later writing "It ought to be considered as a great point gained in favor of humanity, that a period of twenty years may terminate forever, within these States, a traffic which has long and so loudly upbraided the barbarism of modern policy." He also proposed that apportionment in the House of Representatives be allocated by the sum of each state's free population and slave population, eventually leading to the adoption of the Three-fifths Compromise. Madison supported the extension of slavery into the West during the Missouri crisis of 1819–1821. Madison believed that former slaves were unlikely to successfully integrate into Southern society, and in the late 1780s, he became interested in the idea of African-Americans establishing colonies in Africa. Madison served as the president of the American Colonization Society, which founded the settlement of Liberia for former slaves. Although Madison had supported a republican form of government, he believed that slavery had caused the South to become aristocratic. Madison believed that slaves were human property, while he opposed slavery intellectually. Along with his colonization plan for blacks, Madison believed that slavery would naturally diffuse with western expansion. His political views landed somewhere between Calhoun's separation nullification and Daniel Webster's nationalism consolidation. Madison was never able to reconcile his advocacy of republican government with his exclusion of slaves from the process of government and his lifelong reliance on the slave system. Visitors to his plantation noted slaves were well housed and fed. According to Paul Jennings, one of Madison's younger slaves, Madison never lost his temper or had his slaves whipped, preferring to reprimand. Madison never outwardly expressed the view that blacks were inferior; he tended to express open-mindedness on the question of race. When Madison moved to Washington, D.C. in 1801, to serve as the secretary of state of President Jefferson, Madison brought slaves from Montpelier. He also hired out slaves in Washington, D.C. but paid their masters money directly, rather than the slaves, who did the work. During Madison's presidency, his White House slaves included John Freeman, Jennings, Sukey, Joseph Bolden, Jim, and Abram. Madison was referred to as a “garden-variety slaveholder" by historian Elizabeth Dowling Taylor. Madison withheld excessive cruelty to slaves to avoid criticism from peers, and to curb slave revolts. Madison worked his slaves from dawn to dusk, six days a week, getting Sundays off for rest. By 1801, Madison's slave population at Montpelier was slightly over 100. During the 1820s and 1830s, Madison was forced by debts to sell land and slaves. In 1836, at the time of Madison's death, he owned 36 taxable slaves. Madison did not free any of his slaves either during his lifetime or in his will. Upon Madison's death, he left his remaining slaves to his wife Dolley, asking her only to sell her slaves with their consent. Dolley, however did not follow this prescription, selling the Montpelier plantation and many slaves to pay off the Madisons' debts, including Jennings, who she had planned to emancipate upon her death. The few remaining slaves, after Dolley's death, were given to her son, Payne Todd, who freed them upon his death, though some were likely sold for debts as well. Legacy Historical reputation Madison is widely regarded as one of the most important Founding Fathers of the United States. Historian J. C. A. Stagg writes that "in some ways—because he was on the winning side of every important issue facing the young nation from 1776 to 1816—Madison was the most successful and possibly the most influential of all the Founding Fathers." Though he helped found a major political party and served as the fourth president, his legacy has largely been defined by his contributions to the Constitution; even in his own life he was hailed as the "Father of the Constitution". Law professor Noah Feldman writes that Madison "invented and theorized the modern ideal of an expanded, federal constitution that combines local self-government with an overarching national order". Feldman adds that Madison's "model of liberty-protecting constitutional government" is "the most influential American idea in global political history". Polls of historians and political scientists tend to rank Madison as an above-average president. A 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Madison as the twelfth best president. Historian Gordon Wood commends Madison for his steady leadership during the war and resolve to avoid expanding the president's power, noting one contemporary's observation that the war was conducted "without one trial for treason, or even one prosecution for libel". Nonetheless, many historians have criticized Madison's tenure as president. Henry Steele Commager and Richard B. Morris in 1968 said the conventional view of Madison was as an "incapable President" who "mismanaged an unnecessary war". A 2006 poll of historians ranked Madison's failure to prevent the War of 1812 as the sixth-worst mistake made
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the 5th Secretary of State from 1801 to 1809 under President Thomas Jefferson. Born into a prominent Virginia planter family, Madison served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates and the Continental Congress during and after the American Revolutionary War. He became dissatisfied with the weak national government established by the Articles of Confederation and helped organize the Constitutional Convention, which produced a new constitution to supplant the Articles of Confederation. Madison's Virginia Plan served as the basis for the Constitutional Convention's deliberations, and he was one of the most influential individuals at the convention. He became one of the leaders in the movement to ratify the Constitution, and he joined with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay in writing The Federalist Papers, a series of pro-ratification essays that was one of the most influential works of political science in American history. After the ratification of the Constitution, Madison emerged as an important leader in the House of Representatives and served as a close adviser to President George Washington. He is considered the main force behind the ratification of the Bill of Rights, which enshrines guarantees of personal freedoms and rights within the Constitution. During the early 1790s, Madison opposed the economic program and the accompanying centralization of power favored by Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton. Along with Jefferson, he organized the Democratic-Republican Party, which was, alongside Hamilton's Federalist Party, one of the nation's first major political parties. After Jefferson was elected president, Madison served as his Secretary of State from 1801 to 1809. In that position, he supervised the Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the size of the United States. Madison succeeded Jefferson after his victory in the 1808 presidential election. After diplomatic protests and a trade embargo failed to end British seizures of American shipping, he led the United States into the War of 1812. The war was an administrative morass and ended inconclusively, but many Americans saw it as a successful "second war of independence" against Britain. As the war progressed, Madison was re-elected in 1812, albeit by a smaller margin to the 1808 election. The war convinced Madison of the necessity of a stronger federal government. He presided over the creation of the Second Bank of the United States and the enactment of the protective Tariff of 1816. By treaty or war, Madison's presidency added 23 million acres of Native American land to the United States. Madison retired from public office after concluding his presidency in 1817 and died in 1836. Like Jefferson and Washington, Madison was a wealthy slave owner who never treated his slaves harshly and provided for them, but his slaves experienced "the lack of basic freedom of action and opportunity for advancement that defined the deep and profound discrepancy between enslaved and most free Virginians." He never privately reconciled his republican beliefs with his slave ownership. Forced to pay debts, he never freed his slaves. Madison is considered one of the most important Founding Fathers of the United States, and historians have generally ranked him as an above-average president. Early life and education James Madison, Jr. was born on March 16, 1751 (March 5, 1750, Old Style) at Belle Grove Plantation near Port Conway in the Colony of Virginia, to James Madison Sr. and Nelly Conway Madison. His family had lived in Virginia since the mid-1600s. Madison grew up as the oldest of twelve children, with seven brothers and four sisters, though only six lived to adulthood. His father was a tobacco planter who grew up at a plantation, then called Mount Pleasant, which he had inherited upon reaching adulthood. With an estimated 100 slaves and a plantation, Madison's father was the largest landowner and a leading citizen in Piedmont. Madison's maternal grandfather was a prominent planter and tobacco merchant. In the early 1760s, the Madison family moved into a newly built house that they named Montpelier. From age 11 to 16, Madison studied under Donald Robertson, a Scottish instructor who served as a tutor for several prominent planter families in the South. Madison learned mathematics, geography, and modern and classical languages—he became exceptionally proficient in Latin. At age 16, Madison returned to Montpelier, where he studied under the Reverend Thomas Martin to prepare for college. Unlike most college-bound Virginians of his day, Madison did not attend the College of William and Mary, where the lowland Williamsburg climate – thought to be more likely to harbor infectious disease – might have strained his delicate health. Instead, in 1769, he enrolled as an undergraduate at Princeton (then formally named the College of New Jersey). His studies at Princeton included Latin, Greek, theology, and the works of the Enlightenment. Great emphasis was placed on both speech and debate; Madison was a leading member of the American Whig–Cliosophic Society, which competed on campus with a political counterpart, the Cliosophic Society. During his time in Princeton, Madison's closest friend was future Attorney General William Bradford. Along with another classmate, Madison undertook an intense program of study and completed the college's three-year Bachelor of Arts degree in just two years, graduating in 1771. Madison had contemplated either entering the clergy or practicing law after graduation, but instead remained at Princeton to study Hebrew and political philosophy under the college's president, John Witherspoon. He returned home to Montpelier in early 1772. Madison's ideas on philosophy and morality were strongly shaped by Witherspoon, who converted him to the philosophy, values, and modes of thinking of the Age of Enlightenment. Biographer Terence Ball wrote that at Princeton, Madison "was immersed in the liberalism of the Enlightenment, and converted to eighteenth-century political radicalism. From then on James Madison's theories would advance the rights of happiness of man, and his most active efforts would serve devotedly the cause of civil and political liberty." After returning to Montpelier, without a chosen career, Madison served as a tutor to his younger siblings. Madison began to study law books in 1773. He asked Princeton friend William Bradford, a law apprentice under Edward Shippen in Philadelphia, to send him an ordered written plan on reading law books. At the age of 22, there was no evidence that Madison, himself, made any effort to apprentice under any lawyer in Virginia. By 1783, he had acquired a good sense of legal publications. Madison saw himself as a law student but never as a lawyer – he never joined the bar or practiced. In his elder years, Madison was sensitive to the phrase "demi-Lawyer", or "half-Lawyer", a derisive term used to describe someone who read law books, but did not practice law. Following the Revolutionary War, Madison spent time at Montpelier in Virginia studying ancient democracies of the world in preparation for the Constitutional Convention. American Revolution and Articles of Confederation In 1765, the British Parliament passed the Stamp Act, which taxed the American colonists to help fund the increasing costs of administrating British America. The colonists' opposition to the tax marked the start of a conflict that would culminate in the American Revolution. The disagreement centered on Parliament's right to levy taxes on the colonists, who were not directly represented in that body. However, events deteriorated until the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War of 1775–83, in which the colonists split into two factions: Loyalists, who continued to adhere to George III, and the Patriots, whom Madison joined, under the leadership of the Continental Congress. Madison believed that Parliament had overstepped its bounds by attempting to tax the American colonies, and he sympathized with those who resisted British rule. He also favored disestablishing the Anglican Church in Virginia; Madison believed that an established religion was detrimental not only to freedom of religion but also because it encouraged excessive deference to the authority of the state. In 1774, Madison took a seat on the local Committee of Safety, a pro-revolution group that oversaw the local Patriot militia. In October 1775, he was commissioned as the colonel of the Orange County militia, serving as his father's second-in-command until he was elected as a delegate to the Fifth Virginia Convention, which was charged with producing Virginia's first constitution. Of short stature and frequently in poor health, Madison never saw battle in the Revolutionary War, but he rose to prominence in Virginia politics as a wartime leader. At the Virginia constitutional convention, he convinced delegates to alter the Virginia Declaration of Rights to provide for "equal entitlement," rather than mere "tolerance," in the exercise of religion. With the enactment of the Virginia constitution, Madison became part of the Virginia House of Delegates, and he was subsequently elected to the Virginia governor's Council of State. In that role, he became a close ally of Governor Thomas Jefferson. On July 4, 1776, the United States Declaration of Independence was published formally declaring the 13 American states an independent nation. Although Madison was not a signatory of the Articles of Confederation, he did contribute to the discussion of religious freedom affecting the drafting of the Articles. Madison had proposed liberalizing the article on religious freedom, but the larger Virginia Convention made further changes. It was later amended by the committee and the entire Convention, including the addition of a section on the right to a uniform government (Section 14). Madison served on the Council of State from 1777 to 1779, when he was elected to the Second Continental Congress, the governing body of the United States. America faced a difficult war against Great Britain, as well as runaway inflation, financial troubles, and lack of cooperation between the different levels of government. According to historian J.G.A. Stagg, Madison worked to become an expert on financial issues, becoming a legislative workhorse and a master of parliamentary coalition building. Frustrated by the failure of the states to supply needed requisitions, Madison proposed to amend the Articles of Confederation to grant Congress the power to independently raise revenue through tariffs on imports. Though General George Washington, Congressman Alexander Hamilton, and other influential leaders also favored the amendment, it was defeated because it failed to win the ratification of all thirteen states. While a member of Congress, Madison was an ardent supporter of a close alliance between the United States and France, and, as an advocate of westward expansion, he insisted that the new nation had to assure its right to navigation on the Mississippi River and control of all lands east of it in the Treaty of Paris that ended the Revolutionary War. After serving Congress from 1780 to 1783, Madison won election to the Virginia House of Delegates in 1784. Father of the Constitution Calling a convention As a member of the Virginia House of Delegates, Madison continued to advocate for religious freedom, and, along with Jefferson, drafted the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. That amendment, which guaranteed freedom of religion and disestablished the Church of England, was passed in 1786. Madison also became a land speculator, purchasing land along the Mohawk River in a partnership with another Jefferson protege, James Monroe. Throughout the 1780s, Madison advocated for reform of the Articles of Confederation. He became increasingly worried about the disunity of the states and the weakness of the central government after the end of the Revolutionary War in 1783. He believed that "excessive democracy" caused social decay, and was particularly troubled by laws that legalized paper money and denied diplomatic immunity to ambassadors from other countries. He was also concerned about the inability of Congress to capably conduct foreign policy, protect American trade, and foster the settlement of the lands between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. As Madison wrote, "a crisis had arrived which was to decide whether the American experiment was to be a blessing to the world, or to blast for ever the hopes which the republican cause had inspired." He committed to an intense study of law and political theory and also was heavily influenced by Continental Enlightenment texts sent by Jefferson from France. He especially sought out works on international law and the constitutions of "ancient and modern confederacies" such as the Dutch Republic, the Swiss Confederation, and the Achaean League. He came to believe that the United States could improve upon past republican experiments by its size; with so many distinct interests competing against each other, Madison hoped to minimize the abuses of majority rule. Additionally, navigation rights to the Mississippi River highly concerned Madison. He disdained a proposal by John Jay that the United States acquiesce claims to the river for 25 years, and, according to historian John Ketchum, his desire to fight the proposal played a major role in motivating Madison to return to Congress in 1787. Madison helped arrange the 1785 Mount Vernon Conference, which settled disputes regarding navigation rights on the Potomac River and also served as a model for future interstate conferences. At the 1786 Annapolis Convention, he joined with Hamilton and other delegates in calling for another convention to consider amending the Articles. After winning the election to another term in Congress, Madison helped convince the other Congressmen to authorize the Philadelphia Convention to propose amendments. Though many members of Congress were wary of the changes the convention might bring, nearly all agreed that the existing government needed some sort of reform. Madison ensured that General Washington, who was popular throughout the country, and Robert Morris, who was influential in the casting the critical vote of the state of Pennsylvania, would both broadly support Madison's plan to implement a new constitution. The outbreak of Shays' Rebellion in 1786 reinforced the necessity for constitutional reform in the eyes of Washington and other American leaders. The Philadelphia Convention and the Virginia Plan Before a quorum was reached at the Philadelphia Convention on May 25, 1787, Madison worked with other members of the Virginia delegation, especially Edmund Randolph and George Mason, to create and present the Virginia Plan. This Plan was an outline for a new federal constitution; it called for three branches of government (legislative, executive, and judicial), a bicameral Congress (consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives) apportioned by population, and a federal Council of Revision that would have the right to veto laws passed by Congress. Reflecting the centralization of power envisioned by Madison, the Virginia Plan granted the Senate the power to overturn any law passed by state governments. The Virginia Plan did not explicitly lay out the structure of the executive branch, but Madison himself favored a single executive. Many delegates were surprised to learn that the plan called for the abrogation of the Articles and the creation of a new constitution, to be ratified by special conventions in each state rather than by the state legislatures. With the assent of prominent attendees such as Washington and Benjamin Franklin, the delegates went into a secret session to consider a new constitution. Though the Virginia Plan was extensively changed during the debate and presented as an outline rather than a draft of a possible constitution, its use at the convention has led many to call Madison the "Father of the Constitution". Madison spoke over 200 times during the convention, and his fellow delegates held him in high esteem. Delegate William Pierce wrote that "in the management of every great question he evidently took the lead in the Convention [...] he always comes forward as the best informed man of any point in debate." Madison believed that the constitution produced by the convention "would decide for ever the fate of republican government" throughout the world, and he kept copious notes to serve as a historical record of the convention. In crafting the Virginia Plan, Madison looked to develop a system of government that adequately prevented the rise of factions believing that a Constitutional Republic would be most fitting to do so. Madison's definition of faction was similar to that of the Scottish Enlightenment philosopher David Hume. Madison borrowed from Hume's definition of a faction when describing the dangers they impose upon the American Republic. In the essay Federalist No. 10 Madison described a faction as a "number of citizens [...] who are united by a common impulse of passion or interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or permanent and aggregate interest of the community". Madison drew further influence from the Scottish Economist Adam Smith who believed that every civilized society developed into economic factions based on the different interests of individuals. Madison, throughout his writing, alluded to The Wealth of Nations on multiple occasions as he advocated for a free system of commerce among the states that he believed would be beneficial to society. Madison had hoped that a coalition of Southern states and populous Northern states would ensure the approval of a constitution largely similar to the one proposed in the Virginia Plan. However, delegates from small states successfully argued for more power for state governments and presented the New Jersey Plan as an alternative. In response, Roger Sherman proposed the Connecticut Compromise, which sought to balance the interests of small and large states. During the convention, Madison's Council of Revision was not used and each state was given equal representation in the Senate, and the state legislatures, rather than the House of Representatives, were given the power to elect members of the Senate. Madison convinced his fellow delegates to have the Constitution ratified by ratifying conventions rather than state legislatures, which he distrusted. He also helped ensure that the President would have the ability to veto federal laws and would be elected independently of Congress through the Electoral College. By the end of the convention, Madison believed that the new constitution failed to give enough power to the federal government compared to the state governments, but he still viewed the document as an improvement on the Articles of Confederation. The ultimate question before the convention, historian Gordon Wood notes, was not how to design a government but whether the states should remain sovereign, whether sovereignty should be transferred to the national government, or whether the constitution should settle somewhere in between. Most of the delegates at the Philadelphia Convention wanted to empower the federal government to raise revenue and protect property rights. Those who, like Madison, thought democracy in the state legislatures was excessively subjective, wanted sovereignty transferred to the national government, while those who did not think this a problem wanted to retain the model of the Articles of Confederation. Even many delegates who shared Madison's goal of strengthening the central government reacted strongly against the extreme change to the status quo envisioned in the Virginia Plan. Though Madison lost most of his debates and discussions over how to amend the Virginia Plan, in the process, however, he increasingly shifted the debate away from a position of pure state sovereignty. Since most disagreements over what to include in the constitution were ultimately disputes over the balance of sovereignty between the states and national government, Madison's influence was critical. Wood notes that Madison's ultimate contribution was not in designing any particular constitutional framework, but in shifting the debate toward a compromise of "shared sovereignty" between the national and state governments. The Federalist Papers and ratification debates After the Philadelphia Convention ended in September 1787, Madison convinced his fellow congressmen to remain neutral in the ratification debate and allow each state to vote upon the Constitution. Throughout the United States, opponents of the Constitution, known as Anti-Federalists, began a public campaign against ratification. In response, Hamilton and Jay began publishing a series of pro-ratification newspaper articles in New York. After Jay dropped out from the project, Hamilton approached Madison, who was in New York on congressional business, to write some of the essays. Altogether, Hamilton, Madison, and Jay wrote the 85 essays of what became known as The Federalist Papers in six months, with Madison writing 29 of the essays. The Federalist Papers successfully defended the new Constitution and argued for its ratification to the people of New York. The articles were also published in book form and became a virtual debater's handbook for the supporters of the Constitution in the ratifying conventions. Historian Clinton Rossiter called The Federalist Papers "the most important work in political science that ever has been written, or is likely ever to be written, in the United States". Federalist No. 10, Madison's first contribution to The Federalist Papers, became highly regarded in the 20th century for its advocacy of representative democracy. In Federalist 10, Madison describes the dangers posed by factions and argues that their negative effects can be limited through the formation of a large republic. He states that in large republics the significant sum of factions that emerge will successfully dull the effects of others. In Federalist No. 51, he goes on to explain how the separation of powers between three branches of the federal government, as well as between state governments and the federal government, established a system of checks and balances that ensured that no one institution would become too powerful. While Madison and Hamilton continued to write The Federalist Papers, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and several smaller states voted to ratify the Constitution. After finishing his last contributions to The Federalist Papers, Madison returned to Virginia. Initially, Madison did not want to stand for election to the Virginia Ratifying Convention, but he was persuaded to do so by the strength of the Anti-Federalists. Virginians were divided into three main camps: Washington and Madison led the faction in favor of ratification of the Constitution, Randolph and Mason headed a faction that wanted ratification but also sought amendments to the Constitution, and Patrick Henry was the most prominent member of the faction opposed to the ratification of the Constitution. When the Virginia Ratifying Convention began on June 2, 1788, the Constitution had been ratified by eight of the required nine states. New York, the second-largest state and a bastion of anti-federalism would likely not ratify it without the stated commitment of Virginia, and in the event of Virginia's failure to join the new government there would be the disquieting disqualification of George Washington from being the first president. At the start of the convention in Virginia, Madison knew that most delegates had already made up their minds, and he focused his efforts on winning the support of the relatively small number of undecided delegates. His long correspondence with Randolph paid off at the convention as Randolph announced that he would support unconditional ratification of the Constitution, with amendments to be proposed
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wrestler, mixed martial artist, and actor 1959 – Michel Preud'homme, Belgian footballer and manager 1959 – Vic Reeves, English television personality 1961 – Jorge Barrios, Uruguayan footballer 1961 – Guido Buchwald, German footballer and manager 1961 – Christa Kinshofer, German ski racer 1961 – Nastassja Kinski, German-American actress and producer 1961 – William Van Dijck, Belgian runner 1963 – Arnold Vanderlyde, Dutch boxer 1965 – Carlos Saldanha, Brazilian-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1965 – Margaret Urlich, New Zealand singer-songwriter 1965 – Pagonis Vakalopoulos, Greek footballer and manager 1966 – Julie Dreyfus, French actress 1966 – Karin Viard, French actress 1967 – Michael Kiske, German singer 1968 – Fernando Escartín, Spanish cyclist 1968 – Antony Garrett Lisi, American theoretical physicist 1968 – Mary Lou Retton, American gymnast 1968 – Tymerlan Huseynov, Ukrainian footballer 1969 – Yoo Ho-jeong, South Korean actress 1969 – Carlos Rômulo Gonçalves e Silva, bishop of Montenegro 1970 – Roberto Bonano, Argentine footballer 1970 – Neil Johnson, Zimbabwean cricketer 1970 – Matthew Lillard, American actor 1971 – José Carlos Fernandez, Bolivian footballer 1972 – Beth Hart, American blues-rock singer and piano player 1974 – Cyril Despres, French rally racer 1974 – Ed Helms, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1974 – Melissa Tkautz, Australian actress and singer 1974 – Rokia Traoré, Malian singer 1975 – Gianluca Basile, Italian former professional basketball player 1975 – Rónald Gómez, Costa Rican footballer and manager 1975 – Reto Hug, Swiss triathlete 1975 – Henna Raita, Finnish alpine skier 1976 – Shae-Lynn Bourne, Canadian ice dancer, coach, and choreographer 1976 – Cindy Pieters, Belgian cyclist 1977 – Andrija Gerić, Serbian volleyball player 1977 – Michelle Hunziker, Swiss-Dutch actress, model and singer 1978 – Veerle Baetens, Belgian actress and singer 1978 – Mark Hildreth, Canadian actor and musician 1978 – Kristen Schaal, American actress, voice artist, comedian and writer 1979 – Tatyana Ali, American actress and singer 1979 – Leandro Desábato, Argentinian footballer 1979 – Busy Signal, Jamaican dancehall reggae artist 1979 – Nik Wallenda, American acrobat 1980 – Jofre Mateu, Spanish footballer 1980 – Suzy, Portuguese singer 1981 – Mario Eggimann, Swiss footballer 1981 – Zaur Hashimov, Azerbaijani footballer and manager 1981 – Elena Kolomina, Kazakhstani cross country skier 1982 – Céline Deville, French footballer 1982 – Daveed Diggs, American actor, rapper and singer 1982 – Claudia Heill, Austrian judoka (d. 2011) 1982 – Aitor Hernández, Spanish racing cyclist 1983 – Davide Biondini, Italian footballer 1983 – Wyatt Crockett, New Zealand rugby player 1983 – Evgeny Drattsev, Russian swimmer 1983 – Craig Horner, Australian actor and musician 1983 – Shaun Maloney, Scottish footballer 1983 – Scott Speed, American race car driver 1984 – Emerse Faé, French-born Ivorian footballer 1984 – Yotam Halperin, Israeli basketball player 1984 – Jung Jin-sun, South Korean fencer 1984 – Scott Kazmir, American baseball player 1984 – Paulo Sérgio Moreira Gonçalves, Portuguese footballer 1985 – Fabiana Claudino, Brazilian volleyball player 1985 – Trey Gilder, American basketball player 1986 – Cristiano Araújo, Brazilian singer-songwriter (d. 2015) 1986 – Mohammad Bagheri Motamed, Iranian taekwondo practitioner 1986 – Mischa Barton, English-American actress 1986 – Vladislav Ivanov, Russian footballer 1986 – Michael Kightly, English footballer 1986 – Ricky Ullman, Israeli-American actor 1987 – Wayne Hennessey, Welsh footballer 1987 – Luis Suárez, Uruguayan footballer 1987 – Davide Valsecchi, Italian racing driver 1987 – Kia Vaughn, American born Czech basketball player 1987 – Guan Xin, Chinese basketball player 1988 – Selina Jörg, German snowboarder 1989 – Serdar Kesimal, Turkish footballer 1989 – Gong Lijiao, Chinese shot putter 1989 – Ki Sung-yueng, South Korean footballer 1990 – Mao Abe, Japanese singer-songwriter and guitarist 1991 – Zhan Beleniuk, Ukrainian Greco-Roman wrestler 1991 – Tatiana Kashirina, Russian weightlifter 1991 – Zé Luís, Cape Verdean footballer 1991 – Li Xuerui, Chinese badminton player 1992 – Phiwa Nkambule, South African entrepreneur 1992 – Felitciano Zschusschen, Curaçao footballer 1994 – Tommie Hoban, English footballer 1995 – Dylan Everett, Canadian actor 1997 – Nirei Fukuzumi, Japanese racer 1999 – Vitalie Damașcan, Moldovan footballer 2003 – Johnny Orlando, Canadian singer and songwriter 2012 – Princess Athena of Denmark, younger child of Prince Joachim and Princess Marie of Denmark Deaths Pre-1600 41 – Caligula, Roman emperor (b. 12) 817 – Pope Stephen IV (b. 770) 901 – Liu Jishu, general of the Tang Dynasty 1046 – Eckard II, Margrave of Meissen (b. c. 985) 1125 – David IV of Georgia (b. 1073) 1336 – Alfonso IV of Aragon (b. 1299) 1376 – Richard FitzAlan, 10th Earl of Arundel, English commander (b. 1306) 1473 – Conrad Paumann, German organist and composer (b. 1410) 1525 – Franciabigio, Florentine painter (b. 1482) 1595 – Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria (b. 1529) 1601–1900 1626 – Samuel Argall, English captain and politician, Colonial Governor of Virginia (b. 1572) 1639 – Jörg Jenatsch, Swiss pastor and politician (b. 1596) 1666 – Johann Andreas Herbst, German composer and theorist (b. 1588) 1709 – George Rooke, English admiral and politician (b. 1650) 1877 – Johann Christian Poggendorff, German physicist and journalist (b. 1796) 1881 – James Collinson, English painter (b. 1825) 1883 – Friedrich von Flotow, German composer (b. 1812) 1895 – Lord Randolph Churchill, English lawyer and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b. 1849) 1901–present 1920 – Percy French, Irish songwriter, entertainer and artist (b. 1854) 1920 – Amedeo Modigliani, Italian painter and sculptor (b. 1884) 1939 – Maximilian Bircher-Benner, Swiss physician, created Muesli (b. 1867) 1943 – John Burns, English trade union leader and politician, Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills (b. 1858) 1960 – Edwin Fischer, Swiss pianist and conductor (b. 1886) 1961 – Alfred Carlton Gilbert, American pole vaulter and businessman, founded the A. C. Gilbert Company (b. 1884) 1962 – André Lhote, French sculptor and painter (b. 1885) 1962 – Stanley Lord, English naval captain (b. 1877) 1962 – Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar, Turkish author, poet, and scholar (b. 1901) 1965 – Winston Churchill, English colonel and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1874) 1966 – Homi J. Bhabha, Indian physicist and academic (b. 1909) 1970 – Caresse Crosby, American fashion designer and publisher, co-founded the Black Sun Press (b. 1891) 1971 – Bill W., American activist, co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous (b. 1895) 1973 – J. Carrol Naish, American actor (b. 1896) 1975 – Larry Fine, American comedian (b. 1902) 1982 – Alfredo Ovando Candía, Bolivian general and politician, 56th President of Bolivia (b. 1918) 1983 – George Cukor, American director and producer (b. 1899) 1986
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Barry Mealand, English footballer (d. 2013) 1943 – Sharon Tate, American model and actress (d. 1969) 1943 – Tony Trimmer, English race car driver 1943 – Manuel Velázquez, Spanish footballer (d. 2016) 1944 – David Gerrold, American science fiction screenwriter and author 1944 – Gian-Franco Kasper, Swiss ski official (d. 2021) 1945 – John Garamendi, American football player and politician, 1st United States Deputy Secretary of the Interior 1945 – Subhash Ghai, Indian director, producer and screenwriter 1945 – Eva Janko, Austrian javelin thrower 1946 – Michael Ontkean, Canadian actor 1947 – Giorgio Chinaglia, Italian footballer (d. 2012) 1947 – Michio Kaku, American physicist and academic 1947 – Masashi Ozaki, Japanese baseball player and golfer 1947 – Warren Zevon, American singer-songwriter (d. 2003) 1949 – John Belushi, American actor and screenwriter (d. 1982) 1949 – Bart Gordon, American lawyer 1949 – Nadezhda Ilyina, Russian athlete and mother of Russian tennis player Nadia Petrova (d. 2013) 1949 – Rihoko Yoshida, Japanese voice actress 1950 – Daniel Auteuil, French actor, director, and screenwriter 1951 – Yakov Smirnoff, Ukrainian-American comedian and actor 1953 – Yuri Bashmet, Russian violinist, viola player, and conductor 1953 – Moon Jae-in, 19th President of South Korea 1954 – Jo Gartner, Austrian race car driver (d. 1986) 1955 – Jim Montgomery, American swimmer 1955 – Alan Sokal, American physicist and author 1955 – Lynda Weinman, American businesswoman and author 1956 – Agus Martowardojo, governor of Bank Indonesia 1957 – Mark Eaton, American basketball player and sportscaster (d. 2021) 1957 – Ade Edmondson, English comedian and musician 1958 – Kim Eui-kon, Korean wrestler 1958 – Jools Holland, English singer-songwriter and pianist 1958 – Frank Ullrich, German biathlete 1959 – Akira Maeda, Japanese wrestler, mixed martial artist, and actor 1959 – Michel Preud'homme, Belgian footballer and manager 1959 – Vic Reeves, English television personality 1961 – Jorge Barrios, Uruguayan footballer 1961 – Guido Buchwald, German footballer and manager 1961 – Christa Kinshofer, German ski racer 1961 – Nastassja Kinski, German-American actress and producer 1961 – William Van Dijck, Belgian runner 1963 – Arnold Vanderlyde, Dutch boxer 1965 – Carlos Saldanha, Brazilian-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1965 – Margaret Urlich, New Zealand singer-songwriter 1965 – Pagonis Vakalopoulos, Greek footballer and manager 1966 – Julie Dreyfus, French actress 1966 – Karin Viard, French actress 1967 – Michael Kiske, German singer 1968 – Fernando Escartín, Spanish cyclist 1968 – Antony Garrett Lisi, American theoretical physicist 1968 – Mary Lou Retton, American gymnast 1968 – Tymerlan Huseynov, Ukrainian footballer 1969 – Yoo Ho-jeong, South Korean actress 1969 – Carlos Rômulo Gonçalves e Silva, bishop of Montenegro 1970 – Roberto Bonano, Argentine footballer 1970 – Neil Johnson, Zimbabwean cricketer 1970 – Matthew Lillard, American actor 1971 – José Carlos Fernandez, Bolivian footballer 1972 – Beth Hart, American blues-rock singer and piano player 1974 – Cyril Despres, French rally racer 1974 – Ed Helms, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1974 – Melissa Tkautz, Australian actress and singer 1974 – Rokia Traoré, Malian singer 1975 – Gianluca Basile, Italian former professional basketball player 1975 – Rónald Gómez, Costa Rican footballer and manager 1975 – Reto Hug, Swiss triathlete 1975 – Henna Raita, Finnish alpine skier 1976 – Shae-Lynn Bourne, Canadian ice dancer, coach, and choreographer 1976 – Cindy Pieters, Belgian cyclist 1977 – Andrija Gerić, Serbian volleyball player 1977 – Michelle Hunziker, Swiss-Dutch actress, model and singer 1978 – Veerle Baetens, Belgian actress and singer 1978 – Mark Hildreth, Canadian actor and musician 1978 – Kristen Schaal, American actress, voice artist, comedian and writer 1979 – Tatyana Ali, American actress and singer 1979 – Leandro Desábato, Argentinian footballer 1979 – Busy Signal, Jamaican dancehall reggae artist 1979 – Nik Wallenda, American acrobat 1980 – Jofre Mateu, Spanish footballer 1980 – Suzy, Portuguese singer 1981 – Mario Eggimann, Swiss footballer 1981 – Zaur Hashimov, Azerbaijani footballer and manager 1981 – Elena Kolomina, Kazakhstani cross country skier 1982 – Céline Deville, French footballer 1982 – Daveed Diggs, American actor, rapper and singer 1982 – Claudia Heill, Austrian judoka (d. 2011) 1982 – Aitor Hernández, Spanish racing cyclist 1983 – Davide Biondini, Italian footballer 1983 – Wyatt Crockett, New Zealand rugby player 1983 – Evgeny Drattsev, Russian swimmer 1983 – Craig Horner, Australian actor and musician 1983 – Shaun Maloney, Scottish footballer 1983 – Scott Speed, American race car driver 1984 – Emerse Faé, French-born Ivorian footballer 1984 – Yotam Halperin, Israeli basketball player 1984 – Jung Jin-sun, South Korean fencer 1984 – Scott Kazmir, American baseball player 1984 – Paulo Sérgio Moreira Gonçalves, Portuguese footballer 1985 – Fabiana Claudino, Brazilian volleyball player 1985 – Trey Gilder, American basketball player 1986 – Cristiano Araújo, Brazilian singer-songwriter (d. 2015) 1986 – Mohammad Bagheri Motamed, Iranian taekwondo practitioner 1986 – Mischa Barton, English-American actress 1986 – Vladislav Ivanov, Russian footballer 1986 – Michael Kightly, English footballer 1986 – Ricky Ullman, Israeli-American actor 1987 – Wayne Hennessey, Welsh footballer 1987 – Luis Suárez, Uruguayan footballer 1987 – Davide Valsecchi, Italian racing driver 1987 – Kia Vaughn, American born Czech basketball player 1987 – Guan Xin, Chinese basketball player 1988 – Selina Jörg, German snowboarder 1989 – Serdar Kesimal, Turkish footballer 1989 – Gong Lijiao, Chinese shot putter 1989 – Ki Sung-yueng, South Korean footballer 1990 – Mao Abe, Japanese singer-songwriter and guitarist 1991 – Zhan Beleniuk, Ukrainian Greco-Roman wrestler 1991 – Tatiana Kashirina, Russian weightlifter 1991 – Zé Luís, Cape Verdean footballer 1991 – Li Xuerui, Chinese badminton player 1992 – Phiwa Nkambule, South African entrepreneur 1992 – Felitciano Zschusschen, Curaçao footballer 1994 – Tommie Hoban, English footballer 1995 – Dylan Everett, Canadian actor 1997 – Nirei Fukuzumi, Japanese racer 1999 – Vitalie Damașcan, Moldovan footballer 2003 – Johnny Orlando, Canadian singer and songwriter 2012 – Princess Athena of Denmark, younger child of Prince Joachim and Princess Marie of Denmark Deaths Pre-1600 41 – Caligula, Roman emperor (b. 12) 817 – Pope Stephen IV (b. 770) 901 – Liu Jishu, general of the Tang Dynasty 1046 – Eckard II, Margrave of Meissen (b. c. 985) 1125 – David IV of Georgia (b. 1073) 1336 – Alfonso IV of Aragon (b. 1299) 1376 – Richard FitzAlan, 10th Earl of Arundel, English commander (b. 1306) 1473 – Conrad Paumann, German organist and composer (b. 1410) 1525 – Franciabigio, Florentine painter (b. 1482) 1595 – Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria (b. 1529) 1601–1900 1626 – Samuel Argall, English captain and politician, Colonial Governor of Virginia (b. 1572) 1639 – Jörg Jenatsch, Swiss pastor and politician (b. 1596) 1666 – Johann Andreas Herbst, German composer and theorist (b. 1588) 1709 – George Rooke, English admiral and politician (b. 1650) 1877 – Johann Christian Poggendorff, German physicist and journalist (b. 1796) 1881 – James Collinson, English painter (b. 1825) 1883 – Friedrich von Flotow, German composer (b. 1812) 1895 – Lord Randolph Churchill, English lawyer and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b. 1849) 1901–present 1920 – Percy French, Irish songwriter, entertainer and artist (b. 1854) 1920 – Amedeo Modigliani, Italian painter and sculptor (b. 1884) 1939 – Maximilian Bircher-Benner, Swiss physician, created Muesli (b. 1867) 1943 – John Burns, English trade union leader and politician, Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills (b. 1858) 1960 – Edwin Fischer, Swiss pianist and conductor (b. 1886) 1961 – Alfred Carlton Gilbert, American pole vaulter and businessman, founded the A. C. Gilbert Company (b. 1884) 1962 – André Lhote, French sculptor and painter (b. 1885) 1962 – Stanley Lord, English naval captain (b. 1877) 1962 – Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar, Turkish author, poet, and scholar (b. 1901) 1965 – Winston Churchill, English colonel and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1874) 1966 – Homi J. Bhabha, Indian physicist and academic (b. 1909) 1970 – Caresse Crosby, American fashion designer and publisher, co-founded the Black Sun Press (b. 1891) 1971 – Bill W., American activist, co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous (b. 1895) 1973 – J. Carrol Naish, American actor (b. 1896) 1975 – Larry Fine, American comedian (b. 1902) 1982 – Alfredo Ovando Candía, Bolivian general and politician, 56th President of Bolivia (b. 1918) 1983 – George Cukor, American director and producer (b. 1899) 1986 – L. Ron Hubbard, American religious leader and author, founded the Church of Scientology (b. 1911) 1986 – Gordon MacRae, American actor and singer (b. 1921) 1988 – Werner Fenchel, German-Danish mathematician and academic (b. 1905) 1989 – Ted Bundy, American serial killer (b. 1946) 1990 – Madge Bellamy, American actress (b. 1899) 1991 – Jack Schaefer, American journalist and author (b. 1907) 1992 – Ken Darby, American composer and conductor (b. 1909) 1993 – Gustav Ernesaks, Estonian composer and conductor (b. 1908) 1993 – Thurgood Marshall, American lawyer and jurist, 32nd United States Solicitor General (b. 1908) 1993 – Uğur Mumcu,
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from the 'Traveller News Service', which provided information on 'current' events in the Imperium; that issue, dated 274–1105, offered two news excerpts from Regina sector, dated 097-1105 and 101–1105. JTAS #9 (1981) GDW developed their metaplot for Traveller by describing the start of a war with an alien species named the Zhodani. GDW's original magazine ended with The Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society #24 (1984); it was soon replaced with a new magazine, Challenge, which continued JTAS' numbering with issue #25 (1986) but covered all of GDW's games, not just Traveller. Imperium Games published Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society #25 in 1996, and published their second and final issue of the Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society in 1997. After Steve Jackson Games licensed the Traveller setting, Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society was resurrected as an online magazine in 2000. Mongoose Publishing produced six volumes of Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society in 2020 as part of their Traveller licence. Name The Journal of the Travellers Aid Society takes its name from the fictional Travellers' Aid Society (TAS) that was first mentioned in the original incarnation of the Traveller game published by Game Designers Workshop [GDW]. In the original Traveller game, it was not too uncommon for characters to obtain membership in the TAS during character creation. The idea of the TAS is that it is an organization that exists to support what are basically 'transients,' or 'wanderers' ['Travellers' in the game's terminology] around the galaxy. It does so by maintaining low-cost hostels at many of the large starports, and, most importantly, by maintaining its 'rating system,' which warns of the dangers inherent in visiting certain worlds. Under this system, a world which should be approached with caution is denoted an 'Amber Zone,' and a world that should not be approached at all is denoted a 'Red Zone.' x§ Issues GDW 01 Annic Nova (1979) 02 Victoria (1979) 03 Asteroids (1979)
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Jackson Games licensed the Traveller setting, Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society was resurrected as an online magazine in 2000. Mongoose Publishing produced six volumes of Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society in 2020 as part of their Traveller licence. Name The Journal of the Travellers Aid Society takes its name from the fictional Travellers' Aid Society (TAS) that was first mentioned in the original incarnation of the Traveller game published by Game Designers Workshop [GDW]. In the original Traveller game, it was not too uncommon for characters to obtain membership in the TAS during character creation. The idea of the TAS is that it is an organization that exists to support what are basically 'transients,' or 'wanderers' ['Travellers' in the game's terminology] around the galaxy. It does so by maintaining low-cost hostels at many of the large starports, and, most importantly, by maintaining its 'rating system,' which warns of the dangers inherent in visiting certain worlds. Under this system, a world which should be approached with caution is denoted an 'Amber Zone,' and a world that should not be approached at all is denoted a 'Red Zone.' x§ Issues GDW 01 Annic Nova (1979) 02 Victoria (1979) 03 Asteroids (1979) 04 Gazelle Class Close Escorts (1980) 05 Imperium (1980) 06 Scouts (1980) 07 Starports (1981) 08 Broadsword Class Mercenary Cruisers (1981) 09 WAR! (1981) 10 Planet Building (1981) 11 Striker (1981) 12 Merchant Prince, including Special Supplement 1, Merchant Prince (1982 13 Hivers (1982) 14 Laws and Lawbreakers (1982) 15 Azun (1983) 16
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that any of the Privy Councillors actually hearing a particular appeal had to be a lawyer, it became possible for certain parties to appeals to secure desired judgments by persuading nonlawyer Privy Councillors to attend the hearings on their appeals. For these reasons, the Appeals Committee fell into disrepute among better-informed lawyers and judges in the colonies. In 1833, at the instigation of Lord Brougham, the Lord Chancellor, Parliament passed the Judicial Committee Act 1833. The Act established a statutory committee of the Privy Council, known as The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, to hear appeals to the King-in-Council. In addition to colonial appeals, later legislation gave the Judicial Committee appellate jurisdiction over a range of miscellaneous matters, such as patents, ecclesiastical matters, and prize suits. At its height, the Judicial Committee was said to be the court of final appeal for over a quarter of the world. In the twentieth century, the jurisdiction of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council shrank considerably, as British Dominions established their own courts of final appeal and as British colonies became independent, although many retained appeals to the Privy Council post-independence. Canada abolished Privy Council appeals in 1949, India and South Africa in 1950, and New Zealand in 2003. Currently, twelve Commonwealth countries outside of the United Kingdom retain Privy Council appeals, in addition to various British and New Zealand territories. The Judicial Committee also retains jurisdiction over a small number of domestic matters in the United Kingdom, reduced by the creation of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom in 2009. Jurisdiction Domestic jurisdiction The United Kingdom does not have a single highest national court; the Judicial Committee is the highest court of appeal in some cases, while in most others the highest court of appeal is the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. (In Scotland the highest court in criminal cases is the High Court of Justiciary; the Supreme Court is the highest court in civil cases and matters arising from Scottish devolution, the latter previously having been dealt with by the Judicial Committee.) The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council has jurisdiction in the following domestic matters: Appeals against schemes of the Church Commissioners (who control the estate of the Church of England). Appeals from the ecclesiastical courts (the Arches Court of Canterbury and the Chancery Court of York) in non-doctrinal faculty cases. Appeals from the High Court of Chivalry. Appeals from the Court of Admiralty of the Cinque Ports. Appeals from prize courts. Appeals from the Disciplinary Committee of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. Disputes under the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975. Additionally, the government may (through the Queen) refer any issue to the committee for "consideration and report" under section 4 of the Judicial Committee Act 1833. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is the court of final appeal for the Church of England. It hears appeals from the Arches Court of Canterbury and the Chancery Court of York, except on matters of doctrine, ritual or ceremony, which go to the Court for Ecclesiastical Causes Reserved. By the Church Discipline Act 1840 and the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 all archbishops and bishops of the Church of England became eligible to be members of the Judicial Committee. Prior to the coming into force of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the Privy Council was the court of last resort for devolution issues. On 1 October 2009 this jurisdiction was transferred to the new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. Authority of Privy Council decisions in domestic British courts Judgments of the Judicial Committee are not generally binding on courts within the United Kingdom, having only persuasive authority, but are binding on all courts within any other Commonwealth country from which an appeal is heard. Where a binding precedent of the UK Supreme Court, or of the House of Lords, or of the Court of Appeal conflicts with that of a decision of the Judicial Committee on English law, English courts are required to follow the domestic decision over that of the Judicial Committee except when the Judicial Committee has in its decision expressly directed the domestic court to follow its new decision. However, given the overlap between the membership of the Judicial Committee and of the Supreme Court, the decisions of the former are extremely persuasive and usually followed. Overseas jurisdiction The Judicial Committee holds jurisdiction in appeals from the following 32 jurisdictions (including twelve independent nations): Jurisdiction removed Judicial appeal of final resort has been assumed by other bodies in some current and former Commonwealth countries: The following countries or territories did not retain the jurisdiction of the Judicial Committee at the time of independence or of the transfer sovereignty from the United Kingdom: Burma (1948), Israel (1948), Somaliland (1960), Cyprus (1960), Zanzibar (1963), Zambia (1964), Rhodesia (1965), South Yemen (1967), Swaziland (1968), Seychelles (1976), Solomon Islands (1978), Vanuatu (1980), Hong Kong (1997) Composition Members The following are members of the Judicial Committee: Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (before the establishment of that court in 2009, the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary) Other Lords of Appeal (senior judges) from within the United Kingdom Privy Counsellors who are (or have been) judges of the Court of Appeal of England and Wales, the Inner House of the Court of Session in Scotland, or of the Court of Appeal in Northern Ireland Judges of certain superior courts in Commonwealth nations, who are appointed Privy Counsellors for the purpose of sitting in the JCPC The bulk of the Committee's work is done by the Supreme Court Justices, who are paid to work full-time in both the Supreme Court and the Privy Council. Overseas judges may not sit when certain UK domestic matters are being heard, but will often sit when appeals from their own countries are being heard. Registrars Henry Reeve, 1853–1887 Denison Faber, 1st Baron Wittenham, 1887–1896 Sir Thomas Raleigh, 1896–1899 Edward Stanley Hope, KCB, 1899–1909 Sir Charles Henry Lawrence Neish KBE CB, 1909–1934 Colin Smith MVO OBE, 1934–1940 Lieutenant-Colonel John Dallas Waters, CB, DSO, 1940–1954 Aylmer J. N. Paterson, 1954–1963 Leslie Upton CBE, 1963–1966 Eric Mills, 1966–1983 D. H. O. Owen, 1983–1998 John Watherston, 1998–2005 Mary Macdonald, 2005–2010 Louise di Mambro, 2011–present Until 1904 the Registrar of the Admiralty court was also Registrar to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in ecclesiastical and maritime causes. Procedure Most appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council are formally appeals to "Her Majesty in Council". Appeals from Brunei are formally to the Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan, while appeals from republics within the Commonwealth are directly to the Judicial Committee. Appeals are generally by leave of the local Court of Appeal, although the Judicial Committee retains discretionary power to grant leave to appeal as well. After hearing an appeal, the panel of judges which heard the case (known as "the Board") issues its decision in writing. For appeals to Her Majesty in Council, the decision is framed in the form of advice to Her Majesty, which is inevitably followed and given effect by being embodied in an Order in Council. Formerly, the Judicial Committee could only give a unanimous report, but since the Judicial Committee (Dissenting Opinions) Order 1966, dissenting opinions have been allowed. The Judicial Committee is not bound by its own previous decisions, but may depart from them in exceptional circumstances if following its previous decisions would be unjust or contrary to public policy. Location The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is based in London. From its establishment to 2009, it mainly met in the Privy Council Chamber in Downing Street, although increase in the Judicial Committee's business in the twentieth century required it to sit simultaneously in several panels, which met elsewhere. The Chamber, designed by John Soane, was often criticised for its interior design, and was extensively remodelled in 1845 by Sir Charles Barry. On 1 October 2009, the Judicial Committee moved to the former Middlesex Guildhall building, which had been refurbished in 2007 to provide a home for both the JCPC and the newly created Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.
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of the CCJ on 1 June 2010. As it stands, a few other CARICOM states appear to be ready for the abolition of appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the immediate future. The government of Jamaica in particular had come close and attempted to abolish appeals to the Judicial Committee without the support of the opposition in Parliament; however, it was ruled by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council that the procedure used in Jamaica to bypass the opposition was incorrect and unconstitutional. Another attempt will also be forthcoming. Caribbean governments have been coming under increased pressure from their electorates to devise ways to override previous rulings by the JCPC such as Pratt v A-G (Jamaica, 1993), R v Hughes (Saint Lucia, 2002), Fox v R (Saint Kitts and Nevis, 2002), Reyes v R (2002, Belize), Boyce v R (Barbados, 2004), and Matthew v S (Trinidad and Tobago, 2004), all of which are Privy Council judgments concerning the death penalty in the Caribbean region. The then President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers, has voiced displeasure with Caribbean and other Commonwealth countries continuing to rely on the British JCPC. During an interview Lord Phillips was quoted by the Financial Times as saying that in an ideal world' Commonwealth countries—including those in the Caribbean—would stop using the Privy Council and set up their own final courts of appeal instead". On 18 December 2006, the Judicial Committee made history when for the first time in more than 170 years it ventured outside London, holding a five-day sitting in the Bahamas. Lords Bingham, Brown, Carswell, and Scott, and Baroness Hale of Richmond, travelled to the Bahamas for the special sitting at the invitation of Dame Joan Sawyer, then the President of the Court of Appeal of the Bahamas; the Committee returned to the Bahamas in December 2007 for a second sitting. On the latter occasion, Lords Hope, Rodger, Walker, and Mance, and Sir Christopher Rose, heard several cases. At the end of the sitting, Lord Hope indicated that there may be future sittings of the Committee in the Bahamas, and the Committee has indeed sat in the Bahamas again, in 2009. The 2018 Antiguan constitutional referendum saw the proposal to replace the JCPC with the CCJ rejected by a 52.04% majority. Sri Lanka (Ceylon) Sri Lanka, formerly Ceylon, abolished appeals to the Privy Council in the Court of Appeal Act, 1971, which came into effect on 15 November 1971. Previously, the Privy Council had ruled in Ibralebbe v The Queen that it remained the highest court of appeal in Ceylon notwithstanding the country's independence as a Dominion in 1948. The Gambia The Gambia retained the right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council under the Gambia Independence Act 1964, even after The Gambia became a republic in the Commonwealth of Nations in April 1970 under Sir Dawda Jawara. Appeals were still taken to the JCPC from 1994 to 1998, when Yahya Jammeh, the then dictator and President of the Gambia decided to restructure the Gambian judiciary under the 1997 Constitution of the Gambia to replace the JCPC with the Supreme Court of the Gambia. The last case from The Gambia to the JCPC was West Coast Air Limited v. Gambia Civil Aviation Authority and Others UKPC 39 (15 September 1998). Grenada Grenadian appeals to the Privy Council were temporarily abolished from 1979 until 1991, as a result of the Grenadian Revolution, which brought Prime Minister Maurice Bishop to power. People's Law 84 was enacted to this effect. In 1985, Mitchell v DPP affirmed Grenada's right to unilaterally abolish appeals to the Privy Council. In 1991, Grenada restored the JCPC's jurisdiction. In 2016, there was a proposal in the 2016 Grenadian constitutional referendum to terminate appeals from Grenada to the JCPC and to replace the JCPC with the Caribbean Court of Justice. This was rejected by a 56.73% majority, which means the JCPC remains Grenada's highest court. Another referendum, the 2018 Grenadian constitutional referendum also rejected terminating appeals to the JCPC by a 55.2% majority. Guyana Guyana retained the right of appeal to the Privy Council until the government of Prime Minister Forbes Burnham passed the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (Termination of Appeals) Act 1970 and the Constitution (Amendment) Act 1973. Hong Kong Hong Kong's court system changed following the transfer of sovereignty from the United Kingdom to China on 1 July 1997, with the Court of Final Appeal serving as the highest judicial authority of the Special Administrative Region (SAR), and (pursuant to Article 158 of the Basic Law, the constitutional instrument of the SAR) the power of final interpretation vested not in the Court of Final Appeal of Hong Kong but in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of China. Decisions of the Privy Council on Hong Kong appeals before 1 July 1997 remain binding on the courts of Hong Kong. This accords with the principle of continuity of the legal system enshrined in Article 8 of the Basic Law. Decisions of the Privy Council on non-Hong Kong appeals are of persuasive authority only. Such decisions were not binding on the courts in Hong Kong under the doctrine of precedent before 1 July 1997 and are not binding today. Decisions of the House of Lords before 1 July 1997 stand in a similar position. It is of the greatest importance that the courts of Hong Kong should derive assistance from overseas jurisprudence, particularly from the final appellate courts of other common law jurisdictions. This is recognised by Article 84 of the Basic Law. Pursuant to Article 158 of the Basic Law, the power of final interpretation of the Basic Law is vested not in the Court of Final Appeal of Hong Kong but in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of China, which, unlike the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, is a political body rather than an independent and impartial tribunal of last resort. India India retained the right of appeal from the Federal Court of India to the Privy Council after the establishment of the Dominion of India. Following the replacement of the Federal Court with the Supreme Court of India in January 1950, the Abolition of Privy Council Jurisdiction Act 1949 came into effect, ending the right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Irish Free State The right of appeal to the Privy Council was provided for in the Constitution of the Irish Free State until its abolition in 1933 by an Act of the Oireachtas of the Irish Free State, amending said constitution. In Moore v Attorney-General of the Irish Free State the right of the Oireachtas to abolish appeals to the Privy Council was challenged as a violation of the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty. The then Attorney General for England and Wales (Sir Thomas Inskip) is reported to have warned the then Attorney-General of the Irish Free State (Conor Maguire) that the Irish Free State had no right to abolish appeals to the Privy Council. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council itself ruled that the Irish Free State Government had that right under the Statute of Westminster 1931 (Imp.). Jamaica In May 2015, the Jamaican House of Representatives approved, with the necessary two-thirds majority, bills to end legal appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council and make the Caribbean Court of Justice Jamaica's final court of appeal. The reform will be debated by the Jamaican Senate; however, the government needed the support of at least one opposition Senator for the measures to be approved by the required two-thirds majority. The 2016 general election was called before the reforms could be brought to the Senate for a final vote. The Jamaican Labour Party, which opposed the changes, won the election and has promised to hold a referendum on the issue. Malaysia Malaysia abolished appeals to the Privy Council in criminal and constitutional matters in 1978, and in civil matters in 1985. New Zealand New Zealand was the last of the original Dominions to remove appeals to the Privy Council from its legal system. Proposals to abolish appeals to the Privy Council in New Zealand were first put forward in the early 1980s. In October 2003, with respect to all cases heard by the Court of Appeal of New Zealand, New Zealand law was changed to abolish appeals to the Privy Council, after the end of 2003. The old system was replaced by the Supreme Court of New Zealand. In 2008, Prime Minister John Key ruled out any abolition of the Supreme Court and return to the Privy Council. However, judgment on the
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by his expected lover, Menglöð. How Thor Killed Geirröd The popular myth of how Thor killed the jötunn Geirröd has many variations, but all of them are caused by the trickster god Loki. Donning a suit of falcon feathers, Loki paid a visit to the jötunn's castle. When Geirröd saw the falcon, he knew right away that it was not a real falcon. Locked in a cage and starving, Loki revealed his identity. Geirröd released him on the condition that he bring Thor without his hammer to his castle. Loki readily agreed. Back in Asgard, Loki openly discussed the giant's eagerness to meet Thor to introduce his two beautiful daughters, Gjálp and Greip. Simple-minded Thor couldn't resist the temptation of meeting beautiful maidens. He agreed to Loki's suggestion of leaving his hammer behind. On the way to the castle, Thor and Loki had to stay overnight with a gentle giantess, Gríðr, who warned Thor of the danger Geirröd possessed. The giantess lent him her belt and her magic staff. Seeing the giantess Gjálp causing the water on Vimur river to rise, Thor used the magic staff to escape drowning, and then threw a rock at the giantess who fled. Thor and Loki arrived at the castle, where he was placed in a room with one chair. Weary from the travel, he sat down and closed his eyes. All at once, Thor was closing in on the ceiling. He thrust Gríðr's staff against the roof beam and pushed down. With the heavy weight and force of their guest, the giantess sisters, Gjálp and Greip, were crushed to death. Thor, displeased with everything that had happened, went to confront Geirröd. The giant raised his hand and threw a hot lump of iron at the thunder god. Using the iron gloves lent to him by Gríðr, Thor caught the hot iron and threw it back at the giant who hid behind a pillar. The hot ball went straight into the pillar, into the head of Geirröd, and finally rested deep into the earth. How Thor Lost His Hammer Thor, the god of thunder and storm, once lost his hammer, Mjölnir. With the loss of the mighty weapon, the only absolute defense of the Aesir against the giants, Asgard would be in much danger. Thor's angered shouts were heard by the trickster god, Loki, who knew that he must help this time. Thor and Loki sought out Freyja, a beautiful goddess, to borrow her suit of falcon feathers. Putting on the feathered coat, Loki flew to Jötunheimr. Loki met the king of the jötnar, Þrymr, who had admitted to the theft of Thor's hammer. Mjölnir was hidden deep beneath the earth. Loki flew back to Asgard and relayed the information to Thor. The gods convened a meeting to discuss how to get back the hammer. Heimdallr offered the solution to their problem. Thor was to be dressed in bridal clothes and meet Þrymr as Freyja. Upon hearing that Freyja was on her way, Þrymr ordered a grand feast in her honor. Seeing his bride consume large servings of food after food, Thrym was astounded by the fact. Loki reasoned "she" had not eaten or drunk for eight days due to her anxiety in meeting him. Elated, Thrym reached over to kiss his bride, but seeing the glaring eyes of Thor through the thin veil, he withdrew in disappointment. Loki explained that "Freyja" had not slept for eight nights in her excitement to come to Jötunheimr. Wanting the marriage to be done quickly, Thrym ordered for Mjölnir to be brought to his bride. Once Mjölnir was placed on his lap, Thor grabbed the hammer by its handle and slew every jötunn in sight. How Útgarða-Loki Outwitted Thor The tale of how Thor was outwitted by the giant Útgarða-Loki was one of the best known myths of Norse mythology. Thor, wanting to go to Utgard, the stronghold of the jötunn, traveled with Asgard's trickster god, Loki. Utgard was guarded by Útgarða-Loki, a known master of trickery. Thor and Loki were traveling to Jötunheimr, accompanied by Þjálfi and his sister, Röskva. They arrived to a vast forest and continued their journey through the woods until dark. The four seek shelter for the night and discover an immense building. Finding shelter in a side room, they experience earthquakes through the night. The earthquakes cause all four to be fearful, except Thor, who grips his hammer in defense. The building turns out to be the huge glove of Skrýmir, who has been snoring throughout the night, causing what seemed to be earthquakes. The next night, all four sleep beneath an oak tree near Skrýmir in fear. Thor wakes up in the middle of the night, and a series of events occur where Thor twice attempts to destroy the sleeping Skrýmir with his hammer. Skrýmir awakes after each attempt, only to say that he detected an acorn falling on his head or that he wonders if bits of tree from the branches above have fallen on top of him. The second attempt awakes Skrýmir. Skrýmir gives them advice; if they are going to be cocky at the castle of Útgarðr it would be better for them to turn back now, for Útgarða-Loki's men there won't put up with it. Skrýmir throws his knapsack onto his back and abruptly goes into the forest and "there is no report that the Æsir expressed hope for a happy
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inhabitants say doing so would be demeaning, considering Thor's weakness. Útgarða-Loki then calls for his nurse Elli, an old woman. The two wrestle but the harder Thor struggles the more difficult the battle becomes. Thor is finally brought down to a single knee. Útgarða-Loki said to Thor that fighting anyone else would be pointless. Now late at night, Útgarða-Loki shows the group to their rooms and they are treated with hospitality. The next morning the group gets dressed and prepares to leave the keep. Útgarða-Loki appears, has his servants prepare a table, and they all merrily eat and drink. As they leave, Útgarða-Loki asks Thor how he thought he fared in the contests. Thor says that he is unable to say he did well, noting that he is particularly annoyed that Útgarða-Loki will now speak negatively about him. Útgarða-Loki, once the group has left his keep, points out that he hopes that they never return to it, for if he had an inkling of what he was dealing with he would never have allowed the group to enter in the first place. Útgarða-Loki reveals that all was not what it seemed to the group. Útgarða-Loki was in fact the immense Skrýmir, and that if the three blows Thor attempted to land had hit their mark, the first would have killed Skrýmir. In reality, Thor's blows were so powerful that they had resulted in three square valleys. The contests, too, were an illusion. Útgarða-Loki reveals that Loki had actually competed against wildfire itself (Logi, Old Norse "flame"), Þjálfi had raced against thought (Hugi, Old Norse "thought"), Thor's drinking horn had actually reached to the ocean and with his drinks he lowered the ocean level (resulting in tides). The cat that Thor attempted to lift was in actuality the world serpent, Jörmungandr, and everyone was terrified when Thor was able to lift the paw of this "cat", for Thor had actually held the great serpent up to the sky. The old woman Thor wrestled was in fact old age (Elli, Old Norse "old age"), and there is no one that old age cannot bring down. Útgarða-Loki tells Thor that it would be better for "both sides" if they did not meet again. Upon hearing this, Thor takes hold of his hammer and swings it at Útgarða-Loki but he is gone and so is his castle. Only a wide landscape remains. The Abduction of Iðunn Unlike the Greek gods, the gods of Norse mythology were prone to aging. One day, the jötnar Þjazi, disguised as an eagle, swooped down and tricked Loki into bringing him Iðunn, the goddess who supplied magic apples to the gods and goddesses to stay young, in exchange for his life. Fearful of what the ancient giant would do to him, Loki agreed to the bargain. As soon as Loki reached Asgard, he went straight to the orchard tended by Iðunn and her husband, Bragi. He spun a lie of having found some apples in Midgard that looked the same as hers. Urging her to bring her own basket of apples to compare the two fruits, they departed for the world. When they crossed Bifrost, Þjazi swooped down and carried Iðunn away. The giant had locked her up in the highest tower in Þrymheimr. The gods and goddesses started aging. Summoning a meeting where every god was present except for Loki, the gods knew that Loki was up to no good. Upon finding the trickster god, he was ordered by Odin to bring back Iðunn and her apples or his life would be forfeited. Fleeing in terror, Loki sought out Freyja to borrow her suit of falcon feathers. Loki flew to Þrymheimr, where he found Iðunn alone and unguarded. Loki turned the goddess and her basket of apples into a nut and held her in his claws. At this time, Þjazi, in his eagle disguise, was following them. Odin, who saw everything, immediately ordered the gods to build a bonfire at the gates of Asgard. When Þjazi reached the walls, his body caught on fire, and he fell to the ground. The gods slew him with no mercy. Releasing Iðunn from the spell, the gods and goddesses were once again youthful. The Loss of Odin's Eye Mimir was an ancient being, notorious for his unparalleled wisdom. His dwelling was Mímisbrunnr ("Mímir's well"), a sacred well situated under one of the roots of the tree Yggdrasil in Jötunheimr. Odin, wanting to gain immense knowledge and wisdom, consulted all living beings. He ventured to the land of the giants and asked for a drink from the well. Mimir, knowing the value of the water, refused unless Odin offered one of his eyes. The chief god was ready to pay any price for the wisdom he desired, and so he agreed to the deal and sacrificed his eye. The eye was then placed in Mímisbrunnr. See also Geirröd - a giant who tried to kill Thor. Iðunn - a goddess who supplied the magic apples that kept the gods young. Jötunn - In Norse mythology, giant whose otherworldly homeland is Jötunheimr. Jotunheimen - the name of a large mountain range in Norway. The name Jotunheimen was first popularized by Aasmund Olafson Vinje, who spent much time in the area in the 1860s. Svipdagr - the human who wooed and won Menglöð. Thor - the god of thunder and storms. He wields a hammer called Mjölnir. Þrymheimr - In Norse mythology, the abode of Þjazi, located in Jötunheimr. Útgarða-Loki - In Norse mythology, ruler of the castle Útgarðr in Jötunheimr. He was the one who
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(English translation). His annotations are considered an important source of information on J. S. Bach's views on the fortepiano designs of Gottfried Silbermann, on the lute-harpsichord, and on organ building. Copyist Agricola is also noted in Bach studies as one of the copyists for both books of the Well-Tempered Clavier and the St. Matthew Passion. Composer Keyboard Ach, was soll ich Sünder machen Jauchzet, ihr Erlösten dem Herren Harpsichord Sonata in F major Organ Jesu, meine Freude Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott Auf meinen lieben Gott Erbarm dich mein, o Herre Gott Es ist das Heil uns kommen her Jauchzt, ihr Erlösten, dem Herren O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort Herr, ich habe mißgehandelt Herr Jesu Christ, ich weiß gar wohl Wer nur den lieben Gott läßt walten Ach, was soll ich Sünder machen O Traurigkeit, o Herzeleid Keinen hat Gott verlassen Herzliebster Jesu, was hast du verbrochen Freu dich sehr, o meine Seele Ich hab mein Sach Gott heimgestellt Chamber works Flute Sonata in A major Vocal works A la mignonne de fortune (song) L'accorto nocchiero (aria) Canzonetta, Les Rois d'Égypte 6 Canzonettes Cleofide Torna aprile e l'aure scherzano (aria) Choral works Die Hirten bei der Krippe, cantata for 4 voices, chorus & orchestra Kündlich gross ist das gottselige Geheimnis, cantata for 4 voices, chorus &
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added extensive commentary to the 1768 (posthumous) edition of Jakob Adlung's Musica mechanica organoedi (English translation). His annotations are considered an important source of information on J. S. Bach's views on the fortepiano designs of Gottfried Silbermann, on the lute-harpsichord, and on organ building. Copyist Agricola is also noted in Bach studies as one of the copyists for both books of the Well-Tempered Clavier and the St. Matthew Passion. Composer Keyboard Ach, was soll ich Sünder machen Jauchzet, ihr Erlösten dem Herren Harpsichord Sonata in F major Organ Jesu, meine Freude Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott Auf meinen lieben Gott Erbarm dich mein, o Herre Gott Es ist das Heil uns kommen her Jauchzt, ihr Erlösten, dem Herren O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort Herr, ich habe mißgehandelt Herr Jesu Christ, ich weiß gar wohl Wer nur den lieben Gott läßt walten Ach, was soll ich Sünder machen O Traurigkeit, o
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data for concluding with regard to that which is to happen thereafter." This restated the Scottish Enlightenment concept which David Hume had put in 1777 as "all inferences from experience suppose ... that the future will resemble the past", and Charles Lyell memorably rephrased in the 1830s as "the present is the key to the past". Hutton's 1788 paper concludes; "The result, therefore, of our present enquiry is, that we find no vestige of a beginning,–no prospect of an end." His memorably phrased closing statement has long been celebrated. (It was quoted in the 1989 song “No Control" by songwriter and professor Greg Graffin.) Following criticism, especially the arguments from Richard Kirwan who thought Hutton's ideas were atheistic and not logical, Hutton published a two volume version of his theory in 1795, consisting of the 1788 version of his theory (with slight additions) along with a lot of material drawn from shorter papers Hutton already had to hand on various subjects such as the origin of granite. It included a review of alternative theories, such as those of Thomas Burnet and Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon. The whole was entitled An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge and of the Progress of Reason, from Sense to Science and Philosophy when the third volume was completed in 1794. Its 2,138 pages prompted Playfair to remark that "The great size of the book, and the obscurity which may justly be objected to many parts of it, have probably prevented it from being received as it deserves.” Opposing theories His new theories placed him into opposition with the then-popular Neptunist theories of Abraham Gottlob Werner, that all rocks had precipitated out of a single enormous flood. Hutton proposed that the interior of the Earth was hot, and that this heat was the engine which drove the creation of new rock: land was eroded by air and water and deposited as layers in the sea; heat then consolidated the sediment into stone, and uplifted it into new lands. This theory was dubbed "Plutonist" in contrast to the flood-oriented theory. As well as combating the Neptunists, he also opened up the concept of deep time for scientific purposes, in opposition to Catastrophism. Rather than accepting that the earth was no more than a few thousand years old, he maintained that the Earth must be much older, with a history extending indefinitely into the distant past. His main line of argument was that the tremendous displacements and changes he was seeing did not happen in a short period of time by means of catastrophe, but that processes still happening on the Earth in the present day had caused them. As these processes were very gradual, the Earth needed to be ancient, to allow time for the changes. Before long, scientific inquiries provoked by his claims had pushed back the age of the earth into the millions of yearsstill too short when compared with the accepted 4.6-billion-year age in the 21st century, but a distinct improvement. Acceptance of geological theories It has been claimed that the prose of Principles of Knowledge was so obscure that it also impeded the acceptance of Hutton's geological theories. Restatements of his geological ideas (though not his thoughts on evolution) by John Playfair in 1802 and then Charles Lyell in the 1830s popularised the concept of an infinitely repeating cycle, though Lyell tended to dismiss Hutton's views as giving too much credence to catastrophic changes. Other contributions Meteorology It was not merely the earth to which Hutton directed his attention. He had long studied the changes of the atmosphere. The same volume in which his Theory of the Earth appeared contained also a Theory of Rain. He contended that the amount of moisture which the air can retain in solution increases with temperature, and, therefore, that on the mixture of two masses of air of different temperatures a portion of the moisture must be condensed and appear in visible form. He investigated the available data regarding rainfall and climate in different regions of the globe, and came to the conclusion that the rainfall is regulated by the humidity of the air on the one hand, and mixing of different air currents in the higher atmosphere on the other. Earth as a living entity Hutton taught that biological and geological processes are interlinked. James Lovelock, who developed the Gaia hypothesis in the 1970s, cites Hutton as saying that the Earth was a superorganism and that its proper study should be physiology. Lovelock writes that Hutton's view of the Earth was rejected because of the intense reductionism among 19th-century scientists. Evolution Hutton also advocated uniformitarianism for living creatures evolution, in a senseand even suggested natural selection as a possible mechanism affecting them: ...if an organised body is not in the situation and circumstances best adapted to its sustenance and propagation, then, in conceiving an indefinite variety among the individuals of that species, we must be assured, that, on the one hand, those which depart most from the best adapted constitution, will be the most liable to perish, while, on the other hand, those organised bodies, which most approach to the best constitution for the present circumstances, will be best adapted to continue, in preserving themselves and multiplying the individuals of their race.Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge, volume 2. Hutton gave the example that where dogs survived through "swiftness of foot and quickness of sight... the most defective in respect of those necessary qualities, would be the most subject to perish, and that those who employed them in greatest perfection... would be those who would
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what has actually been, we have data for concluding with regard to that which is to happen thereafter." This restated the Scottish Enlightenment concept which David Hume had put in 1777 as "all inferences from experience suppose ... that the future will resemble the past", and Charles Lyell memorably rephrased in the 1830s as "the present is the key to the past". Hutton's 1788 paper concludes; "The result, therefore, of our present enquiry is, that we find no vestige of a beginning,–no prospect of an end." His memorably phrased closing statement has long been celebrated. (It was quoted in the 1989 song “No Control" by songwriter and professor Greg Graffin.) Following criticism, especially the arguments from Richard Kirwan who thought Hutton's ideas were atheistic and not logical, Hutton published a two volume version of his theory in 1795, consisting of the 1788 version of his theory (with slight additions) along with a lot of material drawn from shorter papers Hutton already had to hand on various subjects such as the origin of granite. It included a review of alternative theories, such as those of Thomas Burnet and Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon. The whole was entitled An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge and of the Progress of Reason, from Sense to Science and Philosophy when the third volume was completed in 1794. Its 2,138 pages prompted Playfair to remark that "The great size of the book, and the obscurity which may justly be objected to many parts of it, have probably prevented it from being received as it deserves.” Opposing theories His new theories placed him into opposition with the then-popular Neptunist theories of Abraham Gottlob Werner, that all rocks had precipitated out of a single enormous flood. Hutton proposed that the interior of the Earth was hot, and that this heat was the engine which drove the creation of new rock: land was eroded by air and water and deposited as layers in the sea; heat then consolidated the sediment into stone, and uplifted it into new lands. This theory was dubbed "Plutonist" in contrast to the flood-oriented theory. As well as combating the Neptunists, he also opened up the concept of deep time for scientific purposes, in opposition to Catastrophism. Rather than accepting that the earth was no more than a few thousand years old, he maintained that the Earth must be much older, with a history extending indefinitely into the distant past. His main line of argument was that the tremendous displacements and changes he was seeing did not happen in a short period of time by means of catastrophe, but that processes still happening on the Earth in the present day had caused them. As these processes were very gradual, the Earth needed to be ancient, to allow time for the changes. Before long, scientific inquiries provoked by his claims had pushed back the age of the earth into the millions of yearsstill too short when compared with the accepted 4.6-billion-year age in the 21st century, but a distinct improvement. Acceptance of geological theories It has been claimed that the prose of Principles of Knowledge was so obscure that it also impeded the acceptance of Hutton's geological theories. Restatements of his geological ideas (though not his thoughts on evolution) by John Playfair in 1802 and then Charles Lyell in the 1830s popularised the concept of an infinitely repeating cycle, though Lyell tended to dismiss Hutton's views as giving too much credence to catastrophic changes. Other contributions Meteorology It was not merely the earth to which Hutton directed his attention. He had long studied the changes of the atmosphere. The same volume in which his Theory of the Earth appeared contained also a Theory of Rain. He contended that the amount of moisture which the air can retain in solution increases with temperature, and, therefore, that on the mixture of two masses of air of different temperatures a portion of the moisture must be condensed and appear in visible form. He investigated the available data regarding rainfall and climate in different regions of the globe, and came to the conclusion that the rainfall is regulated by the humidity of the air on the one hand, and mixing of different air currents in the higher atmosphere on the other. Earth as a living entity Hutton taught that biological and geological processes are interlinked. James Lovelock, who developed the Gaia hypothesis in the 1970s, cites Hutton as saying that the Earth was a superorganism and that its proper study should be physiology. Lovelock writes that Hutton's view of the Earth was rejected because of the intense reductionism among 19th-century scientists. Evolution Hutton also advocated uniformitarianism for living creatures evolution, in a senseand even suggested natural selection as a possible mechanism affecting them: ...if an organised body is not in the situation and circumstances best adapted to its sustenance and propagation, then, in conceiving an indefinite variety among the individuals of that species, we must be assured, that, on the one hand, those which depart most from the best adapted constitution, will be the most liable to perish, while, on the other hand, those organised bodies, which most approach to the best constitution for the present circumstances, will be best adapted to continue, in preserving themselves and multiplying the individuals of their race.Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge, volume 2. Hutton gave the example that where dogs survived through "swiftness of foot and quickness of sight... the most defective in respect of those necessary qualities, would be the most subject to perish, and that those who employed them in greatest perfection... would be those who would remain, to preserve themselves, and to continue the race". Equally, if an acute sense of smell became "more necessary to the sustenance of the animal... the same principle [would] change the qualities of the animal, and.. produce a race of well scented hounds, instead of those who catch their prey by swiftness". The same "principle of variation" would influence "every species of plant, whether growing in a forest or a meadow". He came to his ideas as the result of experiments in plant and animal breeding, some of which he outlined in an unpublished manuscript, the Elements of Agriculture. He distinguished between heritable variation as the result of breeding, and non-heritable variations caused by environmental differences such as soil and climate. Though he saw his "principle of variation" as explaining the development of varieties, Hutton rejected the idea that evolution might originate species as a "romantic fantasy", according to palaeoclimatologist Paul Pearson. Influenced by deism, Hutton thought the mechanism allowed species to form varieties better adapted to particular conditions and provided evidence of benevolent design in nature. Studies of Charles Darwin's notebooks have shown that Darwin arrived separately at the idea of natural selection which he set out in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, but it has been speculated that he had some half-forgotten memory from his time as a student in Edinburgh of ideas of selection in nature as set out by Hutton, and by William Charles Wells and Patrick Matthew who had both been associated with the city before publishing their ideas on the topic early in the 19th century. Works 1785. Abstract of a dissertation read in the Royal Society of Edinburgh, upon the seventh of March, and fourth of April, MDCCLXXXV, Concerning the System of the Earth, Its Duration, and Stability. Edinburgh. 30pp. at Oxford Digital Library. 1788.The theory of rain. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 1, Part 2, pp. 41–86. 1788. Theory of the Earth; or an investigation of the laws observable in the composition, dissolution, and restoration of land upon the Globe. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 1, Part 2, pp. 209–304. at Internet Archive. 1792. Dissertations on different subjects in natural philosophy. Edinburgh & London: Strahan & Cadell. at Google Books 1794. Observations on granite. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 3, pp. 77–81. 1794. A dissertation upon the philosophy of light, heat, and fire. Edinburgh: Cadell, Junior, Davies. at e-rara (ETH-Bibliothek) 1794. An investigation of the principles of knowledge and of the progress of reason, from sense to science and philosophy. Edinburgh: Strahan & Cadell. at (VIRGO) University of Virginia Library) 1795. Theory of the Earth; with proofs and illustrations. Edinburgh: Creech. 3 vols. at e-rara (ETH-Bibliothek) 1797. Elements of Agriculture. Unpublished manuscript. 1899. Theory of the Earth; with proofs and illustrations, vol III, Edited by Sir Archibald Geikie. Geological Society, Burlington House, London. at Internet Archive Recognition A street was named after Hutton in the Kings Buildings complex (a series of science buildings linked to Edinburgh University) in the early 21st century. The punk band Bad
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works. He returned to Ireland in 1723. Abbadie's income as dean of Killaloe was so small that he could not afford a literary amanuensis; and Hugh Boulter, archbishop of Armagh, having appealed in vain to Lord Carteret, the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, on Abbadie's behalf, gave him a letter of introduction to Dr. Edmund Gibson, bishop of London, and Abbadie left Ireland. He established himself at Marylebone. He died at his lodgings at Marylebone on Monday, 25 September 1727, aged 73. Works Abbadie is best known by his religious treatises, several of which were translated from the original French into other languages and had a wide circulation throughout Europe. The most important of these are Traite de la verité de la religion chrétienne (1684); its continuation, Traité de la divinité de Jesus-Christ (1689); and L'Art de se connaitre soi-meme (1692). While at Berlin, he made several visits to the Netherlands, in 1684, 1686, and 1688, chiefly for the purpose of superintending the printing of several of his works, including the Traité de la Vérité, 1684. The book went through a vast number of editions and was translated into several languages, an English version, by Henry Lussan, appearing in 1694. Completed by a third volume, the Traité de la Divinité de Nôtre Seigneur Jésus-Christ, it appeared at Rotterdam, 1689. An English translation, entitled A Sovereign Antidote against Arian Poyson, appeared in London, 1719, and again "revised, corrected, and, in a few places, abridged", by Abraham Booth, under the title of The Deity of Jesus Christ essential to the Christian Religion, 1777. The entire apology for Christianity formed by the three volumes of the Traité, which combated severally the heresies of atheism, deism, and Socinianism, was received with praise. La Vérité de la Religion Chrétienne Réformée (1717) was a controversial treatise which in its four parts attacks the characteristic doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church; it was translated into English, for the use of the Roman Catholics of his diocese of Dromore, by Dr. Ralph Lambert, afterwards bishop of Meath. The work was completed in 1723 in Le Triomphe de la Providence et de la Religion; ou, l'Ouverture des sept Seaux par le Fils de Dieu, où l'on trouvera la première partie de l'Apocalypse clairement expliquée par ce qu'il y a de plus connu dans l'Histoire et de moins contesté dans la Parole de Dieu. Avec une nouvelle et très-sensible Démonstration de la Vérité de la Religion Chrétienne. It was in the Irish camp with Schomberg that Abbadie commenced one of his most successful works, which was published at Rotterdam in 1692, as L'Art de se connoître soi-même; ou, La Recherche des Sources de la Morale, and went through many editions and amplifications. Translations of this work into other languages include a popular English version by the Rev. Thomas Woodcock, The Art of Knowing One-self, 1694.
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his palace to be prepared for the congregation, and the services were frequently attended by the younger members of his family. Abbadie's arrival in Berlin has been variously assigned to the years 1680 and 1681. During seven or eight years he used his increasing favour with the elector to relieve the distress of the refugees from France, and especially from his native province of Béarn. Abbadie continued to occupy his pastorate at Berlin until the death of the great elector, which took place 29 April 1688. He then accompanied Marshal Schomberg to England in 1688, and the following year became minister of the French Church of the Savoy, London. In the autumn of 1689 he went to Ireland with the marshal. After the Battle of the Boyne, Abbadie returned to London. He subsequently published a revised version of the French translation of the English liturgy used at this church, with an epistle dedicatory to George I. He was often appointed to deliver occasional discourses, both in London and Dublin, but his lack of facility in English prevented his preferment in England, and also excluded him from the deanery of St. Patrick's, Dublin, to which William III wished to promote him. Abbadie's health suffered from devotion to his duties in the Savoy and from the English climate. He therefore settled in Ireland, and in 1699 the deanery of Killaloe was conferred on him by the king. whose favour he had attracted by a vindication of the Revolution of 1688. The remainder of Abbadie's life was spent in writing and preaching, and in the performance—not too sedulous, for he was frequently absent from his benefice—of the ordinary duties of his office, varied by visits to England and to Holland, where most of his books were printed. Abbadie visited Holland to see his La Vérité through the press, and stayed more than three years in Amsterdam, 1720–23, during the preparation of Le Triomphe and other works. He returned to Ireland in 1723. Abbadie's income as dean of Killaloe was so small that he could not afford a literary amanuensis; and Hugh Boulter, archbishop of Armagh, having appealed in vain to Lord Carteret, the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, on Abbadie's behalf, gave him a letter of introduction to Dr. Edmund Gibson, bishop of London, and Abbadie left Ireland. He established himself at Marylebone. He died at his lodgings at Marylebone on Monday, 25 September 1727, aged 73. Works Abbadie is best known by his religious treatises, several of which were translated from the original French into other languages and had a wide circulation throughout Europe. The most important of these are Traite de la verité de la religion chrétienne (1684); its continuation, Traité de la divinité de Jesus-Christ (1689); and L'Art de se connaitre soi-meme (1692). While at Berlin, he made several visits to the Netherlands, in 1684, 1686, and 1688, chiefly for the purpose of superintending the printing of several of his works, including the Traité de la Vérité, 1684. The book went through a vast number of editions and was translated into several languages, an English version, by Henry Lussan, appearing in 1694. Completed by a third volume, the Traité de la Divinité de Nôtre Seigneur Jésus-Christ, it appeared at Rotterdam, 1689. An English translation, entitled A Sovereign Antidote against Arian Poyson, appeared in London, 1719, and again "revised, corrected, and, in a few places, abridged", by Abraham Booth, under the title of The Deity of Jesus Christ essential to the Christian Religion, 1777. The entire apology for Christianity formed by the three volumes of the Traité, which combated severally the heresies of atheism, deism, and Socinianism, was received with praise. La Vérité de la Religion Chrétienne Réformée (1717) was a controversial treatise which in its four parts attacks the characteristic doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church; it was translated into English, for the use of the Roman Catholics of his diocese of Dromore, by Dr. Ralph Lambert, afterwards bishop of Meath. The work was completed in 1723 in Le Triomphe de la Providence et de la Religion; ou, l'Ouverture des sept Seaux
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his last few appearances for the 81st Academy Awards, 50 Years of Movies & Music (a Michel Legrand special), Till Luck Do Us Part 2 (2013), The Talk, The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, The World Over with Raymond Arroyo, The Trust (2016), his final film Max Rose (2016), WTF with Marc Maron and Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee. Video assist and film class During the 1960 production of The Bellboy, Lewis pioneered the technique of using video cameras and multiple closed circuit monitors, which allowed him to review his performance instantly. This was necessary since he was acting as well as directing. His techniques and methods of filmmaking, documented in his book and his USC class, enabled him to complete most of his films on time and under budget since reshoots could take place immediately instead of waiting for the dailies. Man in Motion, a featurette for Three on a Couch, features the video system, named "Jerry's Noisy Toy" and shows Lewis receiving the Golden Light Technical Achievement award for its development. Lewis stated he worked with the head of Sony to produce the prototype. While he initiated its practice and use, and was instrumental in its development, he did not hold a patent. This practice is now commonplace in filmmaking. Starting in 1967, Lewis taught a film directing class at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles for a number of years. His students included George Lucas, whose friend Steven Spielberg sometimes sat in on classes. Lewis screened Spielberg's early film Amblin' and told his students, "That's what filmmaking is all about." The class covered all topics related to filmmaking, including pre and post production, marketing and distribution and filming comedy with rhythm and timing. His 1971 book The Total Film Maker, was based on 480 hours of his class lectures. Also, Lewis traveled to medical schools for seminars on laughter and healing with Dr. Clifford Kuhn and also did corporate and college lectures, motivational speaking and promoted the pain-treatment company Medtronic. Acclaim and exposure in France While Lewis was popular in France for his duo films with Dean Martin and his solo comedy films, his reputation and stature increased after the Paramount contract, when he began to exert total control over all aspects of his films. His involvement in directing, writing, editing and art direction coincided with the rise of auteur theory in French intellectual film criticism and the French New Wave movement. He earned consistent praise from French critics in the influential magazines Cahiers du Cinéma and Positif, where he was hailed as an ingenious auteur. His singular mise-en-scène, and skill behind the camera, were aligned with Howard Hawks, Alfred Hitchcock and Satyajit Ray. Appreciated too, was the complexity of his also being in front of the camera. The new French criticism viewed cinema as an art form unto itself, and comedy as part of this art. Lewis is then fitted into a historical context and seen as not only worthy of critique, but as an innovator and satirist of his time. Jean-Pierre Coursodon states in a 1975 Film Comment article, "The merit of the French critics, auteurist excesses notwithstanding, was their willingness to look at what Lewis was doing as a filmmaker for what it was, rather than with some preconception of what film comedy should be." Not yet curricula at universities or art schools, film studies and film theory were avant-garde in early 1960s America. Mainstream movie reviewers such as Pauline Kael, were dismissive of auteur theory, and others, seeing only absurdist comedy, criticized Lewis for his ambition and "castigated him for his self-indulgence" and egotism. Despite this criticism often being held by American film critics, admiration for Lewis and his comedy continued to grow in France. Appreciation of Lewis became a misunderstood stereotype about "the French", and it was often the object of jokes in American pop culture. "That Americans can't see Jerry Lewis' genius is bewildering," says N. T. Binh, a French film magazine critic. Such bewilderment was the basis of the book Why the French Love Jerry Lewis. In response to the lingering perception that French audiences adored him, Lewis stated in interviews he was more popular in Germany, Japan and Australia. Muscular dystrophy cause and criticism As a humanitarian, philanthropist and "number one volunteer", Lewis supported fundraising for research into muscular dystrophy. In 1951, he and Martin made their first appeal for the Muscular Dystrophy Association (simply known as MDA and formerly as the Muscular Dystrophy Associations of America and MDAA) in early December on the finale of The Colgate Comedy Hour. In 1952, after another appeal, Lewis hosted New York area telethons until 1959 and in 1954, fought Rocky Marciano in a boxing bout for MDA's fund drive. After being named national chairman in 1956, Lewis began hosting and emceeing The Jerry Lewis MDA Labor Day Telethon in 1966 and aired every Labor Day weekend for six decades. Ed McMahon, announcer of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and host of Star Search, began his involvement in the telethon in 1968, before co-anchoring with Lewis from 1973 to 2008. The show originated from different locations including New York, Las Vegas and Hollywood, becoming the most successful fundraising event in the history of television. It was the first to: raise over $1 million, in 1966; be shown entirely in color, in 1967; become a networked telethon, in 1968; go coast-to-coast, in 1970; be seen outside the continental U.S., in 1972. It: raised the largest sum ever in a single event for humanitarian purposes, in 1974; had the greatest amount ever pledged to a televised charitable event, in 1980 (from the Guinness Book of World Records); was the first to be seen by 100 million people, in 1985; celebrated its 25th anniversary, in 1990; saw its highest pledge in history, in 1992; and was the first seen worldwide via internet simulcast, in 1998. By 1990, pop culture had shifted its view of disabled individuals and the telethon format. Lewis and the telethon's methods were criticized by disabled-rights activists who believed the show was "designed to evoke pity rather than empower the disabled". The activists said the telethon perpetuated prejudices and stereotypes, that Lewis treated those he claimed to be helping with little respect, and that he used offensive language when describing them. The songs "Smile" (by Charlie Chaplin), "What the World Needs Now Is Love" (by Jackie DeShannon) and "You'll Never Walk Alone" (by Rodgers and Hammerstein) have been long associated with the telethon. In December 1996, Lewis and MDA were recognized by the American Medical Association with Lifetime Achievement Awards for significant and lasting contributions to the health and welfare of humanity. His motto summed up the philosophy behind his years of devotion to MDA: "I shall pass through this world but once. Any good, therefore, that I can do or any kindness that I can show to any human being, let me do it now. Let me not defer nor neglect it, for I shall not pass this way again". Lewis rebutted the criticism and defended his methods saying, "If you don't tug at their heartstrings, then you're on the air for nothing." The activist protests represented a very small minority of countless MDA patients and clients who had directly benefitted from Lewis's MDA fundraising. He received a Nobel Peace Prize nomination in 1977, a Governors Award in 2005 and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award in 2009, in recognition of his fight and efforts with the Muscular Dystrophy Association. On August 3, 2011, it was announced that Lewis would no longer host the MDA telethons and that he was no longer associated with the Muscular Dystrophy Association. A tribute to Lewis was held during the 2011 telethon (which originally was to be his final show bearing his name with MDA). On May 1, 2015, it was announced that in view of "the new realities of television viewing and philanthropic giving", the telethon was being discontinued. In early 2016, at MDA's brand re-launch event at Carnegie Hall in New York City, Lewis broke a five-year silence during a special taped message for the organization on its website, marking his first (and as it turned out, his final) appearance in support of MDA since his final telethon in 2010 and the end of his tenure as national chairman in 2011. Lewis raised an estimated $2.6 billion in donations for the cause. MDA's website states, "Jerry's love, passion and brilliance are woven throughout this organization, which he helped build from the ground up, courted sponsors for MDA, appeared at openings of MDA care and research centers, addressed meetings of civic organizations, volunteers and the MDA Board of Directors, successfully lobbied Congress for federal neuromuscular disease research funds, made countless phone calls and visits to families served by MDA. During Lewis's lifetime, MDA-funded scientists discovered the causes of most of the diseases in the Muscular Dystrophy Association's program, developing treatments, therapies and standards of care that have allowed many people living with these diseases to live longer and grow stronger. Over 200 research and treatment facilities were built with donations raised by the Jerry Lewis Telethons. Non-career activities Lewis opened a camera shop in 1950. In 1969 he agreed to lend his name to "Jerry Lewis Cinemas", offered by National Cinema Corporation as a franchise business opportunity for those interested in theatrical movie exhibition. Jerry Lewis Cinemas stated that their theaters could be operated by a staff of as few as two with the aid of automation and support provided by the franchiser in booking film and other aspects of film exhibition. A forerunner of the smaller rooms typical of later multi-screen complexes, a Jerry Lewis Cinema was billed in franchising ads as a "mini-theatre" with a seating capacity of between 200 and 350. In addition to Lewis's name, each Jerry Lewis Cinemas bore a sign with a cartoon logo of Lewis in profile. Initially 158 territories were franchised, with a buy-in fee of $10,000 or $15,000 depending on the territory, for what was called an "individual exhibitor". For $50,000, Jerry Lewis Cinemas offered an opportunity known as an "area directorship", in which investors controlled franchising opportunities in a territory as well as their own cinemas. The success of the chain was hampered by a policy of only booking second-run, family-friendly films.Eventually the policy was changed, and the Jerry Lewis Cinemas were allowed to show more competitive movies. But after a decade the chain failed and both Lewis and National Cinema Corporation declared bankruptcy in 1980. In 1973, Lewis appeared on the 1st annual 20-hour Highway Safety Foundation telethon, hosted by Davis Jr. and Monty Hall. In 1990, Lewis wrote and directed a short film for UNICEF's How Are The Children? anthology exploring the rights of children worldwide. The eight-minute segment, titled Boy, was about a young white child in a black world and being subjected to quiet, insidious racism, and outright racist bullying. In 2010, Lewis met with seven-year-old Lochie Graham, who shared his idea for "Jerry's House", a place for vulnerable and traumatized children. Lewis and Graham entered into a joint partnership for an Australian and a U.S.-based charity and began raising funds to build the facility in Melbourne. On September 12, 2016, Lewis lent his name and star power to Criss Angel's HELP (Heal Every Life Possible) charity event. Political views Lewis kept a low political profile for many years, having taken advice reportedly given to him by President John F. Kennedy, who told him, "Don't get into anything political. Don't do that because they will usurp your energy." Nevertheless, he campaigned and performed on behalf of both JFK and Robert F. Kennedy. Lewis was a supporter of the Civil Rights Movement. For his 1957 NBC special, Lewis held his ground when southern affiliates objected to his stated friendship with Sammy Davis Jr. In a 1971 Movie Mirror magazine article, Lewis spoke out against the Vietnam War when his son Gary returned from service traumatized. He vowed to leave the country rather than send another of his sons. Lewis once stated political speeches should not be at the Oscars. He stated, "I think we are the most dedicated industry in the world. And I think that we have to present ourselves that night as hard-working, caring and important people to the industry. We need to get more self-respect as an industry". In a 2004 interview with The Guardian, Lewis was asked what he was least proud of, to which he answered, "Politics". Not his politics, but the world's politics – the madness, the destruction, the general lack of respect. He lamented citizens' lack of pride in their country, stating, "President Bush is my president. I will not say anything negative about the president of the United States. I don't do that. And I don't allow my children to do that. Likewise when I come to England don't you do any jokes about 'Mum' to me. That is the Queen of England, you moron. Do you know how tough a job it is to be the Queen of England?" In a December 2015 interview on EWTN's World Over with Raymond Arroyo, Lewis expressed opposition to the United States letting in Syrian refugees, saying, "No one has worked harder for the human condition than I have, but they're not part of the human condition if 11 guys in that group of 10,000 are ISIS. How can I take that chance?" In the same interview, he criticized President Barack Obama for not being prepared for ISIS, while expressing support for Donald Trump, saying he would make a good president because he was a good "showman". He also added that he admired Ronald Reagan's presidency. Controversies In 1998, at the Aspen U.S. Comedy Arts Festival, when asked which women comics he admired, Lewis answered, "I don't like any female comedians. A woman doing comedy doesn't offend me but sets me back a bit. I, as a viewer, have trouble with it. I think of her as a producing machine that brings babies in the world." He later clarified his statements saying, "Seeing a woman project the kind of aggression that you have to project as a comic just rubs me wrong. I cannot sit and watch a lady diminish her qualities to the lowest common denominator." Lewis explained his attitude as that of an older generation and said women are funny, but not when performing "broad" or "crude" humor. He went on to praise Lucille Ball as "brilliant" and said Carol Burnett is "the greatest female entrepreneur of comedy". On other occasions Lewis expressed admiration for female comedians Totie Fields, Phyllis Diller, Kathleen Freeman, Elayne Boosler, Whoopi Goldberg and Tina Fey. During the 2007 MDA Telethon, Lewis used the word "fag" in a joke, for which he apologized. Lewis used the same word the following year on Australian television. Personal life Relationships and children Lewis wed Patti Palmer (later Lewis, née Esther Grace Calonico; 1921–2021), an Italian American singer with Ted Fio Rito, on October 3, 1944, and the two had six children together—five biological: Gary Levitch (later Lewis) (born 1945); Scott (born 1956); Christopher (born 1957); Anthony (born 1959); and Joseph (1964–2009) – and one adopted, Ronald (born 1949). It was an interfaith marriage; Lewis was Jewish and Palmer was Catholic. While married to Palmer, Lewis openly pursued relationships with other women and gave unapologetic interviews about his infidelity, revealing his affairs with Marilyn Monroe and Marlene Dietrich to People in 2011. Palmer filed for divorce from Lewis in 1980, after 35 years of marriage, citing Lewis's extravagant spending and infidelity on his part, and it was finalized in 1983. All of Lewis's children and grandchildren from his marriage to Palmer were excluded from inheriting any part of his estate. His eldest son, Gary, publicly called his father a "mean and evil person" and said that Lewis never showed him or his siblings any love or care. Lewis's second wife was Sandra "SanDee" Pitnick, a UNCSA professionally trained ballerina and stewardess, who met Lewis after winning a bit part in a dancing scene on his film Hardly Working. They were wed on February 13, 1983, in Key Biscayne, Florida, and had one child together, an adopted daughter named Danielle (born 1992). They were married for 34 years until his death. Patti Lewis died on January 15, 2021, at age 99. Stalking incident In February 1994, a man named Gary Benson was revealed to have been stalking Lewis and his family. Benson subsequently served four years in prison. Sexual assault allegations In February 2022, Vanity Fair published a special issue detailing several women who accused Lewis of various acts ranging from sexual harassment, sexual assault and rape. The claims come from seven actresses who worked with him in the 1960s. These actresses were identified as Karen Sharpe, Renée Taylor, Hope Holiday, Jill St. John, Connie Stevens, Anna Maria Alberghetti, and Lainie Kazan. Illness and death Lewis suffered from a number of chronic health problems, illnesses and addictions related both to aging and a back injury sustained in a comedic pratfall. The fall has been stated as being either from a piano while performing at the Sands Hotel and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip on March 20, 1965, or during an appearance on The Andy Williams Show. In its aftermath, Lewis became addicted to the painkiller Percodan for thirteen years. He said he had been off the drug since 1978. In April 2002, Lewis had a Medtronic "Synergy" neurostimulator implanted in his back, which helped reduce the discomfort. He was one of the company's leading spokesmen. Lewis suffered numerous heart problems throughout his life; he revealed in the 2011 documentary Method to the Madness of Jerry Lewis that he suffered his first heart attack at age 34 while filming Cinderfella in 1960. In December 1982, he had another heart attack. Two months later, in February 1983, Lewis underwent open-heart double-bypass surgery. En route to San Diego from New York City on a cross-country commercial airline flight on June 11, 2006, Lewis suffered his third heart attack. It was discovered that he had pneumonia, as well as a severely damaged heart. He underwent a cardiac catheterization days after the heart attack, and two stents were inserted into one of his coronary arteries, which was 90 percent blocked. The surgery resulted in increased blood flow to his heart and allowed him to continue his rebound from earlier lung problems. Having the cardiac catheterization required him to cancel several major events from his schedule, but Lewis fully recuperated in a matter of weeks. In 1999, Lewis's Australian tour was cut short when he had to be hospitalized in Darwin with viral meningitis. He was ill for more than five months. It was reported in the Australian press that he had failed to pay his medical bills. However, Lewis maintained that the payment confusion was the fault of his health insurer. The resulting negative publicity caused him to sue his insurer for US$100 million. In addition to his decades-long heart problems, Lewis had prostate cancer, type 1 diabetes, and pulmonary fibrosis. In the late 1990s, Lewis was treated with prednisone for pulmonary fibrosis, which caused considerable weight gain and a startling change in his appearance. In September 2001, Lewis was unable to perform at a planned London charity event at the London Palladium. He was the headlining act, and was introduced, but did not appear onstage. He had suddenly become unwell, apparently with cardiac problems. He was subsequently taken to hospital. Some months thereafter, Lewis began an arduous, months-long therapy that weaned him off prednisone, and he lost much of the weight gained while on the drug. The treatment enabled him to return to work. On June 12, 2012, he was treated and released from a hospital after collapsing from hypoglycemia at a New York Friars Club event. This forced him to cancel a show in Sydney. In an October 2016 interview with Inside Edition, Lewis acknowledged that he might not star in any more films, given his advanced age, while admitting, through tears, that he was afraid of dying, as it would leave his wife and daughter alone. In June 2017, Lewis was hospitalized at a Las Vegas hospital for a urinary tract infection. Lewis died at his home in Las Vegas, Nevada, on August 20, 2017, at the age of 91. The cause was end-stage cardiac disease and peripheral artery disease. Lewis was cremated. In his will, Lewis left his estate to his second wife of 34 years, SanDee Pitnick, and their daughter, and explicitly disinherited his children from his first marriage and their children. Comedic style Lewis "single-handedly created a style of humor that was half anarchy, half excruciation. Even comics who never took a pratfall in their careers owe something to the self-deprecation Jerry introduced into American show business." His self-deprecating style can be found in comics such as Larry David and David Letterman. Lewis's comedy style was physically uninhibited, expressive, and potentially volatile. He was known especially for his distinctive voice, facial expressions, pratfalls, and physical stunts. His improvisations and ad-libbing, especially in nightclubs and early television were revolutionary among performers. It was "marked by a raw, edgy energy that would distinguish him within the comedy landscape". Will Sloan, of Flavorwire wrote, "In the late '40s and early '50s, nobody had ever seen a comedian as wild as Jerry Lewis." Placed in the context of the conservative era, his antics were radical and liberating, paving the way for future comedians Steve Martin, Richard Pryor, Andy Kaufman, Paul Reubens, and Jim Carrey. Carrey wrote: "Through his comedy, Jerry would stretch the boundaries of reality so far that it was an act of anarchy ... I learned from Jerry", and "I am because he was". Acting the bumbling 'everyman', Lewis used tightly choreographed, sophisticated sight gags, physical routines, verbal double-talk and malapropisms. "You cannot help but notice Lewis' incredible sense of control in regards to performing—they may have looked at times like the ravings of a madman but his best work had a genuine grace and finesse behind it that would put most comedic performers of any era to shame." They are "choreographed as exactly as any ballet, each movement and gesture coming on natural beats and conforming to the overall rhythmic form which is headed to a spectacular finale: absolute catastrophe." Drawing from his childhood traumas, Lewis crafted a complex comedic persona that involved four social aspects: sexuality, gender, race/ethnicity, and disability. Through these social aspects, he challenged norms, was misrepresented, and was heavily criticized. During his Martin and Lewis years, he challenged what it meant to be a heterosexual male. Not afraid to display sensitivity and a childlike innocence, he pushed aside heterosexual normality and embraced distorted conventions. This did not sit well with some critics who thought his actions were appalling and what were then considered effeminate. Lewis's feminine movement suggested a common gay stereotype of the era, though the intention was to represent the girl-crazy sexual panic of an inexperienced young man. In the Martin and Lewis duo, Lewis's comedic persona was viewed as effeminate, weak, and inexperienced, which in turn made the Martin persona look masculine, strong, and worldly. The Lewis character was unconventional, in regards to gender, and that challenged what masculinity was. There are a few Martin and Lewis films that present the Lewis character in gender-swapped roles, but it was Lewis's solo films that posed questions about gender and gender roles. Apart from Cinderfella (1960) that cast him in the Cinderella role, films such as Rock-A-Bye Baby (1958) and The Geisha Boy (1958) showed his interactions with children that put him less in the authoritative father role and placed him more in the nurturing mother role. In the 1965 film The Family Jewels, Lewis takes on the dual role as protector, the father role, and nurturer, the mother role. Through his comedic persona and films, he showed that a man can take on what are considered feminine traits without that being a threat to his masculinity. Although Lewis made it no secret that he was Jewish, he was criticized for hiding his Jewish heritage. In several of his films — both with Martin and solo — Lewis' Jewish identity is hinted at in passing, and was never made a defining characteristic of his onscreen persona. Aside from the 1959 television movie The Jazz Singer and the unreleased 1972 film The Day the Clown Cried, Lewis never appeared in a film or film role that had any ties to his Jewish heritage. When asked about this lack of Jewish portrayal in a 1984 interview, Lewis stated, "I never hid it, but I wouldn't announce it and I wouldn't exploit it. Plus the fact it had no room in the visual direction I was taking in my work." Lewis' physical movements in films received some criticism because he was perceived as imitating or mocking those with a physical disability. Through the years, the disability that has been attached to his comedic persona has not been physical, but mental. Neuroticism and schizophrenia have been a part of Lewis's persona since his partnership with Dean Martin; however, it was in his solo career that these disabilities became important to the plots of his films and the characters. In films such as The Ladies Man (1961), The Disorderly Orderly (1964), The Patsy (1964) and Cracking Up (1983), there is either neuroticism, schizophrenia, or both that drive the plot. Lewis was able to explore and dissect the psychological side of his persona, which provided a depth to the character and the films that was not present in his previous efforts. Tributes and legacy From the late 1940s to the mid-1960s, "Lewis was a major force in American popular culture." Widely acknowledged as a comic genius, Lewis influenced successive generations of comedians, comedy writers, performers and filmmakers. As Lewis was often referred to as the bridge from Vaudeville to modern comedy, Carl Reiner wrote after Lewis's death, "All comedians watch other comedians, and every generation of comedians going back to those who watched Jerry on the Colgate Comedy Hour were influenced by Jerry. They say that mankind goes back to the first guy ... which everyone tries to copy. In comedy that guy was Jerry Lewis." Lewis's films, especially his self-directed films, have warranted steady reappraisal. Richard Brody in The New Yorker said, Lewis was "one of the most original, inventive, ... profound directors of the time". and "one of the most skilled and original comic performers, verbal and physical, ever to appear on screen". Film critic and film curator for the Museum of Modern Art, Dave Kehr, wrote in The New York Times of Lewis' "fierce creativity", "the extreme formal sophistication of his direction" and, Lewis was "one of the great American filmmakers". "Lewis was an explosive experimenter with a dazzling skill, and an audacious, innovatory flair for the technique of the cinema. He knew how to frame and present his own adrenaline-fuelled, instinctive physical comedy for the camera." Lewis was at the forefront in the transition to independent filmmaking, which came to be known as New Hollywood in the late 1960s. Writing for the Los Angeles Times in 2005, screenwriter David Weddle lauded Lewis's audacity in 1959 "daring to declare his independence from the studio system". Lewis came along to a studio system in which the industry was regularly stratified between players and coaches. The studios tightly controlled the process and they wanted their people directing. Yet Lewis regularly led, often flouting the power structure to do so. Steven Zeitchik of the LA Times wrote of Lewis, "Control over material was smart business, and it was also good art. Neither the entrepreneur nor the auteur were common types among actors in mid-20th century Hollywood. But there Lewis was, at a time of strict studio control, doing both." No other comedic star, with the exceptions of Chaplin and Keaton in the silent era, dared to direct himself. "Not only would Lewis' efforts as a director pave the way for the likes of Mel Brooks and Woody Allen, but it would reveal him to be uncommonly skilled in that area as well." "Most screen comedies until that time were not especially cinematic—they tended to plop down the camera where it could best capture the action and that was it. Lewis, on the other hand, was interested in exploring the possibilities of the medium by utilizing the tools he had at his disposal in formally innovative and oftentimes hilarious ways." "In Lewis' work the way the scene is photographed is an integral part of the joke. His purposeful selection of lenses, for example, expands and contracts space to generate laughs that aren't necessarily inherent in the material, and he often achieves his biggest effects via what he leaves off screen, not just visually but structurally." As a director, Lewis advanced the genre of film comedy with innovations in the areas of fragmented narrative, experimental use of music and sound technology, and near surrealist use of color and art direction. This prompted his peer, filmmaker Jean Luc Godard to proclaim, "Jerry Lewis ... is the only one in Hollywood doing something different, the only one who isn't falling in with the established categories, the norms, the principles. ... Lewis is the only one today who's making courageous films. He's been able to do it because of his personal genius". Jim Hemphill for American Cinematheque wrote, "They are films of ambitious visual and narrative experimentation, provocative and sometimes conflicted commentaries on masculinity in post-war America, and unsettling self-critiques and analyses of the performer's neuroses." Intensely personal and original, Lewis's films were groundbreaking in their use of dark humor for psychological exploration. Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times said, "The idea of comedians getting under the skin and tapping into their deepest, darkest selves is no longer especially novel, but it was far from a universally accepted notion when Lewis first took the spotlight. Few comedians before him had so brazenly turned arrested development into art, or held up such a warped fun house mirror to American identity in its loudest, ugliest, vulgarest excesses. Fewer still had advanced the still-radical notion that comedy doesn't always have to be funny, just fearless, in order to strike a nerve". Before 1960, Hollywood comedies were screwball or farce. Lewis, from his earliest 'home movies, such as How to Smuggle a Hernia Across the Border, made in his playhouse in the early 1950s, was one of the first to introduce satire as a full-length film. This "sharp-eyed" satire continued in his mature work, commenting on the cult of celebrity, the machinery of 'fame', and "the dilemma of being true to oneself while also fitting into polite society". Stephen Dalton in The Hollywood Reporter wrote, Lewis had "an agreeably bitter streak, offering self-lacerating insights into celebrity culture which now look strikingly modern. Even post-modern in places." Speaking of The King of Comedy, "More contemporary satirists like Garry Shandling, Steve Coogan and Ricky Gervais owe at least some of their self-deconstructing chops to Lewis' generously unappetizing turn in Scorsese's cult classic." Lewis was an early master of deconstruction to enhance comedy. From the first Comedy Hours he exposed the artifice of on-stage performance by acknowledging the lens, sets, malfunctioning props, failed jokes, and tricks of production. As Jonathan Rosenbaum wrote: Lewis had "the impulse to deconstruct and even demolish the fictional "givens" of any particular sketch, including those that he might have dreamed up himself, a kind of perpetual auto-destruction that becomes an essential part of his filmmaking as he steadily gains more control over the writing and direction of his features." His self directed films abound in behind-the-scene reveals, demystifying movie-making. Daniel Fairfax writes in Deconstructing Jerry: Lewis as a Director, "Lewis deconstructs the very functioning of the joke itself". ... quoting Chris Fujiwara, "The Patsy is a film so radical that it makes comedy out of the situation of a comedian who isn't funny." The final scene of The Patsy is famous for revealing to the audience the movie as a movie, and Lewis as actor/director. Lewis wrote in The Total Filmmaker, his belief in breaking the fourth wall, actors looking directly into the camera, despite industry norms. More contemporary comedies such as The Larry Sanders Show, Curb Your Enthusiasm, and The Office continue this method. Robert DeNiro and Sandra Bernhard, both of whom starred with Lewis in The King of Comedy, reflected on his death. Bernhard said: "It was one of the great experiences of my career, he was tough but one of a kind". De Niro said: "Jerry was a pioneer in comedy and film. And he was a friend. I was fortunate to have seen him a few times over the past couple of years. Even at 91, he didn't miss a beat ... or a punchline. You'll be missed." There was also a New York Friars Club roast in honor of Lewis with Sarah Silverman and Amy Schumer. Martin Scorsese recalls working with him on The King of Comedy, "It was like watching a virtuoso pianist at the keyboard". Lewis was the subject of a documentary Jerry Lewis: Method to the Madness. Peter Chelsom, director of Funny Bones wrote, "Working with him was a masterclass in comic acting – and in charm. From the outset he was generous." "There's a very thin line between a talent for being funny and being a great actor. Jerry Lewis epitomized that. Jerry embodied the term "funny bones": a way of differentiating between comedians who tell funny and those who are funny." Director Daniel Noah recalling his relationship with Lewis during production of Max Rose wrote, "He was kind and loving and patient and limitlessly generous with his genius. He was unbelievably complicated and shockingly self-aware." Actor and comedian Jeffrey Tambor wrote after Lewis's death, "You invented the whole thing. Thank you doesn't even get close." There have been numerous retrospectives of Lewis's films in
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bringing Martin on live stage during the Jerry Lewis Telethon in September 1976. In 1989, Lewis returned the gesture, attending Martin's 72nd birthday. Solo period After ending his partnership with Martin in 1956, Lewis and his wife Patty took a vacation in Las Vegas to consider the direction of his career. He felt his life was in a crisis state: "I was unable to put one foot in front of the other with any confidence. I was completely unnerved to be alone". While there, he received an urgent request from his friend Sid Luft, who was Judy Garland's husband and manager, saying that she couldn't perform that night in Las Vegas because of strep throat, and asking Lewis to fill in. Lewis had not sung alone on stage since he was five years old, twenty-five years before, but he appeared before the audience of a thousand, nonetheless, delivering jokes and clowning with the audience, while Garland sat off-stage, watching. He then sang a rendition of a song he'd learned as a child, "Rock-a-Bye Your Baby with a Dixie Melody" along with "Come Rain or Come Shine". Lewis recalled, "When I was done, the place exploded. I walked off the stage knowing I could make it on my own". At his wife's pleading, Lewis used his own money to record the songs on a single. Decca Records heard it, liked it and insisted he record an album for them. The single of Rock-a-Bye Your Baby went to No. 10 and the album Jerry Lewis Just Sings went to No. 3 on the Billboard charts, staying near the top for four months and selling a million and a half copies. With the success of that album, he recorded the additional albums More Jerry Lewis (an EP of songs from this release was released as Somebody Loves Me), and Jerry Lewis Sings Big Songs for Little People (later reissued with fewer tracks as Jerry Lewis Sings for Children). Non-album singles were released, and It All Depends On You hit the charts in April and May 1957, but peaked at only No. 68. Further singles were recorded and released by Lewis into the mid-1960s. But these were not Lewis's first forays into recording, nor his first appearance on the hit charts. During his partnership with Martin, they made several recordings together, charting at No. 22 in 1948 with the 1920s chestnut That Certain Party and later mostly re-recording songs highlighted in their films. Also during the time of their partnership, but without Martin, he recorded numerous novelty-comedy numbers for adults as well as records specifically intended for the children's market. Having proven he could sing and do live shows, he began performing regularly at the Sands Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, beginning in late 1956, which marked a turning point in his life and career. The Sands signed him for five years, to perform six weeks each year and paid him the same amount they had paid Martin and Lewis as a team. The critics gave him positive reviews: "Jerry was wonderful. He has proved that he can be a success by himself," wrote one. He continued with club performances in Miami, New York, Chicago and Washington. Such live performances became a staple of his career and over the years he performed at casinos, theaters and state fairs coast-to-coast. In February 1957, he followed Garland at the Palace Theater in New York and Martin called on the phone during this period to wish him the best of luck. "I've never been happier," said Lewis. "I have peace of mind for the first time." Lewis established himself as a solo act on TV starting with the first of six appearances on What's My Line? from 1956 to 1966 and then guest starred on The Tennessee Ernie Ford Show. He appeared on both Tonight Starring Jack Paar and The Ed Sullivan Show and beginning in January 1957, in a number of solo TV specials for NBC. He starred in his adaptation of "The Jazz Singer" for Startime. Lewis hosted the Academy Awards three times, in 1956, 1957 and the 31st Academy Awards in 1959, which ran twenty minutes short, forcing Lewis to improvise to fill time. DC Comics, switching from Martin and Lewis, published a new comic book series titled The Adventures of Jerry Lewis, running from 1957 to 1971. Lewis remained at Paramount and started off with his first solo effort The Delicate Delinquent (1957) then starred in his next film The Sad Sack (1957). Frank Tashlin, whose background as a Looney Tunes cartoon director suited Lewis's brand of humor, came on board. Lewis did new films with him, first with Rock-A-Bye Baby (1958) and then The Geisha Boy (1958). Billy Wilder asked Lewis to play the lead role of an uptight jazz musician named Jerry, who winds up on the run from the mob, in Some Like It Hot but turned it down. He then appeared in Don't Give Up The Ship (1959) and cameoed in Li'l Abner (1959). After his contract with Wallis ended, Lewis had several movies under his belt, eagering to flex his creative muscle and was free to deepen his comedy with pathos, believing, "Funny without pathos is a pie in the face. And a pie in the face is funny, but I wanted more." In 1959, a contract between Paramount and Jerry Lewis Productions was signed specifying a payment of $10 million plus 60% of the profits for 14 films over seven years. This contract made Lewis the highest paid individual Hollywood talent to date and was unprecedented in that he had unlimited creative control, including final cut and the return of film rights after 30 years. Lewis's clout and box office were so strong (his films had already earned Paramount $100 million in rentals) that Barney Balaban, head of production at Paramount at that time, told the press, "If Jerry wants to burn down the studio I'll give him the match!" He had finished his film contract with Wallis with Visit to a Small Planet (1960) and wrapped up production on his own film Cinderfella (1960), directed by Tashlin and was postponed for a Christmas 1960 release. Paramount Pictures, needing a quickie movie for its summer 1960 schedule, held Lewis to his contract to produce one. As a result, he made his debut as film director of The Bellboy (1960), which he also starred in. Using the Fontainebleau Hotel in Miami as his setting — on a small budget, with a very tight shooting schedule — Lewis shot the film during the day and performed at the hotel in the evenings. Bill Richmond collaborated with him on many of the sight gags. Lewis later revealed that Paramount was not happy about financing a "silent movie" and withdrew backing. Lewis used his own funds to cover the movie's $950,000 budget. Meanwhile, he directed an unsold pilot for Permanent Waves. Lewis continued to direct more films that he had co-written with Richmond, including The Ladies Man (1961), where Lewis constructed a three-story dollhouse-like set spanning two sound stages, with the set equipped with state of the art lighting and sound, eliminating the need for boom mics in each room and his next movie The Errand Boy (1961), was one of the earliest films about movie-making, using all of the Paramount backlot and offices. Lewis appeared in The Wacky World of Jerry Lewis, Celebrity Golf, The Garry Moore Show and Tashlin's It's Only Money (1962), then guest hosted The Tonight Show during the transition from Jack Paar to Johnny Carson in 1962 and his appearance on the show scored the highest ratings thus far in late night, surpassing other guest hosts and Paar. The three major networks began a bidding war, wooing Lewis for his own talk show, which debuted the following year. Lewis then directed, co-wrote and starred in the smash hit The Nutty Professor (1963). A parody of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, it featured him as Professor Kelp, a socially inept scientist who invents a serum that turns him into a handsome but obnoxious ladies man. It is often considered to be Lewis's best film. It was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry in 2004. The film inspired a franchise, which has included a 1996 remake starring Eddie Murphy in the title role and a stage musical adaptation. He then appeared in a cameo role in It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963), then in Tashlin's Who's Minding the Store? (1963) and hosted The Jerry Lewis Show, a lavish 13-week, big-budget show which aired on ABC from September to December in 1963, but suffered in the ratings and was beleaguered by technical and other difficulties, including the assassination of then U.S. president John F. Kennedy, which left the country in a somber mood. Lewis next starred in The Patsy (1964), his satire about the Hollywood star-making industry, The Disorderly Orderly (1964), his final collaboration with Tashlin, appeared in a cameo on The Joey Bishop Show and The Family Jewels (1965) about a young heiress who must choose among six uncles, one of whom is up to no good and out to harm the girl's beloved bodyguard who practically raised her. All six uncles and the bodyguard were played by Lewis. In 1965, Lewis was interviewed on The David Susskind Show, then starred in Boeing Boeing (1965), his last film for Paramount, based on the French stage play, in which he received a Golden Globe nomination; an episode of Ben Casey, an early dramatic role; The Andy Williams Show; and Hullabaloo with his son Gary Lewis. In 1966, after 17 years, and with no explanation, Lewis left Paramount and signed with Columbia Pictures where he tried to reinvent himself with more serious roles. He went on to star in Three on a Couch (1966), The Merv Griffin Show, Way...Way Out (1966), The Sammy Davis Jr. Show, Batman, Laugh In, Password, a pilot for Sheriff Who, a new version of The Jerry Lewis Show, this time as a one-hour variety show for NBC, which ran from 1967 to 1969, The Big Mouth (1967), Run for Your Life and The Danny Thomas Hour. Lewis appeared in Don't Raise the Bridge, Lower the River (1968), Playboy After Dark (surprising friend Sammy Davis Jr.), Hook, Line & Sinker (1969), Jimmy Durante's The Lennon Sisters Hour, The Red Skelton Show and The Jack Benny Birthday Special and contributed to some scripts for Filmation's animated series Will the Real Jerry Lewis Please Sit Down, appeared on The Mike Douglas Show and directed an episode of The Bold Ones. Lewis guested on The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour, The Hollywood Palace, The Engelbert Humperdinck Show, The Irv Kupcinet Show, The Linkletter Show, The Real Tom Kennedy Show and A Christmas Night with the Stars, directed One More Time (1970), in which he played his first (and only) off-screen voice as a bandleader, starred in Which Way to the Front? (1970) and appeared on The Carol Burnett Show, The Rolf Harris Show and The Kraft Music Hall. Lewis directed and appeared in the partly unreleased The Day the Clown Cried (1972), a drama set in a Nazi concentration camp. The film was rarely discussed by Lewis, but he said that litigation over post-production finances and copyright prevented its completion and theatrical release. During his book tour for Dean and Me, he also said a factor for the film's burial was that he was not proud of the effort. Lewis explained his reason for choosing the project and the emotional difficulty of the subject matter in an interview with an Australian documentary film crew. A 31-minute version was shown on the German television station ARD, in the documentary Der Clown. It was later put on DVD and shown at Deutsches Filminstitute. The film was the earliest attempt by an American film director to address the subject of The Holocaust. Significant speculation continues to surround the film. Following this, Lewis took a break from the movie business for several years. Lewis appeared as guest on Good Morning America, The Dick Cavett Show, NBC Follies, Celebrity Sportsman, Cher, Dinah! and Tony Orlando and Dawn. Lewis surprised Sinatra and Martin after walking onto the Aladdin stage in Las Vegas during their show and exchanged jokes for several minutes. He then starred in a revival of Hellzapoppin with Lynn Redgrave, but closed on the road before reaching Broadway. In 1979, he guest hosted as ringmaster of Circus of the Stars. Lewis guest starred on Pink Lady in 1980, then made a comeback to the big screen in Hardly Working (1981), after an 11-year absence from film. Despite being panned by critics, it eventually earned $50 million. In 1982 and 1983, Lewis appeared on Late Night with David Letterman and in The King of Comedy, as a late-night TV host, plagued by two obsessive fans, in which he received wide critical acclaim and a BAFTA nomination for this serious dramatic role. Lewis then starred in Saturday Night Live, Star Search, Cracking Up (1983), Slapstick (Of Another Kind) (1984), To Catch a Cop (1984) and How Did You Get In? We Didn't See You Leave (1984), the latter two films from France which had their distribution under Lewis's control and stated that they would never be released in American movie theaters and on home media. He then was a guest on an episode of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. He then hosted a new syndicated version of The Jerry Lewis Show, this time as a talk show for Metromedia, which was not continued beyond the scheduled five shows. In 1985, Lewis directed an episode of Brothers, appeared at the first Comic Relief in 1986, where he was the only performer to receive a standing ovation, was interviewed on Classic Treasures and starred in the ABC television movie Fight for Life (1987). In 1987, Lewis performed a second double act with Davis Jr. at Bally's in Las Vegas, then after learning of the death of Martin's son Dean Paul Martin, he attended his funeral, which led to a more substantial reconciliation with Martin. In 1988, Lewis hosted America's All-Time Favorite Movies, then was interviewed by Howard Cosell on Speaking of Everything. He then starred in five episodes of Wiseguy. The filming schedule of the show forced Lewis to miss the Museum of the Moving Image's opening with a retrospective of his work. In 1989, Lewis joined Martin on stage, for what would be Martin's final live performance, at Bally's Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. Lewis wheeled out a cake on Martin's 72nd birthday, sang "Happy Birthday" to him and joked, "Why we broke up, I'll never know". Again, their appearance together made headlines. He next appeared in Cookie (1989). Lewis handled two years directing episodes of Super Force and Good Grief in 1990 and 1991, then star in Mr. Saturday Night (1992), The Arsenio Hall Show, The Whoopi Goldberg Show and Inside The Comedy Mind. A three-part retrospective Martin & Lewis: Their Golden Age of Comedy, aired on The Disney Channel in 1992, using previously unseen kinescopes from Lewis' personal archive, highlighted his years as part of a team with Martin and as a soloist. After guest spots on Mad About You and Larry King Live and film appearances in Arizona Dream (1993) and Funny Bones (1995), Lewis made his Broadway debut, as a replacement cast member playing the devil, in a revival of Damn Yankees and was reportedly paid the highest sum in Broadway history at the time for performing in both the national and London runs of the musical. He missed only three shows in more than four years, one of those occasions being the funeral of Martin, his comedy partner of ten years. Lewis appeared on Inside the Actors Studio in 1996, the 12th annual American Comedy Awards in 1998 and in the 2000s, The Martin Short Show, Russell Gilbert Live, Your World with Neil Cavuto, The Simpsons, Late Night with Conan O'Brien, Live with Kelly, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, the song "Time After Time" with Deana Martin on her album Memories Are Made of This and Curious George 2 (2009). He made his last few appearances for the 81st Academy Awards, 50 Years of Movies & Music (a Michel Legrand special), Till Luck Do Us Part 2 (2013), The Talk, The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, The World Over with Raymond Arroyo, The Trust (2016), his final film Max Rose (2016), WTF with Marc Maron and Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee. Video assist and film class During the 1960 production of The Bellboy, Lewis pioneered the technique of using video cameras and multiple closed circuit monitors, which allowed him to review his performance instantly. This was necessary since he was acting as well as directing. His techniques and methods of filmmaking, documented in his book and his USC class, enabled him to complete most of his films on time and under budget since reshoots could take place immediately instead of waiting for the dailies. Man in Motion, a featurette for Three on a Couch, features the video system, named "Jerry's Noisy Toy" and shows Lewis receiving the Golden Light Technical Achievement award for its development. Lewis stated he worked with the head of Sony to produce the prototype. While he initiated its practice and use, and was instrumental in its development, he did not hold a patent. This practice is now commonplace in filmmaking. Starting in 1967, Lewis taught a film directing class at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles for a number of years. His students included George Lucas, whose friend Steven Spielberg sometimes sat in on classes. Lewis screened Spielberg's early film Amblin' and told his students, "That's what filmmaking is all about." The class covered all topics related to filmmaking, including pre and post production, marketing and distribution and filming comedy with rhythm and timing. His 1971 book The Total Film Maker, was based on 480 hours of his class lectures. Also, Lewis traveled to medical schools for seminars on laughter and healing with Dr. Clifford Kuhn and also did corporate and college lectures, motivational speaking and promoted the pain-treatment company Medtronic. Acclaim and exposure in France While Lewis was popular in France for his duo films with Dean Martin and his solo comedy films, his reputation and stature increased after the Paramount contract, when he began to exert total control over all aspects of his films. His involvement in directing, writing, editing and art direction coincided with the rise of auteur theory in French intellectual film criticism and the French New Wave movement. He earned consistent praise from French critics in the influential magazines Cahiers du Cinéma and Positif, where he was hailed as an ingenious auteur. His singular mise-en-scène, and skill behind the camera, were aligned with Howard Hawks, Alfred Hitchcock and Satyajit Ray. Appreciated too, was the complexity of his also being in front of the camera. The new French criticism viewed cinema as an art form unto itself, and comedy as part of this art. Lewis is then fitted into a historical context and seen as not only worthy of critique, but as an innovator and satirist of his time. Jean-Pierre Coursodon states in a 1975 Film Comment article, "The merit of the French critics, auteurist excesses notwithstanding, was their willingness to look at what Lewis was doing as a filmmaker for what it was, rather than with some preconception of what film comedy should be." Not yet curricula at universities or art schools, film studies and film theory were avant-garde in early 1960s America. Mainstream movie reviewers such as Pauline Kael, were dismissive of auteur theory, and others, seeing only absurdist comedy, criticized Lewis for his ambition and "castigated him for his self-indulgence" and egotism. Despite this criticism often being held by American film critics, admiration for Lewis and his comedy continued to grow in France. Appreciation of Lewis became a misunderstood stereotype about "the French", and it was often the object of jokes in American pop culture. "That Americans can't see Jerry Lewis' genius is bewildering," says N. T. Binh, a French film magazine critic. Such bewilderment was the basis of the book Why the French Love Jerry Lewis. In response to the lingering perception that French audiences adored him, Lewis stated in interviews he was more popular in Germany, Japan and Australia. Muscular dystrophy cause and criticism As a humanitarian, philanthropist and "number one volunteer", Lewis supported fundraising for research into muscular dystrophy. In 1951, he and Martin made their first appeal for the Muscular Dystrophy Association (simply known as MDA and formerly as the Muscular Dystrophy Associations of America and MDAA) in early December on the finale of The Colgate Comedy Hour. In 1952, after another appeal, Lewis hosted New York area telethons until 1959 and in 1954, fought Rocky Marciano in a boxing bout for MDA's fund drive. After being named national chairman in 1956, Lewis began hosting and emceeing The Jerry Lewis MDA Labor Day Telethon in 1966 and aired every Labor Day weekend for six decades. Ed McMahon, announcer of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and host of Star Search, began his involvement in the telethon in 1968, before co-anchoring with Lewis from 1973 to 2008. The show originated from different locations including New York, Las Vegas and Hollywood, becoming the most successful fundraising event in the history of television. It was the first to: raise over $1 million, in 1966; be shown entirely in color, in 1967; become a networked telethon, in 1968; go coast-to-coast, in 1970; be seen outside the continental U.S., in 1972. It: raised the largest sum ever in a single event for humanitarian purposes, in 1974; had the greatest amount ever pledged to a televised charitable event, in 1980 (from the Guinness Book of World Records); was the first to be seen by 100 million people, in 1985; celebrated its 25th anniversary, in 1990; saw its highest pledge in history, in 1992; and was the first seen worldwide via internet simulcast, in 1998. By 1990, pop culture had shifted its view of disabled individuals and the telethon format. Lewis and the telethon's methods were criticized by disabled-rights activists who believed the show was "designed to evoke pity rather than empower the disabled". The activists said the telethon perpetuated prejudices and stereotypes, that Lewis treated those he claimed to be helping with little respect, and that he used offensive language when describing them. The songs "Smile" (by Charlie Chaplin), "What the World Needs Now Is Love" (by Jackie DeShannon) and "You'll Never Walk Alone" (by Rodgers and Hammerstein) have been long associated with the telethon. In December 1996, Lewis and MDA were recognized by the American Medical Association with Lifetime Achievement Awards for significant and lasting contributions to the health and welfare of humanity. His motto summed up the philosophy behind his years of devotion to MDA: "I shall pass through this world but once. Any good, therefore, that I can do or any kindness that I can show to any human being, let me do it now. Let me not defer nor neglect it, for I shall not pass this way again". Lewis rebutted the criticism and defended his methods saying, "If you don't tug at their heartstrings, then you're on the air for nothing." The activist protests represented a very small minority of countless MDA patients and clients who had directly benefitted from Lewis's MDA fundraising. He received a Nobel Peace Prize nomination in 1977, a Governors Award in 2005 and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award in 2009, in recognition of his fight and efforts with the Muscular Dystrophy Association. On August 3, 2011, it was announced that Lewis would no longer host the MDA telethons and that he was no longer associated with the Muscular Dystrophy Association. A tribute to Lewis was held during the 2011 telethon (which originally was to be his final show bearing his name with MDA). On May 1, 2015, it was announced that in view of "the new realities of television viewing and philanthropic giving", the telethon was being discontinued. In early 2016, at MDA's brand re-launch event at Carnegie Hall in New York City, Lewis broke a five-year silence during a special taped message for the organization on its website, marking his first (and as it turned out, his final) appearance in support of MDA since his final telethon in 2010 and the end of his tenure as national chairman in 2011. Lewis raised an estimated $2.6 billion in donations for the cause. MDA's website states, "Jerry's love, passion and brilliance are woven throughout this organization, which he helped build from the ground up, courted sponsors for MDA, appeared at openings of MDA care and research centers, addressed meetings of civic organizations, volunteers and the MDA Board of Directors, successfully lobbied Congress for federal neuromuscular disease research funds, made countless phone calls and visits to families served by MDA. During Lewis's lifetime, MDA-funded scientists discovered the causes of most of the diseases in the Muscular Dystrophy Association's program, developing treatments, therapies and standards of care that have allowed many people living with these diseases to live longer and grow stronger. Over 200 research and treatment facilities were built with donations raised by the Jerry Lewis Telethons. Non-career activities Lewis opened a camera shop in 1950. In 1969 he agreed to lend his name to "Jerry Lewis Cinemas", offered by National Cinema Corporation as a franchise business opportunity for those interested in theatrical movie exhibition. Jerry Lewis Cinemas stated that their theaters could be operated by a staff of as few as two with the aid of automation and support provided by the franchiser in booking film and other aspects of film exhibition. A forerunner of the smaller rooms typical of later multi-screen complexes, a Jerry Lewis Cinema was billed in franchising ads as a "mini-theatre" with a seating capacity of between 200 and 350. In addition to Lewis's name, each Jerry Lewis Cinemas bore a sign with a cartoon logo of Lewis in profile. Initially 158 territories were franchised, with a buy-in fee of $10,000 or $15,000 depending on the territory, for what was called an "individual exhibitor". For $50,000, Jerry Lewis Cinemas offered an opportunity known as an "area directorship", in which investors controlled franchising opportunities in a territory as well as their own cinemas. The success of the chain was hampered by a policy of only booking second-run, family-friendly films.Eventually the policy was changed, and the Jerry Lewis Cinemas were allowed to show more competitive movies. But after a decade the chain failed and both Lewis and National Cinema Corporation declared bankruptcy in 1980. In 1973, Lewis appeared on the 1st annual 20-hour Highway Safety Foundation telethon, hosted by Davis Jr. and Monty Hall. In 1990, Lewis wrote and directed a short film for UNICEF's How Are The Children? anthology exploring the rights of children worldwide. The eight-minute segment, titled Boy, was about a young white child in a black world and being subjected to quiet, insidious racism, and outright racist bullying. In 2010, Lewis met with seven-year-old Lochie Graham, who shared his idea for "Jerry's House", a place for vulnerable and traumatized children. Lewis and Graham entered into a joint partnership for an Australian and a U.S.-based charity and began raising funds to build the facility in Melbourne. On September 12, 2016, Lewis lent his name and star power to Criss Angel's HELP (Heal Every Life Possible) charity event. Political views Lewis kept a low political profile for many years, having taken advice reportedly given to him by President John F. Kennedy, who told him, "Don't get into anything political. Don't do that because they will usurp your energy." Nevertheless, he campaigned and performed on behalf of both JFK and Robert F. Kennedy. Lewis was a supporter of the Civil Rights Movement. For his 1957 NBC special, Lewis held his ground when southern affiliates objected to his stated friendship with Sammy Davis Jr. In a 1971 Movie Mirror magazine article, Lewis spoke out against the Vietnam War when his son Gary returned from service traumatized. He vowed to leave the country rather than send another of his sons. Lewis once stated political speeches should not be at the Oscars. He stated, "I think we are the most dedicated industry in the world. And I think that we have to present ourselves that night as hard-working, caring and important people to the industry. We need to get more self-respect as an industry". In a 2004 interview with The Guardian, Lewis was asked what he was least proud of, to which he answered, "Politics". Not his politics, but the world's politics – the madness, the destruction, the general lack of respect. He lamented citizens' lack of pride in their country, stating, "President Bush is my president. I will not say anything negative about the president of the United States. I don't do that. And I don't allow my children to do that. Likewise when I come to England don't you do any jokes about 'Mum' to me. That is the Queen of England, you moron. Do you know how tough a job it is to be the Queen of England?" In a December 2015 interview on EWTN's World Over with Raymond Arroyo, Lewis expressed opposition to the United States letting in Syrian refugees, saying, "No one has worked harder for the human condition than I have, but they're not part of the human condition if 11 guys in that group of 10,000 are ISIS. How can I take that chance?" In the same interview, he criticized President Barack Obama for not being prepared for ISIS, while expressing support for Donald Trump, saying he would make a good president because he was a good "showman". He also added that he admired Ronald Reagan's presidency. Controversies In 1998, at the Aspen U.S. Comedy Arts Festival, when asked which women comics he admired, Lewis answered, "I don't like any female comedians. A woman doing comedy doesn't offend me but sets me back a bit. I, as a viewer, have trouble with it. I think of her as a producing machine that brings babies in the world." He later clarified his statements saying, "Seeing a woman project the kind of aggression that you have to project as a comic just rubs me wrong. I cannot sit and watch a lady diminish her qualities to the lowest common denominator." Lewis explained his attitude as that of an older generation and said women are funny, but not when performing "broad" or "crude" humor. He went on to praise Lucille Ball as "brilliant" and said Carol Burnett is "the greatest female entrepreneur of comedy". On other occasions Lewis expressed admiration for female comedians Totie Fields, Phyllis Diller, Kathleen Freeman, Elayne Boosler, Whoopi Goldberg and Tina Fey. During the 2007 MDA Telethon, Lewis used the word "fag" in a joke, for which he apologized. Lewis used the same word the following year on Australian television. Personal life Relationships and children Lewis wed Patti Palmer (later Lewis, née Esther Grace Calonico; 1921–2021), an Italian American singer with Ted Fio Rito, on October 3, 1944,
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President of Ecuador 1950 – Jenny Holzer, American painter, author, and dancer 1951 – Susan Blackmore, English psychologist and theorist 1951 – Dan Driessen, American baseball player and coach 1951 – Dean Pitchford, American actor, director, screenwriter, and composer 1952 – Norman Blackwell, Baron Blackwell, English businessman and politician 1952 – Joe Johnson, English snooker player and sportscaster 1952 – Marie Panayotopoulos-Cassiotou, Greek politician 1953 – Ken Burns, American director and producer 1953 – Geddy Lee, Canadian musician 1953 – Frank McGuinness, Irish poet and playwright 1953 – Tim Gunn, American television host and actor 1954 – Patti Scialfa, American musician 1955 – Jean-Hugues Anglade, French actor, director, and screenwriter 1955 – Dave Stevens, American illustrator (d. 2008) 1955 – Stephen Timms, English politician, Minister of State for Competitiveness 1956 – Teddy Atlas, American boxer, trainer, and sportscaster 1956 – Ronnie Musgrove, American lawyer and politician, 62nd Governor of Mississippi 1956 – Faustino Rupérez, Spanish cyclist 1957 – Liam Davison, Australian author and educator (d. 2014) 1957 – Viktor Gavrikov, Lithuanian-Swiss chess player (d. 2016) 1957 – Nellie Kim, Russian gymnast and coach 1958 – Gail Dines, English-American author, activist, and academic 1958 – Simon Nye, English screenwriter and producer 1958 – Cynthia Rowley, American fashion designer 1959 – Sanjay Dutt, Indian actor, singer, and producer 1959 – Ruud Janssen, Dutch blogger and illustrator 1959 – Dave LaPoint, American baseball player and manager 1959 – John Sykes, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1960 – Didier Van Cauwelaert, French author 1962 – Carl Cox, English DJ and producer 1962 – Frank Neubarth, German footballer and manager 1962 – Scott Steiner, American wrestler 1962 – Vincent Rousseau, Belgian runner 1963 – Hans-Holger Albrecht, Belgian-German businessman 1963 – Jim Beglin, Irish footballer and sportscaster 1963 – Julie Elliott, English politician 1963 – Azeem Hafeez, Pakistani cricketer 1963 – Alexandra Paul, American actress and producer 1963 – Graham Poll, English footballer, referee, and journalist 1964 – Jaanus Veensalu, Estonian footballer 1965 – Luis Alicea, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and coach 1965 – Dean Haglund, Canadian actor, producer, and screenwriter 1965 – Adam Holloway, English captain and politician 1965 – Stan Koziol, American soccer player (d. 2014) 1965 – Chang-Rae Lee, South Korean-American author and academic 1965 – Xavier Waterkeyn, Australian author 1965 – Woody Weatherman, American guitarist and songwriter 1966 – Sally Gunnell, English hurdler and sportscaster 1966 – Stuart Lampitt, English cricketer 1966 – Martina McBride, American singer-songwriter and producer 1968 – Gideon Henderson, English geologist and academic 1968 – Paavo Lötjönen, Finnish cellist and educator 1970 – Adele Griffin, American author 1970 – Andi Peters, English journalist, actor, and producer 1970 – John Rennie, Zimbabwean cricketer 1971 – Andrea Philipp, German sprinter 1972 – Anssi Kela, Finnish singer and songwriter 1972 – Wil Wheaton, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1973 – Stephen Dorff, American actor and producer 1973 – Denis Urubko, Kazakh mountaineer 1975 – Yoshihiro Akiyama, Japanese mixed martial artist 1975 – Lanka de Silva, Sri Lankan cricketer 1975 – Corrado Grabbi, Italian footballer 1975 – Jaanus Sirel, Estonian footballer 1978 – Mike Adams, American baseball player 1978 – Marina Lazarovska, Macedonian tennis player 1979 – Karim Essediri, Tunisian footballer 1979 – Ronald Murray, American basketball player 1979 – Juris Umbraško, Latvian basketball player 1980 – Ryan Braun, Canadian-American baseball player 1980 – Fernando González, Chilean tennis player 1980 – Ben Koller, American drummer 1980 – John Morris, Australian rugby league player 1981 – Fernando Alonso, Spanish race car driver 1981 – Andrés Madrid, Argentinian footballer 1981 – Troy Perkins, American soccer player 1982 – Janez Aljančič, Slovenian footballer 1982 – Jônatas Domingos, Brazilian footballer 1982 – Allison Mack, American actress and criminal 1983 – Jason Belmonte, Australian bowler 1983 – Inés Gómez Mont, Mexican journalist and actress 1983 – Alexei Kaigorodov, Russian ice hockey player 1983 – Jerious Norwood, American football player 1983 – Elise Testone, American singer-songwriter 1984 – Oh Beom-seok, South Korean footballer 1984 – Chad Billingsley, American baseball player 1984 – Wilson Palacios, Honduran footballer 1985 – Besart Berisha, Albanian footballer 1985 – Okinoumi Ayumi, Japanese sumo wrestler 1985 – Simon Santoso, Indonesian badminton player 1988 – Tarjei Bø, Norwegian biathlete 1989 – Grit Šadeiko, Estonian heptathlete 1991 – Dale Copley, Australian rugby league player 1991 – Irakli Logua, Russian footballer 1992 – Karen Torrez, Bolivian swimmer 1993 – Nicole Melichar, American tennis player 1994 – Liam O'Brien, Canadian ice hockey player Deaths Pre-1600 238 – Balbinus, Roman emperor (b. 165) 238 – Pupienus, Roman emperor (b. 178) 451 – Tuoba Huang, prince of Northern Wei (b. 428) 796 – Offa of Mercia (b. 730) 846 – Li Shen, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty 1030 – Olaf II of Norway (b. 995) 1095 – Ladislaus I of Hungary (b. 1040) 1099 – Pope Urban II (b. 1042) 1108 – Philip I of France (b. 1052) 1236 – Ingeborg of Denmark, Queen of France (b. 1175) 1326 – Richard Óg de Burgh, 2nd Earl of Ulster (b. 1259) 1504 – Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby (b. 1435) 1507 – Martin Behaim, German-Bohemian geographer and astronomer (b. 1459) 1573 – John Caius, English physician and academic (b. 1510) 1601–1900 1612 – Jacques Bongars, French scholar and diplomat (b. 1554) 1644 – Pope Urban VIII (b. 1568) 1752 – Peter Warren, Irish admiral and politician (b. 1703) 1781 – Johann Kies, German astronomer and mathematician (b. 1713) 1792 – René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou, French lawyer and politician, Chancellor of France (b. 1714) 1813 – Jean-Andoche Junot, French general (b. 1771) 1833 – William Wilberforce, English philanthropist and politician (b. 1759) 1839 – Gaspard de Prony, French mathematician and engineer (b. 1755) 1844 – Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart, Austrian pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1791) 1856 – Robert Schumann, German composer and critic (b. 1810) 1857 – Thomas Dick, Scottish minister, astronomer, and author (b. 1774) 1887 – Agostino Depretis, Italian politician, 9th Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1813) 1890 – Vincent van Gogh, Dutch painter and illustrator (b. 1853) 1895 – Floriano Peixoto, Brazilian general and politician, 2nd President of Brazil (b. 1839) 1900 – Umberto I of Italy (b. 1844) 1901–present 1908 – Marie Adam-Doerrer (b. 1838) 1913 – Tobias Asser, Dutch lawyer and jurist, Nobel Prize Laureate (b. 1838) 1918 – Ernest William Christmas, Australian-American painter (b. 1863) 1924 – Sotirios Krokidas, Greek educator and politician, 110th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1852) 1934 – Didier Pitre, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1883) 1938 – Nikolai Krylenko, Russian lawyer, jurist, and politician, Prosecutor General of the Russian SFSR (b. 1885) 1950 – Joe Fry, English race car driver (b. 1915) 1951 – Ali Sami Yen, Turkish footballer and manager, founded Galatasaray S.K. (b. 1886) 1954 – Coen de Koning, Dutch speed skater (b. 1879) 1960 – Hasan Saka, Turkish politician, 7th Prime Minister of Turkey (b. 1885) 1962 – Ronald Fisher, English biologist and statistician (b. 1890) 1962 – Leonardo De Lorenzo, Italian-American flute player and educator (b. 1875) 1964 – Vean Gregg, American baseball player (b. 1885) 1966 – Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, Nigerian general and politician, 2nd Head of State of Nigeria (b. 1924) 1966 – Adekunle Fajuyi, Nigerian colonel (b. 1926) 1970 – John Barbirolli, English cellist and conductor (b. 1899) 1973 – Norm Smith, Australian footballer and coach (b. 1915) 1973 – Roger Williamson, English race car driver (b. 1948) 1974 – Cass Elliot, American singer (b. 1941) 1974 – Erich Kästner, German author and poet (b. 1899) 1976 – Mickey Cohen, American gangster (b. 1913) 1978 – Andrzej Bogucki, Polish actor, operetta singer, and songwriter (b. 1904) 1979 – Herbert Marcuse, German sociologist and philosopher (b. 1898) 1979 – Bill Todman, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1916) 1981 – Robert Moses, American urban planner, designed the Northern State Parkway and Southern State Parkway (b. 1888) 1982 – Harold Sakata, American wrestler and actor (b. 1920) 1982 – Vladimir K. Zworykin, Russian-American engineer, invented the Iconoscope (b. 1889) 1983 – Luis Buñuel, Spanish actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1900) 1983 – Raymond Massey, Canadian-American actor and screenwriter (b. 1896) 1983 – David Niven, English military officer and actor (b. 1910) 1984 – Fred Waring, American television host and bandleader (b. 1900) 1987 – Bibhutibhushan Mukhopadhyay, Indian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1894) 1990 – Bruno Kreisky, Austrian academic and politician, 22nd Chancellor of Austria (b. 1911) 1991 – Christian de Castries, French general (b. 1902) 1992 – Michel Larocque, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (b. 1952) 1994 – John Britton, American physician (b. 1925) 1994 – Dorothy Hodgkin, Egyptian-English biochemist and biophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1910) 1995 – Les Elgart, American trumpet player and bandleader (b. 1917) 1996 – Ric Nordman, Canadian businessman and politician (b. 1919) 1996 – Marcel-Paul Schützenberger, French mathematician and theorist (b. 1920) 1996 – Jason Thirsk, American singer and bass player (b. 1967) 1998 – Jerome Robbins, American director, producer, and choreographer (b. 1918) 2001 – Edward Gierek, Polish soldier and politician (b. 1913) 2001 – Wau Holland, German computer scientist, co-founded Chaos Computer Club (b. 1951)
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The camp runs from August 1 to August 9 and is regarded as the foundation of the Scouting movement. 1914 – The Cape Cod Canal opened. 1920 – Construction of the Link River Dam begins as part of the Klamath Reclamation Project. 1921 – Adolf Hitler becomes leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party. 1932 – Great Depression: In Washington, D.C., troops disperse the last of the "Bonus Army" of World War I veterans. 1937 – Tōngzhōu Incident: In Tōngzhōu, China, the East Hopei Army attacks Japanese troops and civilians. 1945 – The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched for mainstream light entertainment and music. 1948 – Olympic Games: The Games of the XIV Olympiad: After a hiatus of 12 years caused by World War II, the first Summer Olympics to be held since the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, open in London. 1950 – Korean War: After four days, the No Gun Ri Massacre ends when the US Army 7th Cavalry Regiment is withdrawn. 1957 – The International Atomic Energy Agency is established. 1957 – Tonight Starring Jack Paar premieres on NBC with Jack Paar beginning the modern day talk show. 1958 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs into law the National Aeronautics and Space Act, which creates the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). 1959 – First United States Congress elections in Hawaii as a state of the Union. 1965 – Vietnam War: The first 4,000 101st Airborne Division paratroopers arrive in Vietnam, landing at Cam Ranh Bay. 1967 – Vietnam War: Off the coast of North Vietnam the catches on fire in the worst U.S. naval disaster since World War II, killing 134. 1967 – During the fourth day of celebrating its 400th anniversary, the city of Caracas, Venezuela is shaken by an earthquake, leaving approximately 500 dead. 1973 – Greeks vote to abolish the monarchy, beginning the first period of the Metapolitefsi. 1973 – Driver Roger Williamson is killed during the Dutch Grand Prix, after a suspected tire failure causes his car to pitch into the barriers at high speed. 1976 – In New York City, David Berkowitz (a.k.a. the "Son of Sam") kills one person and seriously wounds another in the first of a series of attacks. 1980 – Iran adopts a new "holy" flag after the Islamic Revolution. 1981 – A worldwide television audience of over 700 million people watch the wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer at St Paul's Cathedral in London. 1981 – After impeachment on June 21, Abolhassan Banisadr flees with Massoud Rajavi to Paris, in an Iranian Air Force Boeing 707, piloted by Colonel Behzad Moezzi, to form the National Council of Resistance of Iran. 1987 – British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and President of France François Mitterrand sign the agreement to build a tunnel under the English Channel (Eurotunnel). 1987 – Prime Minister of India Rajiv Gandhi and President of Sri Lanka J. R. Jayewardene sign the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord on ethnic issues. 1993 – The Supreme Court of Israel acquits alleged Nazi death camp guard John Demjanjuk of all charges and he is set free. 1996 – The child protection portion of the Communications Decency Act is struck down by a U.S. federal court as too broad. 2005 – Astronomers announce their discovery of the dwarf planet Eris. 2010 – An overloaded passenger ferry capsizes on the Kasai River in Bandundu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, resulting in at least 80 deaths. 2013 – Two passenger trains collide in the Swiss municipality of Granges-près-Marnand near Lausanne injuring 25 people. 2019 – The 2019 Altamira prison riot between rival Brazilian drug gangs leaves 62 dead. 2021 - The International Space Station temporarily spins out of control, moving the ISS 45 degrees out of attitude, following an engine malfunction of Russian module Nauka. Births Pre-1600 869 – Muhammad al-Mahdi, Iraqi 12th Imam (d. 941) 996 – Fujiwara no Norimichi, Japanese nobleman (d. 1075) 1166 – Henry II, French nobleman and king of Jerusalem (d. 1197) 1356 – Martin the Elder, king of Aragon, Valencia and Majorca (d. 1410) 1537 – Pedro Téllez-Girón, Spanish nobleman (d. 1590) 1573 – Philip II, duke of Pomerania-Stettin (d. 1618) 1580 – Francesco Mochi, Italian sculptor (d. 1654) 1601–1900 1605 – Simon Dach, German poet and hymn-writer (d. 1659) 1646 – Johann Theile, German organist and composer (d. 1724) 1744 – Giulio Maria della Somaglia, Italian cardinal (d. 1830) 1763 – Philip Charles Durham, Scottish admiral and politician (d. 1845) 1797 – Daniel Drew, American businessman and financier (d. 1879) 1801 – George Bradshaw, English cartographer and publisher (d. 1853) 1805 – Alexis de Tocqueville, French historian and philosopher (d. 1859) 1806 – Horace Abbott, American businessman and banker (d. 1887) 1817 – Ivan Aivazovsky, Armenian-Russian painter and illustrator (d. 1900) 1817 – Martin Körber, Baltic German pastor, composer, and conductor (d. 1893) 1841 – Gerhard Armauer Hansen, Norwegian physician (d. 1912) 1843 – Johannes Schmidt, German linguist and academic (d. 1901) 1846 – Sophie Menter, German pianist and composer (d. 1918) 1846 – Isabel, Brazilian princess (d. 1921) 1849 – Max Nordau, Hungarian physician, author, and critic, co-founded the World Zionist Organization (d. 1923) 1859 – Francisco Rodrigues da Cruz, Portuguese priest (d. 1948) 1860 – Charles Cochrane-Baillie, 2nd Baron Lamington, English politician, 8th Governor of Queensland (d. 1940) 1867 – Berthold Oppenheim, Moravian rabbi (d. 1942) 1869 – Booth Tarkington, American novelist and dramatist (d. 1946) 1871 – Jakob Mändmets, Estonian writer and journalist (d. 1930) 1872 – Eric Alfred Knudsen, American author, lawyer, and politician (d. 1957) 1874 – J. S. Woodsworth, Canadian minister and politician (d. 1942) 1876 – Maria Ouspenskaya, Russian-American actress and acting teacher (d. 1949) 1878 – Don Marquis, American author, poet, and playwright (d. 1937) 1883 – Porfirio Barba-Jacob, Colombian poet and author (d. 1942) 1883 – Benito Mussolini, Italian fascist revolutionary and politician, 27th Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1945) 1884 – Ralph Austin Bard, American financier and politician, 2nd Under Secretary of the Navy (d. 1975) 1885 – Theda Bara, American actress (d. 1955) 1887 – Sigmund Romberg, Hungarian-American pianist and composer (d. 1951) 1888 – Vladimir K. Zworykin, Russian-American engineer, invented the Iconoscope (d. 1982) 1891 – Bernhard Zondek, German-Israeli gynecologist and academic (d. 1966) 1892 – William Powell, American actor and singer (d. 1984) 1896 – Maria L. de Hernández, Mexican-American rights activist (d. 1986) 1897 – Neil Ritchie, Guyanese-English general (d. 1983) 1898 – Isidor Isaac Rabi, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize Laureate (d. 1988) 1899 – Walter Beall, American baseball player (d. 1959) 1900 – Mary V. Austin, Australian community worker and political activist (d. 1986) 1900 – Eyvind Johnson, Swedish novelist and short story writer, Nobel Prize Laureate (d. 1976) 1900 – Teresa Noce, Italian labor leader, activist, and journalist (d. 1980) 1900 – Don Redman, American composer, and bandleader (d. 1964) 1901–present 1904 – Mahasi Sayadaw, Burmese monk and philosopher (d. 1982) 1904 – J. R. D. Tata, French-Indian pilot and businessman, founded Tata Motors and Tata Global Beverages (d. 1993) 1905 – Clara Bow, American actress (d. 1965) 1905 – Dag Hammarskjöld, Swedish economist and diplomat, 2nd Secretary-General of the United Nations, Nobel Prize Laureate (d. 1961) 1905 – Stanley Kunitz, American poet and translator (d. 2006) 1906 – Thelma Todd, American actress and singer (d. 1935) 1907 – Melvin Belli, American lawyer (d. 1996) 1909 – Samm Sinclair Baker, American author (d. 1997) 1909 – Chester Himes, American-Spanish author (d. 1984) 1910 – Gale Page, American actress (d. 1983) 1911 – Foster Furcolo, American lawyer and politician, 60th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1995) 1911 – Archbishop Iakovos of America (d. 2005) 1913 – Erich Priebke, German war criminal, leader of the 1944 Ardeatine massacre (d. 2013) 1914 – Irwin Corey, American actor and activist (d. 2017) 1915 – Bruce R. McConkie, American colonel and religious leader (d. 1985) 1915 – Francis W. Sargent, American soldier and politician, 64th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1998) 1916 – Budd Boetticher, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2001) 1916 – Charlie Christian, American guitarist (d. 1942) 1916 – Rupert Hamer, Australian politician, 39th Premier of Victoria (d. 2004) 1917 – Rochus Misch, German SS officer (d. 2013) 1918 – Don Ingalls, American writer and producer (d. 2014) 1918 – Edwin O'Connor, American journalist and author (d. 1968) 1918 – Mary Lee Settle, American novelist, essayist, and memoirist (d. 2005) 1920 – Neville Jeffress, Australian businessman (d. 2007) 1921 – Richard Egan, American actor (d. 1987) 1921 – Chris Marker, French photographer and journalist (d. 2012) 1923 – George Burditt, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2013) 1923 – Edgar Cortright, American scientist and engineer (d. 2014) 1923 – Jim Marshall, English businessman, founded Marshall Amplification (d. 2012) 1923 – Gordon Mitchell, American bodybuilder and actor (d. 2003) 1924 – Lloyd Bochner, Canadian-American actor (d. 2005) 1924 – Robert Horton, American actor (d. 2016) 1925 – Harold W. Kuhn, American mathematician and academic (d. 2014) 1925 – Ted Lindsay, Canadian ice hockey player, manager, and sportscaster (d. 2019) 1925 – Mikis Theodorakis, Greek composer (d. 2021) 1926 – Robert Kilpatrick, Baron Kilpatrick of Kincraig, Scottish physician, academic, and politician (d. 2015) 1927 – Harry Mulisch, Dutch author, poet, and playwright (d. 2010) 1930 – Paul Taylor, American dancer and choreographer (d. 2018) 1931 – Kjell Karlsen, Norwegian pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 2020) 1932 – Leslie Fielding, English diplomat (d. 2021) 1932 – Nancy Kassebaum, American businesswoman and politician 1933 – Lou Albano, Italian-American wrestler, manager, and actor (d. 2009) 1933 – Colin Davis, English race car driver (d. 2012) 1933 – Robert Fuller, American actor and rancher 1933 – Randy Sparks, American folk singer-songwriter and musician 1935 – Peter Schreier, German tenor and conductor (d. 2019) 1936 – Elizabeth Dole, American lawyer and politician, 20th United States Secretary of Labor 1937 – Daniel McFadden, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize Laureate 1938 – Peter Jennings, Canadian-American journalist and author (d. 2005) 1938 – Jean Rochon, Canadian physician and politician 1940 – Betty Harris, American chemist 1940 – Winnie Monsod, Filipina economist and political commentator 1941 – Jennifer Dunn, American engineer and politician (d. 2007) 1941 – Goenawan Mohamad, Indonesian poet and playwright 1941 – David Warner, English actor 1942 – Doug Ashdown, Australian singer-songwriter 1943 – David Taylor, English snooker player and sportscaster 1944 – Jim Bridwell, American rock climber and mountaineer (d. 2018) 1945 – Sharon Creech, American author and educator 1945 – Mircea Lucescu, Romanian footballer, coach, and manager 1946 – Ximena Armas, Chilean painter 1946 – Stig Blomqvist, Swedish race car driver 1946 – Neal Doughty, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer 1946 – Alessandro Gogna, Italian mountaineer and adventurer 1946 – Diane Keen, English actress 1946 – Aleksei Tammiste, Estonian basketball player 1947 – Dick Harmon, American golfer and coach (d. 2006) 1948 – John Clarke, New Zealand-Australian comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2017) 1949 – Leslie Easterbrook, American actress 1949 – Jamil Mahuad, Ecuadorian lawyer and politician, 51st President of Ecuador 1950 – Jenny Holzer, American painter, author, and dancer 1951 – Susan Blackmore, English psychologist and theorist 1951 – Dan Driessen, American baseball player and coach 1951 – Dean Pitchford, American actor, director, screenwriter, and composer 1952 – Norman Blackwell, Baron Blackwell, English businessman and politician 1952 – Joe Johnson, English snooker player and
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life Agricola was born at Eisleben, whence he is sometimes called Magister Islebius. He studied at Wittenberg, where he soon gained the friendship of Martin Luther. In 1519 he accompanied Luther to the great assembly of German divines at Leipzig, and acted as recording secretary. After teaching for some time in Wittenberg, he went to Frankfurt in 1525 to establish the Protestant mode of worship. He had resided there only a month when he was called to Eisleben, where he remained until 1526 as teacher in the school of St Andrew, and preacher in the Nicolai church. Controversy In 1536 he was recalled to teach in Wittenberg, and was welcomed by Luther. Almost immediately, however, a controversy, which had been begun ten years before and been temporarily silenced, broke out more violently than ever. Agricola was the first to teach the views which Luther was the first to stigmatize by the name Antinomian, maintaining that while non-Christians were still held to the Mosaic
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he is sometimes called Magister Islebius. He studied at Wittenberg, where he soon gained the friendship of Martin Luther. In 1519 he accompanied Luther to the great assembly of German divines at Leipzig, and acted as recording secretary. After teaching for some time in Wittenberg, he went to Frankfurt in 1525 to establish the Protestant mode of worship. He had resided there only a month when he was called to Eisleben, where he remained until 1526 as teacher in the school of St Andrew, and preacher in the Nicolai church. Controversy In 1536 he was recalled to teach in Wittenberg, and was welcomed by Luther. Almost immediately, however, a controversy, which had been begun ten years before and been temporarily silenced, broke out more violently than ever. Agricola was the first to teach the views which Luther was the first to stigmatize by the name Antinomian, maintaining that while non-Christians were still held to the Mosaic law, Christians were entirely free from it, being under the gospel alone. (See also: Law and Gospel). After he wrote an attack on Luther shortly after Luther had given him shelter when he was fleeing persecution, Luther had nothing further to do with him. Restoration and later life As a consequence of the bitter controversy with Luther, in 1540 Agricola left Wittenberg secretly for Berlin, where
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1801 – British ships inflict heavy damage on Spanish and French ships in the Second Battle of Algeciras. 1806 – At the insistence of Napoleon, Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg and thirteen minor principalities leave the Holy Roman Empire and form the Confederation of the Rhine. 1812 – The American Army of the Northwest briefly occupies the Upper Canadian settlement at what is now at Windsor, Ontario. 1862 – The Medal of Honor is authorized by the United States Congress. 1901–present 1913 – Serbian forces begin their siege of the Bulgarian city of Vidin; the siege is later called off when the war ends. 1913 – The Second Revolution breaks out against the Beiyang government, as Li Liejun proclaims Jiangxi independent from the Republic of China. 1917 – The Bisbee Deportation occurs as vigilantes kidnap and deport nearly 1,300 striking miners and others from Bisbee, Arizona. 1918 – The Imperial Japanese Navy battleship Kawachi blows up at Shunan, western Honshu, Japan, killing at least 621. 1920 – The Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty is signed, by which Soviet Russia recognizes the independence of Lithuania. 1943 – German and Soviet forces engage in the Battle of Prokhorovka, one of the largest armored engagements of all time. 1948 – Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion orders the expulsion of Palestinians from the towns of Lod and Ramla. 1960 – Orlyonok, the main Young Pioneer camp of the Russian SFSR, is founded. 1961 – Indian city Pune floods due to failure of the Khadakwasla and Panshet dams, killing at least two thousand people. 1961 – ČSA Flight 511 crashes at Casablanca–Anfa Airport in Morocco, killing 72. 1962 – The Rolling Stones perform for the first time at London's Marquee Club. 1963 – Pauline Reade, 16, disappears in Gorton, England, the first victim in the Moors murders. 1967 – Riots begin in Newark, New Jersey. 1971 – The Australian Aboriginal Flag is flown for the first time. 1973 – A fire destroys the entire sixth floor of the National Personnel Records Center of the United States. 1975 – São Tomé and Príncipe declare independence from Portugal. 1979 – The island nation of Kiribati becomes independent from the United Kingdom. 1995 – Chinese seismologists successfully predict the 1995 Myanmar–China earthquake, reducing the number of casualties to 11. 1998 – The Ulster Volunteer Force attacked a house in Ballymoney, County Antrim, Northern Ireland with a petrol bomb, killing the Quinn brothers. 2001 – Space Shuttle program: Space Shuttle Atlantis is launched on mission STS-104, carrying the Quest Joint Airlock to the International Space Station. 2006 – The 2006 Lebanon War begins. 2007 – U.S. Army Apache helicopters engage in airstrikes against armed insurgents in Baghdad, Iraq, where civilians are killed; footage from the cockpit is later leaked to the Internet. 2012 – Syrian Civil War: Government forces target the homes of rebels and activists in Tremseh and kill anywhere between 68 and 150 people. 2012 – A tank truck explosion kills more than 100 people in Okobie, Nigeria. 2013 – Six people are killed and 200 injured in a French passenger train derailment in Brétigny-sur-Orge. Births Pre-1600 100 BC – Julius Caesar, Roman politician and general (d. 44 BC) 1394 – Ashikaga Yoshinori, Japanese shōgun (d. 1441) 1468 – Juan del Encina, Spanish poet, playwright, and composer (probable; d. 1530) 1477 – Jacopo Sadoleto, Italian cardinal (d. 1547) 1549 – Edward Manners, 3rd Earl of Rutland (d. 1587) 1601–1900 1628 – Henry Howard, 6th Duke of Norfolk (d. 1684) 1651 – Margaret Theresa of Spain (d. 1673) 1675 – Evaristo Felice Dall'Abaco, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1742) 1712 – Sir Francis Bernard, 1st Baronet, Colonial governor of New Jersey and Massachusetts Bay (d. 1779) 1730 – Josiah Wedgwood, English potter, founded the Wedgwood Company (d. 1795) 1803 – Peter Chanel, French priest and saint (d. 1841) 1807 – Thomas Hawksley, English engineer and academic (d. 1893) 1813 – Claude Bernard, French physiologist and academic (d. 1878) 1817 – Henry David Thoreau, American essayist, poet, and philosopher (d. 1862) 1817 – Alvin Saunders, Territorial Governor and Senator from Nebraska (d. 1899) 1821 – D. H. Hill, American general and academic (d. 1889) 1824 – Eugène Boudin, French painter (d. 1898) 1828 – Nikolay Chernyshevsky, Russian philosopher and critic (d. 1889) 1849 – William Osler, Canadian physician and author (d. 1919) 1850 – Otto Schoetensack, German anthropologist and academic (d. 1912) 1852 – Hipólito Yrigoyen, Argentinian lawyer and politician, 19th President of Argentina (d. 1933) 1854 – George Eastman, American businessman, founded Eastman Kodak (d. 1933) 1855 – Ned Hanlan, Canadian rower, academic, and businessman (d. 1908) 1857 – George E. Ohr, American potter (d. 1918) 1861 – Anton Arensky, Russian pianist, composer, and educator (d. 1906) 1863 – Albert Calmette, French physician, bacteriologist, and immunologist (d. 1933) 1863 – Paul Drude, German physicist and academic (d. 1906) 1868 – Stefan George, German poet and translator (d. 1933) 1870 – Louis II, Prince of Monaco (d. 1949) 1872 – Emil Hácha, Czech lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Czechoslovakia (d. 1945) 1876 – Max Jacob, French poet, painter, and critic (d. 1944) 1876 – Alphaeus Philemon Cole, American artist, engraver and etcher (d. 1988) 1878 – Peeter Põld, Estonian scientist and politician, 1st Estonian Minister of Education (d. 1930) 1879 – Margherita Piazzola Beloch, Italian mathematician (d. 1976) 1879 – Han Yong-un, Korean poet (d. 1944) 1880 – Tod Browning, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1962) 1881 – Natalia Goncharova, Russian theatrical costume and set designer, painter and illustrator (d. [1962) 1884 – Louis B. Mayer, Russian-born American film producer, co-founded Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (d. 1957) 1884 – Amedeo Modigliani, Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1920) 1886 – Jean Hersholt, Danish-American actor and director (d. 1956) 1888 – Zygmunt Janiszewski, Polish mathematician and academic (d. 1920) 1892 – Bruno Schulz, Ukrainian-Polish author and painter (d. 1942) 1895 – Kirsten Flagstad, Norwegian soprano (d. 1962) 1895 – Buckminster Fuller, American architect and engineer, designed the Montreal Biosphère (d. 1983) 1895 – Oscar Hammerstein II, American director, producer, and songwriter (d. 1960) 1899 – E.D. Nixon, American civil rights leader (d. 1987) 1901–present 1902 – Günther Anders, German philosopher and journalist (d. 1992) 1902 – Tony Lovink, Dutch politician; Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (d. 1995) 1902 – Vic Armbruster, Australian rugby league player (d. 1984) 1904 – Pablo Neruda, Chilean poet and diplomat, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973) 1907 – Weary Dunlop, Australian colonel and surgeon (d. 1993) 1908 – Milton Berle, American comedian and actor (d. 2002) 1908 – Alain Cuny, French actor (d. 1994) 1908 – Paul Runyan, American golfer and sportscaster (d. 2002) 1909 – Joe DeRita, American actor (d. 1993) 1909 – Motoichi Kumagai, Japanese photographer and illustrator (d. 2010) 1909 – Fritz Leonhardt, German engineer, designed Fernsehturm Stuttgart (d. 1999) 1909 – Herbert Zim, American naturalist, author, and educator (d. 1994) 1911 – Evald Mikson, Estonian footballer (d. 1993) 1913 – Willis Lamb, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2008) 1914 – Mohammad Moin, Iranian linguist and lexicographer (d. 1971) 1915 – Emanuel Papper, American anesthesiologist, professor, and author (d. 2002) 1915 – Princess Catherine Ivanovna of Russia, (d. 2007) 1916 – Lyudmila Pavlichenko, Ukrainian-Russian soldier and sniper (d. 1974) 1917 – Luigi Gorrini, Italian soldier and pilot (d. 2014) 1917 – Satyendra Narayan Sinha, Indian statesman (d. 2006) 1917 – Andrew Wyeth, American artist (d. 2009) 1918 – Mary Glen-Haig, English fencer (d. 2014) 1918 – Vivian Mason, American actress (d. 2009) 1918 – Doris Grumbach, American novelist, memoirist, biographer, literary critic, and essayist 1918 – Rusty Dedrick, American swing and bebop jazz trumpeter (d. 2009) 1920 – Pierre Berton, Canadian journalist and author (d. 2004) 1920 – Bob Fillion, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (d. 2015) 1920 – Paul Gonsalves, American saxophonist (d. 1974) 1920 – Randolph Quirk, Manx linguist and academic (d. 2017) 1920 – Beah Richards, American actress (d. 2000) 1922 – Mark Hatfield, American soldier and politician, 29th Governor of Oregon (d. 2011) 1923 – James E. Gunn, American science fiction author (d. 2020) 1924 – Faidon Matthaiou, Greek basketball player and coach (d. 2011) 1925 – Albert Lance, Australian-French tenor (d. 2013) 1925 – Roger Smith, American businessman (d. 2007) 1926 – Siti Hasmah Mohamad Ali, wife of the Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad 1927 – Françoys Bernier, Canadian pianist, conductor, and educator (d. 1993) 1927 – Conte Candoli, American trumpet player (d. 2001) 1927 – Jack Harshman, American baseball player (d. 2013) 1927 – Harley Hotchkiss, Canadian businessman (d. 2011) 1928 – Alastair Burnet, English journalist (d. 2012) 1928 – Elias James Corey, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1928 – Imero Fiorentino, American lighting designer (d. 2013) 1930 – Gordon Pinsent, Canadian actor, director, and screenwriter 1931 – Eric Ives, English historian and academic (d. 2012) 1931 – Geeto Mongol, Canadian-American wrestler and trainer (d. 2013) 1932 – Rene Goulet, Canadian professional wrestler (d. 2019) 1932 – Monte Hellman, American director and producer (d. 2021) 1932 – Otis Davis, American sprinter 1933 – Victor Poor, American engineer, developed the Datapoint 2200 (d. 2012) 1933 – Donald E. Westlake, American author and screenwriter (d. 2008) 1934 – Thomas Charlton, American competition rower and Olympic champion 1934 – Van Cliburn, American pianist and composer (d. 2013) 1935 – Satoshi Ōmura, Japanese biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1936 – Jan Němec, Czech director and screenwriter (d. 2016) 1937 – Bill Cosby, American actor, comedian, producer, and screenwriter 1937 – Mickey Edwards, American lawyer and politician 1937 – Lionel Jospin, French civil servant and politician, 165th Prime Minister of France 1937 – Robert McFarlane, American colonel and diplomat, 13th United States National Security Advisor 1937 – Guy Woolfenden, English composer and conductor (d. 2016) 1938 – Ron Fairly, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2019) 1938 – Wieger Mensonides, Dutch swimmer 1938 – Eiko Ishioka, Japanese art director and graphic designer (d. 2012) 1939 – Phillip Adams, Australian journalist and producer 1939 – Arlen Ness, American motorcycle designer and entrepreneur (d. 2019) 1941 – Benny Parsons, American race car driver and sportscaster (d. 2007) 1942 – Swamp Dogg, American R&B singer-songwriter and musician 1942 –
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Peeter Põld, Estonian scientist and politician, 1st Estonian Minister of Education (d. 1930) 1879 – Margherita Piazzola Beloch, Italian mathematician (d. 1976) 1879 – Han Yong-un, Korean poet (d. 1944) 1880 – Tod Browning, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1962) 1881 – Natalia Goncharova, Russian theatrical costume and set designer, painter and illustrator (d. [1962) 1884 – Louis B. Mayer, Russian-born American film producer, co-founded Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (d. 1957) 1884 – Amedeo Modigliani, Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1920) 1886 – Jean Hersholt, Danish-American actor and director (d. 1956) 1888 – Zygmunt Janiszewski, Polish mathematician and academic (d. 1920) 1892 – Bruno Schulz, Ukrainian-Polish author and painter (d. 1942) 1895 – Kirsten Flagstad, Norwegian soprano (d. 1962) 1895 – Buckminster Fuller, American architect and engineer, designed the Montreal Biosphère (d. 1983) 1895 – Oscar Hammerstein II, American director, producer, and songwriter (d. 1960) 1899 – E.D. Nixon, American civil rights leader (d. 1987) 1901–present 1902 – Günther Anders, German philosopher and journalist (d. 1992) 1902 – Tony Lovink, Dutch politician; Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (d. 1995) 1902 – Vic Armbruster, Australian rugby league player (d. 1984) 1904 – Pablo Neruda, Chilean poet and diplomat, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973) 1907 – Weary Dunlop, Australian colonel and surgeon (d. 1993) 1908 – Milton Berle, American comedian and actor (d. 2002) 1908 – Alain Cuny, French actor (d. 1994) 1908 – Paul Runyan, American golfer and sportscaster (d. 2002) 1909 – Joe DeRita, American actor (d. 1993) 1909 – Motoichi Kumagai, Japanese photographer and illustrator (d. 2010) 1909 – Fritz Leonhardt, German engineer, designed Fernsehturm Stuttgart (d. 1999) 1909 – Herbert Zim, American naturalist, author, and educator (d. 1994) 1911 – Evald Mikson, Estonian footballer (d. 1993) 1913 – Willis Lamb, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2008) 1914 – Mohammad Moin, Iranian linguist and lexicographer (d. 1971) 1915 – Emanuel Papper, American anesthesiologist, professor, and author (d. 2002) 1915 – Princess Catherine Ivanovna of Russia, (d. 2007) 1916 – Lyudmila Pavlichenko, Ukrainian-Russian soldier and sniper (d. 1974) 1917 – Luigi Gorrini, Italian soldier and pilot (d. 2014) 1917 – Satyendra Narayan Sinha, Indian statesman (d. 2006) 1917 – Andrew Wyeth, American artist (d. 2009) 1918 – Mary Glen-Haig, English fencer (d. 2014) 1918 – Vivian Mason, American actress (d. 2009) 1918 – Doris Grumbach, American novelist, memoirist, biographer, literary critic, and essayist 1918 – Rusty Dedrick, American swing and bebop jazz trumpeter (d. 2009) 1920 – Pierre Berton, Canadian journalist and author (d. 2004) 1920 – Bob Fillion, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (d. 2015) 1920 – Paul Gonsalves, American saxophonist (d. 1974) 1920 – Randolph Quirk, Manx linguist and academic (d. 2017) 1920 – Beah Richards, American actress (d. 2000) 1922 – Mark Hatfield, American soldier and politician, 29th Governor of Oregon (d. 2011) 1923 – James E. Gunn, American science fiction author (d. 2020) 1924 – Faidon Matthaiou, Greek basketball player and coach (d. 2011) 1925 – Albert Lance, Australian-French tenor (d. 2013) 1925 – Roger Smith, American businessman (d. 2007) 1926 – Siti Hasmah Mohamad Ali, wife of the Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad 1927 – Françoys Bernier, Canadian pianist, conductor, and educator (d. 1993) 1927 – Conte Candoli, American trumpet player (d. 2001) 1927 – Jack Harshman, American baseball player (d. 2013) 1927 – Harley Hotchkiss, Canadian businessman (d. 2011) 1928 – Alastair Burnet, English journalist (d. 2012) 1928 – Elias James Corey, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1928 – Imero Fiorentino, American lighting designer (d. 2013) 1930 – Gordon Pinsent, Canadian actor, director, and screenwriter 1931 – Eric Ives, English historian and academic (d. 2012) 1931 – Geeto Mongol, Canadian-American wrestler and trainer (d. 2013) 1932 – Rene Goulet, Canadian professional wrestler (d. 2019) 1932 – Monte Hellman, American director and producer (d. 2021) 1932 – Otis Davis, American sprinter 1933 – Victor Poor, American engineer, developed the Datapoint 2200 (d. 2012) 1933 – Donald E. Westlake, American author and screenwriter (d. 2008) 1934 – Thomas Charlton, American competition rower and Olympic champion 1934 – Van Cliburn, American pianist and composer (d. 2013) 1935 – Satoshi Ōmura, Japanese biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1936 – Jan Němec, Czech director and screenwriter (d. 2016) 1937 – Bill Cosby, American actor, comedian, producer, and screenwriter 1937 – Mickey Edwards, American lawyer and politician 1937 – Lionel Jospin, French civil servant and politician, 165th Prime Minister of France 1937 – Robert McFarlane, American colonel and diplomat, 13th United States National Security Advisor 1937 – Guy Woolfenden, English composer and conductor (d. 2016) 1938 – Ron Fairly, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2019) 1938 – Wieger Mensonides, Dutch swimmer 1938 – Eiko Ishioka, Japanese art director and graphic designer (d. 2012) 1939 – Phillip Adams, Australian journalist and producer 1939 – Arlen Ness, American motorcycle designer and entrepreneur (d. 2019) 1941 – Benny Parsons, American race car driver and sportscaster (d. 2007) 1942 – Swamp Dogg, American R&B singer-songwriter and musician 1942 – Roy Palmer, English cricketer and umpire 1942 – Billy Smith, Australian rugby league player and coach 1942 – Steve Young, American country singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016) 1943 – Christine McVie, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1943 – Paul Silas, American basketball player and coach 1944 – Simon Blackburn, English philosopher and academic 1944 – Delia Ephron, American author, playwright, and screenwriter 1944 – Pat Woodell, American actress and singer (d. 2015) 1945 – Butch Hancock, American country-folk singer-songwriter and musician 1947 – Gareth Edwards, Welsh rugby player and sportscaster 1947 – Wilko Johnson, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1947 – Richard C. McCarty, American psychologist and academic 1948 – Ben Burtt, American director, screenwriter, and sound designer 1948 – Walter Egan, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1948 – Richard Simmons, American fitness trainer and actor 1949 – Simon Fox, English drummer 1949 – Rick Hendrick, American businessman, founded Hendrick Motorsports 1950 – Eric Carr, American drummer and songwriter (d. 1991) 1950 – Gilles Meloche, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1951 – Joan Bauer, American author 1951 – Brian Grazer, American screenwriter and producer, founded Imagine Entertainment 1951 – Cheryl Ladd, American actress 1951 – Piotr Pustelnik, Polish mountaineer 1951 – Jamey Sheridan, American actor 1952 – Voja Antonić, Serbian computer scientist and journalist, designed the Galaksija computer 1952 – Irina Bokova, Bulgarian politician, Bulgarian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1952 – Philip Taylor Kramer, American bass player (d. 1995) 1954 – Eric Adams, American singer-songwriter 1954 – Robert Carl, American pianist and composer 1954 – Wolfgang Dremmler, German footballer and coach 1955 – Timothy Garton Ash, English historian and author 1955 – Jimmy LaFave, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2017) 1956 – Mel Harris, American actress 1956 – Sandi Patty, American singer and pianist 1956 – Mario Soto, Dominican baseball player 1957 – Rick Husband, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2003) 1957 – Dave Semenko, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster (d. 2017) 1958 – J. D. Hayworth, American politician and radio host 1958 – Tonya Lee Williams, English-Canadian actress and producer 1959 – David Brown, Australian meteorologist 1959 – Tupou VI, King of Tonga 1959 – Karl J. Friston, English psychiatrist and neuroscientist 1959 – Charlie Murphy, American actor and comedian (d. 2017) 1961 – Heikko Glöde, German footballer and manager 1961 – Shiva Rajkumar, Indian actor, singer, and producer 1962 – Julio César Chávez, Mexican boxer 1962 – Luc De Vos, Belgian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2014) 1962 – Joanna Shields, American-English businesswoman 1962 – Dean Wilkins, English footballer and manager 1964 – Gaby Roslin, English television host and actress 1965 – Sanjay Manjrekar, Indian cricketer and sportscaster 1965 – Robin Wilson, American singer and guitarist 1966 – Jeff Bucknum, American race car driver 1966 – Annabel Croft, English tennis player and sportscaster 1966 – Taiji, Japanese bass player and songwriter (d. 2011) 1967 – Richard Herring, English comedian and screenwriter 1967 – Mac McCaughan, American singer and guitarist 1967 – John Petrucci, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1967 – Bruny Surin, Canadian sprinter 1968 – Catherine Plewinski, French swimmer 1969 – Lisa Nicole Carson, American actress 1969 – Chantal Jouanno, French politician, French Minister of Youth Affairs and Sports 1969 – Alan Mullally, English cricketer and sportscaster 1969 – Anne-Sophie Pic, French chef 1969 – Jesse Pintado, Mexican-American guitarist (d. 2006) 1970 – Aure Atika, Portuguese-French actress, director, and screenwriter 1970 – Lee Byung-hun, South Korean actor, singer, and dancer 1971 – Joel Casamayor, Cuban-American former professional boxer 1971 – Andriy Kovalenco, Ukrainian-Spanish rugby player 1971 – Loni Love, American comedian, actress, and talk show host 1971 – Kristi Yamaguchi, American figure skater 1972 – Travis Best, American basketball player 1972 – Jake Wood, English actor 1973 – Christian Vieri, Italian footballer 1974 – Sharon den Adel, Dutch singer-songwriter 1974 – Stelios Giannakopoulos, Greek footballer and manager 1974 – Gregory Shane Helms, American professional wrestler 1975 – Phil Lord, American filmmaker 1976 – Dan Boyle, Canadian ice hockey player 1976 – Anna Friel, English actress 1976 – Tracie Spencer, American singer-songwriter and actress 1977 – Neil Harris, English footballer and manager 1977 – Steve Howey, American actor 1977 – Brock Lesnar, American mixed martial artist and wrestler 1977 – Francesca Lubiani, Italian tennis player 1978 – Topher Grace, American actor 1978 – Michelle Rodriguez, American actress 1979 – Brooke Baldwin, American journalist and television news anchor 1979 – Nikos Barlos, Greek basketball player 1979 – Maya Kobayashi, Japanese journalist 1980 – Kristen Connolly, American actress 1981 – Adrienne Camp, South African singer-songwriter 1981 – Pradeepan Raveendran, Sri Lankan director, producer, and screenwriter 1982 – Antonio Cassano, Italian footballer 1982 – Jason Wright, American football player, businessman, and executive 1984 – Gareth Gates, English singer-songwriter 1984 – Jonathan Lewis, American football player 1984 – Natalie Martinez, American actress 1984 – Michael McGovern, Irish footballer 1984 – Sami Zayn, Canadian professional wrestler 1985 – Paulo Vitor Barreto, Brazilian footballer 1985 – Gianluca Curci, Italian footballer 1985 – Keven Lacombe, Canadian cyclist 1985 – Ismael Londt, Surinamese-Dutch kickboxer 1986 – 360, Australian rapper 1986 – Didier Digard, French footballer 1986 – Hannaliis Jaadla, Estonian footballer 1986 – JP Pietersen, South African rugby player 1986 – Simone Laudehr, German footballer 1988 – LeSean McCoy, American football player 1988 – Inbee Park, South Korean golfer 1989 – Nick Palmieri, American ice hockey player 1990 – Bebé, Portuguese footballer 1990 – Rachel Brosnahan, American actress 1991 – Salih Dursun, Turkish footballer 1991 – James Rodríguez, Colombian footballer 1992 – Bartosz Bereszyński, Polish footballer 1993 – Kurt Capewell, Australian rugby league player 1994 – Kanako Momota, Japanese singer-songwriter 1995 – Evania Pelite, Australian rugby union player 1995 – Luke Shaw, English footballer 1995 – Jordyn Wieber, American gymnast 1996 – Moussa Dembélé, French footballer 1996 – Jordan Romero, American mountaineer 1997 – Malala Yousafzai, Pakistani-English activist, Nobel Prize laureate 2000 – Vinícius Júnior, Brazilian footballer Deaths Pre-1600 524 – Viventiolus, archbishop of Lyon (b. 460) 783 – Bertrada of Laon, Frankish queen (b. 720) 965 – Meng Chang, emperor of Later Shu (b. 919) 981 – Xue Juzheng, Chinese scholar-official and historian 1067 – John Komnenos, Byzantine general 1441 – Ashikaga Yoshinori, Japanese shōgun (b. 1394) 1441 – Kyōgoku Takakazu, Japanese nobleman 1489 – Bahlul Lodi, sultan of Delhi 1536 – Desiderius Erasmus, Dutch priest and philosopher (b. 1466) 1584 – Steven Borough, English navigator and explorer (b. 1525) 1601–1900 1623 – William Bourchier, 3rd Earl of Bath (b. 1557) 1664 – Stefano della Bella, Italian illustrator and engraver (b. 1610) 1682 – Jean Picard, French priest and astronomer (b. 1620) 1691 – Marquis de St Ruth, French general 1693 – John Ashby, English admiral (b. 1640) 1712 – Richard Cromwell, English academic and politician (b. 1626) 1742 – Evaristo Felice Dall'Abaco, Italian violinist and composer (b. 1675) 1749 – Charles de la Boische, Marquis de Beauharnois, French navy officer and politician, Governor General of New France (b. 1671)
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when his work was not being given attention or corrected. Haydn recommended his friend Albrechtsberger, with whom Beethoven then studied harmony and counterpoint. On completion of his studies, the young student noted, "Patience, diligence, persistence, and sincerity will lead to success", which reflects upon Albrechtsberger's own compositional philosophy. Albrechtsberger died in Vienna; his grave is in St. Marx cemetery. Compositions His published compositions consist of preludes, fugues and sonatas for the piano and organ, string quartets, etc.; but the greater proportion of his works, vocal and instrumental, exists only in manuscript. They are in the library of the Vienna Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde. Around 1765, he wrote at least seven concerti for Jew's harp and strings (three survive in the Hungarian National Library in Budapest). They are pleasant, well-written works in the galant style. One of his most notable works is his Concerto for Alto Trombone and Orchestra in B Major. As the trombone has few works dating back to the classical period, his concerto is often highlighted by the trombone community. He also wrote a Concerto for the Mandola, Op. 27, discussed positively in the 1914 book The Guitar and Mandolin. Possibly the most valuable service he rendered to music was in his theoretical works. In 1790 he published at Leipzig a treatise on composition, of which a third edition appeared in 1821. A collection of his writings on harmony, in three volumes, was published under the care of his pupil Ignaz von Seyfried (1776–1841) in 1826. An English version of this was published by Novello in 1855. His compositional style derives
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of St. Stephen's Cathedral. His fame as a theorist attracted to him in the Austrian capital a large number of pupils, some of whom afterwards became eminent musicians. Among these were Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Ignaz Moscheles, Josef Weigl, Ludwig-Wilhelm Tepper de Ferguson, Antonio Casimir Cartellieri, Ludwig van Beethoven, Anton Reicha and Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart. Beethoven had arrived in Vienna in 1792 to study with Joseph Haydn, but quickly became infuriated when his work was not being given attention or corrected. Haydn recommended his friend Albrechtsberger, with whom Beethoven then studied harmony and counterpoint. On completion of his studies, the young student noted, "Patience, diligence, persistence, and sincerity will lead to success", which reflects upon Albrechtsberger's own compositional philosophy. Albrechtsberger died in Vienna; his grave is in St. Marx cemetery. Compositions His published compositions consist of preludes, fugues and sonatas for the piano and organ, string quartets, etc.; but the greater proportion of his works, vocal and instrumental, exists only in manuscript. They
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not been present during the violence. It was only through the intervention of William Bradford that Alden was eventually released. Settlement of Duxbury In January 1628, the land along Plymouth Bay was divided up into farm lots with each individual receiving 20 acres plus an additional 20 acres for each family member. John and Priscilla Alden, who had three children at that time, received 100 acres along the Bluefish River in the area known as Duxbury (sometimes spelled Duxburough or Duxborrow at that time). Grants were drawn by lot, so the location of Alden's farm was not his selection. By chance, as historian Dorothy Wentworth observed, the location was ideal as it included upland that had been partially cleared by Native Americans, woodland, and salt marshes (a good source of hay). Alden built their first small house in 1628. As they were required to travel to Plymouth every Sunday for Sabbath services (10 miles away), they lived seasonally on their Duxbury farm for the first few years, staying in Plymouth during the winter to avoid long travels in harsh weather. The site was professionally excavated by Roland Wells Robbins in 1960, unearthing many artifacts including a halberd blade which is now exhibited at Pilgrim Hall Museum in Plymouth. The site is now part of the Duxbury school campus and is located next to a playing field. The footprint of the house is evident as a depression in the ground and is marked by a boulder, plaque, and other interpretive signage. In 1632, Alden was one of several men who petitioned the colony to have Duxbury set off as a separate church congregation with their own minister. This would allow those with Duxbury grants to reside on their farms year-round. William Bradford and other colonial officials were reluctant to break apart the "mother" church congregation in Plymouth but nonetheless gave permission. Duxbury was incorporated as a separate town in 1637. John Alden became one of the leading men of the new town of Duxbury and a key figure in the colony. He served as Deputy from Duxbury to the General Court for most of the 1640s. Local historians of the 19th and 20th centuries asserted that a later Alden house in Duxbury was the second home of John and Priscilla Alden and was constructed in 1653. As local historian Dorothy Wentworth wrote, the tradition "has been accepted for so long that there seems no point in doubting it." This house is now owned by the Alden Kindred of America and maintained as a museum known as the Alden House Historic Site. Long-standing assumptions about the house turned out to be incorrect as Dendrochronological and architectural analysis conducted in 2003 suggest that the house was likely built about 1700 and therefore was not the home of John and Priscilla Alden. It was likely built by one of their children (possibly Jonathan Alden) or grandchildren. The Alden's first Duxbury home site and the Alden House Historic Site were together granted National Historic Landmark status in 2008. Family John and Priscilla Alden had ten children. The first, Elizabeth, was born in 1623 in Plymouth and died in Little Compton, Rhode Island, on May 31, 1717. She married William Pabodie on December 26, 1644 in Duxbury and had thirteen children. Her grave and that of her husband are in the Old Commons Cemetery in Little Compton. John Jr. was born about 1626 in Plymouth and died in Boston on March 14, 1701/2. He married Elizabeth (Phillips) Everill on April 1, 1660, and had fourteen children. He became a prosperous maritime merchant. He also played a controversial role in dealings with Native Americans in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia during King William's War. In 1692, he was accused of being a witch during the Salem witch trials and jailed, though he later escaped and fled to Duxbury. Joseph was born about 1628 and died in Bridgewater, Massachusetts on February 8, 1696/7. He married Mary Simmons about 1660 and had seven children. Priscilla was born about 1630. Little is known about her life except for a record which indicates she was alive and unmarried in 1688. Jonathan was born about 1632 and died in Duxbury on February 14, 1697. He married Abigail Hallett on December 10, 1672, and had six children. Jonathan was buried in the Old Burying Ground in Duxbury. He was captain of the Plymouth Colony militia and documentation indicates that at his burial, the militia company attended in formation. During his burial, Rev. Ichabod Wiswall of Duxbury delivered a sermon. It is the first known instance of a sermon being delivered at a Plymouth Colony burial indicated changing religious customs. Prior to this, burials were simple affairs without religious ritual. Sarah was born about 1634 and died before the settlement of her father's estate in 1688. She married Alexander Standish, son of Myles Standish, about 1660 and had eight children. Ruth was born about 1636 and died in Braintree, Massachusetts on October 12, 1674. She married John Bass in Braintree on February 3, 1658, and had seven children. Among her children was Hannah Bass, paternal grandmother of future United States President John Adams. Mary was born about 1638. She was alive and unmarried in 1688. Rebecca was born about 1640. She married Thomas Delano in 1677 and had nine children. She died between June 12, 1696 and October 5, 1722. She is buried in Old Burying Ground in Duxbury. David was born about 1642 and died in Duxbury between July 2, 1718, and April 1, 1719. He married Mary Southworth by 1674 and had six children. Final days and legacy John Alden was the last survivor of the signers of the Mayflower Compact. He died in Duxbury on September 12, 1687. Both he and his wife Priscilla were buried in the Old Burying Ground in South Duxbury. The precise location of their graves is not known as markers either were not placed or have crumbled away. In 1930, the Alden Kindred of America placed commemorative slate stones at the estimated location of their graves near the headstone
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recreation of this house stands today at Plimoth Plantation, a living history museum which replicates the original Pilgrim settlement. Marriage to Priscilla Mullins The exact date of John Alden's marriage to Priscilla Mullins was not noted in colonial records. According to the Pilgrim Society, it was likely in 1622 as Priscilla Mullins is not listed separately in the 1623 Division of Land. It was either the second or third marriage to take place in the colony. The marriage of the two young colonists has been widely depicted in art and literature primarily due to the extraordinary popularity of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's narrative poem The Courtship of Miles Standish, published in 1858. The fictionalized story tells of a love triangle involving John Alden, Priscilla Mullins, and Myles Standish (the captain of the colony's militia). In the story, Standish is too timid to express his feelings to Priscilla Mullins and therefore asks Alden to speak for him. Alden's words of courtship on Standish's behalf prompt Mullins to offer an often-quoted quip, "Why don't you speak for yourself, John?" The book sold 10,000 copies in London in a single day. In the United States, the story brought the Pilgrims to the forefront of American culture, contributing to the establishment of a national Thanksgiving holiday in 1863. The book made John and Priscilla Alden, according to historian Jim Baker, "the most celebrated Pilgrim couple in history". While some historians state that the courtship story is "loosely based" on Alden family oral history, others dismiss it as complete fiction. A brief account of a rivalry between John Alden and Myles Standish for Priscilla's hand was first published in A Collection of American Epitaphs and Inscriptions by Timothy Alden in 1814. Longfellow, therefore, was not the originator of the story but he greatly embellished it. No part of the tale is supported by 17th century documentation. Historian John Goodwin pointed out several anachronisms and inconsistencies, asserting, there was no "reason for believing any part of it." Service to Plymouth Colony In 1626, the colony's financial backers in London, known as the Merchant Adventurers, disbanded. This left the colonists with no means of settling their significant debts to those who had funded the effort. Eight of the Plymouth colonists, including John Alden, agreed to collectively assume, or undertake, the debt in exchange for a monopoly on the fur trade from the colony. These men who averted financial ruin for the colony became known as the "Undertakers". This agreement to grant the Undertakers a monopoly was signed by the 37 freemen of Plymouth Colony. The fact that Alden was among the Undertakers is indicative of his growing stature in the colony. Alden was elected Governor's Assistant (one of a small council of advisors to the Governor) in 1632 and was regularly reelected to that office until 1640 and then again from 1650 to 1686, because of he was deputy from Duxbury from 1641 to 1642, and from 1645 to 1649, and soldier in Captain Miles Standish's company from 1643. He also served as Deputy Governor on two occasions in the absence of the Governor in 1665 and 1677. The colonists elected him Treasurer annually from 1656 to 1658. Alden served on the colony's Council of War, an important committee to decide on matters pertaining to the defense of the colony, in 1642, 1643, 1646, 1653, 1658 and 1667. The Plymouth General Court appointed Alden to a number of important committees including the Committee to Revise Laws, the Committee on the Kennebec Trade, and a number of additional minor posts. He then served for several years as magistrate. Plymouth Colony held a patent entitling them to a monopoly on the fur trade at the Kennebec River in what would later become Maine. In 1634, a man named John Hocking from Piscataqua Plantation in New Hampshire interloped in the trade provoking a confrontation between him and traders from Plymouth Colony at Kennebec. Hocking shot a Plymouth colonist named Moses Talbot and, in turn, a Plymouth man shot Hocking. When the Plymouth traders arrived by boat at Boston, authorities there decided to imprison John Alden who was aboard the Plymouth vessel, even though he had not been present during the violence. It was only through the intervention of William Bradford that Alden was eventually released. Settlement of Duxbury In January 1628, the land along Plymouth Bay was divided up into farm lots with each individual receiving 20 acres plus an additional 20 acres for each family member. John and Priscilla Alden, who had three children at that time, received 100 acres along the Bluefish River in the area known as Duxbury (sometimes spelled Duxburough or Duxborrow at that time). Grants were drawn by lot, so the location of Alden's farm was not his selection. By chance, as historian Dorothy Wentworth observed, the location was ideal as it included upland that had been partially cleared by Native Americans, woodland, and salt marshes (a good source of hay). Alden built their first small house in 1628. As they were required to travel to Plymouth every Sunday for Sabbath services (10 miles away), they lived seasonally on their Duxbury farm for the first few years, staying in Plymouth during the winter to avoid long travels in harsh weather. The site was professionally excavated by Roland Wells Robbins in 1960, unearthing many artifacts including a halberd blade which is now exhibited at Pilgrim Hall Museum in Plymouth. The site is now part of the Duxbury school campus and is located next to a playing field. The footprint of the house is evident as a depression in the ground and is marked by a boulder, plaque, and other interpretive signage. In 1632, Alden was one of several men who petitioned the colony to have Duxbury set off as a separate church congregation with their own minister. This would allow those with Duxbury grants to reside on their farms year-round. William Bradford and other colonial officials were reluctant to break apart the "mother" church congregation in Plymouth but nonetheless gave permission. Duxbury was incorporated as a separate town in 1637. John Alden became one of the leading men of the new town of Duxbury and a key figure in the colony. He served as Deputy from Duxbury to the General Court for most of the 1640s. Local historians of the 19th and 20th centuries asserted that a later Alden house in Duxbury was the second home of John and Priscilla Alden and was constructed in 1653. As local historian Dorothy Wentworth wrote, the tradition "has been accepted for so long that there seems no point in doubting it." This house is now owned by the Alden Kindred of America and maintained as a museum known as the Alden House Historic Site. Long-standing assumptions about the house turned out to be incorrect as Dendrochronological and architectural analysis conducted in 2003 suggest that the house was likely built about 1700 and therefore was not the home of John and Priscilla Alden. It was likely built by one of their children (possibly Jonathan Alden) or grandchildren. The Alden's first Duxbury home site and the Alden House Historic Site were together granted National Historic Landmark status in 2008. Family John and Priscilla Alden had ten children. The first, Elizabeth, was born in 1623 in Plymouth and died in Little Compton, Rhode Island, on May 31, 1717. She married William Pabodie on December 26, 1644 in Duxbury and had thirteen children. Her grave and that of her husband are in the Old Commons Cemetery in Little Compton. John Jr. was born about 1626 in Plymouth and died in Boston on March 14, 1701/2. He married Elizabeth (Phillips) Everill on April 1, 1660, and had fourteen children. He became a prosperous maritime merchant. He also played a controversial role in dealings with Native Americans in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia during King William's War. In 1692, he was accused of being a witch during the Salem witch trials and jailed, though he later escaped and fled to Duxbury. Joseph was born about 1628 and died in Bridgewater, Massachusetts on February 8, 1696/7. He
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the season. Generally these include inedible leaves, flowers native to Japan or with a long history of being grown in the country, as well as their artificial counterparts. Salads The is boiled green-leaf vegetables bunched and cut to size, steeped in dashi broth, eaten with dashes of soy sauce. Another item is , which could be made with wakame seaweed, or be something like a made from thin toothpick slices of daikon and carrot. The so-called vinegar that is blended with the ingredient here is often which is a blend of vinegar, mirin, and soy sauce. A adds katsuo dashi to this. An is another group of items, describable as a sort of "tossed salad" or "dressed" (though aemono also includes thin strips of squid or fish sashimi (itozukuri) etc. similarly prepared). One types are where usually vegetables such as green beans are tossed with white or black sesame seeds ground in a suribachi mortar bowl, flavored additionally with sugar and soy sauce. adds tofu (bean curd) in the mix. An aemono is tossed with vinegar-white miso mix and uses wakegi scallion and as standard. Cooking techniques Different cooking techniques are applied to each of the three okazu; they may be raw (sashimi), grilled, simmered (sometimes called boiled), steamed, deep-fried, vinegared, or dressed. Dishes In , the word has the basic meaning of "vegetable", but secondarily means any accompanying dish (whether it uses fish or meat), with the more familiar combined form , which is a term for any side dish, such as the vast selections sold at Japanese supermarkets or . It figures in the Japanese word for appetizer, ; main dish, ; or (formal synonym for okazu, but the latter is considered somewhat of a ladies' term or nyōbō kotoba. Below are listed some of the most common categories for prepared food: Yakimono (焼き物), grilled and pan-fried dishes Nimono (煮物), stewed/simmered/cooked/boiled dishes Itamemono (炒め物), stir-fried dishes Mushimono (蒸し物), steamed dishes Agemono (揚げ物), deep-fried dishes Sashimi (刺身), sliced raw fish Suimono (吸い物) and shirumono (汁物), soups Tsukemono (漬け物), pickled/salted vegetables Aemono (和え物), dishes dressed with various kinds of sauce Sunomono (酢の物), vinegared dishes Chinmi (珍味), delicacies Classification Kaiseki Kaiseki, closely associated with tea ceremony (chanoyu), is a high form of hospitality through cuisine. The style is minimalist, extolling the aesthetics of wabi-sabi. Like the tea ceremony, appreciation of the diningware and vessels is part of the experience. In the modern standard form, the first course consists of ichijū-sansai (one soup, three dishes), followed by the serving of sake accompanied by dish(es) plated on a square wooden bordered tray of sorts called . Sometimes another element called is served to complement the sake, for guests who are heavier drinkers. Vegetarian Strictly vegetarian food is rare since even vegetable dishes are flavored with the ubiquitous dashi stock, usually made with katsuobushi (dried skipjack tuna flakes), and are therefore pescetarian more often than carnivorous. An exception is shōjin-ryōri (精進料理), vegetarian dishes developed by Buddhist monks. However, the advertised shōjin-ryōri at public eating places includes some non-vegetarian elements. Vegetarianism, was introduced from China by the Ōbaku sect (a sub-sect of Zen Buddhism), and which some sources still regard as part of "Japanese cuisine". The sect in Japan was founded by the priest Ingen (d. 1673), and is headquartered in Uji, Kyoto. The Japanese name for the common green bean takes after this priest who allegedly introduced the New World crop via China. One aspect of the fucha-ryōri practiced at the temple is the wealth of , one example being mock-eel, made from strained tofu, with nori seaweed used expertly to mimic the black skin. The secret ingredient used is grated gobō (burdock) roots. Masakazu Tada, Honorary Vice-President of the International Vegetarian Union for 25 years from 1960, stated that "Japan was vegetarian for 1,000 years". The taboo against eating meat was lifted in 1872 by the Meiji Emperor as part of an effort towards westernizing Japan. British journalist J. W. Robertson Scott reported in the 1920s that the society was still 90% vegetarian, and 50–60% of the population ate fish only on festive occasions, probably due to poverty more than for any other reason. Rice Rice has historically been the staple food of the Japanese people. Its fundamental importance is evident from the fact that the word for cooked rice, gohan or meshi, also stands for a "meal". While rice has an ancient history of cultivation in Japan, its use as a staple has not been universal. Notably, in northern areas (northern Honshū and Hokkaidō), other grains such as wheat were more common into the 19th century. In most of Japan, rice used to be consumed for almost every meal, and although a 2007 survey showed that 70% of Japanese still eat it once or twice a day, its popularity is now declining. In the 20th century there has been a shift in dietary habits, with an increasing number of people choosing wheat-based products (such as bread and noodles) over rice. Japanese rice is short-grained and becomes sticky when cooked. Most rice is sold as hakumai (白米, "white rice"), with the outer portion of the grains (糠, nuka) polished away. Unpolished brown rice (玄米, genmai) is considered less desirable, but its popularity has been increasing. Noodles Japanese noodles often substitute for a rice-based meal. Soba (thin, grayish-brown noodles containing buckwheat flour) and udon (thick wheat noodles) are the main traditional noodles, while ramen is a modern import and now very popular. There are also other, less common noodles, such as somen (thin, white noodles containing wheat flour). Japanese noodles, such as soba and udon, are eaten as a standalone, and usually not with a side dish, in terms of general custom. It may have toppings, but they are called . The fried battered shrimp tempura sitting in a bowl of tempura-soba would be referred to as "the shrimp" or "the tempura", and not so much be referred to as a topping (gu). The identical toppings, if served as a dish to be eaten with plain white rice could be called okazu, so these terms are context-sensitive. Some noodle dishes derive their name from Japanese folklore, such as kitsune and tanuki, reflecting dishes in which the noodles can be changed, but the broth and garnishes correspond to their respective legend. Hot noodles are usually served in a bowl already steeped in their broth and are called kakesoba or kakeudon. Cold soba arrive unseasoned and heaped atop a zaru or seiro, and are picked up with a chopstick and dunked in their dip sauce. The broth is a soy-dashi-mirin type of mix; the dip is similar but more concentrated (heavier on soy sauce). In the simple form, yakumi (condiments and spices) such as shichimi, nori, finely chopped scallions, wasabi, etc. are added to the noodles, besides the broth/dip sauce. Udon may also be eaten in kama-age style, piping hot straight out of the boiling pot, and eaten with plain soy sauce and sometimes with raw egg also. Japanese noodles are traditionally eaten by bringing the bowl close to the mouth, and sucking in the noodles with the aid of chopsticks. The resulting loud slurping noise is considered normal in Japan, although in the 2010s concerns began to be voiced about the slurping being offensive to others, especially tourists. The word nuuhara (ヌーハラ, from "nuudoru harasumento", noodle harassment) was coined to describe this. Sweets Traditional Japanese sweets are known as wagashi. Ingredients such as red bean paste and mochi are used. More modern-day tastes includes green tea ice cream, a very popular flavor. Almost all manufacturers produce a version of it. Kakigōri is a shaved ice dessert flavored with syrup or condensed milk. It is usually sold and eaten at summer festivals. A dessert very popular among the children in Japan are dorayaki. They are sweet pancakes filled with a sweet red bean paste. They are mostly eaten at room temperature but are also considered very delicious hot. Beverages Tea Green tea may be served with most Japanese dishes. It is produced in Japan and prepared in various forms such as matcha, the tea used in the Japanese tea ceremony. Beer Beer production started in Japan in the 1860s. The most commonly consumed beers in Japan are pale-colored light lagers, with an alcohol strength of around 5.0% ABV. Lager beers are the most commonly produced beer style in Japan, but beer-like beverages, made with lower levels of malts called Happoshu (発泡酒, literally, "bubbly alcohol") or non-malt Happousei (発泡性, literally "effervescence") have captured a large part of the market as tax is substantially lower on these products. Beer and its varieties have a market share of almost 2/3 of alcoholic beverages. Small local microbreweries have also gained increasing popularity since the 1990s, supplying distinct tasting beers in a variety of styles that seek to match the emphasis on craftsmanship, quality, and ingredient provenance often associated with Japanese food. Sake Sake is a brewed rice beverage that typically contains 15–17% alcohol and is made by multiple fermentation of rice. At traditional formal meals, it is considered an equivalent to rice and is not simultaneously taken with other rice-based dishes, although this notion is typically no longer applied to modern, refined, premium ("ginjo") sake, which bear little resemblance to the sakes of even 100 years ago. Side dishes for sake are particularly called sakana or otsumami. Sake is brewed in a highly labor-intensive process more similar to beer production than winemaking, hence, the common description of sake as rice "wine" is misleading. Sake is made with, by legal definition, strictly just four ingredients: special rice, water, koji, and special yeast. As of 2014, Japan has some 1500 registered breweries, which produce thousands of different sakes. Sake characteristics and flavor profiles vary with regionality, ingredients, and the styles (maintained by brewmaster guilds) that brewery leaders want to produce. Sake flavor profiles lend extremely well to pairing with a wide variety of cuisines, including non-Japanese cuisines. Shōchū Shōchū is a distilled spirit that is typically made from barley, sweet potato, buckwheat, or rice. Shōchū is produced everywhere in Japan, but its production started in Kyushu. Whisky Japanese whisky began commercial production in the early 20th century, and is now extremely popular, primarily consumed in . It is produced in the Scottish style, with malt whisky produced since the 1980s, and has won top international awards since the 2000s. Wine A domestic wine production exists since the 1860s yet most wine is imported. The total market share of wine on alcoholic beverages is about 3%. Regional cuisine Japanese cuisine offers a vast array of regional specialties known as kyōdo-ryōri (郷土料理), many of them originating from dishes prepared using traditional recipes with local ingredients. Foods from the Kantō region taste very strong. For example, the dashi-based broth for serving udon noodles is heavy on dark soy sauce, similar to soba broth. On the other hand, Kansai region foods are lightly seasoned, with clear udon noodles. made with light soy sauce. Traditional table settings The traditional Japanese table setting has varied considerably over the centuries, depending primarily on the type of table common during a given era. Before the 19th century, small individual box tables (hakozen, 箱膳) or flat floor trays were set before each diner. Larger low tables (chabudai, ちゃぶ台) that accommodated entire families were gaining popularity by the beginning of the 20th century, but these gave way to Western-style dining tables and chairs by the end of the 20th century. The traditional Japanese table setting is to place a bowl of rice on the diner’s left and to place a bowl of miso soup on the diner’s right side at the table. Behind these, each okazu is served on its own individual plate. Based on the standard three okazu formula, behind the rice and soup are three flat plates to hold the three okazu; one to far back left, one at far back right, and one in the center. Pickled vegetables are often served on the side but are not counted as part of the three okazu. Chopsticks are generally placed at the very front of the tray near the diner with pointed ends facing left and supported by a chopstick rest, or hashioki. Dining etiquette Many restaurants and homes in Japan are equipped with Western-style chairs and tables. However, traditional Japanese low tables and cushions, usually found on tatami floors, are also very common. Tatami mats, which are made of straw, can be easily damaged and are hard to clean, thus shoes or any type of footwear are always taken off when stepping on tatami floors. When dining in a traditional tatami room, sitting upright on the floor is common. In a casual setting, men usually sit with their feet crossed and women sit with both legs to one side. Only men are supposed to sit cross-legged. The formal way of sitting for both sexes is a kneeling style known as seiza. To sit in a seiza position, one kneels on the floor with legs folded under the thighs and the buttocks resting on the heels. When dining out in a restaurant, the customers are guided to their seats by the host. The honored or eldest guest will usually be seated at the center of the table farthest from the entrance. In the home, the most important guest is also seated farthest away from the entrance. If there is a tokonoma, or alcove, in the room, the guest is seated in front of it. The host sits next to or closest to the entrance. In Japan, it is customary to say itadakimasu ("I [humbly] receive") before starting to eat a meal. When saying itadakimasu, both hands are put together in front of the chest or on the lap. Itadakimasu is preceded by complimenting the appearance of food. The Japanese attach as much importance to the aesthetic arrangement of the food as its actual taste. Before touching the food, it is polite to compliment the host on his artistry. It is also a polite custom to wait for the eldest guest at the table to start eating before the other diners start. Another customary and important etiquette is to say go-chisō-sama deshita ("It was a feast") to the host after the meal and the restaurant staff when leaving. Dishes for special occasions In Japanese tradition some dishes are strongly tied to a festival or event. These dishes include: Botamochi, a sticky rice dumpling with sweet azuki paste served in
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are used. More modern-day tastes includes green tea ice cream, a very popular flavor. Almost all manufacturers produce a version of it. Kakigōri is a shaved ice dessert flavored with syrup or condensed milk. It is usually sold and eaten at summer festivals. A dessert very popular among the children in Japan are dorayaki. They are sweet pancakes filled with a sweet red bean paste. They are mostly eaten at room temperature but are also considered very delicious hot. Beverages Tea Green tea may be served with most Japanese dishes. It is produced in Japan and prepared in various forms such as matcha, the tea used in the Japanese tea ceremony. Beer Beer production started in Japan in the 1860s. The most commonly consumed beers in Japan are pale-colored light lagers, with an alcohol strength of around 5.0% ABV. Lager beers are the most commonly produced beer style in Japan, but beer-like beverages, made with lower levels of malts called Happoshu (発泡酒, literally, "bubbly alcohol") or non-malt Happousei (発泡性, literally "effervescence") have captured a large part of the market as tax is substantially lower on these products. Beer and its varieties have a market share of almost 2/3 of alcoholic beverages. Small local microbreweries have also gained increasing popularity since the 1990s, supplying distinct tasting beers in a variety of styles that seek to match the emphasis on craftsmanship, quality, and ingredient provenance often associated with Japanese food. Sake Sake is a brewed rice beverage that typically contains 15–17% alcohol and is made by multiple fermentation of rice. At traditional formal meals, it is considered an equivalent to rice and is not simultaneously taken with other rice-based dishes, although this notion is typically no longer applied to modern, refined, premium ("ginjo") sake, which bear little resemblance to the sakes of even 100 years ago. Side dishes for sake are particularly called sakana or otsumami. Sake is brewed in a highly labor-intensive process more similar to beer production than winemaking, hence, the common description of sake as rice "wine" is misleading. Sake is made with, by legal definition, strictly just four ingredients: special rice, water, koji, and special yeast. As of 2014, Japan has some 1500 registered breweries, which produce thousands of different sakes. Sake characteristics and flavor profiles vary with regionality, ingredients, and the styles (maintained by brewmaster guilds) that brewery leaders want to produce. Sake flavor profiles lend extremely well to pairing with a wide variety of cuisines, including non-Japanese cuisines. Shōchū Shōchū is a distilled spirit that is typically made from barley, sweet potato, buckwheat, or rice. Shōchū is produced everywhere in Japan, but its production started in Kyushu. Whisky Japanese whisky began commercial production in the early 20th century, and is now extremely popular, primarily consumed in . It is produced in the Scottish style, with malt whisky produced since the 1980s, and has won top international awards since the 2000s. Wine A domestic wine production exists since the 1860s yet most wine is imported. The total market share of wine on alcoholic beverages is about 3%. Regional cuisine Japanese cuisine offers a vast array of regional specialties known as kyōdo-ryōri (郷土料理), many of them originating from dishes prepared using traditional recipes with local ingredients. Foods from the Kantō region taste very strong. For example, the dashi-based broth for serving udon noodles is heavy on dark soy sauce, similar to soba broth. On the other hand, Kansai region foods are lightly seasoned, with clear udon noodles. made with light soy sauce. Traditional table settings The traditional Japanese table setting has varied considerably over the centuries, depending primarily on the type of table common during a given era. Before the 19th century, small individual box tables (hakozen, 箱膳) or flat floor trays were set before each diner. Larger low tables (chabudai, ちゃぶ台) that accommodated entire families were gaining popularity by the beginning of the 20th century, but these gave way to Western-style dining tables and chairs by the end of the 20th century. The traditional Japanese table setting is to place a bowl of rice on the diner’s left and to place a bowl of miso soup on the diner’s right side at the table. Behind these, each okazu is served on its own individual plate. Based on the standard three okazu formula, behind the rice and soup are three flat plates to hold the three okazu; one to far back left, one at far back right, and one in the center. Pickled vegetables are often served on the side but are not counted as part of the three okazu. Chopsticks are generally placed at the very front of the tray near the diner with pointed ends facing left and supported by a chopstick rest, or hashioki. Dining etiquette Many restaurants and homes in Japan are equipped with Western-style chairs and tables. However, traditional Japanese low tables and cushions, usually found on tatami floors, are also very common. Tatami mats, which are made of straw, can be easily damaged and are hard to clean, thus shoes or any type of footwear are always taken off when stepping on tatami floors. When dining in a traditional tatami room, sitting upright on the floor is common. In a casual setting, men usually sit with their feet crossed and women sit with both legs to one side. Only men are supposed to sit cross-legged. The formal way of sitting for both sexes is a kneeling style known as seiza. To sit in a seiza position, one kneels on the floor with legs folded under the thighs and the buttocks resting on the heels. When dining out in a restaurant, the customers are guided to their seats by the host. The honored or eldest guest will usually be seated at the center of the table farthest from the entrance. In the home, the most important guest is also seated farthest away from the entrance. If there is a tokonoma, or alcove, in the room, the guest is seated in front of it. The host sits next to or closest to the entrance. In Japan, it is customary to say itadakimasu ("I [humbly] receive") before starting to eat a meal. When saying itadakimasu, both hands are put together in front of the chest or on the lap. Itadakimasu is preceded by complimenting the appearance of food. The Japanese attach as much importance to the aesthetic arrangement of the food as its actual taste. Before touching the food, it is polite to compliment the host on his artistry. It is also a polite custom to wait for the eldest guest at the table to start eating before the other diners start. Another customary and important etiquette is to say go-chisō-sama deshita ("It was a feast") to the host after the meal and the restaurant staff when leaving. Dishes for special occasions In Japanese tradition some dishes are strongly tied to a festival or event. These dishes include: Botamochi, a sticky rice dumpling with sweet azuki paste served in spring, while a similar sweet Ohagi is served in autumn. Chimaki (steamed sweet rice cake): Tango no sekku and Gion Festival. Hamo (a type of fish, often eel) and sōmen: Gion Festival. Osechi: New Year. Sekihan is red rice, which is served for any celebratory occasion. It is usually sticky rice cooked with azuki, or red bean, which gives the rice its distinctive red color. Soba: New Year's Eve. This is called toshi koshi soba (literally "year crossing soba"). Chirashizushi, Ushiojiru (clear soup of clams) and amazake: Hinamatsuri. In some regions, on every first and fifteenth day of the month, people eat a mixture of rice and azuki (azuki meshi (小豆飯); see Sekihan). Imported and adapted foods Japan has a long history of importing food from other countries, some of which are now part of Japan's most popular cuisine. Ramen is considered an important part to their culinary history, to the extent where in survey of 2,000 Tokyo residents, instant ramen came up many times as a product they thought was an outstanding Japanese invention. Believed to have originated in China, ramen became popular in Japan after the Second Sino-Japanese war (1937–1945), when many Chinese students were displaced to Japan. Curry is another popular imported dish and is ranked near the top of nearly all Japanese surveys for favorite foods. The average Japanese person eats curry at least once a week. The origins of curry, as well many other foreign imports such as pan or bread, are linked to the emergence of yōshoku, or western cuisine. Yōshoku can be traced as far back as the late Muromachi period (1336–1573) during a culinary revolution called namban ryori (南蛮料理), which means “Southern barbarian cooking”, as it is rooted in European cuisine. This cuisine style was first seen in Nagasaki, which served as the point of contact between Europe and Japan at that point in time. Food items such as potatoes, corn, dairy products, as well as the hard candy kompeito (金平糖), spread during this time. This cuisine became popular in the Meiji period, which is considered by many historians to be when Japan first opened itself to the outside world. Today, many of these imported items still hold a heavy presence in Japan. Foods imported from Portugal in the 16th century Other adapted cuisines in Japan Yōshoku – Foreign (Western) food, dishes Japan today abounds with home-grown, loosely Western-style food. Many of these were invented in the wake of the 1868 Meiji Restoration and the end of national seclusion, when the sudden influx of foreign (in particular, Western) culture led to many restaurants serving Western food, known as yōshoku (洋食), a shortened form of seiyōshoku (西洋食, "Western cuisine"), opening up in cities. Restaurants that serve these foods are called yōshokuya (洋食屋, "Western cuisine restaurants"). Many yōshoku items from that time have been adapted to a degree that they are now considered Japanese and are an integral part of any Japanese family menu. Many are served alongside rice and miso soup, and eaten with chopsticks. Yet, due to their origins these are still categorized as yōshoku as opposed to the more traditional washoku (和食, "Japanese cuisine"). Chūka ryōri - Japanese Chinese cuisine Chinese cuisine is one of the oldest the most common foreign cuisines in Japan, predating the introduction of Western food dishes into the country. Many Chinese dishes have been altered to suit Japanese palates in a type of cuisine known as "chuka ryori". Iconic dishes of chuka ryori include ramen, gyoza, and chukaman. Okonomiyaki Okonomiyaki is a savoury pancake containing a variety of ingredients in a wheat-flour-based batter. Tonkatsu Tonkatsu is a breaded, deep-fried pork cutlet. Curry Curry was introduced by Anglo-Indian officers of the Royal Navy from India who brought curry powder to Japan in the Meiji period. The Imperial Japanese Navy adopted curry to prevent beriberi. Overtime it was reinvented and adapted to suit Japanese tastes that it became uniquely Japanese. It is consumed so much that it is considered a national dish. Many recipes are on the menu of the JMSDF. A variety of vegetables and meats are used to make Japanese curry. Usually vegetables like onions, carrots, and potatoes. The type of meat used are beef, pork, and chicken. A popular dish is Katsu-karē which is a breaded deep-fried cutlet (tonkatsu; usually pork or chicken) with Japanese curry sauce. Japanese curry can be found in foods such as curry udon, curry bread, and katsukarē, tonkatsu served with curry. It's very commonly made with rice beside the curry on the dish called . This can be eaten during dinner. Wafū burgers (Japanese-style burgers) Hamburger chains active in Japan include McDonald's, Burger King, First Kitchen, Lotteria and MOS Burger. Many chains developed uniquely Japanese versions of American fast food such as the teriyaki burger, kinpira (sauté) rice burger, fried shrimp burgers, and green tea milkshakes. Italian High-class Japanese chefs have preserved many Italian seafood dishes that are forgotten in other countries. These include pasta with prawns, lobster (a specialty known in Italy as pasta all'aragosta), crab (an Italian specialty; in Japan it is served with a different species of crab), and pasta with sea urchin sauce (sea urchin pasta being a specialty of the Puglia region). Outside Japan Many countries have imported portions of Japanese cuisine. Some may adhere to the traditional preparations of the cuisines, but in some cultures the dishes have been adapted to fit the palate of the local populace. In 1970s sushi travelled from Japan to Canada and the United States, it was modified to suit the American palate, and re-entered the Japanese market as "American Sushi". An example of this phenomenon is the California roll, which was created in North America in the 1970s, rose in popularity across the United States through the 1980s, and thus sparked Japanese food's – more precisely, sushi's – global popularity. In 2014, Japanese Restaurant Organization has selected potential countries where Japanese food is becoming increasingly popular, and conducted research concerning the Japanese restaurants abroad. These key nations or region are Taiwan, Hong Kong, China, Singapore, Thailand and Indonesia. This was meant as an effort to promote Japanese cuisine and to expand the market of Japanese ingredients, products and foodstuffs. Numbers of Japanese foodstuff and seasoning brands such as Ajinomoto, Kikkoman, Nissin and mayonnaise, are establishing production base in other Asian countries, such as China, Thailand and Indonesia. United States The California roll has been influential in sushi's global popularity; its invention often credited to a Japanese-born chef working in Los Angeles, with dates assigned to 1973, or even 1964. The dish has been snubbed by some purist sushi chefs, and also likened to the America-born chop suey by one scholar. the country has about 4,200 sushi restaurants. It is one of the most popular styles of sushi in the US market. Japanese cuisine is an integral part of food culture in Hawaii as well as in other parts of the United States. Popular items are sushi, sashimi, and teriyaki. Kamaboko, known locally as fish cake, is a staple of saimin, a noodle soup that is a local favorite in Hawaii. Sushi, long regarded as quite exotic in the west until the 1970s, has become a popular health food in parts of North America, Western Europe and Asia. Two of the first Japanese restaurants in the United States were Saito and Nippon. Restaurants such as these popularized dishes such as sukiyaki and tempura, while Nippon was the first restaurant in Manhattan to have a dedicated sushi bar. Nippon was also one of the first Japanese restaurants in the U.S. to grow and process their own soba and responsible for creation of the now standard beef negimayaki dish. In the U.S., the teppanyaki "iron hot plate" cooking restaurant took foothold. Such restaurants featured steak, shrimp and vegetables (including bean sprouts), cooked in front of the customer on a "teppanyaki grill" (teppan) by a personal chef who turns cooking into performance art, twirling and juggling cutting knives like batons. The meal would be served with steamed rice and Japanese soup. This style of cooking was made popular in the U.S. when Rocky Aoki founded his popular restaurant chain Benihana in 1964. In Japan this type of cooking is thought to be American food, but in the U.S. it is thought to be Japanese. Aoki thought this would go over better in the U.S. than traditional Japanese cuisine because he felt that Americans enjoyed "eating in exotic surroundings, but are deeply mistrustful of exotic foods”. Canada In Canada, Japanese cuisine has become quite popular. Sushi, sashimi, and instant ramen are highly popular at opposite ends of the income scale, with instant ramen being a common low-budget meal. Sushi and sashimi takeout began in Vancouver and Toronto, and is now common throughout Canada. The largest supermarket chains all carry basic sushi and sashimi, and Japanese ingredients and instant ramen are readily available in most supermarkets. Most mid-sized mall food courts feature fast-food teppan cooking. Izakaya restaurants have surged in popularity. Australia Japanese cuisine is very popular in Australia, and Australians are becoming increasingly familiar with traditional Japanese foods. Restaurants serving Japanese cuisine feature prominently in popular rankings, including Gourmet Traveller and The Good Food Guide. Sushi in particular has been described as being "as popular as sandwiches", particularly in large cities like Melbourne, Sydney, or Brisbane. As such, sushi bars are a mainstay in shopping centre food courts, and are extremely common in cities and towns all over the country. United Kingdom Japanese food restaurant chains in the UK include Wagamama, YO! Sushi, Nudo Sushi Box, Wasabi, Bone Daddies and Kokoro. Taiwan Japan and Taiwan have shared close historical and cultural relations. Dishes such as sushi, ramen, and donburi are very popular among locals. Japanese chain restaurants such as Coco Ichibanya, Ippudo, Kura Sushi, Marugame Seimen, Mister Donut, MOS Burger, Ootoya, Ramen Kagetsu Arashi, Saizeriya, Sukiya, Sushiro, Tonkatsu Shinjuku Saboten, Yayoi Ken, and Yoshinoya, can all be found in Taiwan, among others. Taiwan has adapted many Japanese food items. Tianbula ("Taiwanese tempura") is actually satsuma-age and was introduced to Taiwan during Japanese rule by people from Kyushu, where the word tempura is commonly used to refer to satsuma-age. It is popular as a night market snack and as an ingredient for oden, hot pot and lu wei. Taiwanese versions of oden are sold locally as olen or, more recently, as guandongzhu (from Japanese Kantō-ni) in convenience stores. Thailand In Southeast Asia, Thailand is the largest market for Japanese food. This is partly because Thailand is a popular tourist destination, having large numbers of Japanese expatriates, as well as the local population having developed a taste for authentic Japanese cuisine. According to the Organisation that Promote Japanese Restaurants Abroad (JRO), the number of Japanese restaurants in Thailand jumped about 2.2-fold from 2007's figures to 1,676 in June 2012. In Bangkok, Japanese restaurants accounts for 8.3 percent of all restaurants, following those that serve Thai. Numbers of Japanese chain restaurants has established their business in Thailand, such as Yoshinoya gyūdon restaurant chain, Gyu-Kaku yakiniku restaurant chain and Kourakuen ramen restaurant
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raids both threatening U.S. trade with Europe. Like most other Jeffersonians, Monroe supported the French Revolution, but Hamilton's followers tended to sympathize more with Britain. In 1794, hoping to find a way to avoid war with both countries, Washington appointed Monroe as his minister (ambassador) to France. At the same time, he appointed the anglophile Federalist John Jay as his minister to Britain. Minister to France After arriving in France, Monroe addressed the National Convention, receiving a standing ovation for his speech celebrating republicanism. He experienced several early diplomatic successes, including the protection of U.S. trade from French attacks. He also used his influence to win the release of Thomas Paine and Adrienne de La Fayette, the wife of the Marquis de Lafayette. Months after Monroe arrived in France, the U.S. and Great Britain concluded the Jay Treaty, outraging both the French and Monroe—not fully informed about the treaty prior to its publication. Despite the undesirable effects of the Jay Treaty on Franco-American relations, Monroe won French support for U.S. navigational rights on the Mississippi River—the mouth of which was controlled by Spain—and in 1795 the U.S. and Spain signed Pinckney's Treaty. The treaty granted the U.S. limited rights to use the port of New Orleans. Washington decided Monroe was inefficient, disruptive, and failed to safeguard the national interest. He recalled Monroe in November 1796. Returning to his home in Charlottesville, he resumed his dual careers as a farmer and lawyer. Jefferson and Madison urged Monroe to run for Congress, but Monroe chose to focus on state politics instead. In 1798 Monroe published A View of the Conduct of the Executive, in the Foreign Affairs of the United States: Connected with the Mission to the French Republic, During the Years 1794, 5, and 6 . It was a long defense of his term as Minister to France. He followed the advice of his friend Robert Livingston who cautioned him to "repress every harsh and acrimonious" comment about Washington. However, he did complain that too often the U.S. government had been too close to Britain, especially regarding the Jay Treaty. Washington made notes on this copy, writing, "The truth is, Mr. Monroe was cajoled, flattered, and made to believe strange things. In return he did, or was disposed to do, whatever was pleasing to that nation, reluctantly urging the rights of his own." Confrontations and strife with Alexander Hamilton In November 1792, James Reynolds and Jacob Clingman were arrested for counterfeiting and speculating in Revolutionary War veterans' unpaid back wages. Then-Senator Monroe and congressmen Frederick Muhlenberg and Abraham Venable investigated the charges. They found that Alexander Hamilton had been making payments to James Reynolds, and suspected Hamilton was involved in the crimes. They asked him about it, and Hamilton denied involvement in the financial crimes, but admitted that he'd made payments to Reynolds, and explained he'd had an affair with Reynolds' wife, Maria. James Reynolds had found out and was blackmailing him. He offered letters to prove his story. The investigators immediately dropped the matter, and Monroe promised Hamilton he would keep the matter private. Jacob Clingman told Maria about the claim she'd had an affair with Hamilton, and she denied it, claiming the letters had been forged to help cover up the corruption. Clingman went to Monroe about this. Monroe added that interview to his notes, and sent the entire set to a friend, possibly Thomas Jefferson, for safekeeping. Unfortunately, the secretary who was involved in managing the notes of the investigation made copies and gave them to scandal writer James Callender. Five years later, shortly after Monroe was recalled from France, Callender published accusations against Hamilton based on those notes. Hamilton and his wife thought this was retaliation on the part of Monroe for the recall, and confronted by Hamilton via letter. In a subsequent meeting between the two of them, where Hamilton had suggested each bring a "second", Hamilton accused Monroe of lying, and challenged him to a duel. While such challenges were usually hot air, in this case Monroe replied "I am ready, get your pistols." Their seconds interceded, and an arrangement was made to give Hamilton documentation on what had occurred with the investigation. Hamilton was not satisfied with the subsequent explanations, and at the end of an exchange of letters the two were threatening duels, again. Monroe chose Aaron Burr as his second. Burr worked as a negotiator between the two parties, believing they were both being "childish", and eventually helped settle matters. Governor of Virginia and diplomat (1799–1802, 1811) Governor of Virginia On a party-line vote, the Virginia legislature elected Monroe as Governor of Virginia in 1799. He would serve as governor until 1802. The constitution of Virginia endowed the governor with very few powers aside from commanding the militia when the Assembly called it into action. But Monroe used his stature to convince legislators to enhance state involvement in transportation and education and to increase training for the militia. Monroe also began to give State of the Commonwealth addresses to the legislature, in which he highlighted areas in which he believed the legislature should act. Monroe also led an effort to create the state's first penitentiary, and imprisonment replaced other, often harsher, punishments. In 1800, Monroe called out the state militia to suppress Gabriel's Rebellion, a slave rebellion originating on a plantation six miles from the capital of Richmond. Gabriel and 27 other enslaved people who participated were all hanged for treason. As Governor, Monroe secretly worked with President Thomas Jefferson to secure a location where free and enslaved African Americans suspected of "conspiracy, insurgency, Treason, and rebellion" would be permanently banished. Monroe thought that foreign and Federalist elements had created the Quasi War of 1798–1800, and he strongly supported Thomas Jefferson's candidacy for president in 1800. Federalists were likewise suspicious of Monroe, some viewing him at best as a French dupe and at worst a traitor. With the power to appoint election officials in Virginia, Monroe exercised his influence to help Jefferson win Virginia's presidential electors. He also considered using the Virginia militia to force the outcome in favor of Jefferson. Jefferson won the 1800 election, and he appointed Madison as his Secretary of State. As a member of Jefferson's party and the leader of the largest state in the country, Monroe emerged as one of Jefferson's two most likely successors, alongside Madison. Louisiana Purchase and Minister to Great Britain Shortly after the end of Monroe's gubernatorial tenure, President Jefferson sent Monroe back to France to assist Ambassador Robert R. Livingston in negotiating the Louisiana Purchase. In the 1800 Treaty of San Ildefonso, France had acquired the territory of Louisiana from Spain; at the time, many in the U.S. believed that France had also acquired West Florida in the same treaty. The American delegation originally sought to acquire West Florida and the city of New Orleans, which controlled the trade of the Mississippi River. Determined to acquire New Orleans even if it meant war with France, Jefferson also authorized Monroe to form an alliance with the British if the French refused to sell the city. Meeting with François Barbé-Marbois, the French foreign minister, Monroe and Livingston agreed to purchase the entire territory of Louisiana for $15 million; the purchase became known as the Louisiana Purchase. In agreeing to the purchase, Monroe violated his instructions, which had only allowed $9 million for the purchase of New Orleans and West Florida. The French did not acknowledge that West Florida remained in Spanish possession, and the United States would claim that France had sold West Florida to the United States for several years to come. Though he had not ordered the purchase of the entire territory, Jefferson strongly supported Monroe's actions, which ensured that the United States would continue to expand to the West. Overcoming doubts about whether the Constitution authorized the purchase of foreign territory, Jefferson won congressional approval for the Louisiana Purchase, and the acquisition doubled the size of the United States. Monroe would travel to Spain in 1805 to try to win the cession of West Florida, but, with the support of France, Spain refused to consider relinquishing the territory. After the resignation of Rufus King, Monroe was appointed as the ambassador to Great Britain in 1803. The greatest issue of contention between the United States and Britain was that of the impressment of U.S. sailors. Many U.S. merchant ships employed British seamen who had deserted or dodged conscription, and the British frequently impressed sailors on U.S. ships in hopes of quelling their manpower issues. Many of the sailors they impressed had never been British subjects, and Monroe was tasked with persuading the British to stop their practice of impressment. Monroe found little success in this endeavor, partly due to Jefferson's alienation of the British minister to the United States, Anthony Merry. Rejecting Jefferson's offer to serve as the first governor of Louisiana Territory, Monroe continued to serve as ambassador to Britain until 1807. In 1806 he negotiated the Monroe–Pinkney Treaty with Great Britain. It would have extended the Jay Treaty of 1794 which had expired after ten years. Jefferson had fought the Jay Treaty intensely in 1794–95 because he felt it would allow the British to subvert American republicanism. The treaty had produced ten years of peace and highly lucrative trade for American merchants, but Jefferson was still opposed. When Monroe and the British signed the new treaty in December 1806, Jefferson refused to submit it to the Senate for ratification. Although the treaty called for ten more years of trade between the United States and the British Empire and gave American merchants guarantees that would have been good for business, Jefferson was unhappy that it did not end the hated British practice of impressment, and refused to give up the potential weapon of commercial warfare against Britain. The president made no attempt to obtain another treaty, and as a result, the two nations drifted from peace toward the War of 1812. Monroe was severely pained by the administration's repudiation of the treaty, and he fell out with Secretary of State James Madison. 1808 election and the Quids On his return to Virginia in 1807, Monroe received a warm reception, and many urged him to run in the 1808 presidential election. After Jefferson refused to submit the Monroe-Pinkney Treaty, Monroe had come to believe that Jefferson had snubbed the treaty out of the desire to avoid elevating Monroe above Madison in 1808. Out of deference to Jefferson, Monroe agreed to avoid actively campaigning for the presidency, but he did not rule out accepting a draft effort. The Democratic-Republican Party was increasingly factionalized, with "Old Republicans" or "Quids" denouncing the Jefferson administration for abandoning what they considered to be true republican principles. The Quids tried to enlist Monroe in their cause. The plan was to run Monroe for president in the 1808 election in cooperation with the Federalist Party, which had a strong base in New England. John Randolph of Roanoke led the Quid effort to stop Jefferson's choice of Madison. The regular Democratic-Republicans overcame the Quids in the nominating caucus, kept control of the party in Virginia, and protected Madison's base. Monroe did not publicly criticize Jefferson or Madison during Madison's campaign against Federalist Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, but he refused to support Madison. Madison defeated Pinckney by a large margin, carrying all but one state outside of New England. Monroe won 3,400 votes in Virginia, but received little support elsewhere. After the election Monroe quickly reconciled with Jefferson, but their friendship endured further strains when Jefferson did not promote Monroe's candidacy to Congress in 1809. Monroe did not speak with Madison until 1810. Returning to private life, he devoted his attentions to farming at his Charlottesville estate. Secretary of State and Secretary of War (1811–1817) Madison administration Monroe returned to the Virginia House of Burgesses and was elected to another term as governor in 1811, but served only four months. In April 1811, Madison appointed Monroe as Secretary of State in hopes of shoring up the support of the more radical factions of the Democratic-Republicans. Madison also hoped that Monroe, an experienced diplomat with whom he had once been close friends, would improve upon the performance of the previous Secretary of State, Robert Smith. Madison assured Monroe that their differences regarding the Monroe-Pinkney Treaty had been a misunderstanding, and the two resumed their friendship. The Senate voted unanimously (30-0) to confirm him. On taking office, Monroe hoped to negotiate treaties with the British and French to end the attacks on American merchant ships. While the French agreed to reduce the attacks and release seized American ships, the British were less receptive to Monroe's demands. Monroe had long worked for peace with the British, but he came to favor war with Britain, joining with "war hawks" such as Speaker of the House Henry Clay. With the support of Monroe and Clay, Madison asked Congress to declare war upon the British, and Congress complied on June 18, 1812, thus beginning the War of 1812. The war went very badly, and the Madison administration quickly sought peace, but were rejected by the British. The U.S. Navy did experience several successes after Monroe convinced Madison to allow the Navy's ships to set sail rather than remaining in port for the duration of the war. After the resignation of Secretary of War William Eustis, Madison asked Monroe to serve in dual roles as Secretary of State and Secretary of War, but opposition from the Senate limited Monroe to serving as acting Secretary of War until Brigadier General John Armstrong won Senate confirmation. Monroe and Armstrong clashed over war policy, and Armstrong blocked Monroe's hopes of being appointed to lead an invasion of Canada. As the war dragged on, the British offered to begin negotiations in Ghent, and the United States sent a delegation led by John Quincy Adams to conduct negotiations. Monroe allowed Adams leeway in setting terms, so long as he ended the hostilities and preserved American neutrality. When the British burned the U.S. Capitol and the White House on August 24, 1814, Madison removed Armstrong as Secretary of War and turned to Monroe for help, appointing him Secretary of War on September 27. Monroe resigned as Secretary of State on October 1, 1814, but no successor was ever appointed and thus from October 1814 to February 28, 1815, Monroe effectively held both Cabinet posts. Now in command of the war effort, Monroe ordered General Andrew Jackson to defend against a likely attack on New Orleans by the British, and he asked the governors of nearby states to send their militias to reinforce Jackson. He also called on Congress to draft an army of 100,000 men, increase compensation to soldiers, and establish a new national bank to ensure adequate funding for the war effort. Months after Monroe took office as Secretary of War, the war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent. The treaty resulted in a return to the status quo ante bellum, and many outstanding issues between the United States and Britain remained. But Americans celebrated the end of the war as a great victory, partly due to the news of the treaty reaching the United States shortly after Jackson's victory in the Battle of New Orleans. With the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the British also ended the practice of impressment. After the war, Congress authorized the creation of a national bank in the form of the Second Bank of the United States. Election of 1816 Monroe decided to seek the presidency in the 1816 election, and his war-time leadership had established him as Madison's heir apparent. Monroe had strong support from many in the party, but his candidacy was challenged at the 1816 Democratic-Republican congressional nominating caucus. Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford had the support of numerous Southern and Western Congressmen, while Governor Daniel D. Tompkins was backed by several Congressmen from New York. Crawford appealed especially to many Democratic-Republicans who were wary of Madison and Monroe's support for the establishment of the Second Bank of the United States. Despite his substantial backing, Crawford decided to defer to Monroe on the belief that he could eventually run as Monroe's successor, and Monroe won his party's nomination. Tompkins won the party's vice presidential nomination. The moribund Federalists nominated Rufus King as their presidential nominee, but the party offered little opposition following the conclusion of a popular war that they had opposed. Monroe received 183 of the 217 electoral votes, winning every state but Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Delaware. Since he previously served as an officer of the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War and as a delegate in the Continental Congress, he became the last president who was a Founding Father. Presidency (1817–1825) Domestic affairs Democratic-Republican Party dominance Monroe largely ignored old party lines in making federal appointments, which reduced political tensions and augmented the sense of "oneness" that pervaded the United States. He made two long national tours to build national trust. At Boston, a newspaper hailed his 1817 visit as the beginning of an "Era of Good Feelings". Frequent stops on his tours included ceremonies of welcome and expressions of good-will. The Federalist Party continued to fade during his administration; it maintained its vitality and organizational integrity in Delaware and a few localities, but lacked influence in national politics. Lacking serious opposition, the Democratic-Republican Party's Congressional caucus stopped meeting, and for practical purposes the party stopped operating. Administration and cabinet Monroe appointed a geographically balanced cabinet, through which he led the executive branch. At Monroe's request, Crawford continued to serve as Treasury Secretary. Monroe also chose to retain Benjamin Crowninshield of Massachusetts as Secretary of the Navy and Richard Rush of Pennsylvania as Attorney General. Recognizing Northern discontent at the continuation of the Virginia dynasty, Monroe chose John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts as Secretary of State, making Adams the early favorite to eventually succeed Monroe. An experienced diplomat, Adams had abandoned the Federalist Party in 1807 in support of Thomas Jefferson's foreign policy, and Monroe hoped that the appointment would encourage the defection of more Federalists. After General Andrew Jackson declined appointment as Secretary of War, Monroe turned to South Carolina Congressman John C. Calhoun, leaving the Cabinet without a prominent Westerner. In late 1817 Rush became the ambassador to Britain, and William Wirt succeeded him as Attorney General. With the exception of Crowninshield, the rest of Monroe's initial cabinet appointees remained in place for the remainder of his presidency. Missouri Compromise In February 1819, a bill to enable the people of the Missouri Territory to draft a constitution and form a government preliminary to admission into the Union came before the House of
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against Federalist Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, but he refused to support Madison. Madison defeated Pinckney by a large margin, carrying all but one state outside of New England. Monroe won 3,400 votes in Virginia, but received little support elsewhere. After the election Monroe quickly reconciled with Jefferson, but their friendship endured further strains when Jefferson did not promote Monroe's candidacy to Congress in 1809. Monroe did not speak with Madison until 1810. Returning to private life, he devoted his attentions to farming at his Charlottesville estate. Secretary of State and Secretary of War (1811–1817) Madison administration Monroe returned to the Virginia House of Burgesses and was elected to another term as governor in 1811, but served only four months. In April 1811, Madison appointed Monroe as Secretary of State in hopes of shoring up the support of the more radical factions of the Democratic-Republicans. Madison also hoped that Monroe, an experienced diplomat with whom he had once been close friends, would improve upon the performance of the previous Secretary of State, Robert Smith. Madison assured Monroe that their differences regarding the Monroe-Pinkney Treaty had been a misunderstanding, and the two resumed their friendship. The Senate voted unanimously (30-0) to confirm him. On taking office, Monroe hoped to negotiate treaties with the British and French to end the attacks on American merchant ships. While the French agreed to reduce the attacks and release seized American ships, the British were less receptive to Monroe's demands. Monroe had long worked for peace with the British, but he came to favor war with Britain, joining with "war hawks" such as Speaker of the House Henry Clay. With the support of Monroe and Clay, Madison asked Congress to declare war upon the British, and Congress complied on June 18, 1812, thus beginning the War of 1812. The war went very badly, and the Madison administration quickly sought peace, but were rejected by the British. The U.S. Navy did experience several successes after Monroe convinced Madison to allow the Navy's ships to set sail rather than remaining in port for the duration of the war. After the resignation of Secretary of War William Eustis, Madison asked Monroe to serve in dual roles as Secretary of State and Secretary of War, but opposition from the Senate limited Monroe to serving as acting Secretary of War until Brigadier General John Armstrong won Senate confirmation. Monroe and Armstrong clashed over war policy, and Armstrong blocked Monroe's hopes of being appointed to lead an invasion of Canada. As the war dragged on, the British offered to begin negotiations in Ghent, and the United States sent a delegation led by John Quincy Adams to conduct negotiations. Monroe allowed Adams leeway in setting terms, so long as he ended the hostilities and preserved American neutrality. When the British burned the U.S. Capitol and the White House on August 24, 1814, Madison removed Armstrong as Secretary of War and turned to Monroe for help, appointing him Secretary of War on September 27. Monroe resigned as Secretary of State on October 1, 1814, but no successor was ever appointed and thus from October 1814 to February 28, 1815, Monroe effectively held both Cabinet posts. Now in command of the war effort, Monroe ordered General Andrew Jackson to defend against a likely attack on New Orleans by the British, and he asked the governors of nearby states to send their militias to reinforce Jackson. He also called on Congress to draft an army of 100,000 men, increase compensation to soldiers, and establish a new national bank to ensure adequate funding for the war effort. Months after Monroe took office as Secretary of War, the war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent. The treaty resulted in a return to the status quo ante bellum, and many outstanding issues between the United States and Britain remained. But Americans celebrated the end of the war as a great victory, partly due to the news of the treaty reaching the United States shortly after Jackson's victory in the Battle of New Orleans. With the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the British also ended the practice of impressment. After the war, Congress authorized the creation of a national bank in the form of the Second Bank of the United States. Election of 1816 Monroe decided to seek the presidency in the 1816 election, and his war-time leadership had established him as Madison's heir apparent. Monroe had strong support from many in the party, but his candidacy was challenged at the 1816 Democratic-Republican congressional nominating caucus. Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford had the support of numerous Southern and Western Congressmen, while Governor Daniel D. Tompkins was backed by several Congressmen from New York. Crawford appealed especially to many Democratic-Republicans who were wary of Madison and Monroe's support for the establishment of the Second Bank of the United States. Despite his substantial backing, Crawford decided to defer to Monroe on the belief that he could eventually run as Monroe's successor, and Monroe won his party's nomination. Tompkins won the party's vice presidential nomination. The moribund Federalists nominated Rufus King as their presidential nominee, but the party offered little opposition following the conclusion of a popular war that they had opposed. Monroe received 183 of the 217 electoral votes, winning every state but Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Delaware. Since he previously served as an officer of the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War and as a delegate in the Continental Congress, he became the last president who was a Founding Father. Presidency (1817–1825) Domestic affairs Democratic-Republican Party dominance Monroe largely ignored old party lines in making federal appointments, which reduced political tensions and augmented the sense of "oneness" that pervaded the United States. He made two long national tours to build national trust. At Boston, a newspaper hailed his 1817 visit as the beginning of an "Era of Good Feelings". Frequent stops on his tours included ceremonies of welcome and expressions of good-will. The Federalist Party continued to fade during his administration; it maintained its vitality and organizational integrity in Delaware and a few localities, but lacked influence in national politics. Lacking serious opposition, the Democratic-Republican Party's Congressional caucus stopped meeting, and for practical purposes the party stopped operating. Administration and cabinet Monroe appointed a geographically balanced cabinet, through which he led the executive branch. At Monroe's request, Crawford continued to serve as Treasury Secretary. Monroe also chose to retain Benjamin Crowninshield of Massachusetts as Secretary of the Navy and Richard Rush of Pennsylvania as Attorney General. Recognizing Northern discontent at the continuation of the Virginia dynasty, Monroe chose John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts as Secretary of State, making Adams the early favorite to eventually succeed Monroe. An experienced diplomat, Adams had abandoned the Federalist Party in 1807 in support of Thomas Jefferson's foreign policy, and Monroe hoped that the appointment would encourage the defection of more Federalists. After General Andrew Jackson declined appointment as Secretary of War, Monroe turned to South Carolina Congressman John C. Calhoun, leaving the Cabinet without a prominent Westerner. In late 1817 Rush became the ambassador to Britain, and William Wirt succeeded him as Attorney General. With the exception of Crowninshield, the rest of Monroe's initial cabinet appointees remained in place for the remainder of his presidency. Missouri Compromise In February 1819, a bill to enable the people of the Missouri Territory to draft a constitution and form a government preliminary to admission into the Union came before the House of Representatives. During these proceedings, Congressman James Tallmadge, Jr. of New York "tossed a bombshell into the Era of Good Feelings" by offering the Tallmadge Amendment, which prohibited the further introduction of slaves into Missouri and required that all future children of slave parents therein should be free at the age of twenty-five years. After three days of rancorous and sometimes bitter debate, the bill, with Tallmadge's amendments, passed. The measure then went to the Senate, which rejected both amendments. A House–Senate conference committee proved unable to resolve the disagreements on the bill, and so the entire measure failed. The ensuing debates pitted the northern "restrictionists" (antislavery legislators who wished to bar slavery from the Louisiana territories and prohibit slavery's further expansion) against southern "anti-restrictionists" (proslavery legislators who rejected any interference by Congress inhibiting slavery expansion). During the following session, the House passed a similar bill with an amendment, introduced on January 26, 1820, by John W. Taylor of New York, allowing Missouri into the union as a slave state. Initially, Monroe opposed any compromise that involved restrictions on slavery's expansion in federal territories. The question had been complicated by the admission in December of Alabama, a slave state, making the number of slave and free states equal. In addition, there was a bill in passage through the House (January 3, 1820) to admit Maine as a free state. Southern congressmen sought to force northerners to accept slavery in Missouri by connecting Maine and Missouri statehood. In this plan, endorsed by Monroe, Maine statehood would be held hostage to slavery in Missouri. In February 1820 the Senate passed a bill for the admission of Maine with an amendment enabling the people of Missouri to form a state constitution. Before the bill was returned to the House, a second amendment was adopted on the motion of Jesse B. Thomas of Illinois, excluding slavery from the Louisiana Territory north of the parallel 36°30′ north (the southern boundary of Missouri), except within the limits of the proposed state of Missouri. The House then approved the bill as amended by the Senate. The legislation passed, and became known as "the Missouri Compromise". Though Monroe remained firmly opposed to any compromise that restricted slavery anywhere, he reluctantly signed the Compromise into law (March 6, 1820) only because he believed it was the least bad alternative for southern slaveholders. The Missouri Compromise temporarily settled the issue of slavery in the territories. Internal improvements As the United States continued to grow, many Americans advocated a system of internal improvements to help the country develop. Federal assistance for such projects evolved slowly and haphazardly—the product of contentious congressional factions and an executive branch generally concerned with avoiding unconstitutional federal intrusions into state affairs. Monroe believed that the young nation needed an improved infrastructure, including a transportation network to grow and thrive economically, but did not think that the Constitution authorized Congress to build, maintain, and operate a national transportation system. Monroe repeatedly urged Congress to pass an amendment allowing Congress the power to finance internal improvements, but Congress never acted on his proposal, in part because many congressmen believed that the Constitution did in fact authorize the federal financing of internal improvements. In 1822, Congress passed a bill authorizing the collection of tolls on the Cumberland Road, with the tolls being used to finance repairs on the road. Adhering to stated position regarding internal improvements, Monroe vetoed the bill. In an elaborate essay, Monroe set forth his constitutional views on the subject. Congress might appropriate money, he admitted, but it might not undertake the actual construction of national works nor assume jurisdiction over them. In 1824, the Supreme Court ruled in Gibbons v. Ogden that the Constitution's Commerce Clause gave the federal government the authority to regulate interstate commerce. Shortly thereafter, Congress passed two important laws that, together, marked the beginning of the federal government's continuous involvement in civil works. The General Survey Act authorized the president to have surveys made of routes for roads and canals "of national importance, in a commercial or military point of view, or necessary for the transportation of public mail". The president assigned responsibility for the surveys to the Army Corps of Engineers. The second act, passed a month later, appropriated $75,000 to improve navigation on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers by removing sandbars, snags, and other obstacles. Subsequently, the act was amended to include other rivers such as the Missouri. This work, too, was given to the Corps of Engineers—the only formally trained body of engineers in the new republic and, as part of the nation's small army, available to serve the wishes of Congress and the executive branch. Panic of 1819 Two years into his presidency, Monroe faced an economic crisis known as the Panic of 1819, the first major depression to hit the country since the ratification of the Constitution in 1788. The panic stemmed from declining imports and exports, and sagging agricultural prices as global markets readjusted to peacetime production and commerce in the aftermath of the War of 1812 and the Napoleonic Wars. The severity of the economic downturn in the U.S. was compounded by excessive speculation in public lands, fueled by the unrestrained issue of paper money from banks and business concerns. Monroe lacked the power to intervene directly in the economy, as banks were largely regulated by the states, and he could do little to stem the economic crisis. Before the onset of the Panic of 1819, some business leaders had called on Congress to increase tariff rates to address the negative balance of trade and help struggling industries. As the panic spread, Monroe declined to call a special session of Congress to address the economy. When Congress finally reconvened in December 1819, Monroe requested an increase in the tariff but declined to recommend specific rates. Congress would not raise tariff rates until the passage of the Tariff of 1824. The panic resulted in high unemployment and an increase in bankruptcies and foreclosures, and provoked popular resentment against banking and business enterprises. Foreign affairs According to historian William E. Weeks, "Monroe evolved a comprehensive strategy aimed at expanding the Union externally while solidifying it internally". He expanded trade and pacified relations with Great Britain while expanding the United States at the expense of the Spanish Empire, from which he obtained Florida and the recognition of a border across the continent. Faced with the breakdown of the expansionist consensus over the question of slavery, the president tried to provide both North and South with guarantees that future expansion would not tip the balance of power between slave and free states, a system that, Weeks remarks, did indeed allow the continuation of American expansion for the best of four decades. Treaties with Britain and Russia Monroe pursued warmer relations with Britain in the aftermath of the War of 1812. In 1817 the United States and Britain signed the Rush–Bagot Treaty, which regulated naval armaments on the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain and demilitarized the border between the U.S. and British North America. The Treaty of 1818, also with Great Britain, was concluded October 20, 1818, and fixed the present Canada–United States border from Minnesota to the Rocky Mountains at the 49th parallel. The accords also established a joint U.S.–British occupation of Oregon Country for the next ten years. Though they did not solve every outstanding issue between the U.S. and Britain, the treaties allowed for greater trade between the United States and the British Empire and helped avoid an expensive naval arms race in the Great Lakes. Late in Monroe's second term, the U.S. concluded the Russo-American Treaty of 1824 with the Russian Empire, setting the southern limit of Russian sovereignty on the Pacific coast of North America at the 54°40′ parallel (the present southern tip of the Alaska Panhandle). Acquisition of Florida Spain had long rejected repeated American efforts to purchase Florida. But by 1818, Spain was facing a troubling colonial situation in which the cession of Florida made sense. Spain had been exhausted by the Peninsular War in Europe and needed to rebuild its credibility and presence in its colonies. Revolutionaries in Central America and South America were beginning to demand independence. Spain was unwilling to invest further in Florida, encroached on by American settlers, and it worried about the border between New Spain and the United States. With only a minor military presence in Florida, Spain was not able to restrain the Seminole warriors who routinely crossed the border and raided American villages and farms, as well as protected southern slave refugees from slave owners and traders of the southern United States. The Seminole people were also providing sanctuary for runaway slaves, those of which the United States wanted back. In response to Seminole attacks and their provision of aid to escaped slaves, Monroe ordered a military expedition to cross into Spanish Florida and attack the Seminoles. In this expedition, led by Andrew Jackson, the US Army displaced numerous Seminole people from their houses along with burning their towns. Jackson also seized the Spanish territorial capital of Pensacola. With the capture of Pensacola, Jackson established de facto American control of the entire territory. While Monroe supported Jackson's actions, many in Congress harshly criticized what they saw as an undeclared war. With the support of Secretary of State Adams, Monroe defended Jackson against domestic and international criticism, and the United States began negotiations with Spain. Spain faced revolt in all of its American colonies and could neither govern nor defend Florida. On February 22, 1819, Spain and the United States signed the Adams–Onís Treaty, which ceded the Floridas in return for the assumption by the United States of claims of American citizens against Spain to an amount not exceeding $5,000,000. The treaty also contained a definition of the boundary between Spanish and American possessions on the North American continent. Beginning at the mouth of the Sabine River the line ran along that river to the 32nd parallel, then due north to the Red River, which it followed to the 100th meridian, due north to the Arkansas River, and along that river to its source, then north to the 42nd parallel, which it followed to the Pacific Ocean. As the United States renounced all claims to the west and south of this boundary (Texas), so Spain surrendered any title she had to the Northwest (Oregon Country). Monroe Doctrine Monroe was deeply sympathetic to the Latin American revolutionary movements against Spain. He was determined that the United States should never repeat the policies of the Washington administration during the French Revolution, when the nation had failed to demonstrate its sympathy for the aspirations of peoples seeking to establish republican governments. He did not envisage military involvement in Latin American affairs, but only the provision of moral support, as he believed that a direct American intervention would provoke other European powers into assisting Spain. Monroe initially refused to recognize the Latin American governments due to ongoing negotiations with Spain over Florida. In March 1822, Monroe officially recognized the countries of Argentina, Peru, Colombia, Chile, and Mexico, all of which had won independence from Spain. Secretary of State Adams, under Monroe's supervision, wrote the instructions for the ministers to these new countries. They declared that the policy of the United States was to uphold republican institutions and to seek treaties of commerce on a most-favored-nation basis. The United States would support inter-American congresses dedicated to the development of economic and political institutions fundamentally differing from those prevailing in Europe. Monroe took pride as the United States was the first nation to extend recognition and to set an example to the rest of the world for its support of the "cause of liberty and humanity". For their part, the British also had a strong interest in ensuring the demise of Spanish colonialism, with all the trade restrictions mercantilism imposed. In October 1823, Richard Rush, the American minister in London, advised that Foreign Secretary George Canning was proposing that the U.S. and Britain issue a joint declaration to deter any other power from intervening in Central and South America. Adams vigorously opposed cooperation with Great Britain, contending that a statement of bilateral nature could limit United States expansion in the future. He also argued that the British were not committed to recognizing the Latin American republics and must have had imperial motivations themselves. Two months later, the bilateral statement proposed by the British became a unilateral declaration by the United States. While Monroe thought that Spain was unlikely to re-establish its colonial empire on its own, he feared that France or the Holy Alliance might seek to establish control over the former Spanish possessions. On December 2, 1823, in his annual message to Congress, Monroe articulated what became known as the Monroe Doctrine. He first reiterated the traditional U.S. policy of neutrality with regard to European wars and conflicts. He then declared that the United States would not accept the recolonization of any country by its former European master, though he also avowed non-interference with existing European colonies in the Americas. Finally, he stated that European countries should no longer consider the Western Hemisphere open to new colonization, a jab aimed primarily at Russia, which was attempting to expand its colony on the northern Pacific Coast. Election of 1820 The collapse of the Federalists left Monroe with no organized opposition at the end of his first term, and he ran for reelection unopposed, the only president other than Washington to do so. A single elector from New Hampshire, William Plumer, cast a vote for John Quincy Adams, preventing a unanimous vote in the Electoral College. He did so because he thought Monroe was incompetent. Later in the century, the story arose that he had cast his dissenting vote so that only George Washington would have the honor of unanimous election. Plumer never mentioned Washington in his speech explaining his vote to the other New Hampshire electors. States admitted to the Union Five new states were admitted to the Union while Monroe was in office: MississippiDecember 10, 1817 IllinoisDecember 3, 1818 AlabamaDecember 14, 1819 MaineMarch 15, 1820 MissouriAugust 10, 1821 Post-presidency (1825–1831) When his presidency ended on March 4, 1825, James Monroe resided at Monroe Hill, what is now included in the grounds of the University of Virginia. He served on the university's Board of Visitors under Jefferson and under the second rector James Madison, both former presidents, almost until his death. He and his wife lived at Oak Hill in Aldie, Virginia, until Elizabeth's death at age 62 on September 23, 1830. In August 1825, the Monroes had received Marquis de Lafayette and President John Quincy Adams as guests there. Monroe incurred many unliquidated debts during his years of public life. He sold off his Highland Plantation. It is now owned by his alma mater, the College of William and Mary, which has opened it to the public as a historic site. Throughout his life, he was financially insolvent, which was exacerbated by his wife's poor health. Monroe was elected as a delegate to the Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1829-1830. He was one of four delegates elected from the senatorial district made up of his home district of Loudoun and Fairfax County. In October 1829, he was elected by the convention to serve as the presiding officer, until his failing health required him to withdraw on December 8, after which Philip P. Barbour of Orange County was elected presiding officer. Upon Elizabeth's death in 1830, Monroe moved to 63 Prince Street at Lafayette Place in New York City to live with his daughter Maria Hester Monroe Gouverneur, who had married Samuel L. Gouverneur. Monroe's health began to slowly fail by the end of the 1820s. On July 4, 1831, Monroe died at age 73 from heart failure and tuberculosis, thus becoming the third president to have died on Independence Day. His death came 55 years after the United States Declaration of Independence was proclaimed and five years after the deaths of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. Monroe was originally buried in New York at the Gouverneur family's vault in the New York City Marble Cemetery. 27 years later, in 1858, his body was re-interred at the President's Circle in Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, Virginia. The James Monroe Tomb is a U.S. National Historic Landmark. Religious beliefs "When it comes to Monroe's thoughts on religion," historian Bliss Isely notes, "less is known than that of any other President." No letters survive in which he discussed his religious beliefs. Nor did his friends, family or associates comment on his beliefs. Letters that do survive, such as ones written after the death of his son, contain no discussion of religion. Monroe was raised in a family that belonged to the Church of England when it was the state church in Virginia before the Revolution. As an adult, he attended Episcopal churches. Some historians see "deistic tendencies" in his few references to an impersonal God. Unlike Jefferson, Monroe was rarely attacked as an atheist or infidel. In 1832 James Renwick Willson, a Reformed Presbyterian minister in Albany, New York, criticized Monroe for having "lived and died like a second-rate Athenian philosopher". Slavery Monroe owned dozens of slaves. He took several slaves with him to Washington to serve at the White House from 1817 to 1825. This was typical of other slaveholders, as Congress did not provide for domestic staff of the presidents at that time. As president of Virginia's constitutional convention in the fall of 1829, Monroe reiterated his belief that slavery was a blight which, even as a British colony, Virginia had attempted to eradicate. "What was the origin of our slave population?" he rhetorically asked. "The evil commenced when we were in our Colonial state, but acts were passed by our Colonial Legislature, prohibiting the importation, of more slaves, into the Colony. These were rejected by the Crown." To the dismay of states' rights proponents, he was willing to accept the federal government's financial assistance to emancipate and transport freed slaves to other countries. At the convention, Monroe made his final public statement on slavery, proposing that Virginia emancipate and deport its bondsmen with "the aid of the Union". When Monroe was Governor of Virginia in 1800, hundreds of slaves from Virginia planned to kidnap him, take Richmond, and negotiate for their freedom. Gabriel's slave conspiracy was discovered. Monroe called out the militia; the slave patrols soon captured some slaves accused of involvement. Sidbury says some trials had a few measures to prevent abuses, such as an appointed attorney, but they were "hardly 'fair'". Slave codes prevented slaves from being treated like whites, and they were given quick trials without a jury. Monroe influenced the Executive Council to pardon and sell some slaves instead of hanging them. Historians say the Virginia courts executed between 26 and 35 slaves. None of the executed slaves had killed any whites because the uprising had been foiled before it began. An additional 50 slaves charged for their role in the planned rebellion would be spared, as a result of pardons, acquittals, and commutations. One reason for this was influence of a letter Monroe received from Thomas Jefferson urging mercy, telling him "The other states & the world at large will for ever condemn us if we indulge a principle of revenge, or go one step beyond absolute necessity. They cannot lose sight of the rights of the two parties, & the object of the unsuccessful one." Only seven of the executions carried out against the rebels occurred after Monroe received Jefferson's letter. Monroe was active in the American Colonization Society, which supported the establishment of colonies outside of the United States for free African-Americans. The society helped send several thousand freed slaves to the new colony of Liberia in Africa from 1820 to 1840. Slave owners like Monroe and Andrew Jackson wanted to prevent free blacks from encouraging slaves in the South to rebel. Liberia's capital, Monrovia, was named after President Monroe. Legacy Historical reputation Polls of historians and political scientists tend to rank Monroe as an above average president. Monroe presided over a period in which the United States began to turn away from European affairs and towards domestic issues. His presidency saw the United States settle many
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of the province of New Mexico, without firing a shot. Almost simultaneously, Commodore Robert F. Stockton landed in Los Angeles and proclaimed the capture of California. After American forces put down a revolt, the United States held effective control of New Mexico and California. Nevertheless, the Western theater of the war would prove to be a political headache for Polk, since a dispute between Frémont and Kearny led to a break between Polk and the powerful Missouri senator (and father-in-law of Frémont), Thomas Hart Benton. The initial public euphoria over the victories at the start of the war slowly dissipated. In August 1846, Polk asked Congress to appropriate $2 million as a down payment for the potential purchase of Mexican lands. Polk's request ignited opposition, as he had never before made public his desire to annex parts of Mexico (aside from lands claimed by Texas). It was unclear whether such newly acquired lands would be slave or free, and there was fierce and acrimonious sectional debate. A freshman Democratic Congressman, David Wilmot of Pennsylvania, previously a firm supporter of Polk's administration, offered an amendment to the bill, the Wilmot Proviso, that would ban slavery in any land acquired using the money. The appropriation bill, with the Wilmot Proviso attached, passed the House, but died in the Senate. This discord cost Polk's party, with Democrats losing control of the House in the 1846 elections. In early 1847, though, Polk was successful in passing a bill raising further regiments, and he also finally won approval for the appropriation. To try to bring the war to a quick end, in July 1846 Polk considered supporting a potential coup led by the exiled Mexican former president, General Antonio López de Santa Anna, with the hope that Santa Anna would sell parts of California. Santa Anna was in exile in Cuba, still a colony of Spain. Polk sent an envoy to have secret talks with Santa Anna. The U.S. Consul in Havana, R.B. Campbell, began seeking a way to engage with Santa Anna. A U.S. citizen of Spanish birth, Col. Alejandro José Atocha, knew Santa Anna and acted initially as an intermediary. Polk noted his contacts with Atocha in his diary, who said that Santa Anna was interested in concluding a treaty with the U.S. gaining territory while Mexico received payment that would include settling its debts. Polk decided that Atocha was untrustworthy and sent his own representative, Alexander Slidell Mackenzie, (a relative of John Slidell) to meet with Santa Anna. Mackenzie told Santa Anna that Polk wished to see him in power and that if they came to an agreement that the U.S. naval blockade would be lifted briefly to allow Santa Anna to return to Mexico. Polk requested $2 million from Congress to be used to negotiate a treaty with Mexico or payment to Mexico before a treaty was signed. The blockade was indeed briefly lifted and Santa Anna returned to Mexico, not to head a government that would negotiate a treaty with the U.S., but rather to organize a military defense of his homeland. Santa Anna gloated over Polk's naïveté; Polk had been "snookered" by Santa Anna. Instead of coming to a negotiated settlement with the U.S., Santa Anna mounted a defense of Mexico and fought to the bitter end. "His actions would prolong the war for at least a year, and more than any other single person, it was Santa Anna who denied Polk's dream of short war." This caused Polk to harden his position on Mexico, and he ordered an American landing at Veracruz, the most important Mexican port on the Gulf of Mexico. From there, troops were to march through Mexico's heartland to Mexico City, which it was hoped would end the war. Continuing to advance in northeast Mexico, Taylor defeated a Mexican army led by Ampudia in the September 1846 Battle of Monterrey, but allowed Ampudia's forces to withdraw from the town, much to Polk's consternation. Polk believed Taylor had not aggressively pursued the enemy and offered command of the Veracruz expedition to Scott. The lack of trust Polk had in Taylor was returned by the Whig general, who feared the partisan president was trying to destroy him. Accordingly, Taylor disobeyed orders to remain near Monterrey. In March 1847, Polk learned that Taylor had continued to march south, capturing the northern Mexican town of Saltillo. Continuing beyond Saltillo, Taylor's army fought a larger Mexican force, led by Santa Anna, in the Battle of Buena Vista. Initial reports gave the victory to Mexico, with great rejoicing, but Santa Anna retreated. Mexican casualties were five times that of the Americans, and the victory made Taylor even more of a military hero in the American public's eyes, though Polk preferred to credit the bravery of the soldiers rather than the Whig general. The U.S. changed the course of the war with its invasion of Mexico's heartland through Veracruz and ultimately the capture of Mexico City, following hard fighting. In March 1847, Scott landed in Veracruz, and quickly won control of the city. The Mexicans expected that yellow fever and other tropical diseases would weaken the U.S. forces. With the capture of Veracruz, Polk dispatched Nicholas Trist, Buchanan's chief clerk, to accompany Scott's army and negotiate a peace treaty with Mexican leaders. Trist was instructed to seek the cession of Alta California, New Mexico, and Baja California, recognition of the Rio Grande as the southern border of Texas, and U.S. access across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Trist was authorized to make a payment of up to $30 million in exchange for these concessions. In August 1847, as he advanced towards Mexico City, Scott defeated Santa Anna at the Battle of Contreras and the Battle of Churubusco. With the Americans at the gates of Mexico City, Trist negotiated with commissioners, but the Mexicans were willing to give up little. Scott prepared to take Mexico City, which he did in mid-September. In the United States, a heated political debate emerged regarding how much of Mexico the United States should seek to annex, Whigs such as Henry Clay arguing that the United States should only seek to settle the Texas border question, and some expansionists arguing for the annexation of all of Mexico. War opponents were also active; Whig Congressman Abraham Lincoln of Illinois introduced the "exact spot" resolutions, calling on Polk to state exactly where American blood had been shed on American soil to start the war, but the House refused to consider them. Peace: the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Frustrated by a lack of progress in negotiations, Polk ordered Trist to return to Washington, but the diplomat, when the notice of recall arrived in mid-November 1847, ignored the order, deciding to remain and writing a lengthy letter to Polk the following month to justify his decision. Polk considered having Butler, designated as Scott's replacement, forcibly remove him from Mexico City. Though outraged by Trist's defiance, Polk decided to allow him some time to negotiate a treaty. Throughout January 1848, Trist regularly met with officials in Mexico City, though at the request of the Mexicans, the treaty signing took place in Guadalupe Hidalgo, a small town near Mexico City. Trist was willing to allow Mexico to keep Baja California, as his instructions allowed, but successfully haggled for the inclusion of the important harbor of San Diego in a cession of Alta California. Provisions included the Rio Grande border and a $15 million payment to Mexico. On February 2, 1848, Trist and the Mexican delegation signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Polk received the document on February 19, and, after the Cabinet met on the 20th, decided he had no choice but to accept it. If he turned it down, with the House by then controlled by the Whigs, there was no assurance Congress would vote funding to continue the war. Both Buchanan and Walker dissented, wanting more land from Mexico, a position with which the President was sympathetic, though he considered Buchanan's view motivated by his ambition. Some senators opposed the treaty because they wanted to take no Mexican territory; others hesitated because of the irregular nature of Trist's negotiations. Polk waited in suspense for two weeks as the Senate considered it, sometimes hearing that it would likely be defeated and that Buchanan and Walker were working against it. He was relieved when the two Cabinet officers lobbied on behalf of the treaty. On March 10, the Senate ratified the treaty in a 38–14 vote, on a vote that cut across partisan and geographic lines. The Senate made some modifications to the treaty before ratification, and Polk worried that the Mexican government would reject them. On June 7, Polk learned that Mexico had ratified the treaty. Polk declared the treaty in effect as of July 4, 1848, thus ending the war. With the acquisition of California, Polk had accomplished all four of his major presidential goals. With the exception of the territory acquired by the 1853 Gadsden Purchase, and some later minor adjustments, the territorial acquisitions under Polk established the modern borders of the Contiguous United States. Postwar and the territories Polk had been anxious to establish a territorial government for Oregon once the treaty was effective in 1846, but the matter became embroiled in the arguments over slavery, though few thought Oregon suitable for that institution. A bill to establish an Oregon territorial government passed the House after being amended to bar slavery; the bill died in the Senate when opponents ran out the clock on the congressional session. A resurrected bill, still barring slavery, again passed the House in January 1847 but it was not considered by the Senate before Congress adjourned in March. By the time Congress met again in December, California and New Mexico were in U.S. hands, and Polk in his annual message urged the establishment of territorial governments in all three. The Missouri Compromise had settled the issue of the geographic reach of slavery within the Louisiana Purchase territories by prohibiting slavery in states north of 36°30′ latitude, and Polk sought to extend this line into the newly acquired territory. If extended to the Pacific, this would have made slavery illegal in San Francisco but allowed it in Monterey and Los Angeles. A plan to accomplish the extension was defeated in the House by a bipartisan alliance of Northerners. As the last congressional session before the 1848 election came to a close, Polk signed the lone territorial bill passed by Congress, which established the Territory of Oregon and prohibited slavery in it. When Congress reconvened in December 1848, Polk asked it in his annual message to establish territorial governments in California and New Mexico, a task made especially urgent by the onset of the California Gold Rush. The divisive issue of slavery blocked any such legislation, though congressional action continued until the final hours of Polk's term. When the bill was amended to have the laws of Mexico apply to the southwest territories until Congress changed them (thus effectively banning slavery), Polk made it clear that he would veto it, considering it the Wilmot Proviso in another guise. It was not until the Compromise of 1850 that the matter of the territories was resolved. Other initiatives Polk's ambassador to the Republic of New Granada, Benjamin Alden Bidlack, negotiated the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty. Though Bidlack had initially only sought to remove tariffs on American goods, Bidlack and New Granadan Foreign Minister Manuel María Mallarino negotiated a broader agreement that deepened military and trade ties between the two countries. The treaty also allowed for the construction of the Panama Railway. In an era of slow overland travel, the treaty gave the United States a route for a quicker journey between its eastern and western coasts. In exchange, Bidlack agreed to have the United States guarantee New Granada's sovereignty over the Isthmus of Panama. The treaty won ratification in both countries in 1848. The agreement helped to establish a stronger American influence in the region, as the Polk administration sought to ensure that Great Britain would not dominate Central America. The United States would use the rights granted under the Mallarino-Bidlack Treaty as a justification for its military interventions in Latin America through the remainder of the 19th century. In mid-1848, President Polk authorized his ambassador to Spain, Romulus Mitchell Saunders, to negotiate the purchase of Cuba and offer Spain up to $100 million, a large sum at the time for one territory, equal to $ in present-day terms. Cuba was close to the United States and had slavery, so the idea appealed to Southerners but was unwelcome in the North. However, Spain was still making profits in Cuba (notably in sugar, molasses, rum and tobacco), and thus the Spanish government rejected Saunders's overtures. Though Polk was eager to acquire Cuba, he refused to support the filibuster expedition of Narciso López, who sought to invade and take over the island as a prelude to annexation. Domestic policy Fiscal policy In his inaugural address, Polk called upon Congress to re-establish the Independent Treasury System under which government funds were held in the Treasury and not in banks or other financial institutions. President Van Buren had previously established a similar system, but it had been abolished during the Tyler administration. Polk made clear his opposition to a national bank in his inaugural address, and in his first annual message to Congress in December 1845, he called for the government to keep its funds itself. Congress was slow to act; the House passed a bill in April 1846 and the Senate in August, both without a single Whig vote. Polk signed the Independent Treasury Act into law on August 6, 1846. The act provided that the public revenues were to be retained in the Treasury building and in sub-treasuries in various cities, separate from private or state banks. The system would remain in place until the passage of the Federal Reserve Act in 1913. Polk's other major domestic initiative was the lowering of the tariff. Polk directed Secretary of the Treasury Robert Walker to draft a new and lower tariff, which Polk submitted to Congress. After intense lobbying by both sides, the bill passed the House and, in a close vote that required Vice President Dallas to break a tie, the Senate in July 1846. Dallas, although from protectionist Pennsylvania, voted for the bill, having decided his best political prospects lay in supporting the administration. Polk signed the Walker Tariff into law, substantially reducing the rates that had been set by the Tariff of 1842. The reduction of tariffs in the United States and the repeal of the Corn Laws in Great Britain led to a boom in Anglo-American trade. Development of the country Congress passed the Rivers and Harbors Bill in 1846 to provide $500,000 to improve port facilities, but Polk vetoed it. Polk believed that the bill was unconstitutional because it unfairly favored particular areas, including ports that had no foreign trade. Polk considered internal improvements to be matters for the states, and feared that passing the bill would encourage legislators to compete for favors for their home district—a type of corruption that he felt would spell doom to the virtue of the republic. In this regard he followed his hero Jackson, who had vetoed the Maysville Road Bill in 1830 on similar grounds. Opposed by conviction to Federal funding for internal improvements, Polk stood strongly against all such bills. Congress, in 1847, passed another internal improvements bill; he pocket vetoed it and sent Congress a full veto message when it met in December. Similar bills continued to advance in Congress in 1848, though none reached his desk. When he came to the Capitol to sign bills on March 3, 1849, the last day of the congressional session and his final full day in office, he feared that an internal improvements bill would pass Congress, and he brought with him a draft veto message. The bill did not pass, so it was not needed, but feeling the draft had been ably written, he had it preserved among his papers. Authoritative word of the discovery of gold in California did not arrive in Washington until after the 1848 election, by which time Polk was a lame duck. Polk's political adversaries had claimed California was too far away to be useful and was not worth the price paid to Mexico. The President was delighted by the news, seeing it as validation of his stance on expansion, and referred to the discovery several times in his final annual message to Congress that December. Shortly thereafter, actual samples of the California gold arrived, and Polk sent a special message to Congress on the subject. The message, confirming less authoritative reports, caused large numbers of people to move to California, both from the U.S. and abroad, thus helping to spark the California Gold Rush. One of Polk's last acts as president was to sign the bill creating the Department of the Interior (March 3, 1849). This was the first new cabinet position created since the early days of the Republic. Polk had misgivings about the federal government usurping power over public lands from the states. Nevertheless, the delivery of the legislation on his last full day in office gave him no time to find constitutional grounds for a veto, or to draft a sufficient veto message, so he signed the bill. Judicial appointments Polk appointed the following justices to the U.S. Supreme Court: The 1844 death of Justice Henry Baldwin left a vacant place on the Supreme Court, but Tyler had been unable to get the Senate to confirm a nominee. At the time, it was the custom to have a geographic balance on the Supreme Court, and Baldwin had been from Pennsylvania. Polk's efforts to fill Baldwin's seat became embroiled in Pennsylvania politics and the efforts of factional leaders to secure the lucrative post of Collector of Customs for the Port of Philadelphia. As Polk attempted to find his way through the minefield of Pennsylvania politics, a second position on the high court became vacant with the death, in September 1845, of Justice Joseph Story; his replacement was expected to come from his native New England. Because Story's death had occurred while the Senate was not in session, Polk was able to make a recess appointment, choosing Senator Levi Woodbury of New Hampshire, and when the Senate reconvened in December 1845, Woodbury was confirmed. Polk's initial nominee for Baldwin's seat, George W. Woodward, was rejected by the Senate in January 1846, in large part due to the opposition of Buchanan and Pennsylvania Senator Simon Cameron. Despite Polk's anger at Buchanan, he eventually offered the Secretary of State the seat, but Buchanan, after some indecision, turned it down. Polk subsequently nominated Robert Cooper Grier of Pittsburgh, who won confirmation. Justice Woodbury died in 1851, but Grier served until 1870 and in the slavery case of Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) wrote an opinion stating that slaves were property and could not sue. Polk appointed eight other federal judges, one to the United States Circuit Court of the District of Columbia, and seven to various United States district courts. Election of 1848 Honoring his pledge to serve only one term, Polk declined to seek re-election. At the 1848 Democratic National Convention, Lewis Cass led on every ballot, though it was not until the fourth that he attained a two-thirds vote. William Butler, who had replaced Winfield Scott as the commanding general in Mexico City, won the vice-presidential nomination. The 1848 Whig National Convention nominated Zachary Taylor for president and former congressman Millard Fillmore of New York for vice president. New York Democrats remained bitter because of what they deemed shabby treatment of Van Buren in 1844, and the former president had drifted from the party in the years since. Many of Van Buren's faction of the party, the Barnburners, were younger men who strongly opposed the spread of slavery, a position with which, by 1848, Van Buren agreed. Senator Cass was a strong expansionist, and slavery might find new fields under him; accordingly, the Barnburners bolted the Democratic National Convention upon his nomination, and, in June, joined by anti-slavery Democrats from other states, they held a convention, nominating Van Buren for president. Polk was surprised and disappointed by his former ally's political conversion and worried about the divisiveness of a sectional party devoted to abolition. Polk did not give speeches for Cass, remaining at his desk at the White House. He did remove some Van Buren supporters from federal office during the campaign. In the election, Taylor won 47.3% of the popular vote and a majority of the electoral vote. Cass won 42.5% of the vote, while Van Buren finished with 10.1% of the popular vote, much of his support coming from northern Democrats. Polk was disappointed by the outcome as he had a low opinion of Taylor, seeing the general as someone with poor judgment and few opinions on important public matters. Nevertheless, Polk observed tradition and welcomed President-elect Taylor to Washington, hosting him at a gala White House dinner. Polk departed the White House on March 3, leaving behind him a clean desk, though he worked from his hotel or the Capitol on last-minute appointments and bill signings. He attended Taylor's inauguration on March 5 (March 4, the presidential inauguration day until 1937, fell on a Sunday, and thus the ceremony was postponed a day), and though he was unimpressed with the new president, wished him the best. Post-presidency and death (1849) Polk's time in the White House took its toll on his health. Full of enthusiasm and vigor when he entered office, Polk left the presidency exhausted by his years of public service. He left Washington on March 6 for a pre-arranged triumphal tour of the South, to end in Nashville. Polk had two years previously arranged to buy a house there, afterwards dubbed Polk Place, that had once belonged to his mentor, Felix Grundy. James and Sarah Polk progressed down the Atlantic coast, and then westward through the Deep South. He was enthusiastically received and banqueted. By the time the Polks reached Alabama, he was suffering from a bad cold, and soon became concerned by reports of cholera—a passenger on Polk's riverboat died of it, and it was rumored to be common in New Orleans, but it was too late to change plans. Worried about his health, he would have departed the city quickly but was overwhelmed by Louisiana hospitality. Several passengers on the riverboat up the Mississippi died of the disease, and Polk felt so ill that he went ashore for four days, staying in a hotel. A doctor assured him he did not have cholera, and Polk made the final leg, arriving in Nashville on April 2 to a huge reception. After a visit to James's mother in Columbia, the Polks settled into Polk Place. The exhausted former president seemed to gain new life, but in early June, he fell ill again, by most accounts of cholera. Attended by several doctors, he lingered for several days and chose to be baptized into the Methodist Church, which he had long admired, though his mother arrived from Columbia with her Presbyterian clergyman, and his wife was also a devout Presbyterian. On the afternoon of Friday, June 15, Polk died at his Polk Place home in Nashville, Tennessee at the age of 53. According to traditional accounts, his last words before he died were "I love you, Sarah, for all eternity, I love you", spoken to Sarah Polk. Borneman noted that whether or not they were spoken, there was nothing in Polk's life that would make the sentiment false. Polk's funeral was held at the McKendree Methodist Church in Nashville. Following his death, Sarah Polk lived at Polk Place for 42 years and died on August 14, 1891, at the age of 87. Their house, Polk Place, was demolished in 1901, a decade after Sarah's death. Burials Polk's remains have been moved twice. After his death, he was buried in what is now Nashville City Cemetery, due to a legal requirement related to his infectious disease death. Polk was then moved to a tomb on the grounds of Polk Place (as specified in his will) in 1850. Then, in 1893, the bodies of James and Sarah Polk were relocated to their current resting place on the grounds of the Tennessee State Capitol in Nashville. In March 2017, the Tennessee Senate approved a resolution considered a "first step" toward relocating the Polks' remains to the family home in Columbia. Such a move would require approval by state lawmakers, the courts, and the Tennessee Historical Commission. A year later, a renewed plan to reinter Polk was defeated by Tennessee lawmakers before being taken up again and approved, and allowed to go through by the non-signature of Tennessee governor Bill Haslam. The state's Capitol Commission heard arguments over the issue in November 2018, during which the THC reiterated its opposition to the tomb relocation, and a vote was delayed indefinitely. Polk and slavery Polk enslaved people for most of his adult life. His father, Samuel Polk, in 1827 left Polk more than 8,000 acres (32 km2) of land and divided about 53 enslaved people among his widow and children in his will. James inherited twenty people enslaved by his father, either directly or from deceased brothers. In 1831, he became an absentee cotton planter, sending enslaved people to clear plantation land that his father had left him near Somerville, Tennessee. Four years later Polk sold his Somerville plantation and, together with his brother-in-law, bought 920 acres (3.7 km2) of land, a cotton plantation near Coffeeville, Mississippi, hoping to increase his income. The land in Mississippi was richer than that in Somerville, and Polk transferred enslaved people there, taking care to conceal from them that they were to be sent south. From the start of 1839, Polk, having bought out his brother-in-law, owned all of the Mississippi plantations, and ran it on a mostly absentee basis for the rest of his life. He occasionally visited—for example, he spent much of April 1844 on his Mississippi plantation, right before the Democratic convention. Adding to the inherited enslaved people, in 1831, Polk purchased five more, mostly buying them in Kentucky, and expending $1,870; the youngest had a recorded age of 11. As older children sold for a higher price, slave sellers routinely lied about age. Between 1834 and 1835, he bought five more, aged from 2 to 37, the youngest a granddaughter of the oldest. The amount expended was $2,250. In 1839, he bought eight enslaved people from his brother William at a cost of $5,600. This represented three young adults and most of a family, though not including the father, whom James Polk had previously owned, and who had been sold to a slave trader as he had repeatedly tried to escape his enslavement. The expenses of four campaigns (three for governor, one for the presidency) in six years kept Polk from making more slave purchases until after he was living in the White House. In an era when the presidential salary was expected to cover wages for the White House servants, Polk replaced them with enslaved people from his home in Tennessee. Polk did not purchase enslaved people with his presidential salary, likely for political reasons. Instead, he reinvested earnings from his plantation in the purchase of enslaved people, enjoining secrecy on his agent: "that as my private business does not concern the public, you will keep it to yourself". Polk saw the plantation as his route to a comfortable existence after his presidency for himself and his wife; he did not intend to return to the practice of law. Hoping the increased labor force would increase his retirement income, he purchased seven enslaved people in 1846, through an agent, aged roughly between 12 and 17. The 17-year-old and one of the 12-year-olds were purchased together at an estate sale; the agent within weeks resold the younger boy to Polk's profit. The year 1847 saw the purchase of nine more. Three he purchased from Gideon Pillow, and his agent purchased six enslaved people aged between 10 and 20. By the time of the purchase from Pillow, the Mexican War had begun and Polk sent payment with the letter in which he offered Pillow a commission in the Army. The purchase from Pillow was a man Polk had previously owned and had sold for being a disruption, and his wife and child. None of the other enslaved people Polk purchased as president, all younger than 20, came with a parent, and as only in the one case were two slaves bought together, most likely none had an accompanying sibling as each faced life on Polk's plantation. Discipline for those owned by Polk varied over time. At the Tennessee plantation, he employed an overseer named Herbert Biles, who was said to be relatively indulgent. Biles's illness in 1833 resulted in Polk replacing him with Ephraim Beanland, who tightened discipline and increased work. Polk backed his overseer, returning escapees who complained of beatings and other harsh treatment, "even though every report suggested that the overseer was a heartless brute". Beanland was hired for the Mississippi plantation but was soon dismissed by Polk's partner, who deemed Beanland too harsh as the slaves undertook the arduous task of clearing the timber from the new plantation so it could be used for cotton farming. His replacement was discharged after a year for being too indulgent; the next died of dysentery in 1839. Others followed, and it was not until 1845 that Polk found a satisfactory overseer, John Mairs, who remained the rest of Polk's life and was still working at the plantation for Sarah Polk in 1860 when the widow sold a half-share in many of her slaves. There had been a constant stream of runaways under Mairs' predecessors, many seeking protection at the plantation of Polk relatives or friends; only one ran away between the time of Mairs' hiring and the end of 1847, but the overseer had to report three absconded slaves (including the one who had fled earlier) to Polk in 1848 and 1849. Polk's will, dated February 28, 1849, a few days before the end of his presidency, contained the nonbinding expectation that his slaves were to be freed when both he and Sarah Polk were dead. The Mississippi plantation was expected to be the support of Sarah Polk during her widowhood. Sarah Polk lived until 1891, but the slaves were freed in 1865 by the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery in the United States. By selling a half-interest in the slaves in 1860, Sarah Polk had given up the sole power to free them, and it is unlikely that her new partner, having paid $28,500 for a half-interest in the plantation and its slaves, would have allowed the laborers to go free had she died while slavery was legal. Like Jackson, Polk saw the politics of slavery as a side issue compared to more important matters such as territorial expansion and economic policy. The issue of slavery became increasingly polarizing during the 1840s, and Polk's expansionary policies increased its divisiveness. During his presidency, many abolitionists harshly criticized him as an instrument of the "Slave Power", and claimed that spreading slavery was the reason he supported Texas Annexation and later war with Mexico. Polk did support the expansion of slavery's realm, with his views informed by his own family's experience of settling Tennessee, bringing slaves with them. He believed in Southern rights, meaning both the right of slave states not to have that institution interfered with by the Federal government and the right of individual Southerners to bring their slaves with them into the new territory. Though Polk opposed the Wilmot Proviso, he also condemned southern agitation on the issue, and he accused both northern and southern leaders of attempting to use the slavery issue for political gain. On March 4, 2017, new tombstones for three of his slaves, Elias Polk, Mary Polk and Matilda Polk, were placed in the Nashville City Cemetery. Elias and Mary Polk both survived slavery, dying in the 1880s; Matilda Polk died still in slavery in 1849, at the age of about 110. Legacy and historical view After his death, Polk's historic reputation was initially formed by the attacks made on him in his own time. Whig politicians claimed that he was drawn from well-deserved obscurity. Sam Houston is said to have observed that Polk, a teetotaler, was "a victim of the use of water as a beverage". Little was published about him but two biographies released in the wake of his death. Polk was not again the subject of a major biography until 1922 when Eugene I. McCormac published James K. Polk: A Political Biography. McCormac relied heavily on Polk's presidential diary, first published in 1909. When historians began ranking the presidents in 1948, Polk ranked tenth in Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr.'s poll, and has subsequently ranked eighth in Schlesinger's 1962 poll, 11th in the Riders-McIver Poll (1996), and 14th in the 2017 survey by C-SPAN. Borneman deemed Polk the most effective president prior to the Civil War and noted that Polk expanded the power of the presidency, especially in its power as commander in chief and its oversight over the Executive Branch. Steven G. Calabresi and Christopher S. Yoo, in their history of presidential power, praised Polk's conduct of the Mexican War, "it seems unquestionable that his management of state affairs during this conflict was one of the strongest examples since Jackson of the use of presidential power to direct specifically the conduct of subordinate officers." Harry S. Truman called Polk "a great president. Said what he intended to do and did it." Bergeron noted that the matters that Polk settled, he settled for his time. The questions of the banking system, and of the tariff, which Polk had made two of the main issues of his presidency, were not significantly revised until the 1860s. Similarly, the Gadsden Purchase, and that of Alaska (1867), were the only major U.S. expansions until the 1890s. Paul H. Bergeron wrote in his study of Polk's presidency: "Virtually everyone remembers Polk and his expansionist successes. He produced a new map of the United States, which fulfilled a continent-wide vision." "To look at that map," Robert W. Merry concluded, "and to take in the western and southwestern expanse included in it, is to see the magnitude of Polk's presidential accomplishments." Amy Greenberg, in her history of the Mexican War, found Polk's legacy to be more than territorial, "during a single brilliant term, he accomplished a feat that earlier presidents would have considered impossible. With the help of his wife, Sarah, he masterminded, provoked and successfully prosecuted a war that turned the United States into a world power." Borneman noted that in securing this expansion, Polk did not consider the likely effect on Mexicans and Native Americans, "That ignorance may well be debated on moral grounds, but it cannot take away Polk's stunning political achievement." James A. Rawley wrote in his American National Biography piece on Polk, "he added extensive territory to the United States, including Upper California and its valuable ports, and bequeathed a legacy of a nation poised on the Pacific rim prepared to emerge as a superpower in future generations". Historians have criticized Polk for not perceiving that his territorial gains set the table for civil war. Pletcher stated that Polk, like others of his time, failed "to understand that sectionalism and expansion had formed a new, explosive compound". Fred I. Greenstein, in his journal article on Polk, noted that Polk "lacked a far-seeing awareness of the problems that were bound to arise over the status of slavery in the territory acquired from Mexico" William Dusinberre, in his volume on Polk as slave owner, suggested "that Polk's deep personal involvement in the plantation slavery system ... colored his stance on slavery-related issues". Greenberg noted that Polk's war served as the training ground for that later conflict: See also List of presidents of the United States List of presidents of the United States by previous experience List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps Notes References Bibliography . . , short popular biography. Letter to Dean Acheson (unsent), August 26, 1960 Further reading Bergeron, Paul H. "President Polk and economic legislation." Presidential Studies Quarterly (1985): 782–795. online Chaffin, Tom. Met His Every Goal? James K. Polk and the Legends of Manifest Destiny (University of Tennessee Press; 2014) 124 pages. Currie, David P., and Emily E. Kadens. "President Polk on Internal Improvements: The Undelivered Veto." Green Bag 2 (2002): 5+ online. De Voto, Bernard. The Year of Decision: 1846. Houghton Mifflin, 1943. online Dusinberre, William. "President Polk and the Politics of Slavery". American Nineteenth Century History 3.1 (2002): 1–16. . Argues he misrepresented the strength of abolitionism, grossly exaggerated likelihood of slaves' massacring white families and seemed to condone secession. Goodpasture, Albert V. "The Boyhood of President Polk." Tennessee Historical Magazine 7.1 (1921): 36–50. Kornblith, Gary J. "Rethinking the Coming of the Civil War: a Counterfactual Exercise". Journal of American History 90.1 (2003): 76–105. . Asks what if Polk had not gone to war. McCormac, Eugene Irving. James K. Polk: A Political Biography to the End of a Career, 1845–1849. Univ. of California Press, 1922. (1995 reprint has .) hostile to Jacksonians. Morrison, Michael A. "Martin Van Buren, the Democracy, and the Partisan Politics of Texas Annexation". Journal of Southern History 61.4 (1995): 695–724. . Discusses the election of 1844. online edition. Moten, Matthew. "Polk against His Generals." in Presidents and Their Generals (Harvard University Press, 2014) pp. 97–123. Nelson, Anna Kasten. Secret agents: President Polk and the search for peace with Mexico (Taylor & Francis, 1988). Pinheiro, John C. Manifest Ambition: James K. Polk and Civil-Military Relations during the Mexican War. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. Sellers, Charles. James K. Polk, Jacksonian, 1795–1843 (1957) vol 1 online; and James K. Polk, Continentalist, 1843–1846. (1966) vol 2 online; long scholarly biography. Smith, Justin Harvey. The War with Mexico, Vol 1. (2 vol 1919), full text online. Smith, Justin Harvey. The War with Mexico, Vol. 2. (2 vol 1919). full text online; Pulitzer prize; still a standard source. Stenberg, Richard R. "President Polk and the Annexation of Texas." Southwestern Social Science Quarterly (1934): 333–356. online Winders, Richard Bruce. Mr. Polk's army: the American military experience in the Mexican war. (Texas A&M University Press, 2001). Primary sources Cutler, Wayne, et al. Correspondence of James K. Polk. 1972–2004. . Ten vol. scholarly edition of the complete correspondence to and from Polk. Polk, James K. Polk: The Diary of a President, 1845–1849: Covering the Mexican War, the Acquisition of Oregon, and the Conquest of California and the Southwest. Vol. 296. Capricorn Books, 1952. Polk, James K. The Diary of James K. Polk During His Presidency, 1845–1849 edited by Milo Milton Quaife, 4 vols. 1910. Abridged version by Allan Nevins. 1929, online. External links White House biography James K. Polk Presidential Papers Collection, The American Presidency Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara James K. Polk: A Resource Guide, from the Library of Congress James K. Polk's Personal Correspondence Shapell Manuscript Foundation Extensive essay on James K. Polk and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs Inaugural Address of James K. Polk from The Avalon Project at the Yale Law School President James K. Polk State Historic Site, Pineville, North Carolina from a State of North Carolina website "Life Portrait of James K. Polk", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, May 28, 1999 1795 births 1849 deaths 19th-century American people 19th-century American politicians 19th-century Methodists 19th-century Presbyterians 19th-century presidents of the United States American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law American Methodists American people of Scotch-Irish descent American people of Scottish descent American Presbyterians American slave owners Burials in Tennessee Converts to Methodism Deaths from cholera Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives Democratic Party presidents of the United States Democratic Party state governors of the United States Democratic Party (United States) presidential nominees American Freemasons Governors of Tennessee 1840s in the United States Infectious disease deaths in Tennessee Jacksonian members of the United States House of Representatives Members of the United States House of Representatives from Tennessee People from Mecklenburg County, North Carolina James K. 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more of a military hero in the American public's eyes, though Polk preferred to credit the bravery of the soldiers rather than the Whig general. The U.S. changed the course of the war with its invasion of Mexico's heartland through Veracruz and ultimately the capture of Mexico City, following hard fighting. In March 1847, Scott landed in Veracruz, and quickly won control of the city. The Mexicans expected that yellow fever and other tropical diseases would weaken the U.S. forces. With the capture of Veracruz, Polk dispatched Nicholas Trist, Buchanan's chief clerk, to accompany Scott's army and negotiate a peace treaty with Mexican leaders. Trist was instructed to seek the cession of Alta California, New Mexico, and Baja California, recognition of the Rio Grande as the southern border of Texas, and U.S. access across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Trist was authorized to make a payment of up to $30 million in exchange for these concessions. In August 1847, as he advanced towards Mexico City, Scott defeated Santa Anna at the Battle of Contreras and the Battle of Churubusco. With the Americans at the gates of Mexico City, Trist negotiated with commissioners, but the Mexicans were willing to give up little. Scott prepared to take Mexico City, which he did in mid-September. In the United States, a heated political debate emerged regarding how much of Mexico the United States should seek to annex, Whigs such as Henry Clay arguing that the United States should only seek to settle the Texas border question, and some expansionists arguing for the annexation of all of Mexico. War opponents were also active; Whig Congressman Abraham Lincoln of Illinois introduced the "exact spot" resolutions, calling on Polk to state exactly where American blood had been shed on American soil to start the war, but the House refused to consider them. Peace: the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Frustrated by a lack of progress in negotiations, Polk ordered Trist to return to Washington, but the diplomat, when the notice of recall arrived in mid-November 1847, ignored the order, deciding to remain and writing a lengthy letter to Polk the following month to justify his decision. Polk considered having Butler, designated as Scott's replacement, forcibly remove him from Mexico City. Though outraged by Trist's defiance, Polk decided to allow him some time to negotiate a treaty. Throughout January 1848, Trist regularly met with officials in Mexico City, though at the request of the Mexicans, the treaty signing took place in Guadalupe Hidalgo, a small town near Mexico City. Trist was willing to allow Mexico to keep Baja California, as his instructions allowed, but successfully haggled for the inclusion of the important harbor of San Diego in a cession of Alta California. Provisions included the Rio Grande border and a $15 million payment to Mexico. On February 2, 1848, Trist and the Mexican delegation signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Polk received the document on February 19, and, after the Cabinet met on the 20th, decided he had no choice but to accept it. If he turned it down, with the House by then controlled by the Whigs, there was no assurance Congress would vote funding to continue the war. Both Buchanan and Walker dissented, wanting more land from Mexico, a position with which the President was sympathetic, though he considered Buchanan's view motivated by his ambition. Some senators opposed the treaty because they wanted to take no Mexican territory; others hesitated because of the irregular nature of Trist's negotiations. Polk waited in suspense for two weeks as the Senate considered it, sometimes hearing that it would likely be defeated and that Buchanan and Walker were working against it. He was relieved when the two Cabinet officers lobbied on behalf of the treaty. On March 10, the Senate ratified the treaty in a 38–14 vote, on a vote that cut across partisan and geographic lines. The Senate made some modifications to the treaty before ratification, and Polk worried that the Mexican government would reject them. On June 7, Polk learned that Mexico had ratified the treaty. Polk declared the treaty in effect as of July 4, 1848, thus ending the war. With the acquisition of California, Polk had accomplished all four of his major presidential goals. With the exception of the territory acquired by the 1853 Gadsden Purchase, and some later minor adjustments, the territorial acquisitions under Polk established the modern borders of the Contiguous United States. Postwar and the territories Polk had been anxious to establish a territorial government for Oregon once the treaty was effective in 1846, but the matter became embroiled in the arguments over slavery, though few thought Oregon suitable for that institution. A bill to establish an Oregon territorial government passed the House after being amended to bar slavery; the bill died in the Senate when opponents ran out the clock on the congressional session. A resurrected bill, still barring slavery, again passed the House in January 1847 but it was not considered by the Senate before Congress adjourned in March. By the time Congress met again in December, California and New Mexico were in U.S. hands, and Polk in his annual message urged the establishment of territorial governments in all three. The Missouri Compromise had settled the issue of the geographic reach of slavery within the Louisiana Purchase territories by prohibiting slavery in states north of 36°30′ latitude, and Polk sought to extend this line into the newly acquired territory. If extended to the Pacific, this would have made slavery illegal in San Francisco but allowed it in Monterey and Los Angeles. A plan to accomplish the extension was defeated in the House by a bipartisan alliance of Northerners. As the last congressional session before the 1848 election came to a close, Polk signed the lone territorial bill passed by Congress, which established the Territory of Oregon and prohibited slavery in it. When Congress reconvened in December 1848, Polk asked it in his annual message to establish territorial governments in California and New Mexico, a task made especially urgent by the onset of the California Gold Rush. The divisive issue of slavery blocked any such legislation, though congressional action continued until the final hours of Polk's term. When the bill was amended to have the laws of Mexico apply to the southwest territories until Congress changed them (thus effectively banning slavery), Polk made it clear that he would veto it, considering it the Wilmot Proviso in another guise. It was not until the Compromise of 1850 that the matter of the territories was resolved. Other initiatives Polk's ambassador to the Republic of New Granada, Benjamin Alden Bidlack, negotiated the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty. Though Bidlack had initially only sought to remove tariffs on American goods, Bidlack and New Granadan Foreign Minister Manuel María Mallarino negotiated a broader agreement that deepened military and trade ties between the two countries. The treaty also allowed for the construction of the Panama Railway. In an era of slow overland travel, the treaty gave the United States a route for a quicker journey between its eastern and western coasts. In exchange, Bidlack agreed to have the United States guarantee New Granada's sovereignty over the Isthmus of Panama. The treaty won ratification in both countries in 1848. The agreement helped to establish a stronger American influence in the region, as the Polk administration sought to ensure that Great Britain would not dominate Central America. The United States would use the rights granted under the Mallarino-Bidlack Treaty as a justification for its military interventions in Latin America through the remainder of the 19th century. In mid-1848, President Polk authorized his ambassador to Spain, Romulus Mitchell Saunders, to negotiate the purchase of Cuba and offer Spain up to $100 million, a large sum at the time for one territory, equal to $ in present-day terms. Cuba was close to the United States and had slavery, so the idea appealed to Southerners but was unwelcome in the North. However, Spain was still making profits in Cuba (notably in sugar, molasses, rum and tobacco), and thus the Spanish government rejected Saunders's overtures. Though Polk was eager to acquire Cuba, he refused to support the filibuster expedition of Narciso López, who sought to invade and take over the island as a prelude to annexation. Domestic policy Fiscal policy In his inaugural address, Polk called upon Congress to re-establish the Independent Treasury System under which government funds were held in the Treasury and not in banks or other financial institutions. President Van Buren had previously established a similar system, but it had been abolished during the Tyler administration. Polk made clear his opposition to a national bank in his inaugural address, and in his first annual message to Congress in December 1845, he called for the government to keep its funds itself. Congress was slow to act; the House passed a bill in April 1846 and the Senate in August, both without a single Whig vote. Polk signed the Independent Treasury Act into law on August 6, 1846. The act provided that the public revenues were to be retained in the Treasury building and in sub-treasuries in various cities, separate from private or state banks. The system would remain in place until the passage of the Federal Reserve Act in 1913. Polk's other major domestic initiative was the lowering of the tariff. Polk directed Secretary of the Treasury Robert Walker to draft a new and lower tariff, which Polk submitted to Congress. After intense lobbying by both sides, the bill passed the House and, in a close vote that required Vice President Dallas to break a tie, the Senate in July 1846. Dallas, although from protectionist Pennsylvania, voted for the bill, having decided his best political prospects lay in supporting the administration. Polk signed the Walker Tariff into law, substantially reducing the rates that had been set by the Tariff of 1842. The reduction of tariffs in the United States and the repeal of the Corn Laws in Great Britain led to a boom in Anglo-American trade. Development of the country Congress passed the Rivers and Harbors Bill in 1846 to provide $500,000 to improve port facilities, but Polk vetoed it. Polk believed that the bill was unconstitutional because it unfairly favored particular areas, including ports that had no foreign trade. Polk considered internal improvements to be matters for the states, and feared that passing the bill would encourage legislators to compete for favors for their home district—a type of corruption that he felt would spell doom to the virtue of the republic. In this regard he followed his hero Jackson, who had vetoed the Maysville Road Bill in 1830 on similar grounds. Opposed by conviction to Federal funding for internal improvements, Polk stood strongly against all such bills. Congress, in 1847, passed another internal improvements bill; he pocket vetoed it and sent Congress a full veto message when it met in December. Similar bills continued to advance in Congress in 1848, though none reached his desk. When he came to the Capitol to sign bills on March 3, 1849, the last day of the congressional session and his final full day in office, he feared that an internal improvements bill would pass Congress, and he brought with him a draft veto message. The bill did not pass, so it was not needed, but feeling the draft had been ably written, he had it preserved among his papers. Authoritative word of the discovery of gold in California did not arrive in Washington until after the 1848 election, by which time Polk was a lame duck. Polk's political adversaries had claimed California was too far away to be useful and was not worth the price paid to Mexico. The President was delighted by the news, seeing it as validation of his stance on expansion, and referred to the discovery several times in his final annual message to Congress that December. Shortly thereafter, actual samples of the California gold arrived, and Polk sent a special message to Congress on the subject. The message, confirming less authoritative reports, caused large numbers of people to move to California, both from the U.S. and abroad, thus helping to spark the California Gold Rush. One of Polk's last acts as president was to sign the bill creating the Department of the Interior (March 3, 1849). This was the first new cabinet position created since the early days of the Republic. Polk had misgivings about the federal government usurping power over public lands from the states. Nevertheless, the delivery of the legislation on his last full day in office gave him no time to find constitutional grounds for a veto, or to draft a sufficient veto message, so he signed the bill. Judicial appointments Polk appointed the following justices to the U.S. Supreme Court: The 1844 death of Justice Henry Baldwin left a vacant place on the Supreme Court, but Tyler had been unable to get the Senate to confirm a nominee. At the time, it was the custom to have a geographic balance on the Supreme Court, and Baldwin had been from Pennsylvania. Polk's efforts to fill Baldwin's seat became embroiled in Pennsylvania politics and the efforts of factional leaders to secure the lucrative post of Collector of Customs for the Port of Philadelphia. As Polk attempted to find his way through the minefield of Pennsylvania politics, a second position on the high court became vacant with the death, in September 1845, of Justice Joseph Story; his replacement was expected to come from his native New England. Because Story's death had occurred while the Senate was not in session, Polk was able to make a recess appointment, choosing Senator Levi Woodbury of New Hampshire, and when the Senate reconvened in December 1845, Woodbury was confirmed. Polk's initial nominee for Baldwin's seat, George W. Woodward, was rejected by the Senate in January 1846, in large part due to the opposition of Buchanan and Pennsylvania Senator Simon Cameron. Despite Polk's anger at Buchanan, he eventually offered the Secretary of State the seat, but Buchanan, after some indecision, turned it down. Polk subsequently nominated Robert Cooper Grier of Pittsburgh, who won confirmation. Justice Woodbury died in 1851, but Grier served until 1870 and in the slavery case of Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) wrote an opinion stating that slaves were property and could not sue. Polk appointed eight other federal judges, one to the United States Circuit Court of the District of Columbia, and seven to various United States district courts. Election of 1848 Honoring his pledge to serve only one term, Polk declined to seek re-election. At the 1848 Democratic National Convention, Lewis Cass led on every ballot, though it was not until the fourth that he attained a two-thirds vote. William Butler, who had replaced Winfield Scott as the commanding general in Mexico City, won the vice-presidential nomination. The 1848 Whig National Convention nominated Zachary Taylor for president and former congressman Millard Fillmore of New York for vice president. New York Democrats remained bitter because of what they deemed shabby treatment of Van Buren in 1844, and the former president had drifted from the party in the years since. Many of Van Buren's faction of the party, the Barnburners, were younger men who strongly opposed the spread of slavery, a position with which, by 1848, Van Buren agreed. Senator Cass was a strong expansionist, and slavery might find new fields under him; accordingly, the Barnburners bolted the Democratic National Convention upon his nomination, and, in June, joined by anti-slavery Democrats from other states, they held a convention, nominating Van Buren for president. Polk was surprised and disappointed by his former ally's political conversion and worried about the divisiveness of a sectional party devoted to abolition. Polk did not give speeches for Cass, remaining at his desk at the White House. He did remove some Van Buren supporters from federal office during the campaign. In the election, Taylor won 47.3% of the popular vote and a majority of the electoral vote. Cass won 42.5% of the vote, while Van Buren finished with 10.1% of the popular vote, much of his support coming from northern Democrats. Polk was disappointed by the outcome as he had a low opinion of Taylor, seeing the general as someone with poor judgment and few opinions on important public matters. Nevertheless, Polk observed tradition and welcomed President-elect Taylor to Washington, hosting him at a gala White House dinner. Polk departed the White House on March 3, leaving behind him a clean desk, though he worked from his hotel or the Capitol on last-minute appointments and bill signings. He attended Taylor's inauguration on March 5 (March 4, the presidential inauguration day until 1937, fell on a Sunday, and thus the ceremony was postponed a day), and though he was unimpressed with the new president, wished him the best. Post-presidency and death (1849) Polk's time in the White House took its toll on his health. Full of enthusiasm and vigor when he entered office, Polk left the presidency exhausted by his years of public service. He left Washington on March 6 for a pre-arranged triumphal tour of the South, to end in Nashville. Polk had two years previously arranged to buy a house there, afterwards dubbed Polk Place, that had once belonged to his mentor, Felix Grundy. James and Sarah Polk progressed down the Atlantic coast, and then westward through the Deep South. He was enthusiastically received and banqueted. By the time the Polks reached Alabama, he was suffering from a bad cold, and soon became concerned by reports of cholera—a passenger on Polk's riverboat died of it, and it was rumored to be common in New Orleans, but it was too late to change plans. Worried about his health, he would have departed the city quickly but was overwhelmed by Louisiana hospitality. Several passengers on the riverboat up the Mississippi died of the disease, and Polk felt so ill that he went ashore for four days, staying in a hotel. A doctor assured him he did not have cholera, and Polk made the final leg, arriving in Nashville on April 2 to a huge reception. After a visit to James's mother in Columbia, the Polks settled into Polk Place. The exhausted former president seemed to gain new life, but in early June, he fell ill again, by most accounts of cholera. Attended by several doctors, he lingered for several days and chose to be baptized into the Methodist Church, which he had long admired, though his mother arrived from Columbia with her Presbyterian clergyman, and his wife was also a devout Presbyterian. On the afternoon of Friday, June 15, Polk died at his Polk Place home in Nashville, Tennessee at the age of 53. According to traditional accounts, his last words before he died were "I love you, Sarah, for all eternity, I love you", spoken to Sarah Polk. Borneman noted that whether or not they were spoken, there was nothing in Polk's life that would make the sentiment false. Polk's funeral was held at the McKendree Methodist Church in Nashville. Following his death, Sarah Polk lived at Polk Place for 42 years and died on August 14, 1891, at the age of 87. Their house, Polk Place, was demolished in 1901, a decade after Sarah's death. Burials Polk's remains have been moved twice. After his death, he was buried in what is now Nashville City Cemetery, due to a legal requirement related to his infectious disease death. Polk was then moved to a tomb on the grounds of Polk Place (as specified in his will) in 1850. Then, in 1893, the bodies of James and Sarah Polk were relocated to their current resting place on the grounds of the Tennessee State Capitol in Nashville. In March 2017, the Tennessee Senate approved a resolution considered a "first step" toward relocating the Polks' remains to the family home in Columbia. Such a move would require approval by state lawmakers, the courts, and the Tennessee Historical Commission. A year later, a renewed plan to reinter Polk was defeated by Tennessee lawmakers before being taken up again and approved, and allowed to go through by the non-signature of Tennessee governor Bill Haslam. The state's Capitol Commission heard arguments over the issue in November 2018, during which the THC reiterated its opposition to the tomb relocation, and a vote was delayed indefinitely. Polk and slavery Polk enslaved people for most of his adult life. His father, Samuel Polk, in 1827 left Polk more than 8,000 acres (32 km2) of land and divided about 53 enslaved people among his widow and children in his will. James inherited twenty people enslaved by his father, either directly or from deceased brothers. In 1831, he became an absentee cotton planter, sending enslaved people to clear plantation land that his father had left him near Somerville, Tennessee. Four years later Polk sold his Somerville plantation and, together with his brother-in-law, bought 920 acres (3.7 km2) of land, a cotton plantation near Coffeeville, Mississippi, hoping to increase his income. The land in Mississippi was richer than that in Somerville, and Polk transferred enslaved people there, taking care to conceal from them that they were to be sent south. From the start of 1839, Polk, having bought out his brother-in-law, owned all of the Mississippi plantations, and ran it on a mostly absentee basis for the rest of his life. He occasionally visited—for example, he spent much of April 1844 on his Mississippi plantation, right before the Democratic convention. Adding to the inherited enslaved people, in 1831, Polk purchased five more, mostly buying them in Kentucky, and expending $1,870; the youngest had a recorded age of 11. As older children sold for a higher price, slave sellers routinely lied about age. Between 1834 and 1835, he bought five more, aged from 2 to 37, the youngest a granddaughter of the oldest. The amount expended was $2,250. In 1839, he bought eight enslaved people from his brother William at a cost of $5,600. This represented three young adults and most of a family, though not including the father, whom James Polk had previously owned, and who had been sold to a slave trader as he had repeatedly tried to escape his enslavement. The expenses of four campaigns (three for governor, one for the presidency) in six years kept Polk from making more slave purchases until after he was living in the White House. In an era when the presidential salary was expected to cover wages for the White House servants, Polk replaced them with enslaved people from his home in Tennessee. Polk did not purchase enslaved people with his presidential salary, likely for political reasons. Instead, he reinvested earnings from his plantation in the purchase of enslaved people, enjoining secrecy on his agent: "that as my private business does not concern the public, you will keep it to yourself". Polk saw the plantation as his route to a comfortable existence after his presidency for himself and his wife; he did not intend to return to the practice of law. Hoping the increased labor force would increase his retirement income, he purchased seven enslaved people in 1846, through an agent, aged roughly between 12 and 17. The 17-year-old and one of the 12-year-olds were purchased together at an estate sale; the agent within weeks resold the younger boy to Polk's profit. The year 1847 saw the purchase of nine more. Three he purchased from Gideon Pillow, and his agent purchased six enslaved people aged between 10 and 20. By the time of the purchase from Pillow, the Mexican War had begun and Polk sent payment with the letter in which he offered Pillow a commission in the Army. The purchase from Pillow was a man Polk had previously owned and had sold for being a disruption, and his wife and child. None of the other enslaved people Polk purchased as president, all younger than 20, came with a parent, and as only in the one case were two slaves bought together, most likely none had an accompanying sibling as each faced life on Polk's plantation. Discipline for those owned by Polk varied over time. At the Tennessee plantation, he employed an overseer named Herbert Biles, who was said to be relatively indulgent. Biles's illness in 1833 resulted in Polk replacing him with Ephraim Beanland, who tightened discipline and increased work. Polk backed his overseer, returning escapees who complained of beatings and other harsh treatment, "even though every report suggested that the overseer was a heartless brute". Beanland was hired for the Mississippi plantation but was soon dismissed by Polk's partner, who deemed Beanland too harsh as the slaves undertook the arduous task of clearing the timber from the new plantation so it could be used for cotton farming. His replacement was discharged after a year for being too indulgent; the next died of dysentery in 1839. Others followed, and it was not until 1845 that Polk found a satisfactory overseer, John Mairs, who remained the rest of Polk's life and was still working at the plantation for Sarah Polk in 1860 when the widow sold a half-share in many of her slaves. There had been a constant stream of runaways under Mairs' predecessors, many seeking protection at the plantation of Polk relatives or friends; only one ran away between the time of Mairs' hiring and the end of 1847, but the overseer had to report three absconded slaves (including the one who had fled earlier) to Polk in 1848 and 1849. Polk's will, dated February 28, 1849, a few days before the end of his presidency, contained the nonbinding expectation that his slaves were to be freed when both he and Sarah Polk were dead. The Mississippi plantation was expected to be the support of Sarah Polk during her widowhood. Sarah Polk lived until 1891, but the slaves were freed in 1865 by the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery in the United States. By selling a half-interest in the slaves in 1860, Sarah Polk had given up the sole power to free them, and it is unlikely that her new partner, having paid $28,500 for a half-interest in the plantation and its slaves, would have allowed the laborers to go free had she died while slavery was legal. Like Jackson, Polk saw the politics of slavery as a side issue compared to more important matters such as territorial expansion and economic policy. The issue of slavery became increasingly polarizing during the 1840s, and Polk's expansionary policies increased its divisiveness. During his presidency, many abolitionists harshly criticized him as an instrument of the "Slave Power", and claimed that spreading slavery was the reason he supported Texas Annexation and later war with Mexico. Polk did support the expansion of slavery's realm, with his views informed by his own family's experience of settling Tennessee, bringing slaves with them. He believed in Southern rights, meaning both the right of slave states not to have that institution interfered with by the Federal government and the right of individual Southerners to bring their slaves with them into the new territory. Though Polk opposed the Wilmot Proviso, he also condemned southern agitation on the issue, and he accused both northern and southern leaders of attempting to use the slavery issue for political gain. On March 4, 2017, new tombstones for three of his slaves, Elias Polk, Mary Polk and Matilda Polk, were placed in the Nashville City Cemetery. Elias and Mary Polk both survived slavery, dying in the 1880s; Matilda Polk died still in slavery in 1849, at the age of about 110. Legacy and historical view After his death, Polk's historic reputation was initially formed by the attacks made on him in his own time. Whig politicians claimed that he was drawn from well-deserved obscurity. Sam Houston is said to have observed that Polk, a teetotaler, was "a victim of the use of water as a beverage". Little was published about him but two biographies released in the wake of his death. Polk was not again the subject of a major biography until 1922 when Eugene I. McCormac published James K. Polk: A Political Biography. McCormac relied heavily on Polk's presidential diary, first published in 1909. When historians began ranking the presidents in 1948, Polk ranked tenth in Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr.'s poll, and has subsequently ranked eighth in Schlesinger's 1962 poll, 11th in the Riders-McIver Poll (1996), and 14th in the 2017 survey by C-SPAN. Borneman deemed Polk the most effective president prior to the Civil War and noted that Polk expanded the power of the presidency, especially in its power as commander in chief and its oversight over the Executive Branch. Steven G. Calabresi and Christopher S. Yoo, in their history of presidential power, praised Polk's conduct of the Mexican War, "it seems unquestionable that his management of state affairs during this conflict was one of the strongest examples since Jackson of the use of presidential power to direct specifically the conduct of subordinate officers." Harry S. Truman called Polk "a great president. Said what he intended to do and did it." Bergeron noted that the matters that Polk settled, he settled for his time. The questions of the banking system, and of the tariff, which Polk had made two of the main issues of his presidency, were not significantly revised until the 1860s. Similarly, the Gadsden Purchase, and that of Alaska (1867), were the only major U.S. expansions until the 1890s. Paul H. Bergeron wrote in his study of Polk's presidency: "Virtually everyone remembers Polk and his expansionist successes. He produced a new map of the United States, which fulfilled a continent-wide vision." "To look at that map," Robert W. Merry concluded, "and to take in the western and southwestern expanse included in it, is to see the magnitude of Polk's presidential accomplishments." Amy Greenberg, in her history of the Mexican War, found Polk's legacy to be more than territorial, "during a single brilliant term, he accomplished a feat that earlier presidents would have considered impossible. With the help of his wife, Sarah, he masterminded, provoked and successfully prosecuted a war that turned the United States into a world power." Borneman noted that in securing this expansion, Polk did not consider the likely effect on Mexicans and Native Americans, "That ignorance may well be debated on moral grounds, but it cannot take away Polk's stunning political achievement." James A. Rawley wrote in his American National Biography piece on Polk, "he added extensive territory to the United States, including Upper California and its valuable ports, and bequeathed a legacy of a nation poised on the Pacific rim prepared to emerge as a superpower in future generations". Historians have criticized Polk for not perceiving that his territorial gains set the table for civil war. Pletcher stated that Polk, like others of his time, failed "to understand that sectionalism and expansion had formed a new, explosive compound". Fred I. Greenstein, in his journal article on Polk, noted that Polk "lacked a far-seeing awareness of the problems that were bound to arise over the status of slavery in the territory acquired from Mexico" William Dusinberre, in his volume on Polk as slave owner, suggested "that Polk's deep personal involvement in the plantation slavery system ... colored his stance on slavery-related issues". Greenberg noted that Polk's war served as the training ground for that later conflict: See also List of presidents of the United States List of presidents of the United States by previous experience List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps Notes References Bibliography . . , short popular biography. Letter to Dean Acheson (unsent), August 26, 1960 Further reading Bergeron, Paul H. "President Polk and economic legislation." Presidential Studies Quarterly (1985): 782–795. online Chaffin, Tom. Met His Every Goal? James K. Polk and the Legends of Manifest Destiny (University of Tennessee Press; 2014) 124 pages. Currie, David P., and Emily E. Kadens. "President Polk on Internal Improvements: The Undelivered Veto." Green Bag 2 (2002): 5+ online. De Voto, Bernard. The Year of Decision: 1846. Houghton Mifflin, 1943. online Dusinberre, William. "President Polk and the Politics of Slavery". American Nineteenth Century History 3.1 (2002): 1–16. . Argues he misrepresented the strength of abolitionism, grossly exaggerated likelihood of slaves' massacring white families and seemed to condone secession. Goodpasture, Albert V. "The Boyhood of President Polk." Tennessee Historical Magazine 7.1 (1921): 36–50. Kornblith, Gary J. "Rethinking the Coming of the Civil War: a Counterfactual Exercise". Journal of American History 90.1 (2003): 76–105. . Asks what if Polk had not gone to war. McCormac, Eugene Irving. James K. Polk: A Political Biography to the End of a Career, 1845–1849. Univ. of California Press, 1922. (1995 reprint has .) hostile to Jacksonians. Morrison, Michael A. "Martin Van Buren, the Democracy, and the Partisan Politics of
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Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu its first Prime Minister. 1951 – Korean War: Chinese and North Korean forces capture Seoul for the second time. 1956 – The Greek National Radical Union is formed by Konstantinos Karamanlis. 1958 – Sputnik 1, the first artificial Earth satellite, launched by the Soviet Union in 1957, falls to Earth from orbit. 1959 – Luna 1 becomes the first spacecraft to reach the vicinity of the Moon. 1972 – Rose Heilbron becomes the first female judge to sit at the Old Bailey in London, UK. 1975 – This date overflowed the 12-bit field that had been used in the Decsystem 10 operating systems. There were numerous problems and crashes related to this bug while an alternative format was developed. 1976 – The Troubles: The Ulster Volunteer Force shoots dead six Irish Catholic civilians in County Armagh, Northern Ireland. The next day, gunmen would shoot dead ten Protestant civilians nearby in retaliation. 1987 – The Maryland train collision: An Amtrak train en route to Boston from Washington, D.C., collides with Conrail engines in Chase, Maryland, United States, killing 16 people. 1989 – Second Gulf of Sidra incident: A pair of Libyan MiG-23 "Floggers" are shot down by a pair of US Navy F-14 Tomcats during an air-to-air confrontation. 1990 – In Pakistan's deadliest train accident an overloaded passenger train collides with an empty freight train, resulting in 307 deaths and 700 injuries. 1998 – A massive ice storm hits eastern Canada and the northeastern United States, continuing through January 10 and causing widespread destruction. 1999 – Former professional wrestler Jesse Ventura is sworn in as governor of Minnesota, United States. 2000 – A Norwegian passenger train departing from Trondheim, collides with a local train coming from Hamar in Åsta, Åmot; 19 people are killed and 68 injured in the accident. 2004 – Spirit, a NASA Mars rover, lands successfully on Mars at 04:35 UTC. 2004 – Mikheil Saakashvili is elected President of Georgia following the November 2003 Rose Revolution. 2006 – Ehud Olmert becomes acting Prime Minister of Israel after the incumbent, Ariel Sharon, suffers a second, apparently more serious stroke. 2007 – The 110th United States Congress convenes, electing Nancy Pelosi as the first female Speaker of the House in U.S. history. 2008 – A Let L-410 Turbolet crashes in the Los Roques Archipelago in Venezuela, killing 14 people. 2010 – The Burj Khalifa, the current tallest building in the world, officially opens in Dubai. 2013 – A gunman kills eight people in a house-to-house rampage in Kawit, Cavite, Philippines. 2018 – Hennenman–Kroonstad train crash: A passenger train operated by Shosholoza Meyl collides with a truck on a level crossing at Geneva Station between Hennenman and Kroonstad, Free State, South Africa. Twenty people are killed and 260 injured. Births Pre-1600 659 – Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin (d.680) 1077 – Emperor Zhezong of China (d. 1100) 1334 – Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy (d. 1383) 1467 – Bodo VIII, Count of Stolberg-Wernigerode (d. 1538) 1581 – James Ussher, Irish archbishop and historian (d. 1656) 1601–1900 1643 (NS) – Isaac Newton, English mathematician and physicist (d. 1726/27) 1654 – Lars Roberg, Swedish physician and academic (d. 1742) 1672 – Hugh Boulter, English-Irish archbishop (d. 1742) 1710 – Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Italian composer, violinist, and organist (d. 1736) 1720 – Johann Friedrich Agricola, German organist and composer (d. 1774) 1785 – Jacob Grimm, German philologist and mythologist (d. 1863) 1809 – Louis Braille, French educator, invented Braille (d. 1852) 1813 – Isaac Pitman, English linguist and educator (d. 1897) 1832 – George Tryon, English admiral (d. 1893) 1838 – General Tom Thumb, American circus performer (d. 1883) 1839 – Carl Humann, German archaeologist, architect, and engineer (d. 1896) 1848 – Katsura Tarō, Japanese general and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1913) 1858 – Carter Glass, American publisher and politician, 47th United States Secretary of the Treasury (d. 1946) 1864 – Clara Emilia Smitt, Swedish doctor and author (d. 1928) 1869 – Tommy Corcoran, American baseball player and umpire (d. 1960) 1874 – Josef Suk, Czech violinist and composer (d. 1935) 1877 – Marsden Hartley, American painter and poet (d. 1943) 1878 – A. E. Coppard, English poet and short story writer (d. 1957) 1878 – Augustus John, Welsh painter and illustrator (d. 1961) 1881 – Wilhelm Lehmbruck, German sculptor (d. 1919) 1883 – Max Eastman, American author and poet (d. 1969) 1883 – Johanna Westerdijk, Dutch pathologist and academic (d. 1961) 1884 – Guy Pène du Bois, American painter, critic, and educator (d. 1958) 1889 – M. Patanjali Sastri, Indian lawyer and jurist, 2nd Chief Justice of India (d. 1963) 1891 – Edward Brooker, English-Australian sergeant and politician, 31st Premier of Tasmania (d. 1948) 1895 – Leroy Grumman, American engineer and businessman, co-founded Grumman Aeronautical Engineering Co. (d. 1982) 1896 – Everett Dirksen, American politician (d. 1969) 1896 – André Masson, French painter and illustrator (d. 1987) 1897 – Chen Cheng, Chinese politician, Vice President of the Republic of China (d. 1965) 1900 – James Bond, American ornithologist and zoologist (d. 1989) 1901–present 1901 – C. L. R. James, Trinidadian journalist and theorist (d. 1989) 1902 – John A. McCone, American businessman and politician, 6th Director of Central Intelligence (d. 1991) 1905 – Sterling Holloway, American actor (d. 1992) 1913 – Malietoa Tanumafili II, Samoan ruler (d. 2007) 1916 – Lionel Newman, American pianist and composer (d. 1989) 1916 – Robert Parrish, American actor and director (d. 1995) 1920 – William Colby, American intelligence officer, 10th Director of Central Intelligence (d. 1996) 1924 – Marianne Werner, German shot putter 1925 – Veikko Hakulinen, Finnish skier and technician (d. 2003) 1927 – Paul Desmarais, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (d. 2013) 1927 – Barbara Rush, American actress 1929 – Günter Schabowski, German journalist and politician (d. 2015) 1930 – Sorrell Booke, American actor and director (d. 1994) 1930 – Don Shula, American football player and coach (d. 2020) 1931 – William Deane, Australian judge and politician, 22nd Governor-General of Australia 1931 – Nora Iuga, Romanian poet, writer and translator 1931 – Coşkun Özarı, Turkish footballer and coach (d. 2011) 1932 – Clint Hill, American secret service agent and author 1932 – Carlos Saura, Spanish director and screenwriter 1934 – Rudolf Schuster, Slovak politician, 2nd President of Slovakia 1935 – Floyd Patterson, American boxer (d. 2006) 1937 – Grace Bumbry, American operatic soprano 1937 – Dyan Cannon, American actress, director, producer, and screenwriter 1940 – Gao Xingjian, Chinese novelist, playwright, and critic, Nobel Prize laureate 1940 – Brian
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November 28 (November 17, 1716). 1762 – Great Britain declares war on Spain, which meant the entry of Spain into the Seven Years' War. 1798 – Constantine Hangerli arrives in Bucharest, Wallachia, as its new Prince, invested by the Ottoman Empire. 1853 – After having been kidnapped and sold into slavery in the American South, Solomon Northup regains his freedom; his memoir Twelve Years a Slave later becomes a national bestseller. 1854 – The McDonald Islands are discovered by Captain William McDonald aboard the Samarang. 1863 – The New Apostolic Church, a Christian and chiliastic church, is established in Hamburg, Germany. 1878 – Russo-Turkish War (1877–78): Sofia is liberated from Ottoman rule and designated the capital of Liberated Bulgaria. 1884 – The Fabian Society is founded in London, United Kingdom. 1885 – Sino-French War: French troops under General Oscar de Négrier defeat a numerically superior Qing force at Núi Bop in northern Vietnam. 1896 – Utah is admitted as the 45th U.S. state. 1901–present 1903 – Topsy, an elephant, is electrocuted by the owners of Luna Park, Coney Island. The Edison film company records the film Electrocuting an Elephant of Topsy's death. 1912 – The Scout Association is incorporated throughout the British Empire by royal charter. 1918 – The Finnish Declaration of Independence is recognized by Russia, Sweden, Germany and France. 1944 – World War II: Operation Carpetbagger, involving the dropping of arms and supplies to resistance fighters in Europe, begins. 1948 – Burma gains its independence from the United Kingdom becoming an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu its first Prime Minister. 1951 – Korean War: Chinese and North Korean forces capture Seoul for the second time. 1956 – The Greek National Radical Union is formed by Konstantinos Karamanlis. 1958 – Sputnik 1, the first artificial Earth satellite, launched by the Soviet Union in 1957, falls to Earth from orbit. 1959 – Luna 1 becomes the first spacecraft to reach the vicinity of the Moon. 1972 – Rose Heilbron becomes the first female judge to sit at the Old Bailey in London, UK. 1975 – This date overflowed the 12-bit field that had been used in the Decsystem 10 operating systems. There were numerous problems and crashes related to this bug while an alternative format was developed. 1976 – The Troubles: The Ulster Volunteer Force shoots dead six Irish Catholic civilians in County Armagh, Northern Ireland. The next day, gunmen would shoot dead ten Protestant civilians nearby in retaliation. 1987 – The Maryland train collision: An Amtrak train en route to Boston from Washington, D.C., collides with Conrail engines in Chase, Maryland, United States, killing 16 people. 1989 – Second Gulf of Sidra incident: A pair of Libyan MiG-23 "Floggers" are shot down by a pair of US Navy F-14 Tomcats during an air-to-air confrontation. 1990 – In Pakistan's deadliest train accident an overloaded passenger train collides with an empty freight train, resulting in 307 deaths and 700 injuries. 1998 – A massive ice storm hits eastern Canada and the northeastern United States, continuing through January 10 and causing widespread destruction. 1999 – Former professional wrestler Jesse Ventura is sworn in as governor of Minnesota, United States. 2000 – A Norwegian passenger train departing from Trondheim, collides with a local train coming from Hamar in Åsta, Åmot; 19 people are killed and 68 injured in the accident. 2004 – Spirit, a NASA Mars rover, lands successfully on Mars at 04:35 UTC. 2004 – Mikheil Saakashvili is elected President of Georgia following the November 2003 Rose Revolution. 2006 – Ehud Olmert becomes acting Prime Minister of Israel after the incumbent, Ariel Sharon, suffers a second, apparently more serious stroke. 2007 – The 110th United States Congress convenes, electing Nancy Pelosi as the first female Speaker of the House in U.S. history. 2008 – A Let L-410 Turbolet crashes in the Los Roques Archipelago in Venezuela, killing 14 people. 2010 – The Burj Khalifa, the current tallest building in the world, officially opens in Dubai. 2013 – A gunman kills eight people in a house-to-house rampage in Kawit, Cavite, Philippines. 2018 – Hennenman–Kroonstad train crash: A passenger train operated by Shosholoza Meyl collides with a truck on a level crossing at Geneva Station between Hennenman and Kroonstad, Free State, South Africa. Twenty people are killed and 260 injured. Births Pre-1600 659 – Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin (d.680) 1077 – Emperor Zhezong of China (d. 1100) 1334 – Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy (d. 1383) 1467 – Bodo VIII, Count of Stolberg-Wernigerode (d. 1538) 1581 – James Ussher, Irish archbishop and historian (d. 1656) 1601–1900 1643 (NS) – Isaac Newton, English mathematician and physicist (d. 1726/27) 1654 – Lars Roberg, Swedish physician and academic (d. 1742) 1672 – Hugh Boulter, English-Irish archbishop (d. 1742) 1710 – Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Italian composer, violinist, and organist (d. 1736) 1720 – Johann Friedrich Agricola, German organist and composer (d. 1774) 1785 – Jacob Grimm, German philologist and mythologist (d. 1863) 1809 – Louis Braille, French educator, invented Braille (d. 1852) 1813 – Isaac Pitman, English linguist and educator (d. 1897) 1832 – George Tryon, English admiral (d. 1893) 1838 – General Tom Thumb, American circus performer (d. 1883) 1839 – Carl Humann, German archaeologist, architect, and engineer (d. 1896) 1848 – Katsura Tarō, Japanese general and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1913) 1858 – Carter Glass, American publisher and politician, 47th United States Secretary of the Treasury (d. 1946) 1864 – Clara Emilia Smitt, Swedish doctor and author (d. 1928) 1869 – Tommy Corcoran, American baseball player and umpire (d. 1960) 1874 – Josef Suk, Czech violinist and composer (d. 1935) 1877 – Marsden Hartley, American painter and poet (d. 1943) 1878 – A. E. Coppard, English poet and short story writer (d. 1957) 1878 – Augustus John, Welsh painter and illustrator (d. 1961) 1881 – Wilhelm Lehmbruck, German sculptor (d. 1919) 1883 – Max Eastman, American author and poet (d. 1969)
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(d. 1998) 1937 – Lou Holtz, American football player, coach, and sportscaster 1937 – Doris Troy, American singer-songwriter (d. 2004) 1938 – Adriano Celentano, Italian singer-songwriter, actor, and director 1938 – Adrienne Clarke, Australian botanist and academic 1938 – Larisa Shepitko, Soviet film director, screenwriter, and actress (d. 1979) 1939 – Valeriy Lobanovskyi, Ukrainian footballer and manager (d. 2002) 1939 – Murray Rose, English-Australian swimmer and sportscaster (d. 2012) 1940 – Van McCoy, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 1979) 1943 – Terry Venables, English footballer and manager 1944 – Bonnie Franklin, American actress and singer (d. 2013) 1944 – Alan Stivell, French singer-songwriter and harp player 1944 – Rolf M. Zinkernagel, Swiss immunologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1945 – Barry John, Welsh rugby player 1946 – Syd Barrett, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2006) 1947 – Sandy Denny, English folk-rock singer-songwriter (d 1978) 1948 – Guy Gardner, American colonel and astronaut 1948 – Dayle Hadlee, New Zealand cricketer 1949 – Mike Boit, Kenyan runner and academic (estimated date) 1949 – Carolyn D. Wright, American poet and academic (d. 2016) 1950 – Louis Freeh, American lawyer and jurist, 10th Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation 1951 – Don Gullett, American baseball player and coach 1951 – Kim Wilson, American singer-songwriter and harmonica player 1953 – Malcolm Young, Scottish-Australian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2017) 1954 – Anthony Minghella, English director and screenwriter (d. 2008) 1955 – Rowan Atkinson, English actor, producer, and screenwriter 1956 – Elizabeth Strout, American novelist and short story writer 1956 – Justin Welby, English archbishop 1956 – Clive Woodward, English rugby player and coach 1957 – Michael Foale, British-American astrophysicist and astronaut 1957 – Nancy Lopez, American golfer and sportscaster 1958 – Shlomo Glickstein, Israeli tennis player 1959 – Kapil Dev, Indian cricketer 1960 – Paul Azinger, American golfer and sportscaster 1960 – Kari Jalonen, Finnish ice hockey player and coach 1960 – Nigella Lawson, English chef and author 1960 – Howie Long, American football player and sports commentator 1961 – Georges Jobé, Belgian motocross racer (d. 2012) 1961 – Nigel Melville, English rugby player 1961 – Peter Whittle, British politician, author, journalist, and broadcaster 1963 – Norm Charlton, American baseball player and coach 1963 – Paul Kipkoech, Kenyan runner (d. 1995) 1964 – Jacqueline Moore, American wrestler and manager 1964 – Jyrki Kasvi, Finnish journalist and politician (d. 2021) 1965 – Bjørn Lomborg, Danish author and academic 1966 – Sharon Cuneta, Filipino singer and actress 1966 – Attilio Lombardo, Italian footballer and manager 1967 – A. R. Rahman, Indian composer, singer-songwriter, music producer, musician, and philanthropist 1968 – John Singleton, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2019) 1969 – Norman Reedus, American actor and model 1970 – Julie Chen, American television journalist, presenter, and producer 1970 – Radoslav Látal, Czech footballer and manager 1970 – Gabrielle Reece, American volleyball player, sportscaster, and actress 1971 – Irwin Thomas, American-Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1973 – Vasso Karantasiou, Greek beach volleyball player 1974 – Marlon Anderson, American baseball player and sportscaster 1974 – Daniel Cordone, Argentinian footballer 1974 – Paul Grant, American basketball player and coach 1975 – James Farrior, American football player 1976 – Richard Zedník, Slovak ice hockey player 1978 – Casey Fossum, American baseball player 1978 – Bubba Franks, American football player 1981 – Asante Samuel, American football player 1982 – Gilbert Arenas, American basketball player 1982 – Roy Asotasi, New Zealand rugby league player 1982 – Eddie Redmayne, English actor and model 1983 – Adam Burish, American ice hockey player 1984 – Kate McKinnon, American actress and comedian 1986 – Paul McShane, Irish footballer 1986 – Petter Northug, Norwegian skier 1987 – Bongani Khumalo, South African footballer 1989 – Andy Carroll, English footballer 1989 – Derrick Morgan, American football player 1991 – Will Barton, American basketball player 1994 – Catriona Gray, Filipino-Australian model, singer and beauty queen, Miss Universe 2018 Deaths Pre-1600 786 – Abo of Tiflis, Iraqi martyr and saint (b. 756) 1088 – Berengar of Tours, French scholar and theologian (b. 999) 1148 – Gilbert de Clare, 1st Earl of Pembroke (b. 1100) 1233 – Matilda of Chester, Countess of Huntingdon, Anglo-Norman noblewoman (b. 1171) 1275 – Raymond of Penyafort, Catalan archbishop and saint (b. 1175) 1350 – Giovanni I di Murta, second doge of the Republic of Genoa 1358 – Gertrude van der Oosten, Beguine mystic 1406 – Roger Walden, English bishop 1448 – Christopher of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden (b. 1418) 1477 – Jean VIII, Count of Vendôme 1478 – Uzun Hasan, 9th Shahanshah of the Turkoman Aq Qoyunlu dynasty 1481 – Ahmed Khan bin Küchük, Mongolian ruler 1537 – Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence (b. 1510) 1537 – Baldassare Peruzzi, Italian architect and painter, designed the Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne (b. 1481) 1601–1900 1616 – Philip Henslowe, English impresario (b. 1550) 1646 – Elias Holl, German architect, designed the Augsburg Town Hall (b. 1573) 1689 – Seth Ward, English bishop, mathematician, and astronomer (b. 1617) 1693 – Mehmed IV, Ottoman sultan (b. 1642) 1711 – Philips van Almonde, Dutch admiral (b. 1646) 1718 – Giovanni Vincenzo Gravina, Italian lawyer and jurist (b. 1664) 1725 – Chikamatsu Monzaemon, Japanese actor and playwright (b. 1653) 1731 – Étienne François Geoffroy, French physician and chemist (b. 1672) 1734 – John Dennis, English playwright and critic (b. 1657) 1813 – Louis Baraguey d'Hilliers, French general (b. 1764) 1829 – Josef Dobrovský, Czech philologist and historian (b. 1753) 1831 – Rodolphe Kreutzer, French violinist, composer, and conductor (b. 1766) 1840 – Frances Burney, English author and playwright (b. 1752) 1852 – Louis Braille, French educator, invented Braille (b. 1809) 1855 – Giacomo Beltrami, Italian jurist, explorer, and author (b. 1779) 1882 – Richard Henry Dana Jr., American lawyer and politician (b. 1815) 1884 – Gregor Mendel, Czech geneticist and botanist (b. 1822) 1885 – Bharatendu Harishchandra, Indian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1850) 1896 – Thomas W. Knox, American journalist and author (b. 1835) 1901–present 1902 – Lars Hertervig, Norwegian painter (b. 1830) 1913 – Frederick Hitch, English soldier, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1856) 1917 – Hendrick Peter Godfried Quack, Dutch economist and historian (b. 1834) 1918 – Georg Cantor, German mathematician and philosopher (b. 1845) 1919 – Theodore Roosevelt, American colonel and politician, 26th President of the United States (b. 1858) 1921 – Devil Anse Hatfield, American guerrilla leader (b. 1839) 1922 – Jakob Rosanes, Ukrainian-German mathematician and chess player (b. 1842) 1928 – Alvin Kraenzlein, American hurdler and long jumper (b. 1876) 1928 – Wilhelm Ramsay, Finnish geologist and professor (b. 1865) 1933 – Vladimir de Pachmann, Ukrainian-German pianist (b. 1848) 1934 – Herbert Chapman, English footballer and manager (b. 1878) 1937 – André Bessette, Canadian saint (b. 1845) 1939 – Gustavs Zemgals, Latvian journalist and politician, 2nd President of Latvia (b. 1871) 1941 – Charley O'Leary, American baseball player and coach (b. 1882) 1942 – Emma Calvé, French soprano and actress (b. 1858) 1942 – Henri de Baillet-Latour, Belgian businessman, 3rd President of the International Olympic Committee (b. 1876) 1944 – Jacques Rosenbaum, Estonian-German architect (b. 1878) 1944 – Ida Tarbell, American journalist, reformer, and educator (b. 1857) 1945 – Vladimir Vernadsky, Russian mineralogist and chemist (b. 1863) 1949 – Victor Fleming, American director, producer, and cinematographer (b. 1883) 1966 – Jean Lurçat, French painter (b. 1892) 1972 – Chen Yi, Chinese general and politician, 2nd Foreign Minister of the People's Republic of China (b. 1901) 1974 – David Alfaro Siqueiros, Mexican painter (b. 1896) 1978 – Burt Munro, New Zealand motorcycle racer (b. 1899) 1981 – A. J. Cronin, Scottish physician and author (b. 1896) 1984 – Ernest Laszlo, Hungarian-American cinematographer (b. 1898) 1990 – Ian Charleson, Scottish-English actor (b. 1949) 1990 – Pavel Cherenkov, Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1904) 1991 – Alan Wiggins, American baseball player (b. 1958) 1992 – Steve Gilpin, New Zealand vocalist and songwriter (b. 1949) 1993 – Dizzy Gillespie, American singer-songwriter and trumpet player (b. 1917) 1993 – Rudolf Nureyev, Russian-French dancer and choreographer (b. 1938) 1995 – Joe Slovo, Lithuanian-South African lawyer and politician (b. 1926) 1999 – Michel Petrucciani, French-American pianist (b. 1962) 2004 – Pierre Charles, Dominican educator and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Dominica (b. 1954) 2005 – Eileen Desmond, Irish civil servant and politician, 12th Irish Minister for Health (b. 1932) 2005 – Lois Hole, Canadian academic and politician, 15th Lieutenant Governor of Alberta (b. 1929) 2005 – Tarquinio Provini, Italian motorcycle racer (b. 1933) 2006 – Lou Rawls, American singer-songwriter (b. 1933) 2007 – Roberta Wohlstetter, American political scientist, historian, and academic (b. 1912) 2008 – Shmuel Berenbaum, Rabbi of Mir Yeshiva (Brooklyn) (b. 1920) 2009 – Ron Asheton, American guitarist, songwriter, and actor (probable; b. 1948) 2011 – Uche Okafor, Nigerian footballer, coach, and sportscaster (b. 1967) 2012 – Bob Holness, South African-English radio and television host (b. 1928) 2012 – Spike Pola, Australian footballer and soldier (b. 1914) 2013 – Ruth Carter Stevenson, American art collector, founded the Amon Carter Museum of American Art (b. 1923) 2013 – Gerard Helders, Dutch jurist and politician (b. 1905) 2013 – Cho Sung-min, South Korean baseball player (b. 1973) 2014 – Marina Ginestà, French Resistance soldier and photographer (b. 1919) 2014 – Nelson Ned, Brazilian singer-songwriter (b. 1947) 2014 – Julian Rotter, American psychologist and academic (b. 1916) 2015 – Arthur Jackson, American lieutenant and target shooter (b. 1918) 2015 – Basil John Mason, English meteorologist and academic (b. 1923) 2016 – Pat Harrington, Jr., American actor and screenwriter (b. 1929) 2016 – Florence King, American journalist and author (b. 1936) 2016 – Christy O'Connor Jnr, Irish golfer and architect (b. 1948) 2016 – Silvana Pampanini, Italian model, actress, and director, Miss Italy 1946 (b. 1925) 2017 – Octavio Lepage, Venezuelan politician, President of Venezuela (b. 1923) 2017 – Om Puri,
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Bohemia is crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy as King of Italy in Milan. 1449 – Constantine XI is crowned Byzantine Emperor at Mystras. 1492 – The Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella enter Granada at the conclusion of the Granada War. 1536 – The first European school of higher learning in the Americas, Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco, is founded by Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza and Bishop Juan de Zumárraga in Mexico City. 1540 – King Henry VIII of England marries Anne of Cleves. 1579 – The Union of Arras unites the southern Netherlands under the Duke of Parma (Ottavio Farnese), governor in the name of King Philip II of Spain. 1601–1900 1641 – Arauco War: The first Parliament of Quillín is celebrated, putting a temporary hold on hostilities between Mapuches and Spanish in Chile. 1661 – English Restoration: The Fifth Monarchists unsuccessfully attempt to seize control of London, England. The revolt is suppressed after a few days. 1721 – The Committee of Inquiry on the South Sea Bubble publishes its findings, revealing details of fraud among company directors and corrupt politicians. 1781 – In the Battle of Jersey, the British defeat the last attempt by France to invade Jersey in the Channel Islands. 1809 – Combined British, Portuguese and colonial Brazilian forces begin the Invasion of Cayenne during the Napoleonic Wars. 1838 – Alfred Vail and colleagues demonstrate a telegraph system using dots and dashes (this is the forerunner of Morse code). 1839 – The Night of the Big Wind, the most damaging storm in 300 years, sweeps across Ireland, damaging or destroying more than 20% of the houses in Dublin. 1847 – Samuel Colt obtains his first contract for the sale of revolver pistols to the United States government. 1870 – The inauguration of the Musikverein in Vienna, Austria. 1893 – The Washington National Cathedral is chartered by Congress. The charter is signed by President Benjamin Harrison. 1900 – Second Boer War: Having already besieged the fortress at Ladysmith, Boer forces attack it, but are driven back by British defenders. 1901–present 1907 – Maria Montessori opens her first school and daycare center for working class children in Rome, Italy. 1912 – New Mexico is admitted to the Union as the 47th U.S. state. 1912 – German geophysicist Alfred Wegener first presents his theory of continental drift. 1929 – King Alexander of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes suspends his country's constitution (the January 6th Dictatorship). 1929 – Mother Teresa arrives by sea in Calcutta, India, to begin her work among India's poorest and sick people. 1930 – Clessie Cummins arrives at the National Automobile Show in New York City, having driven a car powered by one of his diesel engines from Indianapolis. 1941 – United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt delivers his Four Freedoms speech in the State of the Union address. 1946 – The first general election ever in Vietnam is held. 1947 – Pan American Airlines becomes the first commercial airline to offer a round-the-world ticket. 1950 – The United Kingdom recognizes the People's Republic of China. The Republic of China severs diplomatic relations with the UK in response. 1951 – Korean War: Beginning of the Ganghwa massacre, in the course of which an estimated 200–1,300 South Korean communist sympathizers are slaughtered. 1960 – National Airlines Flight 2511 is destroyed in mid-air by a bomb, while en route from New York City to Miami. 1960 – The Associations Law comes into force in Iraq, allowing registration of political parties. 1967 – Vietnam War: United States Marine Corps and ARVN troops launch "Operation Deckhouse Five" in the Mekong River delta. 1974 – In response to the 1973 oil crisis, daylight saving time commences nearly four months early in the United States. 1989 – Satwant Singh and Kehar Singh are sentenced to death for conspiracy in the assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi; the two men are executed the same day. 1992 – President of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia flees the country as a result of the military coup. 1993 – Indian Border Security Force units kill 55 Kashmiri civilians in Sopore, Jammu and Kashmir, in revenge after militants ambushed a BSF patrol. 1993 – Four people are killed when Lufthansa CityLine Flight 5634 crashes on approach to Charles de Gaulle Airport in Roissy-en-France, France. 1994 – American figure skater Nancy Kerrigan is attacked and injured by an assailant hired by her rival Tonya Harding's ex-husband during the U.S. Figure Skating Championships. 1995 – A chemical fire in an apartment complex in Manila, Philippines, leads to the discovery of plans for Project Bojinka, a mass-terrorist attack. 2005 – American Civil Rights Movement: Edgar Ray Killen is indicted for the 1964 murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner. 2005 – A train collision in Graniteville, South Carolina, United States, releases about 60 tons of chlorine gas. 2012 – Twenty-six people are killed and 63 wounded when a suicide bomber blows himself up at a police station in Damascus. 2017 – Five people are killed and six others injured in a mass shooting at Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport in Broward County, Florida. 2019 – Forty people are killed in a gold mine collapse in Badakhshan province, in northern Afghanistan. 2019 – Muhammad V of Kelantan resigns as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia, becoming the first monarch to do so. 2021 – Supporters of U.S. President Donald Trump attack the United States Capitol to disrupt certification of the 2020 presidential election, resulting in five deaths and evacuation of the US Congress. Births Pre-1600 1256 – Gertrude the Great, German mystic (d. 1302) 1367 – Richard II of England (d. 1400) 1384 – Edmund Holland, 4th Earl of Kent (d. 1408) 1412 – Joan of Arc, French martyr and saint (d. 1431) 1486 – Martin Agricola, German composer and theorist (d. 1556) 1488 – Helius Eobanus Hessus, German poet (d. 1540) 1493 – Olaus Petri, Swedish clergyman (d. 1552) 1500 – John of Ávila, Spanish mystic and saint (d. 1569) 1525 – Caspar Peucer, German physician and scholar (d. 1602) 1538 – Jane Dormer, Duchess of Feria (d. 1612) 1561 – Thomas Fincke, Danish mathematician and physicist (d. 1656) 1587 – Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares (d. 1645) 1595 – Claude Favre de Vaugelas, French educator and courtier (d. 1650) 1601–1900 1617 – Christoffer Gabel, Danish politician (d. 1673) 1632 – Anne Hamilton, 3rd Duchess of Hamilton, Scottish peeress (d. 1716) 1655 – Eleonor Magdalene of Neuburg (d. 1720) 1673 – James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos, English academic and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Radnorshire (d. 1744) 1695 – Giuseppe Sammartini, Italian oboe player and composer (d. 1750) 1702 – José de Nebra, Spanish composer (d. 1768) 1714 – Percivall Pott, English surgeon (d. 1788) 1745 – Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier, French co-inventor of the hot air balloon (d. 1799) 1766 – José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, Paraguayan lawyer and politician, first dictator of Paraguay (d. 1840) 1785 – Andreas Moustoxydis, Greek historian and philologist (d. 1860) 1793 – James Madison Porter, American lawyer and politician, 18th United States Secretary of War (d. 1862) 1795 – Anselme Payen, French chemist and academic (d. 1871) 1799 – Jedediah Smith, American hunter, explorer, and author (d. 1831) 1803 – Henri Herz, Austrian pianist and composer (d. 1888) 1807 – Joseph Petzval, German-Hungarian mathematician and physicist (d. 1891) 1808 – Joseph Pitty Couthouy, American conchologist and paleontologist (d. 1864) 1811 – Charles Sumner, American lawyer and politician (d. 1874) 1822 – Heinrich Schliemann, German archaeologist and businessman (d. 1890) 1832 – Gustave Doré, French painter and sculptor (d. 1883) 1838 – Max Bruch, German composer and conductor (d. 1920) 1842 – Clarence King, American geologist, mountaineer, and critic (d. 1901) 1856 – Giuseppe Martucci, Italian
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– Catherine of Aragon (b. 1485) 1566 – Louis de Blois, Flemish monk and author (b. 1506) 1601–1900 1619 – Nicholas Hilliard, English painter and goldsmith (b. 1547) 1625 – Ruggiero Giovannelli, Italian composer and author (b. 1560) 1655 – Pope Innocent X (b. 1574) 1658 – Theophilus Eaton, American farmer and politician, 1st Governor of the New Haven Colony (b. 1590) 1694 – Charles Gerard, 1st Earl of Macclesfield, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Gloucestershire (b. 1618) 1700 – Raffaello Fabretti, Italian scholar and author (b. 1618) 1715 – François Fénelon, French archbishop, theologian, and poet (b. 1651) 1758 – Allan Ramsay, Scottish poet and playwright (b. 1686) 1767 – Thomas Clap, American minister and academic (b. 1703) 1770 – Carl Gustaf Tessin, Swedish politician and diplomat (b. 1695) 1812 – Joseph Dennie, American journalist and author (b. 1768) 1830 – John Thomas Campbell, Irish-Australian public servant and politician (b. 1770) 1830 – Thomas Lawrence, English painter and educator (b. 1769) 1858 – Mustafa Reşid Pasha, Ottoman politician, Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1800) 1864 – Caleb Blood Smith, American journalist and politician, 6th U.S. Secretary of the Interior (b. 1808) 1892 – Tewfik Pasha, Egyptian ruler (b. 1852) 1893 – Josef Stefan, Slovenian physicist and mathematician (b. 1835) 1901–present 1912 – Sophia Jex-Blake, English physician and feminist (b. 1840) 1919 – Henry Ware Eliot, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Washington University in St. Louis (b. 1843) 1920 – Edmund Barton, Australian judge and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1849) 1927 – Nikolaos Kalogeropoulos, Greek politician, 99th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1851) 1931 – Edward Channing, American historian and author (b. 1856) 1932 – André Maginot, French sergeant and politician (b. 1877) 1936 – Guy d'Hardelot, French pianist and composer (b. 1858) 1941 – Charles Finger, English journalist and author (b. 1869) 1943 – Nikola Tesla, Serbian-American physicist and engineer (b. 1856) 1951 – René Guénon, French-Egyptian philosopher and author (b. 1886) 1960 – Dorothea Douglass Lambert Chambers, English tennis player and coach (b. 1878) 1963 – Arthur Edward Moore, New Zealand-Australian farmer and politician, 23rd Premier of Queensland (b. 1876) 1964 – Reg Parnell, English racing driver and manager (b. 1911) 1967 – David Goodis, American author and screenwriter (b. 1917) 1967 – Carl Schuricht, German-Swiss conductor (b. 1880) 1968 – J. L. B. Smith, South African chemist and academic (b. 1897) 1972 – John Berryman, American poet and scholar (b. 1914) 1981 – Alvar Lidell, English journalist and radio announcer(b. 1908) 1981 – Eric Robinson, Australian businessman and politician, 2nd Australian Minister for Finance (b. 1926) 1984 – Alfred Kastler, German-French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1902) 1986 – Juan Rulfo, Mexican author, screenwriter, and photographer (b. 1917) 1988 – Zara Cisco Brough, American Nipmuc Indian chief and fashion designer (b.1919) 1988 – Trevor Howard, English actor (b. 1913) 1989 – Hirohito, Japanese emperor (b. 1901) 1990 – Bronko Nagurski, Canadian-American football player and wrestler (b. 1908) 1992 – Richard Hunt, American puppeteer and voice actor (b. 1951) 1995 – Murray Rothbard, American economist, historian, and theorist (b. 1926) 1996 – Károly Grósz, Hungarian politician, 51st Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1930) 1998 – Owen Bradley, American record producer (b. 1915) 1998 – Vladimir Prelog, Croatian-Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906) 2000 – Gary Albright, American wrestler (b. 1963) 2001 – James Carr, American singer (b. 1942) 2002 – Avery Schreiber, American comedian and actor (b. 1935) 2004 – Ingrid Thulin, Swedish actress (b. 1926) 2005 – Pierre Daninos, French author (b. 1913) 2006 – Heinrich Harrer, Austrian mountaineer, geographer, and author (b. 1912) 2007 – Bobby Hamilton, American race car driver and businessman (b. 1957) 2007 – Magnus Magnusson, Icelandic journalist, author, and academic (b. 1929) 2008 – Alwyn Schlebusch, South African academic and politician, Vice State President of South Africa (b. 1917) 2012 – Tony Blankley, British-born American child actor, journalist and pundit (b. 1948) 2014 – Run Run Shaw, Chinese-Hong Kong businessman and philanthropist, founded Shaw Brothers Studio and TVB (b. 1907) 2015 – Mompati Merafhe, Botswana general and politician, Vice-President of Botswana (b. 1936) 2015 – Rod Taylor, Australian-American actor and screenwriter (b. 1930) 2015 – Georges Wolinski, Tunisian-French cartoonist (b. 1934) 2016 – Bill Foster, American basketball player and coach (b. 1929) 2016 – John Johnson, American basketball player (b. 1947) 2016 – Kitty Kallen, American singer (b. 1921) 2016 – Judith Kaye, American lawyer and jurist (b. 1938) 2016 – Mufti Mohammad Sayeed, Indian lawyer and politician, Indian Minister of Home Affairs (b. 1936) 2017 – Mário Soares, Portuguese politician; 16th President of Portugal (b. 1924) 2018 – Jim Anderton, Former New Zealand Deputy Prime Minister (b. 1938) 2018 – France Gall, French singer (b. 1947) 2020 – Neil Peart, Canadian drummer, songwriter, and producer (b. 1952) 2021 – Michael Apted, English filmmaker (b. 1941) 2021 – Tommy Lasorda, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1927) 2021 – Henri Schwery, Swiss cardinal (b. 1932) 2021 – Brian Sicknick, Police officer who was present during the U.S. Capitol attack (b. 1978) Holidays and observances Christian Feast Day: André Bessette (Canada) Canute Lavard Charles of Sezze Felix and Januarius Lucian of Antioch Raymond of Penyafort Synaxis of John the Forerunner & Baptist (Julian Calendar) January 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Christmas (Eastern Orthodox Churches and Oriental Orthodox Churches using the Julian Calendar, Rastafari) Christmas in Russia Christmas in Ukraine Remembrance Day of the Dead (Armenia) Distaff Day (medieval Europe) Earliest day on which Plough Monday can fall, while January 13 is the latest; celebrated on Monday after Epiphany (Europe). Nanakusa no sekku (Japan) Pioneer's
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someone sneezing. On the same day, his employee, William Kennedy Dickson, receives a patent for motion picture film. 1901–present 1904 – The distress signal "CQD" is established only to be replaced two years later by "SOS". 1919 – Montenegrin guerrilla fighters rebel against the planned annexation of Montenegro by Serbia, but fail. 1920 – The New York State Assembly refuses to seat five duly elected Socialist assemblymen. 1922 – Dáil Éireann ratifies the Anglo-Irish Treaty by a 64–57 vote. 1927 – The first transatlantic commercial telephone service is established from New York City to London. 1928 – A disastrous flood of the River Thames kills 14 people and causes extensive damage to much of riverside London. 1931 – Guy Menzies flies the first solo non-stop trans-Tasman flight (from Australia to New Zealand) in 11 hours and 45 minutes, crash-landing on New Zealand's west coast. 1935 – Benito Mussolini and French Foreign minister Pierre Laval sign the Franco-Italian Agreement. 1940 – Winter War: Battle of Raate Road: The Finnish 9th Division finally defeat the numerically superior Soviet forces on the Raate-Suomussalmi road. 1948 – Kentucky Air National Guard pilot Thomas Mantell crashes while in pursuit of a supposed UFO. 1954 – Georgetown-IBM experiment: The first public demonstration of a machine translation system is held in New York at the head office of IBM. 1955 – Contralto Marian Anderson becomes the first person of color to perform at the Metropolitan Opera in Giuseppe Verdi's Un ballo in maschera. 1959 – The United States recognizes the new Cuban government of Fidel Castro. 1968 – Surveyor Program: Surveyor 7, the last spacecraft in the Surveyor series, lifts off from launch complex 36A, Cape Canaveral. 1972 – Iberia Flight 602 crashes near Ibiza Airport, killing all 104 people on board. 1973 – In his second shooting spree of the week, Mark Essex fatally shoots seven people and wounds five others at Howard Johnson's Hotel in New Orleans, Louisiana, before being shot to death by police officers. 1979 – Third Indochina War: Cambodian–Vietnamese War: Phnom Penh falls to the advancing Vietnamese troops, driving out Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge. 1980 – U.S. President Jimmy Carter authorizes legislation giving $1.5 billion in loans to bail out the Chrysler Corporation. 1984 – Brunei becomes the sixth member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). 1985 – Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency launches Sakigake, Japan's first interplanetary spacecraft and the first deep space probe to be launched by any country other than the United States or the Soviet Union. 1991 – Roger Lafontant, former leader of the Tonton Macoute in Haiti under François Duvalier, attempts a coup d'état, which ends in his arrest. 1993 – The Fourth Republic of Ghana is inaugurated with Jerry Rawlings as president. 1993 – Bosnian War: The Bosnian Army executes a surprise attack at the village of Kravica in Srebrenica. 1994 – A British Aerospace Jetstream 41 operating as United Express Flight 6291 crashes in Gahanna, Ohio, killing five of the eight people on board. 1999 – The Senate trial in the impeachment of U.S. President Bill Clinton begins. 2012 – A hot air balloon crashes near Carterton, New Zealand, killing all 11 people on board. 2015 – Two gunmen commit mass murder at the offices of Charlie Hebdo in Paris, shooting twelve people execution style, and wounding eleven others. 2015 – A car bomb explodes outside a police college in the Yemeni capital Sana'a with at least 38 people reported dead and more than 63 injured. 2020 – The 6.4 2019–20 Puerto Rico earthquakes kill four and injure nine in southern Puerto Rico. Births Pre-1600 889 – Li Bian, emperor of Southern Tang (d. 943) 1355 – Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester, English politician, Lord High Constable of England (d. 1397) 1502 – Pope Gregory XIII (d. 1585) 1601–1900 1634 – Adam Krieger, German organist and composer (d. 1666) 1647 – William Louis, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1677) 1685 – Jonas Alströmer, Swedish agronomist and businessman (d. 1761) 1706 – Johann Heinrich Zedler, German publisher (d. 1751) 1713 – Giovanni Battista Locatelli, Italian opera director and manager (d. 1785) 1718 – Israel Putnam, American general (d. 1790) 1746 – George Elphinstone, 1st Viscount Keith, Scottish admiral and politician (d. 1823) 1768 – Joseph Bonaparte, Italian king (d. 1844) 1797 – Mariano Paredes, Mexican general and 16th president (1845-1846) (d. 1849) 1800 – Millard Fillmore, American politician, 13th President of the United States (d. 1874) 1814 – Robert Nicoll, Scottish poet (d.1837) 1815 – Elizabeth Louisa Foster Mather, American writer (d.1882) 1827 – Sandford Fleming, Scottish-Canadian engineer, created Universal Standard Time (d. 1915) 1830 – Albert Bierstadt, American painter (d. 1902) 1831 – Heinrich von Stephan, German postman, founded the Universal Postal Union (d. 1897) 1832 – James Munro, Scottish-Australian publisher and politician, 15th Premier of Victoria (d. 1908) 1834 – Johann Philipp Reis, German physicist and academic, invented the Reis telephone (d. 1874) 1837 – Thomas Henry Ismay, English businessman, founded the White Star Line Shipping Company (d. 1899) 1844 – Bernadette Soubirous, French nun and saint (d. 1879) 1852 – Quianu Robinson, New Mexican Congressman and political ally of Conrad Hilton (d. 1919) 1858 – Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, Belarusian lexicographer and journalist (d. 1922) 1863 – Anna Murray Vail, American botanist and first librarian of the New York Botanical Garden (d. 1955) 1871 – Émile Borel, French mathematician and politician (d. 1956) 1873 – Charles Péguy, French poet and journalist (d. 1914) 1873 – Adolph Zukor, Hungarian-American film producer, co-founded Paramount Pictures (d. 1976) 1875 – Gustav Flatow, German gymnast (d. 1945) 1876 – William Hurlstone, English pianist and composer (d. 1906) 1877 – William Clarence Matthews, American baseball player, coach, and lawyer (d. 1928) 1889 – Vera de Bosset, Russian-American ballerina (d. 1982) 1891 – Zora Neale Hurston, American novelist, short story writer, and folklorist (d. 1960) 1895 – Hudson Fysh, Australian pilot and businessman, co-founded Qantas Airways Limited (d. 1974) 1898 – Al Bowlly, Mozambican-English singer-songwriter (disputed; d. 1941) 1899 – Francis Poulenc, French pianist and composer (d. 1963) 1900 – John Brownlee, Australian actor and singer (d. 1969) 1901–present 1908 – Red Allen, American trumpet player (d. 1967) 1910 – Orval Faubus, American soldier and politician, 36th Governor of Arkansas (d. 1994) 1912 – Charles Addams, American cartoonist, created The Addams Family (d. 1988) 1913 – Johnny Mize, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 1993) 1916 – W. L. Jeyasingham, Sri Lankan geographer and academic (d. 1989) 1916 – Babe Pratt, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1988) 1920 – Vincent Gardenia, Italian-American actor (d. 1992) 1921 – Esmeralda Arboleda Cadavid, Colombian politician (d. 1997) 1921 – Chester Kallman, American poet and translator (d. 1975) 1922 – Alvin Dark, American baseball player and manager (d. 2014) 1922 – Jean-Pierre Rampal, French flute player (d. 2000) 1923 – Hugh Kenner, Canadian scholar and critic (d. 2003) 1925 – Gerald Durrell, Indian-English zookeeper, conservationist and author, founded Durrell Wildlife Park (d. 1995) 1926 – Kim Jong-pil, South Korean lieutenant and politician, 11th Prime Minister of South Korea (d. 2018) 1928 – William Peter Blatty, American author and screenwriter (d. 2017) 1929 – Robert Juniper, Australian painter and sculptor (d. 2012) 1929 – Terry Moore, American actress 1931 – Mirja Hietamies, Finnish skier (d. 2013) 1933 – Elliott Kastner, American-English film producer (d. 2010) 1934 – Jean Corbeil, Canadian lawyer and politician, 29th Canadian Minister of Labour (d. 2002) 1934 – Tassos Papadopoulos, Cypriot lawyer and politician, 5th President of Cyprus (d. 2008) 1935 – Li Shengjiao, Chinese diplomat and international jurist (d. 2017) 1935 – Kenny Davern, American clarinet player and saxophonist (d. 2006) 1935 – Valeri Kubasov, Russian engineer and astronaut (d. 2014) 1938 – Bob Boland, Australian rugby league player and coach 1941 – Iona Brown, English violinist and conductor (d. 2004) 1941 – John E. Walker, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1942 – Vasily Alekseyev, Russian-German weightlifter and coach (d. 2011) 1943 – Sadako Sasaki, Japanese survivor of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima,
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and diplomat (d. 1834) 1786 – Nicholas Biddle, American banker and financier (d. 1844) 1788 – Rudolf of Austria, Austrian archduke and archbishop (d. 1831) 1792 – Lowell Mason, American composer and educator (d. 1872) 1805 – John Bigler, American lawyer, politician, and diplomat, 3rd Governor of California (d. 1871) 1805 – Orson Hyde, American religious leader, 3rd President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (d. 1878) 1812 – Sigismond Thalberg, Swiss pianist and composer (d. 1871) 1817 – Theophilus Shepstone, English-South African politician (d. 1893) 1821 – James Longstreet, American general and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Turkey (d. 1904) 1823 – Alfred Russel Wallace, Welsh geographer, biologist, and explorer (d. 1913) 1824 – Wilkie Collins, English novelist, playwright, and short story writer (d. 1889) 1824 – Francisco González Bocanegra, Mexican poet and composer (d. 1861) 1830 – Hans von Bülow, German pianist and composer (d. 1894) 1836 – Lawrence Alma-Tadema, Dutch-English painter and academic (d. 1912) 1843 – Frederick Abberline, English police officer (d. 1929) 1852 – James Milton Carroll, American pastor and author (d. 1931) 1859 – Fanny Bullock Workman, American mountaineer, geographer, and cartographer (d. 1925) 1860 – Emma Booth-Tucker, English author (d. 1903) 1862 – Frank Nelson Doubleday, American publisher, founded the Doubleday Publishing Company (d. 1934) 1864 – Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale (d. 1892) 1865 – Winnaretta Singer, American philanthropist (d. 1943) 1866 – William G. Conley, American educator and politician, 18th Governor of West Virginia (d. 1940) 1867 – Emily Greene Balch, American economist and author, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1961) 1870 – Miguel Primo de Rivera, Spanish general and politician, Prime Minister of Spain (d. 1930) 1871 – James Craig, 1st Viscount Craigavon, Irish captain and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Northern Ireland (d. 1940) 1873 – Iuliu Maniu, Romanian lawyer and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of Romania (d. 1953) 1881 – Henrik Shipstead, American dentist and politician (d. 1960) 1881 – Linnie Marsh Wolfe, American librarian and author (d. 1945) 1883 – Pavel Filonov, Russian painter and poet (d. 1941) 1883 – Patrick J. Hurley, American general, politician, and diplomat, 51st United States Secretary of War (d. 1963) 1885 – John Curtin, Australian journalist and politician, 14th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1945) 1885 – Mór Kóczán, Hungarian javelin thrower and pastor (d. 1972) 1885 – A. J. Muste, Dutch-American pastor and activist (d. 1967) 1888 – Richard Courant, German-American mathematician and academic (d. 1972) 1891 – Walther Bothe, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957) 1891 – Storm Jameson, English journalist and author (d. 1986) 1891 – Bronislava Nijinska, Russian dancer and choreographer (d. 1972) 1896 – Jaromír Weinberger, Czech-American composer and academic (d. 1967) 1897 – Dennis Wheatley, English soldier and author (d. 1977) 1899 – S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Sri Lanka (d. 1959) 1900 – Dorothy Adams, American character actress (d. 1988) 1900 – Serge Poliakoff, Russian-French painter (d. 1969) 1901–present 1902 – Carl Rogers, American psychologist and academic (d. 1987) 1904 – Karl Brandt, German physician and SS officer (d. 1948) 1905 – Carl Gustav Hempel, German philosopher from the Vienna and the Berlin Circle (d. 1997) 1908 – Fearless Nadia, Australian-Indian actress and stuntwoman (d. 1996) 1908 – William Hartnell, English actor (d. 1975) 1909 – Ashapoorna Devi, Indian author and poet (d. 1995) 1909 – Bruce Mitchell, South African cricketer (d. 1995) 1909 – Evelyn Wood, American author and educator (d. 1995) 1910 – Galina Ulanova, Russian actress and ballerina (d. 1998) 1911 – Gypsy Rose Lee, American actress, dancer, and author (d. 1970) 1912 – José Ferrer, Puerto Rican-American actor and director (d. 1992) 1912 – Lawrence Walsh, Canadian-American lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th United States Deputy Attorney General (d. 2014) 1915 – Walker Cooper, American baseball player and manager (d. 1991) 1917 – Peter Matthew Hillsman Taylor, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (d. 1994) 1922 – Dale D. Myers, American engineer (d. 2015) 1923 – Larry Storch, American actor and comedian 1923 – Giorgio Tozzi, American opera singer and actor (d. 2011) 1923 – Johnny Wardle, English cricketer (d. 1985) 1923 – Joseph Weizenbaum, German-American computer scientist and author (d. 2008) 1924 – Benjamin Lees, Chinese-American soldier and composer (d. 2010) 1924 – Ron Moody, English actor and singer (d. 2015) 1925 – Mohan Rakesh, Indian author and playwright (d. 1972) 1926 – Evelyn Lear, American operatic soprano (d. 2012) 1926 – Kerwin Mathews, American actor (d. 2007) 1926 – Kelucharan Mohapatra, Indian dancer and choreographer (d. 2004) 1926 – Hanae Mori, Japanese fashion designer 1926 – Soupy Sales, American comedian and actor (d. 2009) 1927 – Charles Tomlinson, English poet and academic (d. 2015) 1928 – Slade Gorton, American colonel, lawyer, and politician, 14th Attorney General of Washington (d. 2020) 1929 – Saeed Jaffrey, Indian-British actor (d. 2015) 1931 – Bill Graham, German-American businessman (d. 1991) 1931 – Clarence Benjamin Jones, American lawyer and scholar 1933 – Charles Osgood, American soldier and journalist 1933 – Jean-Marie Straub, French director and screenwriter 1934 – Jacques Anquetil, French cyclist (d. 1987) 1934 – Roy Kinnear, British actor (d. 1988) 1935 – Elvis Presley, American singer, guitarist, and actor (d. 1977) 1936 – Robert May, Baron May of Oxford, Australian-English zoologist, ecologist, and academic (d. 2020) 1937 – Shirley Bassey, Welsh singer 1938 – Bob Eubanks, American game show host and producer 1939 – Carolina Herrera, Venezuelan-American fashion designer 1940 – Cristy Lane, American country and gospel singer 1941 – Graham Chapman, English actor and screenwriter (d. 1989) 1942 – Stephen Hawking, English physicist and author (d. 2018) 1942 – Junichirō Koizumi, Japanese politician, 56th Prime Minister of Japan 1942 – Yvette Mimieux, American actress (d. 2022) 1944 – Terry Brooks, American lawyer and author 1945 – Nancy Bond, American author and academic 1945 – Phil Beal, English footballer 1946 – Robby Krieger, American guitarist and songwriter 1946 – Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo, Mexican drug lord 1947 – David Bowie, English singer-songwriter, producer, and actor (d. 2016) 1947 – Antti Kalliomäki, Finnish pole vaulter and politician 1948 – Gillies MacKinnon, Scottish director and screenwriter 1949 – Lawrence Rowe, Jamaican cricketer 1951 – Kenny Anthony, Saint Lucian politician, 5th Prime Minister of Saint Lucia 1952 – Vladimir Feltsman, Russian-American pianist and educator 1952 – Peter McCullagh, Irish mathematician and academic 1955 – Mike Reno, Canadian singer and drummer 1957 – Nacho Duato, Spanish dancer and choreographer 1958 – Betsy DeVos, American businesswoman and politician, 11th Secretary of Education 1958 – Rey Misterio, Mexican wrestler, trainer, and actor 1959 – Paul Hester, Australian drummer (d. 2005) 1960 – Dave Weckl, American drummer 1961 – Calvin Smith, American sprinter 1964 – Ron Sexsmith, Canadian singer-songwriter 1966 – Willie Anderson, American basketball player 1966 – Igor Vyazmikin, Russian ice hockey player (d. 2009) 1966 – Andrew Wood, American singer-songwriter (d. 1990) 1967 – R. Kelly, American singer-songwriter, record producer, and former professional basketball player 1967 – Tom Watson, English politician 1971 – Jason Giambi, American baseball player 1971 – Pascal Zuberbühler, Swiss footballer and coach 1972 – Paul Clement, English footballer, coach, and manager 1973 – Mike Cameron, American baseball player 1977 – Amber Benson, American actress, writer, director, and producer 1978 – Marco Fu, Hong Kongese snooker player 1979 – Seol Ki-hyeon, South Korean footballer and manager 1979 – Adrian Mutu, Romanian footballer 1979 – Stipe Pletikosa, Croatian footballer 1981 – Jeff Francis, Canadian baseball player 1982 – Gaby Hoffmann, American actress 1982 – Kim Jong-un, North Korean soldier and politician, 3rd Supreme Leader of North Korea (probable) 1988 – Adrián López, Spanish footballer 1988 – Michael Mancienne, English footballer 1988 – Alex Tyus, American-Israeli basketball player 1989 – Aaron Cruden, New Zealand rugby player 1991 – Josh Hazlewood, Australian cricketer 1991 – Stefan Johansen, Norwegian footballer 1991 – Stefan Savić, Montenegrin footballer 1992 – Stefanie Dolson, American basketball player 1992 – Koke, Spanish footballer 1993 – Sophie Pascoe, New Zealand swimmer 1999 – Damiano David, Italian singer-songwriter 2000 – Noah Cyrus, American singer, songwriter, and actress Deaths Pre-1600 307 – Hui of Jin, Chinese emperor (b. 259) 482 – Severinus of Noricum, Italian apostle and saint 871 – Bagsecg, Viking warrior and leader 926 – Athelm, archbishop of Canterbury 1079 – Adèle of France, countess of Flanders (b. 1009) 1107 – Edgar, King of Scotland (b. 1074) 1198 – Celestine III, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1106) 1337 – Giotto, Italian painter and architect, designed Scrovegni Chapel and Giotto's Campanile (b. 1266) 1354 – Charles de la Cerda, French nobleman (b. 1327) 1424 – Stephen Zaccaria, archbishop of Patras 1456 – Lawrence Giustiniani, Italian bishop and saint (b. 1381) 1538 – Beatrice of Portugal, duchess of Savoy (b. 1504) 1557 – Albert Alcibiades, margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (b. 1522) 1570 – Philibert de l'Orme, French sculptor and architect, designed the Château d'Anet (b. 1510) 1598 – John George, Elector of Brandenburg (b. 1525) 1601–1900 1642 – Galileo Galilei, Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher (b. 1564) 1707 – John Dalrymple, 1st Earl of Stair, Scottish soldier and politician, Scottish Secretary of State (b. 1648) 1713 – Arcangelo Corelli, Italian violinist and composer (b. 1653) 1775 – John Baskerville, English printer and type designer (b. 1706) 1794 – Justus Möser, German lawyer and jurist (b. 1720) 1815
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and a copy of Hitler's Barbarossa plan. 1956 – Operation Auca: Five U.S. missionaries are killed by the Huaorani of Ecuador shortly after making first contact. 1959 – Charles de Gaulle is proclaimed as the first President of the French Fifth Republic. 1961 – In France a referendum supports Charles de Gaulle's policies in Algeria. 1964 – President Lyndon B. Johnson declares a "War on Poverty" in the United States. 1972 – Bowing to international pressure, President of Pakistan Zulfikar Ali Bhutto releases Bengali leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman from prison, who had been arrested after declaring the independence of Bangladesh. 1973 – Soviet space mission Luna 21 is launched. 1973 – Watergate scandal: The trial of seven men accused of illegal entry into Democratic Party headquarters at Watergate begins. 1975 – Ella T. Grasso becomes Governor of Connecticut, the first woman to serve as a Governor in the United States other than by succeeding her husband. 1977 – Three bombs explode in Moscow, Russia, Soviet Union, within 37 minutes, killing seven. The bombings are attributed to an Armenian separatist group. 1981 – A local farmer reports a UFO sighting in Trans-en-Provence, France, claimed to be "perhaps the most completely and carefully documented sighting of all time". 1982 – Breakup of the Bell System: In the United States, AT&T agrees to divest itself of twenty-two subdivisions. 1989 – Kegworth air disaster: British Midland Flight 92, a Boeing 737-400, crashes into the M1 motorway, killing 47 of the 126 people on board. 1994 – Russian cosmonaut Valeri Polyakov on Soyuz TM-18 leaves for Mir. He would stay on the space station until March 22, 1995, for a record 437 days in space. 1996 – An Antonov An-32 cargo aircraft crashes into a crowded market in Kinshasa, Zaire, killing up to 223 people on the ground; two of six crew members are also killed. 2002 – President of the United States George W. Bush signs into law the No Child Left Behind Act. 2003 – Turkish Airlines Flight 634 crashes near Diyarbakır Airport, Turkey, killing the entire crew and 70 of the 75 passengers. 2003 – Air Midwest Flight 5481 crashes at Charlotte-Douglas Airport, in Charlotte, North Carolina, killing all 21 people on board. 2004 – The , then the largest ocean liner ever built, is christened by her namesake's granddaughter, Queen Elizabeth II. 2005 – The nuclear sub collides at full speed with an undersea mountain south of Guam. One man is killed, but the sub surfaces and is repaired. 2009 – A 6.1-magnitude earthquake in northern Costa Rica kills 15 people and injures 32. 2010 – Gunmen from an offshoot of the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda attack a bus carrying the Togo national football team on its way to the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations, killing three people and injuring another nine. 2011 – Sitting US Congresswoman Gabby Giffords is shot in the head along with 18 others in a mass shooting in Tucson, Arizona. Giffords survived the assassination attempt, but six others died, including John Roll, a federal judge. 2016 – Joaquín Guzmán, widely regarded as the world's most powerful drug trafficker, is recaptured following his escape from a maximum security prison in Mexico. 2016 – West Air Sweden Flight 294 crashes near the Swedish reservoir of Akkajaure; both pilots, the only people on board, are killed. 2020 – Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 crashes immediately after takeoff at Tehran Imam Khomeini International Airport; all 176 on board are killed. The plane was shot down by an Iranian anti-aircraft missile. 2021 – Twenty-three people are killed in what is described as a police ″massacre″ in La Vega, Caracas, Venezuela. Births Pre-1600 1037 – Su Dongpo, Chinese calligrapher and poet (d. 1101) 1345 – Kadi Burhan al-Din, poet, kadi, and ruler of Sivas (d. 1398) 1529 – John Frederick II, duke of Saxony (d. 1595) 1583 – Simon Episcopius, Dutch theologian and academic (d. 1643) 1587 – Johannes Fabricius, German astronomer and academic (d. 1616) 1587 – Jan Pieterszoon Coen, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (d. 1629) 1589 – Ivan Gundulić, Croatian poet and playwright (d. 1638) 1601–1900 1601 (baptized) – Baltasar Gracián, Spanish priest and author (d. 1658) 1628 – François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg, French general (d. 1695) 1632 – Samuel von Pufendorf, German economist and jurist (d. 1694) 1635 – Luis Manuel Fernández de Portocarrero, Spanish cardinal (d. 1709) 1638 – Elisabetta Sirani, Italian painter (d. 1665) 1735 – John Carroll, American archbishop, founder of Georgetown University (d. 1815) 1763 – Edmond-Charles Genêt, French-American translator and diplomat (d. 1834) 1786 – Nicholas Biddle, American banker and financier (d. 1844) 1788 – Rudolf of Austria, Austrian archduke and archbishop (d. 1831) 1792 – Lowell Mason, American composer and educator (d. 1872) 1805 – John Bigler, American lawyer, politician, and diplomat, 3rd Governor of California (d. 1871) 1805 – Orson Hyde, American religious leader, 3rd President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (d. 1878) 1812 – Sigismond Thalberg, Swiss pianist and composer (d. 1871) 1817 – Theophilus Shepstone, English-South African politician (d. 1893) 1821 – James Longstreet, American general and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Turkey (d. 1904) 1823 – Alfred Russel Wallace, Welsh geographer, biologist, and explorer (d. 1913) 1824 – Wilkie Collins, English novelist, playwright, and short story writer (d. 1889) 1824 – Francisco González Bocanegra, Mexican poet and composer (d. 1861) 1830 – Hans von Bülow, German pianist and composer (d. 1894) 1836 – Lawrence Alma-Tadema, Dutch-English painter and academic (d. 1912) 1843 – Frederick Abberline, English police officer (d. 1929) 1852 – James Milton Carroll, American pastor and author (d. 1931) 1859 – Fanny Bullock Workman, American mountaineer, geographer, and cartographer (d. 1925) 1860 – Emma Booth-Tucker, English author (d. 1903) 1862 – Frank Nelson Doubleday, American publisher, founded the Doubleday Publishing Company (d. 1934) 1864 – Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale (d. 1892) 1865 – Winnaretta Singer, American philanthropist (d. 1943) 1866 – William G. Conley, American educator and politician, 18th Governor of West Virginia (d. 1940) 1867 – Emily Greene Balch, American economist and author, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1961) 1870 – Miguel Primo de Rivera, Spanish general and politician, Prime Minister of Spain (d. 1930) 1871 – James Craig, 1st Viscount Craigavon, Irish captain and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Northern Ireland (d. 1940) 1873 – Iuliu Maniu, Romanian lawyer and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of Romania (d. 1953) 1881 – Henrik Shipstead, American dentist and politician (d. 1960) 1881 – Linnie Marsh Wolfe, American librarian and author (d. 1945) 1883 – Pavel Filonov, Russian painter and poet (d. 1941) 1883 – Patrick J. Hurley, American general, politician, and diplomat, 51st United States Secretary of War (d. 1963) 1885 – John Curtin, Australian journalist and politician, 14th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1945) 1885 – Mór Kóczán, Hungarian javelin thrower and pastor (d. 1972) 1885 – A. J. Muste, Dutch-American pastor and activist (d. 1967) 1888 – Richard Courant, German-American mathematician and academic (d. 1972) 1891 – Walther Bothe, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957) 1891 – Storm Jameson, English journalist and author (d. 1986) 1891 – Bronislava Nijinska, Russian dancer and choreographer (d. 1972) 1896 – Jaromír Weinberger, Czech-American composer and academic (d. 1967) 1897 – Dennis Wheatley, English soldier and author (d. 1977) 1899 – S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Sri Lanka (d. 1959) 1900 – Dorothy Adams, American character actress (d. 1988) 1900 – Serge Poliakoff, Russian-French painter (d. 1969) 1901–present 1902 – Carl Rogers, American psychologist and academic (d. 1987) 1904 – Karl Brandt, German physician and SS officer (d. 1948) 1905 – Carl Gustav Hempel, German philosopher from the Vienna and the Berlin Circle (d. 1997) 1908 – Fearless Nadia, Australian-Indian actress and stuntwoman (d. 1996) 1908 – William Hartnell, English actor (d. 1975) 1909 – Ashapoorna Devi, Indian author and poet (d. 1995) 1909 – Bruce Mitchell, South African cricketer (d. 1995) 1909 – Evelyn Wood, American author and educator (d. 1995) 1910 – Galina Ulanova, Russian actress and ballerina (d. 1998) 1911 – Gypsy Rose Lee, American actress, dancer, and author (d. 1970) 1912 – José Ferrer, Puerto Rican-American actor and director (d. 1992) 1912 – Lawrence Walsh, Canadian-American lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th United States Deputy Attorney General (d. 2014) 1915 – Walker Cooper, American baseball player and manager (d. 1991) 1917 – Peter Matthew Hillsman Taylor, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (d. 1994) 1922 – Dale D. Myers, American engineer (d. 2015) 1923 – Larry Storch, American actor and comedian 1923 – Giorgio Tozzi, American opera singer and actor (d. 2011) 1923 – Johnny Wardle, English cricketer (d. 1985) 1923 – Joseph Weizenbaum, German-American computer scientist and author (d. 2008) 1924 – Benjamin Lees, Chinese-American soldier and composer (d. 2010) 1924 – Ron Moody, English actor and singer (d. 2015) 1925 – Mohan Rakesh, Indian author and playwright (d. 1972) 1926 – Evelyn Lear, American operatic soprano (d. 2012) 1926 – Kerwin Mathews, American actor (d. 2007) 1926 – Kelucharan Mohapatra, Indian dancer and choreographer (d. 2004) 1926 – Hanae Mori, Japanese fashion designer 1926 – Soupy Sales, American comedian and actor (d. 2009) 1927 – Charles Tomlinson, English poet and academic (d. 2015) 1928 – Slade Gorton, American colonel, lawyer, and politician, 14th Attorney General of Washington (d. 2020) 1929 – Saeed Jaffrey, Indian-British actor (d. 2015) 1931 – Bill Graham, German-American businessman (d. 1991) 1931 – Clarence Benjamin Jones, American lawyer and scholar 1933 – Charles Osgood, American soldier and journalist 1933 – Jean-Marie Straub, French director and screenwriter 1934 – Jacques Anquetil, French cyclist (d. 1987) 1934 – Roy Kinnear, British actor (d. 1988) 1935 – Elvis Presley, American singer, guitarist, and actor (d. 1977) 1936 – Robert May, Baron May of Oxford, Australian-English zoologist, ecologist, and academic (d. 2020) 1937 – Shirley Bassey, Welsh singer 1938 – Bob Eubanks, American game show host and producer 1939 – Carolina Herrera, Venezuelan-American fashion designer 1940 – Cristy Lane, American country and gospel singer 1941 – Graham Chapman, English actor and screenwriter (d. 1989) 1942 – Stephen Hawking, English physicist and author (d. 2018) 1942 – Junichirō Koizumi, Japanese politician, 56th Prime Minister of Japan 1942 – Yvette Mimieux, American actress (d. 2022) 1944 – Terry Brooks, American lawyer and author 1945 – Nancy Bond, American author and academic 1945 – Phil Beal, English footballer 1946 – Robby Krieger, American guitarist and songwriter 1946 – Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo, Mexican drug lord 1947 – David Bowie, English singer-songwriter, producer, and actor (d. 2016) 1947 – Antti Kalliomäki, Finnish pole vaulter and politician 1948 – Gillies MacKinnon, Scottish director and screenwriter
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ship, the SS Florida, off the Massachusetts coastline, an event that kills six people. The Republic sinks the next day. 1912 – The International Opium Convention is signed at The Hague. 1920 – The Netherlands refuses to surrender the exiled Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany to the Allies. 1937 – The trial of the anti-Soviet Trotskyist center sees seventeen mid-level Communists accused of sympathizing with Leon Trotsky and plotting to overthrow Joseph Stalin's regime. 1941 – Charles Lindbergh testifies before the U.S. Congress and recommends that the United States negotiate a neutrality pact with Adolf Hitler. 1942 – World War II: The Battle of Rabaul commences Japan's invasion of Australia's Territory of New Guinea. 1943 – World War II: Troops of the British Eighth Army capture Tripoli in Libya from the German–Italian Panzer Army. 1945 – World War II: German admiral Karl Dönitz launches Operation Hannibal. 1950 – The Knesset resolves that Jerusalem is the capital of Israel. 1957 – American inventor Walter Frederick Morrison sells the rights to his flying disc to the Wham-O toy company, which later renames it the "Frisbee". 1958 – After a general uprising and rioting in the streets, President Marcos Pérez Jiménez leaves Venezuela. 1960 – The bathyscaphe USS Trieste breaks a depth record by descending to in the Pacific Ocean. 1961 – The Portuguese luxury cruise ship Santa Maria is hijacked by opponents of the Estado Novo regime with the intention of waging war until dictator António de Oliveira Salazar is overthrown. 1963 – The Guinea-Bissau War of Independence officially begins when PAIGC guerrilla fighters attack the Portuguese Army stationed in Tite. 1964 – The 24th Amendment to the United States Constitution, prohibiting the use of poll taxes in national elections, is ratified. 1967 – Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and Ivory Coast are established. 1967 – Milton Keynes (England) is founded as a new town by Order in Council, with a planning brief to become a city of 250,000 people. Its initial designated area enclosed three existing towns and twenty-one villages. The area to be developed was largely farmland, with evidence of continuous settlement dating back to the Bronze Age. 1968 – USS Pueblo (AGER-2) is attacked and seized by the Korean People's Navy. 1985 – World Airways Flight 30H overshoots the runway at Logan International Airport in Boston, Massachusetts, and crashes into Boston Harbor. Two people are presumed dead. 1986 – The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inducts its first members: Little Richard, Chuck Berry, James Brown, Ray Charles, Sam Cooke, Fats Domino, The Everly Brothers, Buddy Holly, Jerry Lee Lewis and Elvis Presley. 1987 – Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan sends a "letter of death" to Somali President Siad Barre, proposing the genocide of the Isaaq people. 1997 – Madeleine Albright becomes the first woman to serve as United States Secretary of State. 1998 – Netscape announces Mozilla, with the intention to release Communicator code as open source. 2001 – Five people attempt to set themselves on fire in Beijing's Tiananmen Square, an act that many people later claim is staged by the Communist Party of China to frame Falun Gong and thus escalate their persecution. 2002 – U.S. journalist Daniel Pearl is kidnapped in Karachi, Pakistan and subsequently murdered. 2003 – A very weak signal from Pioneer 10 is detected for the last time, but no usable data can be extracted. 2018 – A 7.9 earthquake occurs in the Gulf of Alaska. It is tied as the sixth-largest earthquake ever recorded in the United States, but there are no reports of significant damage or fatalities. 2018 – A double car bombing in Benghazi, Libya, kills at least 33 people and wounds "dozens" of others. The victims include both military personnel and civilians, according to local officials. 2018 – The China–United States trade war begins when President Donald Trump places tariffs on Chinese solar panels and washing machines. 2020 – The World Health Organization declares the COVID-19 pandemic to be a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. Births Pre-1600 1350 – Vincent Ferrer, Spanish missionary and saint (d. 1419) 1378 – Louis III, Elector Palatine (d. 1436) 1514 – Hai Rui, Chinese politician (d. 1587) 1585 – Mary Ward, English Catholic Religious Sister (d. 1645) 1601–1900 1622 – Abraham Diepraam, Dutch painter (d. 1670) 1719 – John Landen, English mathematician and theorist (d. 1790) 1737 – John Hancock, American general and politician, first Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1793) 1745 – William Jessop, English engineer, built the Cromford Canal (d. 1814) 1752 – Muzio Clementi, Italian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1832) 1780 – Georgios Karaiskakis, Greek general (d. 1827) 1783 – Stendhal, French novelist (d. 1842) 1786 – Auguste de Montferrand, French-Russian architect, designed Saint Isaac's Cathedral and Alexander Column (d. 1858) 1799 – Alois Negrelli, Tyrolean engineer and railroad pioneer active in the Austrian Empire (d. 1858) 1809 – Surendra Sai, Indian activist (d. 1884) 1813 – Camilla Collett, Norwegian novelist and activist (d. 1895) 1828 – Saigō Takamori, Japanese samurai (d. 1877) 1832 – Édouard Manet, French painter (d. 1883) 1833 – Muthu Coomaraswamy, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (d. 1879) 1838 – Marianne Cope, German-American nun and saint (d. 1918) 1840 – Ernst Abbe, German physicist and engineer (d. 1905) 1846 – Nikolay Umov, Russian physicist and mathematician (d. 1915) 1855 – John Browning, American weapons designer, founded the Browning Arms Company (d. 1926) 1857 – Andrija Mohorovičić, Croatian meteorologist and seismologist (d. 1936) 1862 – David Hilbert, German mathematician and academic (d. 1943) 1862 – Frank Shuman, American inventor and engineer (d. 1918) 1872 – Paul Langevin, French physicist and academic (d. 1946) 1872 – Jože Plečnik, Slovenian architect, designed Plečnik Parliament (d. 1957) 1876 – Otto Diels, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1954) 1878 – Rutland Boughton, English composer (d. 1960) 1880 – Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama, Mexican politician (d. 1967) 1889 – Claribel Kendall, American mathematician (d.1965) 1894 – Jyotirmoyee Devi, Indian author (d. 1988) 1896 – Alf Blair, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 1944) 1896 – Alf Hall, English-South African cricketer (d. 1964) 1897 – Subhas Chandra Bose, Indian freedom fighter and politician (d. 1945) 1897 – Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky, Austrian architect (d. 2000) 1897 – Ieva Simonaitytė, Lithuanian author (d. 1978) 1897 – William Stephenson, Canadian captain and spy (d. 1989) 1898 – Georg Kulenkampff, German violinist (d. 1948) 1898 – Randolph Scott, American actor (d. 1987) 1898 – Freda Utley, English scholar and author (d. 1978) 1899 – Glen Kidston, English racing driver and pilot (d. 1931) 1900 – William Ifor Jones, Welsh organist and conductor (d. 1988) 1901–present 1901 – Arthur Wirtz, American businessman (d. 1983) 1903 – Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, Colombian lawyer and politician, 16th Minister of National Education of Colombia (d. 1948) 1905 – Erich Borchmeyer, German sprinter (d. 2000) 1907 – Dan Duryea, American actor and singer (d. 1968) 1907 – Hideki Yukawa, Japanese physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981) 1910 – Django Reinhardt, Belgian guitarist and composer (d. 1953) 1912 – Boris Pokrovsky, Russian director and manager (d. 2009) 1913 – Jean-Michel Atlan, Algerian-French painter (d. 1960) 1913 – Wally Parks, American businessman, founded the National Hot Rod Association (d. 2007) 1915 – Herma Bauma, Austrian javelin thrower and handball player (d. 2003) 1915 – W. Arthur Lewis, Saint Lucian-Barbadian economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991) 1915 – Potter Stewart, American lawyer and judge (d. 1985) 1916 – David Douglas Duncan, American photographer and journalist (d. 2018) 1916 – Airey Neave, English colonel, lawyer, and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Northern Ireland (d. 1979) 1918 – Gertrude B. Elion, American biochemist and pharmacologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999) 1918 – Florence Rush, American social worker and theorist (d. 2008) 1919 – Frances Bay, Canadian-American actress (d. 2011) 1919 – Hans Hass, Austrian biologist and diver (d. 2013) 1919 – Ernie Kovacs, American actor and game show host (d. 1962) 1919 – Bob Paisley, English footballer and manager (d. 1996) 1920 – Gottfried Böhm, German architect (d. 2021) 1920 – Henry Eriksson, Swedish runner (d. 2000) 1920 – Walter Frederick Morrison, American businessman, invented the Frisbee (d. 2010) 1922 – Leon Golub, American painter and academic (d. 2004) 1922 – Tom Lewis, Australian politician, 33rd Premier of New South Wales (d. 2016) 1923 – Horace Ashenfelter, American runner (d. 2018) 1923 – Cot Deal, American baseball player and coach (d. 2013) 1923 – Walter M. Miller, Jr., American soldier and author (d. 1996) 1924 – Frank Lautenberg, American soldier, businessman, and politician (d. 2013) 1925 – Marty Paich, American pianist, composer, producer, and conductor (d. 1995) 1926 – Bal Thackeray, Indian journalist, cartoonist, and politician (d. 2012) 1927 – Lars-Eric Lindblad, Swedish-American businessman and explorer (d. 1994) 1927 – Fred Williams, Australian painter (d. 1982) 1928 – Chico Carrasquel, Venezuelan baseball player and manager (d. 2005) 1928 – Jeanne Moreau, French actress (d. 2017) 1929 – Myron Cope, American journalist and sportscaster (d. 2008) 1929 – Phillip Knightley, Australian journalist, author, and critic (d. 2016) 1929 – John Polanyi, German-Canadian chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1930 – Filaret, Patriarch of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Kyivan 1930 – Mervyn Rose, Australian tennis player (d. 2017) 1930 – Derek Walcott, Saint Lucian poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2017) 1930 – Teresa Żylis-Gara, Polish operatic soprano 1932 – George Allen, English footballer (d. 2016) 1932 – Larri Thomas, American actress and dancer (d. 2013) 1933 – Bill Hayden, Australian politician, 21st Governor General of Australia 1933 – Chita Rivera, American actress, singer, and dancer 1934 – Pierre Bourgault, Canadian journalist and politician (d. 2003) 1935 – Mike Agostini, Trinidadian sprinter (d. 2016) 1935 – Tom Reamy, American author (d. 1977) 1936 – Jerry Kramer, American football player and sportscaster 1936 – Cécile Ousset, French pianist 1938 – Giant Baba, Japanese wrestler and promoter, founded All Japan Pro Wrestling (d. 1999) 1938 – Georg Baselitz, German painter and sculptor 1939 – Ed Roberts, American disability rights activist (d. 1995) 1940 – Alan Cheuse, American writer and critic (d. 2015) 1940 – Joe Dowell, American pop singer (d. 2016) 1941 – Jock R. Anderson, Australian economist and academic 1941 – João Ubaldo Ribeiro, Brazilian journalist, author, and academic (d. 2014) 1942 – Laurie Mayne, Australian cricketer 1942 –
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nothing for eleven years, François Rabelais publishes the Tiers Livre, his sequel to Gargantua and Pantagruel. 1556 – The deadliest earthquake in history, the Shaanxi earthquake, hits Shaanxi province, China. The death toll may have been as high as 830,000. 1570 – James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray, regent for the infant King James VI of Scotland, is assassinated by firearm, the first recorded instance of such. 1571 – The Royal Exchange opens in London. 1579 – The Union of Utrecht forms a Protestant republic in the Netherlands. 1601–1900 1656 – Blaise Pascal publishes the first of his Lettres provinciales. 1719 – The Principality of Liechtenstein is created within the Holy Roman Empire. 1789 – Georgetown College, the first Catholic university in the United States, is founded in Georgetown, Maryland (now a part of Washington, D.C.) when Bishop John Carroll, Rev. Robert Molyneux, and Rev. John Ashton purchase land for the proposed academy for the education of youth. 1793 – Second Partition of Poland. 1795 – After an extraordinary charge across the frozen Zuiderzee, the French cavalry captured 14 Dutch ships and 850 guns, in a rare occurrence of a battle between ships and cavalry. 1846 – Slavery in Tunisia is abolished. 1849 – Elizabeth Blackwell is awarded her M.D. by the Geneva Medical College of Geneva, New York, becoming the United States' first female doctor. 1870 – In Montana, U.S. cavalrymen kill 173 Native Americans, mostly women and children, in what becomes known as the Marias Massacre. 1879 – Anglo-Zulu War: The Battle of Rorke's Drift ends. 1899 – The Malolos Constitution is inaugurated, establishing the First Philippine Republic. Emilio Aguinaldo is sworn in as its first president. 1900 – Second Boer War: The Battle of Spion Kop between the forces of the South African Republic and the Orange Free State and British forces ends in a British defeat. 1901–present 1904 – Ålesund Fire: The Norwegian coastal town Ålesund is devastated by fire, leaving 10,000 people homeless and one person dead. Kaiser Wilhelm II funds the rebuilding of the town in Jugendstil style. 1909 – , a passenger ship of the White Star Line, becomes the first ship to use the CQD distress signal after colliding with another ship, the SS Florida, off the Massachusetts coastline, an event that kills six people. The Republic sinks the next day. 1912 – The International Opium Convention is signed at The Hague. 1920 – The Netherlands refuses to surrender the exiled Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany to the Allies. 1937 – The trial of the anti-Soviet Trotskyist center sees seventeen mid-level Communists accused of sympathizing with Leon Trotsky and plotting to overthrow Joseph Stalin's regime. 1941 – Charles Lindbergh testifies before the U.S. Congress and recommends that the United States negotiate a neutrality pact with Adolf Hitler. 1942 – World War II: The Battle of Rabaul commences Japan's invasion of Australia's Territory of New Guinea. 1943 – World War II: Troops of the British Eighth Army capture Tripoli in Libya from the German–Italian Panzer Army. 1945 – World War II: German admiral Karl Dönitz launches Operation Hannibal. 1950 – The Knesset resolves that Jerusalem is the capital of Israel. 1957 – American inventor Walter Frederick Morrison sells the rights to his flying disc to the Wham-O toy company, which later renames it the "Frisbee". 1958 – After a general uprising and rioting in the streets, President Marcos Pérez Jiménez leaves Venezuela. 1960 – The bathyscaphe USS Trieste breaks a depth record by descending to in the Pacific Ocean. 1961 – The Portuguese luxury cruise ship Santa Maria is hijacked by opponents of the Estado Novo regime with the intention of waging war until dictator António de Oliveira Salazar is overthrown. 1963 – The Guinea-Bissau War of Independence officially begins when PAIGC guerrilla fighters attack the Portuguese Army stationed in Tite. 1964 – The 24th Amendment to the United States Constitution, prohibiting the use of poll taxes in national elections, is ratified. 1967 – Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and Ivory Coast are established. 1967 – Milton Keynes (England) is founded as a new town by Order in Council, with a planning brief to become a city of 250,000 people. Its initial designated area enclosed three existing towns and twenty-one villages. The area to be developed was largely farmland, with evidence of continuous settlement dating back to the Bronze Age. 1968 – USS Pueblo (AGER-2) is attacked and seized by the Korean People's Navy. 1985 – World Airways Flight 30H overshoots the runway at Logan International Airport in Boston, Massachusetts, and crashes into Boston Harbor. Two people are presumed dead. 1986 – The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inducts its first members: Little Richard, Chuck Berry, James Brown, Ray Charles, Sam Cooke, Fats Domino, The Everly Brothers, Buddy Holly, Jerry Lee Lewis and Elvis Presley. 1987 – Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan sends a "letter of death" to Somali President Siad Barre, proposing the genocide of the Isaaq people. 1997 – Madeleine Albright becomes the first woman to serve as United States Secretary of State. 1998 – Netscape announces Mozilla, with the intention to release Communicator code as open source. 2001 – Five people attempt to set themselves on fire in Beijing's Tiananmen Square, an act that many people later claim is staged by the Communist Party of China to frame Falun Gong and thus escalate their persecution. 2002 – U.S. journalist Daniel Pearl is kidnapped in Karachi, Pakistan and subsequently murdered. 2003 – A very weak signal from Pioneer 10 is detected for the last time, but no usable data can be extracted. 2018 – A 7.9 earthquake occurs in the Gulf of Alaska. It is tied as the sixth-largest earthquake ever recorded in the United States, but there are no reports of significant damage or fatalities. 2018 – A double car bombing in Benghazi, Libya, kills at least 33 people and wounds "dozens" of others. The victims include both military personnel and civilians, according to local officials. 2018 – The China–United States trade war begins when President Donald Trump places tariffs on Chinese solar panels and washing machines. 2020 – The World Health Organization declares the COVID-19 pandemic to be a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. Births Pre-1600 1350 – Vincent Ferrer, Spanish missionary and saint (d. 1419) 1378 – Louis III, Elector Palatine (d. 1436) 1514 – Hai Rui, Chinese politician (d. 1587) 1585 – Mary Ward, English Catholic Religious Sister (d. 1645) 1601–1900 1622 – Abraham Diepraam, Dutch painter (d. 1670) 1719 – John Landen, English mathematician and theorist (d. 1790) 1737 – John Hancock, American general and politician, first Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1793) 1745 – William Jessop, English engineer, built the Cromford Canal (d. 1814) 1752 – Muzio Clementi, Italian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1832) 1780 – Georgios Karaiskakis, Greek general (d. 1827) 1783 – Stendhal, French novelist (d. 1842) 1786 – Auguste de Montferrand, French-Russian architect, designed Saint Isaac's Cathedral and Alexander Column (d. 1858) 1799 – Alois Negrelli, Tyrolean engineer and railroad pioneer active in the Austrian Empire (d. 1858) 1809 – Surendra Sai, Indian activist (d. 1884) 1813 – Camilla Collett, Norwegian novelist and activist (d. 1895) 1828 – Saigō Takamori, Japanese samurai (d. 1877) 1832 – Édouard Manet, French painter (d. 1883) 1833 – Muthu Coomaraswamy, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (d. 1879) 1838 – Marianne Cope, German-American nun and saint (d. 1918) 1840 – Ernst Abbe, German physicist and engineer (d. 1905) 1846 – Nikolay Umov, Russian physicist and mathematician (d. 1915) 1855 – John Browning, American weapons designer, founded the Browning Arms Company (d. 1926) 1857 – Andrija Mohorovičić, Croatian meteorologist and seismologist (d. 1936) 1862 – David Hilbert, German mathematician and academic (d. 1943) 1862 – Frank Shuman, American inventor and engineer (d. 1918) 1872 – Paul Langevin, French physicist and academic (d. 1946) 1872 – Jože Plečnik, Slovenian architect, designed Plečnik Parliament (d. 1957) 1876 – Otto Diels, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1954) 1878 – Rutland Boughton, English composer (d. 1960) 1880 – Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama, Mexican politician (d. 1967) 1889 – Claribel Kendall, American mathematician (d.1965) 1894 – Jyotirmoyee Devi, Indian author (d. 1988) 1896 – Alf Blair, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 1944) 1896 – Alf Hall, English-South African cricketer (d. 1964) 1897 – Subhas Chandra Bose, Indian freedom fighter and politician (d. 1945) 1897 – Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky, Austrian architect (d. 2000) 1897 – Ieva Simonaitytė, Lithuanian author (d. 1978) 1897 – William Stephenson, Canadian captain and spy (d. 1989) 1898 – Georg Kulenkampff, German violinist (d. 1948) 1898 – Randolph Scott, American actor (d. 1987) 1898 – Freda Utley, English scholar and author (d. 1978) 1899 – Glen Kidston, English racing driver and pilot (d. 1931) 1900 – William Ifor Jones, Welsh organist and conductor (d. 1988) 1901–present 1901 – Arthur Wirtz, American businessman (d. 1983) 1903 – Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, Colombian lawyer and politician, 16th Minister of National Education of Colombia (d. 1948) 1905 – Erich Borchmeyer, German sprinter (d. 2000) 1907 – Dan Duryea, American actor and singer (d. 1968) 1907 – Hideki Yukawa, Japanese physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981) 1910 – Django Reinhardt, Belgian guitarist and composer (d. 1953) 1912 – Boris Pokrovsky, Russian director and manager (d. 2009) 1913 – Jean-Michel Atlan, Algerian-French painter (d. 1960) 1913 – Wally Parks, American businessman, founded the National Hot Rod Association (d. 2007) 1915 – Herma Bauma, Austrian javelin thrower and handball player (d. 2003) 1915 – W. Arthur Lewis, Saint Lucian-Barbadian economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991) 1915 – Potter Stewart, American lawyer and judge (d. 1985) 1916 – David Douglas Duncan, American photographer and journalist (d. 2018) 1916 – Airey Neave, English colonel, lawyer, and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Northern Ireland (d. 1979) 1918 – Gertrude B. Elion, American biochemist and pharmacologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999) 1918 – Florence Rush, American social worker and theorist (d. 2008) 1919 – Frances Bay, Canadian-American actress (d. 2011) 1919 – Hans Hass, Austrian biologist and diver (d. 2013) 1919 – Ernie Kovacs, American actor and game show host (d. 1962) 1919 – Bob Paisley, English footballer and manager (d. 1996) 1920 – Gottfried Böhm, German architect (d. 2021) 1920 – Henry Eriksson, Swedish runner (d. 2000) 1920 – Walter Frederick Morrison, American businessman, invented the Frisbee (d. 2010) 1922 – Leon Golub, American painter and academic (d. 2004) 1922 – Tom Lewis, Australian politician, 33rd Premier of New South Wales (d. 2016) 1923 – Horace Ashenfelter, American runner (d. 2018) 1923 – Cot Deal, American baseball player and coach (d. 2013) 1923 – Walter M. Miller, Jr., American soldier and author (d. 1996) 1924 – Frank Lautenberg, American soldier, businessman, and politician (d. 2013) 1925 – Marty Paich, American pianist, composer, producer, and conductor (d. 1995) 1926 – Bal Thackeray, Indian journalist, cartoonist, and politician (d. 2012) 1927 – Lars-Eric Lindblad, Swedish-American businessman and explorer (d. 1994) 1927 – Fred Williams, Australian painter (d. 1982) 1928 – Chico Carrasquel, Venezuelan baseball player and manager (d. 2005) 1928 – Jeanne Moreau, French actress (d. 2017) 1929 – Myron Cope, American journalist and sportscaster (d. 2008) 1929 – Phillip Knightley, Australian journalist, author, and critic (d. 2016) 1929 – John Polanyi, German-Canadian chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1930 – Filaret, Patriarch of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Kyivan 1930 – Mervyn Rose, Australian tennis player (d. 2017) 1930 – Derek Walcott, Saint Lucian poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2017) 1930 – Teresa Żylis-Gara, Polish operatic soprano 1932 – George Allen, English footballer (d. 2016) 1932 – Larri Thomas, American actress and dancer (d. 2013) 1933 – Bill Hayden, Australian politician, 21st Governor General of Australia 1933 – Chita Rivera, American actress, singer, and
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1972, Carter requested the state legislature to provide funding for an early childhood development program along with prison reform programs and $48 million () in paid taxes for nearly all state employees. On March 1, 1972, Carter stated a possible usage of a special session of the general assembly could take place if Justice Department opted to turn down any reapportionment plans by either the House or Senate. Carter pushed several reforms through the legislature—these provided equal state aid to schools in the wealthy and poor areas of Georgia, set up community centers for mentally handicapped children, and increased educational programs for convicts. Under this program, all such appointments were based on merit, rather than political influence. In one of his more controversial decisions, he vetoed a plan to build a dam on Georgia's Flint River, which attracted the attention of environmentalists nationwide. Civil rights were a high priority for Carter, the most significant of his actions being the expansion of black state employees and the addition of portraits of Martin Luther King Jr. and two other prominent black Georgians in the capitol building—an act protested by the Ku Klux Klan. Carter also tried to keep his conservative allies on his side, however; Carter stated that he favored a constitutional amendment to ban busing for the purpose of expediting integration in schools on a televised joint appearance with the governor of Florida Reubin Askew on January 31, 1973, and co-sponsored an anti-busing resolution with George Wallace at the 1971 National Governors Conference. After the U.S. Supreme Court threw out Georgia's death penalty statute in Furman v. Georgia (1972), Carter signed a revised death-penalty statute that addressed the court's objections, thus re-introducing the practice in the state. Carter later regretted endorsing the death penalty, saying, "I didn't see the injustice of it as I do now." National ambition Because he was ineligible to run for re-election, Carter looked toward a potential presidential run and engaged himself in national politics. He was named to several southern planning commissions and was a delegate to the 1972 Democratic National Convention, where the liberal U.S. Senator George McGovern was the likely presidential nominee. Carter tried to ingratiate himself with the conservative and anti-McGovern voters. However, Carter was still fairly obscure at the time, and his attempt at triangulation failed; the 1972 Democratic ticket was McGovern and Senator Thomas Eagleton. On August 3, Carter met with Wallace in Birmingham, Alabama to discuss preventing the Democratic Party from losing in a landslide during the November elections. After McGovern's loss in November 1972, Carter began meeting regularly with his fledgling campaign staff. He had decided to begin putting a presidential bid for 1976 together. He tried unsuccessfully to become chairman of the National Governors Association to boost his visibility. On David Rockefeller's endorsement, he was named to the Trilateral Commission in April 1973. The following year, he was named chairman of both the Democratic National Committee's congressional and gubernatorial campaigns. In May 1973, Carter warned the Democratic Party against politicizing the Watergate scandal, the occurrence of which he attributed to President Richard Nixon exercising isolation from Americans and secrecy in his decision making. 1976 presidential campaign Carter announced his candidacy for president on December 12, 1974, at the National Press Club in Washington, D.C. His speech contained themes of domestic inequality, optimism, and change. Upon his entrance in the primaries, he was competing against 16 other candidates, and was considered to have little chance against the more nationally-known politicians like George Wallace. His name recognition was two percent, and his opponents derisively asked "Jimmy Who?". In response to this, Carter began to emphasize his name and what he stood for, stating "My name is Jimmy Carter, and I'm running for president." This strategy proved successful; by mid-March 1976, Carter was not only far ahead of the active contenders for the Democratic presidential nomination, but against incumbent President Gerald Ford by a few percentage points. As the Watergate scandal of President Nixon was still fresh in the voters' minds, Carter's position as an outsider, distant from Washington, D.C. proved helpful. He promoted government reorganization. Carter published a memoir titled Why Not the Best? in June 1976 to help introduce himself to the American public. Carter became the front-runner early on by winning the Iowa caucuses and the New Hampshire primary. His strategy involved reaching a region before another candidate could extend influence there, travelling over , visiting 37 states, and delivering over 200 speeches before any other candidate had entered the race. In the South, he tacitly conceded certain areas to Wallace and swept them as a moderate when it became clear Wallace could not win it. In the North, Carter appealed largely to conservative Christian and rural voters. Whilst he did not achieve a majority in most Northern states, he won several by building the largest singular support base. Although Carter was initially dismissed as a regional candidate, he still clinched the Democratic nomination. As Lawrence Shoup noted in his 1980 book The Carter Presidency and Beyond, the national news media discovered and promoted Carter. Shoup stated that:"What Carter had that his opponents did not was the acceptance and support of elite sectors of the mass communications media. It was their favorable coverage of Carter and his campaign that gave him an edge, propelling him rocket-like to the top of the opinion polls. This helped Carter win key primary election victories, enabling him to rise from an obscure public figure to President-elect in the short space of 9 months." During an interview in April 1976, Carter said, "I have nothing against a community that is... trying to maintain the ethnic purity of their neighborhoods." His remark was intended as supportive of open-housing laws, but specifying opposition to government efforts to "inject black families into a white neighborhood just to create some sort of integration." Carter's stated positions during his campaign included public financing of congressional campaigns, his support for the creation of a federal consumer protection agency, creating a separate cabinet-level department for education, signing a peace treaty with the Soviet Union to limit nuclear weapons, reducing the defense budget, a tax proposal implementing "a substantial increase toward those who have the higher incomes" alongside a levy reduction on taxpayers with lower and middle incomes, making multiple amendments to the Social Security Act, and having a balanced budget by the end of his first term of office. On July 15, 1976, Carter chose U.S. Senator for Minnesota Walter F. Mondale as his running mate. Carter and Ford faced off in three televised debates. The debates were the first presidential debates since 1960. Carter was interviewed by Robert Scheer of Playboy for the November 1976 issue, which hit the newsstands a couple of weeks before the election. While discussing his religion's view of pride, Carter said: "I've looked on a lot of women with lust. I've committed adultery in my heart many times." This and his admission in another interview that he did not mind if people uttered the word "fuck" led to a media feeding frenzy and critics lamenting the erosion of boundary between politicians and their private intimate lives. Carter began the race with a sizable lead over Ford, who narrowed the gap during the campaign, but lost to Carter in a narrow defeat on November 2, 1976. Carter won the popular vote by 50.1 percent to 48.0 percent for Ford, and received 297 electoral votes to Ford's 240. Carter carried fewer states than Ford—23 states to the defeated Ford's 27—yet Carter won with the largest percentage of the popular vote (50.1 percent) of any non-incumbent since Dwight Eisenhower. Transition Preliminary planning for Carter's presidential transition had already been underway for months before his election. Carter had been the first presidential candidate to allot significant funds and a significant number of personnel to a pre-election transition planning effort, which subsequently would become standard practice. Carter would set a mold with his presidential transition that would influence all subsequent presidential transitions, taking a methodical approach to his transition, and having a larger and more formal operation than past presidential transitions had. On November 22, 1976, Carter conducted his first visit to Washington, D.C. after being elected, meeting with Director of the Office of Management James Lynn and United States Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld at the Blair House, and holding an afternoon meeting with President Ford at the White House. The following day, Carter conferred with congressional leaders, expressing that his meetings with cabinet members had been "very helpful" and saying Ford had requested he seek out his assistance if needing anything. Relations between Ford and Carter, however, would be relatively cold during the transition. During his transition, Carter announced the selection of numerous designees for positions in his administration. On January 4, 1977, Carter told reporters that he would free himself from potential conflicts of interest by leaving his peanut business in the hands of trustees. Presidency (1977–1981) Carter was inaugurated as the 39th president on January 20, 1977. One of Carter's first acts was the fulfillment of a campaign promise by issuing an executive order declaring unconditional amnesty for Vietnam War-era draft evaders, Proclamation 4483. Carter's tenure in office was marked by an economic malaise, being a time of continuing inflation and recession as well as an energy crisis in 1979. On January 7, 1980, Carter signed Law H.R. 5860 aka Public Law 96-185, known as The Chrysler Corporation Loan Guarantee Act of 1979, to bail out the Chrysler Corporation with $3.5 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ) in aid. Carter attempted to calm various conflicts around the world, most visibly in the Middle East with the signing of the Camp David Accords; giving back the Panama Canal to Panama; and signing the SALT II nuclear arms reduction treaty with Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev. His final year was marred by the Iran hostage crisis, which contributed to his losing the 1980 election to Ronald Reagan. Domestic policy U.S. energy crisis On April 18, 1977, Carter delivered a televised speech declaring that the U.S. energy crisis during the 1970s was the "moral equivalent of war". He encouraged energy conservation by all U.S. citizens and installed solar water heating panels on the White House. He wore sweaters to offset turning down the heat in the White House. On August 4, 1977, Carter signed the Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, forming the Department of Energy, the first new cabinet position in eleven years. During the signing ceremony, Carter cited the "impending crisis of energy shortages" with causing the necessity of the legislation. At the start of news conference on September 29, 1977, under the impression he had not come across well in addressing energy during his prior press session, Carter stated that the House of Representatives had "adopted almost all" of the energy proposal he had made five months prior and called the compromise "a turning point in establishing a comprehensive energy program." The following month, on October 13, Carter stated he believed in the Senate's ability to pass the energy reform bill and identified energy as "the most important domestic issue that we will face while I am in office." On January 12, 1978, during a press conference, Carter said the continued discussions about his energy reform proposal had been "long and divisive and arduous" as well as hindering to national issues that needed to be addressed with the implementation of the law. In an April 11, 1978, news conference, Carter said his biggest surprise "in the nature of a disappointment" since becoming president was the difficulty Congress had in passing legislation, citing the energy reform bill in particular: "I never dreamed a year ago in April when I proposed this matter to the Congress that a year later it still would not be resolved." The Carter energy legislation was approved by Congress after much deliberation and modification on October 15, 1978. The measure deregulated the sale of natural gas, dropped a longstanding pricing disparity between intra- and interstate gas, and created tax credits to encourage energy conservation and the use of non fossil fuels. On March 1, 1979, Carter submitted a standby gasoline rationing plan per the request of Congress. On April 5, he delivered an address in which he stressed the urgency of energy conservation. During an April 30 news conference, Carter said it was "imperative" that the House commerce committee approve the standby gasoline rationing plan and called on Congress to pass the several other standby energy conservation plans he had proposed. On July 15, 1979, Carter delivered a nationally televised address in which he identified what he believed to be a "crisis of confidence" among the American people, under the advisement of pollster Pat Caddell who believed Americans faced a crisis in confidence from events of the 1960s and 1970s prior to Carter's taking office. The address would be cited as Carter's "malaise" speech, memorable for mixed reactions and his use of rhetoric. The speech's negative reception came from a view that Carter did not state efforts on his own part to address the energy crisis and was too reliant on Americans. EPA Love Canal Superfund In 1978, Carter declared a federal emergency in the neighborhood of Love Canal in the city of Niagara Falls, New York. More than 800 families were evacuated from the neighborhood, which had been built on top of a toxic waste landfill. The Superfund law was created in response to the situation. Federal disaster money was appropriated to demolish the approximately 500 houses, the 99th Street School, and the 93rd Street School, which had been built on top of the dump; and to remediate the dump and construct a containment area for the hazardous wastes. This was the first time that such a process had been undertaken. Carter acknowledged that several more "Love Canals" existed across the country, and that discovering such hazardous dumpsites was "one of the grimmest discoveries of our modern era". Relations with Congress Carter typically refused to conform to Washington's rules. He missed and never returned phone calls on his part. He used verbal insults and had an unwillingness to return political favors, which contributed to his lack of ability to pass legislation through Congress. During a press conference on February 23, 1977, Carter stated that it was "inevitable" that he would come into conflict with Congress and added that he had found "a growing sense of cooperation" with Congress and met in the past with congressional members of both parties. Carter developed a bitter feeling following an unsuccessful attempt at having Congress enact the scrapping of several water projects, which he had requested during his first 100 days in office and received opposition from members of his party. As a rift ensued between the White House and Congress afterward, Carter noted that the liberal wing of the Democratic Party was most ardently against his policies, attributing this to Ted Kennedy's wanting the presidency. Carter, thinking he had support from 74 Congressmen, issued a "hit list" of 19 projects that he claimed were "pork barrel" spending that he claimed would result in a veto on his part if included in any legislation. He found himself at odds with Congressional Democrats once more, with speaker of the House of Representatives Tip O'Neill finding it inappropriate for a president to pursue what had traditionally been the role of Congress. Carter was also weakened by signing a bill that contained many of the "hit list" projects he intended to cancel. In an address to a fundraising dinner for the Democratic National Committee on June 23, 1977, Carter said, "I think it's good to point out tonight, too, that we have evolved a good working relationship with the Congress. For eight years we had government by partisanship. Now we have government by partnership." At a July 28 news conference, assessing the first six months of his presidency, Carter spoke of his improved understanding of Congress: "I have learned to respect the Congress more in an individual basis. I've been favorably impressed at the high degree of concentrated experience and knowledge that individual members of Congress can bring on a specific subject, where they've been the chairman of a subcommittee or committee for many years and have focused their attention on this particular aspect of government life which I will never be able to do." On May 10, 1979, the House voted against giving Carter authority to produce a standby gas rationing plan. The following day, Carter delivered remarks in the Oval Office describing himself as shocked and embarrassed for the American government by the vote and concluding "the majority of the House Members are unwilling to take the responsibility, the political responsibility for dealing with a potential, serious threat to our Nation." He furthered that a majority of House members were placing higher importance on "local or parochial interests" and challenged the lower chamber of Congress with composing their own rationing plan in the next 90 days. Carter's remarks were met with criticism by House Republicans, who accused his comments of not befitting the formality a president should have in their public remarks. Others pointed to 106 Democrats voting against his proposal and the bipartisan criticism potentially coming back to haunt him. At the start of a news conference on July 25, 1979, Carter called on believers in the future of the U.S. and his proposed energy program to speak with Congress as it bore the responsibility to impose his proposals. Amid the energy proposal opposition, The New York Times commented that "as the comments flying up and down Pennsylvania Avenue illustrate, there is also a crisis of confidence between Congress and the President, sense of doubt and distrust that threatens to undermine the President's legislative program and become an important issue in next year's campaign." Economy Carter's presidency had an economic history of two roughly equal periods, the first two years being a time of continuing recovery from the severe 1973–75 recession, which had left fixed investment at its lowest level since the 1970 recession and unemployment at 9%, and the last two years marked by double-digit inflation, coupled with very high interest rates, oil shortages, and slow economic growth. Thanks to the $30 billion economic stimulus legislation – like the Public Works Employment Act of 1977 – proposed by Carter and passed by Congress, real household median had grown by 5.2% with a projection of 6.4% for the next quarter. The 1979 energy crisis ended this period of growth, however, and as both inflation and interest rates rose, economic growth, job creation, and consumer confidence declined sharply. The relatively loose monetary policy adopted by Federal Reserve Board chairman G. William Miller, had already contributed to somewhat higher inflation, rising from 5.8% in 1976 to 7.7% in 1978. The sudden doubling of crude oil prices by OPEC, the world's leading oil exporting cartel, forced inflation to double-digit levels, averaging 11.3% in 1979 and 13.5% in 1980. The sudden shortage of gasoline as the 1979 summer vacation season began exacerbated the problem, and would come to symbolize the crisis among the public in general; the acute shortage, originating in the shutdown of Amerada Hess refining facilities, led to a lawsuit against the company that year by the Federal Government. Deregulation In 1977, Carter appointed Alfred E. Kahn to lead the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB). He was part of a push for deregulation of the industry, supported by leading economists, leading think tanks in Washington, a civil society coalition advocating the reform (patterned on a coalition earlier developed for the truck-and-rail-reform efforts), the head of the regulatory agency, Senate leadership, the Carter administration, and even some in the airline industry. This coalition swiftly gained legislative results in 1978. Carter signed the Airline Deregulation Act into law on October 24, 1978. The main purpose of the act was to remove government control over fares, routes and market entry (of new airlines) from commercial aviation. The Civil Aeronautics Board's powers of regulation were to be phased out, eventually allowing market forces to determine routes and fares. The Act did not remove or diminish the FAA's regulatory powers over all aspects of airline safety. In 1979, Carter deregulated the American beer industry by making it legal to sell malt, hops, and yeast to American home brewers for the first time since the effective 1920 beginning of prohibition in the United States. This deregulation led to an increase in home brewing over the 1980s and 1990s that by the 2000s had developed into a strong craft microbrew culture in the United States, with 6,266 micro breweries, brewpubs, and regional craft breweries in the United States by the end of 2017. Healthcare During his presidential campaign, Carter embraced healthcare reform akin to the Ted Kennedy-sponsored bipartisan universal national health insurance. Carter's proposals on healthcare while in office included an April 1977 mandatory health care cost proposal, and a June 1979 proposal that provided private health insurance coverage. Carter saw the June 1979 proposal as a continuation of progress in American health coverage made by President Harry S. Truman in the latter's proposed access to quality health care being a basic right to Americans and medicare and medicaid being introduced under President Lyndon B. Johnson. The April 1977 mandatory health care cost proposal was passed in the Senate, but later defeated in the House. During 1978, Carter also conducted meetings with Kennedy for a compromise healthcare law that proved unsuccessful. Carter would later cite Kennedy's disagreements as having thwarted Carter's efforts to provide a comprehensive health-care system for the country. Education Early into his term, Carter collaborated with the congress to assist in fulfilling a campaign promise to create a cabinet level education department. In an address from the White House on February 28, 1978, Carter argued "Education is far too important a matter to be scattered piecemeal among various government departments and agencies, which are often busy with sometimes dominant concerns." On February 8, 1979, the Carter administration released an outline of its plan to establish an education department and asserted enough support for the enactment to occur by June. On October 17, the same year, Carter signed the Department of Education Organization Act into law, establishing the United States Department of Education. Carter expanded the Head Start program with the addition of 43,000 children and families, while the percentage of nondefense dollars spent on education was doubled. Carter was complimentary of the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson and the 89th United States Congress for having initiated Head Start. In a speech on November 1, 1980, Carter stated his administration had extended Head Start to migrant children and was "working hard right now with Senator Bentsen and with Kika de la Garza to make as much as $45 million available in federal money in the border districts to help with the increase in school construction for the number of Mexican school children who reside here legally". Foreign policy Israel and Egypt From the onset of his presidency, Carter attempted to mediate the Arab-Israeli conflict. After a failed attempt to seek a comprehensive settlement between the two nations in 1977 (through reconvening the 1973 Geneva conference, Carter invited the Egyptian president Anwar Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachim Begin to the presidential lodge Camp David in September 1978, in hopes of creating a definitive peace. Whilst the two sides could not agree on Israeli withdrawal from the West Bank, the negotiations resulted in Egypt formally recognizing Israel, and the creation of an elected government in the West Bank and Gaza. This resulted in the Camp David Accords, which ended the war between Israel and Egypt. The accords were a source of great domestic opposition in both Egypt and Israel. Historian Jørgen Jensehaugen argues that by the time Carter left office in January 1981, he was "...in an odd position — he had attempted to break with traditional US policy but ended up fulfilling the goals of that tradition, which had been to break up the Arab alliance, side-line the Palestinians, build an alliance with Egypt, weaken the Soviet Union and secure Israel." Africa In an address to the African officials at the United Nations on October 4, 1977, Carter stated the U.S.'s interest to "see a strong, vigorous, free, and prosperous Africa with as much of the control of government as possible in the hands of the residents of your countries" and pointed to their unified efforts on "the problem of how to resolve the Rhodesian, Zimbabwe question." At a news conference later that month, Carter outlined that the U.S. wanted to "work harmoniously with South Africa in dealing with the threats to peace in Namibia and in Zimbabwe in particular", as well as do away with racial issues such as apartheid, and for equal opportunities in other facets of society in the region. Carter visited Nigeria from March 31 – April 3, 1978, the trip being an attempt by the Carter administration to improve relations with the country. He was the first U.S. president to visit Nigeria. Carter reiterated interests in convening a peace conference on the subject of Rhodesia that would involve all parties and reported that the U.S. was moving as it could. The elections of Margaret Thatcher as prime minister of the United Kingdom and Abel Muzorewa for prime minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, South Africa turning down a plan for South West Africa's independence and domestic opposition in Congress were seen as a heavy blow to the Carter administration's policy toward South Africa. On May 16, 1979, the Senate voted in favor of President Carter lifting economic sanctions against Rhodesia, the vote being seen by both Rhodesia and South Africa as a potentially fatal blow to both the joint diplomacy that the United States and Britain had pursued in the region for three years and the effort to reach a compromise between the Salisbury leaders and the guerrillas. On December 3, Secretary of State Vance promised Senator Jesse Helms that when the British governor arrived in Salisbury to implement an agreed Lancaster House settlement and the electoral process began, the President would take prompt action to lift sanctions against Zimbabwe Rhodesia. East Asia Carter sought closer relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC), continuing the Nixon administration's drastic policy of rapprochement. The two countries increasingly collaborated against the Soviet Union, and the Carter administration tacitly consented to the Chinese invasion of Vietnam. In 1979, Carter extended formal diplomatic recognition to the PRC for the first time. This decision led to a boom in trade between the United States and the PRC, which was pursuing economic reforms under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping. After the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, Carter allowed the sale of military supplies to China and began negotiations to share military intelligence. In January 1980, Carter unilaterally revoked the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty with the Republic of China (ROC), which had lost control of mainland China to the PRC in 1949, but retained control the island of Taiwan. Carter's abrogation of the treaty was challenged in court by conservative Republicans, but the Supreme Court ruled that the issue was a non-justiciable political question in Goldwater v. Carter. The U.S. continued to maintain diplomatic contacts with the ROC through the 1979 Taiwan Relations Act. During Carter's presidency, the U.S. continued to support Indonesia as a cold war ally, in spite of human rights violations in East Timor. The violations followed Indonesia's December 1975 invasion and occupation of East Timor. It did so even though antithetical to Carter's stated policy "of not selling weapons if it would exacerbate a potential conflict in a region of the world." During a news conference on March 9, 1977, Carter reaffirmed his interest in having a gradual withdrawal of American troops from South Korea and stated that he wanted South Korea to eventually have "adequate ground forces owned by and controlled by the South Korean government to protect themselves against any intrusion from North Korea." On May 19, The Washington Post quoted Chief of Staff of U.S. forces in South Korea John K. Singlaub as criticizing Carter's withdrawal of troops from the Korean peninsula. Later that day, Press Secretary Rex Granum announced Singlaub had been summoned to the White House by Carter, whom he also confirmed had seen the article in The Washington Post. Carter relieved Singlaub of his duties two days later on May 21 following a meeting between the two. During a news conference on May 26, Carter said he believed that South Korea would be able to defend themselves despite reduced American troops in case of conflict. From June 30 to July 1, 1979, Carter held meetings with president of South Korea Park Chung-hee at the Blue House for a discussion on relations between the U.S. and Korea as well as Carter's interest in preserving his policy of worldwide tension reduction. On April 21, 1978, Carter announced a reduction in American troops in South Korea scheduled to be released by the end of the year by two-thirds, citing a lack of action by Congress in regards to a compensatory aid package for the Seoul Government. Iran On November 15, 1977, Carter pledged that his administration would continue positive relations between the U.S. and Iran, calling its contemporary
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Nations on October 4, 1977, Carter stated the U.S.'s interest to "see a strong, vigorous, free, and prosperous Africa with as much of the control of government as possible in the hands of the residents of your countries" and pointed to their unified efforts on "the problem of how to resolve the Rhodesian, Zimbabwe question." At a news conference later that month, Carter outlined that the U.S. wanted to "work harmoniously with South Africa in dealing with the threats to peace in Namibia and in Zimbabwe in particular", as well as do away with racial issues such as apartheid, and for equal opportunities in other facets of society in the region. Carter visited Nigeria from March 31 – April 3, 1978, the trip being an attempt by the Carter administration to improve relations with the country. He was the first U.S. president to visit Nigeria. Carter reiterated interests in convening a peace conference on the subject of Rhodesia that would involve all parties and reported that the U.S. was moving as it could. The elections of Margaret Thatcher as prime minister of the United Kingdom and Abel Muzorewa for prime minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, South Africa turning down a plan for South West Africa's independence and domestic opposition in Congress were seen as a heavy blow to the Carter administration's policy toward South Africa. On May 16, 1979, the Senate voted in favor of President Carter lifting economic sanctions against Rhodesia, the vote being seen by both Rhodesia and South Africa as a potentially fatal blow to both the joint diplomacy that the United States and Britain had pursued in the region for three years and the effort to reach a compromise between the Salisbury leaders and the guerrillas. On December 3, Secretary of State Vance promised Senator Jesse Helms that when the British governor arrived in Salisbury to implement an agreed Lancaster House settlement and the electoral process began, the President would take prompt action to lift sanctions against Zimbabwe Rhodesia. East Asia Carter sought closer relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC), continuing the Nixon administration's drastic policy of rapprochement. The two countries increasingly collaborated against the Soviet Union, and the Carter administration tacitly consented to the Chinese invasion of Vietnam. In 1979, Carter extended formal diplomatic recognition to the PRC for the first time. This decision led to a boom in trade between the United States and the PRC, which was pursuing economic reforms under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping. After the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, Carter allowed the sale of military supplies to China and began negotiations to share military intelligence. In January 1980, Carter unilaterally revoked the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty with the Republic of China (ROC), which had lost control of mainland China to the PRC in 1949, but retained control the island of Taiwan. Carter's abrogation of the treaty was challenged in court by conservative Republicans, but the Supreme Court ruled that the issue was a non-justiciable political question in Goldwater v. Carter. The U.S. continued to maintain diplomatic contacts with the ROC through the 1979 Taiwan Relations Act. During Carter's presidency, the U.S. continued to support Indonesia as a cold war ally, in spite of human rights violations in East Timor. The violations followed Indonesia's December 1975 invasion and occupation of East Timor. It did so even though antithetical to Carter's stated policy "of not selling weapons if it would exacerbate a potential conflict in a region of the world." During a news conference on March 9, 1977, Carter reaffirmed his interest in having a gradual withdrawal of American troops from South Korea and stated that he wanted South Korea to eventually have "adequate ground forces owned by and controlled by the South Korean government to protect themselves against any intrusion from North Korea." On May 19, The Washington Post quoted Chief of Staff of U.S. forces in South Korea John K. Singlaub as criticizing Carter's withdrawal of troops from the Korean peninsula. Later that day, Press Secretary Rex Granum announced Singlaub had been summoned to the White House by Carter, whom he also confirmed had seen the article in The Washington Post. Carter relieved Singlaub of his duties two days later on May 21 following a meeting between the two. During a news conference on May 26, Carter said he believed that South Korea would be able to defend themselves despite reduced American troops in case of conflict. From June 30 to July 1, 1979, Carter held meetings with president of South Korea Park Chung-hee at the Blue House for a discussion on relations between the U.S. and Korea as well as Carter's interest in preserving his policy of worldwide tension reduction. On April 21, 1978, Carter announced a reduction in American troops in South Korea scheduled to be released by the end of the year by two-thirds, citing a lack of action by Congress in regards to a compensatory aid package for the Seoul Government. Iran On November 15, 1977, Carter pledged that his administration would continue positive relations between the U.S. and Iran, calling its contemporary status "strong, stable and progressive". When the shah was overthrown, increasingly anti-American rhetoric came from Iran, which intensified when Carter allowed the shah to the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in New York on October 22, 1979. On November 4, a group of Iranian students took over the U.S. Embassy in Tehran. The students belonged to the Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line and were in support of the Iranian Revolution. Fifty-two American diplomats and citizens were held hostage for the next 444 days until they were finally freed immediately after Ronald Reagan succeeded Carter as president on January 20, 1981. During the crisis, Carter remained in isolation in the White House for more than 100 days, until he left to participate in the lighting of the National Menorah on the Ellipse. A month into the affair, Carter stated his commitment to resolving the dispute without "any military action that would cause bloodshed or arouse the unstable captors of our hostages to attack them or to punish them". On April 7, 1980, Carter issued Executive Order 12205, imposing economic sanctions against Iran and announced further measures being taken by members of his cabinet and the American government that he deemed necessary to ensure a safe release. On April 24, 1980, Carter ordered Operation Eagle Claw to try to free the hostages. The mission failed, leaving eight American servicemen dead and causing the destruction of two aircraft. The ill-fated rescue attempt led to the self-imposed resignation of U.S. Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, who had been opposed to the mission from the beginning. Released in 2017, a declassified memo produced by the CIA in 1980 concluded "Iranian hardliners – especially Ayatollah Khomeini" were "determined to exploit the hostage issue to bring about President Carter’s defeat in the November elections." Additionally, Tehran in 1980 wanted "the world to believe that Imam Khomeini caused President Carter's downfall and disgrace." Soviet Union On February 8, 1977, Carter stated he had urged the Soviet Union to align with the U.S. in forming "a comprehensive test ban to stop all nuclear testing for at least an extended period of time", and that he was in favor of the Soviet Union ceasing deployment of the RSD-10 Pioneer. During a press conference on June 13, Carter reported that at the beginning of the week, the U.S. would "work closely with the Soviet Union on a comprehensive test ban treaty to prohibit all testing of nuclear devices underground or in the atmosphere", and Paul Warnke would negotiate demilitarization of the Indian Ocean with the Soviet Union beginning the following week. At a news conference on December 30, Carter said that throughout the period of "the last few months, the United States and the Soviet Union have made great progress in dealing with a long list of important issues, the most important of which is to control the deployment of strategic nuclear weapons" and that the two countries sought to conclude SALT II talks by the spring of the following year. The talk of a comprehensive test ban treaty materialized with the signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II by Carter and Leonid Brezhnev on June 18, 1979. In 1979, the Soviets intervened in the Second Yemenite War. The Soviet backing of South Yemen constituted a "smaller shock", in tandem with tensions that were rising due to the Iranian Revolution. This played a role in shifting Carter's viewpoint on the Soviet Union to a more assertive one, a shift that finalized with the impending Soviet-Afghan War. In his 1980 State of the Union Address, Carter emphasized the significance of relations between the two regions: "Now, as during the last 3½ decades, the relationship between our country, the United States of America, and the Soviet Union is the most critical factor in determining whether the world will live at peace or be engulfed in global conflict." Soviet invasion of Afghanistan Communists under the leadership of Nur Muhammad Taraki seized power in Afghanistan on April 27, 1978. The new regime signed a treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union in December of that year. However, due to the regime's efforts to improve secular education and redistribute land being accompanied by mass executions and political oppression, Taraki was deposed by rival Hafizullah Amin in September. Amin was considered a "brutal psychopath" by foreign observers and had lost control of much of the country, prompting the Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan, execute Amin, and install Babrak Karmal as president. In the West, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan was considered a threat to global security and the oil supplies of the Persian Gulf, as well as the existence of Pakistan. These concerns lead to Carter authorizing a collaboration between the CIA and Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI); through the ISI, the CIA began providing some $695,000 worth of non-lethal assistance to the Afghan mujahideen in July 1979, several months prior to the Soviet invasion. The modest scope of this early collaboration was likely influenced by the understanding, later recounted by CIA official Robert Gates, "that a substantial U.S. covert aid program" might have "raise[d] the stakes" thereby causing "the Soviets to intervene more directly and vigorously than otherwise intended." According to a 2020 review of declassified U.S. documents by Conor Tobin in the journal Diplomatic History: "The primary significance of this small-scale aid was in creating constructive links with dissidents through Pakistan's ISI that could be utilized in the case of an overt Soviet intervention ... The small-scale covert program that developed in response to the increasing Soviet influence was part of a contingency plan if the Soviets did intervene militarily, as Washington would be in a better position to make it difficult for them to consolidate their position, but not designed to induce an intervention." In the aftermath of the invasion, Carter was determined to respond harshly to what he considered a dangerous provocation. In a televised speech on January 23, 1980, he announced sanctions on the Soviet Union, promising renewed aid and registration to Pakistan and the Selective Service System, as well as committing the U.S. to the Persian Gulf's defense. Carter imposed an embargo on grain shipments to the USSR, tabled the consideration of SALT II, requested a 5% annual increase in defense spending, and called for a boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. Carter's tough stance was backed enthusiastically by the British prime minister Margaret Thatcher. National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski played a major role in organizing Jimmy Carter's policies on the Soviet Union as a grand strategy. The thrust of U.S. policy for the duration of the war was determined by Carter in early 1980: Carter initiated a program to arm the mujahideen through Pakistan's ISI and secured a pledge from Saudi Arabia to match U.S. funding for this purpose. The Soviets were unable to quell the insurgency and withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989, precipitating the dissolution of the Soviet Union itself. However, the decision to route U.S. aid through Pakistan led to massive fraud, as weapons sent to Karachi were frequently sold on the local market rather than delivered to the Afghan rebels. Despite this, Carter has expressed no regrets over his decision to support what he still considers the "freedom fighters" in Afghanistan. International trips Carter made twelve international trips to twenty-five countries during his presidency. Carter was the first president to make a state visit to Sub-Saharan Africa when he went to Nigeria in 1978. His travel also included trips to Europe, Asia, and Latin America. He made several trips to the Middle East to broker peace negotiations. His visit to Iran from December 31, 1977, to January 1, 1978, took place less than a year before the overthrow of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Allegations and investigations The September 21, 1977, resignation of Bert Lance, who served as director of the office of management and budget in the Carter administration, came amid allegations of improper banking activities prior to his tenure and was an embarrassment to Carter. Carter became the first sitting president to testify under oath as part of an investigation towards him, as a result of United States Attorney General Griffin Bell appointing Paul J. Curran as a special counsel to investigate loans made to the peanut business owned by Carter by a bank controlled by Bert Lance and Curran's position as special counsel not allowing him to file charges on his own. Curran announced in October 1979 that no evidence had been found to support allegations that funds loaned from the National Bank of Georgia had been diverted to Carter's 1976 presidential campaign, ending the investigation. 1980 presidential campaign Carter's campaign for re-election in 1980 was based primarily on attacking Ronald Reagan. The Carter campaign frequently pointed out and mocked Reagan's proclivity to gaffes, using his age and perceived lack of connection to his native California voter base against him. Later on, the campaign used similar rhetoric to the Lyndon B. Johnson 1964 presidential campaign, intending to portray Reagan as a warmonger that could not be trusted with the nuclear arsenal. Carter attempted to deny the Reagan campaign $29.4 million () in campaign funds, due to dependent conservative groups already raising $60 million to get him elected a number which exceeded the limit of campaign funds. The request was later denied by the Federal Election Commission. Carter later wrote that the most intense and mounting opposition to his policies came from the liberal wing of the Democratic Party, which he attributed to Ted Kennedy's ambition to replace him as president. After Kennedy announced his candidacy in November 1979, questions regarding his activities during his presidential bid were a frequent subject of Carter's press conferences held during the Democratic presidential primaries. Kennedy, despite winning key states such as California and New York, surprised his supporters by running a weak campaign, leading to Carter winning most of the primaries and securing renomination. However, Kennedy had mobilized the liberal wing of the Democratic Party, which gave Carter weak support in the fall election. Carter and Mondale were formally nominated at the 1980 Democratic National Convention held at the New York City. Carter delivered a speech notable for its tribute to the late Hubert Humphrey, whom he initially called "Hubert Horatio Hornblower", and Kennedy made the infamous "The Dream Shall Never Die" speech, in which he criticized Reagan and gave Carter an unenthusiastic endorsement. Aside from Reagan and Kennedy, he was opposed by centrist John B. Anderson, who had previously contested the Republican presidential primaries, and upon being defeated by Reagan, re-entered as an independent. Anderson advertised himself as a more liberal alternative to Reagan's conservatism. As the campaign went on, however, Anderson's polling numbers dropped as his supporter base was gradually pulled towards either Carter or Reagan. Carter had to run against his own "stagflation"-ridden economy, while the hostage crisis in Iran dominated the news every week. He was attacked by conservatives for failing to "prevent Soviet gains" in less-developed countries, as pro-Soviet governments had taken power in countries including Angola, Ethiopia, Nicaragua and Afghanistan. His brother, Billy Carter, caused controversy due to his association with Muammar Gaddafi's regime in Libya. He alienated liberal college students, who were expected to be his base, by re-instating registration for the military draft. His campaign manager and former appointments secretary, Timothy Kraft, stepped down some five weeks before the general election amid what turned out to have been an uncorroborated allegation of cocaine use. On October 28, Carter and Reagan participated in the sole presidential debate of the election cycle in which they were both present due to Carter refusing to partake in debates with Anderson. Though initially trailing Carter by several points, Reagan experienced a surge in polling following the debate. This was in part influenced by Reagan deploying the phrase "There you go again", which became the defining phrase of the election. It was later discovered that in the final days of the campaign, Reagan's team acquired classified documents used by Carter in preparation for the debate. Reagan defeated Carter in a landslide, winning 489 electoral votes. The Senate went Republican for the first time since 1952. In his concession speech, Carter admitted that he was hurt by the outcome of the election but pledged "a very fine transition period" with President-elect Reagan. Post-presidency (1981–present) Shortly after losing his re-election bid, Carter told the White House press corps of his intent to emulate the retirement of Harry S. Truman and not use his subsequent public life to enrich himself. Diplomacy Diplomacy has been a large part of Carter's post-presidency. These diplomatic efforts began in the Middle East, with a September 1981 meeting with prime minister of Israel Menachem Begin, and a March 1983 tour of Egypt that included meeting with members of the Palestine Liberation Organization, In 1994, president Bill Clinton sought Carter's assistance in a North Korea peace mission, during which Carter negotiated an understanding with Kim Il-sung. Carter went on to outline a treaty with Kim, which he announced to CNN without the consent of the Clinton administration to spur American action. In 2006, Carter stated his disagreements with the domestic and foreign policies of Israel while saying he was in favor of the country, extending his criticisms to Israel's policies in Lebanon, the West Bank, and Gaza. In July 2007, Carter joined Nelson Mandela in Johannesburg, South Africa, to announce his participation in The Elders, a group of independent global leaders who work together on peace and human rights issues. Following the announcement, Carter participated in visits to Darfur, Sudan, Cyprus, the Korean Peninsula, and the Middle East, among others. Carter attempted traveling to Zimbabwe in November 2008, but was stopped by President Robert Mugabe's government. In December 2008, Carter met with Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, and in a June 2012 call with Jeffery Brown, Carter stressed Egyptian military generals could be granted full power executively and legislatively in addition to being able to form a new constitution in favor of themselves in case their announced intentions went through. On August 10, Carter traveled to North Korea to secure the release of Aijalon Gomes, successfully negotiating his release. Throughout the latter part of 2017, as tensions between the U.S. and North Korea persisted, Carter recommended a peace treaty between the two nations, and confirmed he had offered himself to the Trump administration as a willing candidate to serve as diplomatic envoy to North Korea. Views on successive presidents Carter began his first year out of office with a pledge not to critique the new Reagan administration, stating that it was "too early". Carter, despite siding with Reagan on issues like building neutron arms after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, frequently spoke out against the Reagan administration. He disagreed most frequently with Reagan's handling of the Middle East; condemned the handling of the Sabra and Shatila massacre, the lack of rescue efforts to retrieve four American businessmen from West Beirut in 1984, his support of the Strategic Defense Initiative in 1985, and Reagan's claim of an international conspiracy on terrorism. Carter's insistence that Reagan was not preserving peace in the Middle East continued in 1987, during which year he also criticized Reagan for adhering to terrorist demands, the nomination of Robert Bork for the Supreme Court, and his handling of the Persian Gulf crisis. On January 16, 1989, prior to the inauguration of George H. W. Bush, Carter expressed to fellow former president Ford that Reagan had experienced a media honeymoon, stating that he believed Reagan's immediate successor would be less fortunate. Carter had a mostly negative relationship with Bill Clinton; despite Clinton being the first Democrat elected in 12 years, Carter and his wife were snubbed from the ceremony. Carter criticised Clinton for the morality of his administration, particularly for the Monica Lewinsky scandal and the pardon of Marc Rich. During the presidency of George W. Bush, Carter stated his opposition to the Iraq War, and what he considered an attempt on the part of Bush and Tony Blair to oust Saddam Hussein through the usage of "lies and misinterpretations". In May 2007, Carter stated the Bush administration "has been the worst in history" in terms of its impact in foreign affairs, and later stated he was just comparing Bush's tenure to that of Richard Nixon. Carter's comments received a response from the Bush administration in the form of Tony Fratto saying Carter was increasing his irrelevance with his commentary. By the end of Bush's second term, Carter considered Bush's tenure disappointing, which he disclosed in comments to Forward Magazine of Syria. Though he praised President Obama in the early part of his tenure, Carter stated his disagreements with the use of drone strikes against suspected terrorists, Obama's choice to keep Guantanamo Bay detention camp open, and the current federal surveillance programs as disclosed by Edward Snowden." During the Trump presidency, Carter spoke favorably of the chance for immigration reform through Congress, and criticized Trump for his handling of the U.S. national anthem protests. In October 2017, however, Carter defended President Trump in an interview with The New York Times, criticizing the media's coverage of him, stating that the media has been harsher on Trump "than any other president certainly that I've known about." In 2019, Carter received a phone call from Trump in which he expressed concern that China was "getting ahead" of the United States. Carter agreed, stating that China's strength came from their lack of involvement in armed conflict, calling the U.S. "the most warlike nation in the history of the world." Presidential politics Carter was considered a potential candidate in the 1984 presidential election, but did not run and instead endorsed Walter Mondale for the Democratic nomination. After Mondale secured the nomination, Carter critiqued the Reagan campaign, spoke at the 1984 Democratic National Convention, and advised Mondale. Following the election, in which President Reagan defeated Mondale, Carter stated the loss was predictable because of the latter's platform that included raising taxes. In the 1988 presidential election, Carter ruled himself out as a candidate once more and predicted Vice President George H. W. Bush as the Republican nominee in the general election. Carter foresaw unity at the 1988 Democratic National Convention, where he delivered an address. Following the election, a failed attempt by the Democrats in regaining the White House, Carter said Bush would have a more difficult presidency than Reagan because he was not as popular. During the 1992 presidential election, Carter met with Massachusetts Senator Paul Tsongas who sought out his advice. Carter spoke favorably of former Governor of Arkansas Bill Clinton, and criticized Ross Perot, a Texas billionaire who was running as an independent. As the primary concluded, Carter spoke of the need for the 1992 Democratic National Convention to address certain issues not focused on in the past, and campaigned for Clinton after he became the Democratic nominee in the general election, publicly stating his expectation to be consulted during the latter's presidency. Carter endorsed Vice President Al Gore days before the 2000 presidential election, and in the years following voiced his opinion that the election was won by Gore, despite the Supreme Court handing the election to Bush in the controversial Bush v. Gore ruling. In the 2004 presidential election, Carter endorsed John Kerry and spoke at the 2004 Democratic National Convention. Carter also voiced concerns of another voting mishap in the state of Florida. Amid the Democratic presidential primary in 2008, Carter was speculated to endorse Senator Barack Obama over his main primary rival Hillary Clinton amid his speaking favorably of the candidate, as well as remarks from the Carter family that showed their support for Obama. Carter also commented on Clinton ending her bid when superdelegates voted after the June 3 primary. Leading up to the general election, Carter criticized the Republican nominee John McCain. who responded to Carter's comments. Carter warned Obama against selecting Clinton as his running mate. Carter endorsed Republican Mitt Romney for the Republican nomination during the primary season of the 2012 presidential election, though he clarified that his backing of Romney was due to him considering the former Massachusetts governor the candidate that could best assure a victory for President Obama. Carter delivered a videotape address at the 2012 Democratic National Convention. Carter was critical of Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump shortly after the latter entered the primary, predicting that he would lose. As the primary continued, Carter stated he would prefer Trump over his main rival Ted Cruz, though he rebuked the Trump campaign in remarks during the primary, and in his address to the 2016 Democratic National Convention. Carter believes that Trump would not have been elected without Russia's interference in the 2016 election, and he believes "that Trump didn't actually win the election in 2016. He lost the election, and he was put into office because the Russians interfered on his behalf." When questioned, he agreed that Trump is an "illegitimate president". Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter delivered a recorded audio message endorsing Joe Biden for the virtual 2020 Democratic National Convention. On January 6, 2021, following the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, along with the other three still living former presidents, Barack Obama, George W. Bush, Bill Clinton, Jimmy Carter denounced the storming of the Capitol, releasing a statement saying that he and his wife were "troubled" by the events, also stating that what had occurred was "a national tragedy and is not who we are as a nation", and adding that "having observed elections in troubled democracies worldwide, I know that we the people can unite to walk back from this precipice to peacefully uphold the laws of our nation". Carter delivered a recorded audio message for the inauguration of Joe Biden on January 20, 2021, as the Carters were unable to attend the ceremony in person. Hurricane relief Carter criticized the Bush administration's handling of Hurricane Katrina, and built homes in the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy, Carter partnered with former presidents to work with One America Appeal to help the victims of Hurricane Harvey and Hurricane Irma in the Gulf Coast and Texas communities, in addition to writing op-eds about the goodness seen in Americans who assist each other during natural disasters. Other activities In 1982, Carter founded the Carter Center, a non-governmental and non-profit organization with the purpose of advancing human rights and alleviating human suffering, including helping improve the quality of life for people in more than 80 countries. Among these efforts has been the contribution of the Carter Center working alongside the WHO to the near-eradication of dracunculiasis, also called Guinea worm disease. The incidence of this disease has decreased from 3.5 million cases in the mid-1980s, to 25 cases in 2016, and 10 as of September 2021 according to the Carter Center's statistics. Carter attended the dedication of his presidential library and those of Presidents Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. He delivered eulogies at the funerals of Coretta Scott King, Gerald Ford, and Theodore Hesburgh. , Carter serves as an Honorary Chair for the World Justice Project and formerly served as one for the Continuity of Government Commission. He continues to occasionally teach Sunday school at Maranatha Baptist Church. Carter also teaches at Emory University in Atlanta, and in June 2019 was awarded tenure for 37 years of service. Political positions Although Carter was personally opposed to abortion, he supported legalized abortion after the landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision Roe v. Wade, 410 US 113 (1973). Early in his term as governor, Carter had strongly supported family planning programs including abortion in order to save the life of a woman, birth defects, or in other extreme circumstances. Years later, he had written the foreword to a book, Women in Need, that favored a woman's right to abortion. He had given private encouragement to the plaintiffs in a lawsuit, Doe v. Bolton, filed against the state of Georgia to overturn its abortion laws. As president, he did not support increased federal funding for abortion services. He was criticized by the American Civil Liberties Union for not doing enough to find alternatives. In a March 29, 2012, interview with Laura Ingraham, Carter expressed his wish to see the Democratic Party becoming more anti-abortion, allowing it only in the case of rape or incest. Carter is known for his strong opposition to the death penalty, which he expressed during his presidential campaigns. In his Nobel Prize lecture, Carter urged "prohibition of the death penalty". He has continued to speak out against the death penalty in the U.S. and abroad. In a letter to the governor of New Mexico, Bill Richardson, Carter urged the governor to sign a bill to eliminate the death penalty and institute life in prison without parole instead. New Mexico abolished the death penalty in 2009. Carter wrote: "As you know, the United States is one of the few countries, along with nations such as Saudi Arabia, China, and Cuba, which still carry out the death penalty despite the ongoing tragedy of wrongful conviction and gross racial and class-based disparities that make impossible the fair implementation of this ultimate punishment." In 2012, Carter wrote an op-ed in the Los Angeles Times supporting passage of a state referendum which would have ended the death penalty. Carter has also called for commutations of death sentences for many death-row inmates, including Brian K. Baldwin (executed in 1999), Kenneth Foster (commuted in 2007) and Troy Davis (executed in 2011). In October 2000, Carter, a third-generation Southern Baptist, severed connections to the Southern Baptist Convention over its opposition to women as pastors. Carter took this action due to a doctrinal statement by the Convention, adopted in June 2000, advocating for a literal interpretation of the Bible. This statement followed a position of the Convention two years previously advocating the submission of wives to their husbands. Carter described the reason for his decision as due to: "an increasing inclination on the part of Southern Baptist Convention leaders to be more rigid on what is a Southern Baptist and exclusionary of accommodating those who differ from them." The New York Times called Carter's action "the highest-profile defection yet from the Southern Baptist Convention". On July 15, 2009, Carter wrote an opinion piece about equality for women in which he stated that he chooses equality for women over the dictates of the leadership of what has been a lifetime religious commitment. He said that the view that women are inferior is not confined to one faith, "nor, tragically does its influence stop at the walls of the church, mosque, synagogue or temple." In 2014, he published A Call to Action: Women, Religion, Violence, and Power. Carter has publicly expressed support for both a ban on assault weapons and for background checks of gun buyers. In May 1994, Carter and former presidents Gerald Ford and Ronald Reagan wrote to the U.S. House of Representatives in support of banning "semi-automatic assault guns." In a February 2013 appearance on Piers Morgan Tonight, Carter agreed that if the assault weapons ban did not pass, it would be mainly due to lobbying by the National Rifle Association and its pressure on "weak-kneed" politicians. Carter has stated that he supports same-sex marriage in civil ceremonies. He has also stated that he believes Jesus would also support it, saying "I believe Jesus would. I don't have any verse in scripture. ... I believe Jesus would approve gay marriage, but that's just my own personal belief. I think Jesus would encourage any love affair if it was honest and sincere and was not damaging to anyone else, and I don't see that gay marriage damages anyone else". Evangelist Franklin Graham criticized the assertion as "absolutely wrong". In October 2014, Carter argued ahead of a Supreme Court ruling that legalization of same-sex marriage should be left up to the states and not mandated by federal law. Carter ignited debate in September 2009 when he stated, "I think an overwhelming portion of the intensely demonstrated animosity toward President Barack Obama is based on the fact that he is a black man, that he is African-American". Obama disagreed with Carter's assessment. On CNN, Obama stated, "Are there people out there who don't like me because of race? I'm sure there are... that's not the overriding issue here". In 2005, Carter criticized the use of torture at Guantánamo Bay, demanding that it be closed. He stated that the next president should make the promise that the United States will "never again torture a prisoner." In 2013, Carter praised the Affordable Care Act (the major health care reform law put forward by President Obama), but criticized its implementation as "questionable at best". In 2017, Carter predicted that the U.S. would eventually adopt a single-payer healthcare system. Carter vigorously opposed the Supreme Court decision in Citizens United v. FEC that struck down limits on campaign spending by corporations and unions, going so far as to saying that the U.S. is "no longer a functioning democracy" and now has a system of "unlimited political bribery". Personal life Carter and his wife Rosalynn are well known for their work as volunteers with Habitat for Humanity, a Georgia-based philanthropy that helps low-income working people around the world to build and buy their own homes and access clean water. His hobbies include painting, fly-fishing, woodworking, cycling, tennis, and skiing. He also has an interest in poetry, particularly the works of Dylan Thomas. During a state visit to the UK in 1977, Carter suggested that Thomas should have a memorial in Poets' Corner at Westminster Abbey; this later came to fruition in 1982. Carter was also a personal friend of Elvis Presley, whom he and Rosalynn met on June 30, 1973, before Presley was to perform onstage in Atlanta. They remained in contact by telephone two months before Presley's sudden death in August 1977. Carter later recalled an abrupt phone call received in June 1977 from Presley who sought a presidential pardon from Carter, in order to help George Klein's criminal case; at the time Klein had been indicted for only mail fraud, and would later be found guilty of conspiracy. According to Carter, Presley was almost incoherent and cited barbiturate abuse as the cause of this; although he phoned the White House several times again, this would be the last time Carter would speak to Elvis Presley. The day after Presley's death, Carter issued a statement and explained how he had "changed the face of American popular culture". Carter filed a report with both the International UFO Bureau and the National Investigations Committee On Aerial Phenomena, stating that he sighted an unidentified flying object in October 1969. Religion From a young age, Carter showed a deep commitment to Christianity. In 1942, Carter became a deacon and teaches Sunday school at Maranatha Baptist Church in Plains, Georgia. At a private inauguration worship service, the preacher was Nelson Price, the pastor of Roswell Street Baptist Church of Marietta, Georgia. As president, Carter prayed several times a day, and professed that Jesus was the driving force in his life. Carter had been greatly influenced by a sermon he had heard as a young man. It asked, "If you were arrested for being a Christian, would there be enough evidence to convict you?" In 2000, Carter severed his membership with the Southern Baptist Convention, saying the group's doctrines did not align with his Christian beliefs, while still a member of the Cooperative Baptist Fellowship. In 2007, together with former President Clinton, he founded the New Baptist Covenant organization for social justice. Family Carter had three younger siblings, all of whom died of pancreatic cancer: sisters Gloria Spann (1926–1990) and Ruth Stapleton (1929–1983), and brother Billy Carter (1937–1988). He was first cousin to politician Hugh Carter and a distant cousin to the Carter family of musicians. He is also related to Motown founder Berry Gordy by way of their white great-grandfather James Thomas Gordy who had a relationship with a black female slave he owned. Carter married Rosalynn Smith on July 7, 1946, in the Plains Methodist Church, the church of Rosalynn's family. They have three sons, Jack, James III, and Donnel; one daughter, Amy; nine grandsons (one of whom is deceased), three granddaughters, five great-grandsons, and eight great-granddaughters. Mary Prince (an African American woman wrongly convicted of murder, and later pardoned) was their daughter Amy's nanny for most of the period from 1971 until Jimmy Carter's presidency ended. Carter had asked to be designated as her parole officer, thus helping to enable her to work in the White House. The Carters celebrated their 75th anniversary on July 7, 2021. On October 19, 2019, they became the longest-wed presidential couple, having overtaken George and Barbara Bush at 26,765 days. Their eldest son Jack Carter was the 2006 Democratic candidate for U.S. Senate in Nevada and lost to Republican incumbent John Ensign. Jack's son Jason Carter is a former Georgia state senator, and in 2014 was the Democratic candidate for governor of Georgia, losing to the Republican incumbent Nathan Deal. On December 20, 2015, while teaching a Sunday school class, Carter announced that his 28-year-old grandson Jeremy Carter had died of unspecified causes. Health and longevity Health problems On August 3, 2015, Carter underwent an elective surgery to remove a small mass on his liver, and his prognosis for a full recovery was initially said to be excellent. On August 12, however, he announced he had been diagnosed with cancer that had metastasized, without specifying where the cancer had originated. On August 20, Carter disclosed that melanoma had been found in his brain and liver, and that he had begun treatment with the immunotherapy drug pembrolizumab and was about to start radiation therapy. His healthcare was managed by Emory Healthcare of Atlanta. He has an extensive family history of cancer, including both of his parents and all three of his siblings. On December 6, 2015, he issued a statement, announcing that his medical scans no longer showed any cancer. On May 13, 2019, Carter broke his hip during a fall at his Plains home and underwent surgery the same day at the Phoebe Sumter Medical Center in Americus, Georgia. On October 6, 2019, a forehead injury above his left eyebrow received during another fall at home required 14 stitches. A public appearance afterward revealed that the former President had a black eye from the injury. On October 21, 2019, Carter was admitted to the Phoebe Sumter Medical Center after suffering a minor pelvic fracture he obtained after falling again at home for the third time in 2019. He was subsequently able to resume teaching Sunday school at Maranatha Baptist Church on November 3, 2019. On November 11, 2019, Carter was hospitalized at the Emory University Hospital in Atlanta for a procedure to relieve pressure on his brain caused by bleeding connected to his falls. The surgery was successful, and he was released from the hospital on November 27. On December 2, 2019, Carter was readmitted to the hospital for a urinary tract infection, but was released on December 4. Longevity Carter is the earliest-serving living former president since the death of Gerald Ford in 2006. He became the oldest president ever to attend a presidential inauguration in 2017, at the age of 92, and the first to live to the 40th anniversary of his own. Two years later, on March 22, 2019, he gained the distinction of being the nation's longest-lived president, when he surpassed the lifespan of George H. W. Bush, who was of age when he died in November 2018; both men were born in 1924. On October 1, 2019, Carter became the first U.S. president to live to the age
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Antichrist in some of his writings. Napier regarded A Plaine Discovery of the Whole Revelation of St. John (1593) as his most important work. It was written in English, unlike his other publications, in order to reach the widest audience and so that, according to Napier, "the simple of this island may be instructed". A Plaine Discovery used mathematical analysis of the Book of Revelation to attempt to predict the date of the Apocalypse. Napier identified events in chronological order which he believed were parallels to events described in the Book of Revelation believing that Revelation's structure implied that the prophecies would be fulfilled incrementally. In this work Napier dated the seventh trumpet to 1541, and predicted the end of the world would occur in either 1688 or 1700. Napier did not believe that people could know the true date of the Apocalypse, but claimed that since the Bible contained so many clues about the end, God wanted the Church to know when the end was coming. In his dedication of the Plaine Discovery to James VI, dated 29 Jan 1594, Napier urged the king to see "that justice be done against the enemies of God's church," and counselled the King "to reform the universal enormities of his country, and first to begin at his own house, family, and court." The volume includes nine pages of Napier's English verse. It met with success at home and abroad. In 1600 Michiel Panneel produced a Dutch translation, and this reached a second edition in 1607. In 1602 the work appeared at La Rochelle in a French version, by Georges Thomson, revised by Napier, and that also went through several editions (1603, 1605, and 1607). A new edition of the English original was called for in 1611, when it was revised and corrected by the author, and enlarged by the addition of With a resolution of certain doubts, moved by some well affected brethren.; this appeared simultaneously at Edinburgh and London. The author stated that he still intended to publish a Latin edition, but it never appeared. A German translation, by Leo de Dromna, of the first part of Napier's work appeared at Gera in 1611, and of the whole by Wolfgang Meyer at Frankfurt-am-Main, in 1615. Among Napier's followers was Matthew Cotterius (Matthieu Cottière). The occult In addition to his mathematical and religious interests, Napier was often perceived as a magician, and is thought to have dabbled in alchemy and necromancy. It was said that he would travel about with a black spider in a small box, and that his black rooster was his familiar spirit. Some of Napier's neighbors accused him of being a sorcerer and in league with the devil, believing that all of the time he spent in his study was being used to learn the black art. These rumors were stoked when Napier used his black rooster to catch a thief. Napier told his servants to go into a darkened room and pet the rooster, claiming the bird would crow if they were the one who stole his property. Unknown to the servants, Napier had covered the rooster with soot. When the servants emerged from the room, Napier inspected their hands to find the one who had been too afraid to touch the rooster. Another act which Napier is reported to have done, which may have seemed mystical to the locals, was when Napier removed the pigeons from his estate, since they were eating his grain. Napier caught the pigeons by strewing grain laced with alcohol throughout the field, and then capturing the pigeons once they were too drunk to fly away. A contract still exists for a treasure hunt, made between Napier and Robert Logan of Restalrig. Napier was to search Fast Castle for treasure allegedly hidden there, wherein it is stated that Napier should "do his utmost diligence to search and seek out, and by all craft and ingine to find out the same, or make it sure that no such thing has been there." This contract was never fulfilled by Napier, and no gold was found when the Edinburgh Archaeological Field society excavated the castle between 1971 and 1986. Influence Among Napier's early followers were the instrument makers Edmund Gunter and John Speidell. The development of logarithms is given credit as the largest single factor in the general adoption of decimal arithmetic. The Trissotetras (1645) of Thomas Urquhart builds on Napier's work, in trigonometry. Henry Briggs (mathematician) was an early adopter of the Napierian logarithm. He later computed a new table of logarithms to base 10, accurate to 14 decimal places. Eponyms An alternative unit to the decibel used in electrical engineering, the neper, is named after Napier, as is Edinburgh Napier University in Edinburgh, Scotland. The crater Neper on the Moon is named after him. In French and Portuguese, the natural logarithm is named after him (respectively, Logarithme Népérien and Logaritmos Neperianos). In Italian, the mathematical constant e is named after him in Italian (Numero di Nepero). Family In 1572, Napier married 16-year-old Elizabeth, daughter of James Stirling, the 4th Laird of Keir and of Cadder. They had two children. Elizabeth died in 1579, and Napier then married Agnes Chisholm, with whom he had ten more children. Napier's father-in-law, Sir James Chisholm of Cromlix, was one of many excommunicated by the General Assembly of the Presbyterian party following the Spanish blanks plot. Napier
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a resolution of certain doubts, moved by some well affected brethren.; this appeared simultaneously at Edinburgh and London. The author stated that he still intended to publish a Latin edition, but it never appeared. A German translation, by Leo de Dromna, of the first part of Napier's work appeared at Gera in 1611, and of the whole by Wolfgang Meyer at Frankfurt-am-Main, in 1615. Among Napier's followers was Matthew Cotterius (Matthieu Cottière). The occult In addition to his mathematical and religious interests, Napier was often perceived as a magician, and is thought to have dabbled in alchemy and necromancy. It was said that he would travel about with a black spider in a small box, and that his black rooster was his familiar spirit. Some of Napier's neighbors accused him of being a sorcerer and in league with the devil, believing that all of the time he spent in his study was being used to learn the black art. These rumors were stoked when Napier used his black rooster to catch a thief. Napier told his servants to go into a darkened room and pet the rooster, claiming the bird would crow if they were the one who stole his property. Unknown to the servants, Napier had covered the rooster with soot. When the servants emerged from the room, Napier inspected their hands to find the one who had been too afraid to touch the rooster. Another act which Napier is reported to have done, which may have seemed mystical to the locals, was when Napier removed the pigeons from his estate, since they were eating his grain. Napier caught the pigeons by strewing grain laced with alcohol throughout the field, and then capturing the pigeons once they were too drunk to fly away. A contract still exists for a treasure hunt, made between Napier and Robert Logan of Restalrig. Napier was to search Fast Castle for treasure allegedly hidden there, wherein it is stated that Napier should "do his utmost diligence to search and seek out, and by all craft and ingine to find out the same, or make it sure that no such thing has been there." This contract was never fulfilled by Napier, and no gold was found when the Edinburgh Archaeological Field society excavated the castle between 1971 and 1986. Influence Among Napier's early followers were the instrument makers Edmund Gunter and John Speidell. The development of logarithms is given credit as the largest single factor in the general adoption of decimal arithmetic. The Trissotetras (1645) of Thomas Urquhart builds on Napier's work, in trigonometry. Henry Briggs (mathematician) was an early adopter of the Napierian logarithm. He later computed a new table of logarithms to base 10, accurate to 14 decimal places. Eponyms An alternative unit to the decibel used in electrical engineering, the neper, is named after Napier, as is Edinburgh Napier University in Edinburgh, Scotland. The crater Neper on the Moon is named after him. In French and Portuguese, the natural logarithm is named after him (respectively, Logarithme Népérien and Logaritmos Neperianos). In Italian, the mathematical constant e is named after him in Italian (Numero di Nepero). Family In 1572, Napier married 16-year-old Elizabeth, daughter of James Stirling, the 4th Laird of Keir and of Cadder. They had two children. Elizabeth died in 1579, and Napier then married Agnes Chisholm, with whom he had ten more
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most important encyclopedists of all time'. He was a prolific writer, and his Encyclopaedia (1630) long had a high reputation. It was preceded by shorter works, including the 1608 Encyclopaedia cursus philosophici. His major encyclopedia of 1630, the Encyclopaedia, Septem Tomis Distincta, was divided into 35 books, and had 48 synoptical tables as well as an index. Alsted described it as "a methodical systemization of all things which ought to be learned by men in this life. In short, it is the totality of knowledge." In its time it was praised by Bernard Lamy and Cotton Mather, and it informed the work of Alsted's student John Amos Comenius. An unfinished encyclopedic project by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz began as a plan to expand and modernize it, and the famous diarist Samuel Pepys purchased a copy in 1660—thirty years after its initial publication. Although Jacob Thomasius criticised it for plagiarism for verbatim copying without acknowledgment, Augustus De Morgan later called it "the true parent of all the Encyclopædias, or collections of treatises, or works in which that character predominates". The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy, p. 632, in the context of Calvinist metaphysics, states "In the works of authors like Clemens Timpler of Heidelberg and Steinfurt, Bartolomaeus Keckermann of Heidelberg and Danzig, and Johann Heinrich Alsted of Herborn there appeared a new, unified vision of the encyclopaedia of the scientific disciplines in which ontology had the role of assigning to each of the particular sciences its proper domain." In his The New England Mind, Perry Miller writes about the Encyclopaedia: "It was indeed nothing short of a summary, in sequential and numbered paragraphs, of everything that the mind of European man had yet conceived or discovered. The works of over five hundred authors, from Aristotle to James I, were digested and methodized, including those of Aquinas, Scotus, and medieval theology, as also those of medieval science, such as De Natura Rerum." It was reissued as a 4-volume facsimile reprint, edited by W. Schmidt-Biggemann (Fromann-Holzboog Press, Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt, 1989–1990). Alstedius' Encyclopedia Biblica In 1610, Alstedius published the first edition of his Encyclopedia. In 1630, he published a second edition in a much more comprehensive form, in two large folio volumes. In the second edition, he professes to reduce the several branches of art and science then known and studied into a system. In this work, and his Encyclopedia Biblica, he tries to prove that the foundation and materials of the whole can be found in the Sacred Scriptures. The first four books contain an exposition of the various subjects to be discussed. He devotes six books to philology, ten to speculative philosophy, and four to practical matters. Then follow three on theology, jurisprudence, and medicine; three on mechanical arts, and five on history, chronology, and miscellanies. This work exhibited a great improvement on other published works that purported to be encyclopedias in the latter half of the 16th and the first half of the 17th centuries. Logician Alsted published Logicae Systema Harmonicum (1614). In writing a semi-Ramist encyclopedia, he then applied his conception of logic to the sum of human knowledge. To do that, he added the Lullist topical art of memory to Ramist topical logic, indeed reversing one of the original conceptions of Ramus. He had a reputation in his own time as a distinctive methodologist. John Prideaux in 1639 asked: Q. Is it true that the seven dialectical theories of method in use today, to wit, i) the Aristotelian, 2) the Lullian, 3) the Ramistic, 4) the Mixt, whether indeed in the manner of Keckermann or of Alsted, 5)
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1638. Works Encyclopedist Alsted has been called 'one of the most important encyclopedists of all time'. He was a prolific writer, and his Encyclopaedia (1630) long had a high reputation. It was preceded by shorter works, including the 1608 Encyclopaedia cursus philosophici. His major encyclopedia of 1630, the Encyclopaedia, Septem Tomis Distincta, was divided into 35 books, and had 48 synoptical tables as well as an index. Alsted described it as "a methodical systemization of all things which ought to be learned by men in this life. In short, it is the totality of knowledge." In its time it was praised by Bernard Lamy and Cotton Mather, and it informed the work of Alsted's student John Amos Comenius. An unfinished encyclopedic project by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz began as a plan to expand and modernize it, and the famous diarist Samuel Pepys purchased a copy in 1660—thirty years after its initial publication. Although Jacob Thomasius criticised it for plagiarism for verbatim copying without acknowledgment, Augustus De Morgan later called it "the true parent of all the Encyclopædias, or collections of treatises, or works in which that character predominates". The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy, p. 632, in the context of Calvinist metaphysics, states "In the works of authors like Clemens Timpler of Heidelberg and Steinfurt, Bartolomaeus Keckermann of Heidelberg and Danzig, and Johann Heinrich Alsted of Herborn there appeared a new, unified vision of the encyclopaedia of the scientific disciplines in which ontology had the role of assigning to each of the particular sciences its proper domain." In his The New England Mind, Perry Miller writes about the Encyclopaedia: "It was indeed nothing short of a summary, in sequential and numbered paragraphs, of everything that the mind of European man had yet conceived or discovered. The works of over five hundred authors, from Aristotle to James I, were digested and methodized, including those of Aquinas, Scotus, and medieval theology, as also those of medieval science, such as De Natura Rerum." It was reissued as a 4-volume facsimile reprint, edited by W. Schmidt-Biggemann (Fromann-Holzboog Press, Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt, 1989–1990). Alstedius' Encyclopedia Biblica In 1610, Alstedius published the first edition of his Encyclopedia. In 1630, he published a second edition in a much more comprehensive form, in two large folio volumes. In the second edition, he professes to reduce the several branches of art and science then known and studied into a system. In this work, and his Encyclopedia Biblica, he tries to prove that the foundation and materials of the whole can be found in the Sacred Scriptures. The first four books contain an exposition of the various subjects to be discussed. He devotes six books to philology, ten to speculative philosophy, and four to practical matters. Then follow three on theology, jurisprudence, and medicine; three on mechanical arts, and five on history, chronology, and miscellanies. This work exhibited a great improvement on other published works that purported to be encyclopedias in the latter half of the 16th and the first half of the 17th centuries. Logician Alsted published Logicae Systema Harmonicum (1614). In writing a semi-Ramist encyclopedia, he then applied his conception of logic to the sum of human knowledge. To do that, he added the Lullist topical art of memory to Ramist topical logic, indeed reversing one of the original conceptions of Ramus. He had a reputation in his own time as a distinctive methodologist. John Prideaux in 1639 asked: Q. Is it true that the seven dialectical theories of method in use today, to wit, i) the Aristotelian, 2) the Lullian, 3) the Ramistic, 4) the Mixt, whether indeed in the manner of Keckermann or of Alsted, 5) the Forensic of
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Gustavo Nery, Brazilian footballer 1978 – Runako Morton, Nevisian cricketer (d. 2012) 1978 – Dennis Rommedahl, Danish footballer 1979 – Lucas Luhr, German racing driver 1979 – Yadel Martí, Cuban baseball player 1980 – Dirk Kuyt, Dutch footballer 1980 – Kate Ryan, Belgian singer-songwriter 1980 – Tablo, South Korean-Canadian rapper 1982 – Nuwan Kulasekara, Sri Lankan cricketer 1983 – Aldo de Nigris, Mexican footballer 1983 – Dries Devenyns, Belgian cyclist 1983 – Steven Jackson, American football player 1983 – Andreas Ulvo, Norwegian pianist 1984 – Stewart Downing, English footballer 1985 – Jessica Abbott, Australian swimmer 1985 – Takudzwa Ngwenya, Zimbabwean-American rugby player 1985 – Akira Tozawa, Japanese wrestler 1986 – Stevie Johnson, American football player 1986 – Colin de Grandhomme, Zimbabwean-New Zealand cricketer 1987 – Denis Gargaud Chanut, French slalom canoeist 1987 – Charlotte Kalla, Swedish skier 1988 – William Buick, Norwegian-British flat jockey 1988 – Paul Coutts, Scottish footballer 1988 – Thomas Kraft, German footballer 1988 – Sercan Temizyürek, Turkish footballer 1989 – Keegan Allen, American actor, photographer and musician 1991 – Matty James, English footballer 1992 – Anja Aguilar, Filipino actress and singer 1992 – Selena Gomez, American singer and actress 1992 – Carolin Schnarre, German Paralympic equestrian 1993 – Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, Kyrgyzstani-American terrorist 1994 – Jaz Sinclair, American film and television actress 1995 – Ezekiel Elliott, American football player 1995 – Armaan Malik, Indian playback singer, composer and songwriter 1996 – Skyler Gisondo, American actor 1998 – Sahaphap Wongratch, Thai actor, model, and singer 1999 – Sidney Chu, Hong Kong skater 2002 – Prince Felix of Denmark 2013 – Prince George of Cambridge Deaths Pre-1600 698 – Wu Chengsi, nephew of Chinese sovereign Wu Zetian 1258 – Meinhard I, Count of Gorizia-Tyrol (b. c. 1200) 1274 – Henry I of Navarre, Count of Champagne and Brie and King of Navarre 1298 – Sir John de Graham, Scottish soldier at the Battle of Falkirk 1362 – Louis, Count of Gravina (b. 1324) 1376 – Simon Langham, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1310) 1387 – Frans Ackerman, Flemish politician (b. 1330) 1461 – Charles VII of France (b. 1403) 1525 – Richard Wingfield, English courtier and diplomat, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b. 1426) 1540 – John Zápolya, Hungarian king (b. 1487) 1550 – Jorge de Lencastre, Duke of Coimbra (b. 1481) 1581 – Richard Cox, English bishop (b. 1500) 1601–1900 1619 – Lawrence of Brindisi, Italian priest and saint (b. 1559) 1645 – Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares, Spanish statesman (b. 1587) 1676 – Pope Clement X (b. 1590) 1726 – Hugh Drysdale, English-American politician, Colonial Governor of Virginia 1734 – Peter King, 1st Baron King, English lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of England (b. 1669) 1789 – Joseph Foullon de Doué, French politician, Controller-General of Finances (b. 1715) 1802 – Marie François Xavier Bichat, French anatomist and physiologist (b. 1771) 1824 – Thomas Macnamara Russell, English admiral 1826 – Giuseppe Piazzi, Italian mathematician and astronomer (b. 1746) 1832 – Napoleon II, French emperor (b. 1811) 1833 – Joseph Forlenze, Italian ophthalmologist and surgeon (b. 1757) 1864 – James B. McPherson, American general (b. 1828) 1869 – John A. Roebling, German-American engineer, designed the Brooklyn Bridge (b. 1806) 1901–present 1902 – Mieczysław Halka-Ledóchowski, Polish cardinal (b. 1822) 1903 – Cassius Marcellus Clay, American publisher, lawyer, and politician, United States Ambassador to Russia (b. 1810) 1904 – Wilson Barrett, English actor and playwright (b. 1846) 1906 – William Snodgrass, Canadian minister and academic (b. 1827) 1908 – Randal Cremer, English politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1828) 1915 – Sandford Fleming, Scottish-Canadian engineer and inventor, developed Standard time (b. 1827) 1916 – James Whitcomb Riley, American poet and author (b. 1849) 1918 – Indra Lal Roy, Indian lieutenant and first Indian fighter aircraft pilot (b. 1898) 1920 – William Kissam Vanderbilt, American businessman and horse breeder (b. 1849) 1922 – Jōkichi Takamine, Japanese-American chemist and academic (b. 1854) 1932 – J. Meade Falkner, English author and poet (b. 1858) 1932 – Reginald Fessenden, Canadian inventor and academic (b. 1866) 1932 – Errico Malatesta, Italian activist and author (b. 1853) 1932 – Flo Ziegfeld, American actor and producer (b. 1867) 1934 – John Dillinger, American gangster (b. 1903) 1937 – Ted McDonald, Australian cricketer and footballer (b. 1891) 1940 – George Fuller, Australian politician, 22nd Premier of New South Wales (b. 1861) 1940 – Albert Young, American boxer and promoter (b. 1877) 1948 – Rūdolfs Jurciņš, Latvian basketball player (b. 1909) 1950 – William Lyon Mackenzie King, Canadian economist and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1874) 1958 – Mikhail Zoshchenko, Ukrainian-Russian soldier and author (b. 1895) 1967 – Carl Sandburg, American poet and historian (b. 1878) 1968 – Giovannino Guareschi, Italian journalist and cartoonist (b. 1908) 1970 – George Johnston, Australian journalist and author (b. 1912) 1974 – Wayne Morse, American lawyer and politician (b. 1900) 1979 – J. V. Cain, American football player (b. 1951) 1979 – Sándor Kocsis, Hungarian footballer and manager (b. 1929) 1986 – Floyd Gottfredson, American author and illustrator (b. 1905) 1986 – Ede Staal, Dutch singer-songwriter (b. 1941) 1987 – Fahrettin Kerim Gökay, Turkish physician and politician, Turkish Minister of Health (b. 1900) 1990 – Manuel Puig, Argentinian author, playwright, and screenwriter (b. 1932) 1990 – Eduard Streltsov, Soviet footballer (b. 1937) 1992 – David Wojnarowicz, American painter, photographer, and activist (b. 1954) 1995 – Harold Larwood, English-Australian cricketer (b. 1904) 1996 – Rob Collins, English keyboard player (b. 1956) 1998 – Fritz Buchloh, German footballer and coach (b. 1909) 2000 – Eric Christmas, English-born Canadian actor (b. 1916) 2000 – Carmen Martín Gaite, Spanish author, poet, and playwright (b. 1925) 2000 – Raymond Lemieux, Canadian chemist and academic (b. 1920) 2000 – Claude Sautet, French director and screenwriter (b. 1924) 2001 – Indro Montanelli, Italian journalist and historian (b. 1909) 2004 – Sacha Distel, French singer and guitarist (b. 1933) 2004 – Illinois Jacquet, American saxophonist and composer (b. 1922) 2005 – Eugene Record, American singer-songwriter and producer
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by Indian Space Research Organisation after Chandrayaan 1 is launched from Satish Dhawan Space Centre in a GSLV Mark III M1. It consists of a lunar orbiter, and also included the Vikram lander, and the Pragyan lunar rover. Births Pre-1600 1210 – Joan of England, Queen of Scotland (d. 1238) 1437 – John Scrope, 5th Baron Scrope of Bolton, English Baron (d. 1498) 1476 – Zhu Youyuan, Ming Dynasty politician (d. 1519) 1478 – Philip I of Castile (d. 1506) 1531 – Leonhard Thurneysser, scholar at the court of the Elector of Brandenburg (d. 1595) 1535 – Katarina Stenbock, queen of Gustav I of Sweden (d. 1621) 1552 – Anthony Browne, Sheriff of Surrey and Kent (d. 1592) 1552 – Mary Wriothesley, Countess of Southampton, Lady of English peer and others (d. 1607) 1559 – Lawrence of Brindisi, Italian priest and saint (d. 1619) 1601–1900 1615 – Marguerite of Lorraine, princess of Lorraine, duchess of Orléans (d. 1672) 1618 – Johan Nieuhof, Dutch traveler (d. 1672) 1621 – Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, English politician, Lord Chancellor of the United Kingdom (d. 1683) 1630 – Madame de Brinvilliers, French aristocrat (d. 1676) 1647 – Margaret Mary Alacoque, French nun, mystic and saint (d. 1690) 1651 – Ferdinand Tobias Richter, Austrian organist and composer (d. 1711) 1711 – Georg Wilhelm Richmann, German-Russian physicist and academic (d. 1753) 1713 – Jacques-Germain Soufflot, French architect, designed the Panthéon (d. 1780) 1733 – Mikhail Shcherbatov, Russian philosopher and historian (d. 1790) 1755 – Gaspard de Prony, French mathematician and engineer (d. 1839) 1784 – Friedrich Bessel, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1846) 1820 – Oliver Mowat, Canadian politician, 3rd Premier of Ontario, 8th Lieutenant Governor of Ontario (d. 1903) 1839 – Jakob Hurt, Estonian theologist and linguist (d. 1907) 1844 – William Archibald Spooner, English priest and scholar (d. 1930) 1848 – Adolphus Frederick V, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (d. 1914) 1849 – Emma Lazarus, American poet and educator (d. 1887) 1856 – Octave Hamelin, French philosopher (d. 1907) 1862 – Cosmo Duff-Gordon, Scottish fencer (d. 1931) 1863 – Alec Hearne, English cricketer (d. 1952) 1878 – Janusz Korczak, Polish pediatrician and author (d. 1942) 1881 – Augusta Fox Bronner, American psychologist, specialist in juvenile psychology (d. 1966) 1882 – Edward Hopper, American painter and etcher (d. 1967) 1884 – Odell Shepard, American poet and politician, 66th Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut (d. 1967) 1886 – Hella Wuolijoki, Estonian-Finnish author (d. 1954) 1887 – Gustav Ludwig Hertz, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975) 1888 – Kirk Bryan, American geologist and academic (d. 1950) 1888 – Selman Waksman, Jewish-American biochemist and microbiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973) 1889 – James Whale, English director (d. 1957) 1890 – Rose Kennedy, American philanthropist (d. 1995) 1892 – Jack MacBryan, English cricketer and field hockey player (d. 1983) 1893 – Jesse Haines, American baseball player and coach (d. 1978) 1893 – Karl Menninger, American psychiatrist and author (d. 1990) 1895 – León de Greiff, Colombian poet, journalist, and diplomat (d. 1976) 1898 – Stephen Vincent Benét, American poet, short story writer, and novelist (d. 1943) 1899 – Sobhuza II of Swaziland (d. 1982) 1901–present 1908 – Amy Vanderbilt, American author (d. 1974) 1909 – Licia Albanese, Italian-American soprano and actress (d. 2014) 1909 – Dorino Serafini, Italian racing driver (d. 2000) 1910 – Ruthie Tompson, American animator and artist (d. 2021) 1913 – Gorni Kramer, Italian bassist, songwriter, and bandleader (d. 1995) 1915 – Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah, Indian-Pakistani politician and diplomat (d. 2000) 1916 – Gino Bianco, Brazilian racing driver (d. 1984) 1916 – Marcel Cerdan, French boxer (d. 1949) 1921 – William Roth, American lawyer and politician (d. 2003) 1923 – Bob Dole, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 2021) 1923 – César Fernández Ardavín, Spanish director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012) 1924 – Margaret Whiting, American singer (d. 2011) 1925 – Jack Matthews, American author, playwright, and academic (d. 2013) 1925 – Joseph Sargent, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2014) 1926 – Bryan Forbes, English actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013) 1926 – Wolfgang Iser, German scholar, literary theorist (d. 2007) 1927 – Johan Ferner, Norwegian sailor (d. 2015) 1928 – Orson Bean, American actor (d. 2020) 1928 – Jimmy Hill, English footballer, manager, and sportscaster (d. 2015) 1929 – John Barber, English racing driver (d. 2015) 1929 – Leonid Stolovich, Russian-Estonian philosopher and academic (d. 2013) 1929 – Neil Welliver, American painter (d. 2005) 1929 – Baselios Thomas I, Indian bishop 1931 – Leo Labine, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2005) 1932 – Oscar de la Renta, Dominican-American fashion designer (d. 2014) 1932 – Tom Robbins, American novelist 1934 – Junior Cook, American saxophonist (d. 1992) 1934 – Louise Fletcher, American actress 1934 – Leon Rotman, Romanian canoeist 1935 – Tom Cartwright, English-Welsh cricketer and coach (d. 2007) 1936 – Don Patterson, American organist (d. 1988) 1936 – Harold Rhodes, English cricketer 1936 – Geraldine Claudette Darden, American mathematician 1937 – Chuck Jackson, American R&B singer and songwriter 1937 – Yasuhiro Kojima, Japanese-American wrestler and manager (d. 1999) 1937 – John Price, English cricketer 1937 – Vasant Ranjane, Indian cricketer (d. 2011) 1938 – Terence Stamp, English actor 1940 – Judith Walzer Leavitt, American historian and academic 1940 – Alex Trebek, Canadian-American game show host and producer (d. 2020) 1941 – Estelle Bennett, American singer (d. 2009) 1941 – Vaughn Bodē, American illustrator (d. 1975) 1941 – George Clinton, American singer-songwriter and producer 1941 – David M. Kennedy, American historian and author 1942 – Michael Abney-Hastings, 14th Earl of Loudoun, English-Australian politician (d. 2012) 1942 – Peter Habeler, Austrian mountaineer and skier 1942 – Les Johns, Australian rugby league player and coach 1943 – Masaru Emoto, Japanese author and activist (d. 2014) 1943 – Kay Bailey Hutchison, American lawyer and politician 1943 – Bobby Sherman, American singer-songwriter and actor 1944 – Rick Davies, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1944 – Sparky Lyle, American baseball player and manager 1944 – Anand Satyanand, New Zealand lawyer, judge, and politician, 19th Governor-General of New Zealand 1945 – Philip Cohen, English biochemist and academic 1946 – Danny Glover, American actor, director, and producer 1946 – Paul Schrader, American director and screenwriter 1946 – Rolando Joven Tria Tirona, Filipino archbishop 1946 – Johnson Toribiong, Palauan lawyer and politician, 7th President of Palau 1947 – Albert Brooks, American actor, comedian, director, and screenwriter 1947 – Gilles Duceppe, Canadian politician 1947 – Don Henley, American singer-songwriter and drummer 1948 – Neil Hardwick, British–Finnish theatre and television director 1948 – S. E. Hinton, American author 1949 – Alan Menken, American pianist and composer 1949 – Lasse Virén, Finnish runner and police officer 1951 – Richard Bennett, American guitarist and producer 1951 – J. V. Cain, American football player (d. 1979) 1951 – Patriarch Daniel of Romania 1953 – Brian Howe, English singer-songwriter 1954 – Al Di Meola, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1954 – Steve LaTourette, American lawyer and politician (d. 2016) 1954 – Lonette McKee, American actress and singer 1954 – Ingrid Daubechies, Belgian physicist and mathematician 1955 – Richard J. Corman, American businessman, founded the R.J. Corman Railroad Group (d. 2013) 1955 – Willem Dafoe, American actor 1956 – Mick Pointer, English neo-progressive rock drummer 1956 – Scott Sanderson, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2019) 1957 – Dave Stieb, American baseball player 1958 – Tatsunori Hara, Japanese baseball player and coach 1958 – David Von Erich, American wrestler (d. 1984) 1960 – Jon Oliva, American singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1961 – Calvin Fish, English racing driver and sportscaster 1961 – Keith Sweat, American singer-songwriter and producer 1962 – Alvin Robertson, American basketball player 1962 – Martine St. Clair, Canadian singer and actress 1963 – Emilio Butragueño, Spanish footballer 1963 – Emily Saliers, American singer-songwriter and musician 1964 – Will Calhoun, American rock drummer 1964 – Bonnie Langford, English actress and dancer 1964 – John Leguizamo, Colombian-American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1964 – David Spade, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1965 – Derrick Dalley, Canadian educator and politician 1965 – Shawn Michaels, American wrestler, trainer, and actor 1965 – Richard B. Poore, New Zealand humanitarian 1965 – Doug Riesenberg, American football player and coach 1966 – Tim Brown, American football player and manager 1967 – Lauren Booth, English journalist and activist 1967 – Rhys Ifans, Welsh actor 1969 – Despina Vandi, German-Greek singer and actress 1970 – Jason Becker, American guitarist and songwriter 1970 – Steve Carter, Australian rugby league player 1970 – Sergei Zubov, Russian ice hockey player and coach 1972 – Franco Battaini, Italian motorcycle racer 1972 – Colin Ferguson, Canadian actor, director, and producer 1972 – Seth Fisher, American illustrator (d. 2006) 1972 – Keyshawn Johnson, American football player and sportscaster 1973 – Brian Chippendale, American singer and drummer 1973 – Mike Sweeney, American baseball player and sportscaster 1973 – Ece Temelkuran, Turkish journalist and author 1973 – Rufus Wainwright, American-Canadian singer-songwriter 1974 – Franka Potente, German actress 1977 – Ezio Galon, Italian rugby player 1977 – Ingo Hertzsch, German footballer 1977 – Gustavo Nery, Brazilian footballer 1978 – Runako Morton, Nevisian cricketer (d. 2012) 1978 – Dennis Rommedahl, Danish footballer 1979 – Lucas Luhr, German racing driver 1979 – Yadel Martí, Cuban baseball player 1980 – Dirk Kuyt, Dutch footballer 1980 – Kate Ryan, Belgian singer-songwriter 1980 – Tablo, South Korean-Canadian rapper 1982 – Nuwan Kulasekara, Sri Lankan cricketer 1983 – Aldo de Nigris, Mexican footballer 1983 – Dries Devenyns, Belgian cyclist 1983 – Steven Jackson, American football player 1983 – Andreas Ulvo, Norwegian pianist 1984 – Stewart Downing, English footballer 1985 – Jessica Abbott, Australian swimmer 1985 – Takudzwa Ngwenya, Zimbabwean-American rugby player 1985 – Akira Tozawa, Japanese wrestler 1986 – Stevie Johnson, American football player 1986 – Colin de Grandhomme, Zimbabwean-New Zealand cricketer 1987 – Denis Gargaud Chanut, French slalom canoeist 1987 – Charlotte Kalla, Swedish skier 1988 – William Buick, Norwegian-British flat jockey 1988 – Paul Coutts, Scottish footballer 1988 – Thomas Kraft, German footballer 1988 – Sercan Temizyürek, Turkish footballer 1989 – Keegan Allen, American actor, photographer and musician 1991 – Matty James, English footballer 1992 – Anja Aguilar, Filipino actress and singer 1992 – Selena Gomez, American singer and actress 1992 – Carolin Schnarre, German Paralympic equestrian 1993 – Dzhokhar Tsarnaev,
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and was sent in 1750 as a missionary to China. He soon won the confidence of the Qianlong Emperor and spent the remainder of his life at Beijing. He was a correspondent of the Académie des Sciences, official translator of Western languages for the Qianlong Emperor, and the spiritual leader of the French mission in Peking. He died in Peking in 1793, two days after the departure of the British Macartney Embassy. He could not meet Lord Macartney, but exhorted him to patience in two letters, explaining that "this world is the reverse of our own". He used a Chinese name (Qian De-Ming ) while he was in China. Works Amiot made good use of the advantages which his situation afforded, and his works did more than any before to make known to the Western world the thought and life of the Far East. His Manchu dictionary Dictionnaire tartare-mantchou-français (Paris, 1789) was a work of great value, the language having been previously quite unknown in Europe. In 1772 he translated The Art of War, one of the most influential war strategy and tactics treatises in military history, written around the 6th century BCE and attributed to General Sun Tzu, into French. The first successful translation to English would not be achieved before another 138 years, in 1910. His other writings are to be found chiefly in the Mémoires concernant l'histoire, les sciences et les arts des Chinois
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with Rameau's harpsichord piece Les sauvages, a suite that was later reworked as part of Rameau's opera-ballet Les Indes galantes. Amiot was the first European to comment on the Chinese yo-yo. Amiot was the first European to ship free-reeded instruments from the orient to Europe. The introduction of the sheng was to set off an era of experimentation in free-reeded instruments that would ultimately lead to the invention of the harmonica. See also Catholic Church in China François Noël Jesuit China missions References Citation Sources Further reading Ching Wah LAM, "A Highlight of French Jesuit Scholarship in China: Jean-Joseph-Marie Amiot's Writings on Chinese Music", CHIME, Journal of European Foundation for Chinese Music Research, Leiden, 2005, 16-17: 127–147. Jim LEVY, "Joseph Amiot and Enlightenment Speculation on the Origins of Pythagorean Tuning", "THEORIA, University of North Texas Journal of Music Theory", Denton, 1989, 4: 63-88 1718 births 1793 deaths 18th-century French Jesuits Linguists from France French
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popular poetry of the Scandinavian countries in an extended tour in northern Europe. Returning to France in 1830, he delivered a series of lectures on Scandinavian and early German poetry at the Athenaeum in Marseille. The first of these was printed as De l'Histoire de la poésie (1830), and was practically the first introduction of the French public to the Scandinavian and German epics. Moving to Paris, he taught at the Sorbonne, and became professor of the history of French literature at the Collège de France. A journey in northern Africa (1841) was followed by a tour in Greece and
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l'Histoire de la poésie (1830), and was practically the first introduction of the French public to the Scandinavian and German epics. Moving to Paris, he taught at the Sorbonne, and became professor of the history of French literature at the Collège de France. A journey in northern Africa (1841) was followed by a tour in Greece and Italy, in company with Prosper Mérimée, Jean de Witte and Charles Lenormant. This bore fruit in his Voyage dantesque (printed in his Grèce, Rome et Dante, 1848), which did much to popularize the study of Dante
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their election—"the Greeks had chosen wisdom as their pursuit; the Romans, power; and the Jews, religiousness" (l.c. 103b). If, however, a non-Jew devotes himself to serious search after divine truth, his merit is so much the more significant; and whatever suggestion he may have to offer, no Jew dares refuse with levity. Anatoli and Michael Scot An example of such intellectual catholicity was set by Anatoli himself; for, in the course of his "Malmad," he not only cites incidentally allegoric suggestions made to him by Frederick II., but several times—Güdemann has counted seventeen—he offers the exegetic remarks of a certain Christian savant of whose association he speaks most reverently, and whom, furthermore, he names as his second master besides Samuel ibn Tibbon. This Christian savant was identified by Senior Sachs as Michael Scot, who, like Anatoli, devoted himself to scientific work at the court of Frederick. Graetz even goes to the length of regarding Anatoli as identical with the Jew Andreas, who, according to Roger Bacon, assisted Michael Scot in his philosophic translations from the Arabic, seeing that Andreas might be a corruption of Anatoli. But Steinschneider will not admit the possibility of this conjecture, while Renan scarcely strengthens it by regarding "Andreas" as a possible northern corruption of "En Duran," which, he says, may have been the Provençal surname of Anatoli, since Anatoli, in reality, was but the name of his great-grandfather. Anatoli's example of broad-minded study of Christian literature and intercourse with Christian scholars found many followers, as, for example, Moses ben Solomon of Salerno; and his work was an important factor in bringing the Jews of Italy into close contact with their Christian fellow students. Anatoli as translator The "Malmad," owing to its deep ethical vein, became, despite its Maimonistic heresies, a very popular book. It is rather as a translator that Anatoli deserves a distinguished place in the scientific realm; for it is he and Michael Scot who together, under the influence of Frederick II, opened to the western world the treasure-house of Arabic learning. Anatoli, in fact, was the first man to translate the commentaries of Averroes into Hebrew, thus opening a new era in the history of Aristotelian philosophy. Prior to translating Averroes' commentaries, Anatoli had occupied himself with the translation of astronomical treatises by the same writer and others; but at the instance of friends he turned his attention to logic and the speculative works, realizing and recommending the importance of logic, in particular, in view of the contemporary religious controversies. Thenceforth, his program was twofold, as he devoted himself to his work in astronomy in the mornings, and to logic in the evenings. His principal translation embraced the first five books of Averroes' "intermediate" commentary on Aristotle's Logic, consisting of the Introduction of Porphyry and the four books of Aristotle on the Categories, Interpretation, Syllogism, and Demonstration. Anatoli probably commenced his work on the commentary while in Provence, though he must have finished the fifth book at Naples about 1231 or 1232. The conclusion of the commentary was never reached. Upon the ending of the first division he desired to go over the ground again, to acquire greater proficiency, and, for some reason unknown, he never resumed his task, which was completed by another after a lapse of eighty years. Besides this, Anatoli translated, between the years 1231 and 1235, the following works: (1) The Almagest of Ptolemy, from the Arabic, though probably the Greek or Latin title of this treatise was also familiar to him. Its Hebrew title is Ḥibbur ha-Gadol ha-Niḳra al-Magesti (The Great Composition Called Almagest). (2) A Compendium of Astronomy, by Averroes, a book which was unknown to the Christians of the Middle Ages, and of which neither a manuscript of the original nor a Latin translation has come down. Its Hebrew title is Ḳiẓẓur al-Magesti (Compendium of the Almagest). (3) The Elements of Astronomy, by Al-Fargani (Alfraganus); possibly translated from a Latin version. It was afterward rendered into Latin by Jacob Christmann (Frankfort, 1590) under the title of Elementa Astronomica, which, in its turn, may have given rise to the Hebrew title of the treatise Yesodot ha-Teḳunah, which is undoubtedly recent. (4) A treatise on the Syllogism, by Al-Farabi, from the Arabic. Its Hebrew title is Sefer Heḳesh Ḳaẓar (A Brief Treatise on the Syllogism). Graetz also suggests the possibility that Anatoli, in conjunction with Michael Scot, may have translated Maimonides' Guide for the Perplexed into Latin; but this suggestion has not yet been sufficiently proved (compare Steinschneider, "Hebr. Uebers." i. 433). Similarly, the anonymous commentary on the Guide, called Ruaḥ Ḥen, though sometimes attributed to Anatoli, can not definitely be established as his. Still, it is on an allusion in this work that Zunz, followed by Steinschneider, partly bases the hypothesis of Marseille having been Anatoli's original home (compare Zunz, "Zur Gesch." p. 482; Renan-Neubauer, "Les Rabbins Français,"
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imitation of surrounding manners. Scientific investigation he insists upon as an absolute necessity for the true comprehension of religion, despite the fact that his contemporaries regarded all the hours which he was accustomed to spend with his father-in-law, Samuel ibn Tibbon, in mathematical and philosophic study as mere waste of time. The Malmad The Malmad is divided into brief chapters, according to the weekly Scriptural portions. In it Anatoli manifests a wide acquaintance not only with the classic Jewish exegetes, but also with Plato, Aristotle, Averroes, and the Vulgate, as well as with a large number of Christian institutions, some of which he ventures to criticize, such as celibacy and monastic castigation, as well as certain heretics (compare 15a, 98a, 115a); and he repeatedly appeals to his readers for a broader cultivation of the classic languages and the profane branches of learning. He indignantly repudiates the fanatical view of some coreligionists that all non-Jews have no souls —a belief reciprocated by the Gentiles of the time. To Anatoli all men are, in truth, formed in the image of God, though the Jews stand under a particular obligation to further the true cognition of God simply by reason of their election—"the Greeks had chosen wisdom as their pursuit; the Romans, power; and the Jews, religiousness" (l.c. 103b). If, however, a non-Jew devotes himself to serious search after divine truth, his merit is so much the more significant; and whatever suggestion he may have to offer, no Jew dares refuse with levity. Anatoli and Michael Scot An example of such intellectual catholicity was set by Anatoli himself; for, in the course of his "Malmad," he not only cites incidentally allegoric suggestions made to him by Frederick II., but several times—Güdemann has counted seventeen—he offers the exegetic remarks of a certain Christian savant of whose association he speaks most reverently, and whom, furthermore, he names as his second master besides Samuel ibn Tibbon. This Christian savant was identified by Senior Sachs as Michael Scot, who, like Anatoli, devoted himself to scientific work at the court of Frederick. Graetz even goes to the length of regarding Anatoli as identical with the Jew Andreas, who, according to Roger Bacon, assisted Michael Scot in his philosophic translations from the Arabic, seeing that Andreas might be a corruption of Anatoli. But Steinschneider will not admit the possibility of this conjecture, while Renan scarcely strengthens it by regarding "Andreas" as a possible northern corruption of "En Duran," which, he says, may have been the Provençal surname of Anatoli, since Anatoli, in reality, was but the name of his great-grandfather. Anatoli's example of broad-minded study of Christian literature and intercourse with Christian scholars found many followers, as, for example, Moses ben Solomon of Salerno; and his work was an important factor in bringing the Jews of Italy into close contact with their Christian fellow students. Anatoli as translator The "Malmad," owing to its deep ethical vein, became, despite its Maimonistic heresies, a very popular book. It is rather as a translator that Anatoli deserves a distinguished place in the scientific realm; for it is he and Michael Scot who together, under the influence of Frederick II, opened to the western world the treasure-house of Arabic learning. Anatoli, in fact, was the first man to translate the commentaries of Averroes into Hebrew, thus opening a new era in the history of Aristotelian philosophy. Prior to translating Averroes' commentaries, Anatoli had occupied himself with the translation of astronomical treatises by the same writer and others; but at the instance of friends he turned his attention to logic and the speculative works, realizing and recommending the importance of logic, in particular, in view of the contemporary religious controversies. Thenceforth, his program was twofold, as he devoted himself to his work in astronomy in the mornings, and to logic in the evenings. His principal translation embraced the first five books of Averroes' "intermediate" commentary on Aristotle's Logic, consisting of the Introduction of Porphyry and the four books of Aristotle on the Categories, Interpretation, Syllogism, and Demonstration. Anatoli probably commenced his work on the commentary while in Provence, though he must have finished the fifth book at Naples about 1231 or 1232. The conclusion of the commentary was never reached. Upon the ending of the first division he desired to go over the ground again, to acquire greater proficiency, and, for some reason unknown, he never resumed his task, which was completed by another after a lapse of eighty years. Besides this, Anatoli translated, between the years 1231 and 1235, the following works:
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to the Muslim Ottoman landowners. In Bosnia and Herzegovina elected provincial councils were to be established, life-term judges appointed and individual liberties guaranteed. Finally, a mixed commission of Muslims and Christians was to be empowered to watch over the carrying out of these reforms. The fact that the sultan would be responsible to Europe for the realization of his promises would serve to allay the natural suspicions of the insurgents. To this plan both Britain and France gave a general assent, and the Andrássy Note was adopted as the basis of negotiations. When war became inevitable between Russia and the Porte, Andrássy arranged with the Russian court that, in case Russia prevailed, the status quo should not be changed to the detriment of the Austrian monarchy. When, however, the Treaty of San Stefano threatened a Russian hegemony in the Near East, Andrássy concurred with the German and British courts that the final adjustment of matters must be submitted to a European congress. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878 he was the principal Austrian plenipotentiary, and directed his efforts to diminish the gains of Russia and aggrandize the Dual Monarchy. Before the Congress opened on 13 June, negotiations between Andrássy and the British Foreign Secretary Marquess of Salisbury had already "ended on 6 June by Britain agreeing to all the Austrian proposals relative to Bosnia-Herzegovina about to come before the congress while Austria would support British demands". In addition to the occupation and administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Andrássy also obtained the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, which remained under Ottoman administration. The Sanjak preserved the separation of Serbia and Montenegro, and the Austro-Hungarian garrisons there would open the way for a dash to Salonika that "would bring the western half of the Balkans under permanent Austrian influence". "High [Austro-Hungarian] military authorities desired [an ...] immediate major expedition with Salonika as its objective". This occupation was most unpopular in Hungary, both for financial reasons and because of the strong philo-Turk sentiments of the Magyars. On 28 September 1878 the Finance Minister, Koloman von Zell, threatened to resign if the army, behind which stood the Archduke Albert, were allowed to advance to Salonika. In the session of the Hungarian Parliament of 5 November 1878 the Opposition proposed that the Foreign Minister should be impeached for violating the constitution by his policy during the Near East Crisis and by the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The motion was lost by 179 to 95. By the Opposition rank and file the gravest accusations were raised against Andrassy. On 10 October 1878 the French diplomat Melchior de Vogüé described the situation as follows: Particularly in Hungary the dissatisfaction caused by this "adventure" has reached the gravest proportions, prompted by that strong conservative instinct which animates the Magyar race and is the secret of its destinies. This vigorous and exclusive instinct explains the historical phenomenon of an isolated group, small in numbers yet dominating a country inhabited by a majority of peoples of different races and conflicting aspirations, and playing a role in European affairs out of all proportions to its numerical importance or intellectual culture. This instinct is to-day awakened and gives warning that it feels the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina to be a menace which, by introducing fresh Slav elements into the Hungarian political organism and providing a wider field and further recruitment of the Croat opposition, would upset the unstable equilibrium in which the Magyar domination is poised. Andrássy felt constrained to bow before the storm, and he placed his resignation in the emperor's hands (8 October 1879). The day before his retirement he signed the offensive-defensive alliance with Germany, which placed the foreign relations of Austria-Hungary once more on a stable footing. Later life After his retirement, Andrássy continued to take an active part in public affairs both in the Delegations and in the Upper House. In 1885 he warmly supported the project for the reform of the House of Magnates, but on the other hand he jealously defended the inviolability of the Composition of 1867, and on 5 March 1889 in his place in the Upper House spoke against any particularist tampering with the common army. In the last years of his life he regained his popularity, and his death on 18 February 1890, aged 66, was mourned as a national calamity. There is a plaque dedicated to him in the town of Volosko where he died (between Rijeka and Opatija in present-day Croatia). It is located just above the restaurant Amfora. He was the first Magyar statesman who, for centuries, had occupied a European position. It has been said that he united in himself the Magyar magnate with the modern gentleman. His motto was: "It is hard to promise, but it is easy to perform." Family Andrássy married countess
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Andrassy who recovered for her proper place in the European concert. First he approached the German emperor; then more satisfactory relations were established with the courts of Italy and Russia by means of conferences at Berlin, Vienna, St Petersburg and Venice. The "Andrássy Note" The recovered influence of Austria was evident in the negotiations which followed the outbreak of serious disturbances in Bosnia in 1875. The three courts of Vienna, Berlin and St Petersburg reached an understanding as to their attitude in the Eastern question, and their views were embodied in the dispatch, known as the "Andrássy Note", sent on 30 December 1875 by Andrássy to Count Beust, the Austrian ambassador to the Court of St James. In it he pointed out that the efforts of the powers to localize the revolt seemed in danger of failure, that the rebels were still holding their own, and that the Ottoman promises of reform, embodied in various firmans, were no more than vague statements of principle which had never had, and were probably not intended to have, any local application. In order to avert the risk of a general conflagration, therefore, he urged that the time had come for concerted action of the powers for the purpose of pressing the Porte to fulfil its promises. A sketch of the more essential reforms followed: the recognition rather than the toleration of the Christian religion; the abolition of the system of farming the taxes; and, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the religious was complicated by an agrarian question, the conversion of the Christian peasants into free proprietors, to rescue them from their double subjection to the Muslim Ottoman landowners. In Bosnia and Herzegovina elected provincial councils were to be established, life-term judges appointed and individual liberties guaranteed. Finally, a mixed commission of Muslims and Christians was to be empowered to watch over the carrying out of these reforms. The fact that the sultan would be responsible to Europe for the realization of his promises would serve to allay the natural suspicions of the insurgents. To this plan both Britain and France gave a general assent, and the Andrássy Note was adopted as the basis of negotiations. When war became inevitable between Russia and the Porte, Andrássy arranged with the Russian court that, in case Russia prevailed, the status quo should not be changed to the detriment of the Austrian monarchy. When, however, the Treaty of San Stefano threatened a Russian hegemony in the Near East, Andrássy concurred with the German and British courts that the final adjustment of matters must be submitted to a European congress. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878 he was the principal Austrian plenipotentiary, and directed his efforts to diminish the gains of Russia and aggrandize the Dual Monarchy. Before the Congress opened on 13 June, negotiations between Andrássy and the British Foreign Secretary Marquess of Salisbury had already "ended on 6 June by Britain agreeing to all the Austrian proposals relative to Bosnia-Herzegovina about to come before the congress while Austria would support British demands". In addition to the occupation and administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Andrássy also obtained the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, which remained under Ottoman administration. The Sanjak preserved the separation of Serbia and Montenegro, and the Austro-Hungarian garrisons there would open the way for a dash to Salonika that "would bring the western half of the Balkans under permanent Austrian influence". "High [Austro-Hungarian] military authorities desired [an ...] immediate major expedition with Salonika as its objective". This occupation was most unpopular in Hungary, both for financial reasons and because of the strong philo-Turk sentiments of the Magyars. On 28 September 1878 the Finance Minister, Koloman von Zell, threatened to resign if the army, behind which stood the Archduke Albert, were allowed to advance to Salonika. In the session of the Hungarian Parliament of 5 November 1878 the Opposition proposed that the Foreign Minister should be impeached for violating the constitution by his policy during the Near East Crisis and by the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The motion was lost by 179 to 95. By the Opposition rank and file the gravest accusations were raised against Andrassy. On 10 October 1878 the French diplomat Melchior de Vogüé described the situation as follows: Particularly in Hungary the dissatisfaction caused by this "adventure" has reached the gravest proportions, prompted by that strong conservative instinct which animates the Magyar race and is the secret of its destinies. This vigorous and exclusive instinct explains the historical phenomenon of an isolated group, small in numbers yet dominating a country inhabited by a majority of peoples of different races and conflicting aspirations,
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computers to perform one task or another that humans also perform (i.e., whether Artificial Intelligence is achievable or not) is irrelevant to the question of whether computers can be put to a given task. Instead, Weizenbaum asserts that the definition of tasks and the selection of criteria for their completion is a creative act that relies on human values, which cannot come from computers. Weizenbaum makes the crucial distinction between deciding and choosing. Deciding is a computational activity, something that can ultimately be programmed. Choice, however, is the product of judgment, not calculation. In deploying computers to make decisions that humans once made, the agent doing so has made a choice based on their values that will have particular, non-neutral consequences for the subjects who will experience the outcomes of the computerized decisions that the agent has instituted. Returning to roots In 1996, Weizenbaum moved to Berlin and lived in the vicinity of his childhood neighborhood. A German documentary film on Weizenbaum, "Weizenbaum. Rebel at Work.", was released in 2007 and later dubbed in English. The documentary film Plug & Pray on Weizenbaum and the ethics of artificial intelligence was released in 2010. Until his death he was Chairman of the Scientific Council at the Institute of Electronic Business in Berlin. In addition to working at MIT, Weizenbaum held academic appointments at Harvard, Stanford, the University of Bremen, and other universities. Weizenbaum was buried at the Weißensee Jewish cemetery in Berlin. A memorial service was held in Berlin on 18 March 2008. Works "ELIZA — A Computer Program for the Study of Natural Language Communication between Man and Machine," Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery 9 (1966): 36-45. Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment To Calculation, San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1976 Islands in the Cyberstream: Seeking Havens of Reason in a Programmed Society, Sacramento: Litwin Books, 2015 Foreword to Renewal of the Social Organism by Rudolf Steiner, Anthroposophic Press, 1985 (cloth) (pbk.) See also Artificial intelligence and human dignity Artificial Intelligence Dialogue system Psychology Mike Cooley References External
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fears, expanding them beyond the realm of mere artificial intelligence, explaining that his fears for society and the future of society were largely because of the computer itself. His belief was that the computer, at its most base level, is a fundamentally conservative force and that despite being a technological innovation, it would end up hindering social progress. Weizenbaum used his experience working with Bank of America as justification for his reasoning, saying that the computer allowed banks to deal with an ever-expanding number of checks in play that otherwise would have forced drastic changes to banking organization such as decentralization. As such, although the computer allowed the industry to become more efficient, it prevented a fundamental re-haul of the system. Despite working so closely with computers for many years, Weizenbaum frequently worried about the negative effects they would have on the world, particularly with regards to the military, calling the computer "a child of the military." When asked about the belief that a computer science professional would more often than not end up working with defense, Weizenbaum detailed his position on rhetoric, specifically euphemism, with regards to its effect on societal viewpoints. He believed that the terms "the military" and "defense" did not accurately represent the organizations and their actions. He made it clear that he did not think of himself as a pacifist, believing that there are certainly times where arms are necessary, but by referring to defense as killings and bombings, humanity as a whole would be less inclined to embrace violent reactions so quickly. Difference between Deciding and Choosing His influential 1976 book Computer Power and Human Reason displays his ambivalence towards computer technology and lays out his case: the possibility of programming computers to perform one task or another that humans also perform (i.e., whether Artificial Intelligence is achievable or
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or "not in the canon". His Preface to the Books of Samuel and Kings (commonly called the Helmeted Preface) includes the following statement, : This preface to the Scriptures may serve as a "helmeted" introduction to all the books which we turn from Hebrew into Latin, so that we may be assured that what is not found in our list must be placed amongst the Apocryphal writings. Wisdom, therefore, which generally bears the name of Solomon, and the book of Jesus, the Son of Sirach, and Judith, and Tobias, and the Shepherd are not in the canon. The first book of Maccabees I have found to be Hebrew, the second is Greek, as can be proved from the very style. Although Jerome was once suspicious of the Apocrypha, he later viewed them as Scripture. For example, in Jerome's letter to Eustochium he quotes Sirach 13:2; elsewhere Jerome also refers to Baruch, the Story of Susannah and Wisdom as scripture. Jerome's commentaries fall into three groups: Historical and hagiographic writings Description of vitamin A deficiency The following passage, taken from Saint Jerome's "Life of St. Hilarion" which was written about 392, appears to be the earliest account of the etiology, symptoms and cure of severe vitamin A deficiency: Letters Jerome's letters or epistles, both by the great variety of their subjects and by their qualities of style, form an important portion of his literary remains. Whether he is discussing problems of scholarship, or reasoning on cases of conscience, comforting the afflicted, or saying pleasant things to his friends, scourging the vices and corruptions of the time and against sexual immorality among the clergy, exhorting to the ascetic life and renunciation of the world, or breaking a lance with his theological opponents, he gives a vivid picture not only of his own mind, but of the age and its peculiar characteristics. Because there was no distinct line between personal documents and those meant for publication, we frequently find in his letters both confidential messages and treatises meant for others besides the one to whom he was writing. Due to the time he spent in Rome among wealthy families belonging to the Roman upper-class, Jerome was frequently commissioned by women who had taken a vow of virginity to write to them in guidance of how to live their life. As a result, he spent a great deal of his life corresponding with these women about certain abstentions and lifestyle practices. Theological writings Eschatology Jerome warned that those substituting false interpretations for the actual meaning of Scripture belonged to the "synagogue of the Antichrist". "He that is not of Christ is of Antichrist," he wrote to Pope Damasus I. He believed that "the mystery of iniquity" written about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7 was already in action when "every one chatters about his views." To Jerome, the power restraining this mystery of iniquity was the Roman Empire, but as it fell this restraining force was removed. He warned a noble woman of Gaul: He that letteth is taken out of the way, and yet we do not realize that Antichrist is near. Yes, Antichrist is near whom the Lord Jesus Christ "shall consume with the spirit of his mouth." "Woe unto them," he cries, "that are with child, and to them that give suck in those days."... Savage tribes in countless numbers have overrun run all parts of Gaul. The whole country between the Alps and the Pyrenees, between the Rhine and the Ocean, has been laid waste by hordes of Quadi, Vandals, Sarmatians, Alans, Gepids, Herules, Saxons, Burgundians, Allemanni, and—alas! for the commonweal!—even Pannonians. His Commentary on Daniel was expressly written to offset the criticisms of Porphyry, who taught that Daniel related entirely to the time of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and was written by an unknown individual living in the second century BC. Against Porphyry, Jerome identified Rome as the fourth kingdom of chapters two and seven, but his view of chapters eight and 11 was more complex. Jerome held that chapter eight describes the activity of Antiochus Epiphanes, who is understood as a "type" of a future antichrist; 11:24 onwards applies primarily to a future antichrist but was partially fulfilled by Antiochus. Instead, he advocated that the "little horn" was the Antichrist: We should therefore concur with the traditional interpretation of all the commentators of the Christian Church, that at the end of the world, when the Roman Empire is to be destroyed, there shall be ten kings who will partition the Roman world amongst themselves. Then an insignificant eleventh king will arise, who will overcome three of the ten kings. ...After they have been slain, the seven other kings also will bow their necks to the victor. In his Commentary on Daniel, he noted, "Let us not follow the opinion of some commentators and suppose him to be either the Devil or some demon, but rather, one of the human race, in whom Satan will wholly take up his residence in bodily form." Instead of rebuilding the Jewish Temple to reign from, Jerome thought the Antichrist sat in God's Temple inasmuch as he made "himself out to be like God." Jerome identified the four prophetic kingdoms symbolized in Daniel 2 as the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the Medes and Persians, Macedon, and Rome. Jerome identified the stone cut out without hands as "namely, the Lord and Savior". Jerome refuted Porphyry's application of the little horn of chapter seven to Antiochus. He expected that at the end of the world, Rome would be destroyed, and partitioned among ten kingdoms before the little horn appeared. Jerome believed that Cyrus of Persia is the higher of the two horns of the Medo-Persian ram of Daniel 8:3. The he-goat is Greece smiting Persia. Reception by later Christianity Jerome is the second most voluminous writer (after Augustine of Hippo) in ancient Latin Christianity. In the Catholic Church, he is recognized as the patron saint of translators, librarians and encyclopedists. Jerome made a translation from the Hebrew into Latin. His translation became part of the Vulgate; the Vulgate eventually superseded the preceding Latin translations (the Vetus Latina) and became known as. In the Council of Trent, the Vulgate was declared authoritative "in public lectures, disputations, sermons and expositions". Jerome showed more zeal and interest in the ascetic ideal than in abstract speculation. He lived as an ascetic for four or five years in the Syrian desert and later, for 34 years, near Bethlehem. Nevertheless, his writings show outstanding scholarship and his correspondence is historically of great importance. Jerome is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 30 September. In art Jerome is also often depicted with a lion, in reference to the popular hagiographical belief that Jerome had tamed a lion in the wilderness by healing its paw. The source for the story may actually have been the second century Roman tale of Androcles, or confusion with the exploits of Saint Gerasimus (Jerome in later Latin is "Geronimus"); it is "a
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Septuagint inspired. Modern scholarship, however, has sometimes cast doubts on the actual quality of Jerome's Hebrew knowledge. Many modern scholars believe that the Greek Hexapla is the main source for Jerome's "iuxta Hebraeos" (i.e. "close to the Hebrews", "immediately following the Hebrews") translation of the Old Testament. However, detailed studies have shown that to a considerable degree Jerome was a competent Hebraist. Commentaries (405–420) For the next 15 years, until he died, Jerome produced a number of commentaries on Scripture, often explaining his translation choices in using the original Hebrew rather than suspect translations. His patristic commentaries align closely with Jewish tradition, and he indulges in allegorical and mystical subtleties after the manner of Philo and the Alexandrian school. Unlike his contemporaries, he emphasizes the difference between the Hebrew Bible "Apocrypha" and the Hebraica veritas of the protocanonical books. In his Vulgate's prologues, he describes some portions of books in the Septuagint that were not found in the Hebrew as being non-canonical (he called them apocrypha); for Baruch, he mentions by name in his Prologue to Jeremiah and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon". His Preface to the Books of Samuel and Kings (commonly called the Helmeted Preface) includes the following statement, : This preface to the Scriptures may serve as a "helmeted" introduction to all the books which we turn from Hebrew into Latin, so that we may be assured that what is not found in our list must be placed amongst the Apocryphal writings. Wisdom, therefore, which generally bears the name of Solomon, and the book of Jesus, the Son of Sirach, and Judith, and Tobias, and the Shepherd are not in the canon. The first book of Maccabees I have found to be Hebrew, the second is Greek, as can be proved from the very style. Although Jerome was once suspicious of the Apocrypha, he later viewed them as Scripture. For example, in Jerome's letter to Eustochium he quotes Sirach 13:2; elsewhere Jerome also refers to Baruch, the Story of Susannah and Wisdom as scripture. Jerome's commentaries fall into three groups: Historical and hagiographic writings Description of vitamin A deficiency The following passage, taken from Saint Jerome's "Life of St. Hilarion" which was written about 392, appears to be the earliest account of the etiology, symptoms and cure of severe vitamin A deficiency: Letters Jerome's letters or epistles, both by the great variety of their subjects and by their qualities of style, form an important portion of his literary remains. Whether he is discussing problems of scholarship, or reasoning on cases of conscience, comforting the afflicted, or saying pleasant things to his friends, scourging the vices and corruptions of the time and against sexual immorality among the clergy, exhorting to the ascetic life and renunciation of the world, or breaking a lance with his theological opponents, he gives a vivid picture not only of his own mind, but of the age and its peculiar characteristics. Because there was no distinct line between personal documents and those meant for publication, we frequently find in his letters both confidential messages and treatises meant for others besides the one to whom he was writing. Due to the time he spent in Rome among wealthy families belonging to the Roman upper-class, Jerome was frequently commissioned by women who had taken a vow of virginity to write to them in guidance of how to live their life. As a result, he spent a great deal of his life corresponding with these women about certain abstentions and lifestyle practices. Theological writings Eschatology Jerome warned that those substituting false interpretations for the actual meaning of Scripture belonged to the "synagogue of the Antichrist". "He that is not of Christ is of Antichrist," he wrote to Pope Damasus I. He believed that "the mystery of iniquity" written about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7 was already in action when "every one chatters about his views." To Jerome, the power restraining this mystery of iniquity was the Roman Empire, but as it fell this restraining force was removed. He warned a noble woman of Gaul: He that letteth is taken out of the way, and yet we do not realize that Antichrist is near. Yes, Antichrist is near whom the Lord Jesus Christ "shall consume with the spirit of his mouth." "Woe unto them," he cries, "that are with child, and to them that give suck in those days."... Savage tribes in countless numbers have overrun run all parts of Gaul. The whole country between the Alps and the Pyrenees, between the Rhine and the Ocean, has been laid waste by hordes of Quadi, Vandals, Sarmatians, Alans, Gepids, Herules, Saxons, Burgundians, Allemanni, and—alas! for the commonweal!—even Pannonians. His Commentary on Daniel was expressly written to offset the criticisms of Porphyry, who taught that Daniel related entirely to the time of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and was written by an unknown individual living in the second century BC. Against Porphyry, Jerome identified Rome as the fourth kingdom of chapters two and seven, but his view of chapters eight and 11 was more complex. Jerome held that chapter eight describes the activity of Antiochus Epiphanes, who is understood as a "type" of a future antichrist; 11:24 onwards applies primarily to a future antichrist but was partially fulfilled by Antiochus. Instead, he advocated that the "little horn" was the Antichrist: We should therefore concur with the traditional interpretation of all the commentators of the Christian Church, that at the end of the world, when the Roman Empire is to be destroyed, there shall be ten kings who will partition the Roman world amongst themselves. Then an insignificant eleventh king will arise, who will overcome three of the ten kings. ...After they have been slain, the seven other kings also will bow their necks to the victor. In his Commentary on Daniel, he noted, "Let us not follow the opinion of some commentators and suppose him to be either the Devil or some demon, but rather, one of the human race, in whom Satan will wholly take up his residence in bodily form." Instead of rebuilding the Jewish Temple to reign from, Jerome thought the Antichrist sat in God's Temple inasmuch as he made "himself out to be like God." Jerome identified the four prophetic kingdoms symbolized in Daniel 2 as the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the Medes and Persians, Macedon, and Rome. Jerome identified the stone cut out without hands as "namely, the Lord and Savior". Jerome refuted Porphyry's application of the little horn of chapter seven to Antiochus. He expected that at the end of the world, Rome would be destroyed, and partitioned among ten kingdoms before the little horn appeared. Jerome believed that Cyrus of Persia is the higher of the two horns of the Medo-Persian ram of Daniel 8:3. The he-goat is Greece smiting Persia. Reception by later Christianity Jerome is the second most voluminous writer (after Augustine of Hippo) in ancient Latin Christianity. In the Catholic Church, he is recognized as the patron saint of translators, librarians and encyclopedists. Jerome made a translation from the Hebrew into Latin. His translation became part of the Vulgate; the Vulgate eventually superseded the preceding Latin translations (the Vetus Latina) and became known as. In the Council of Trent, the Vulgate was declared authoritative "in public lectures, disputations, sermons and expositions". Jerome showed more zeal and interest in the ascetic ideal than in abstract speculation. He lived as an ascetic for four or five years in the Syrian desert and later, for 34 years, near Bethlehem. Nevertheless, his writings show outstanding scholarship and his correspondence is historically of great importance. Jerome is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 30 September. In art Jerome is also often depicted with a lion, in reference to the popular hagiographical belief that Jerome had tamed a lion in the wilderness by healing its paw. The source for the story may actually have been the second century Roman tale of Androcles, or confusion with the exploits of Saint Gerasimus (Jerome in later Latin is "Geronimus"); it
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JPEG files contain a JFIF marker segment that precedes the Exif header. This allows older readers to correctly handle the older format JFIF segment, while newer readers also decode the following Exif segment, being less strict about requiring it to appear first. JPEG filename extensions The most common filename extensions for files employing JPEG compression are .jpg and .jpeg, though .jpe, .jfif and .jif are also used. It is also possible for JPEG data to be embedded in other file types – TIFF encoded files often embed a JPEG image as a thumbnail of the main image; and MP3 files can contain a JPEG of cover art in the ID3v2 tag. Color profile Many JPEG files embed an ICC color profile (color space). Commonly used color profiles include sRGB and Adobe RGB. Because these color spaces use a non-linear transformation, the dynamic range of an 8-bit JPEG file is about 11 stops; see gamma curve. If the image doesn't specify color profile information (untagged), the color space is assumed to be sRGB for the purposes of display on webpages. Syntax and structure A JPEG image consists of a sequence of segments, each beginning with a marker, each of which begins with a 0xFF byte, followed by a byte indicating what kind of marker it is. Some markers consist of just those two bytes; others are followed by two bytes (high then low), indicating the length of marker-specific payload data that follows. (The length includes the two bytes for the length, but not the two bytes for the marker.) Some markers are followed by entropy-coded data; the length of such a marker does not include the entropy-coded data. Note that consecutive 0xFF bytes are used as fill bytes for padding purposes, although this fill byte padding should only ever take place for markers immediately following entropy-coded scan data (see JPEG specification section B.1.1.2 and E.1.2 for details; specifically "In all cases where markers are appended after the compressed data, optional 0xFF fill bytes may precede the marker"). Within the entropy-coded data, after any 0xFF byte, a 0x00 byte is inserted by the encoder before the next byte, so that there does not appear to be a marker where none is intended, preventing framing errors. Decoders must skip this 0x00 byte. This technique, called byte stuffing (see JPEG specification section F.1.2.3), is only applied to the entropy-coded data, not to marker payload data. Note however that entropy-coded data has a few markers of its own; specifically the Reset markers (0xD0 through 0xD7), which are used to isolate independent chunks of entropy-coded data to allow parallel decoding, and encoders are free to insert these Reset markers at regular intervals (although not all encoders do this). There are other Start Of Frame markers that introduce other kinds of JPEG encodings. Since several vendors might use the same APPn marker type, application-specific markers often begin with a standard or vendor name (e.g., "Exif" or "Adobe") or some other identifying string. At a restart marker, block-to-block predictor variables are reset, and the bitstream is synchronized to a byte boundary. Restart markers provide means for recovery after bitstream error, such as transmission over an unreliable network or file corruption. Since the runs of macroblocks between restart markers may be independently decoded, these runs may be decoded in parallel. JPEG codec example Although a JPEG file can be encoded in various ways, most commonly it is done with JFIF encoding. The encoding process consists of several steps: The representation of the colors in the image is converted from RGB to , consisting of one luma component (Y'), representing brightness, and two chroma components, (CB and CR), representing color. This step is sometimes skipped. The resolution of the chroma data is reduced, usually by a factor of 2 or 3. This reflects the fact that the eye is less sensitive to fine color details than to fine brightness details. The image is split into blocks of 8×8 pixels, and for each block, each of the Y, CB, and CR data undergoes the discrete cosine transform (DCT). A DCT is similar to a Fourier transform in the sense that it produces a kind of spatial frequency spectrum. The amplitudes of the frequency components are quantized. Human vision is much more sensitive to small variations in color or brightness over large areas than to the strength of high-frequency brightness variations. Therefore, the magnitudes of the high-frequency components are stored with a lower accuracy than the low-frequency components. The quality setting of the encoder (for example 50 or 95 on a scale of 0–100 in the Independent JPEG Group's library) affects to what extent the resolution of each frequency component is reduced. If an excessively low quality setting is used, the high-frequency components are discarded altogether. The resulting data for all 8×8 blocks is further compressed with a lossless algorithm, a variant of Huffman encoding. The decoding process reverses these steps, except the quantization because it is irreversible. In the remainder of this section, the encoding and decoding processes are described in more detail. Encoding Many of the options in the JPEG standard are not commonly used, and as mentioned above, most image software uses the simpler JFIF format when creating a JPEG file, which among other things specifies the encoding method. Here is a brief description of one of the more common methods of encoding when applied to an input that has 24 bits per pixel (eight each of red, green, and blue). This particular option is a lossy data compression method. Color space transformation First, the image should be converted from RGB (by default sRGB, but other color spaces are possible) into a different color space called (or, informally, YCbCr). It has three components Y', CB and CR: the Y' component represents the brightness of a pixel, and the CB and CR components represent the chrominance (split into blue and red components). This is basically the same color space as used by digital color television as well as digital video including video DVDs. The color space conversion allows greater compression without a significant effect on perceptual image quality (or greater perceptual image quality for the same compression). The compression is more efficient because the brightness information, which is more important to the eventual perceptual quality of the image, is confined to a single channel. This more closely corresponds to the perception of color in the human visual system. The color transformation also improves compression by statistical decorrelation. A particular conversion to is specified in the JFIF standard, and should be performed for the resulting JPEG file to have maximum compatibility. However, some JPEG implementations in "highest quality" mode do not apply this step and instead keep the color information in the RGB color model, where the image is stored in separate channels for red, green and blue brightness components. This results in less efficient compression, and would not likely be used when file size is especially important. Downsampling Due to the densities of color- and brightness-sensitive receptors in the human eye, humans can see considerably more fine detail in the brightness of an image (the Y' component) than in the hue and color saturation of an image (the Cb and Cr components). Using this knowledge, encoders can be designed to compress images more efficiently. The transformation into the color model enables the next usual step, which is to reduce the spatial resolution of the Cb and Cr components (called "downsampling" or "chroma subsampling"). The ratios at which the downsampling is ordinarily done for JPEG images are 4:4:4 (no downsampling), 4:2:2 (reduction by a factor of 2 in the horizontal direction), or (most commonly) 4:2:0 (reduction by a factor of 2 in both the horizontal and vertical directions). For the rest of the compression process, Y', Cb and Cr are processed separately and in a very similar manner. Block splitting After subsampling, each channel must be split into 8×8 blocks. Depending on chroma subsampling, this yields Minimum Coded Unit (MCU) blocks of size 8×8 (4:4:4 – no subsampling), 16×8 (4:2:2), or most commonly 16×16 (4:2:0). In video compression MCUs are called macroblocks. If the data for a channel does not represent an integer number of blocks then the encoder must fill the remaining area of the incomplete blocks with some form of dummy data. Filling the edges with a fixed color (for example, black) can create ringing artifacts along the visible part of the border; repeating the edge pixels is a common technique that reduces (but does not necessarily eliminate) such artifacts, and more sophisticated border filling techniques can also be applied. Discrete cosine transform Next, each 8×8 block of each component (Y, Cb, Cr) is converted to a frequency-domain representation, using a normalized, two-dimensional type-II discrete cosine transform (DCT), see Citation 1 in discrete cosine transform. The DCT is sometimes referred to as "type-II DCT" in the context of a family of transforms as in discrete cosine transform, and the corresponding inverse (IDCT) is denoted as "type-III DCT". As an example, one such 8×8 8-bit subimage might be: Before computing the DCT of the 8×8 block, its values are shifted from a positive range to one centered on zero. For an 8-bit image, each entry in the original block falls in the range . The midpoint of the range (in this case, the value 128) is subtracted from each entry to produce a data range that is centered on zero, so that the modified range is . This step reduces the dynamic range requirements in the DCT processing stage that follows. This step results in the following values: The next step is to take the two-dimensional DCT, which is given by: where is the horizontal spatial frequency, for the integers . is the vertical spatial frequency, for the integers . is a normalizing scale factor to make the transformation orthonormal is the pixel value at coordinates is the DCT coefficient at coordinates If we perform this transformation on our matrix above, we get the following (rounded to the nearest two digits beyond the decimal point): Note the top-left corner entry with the rather large magnitude. This is the DC coefficient (also called the constant component), which defines the basic hue for the entire block. The remaining 63 coefficients are the AC coefficients (also called the alternating components). The advantage of the DCT is its tendency to aggregate most of the signal in one corner of the result, as may be seen above. The quantization step to follow accentuates this effect while simultaneously reducing the overall size of the DCT coefficients, resulting in a signal that is easy to compress efficiently in the entropy stage. The DCT temporarily increases the bit-depth of the data, since the DCT coefficients of an 8-bit/component image take up to 11 or more bits (depending on fidelity of the DCT calculation) to store. This may force the codec to temporarily use 16-bit numbers to hold these coefficients, doubling the size of the image representation at this point; these values are typically reduced back to 8-bit values by the quantization step. The temporary increase in size at this stage is not a performance concern for most JPEG implementations, since typically only a very small part of the image is stored in full DCT form at any given time during the image encoding or decoding process. Quantization The human eye is good at seeing small differences in brightness over a relatively large area, but not so good at distinguishing the exact strength of a high frequency brightness variation. This allows one to greatly reduce the amount of information in the high frequency components. This is done by simply dividing each component in the frequency domain by a constant for that component, and then rounding to the nearest integer. This rounding operation is the only lossy operation in the whole process (other than chroma subsampling) if the DCT computation is performed with sufficiently high precision. As a result of this, it is typically the case that many of the higher frequency components are rounded to zero, and many of the rest become small positive or negative numbers, which take many fewer bits to represent. The elements in the quantization matrix control the compression ratio, with larger values producing greater compression. A typical quantization matrix (for a quality of 50% as specified in the original JPEG Standard), is as follows: The quantized DCT coefficients are computed with where is the unquantized DCT coefficients; is the quantization matrix above; and is the quantized DCT coefficients. Using this quantization matrix with the DCT coefficient matrix from above results in: For example, using −415 (the DC coefficient) and rounding to the nearest integer Notice that most of the higher-frequency elements of the sub-block (i.e., those with an x or y spatial frequency greater than 4) are quantized into zero values. Entropy coding Entropy coding is a special form of lossless data compression. It involves arranging the image components in a "zigzag" order employing run-length encoding (RLE) algorithm that groups similar frequencies together, inserting length coding zeros, and then using Huffman coding on what is left. The JPEG standard also allows, but does not require, decoders to support the use of arithmetic coding, which is mathematically superior to Huffman coding. However, this feature has rarely been used, as it was historically covered by patents requiring royalty-bearing licenses, and because it is slower to encode and decode compared to Huffman coding. Arithmetic coding typically makes files about 5–7% smaller. The previous quantized DC coefficient is used to predict the current quantized DC coefficient. The difference between the two is encoded rather than the actual value. The encoding of the 63 quantized AC coefficients does not use such prediction differencing. The zigzag sequence for the above quantized coefficients are shown below. (The format shown is just for ease of understanding/viewing.) {| style="text-align: right" |- |style="width: 2em"| −26 || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| |- | −3 || 0 |- | −3 || −2 || −6 |- | 2 || −4 || 1 || −3 |- | 1 || 1 || 5 || 1 || 2 |- | −1 || 1 || −1 || 2 || 0 || 0 |- | 0 || 0 || 0 || −1 || −1 || 0 || 0 |- | 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 |- | 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 |- | 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 |- | 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 |- | 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 |- | 0 || 0 || 0 |- | 0 || 0 |- | 0 |} If the i-th block is represented by and positions within each block are represented by where and , then any coefficient in the DCT image can be represented as . Thus, in the above scheme, the order of encoding pixels (for the -th block) is , , , , , , , and so on. This encoding mode is called baseline sequential encoding. Baseline JPEG also supports progressive encoding. While sequential encoding encodes coefficients of a single block at a time (in a zigzag manner), progressive encoding encodes similar-positioned batch of coefficients of all blocks in one go (called a scan), followed by the next batch of coefficients of all blocks, and so on. For example, if the image is divided into N 8×8 blocks , then a 3-scan progressive encoding encodes DC component, for all blocks, i.e., for all , in first scan. This is followed by the second scan which encoding a few more components (assuming four more components, they are to , still in a zigzag manner) coefficients of all blocks (so the sequence is: ), followed by all the remained coefficients of all blocks in the last scan. Once all similar-positioned coefficients have been encoded, the next position to be encoded is the one occurring next in the zigzag traversal as indicated in the figure above. It has
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standard in that it specifies certain constraints (such as not allowing all the different encoding modes), while in other ways, it is an extension of JIF due to the added metadata. The documentation for the original JFIF standard states: JPEG File Interchange Format is a minimal file format which enables JPEG bitstreams to be exchanged between a wide variety of platforms and applications. This minimal format does not include any of the advanced features found in the TIFF JPEG specification or any application specific file format. Nor should it, for the only purpose of this simplified format is to allow the exchange of JPEG compressed images. Image files that employ JPEG compression are commonly called "JPEG files", and are stored in variants of the JIF image format. Most image capture devices (such as digital cameras) that output JPEG are actually creating files in the Exif format, the format that the camera industry has standardized on for metadata interchange. On the other hand, since the Exif standard does not allow color profiles, most image editing software stores JPEG in JFIF format, and also includes the APP1 segment from the Exif file to include the metadata in an almost-compliant way; the JFIF standard is interpreted somewhat flexibly. Strictly speaking, the JFIF and Exif standards are incompatible, because each specifies that its marker segment (APP0 or APP1, respectively) appear first. In practice, most JPEG files contain a JFIF marker segment that precedes the Exif header. This allows older readers to correctly handle the older format JFIF segment, while newer readers also decode the following Exif segment, being less strict about requiring it to appear first. JPEG filename extensions The most common filename extensions for files employing JPEG compression are .jpg and .jpeg, though .jpe, .jfif and .jif are also used. It is also possible for JPEG data to be embedded in other file types – TIFF encoded files often embed a JPEG image as a thumbnail of the main image; and MP3 files can contain a JPEG of cover art in the ID3v2 tag. Color profile Many JPEG files embed an ICC color profile (color space). Commonly used color profiles include sRGB and Adobe RGB. Because these color spaces use a non-linear transformation, the dynamic range of an 8-bit JPEG file is about 11 stops; see gamma curve. If the image doesn't specify color profile information (untagged), the color space is assumed to be sRGB for the purposes of display on webpages. Syntax and structure A JPEG image consists of a sequence of segments, each beginning with a marker, each of which begins with a 0xFF byte, followed by a byte indicating what kind of marker it is. Some markers consist of just those two bytes; others are followed by two bytes (high then low), indicating the length of marker-specific payload data that follows. (The length includes the two bytes for the length, but not the two bytes for the marker.) Some markers are followed by entropy-coded data; the length of such a marker does not include the entropy-coded data. Note that consecutive 0xFF bytes are used as fill bytes for padding purposes, although this fill byte padding should only ever take place for markers immediately following entropy-coded scan data (see JPEG specification section B.1.1.2 and E.1.2 for details; specifically "In all cases where markers are appended after the compressed data, optional 0xFF fill bytes may precede the marker"). Within the entropy-coded data, after any 0xFF byte, a 0x00 byte is inserted by the encoder before the next byte, so that there does not appear to be a marker where none is intended, preventing framing errors. Decoders must skip this 0x00 byte. This technique, called byte stuffing (see JPEG specification section F.1.2.3), is only applied to the entropy-coded data, not to marker payload data. Note however that entropy-coded data has a few markers of its own; specifically the Reset markers (0xD0 through 0xD7), which are used to isolate independent chunks of entropy-coded data to allow parallel decoding, and encoders are free to insert these Reset markers at regular intervals (although not all encoders do this). There are other Start Of Frame markers that introduce other kinds of JPEG encodings. Since several vendors might use the same APPn marker type, application-specific markers often begin with a standard or vendor name (e.g., "Exif" or "Adobe") or some other identifying string. At a restart marker, block-to-block predictor variables are reset, and the bitstream is synchronized to a byte boundary. Restart markers provide means for recovery after bitstream error, such as transmission over an unreliable network or file corruption. Since the runs of macroblocks between restart markers may be independently decoded, these runs may be decoded in parallel. JPEG codec example Although a JPEG file can be encoded in various ways, most commonly it is done with JFIF encoding. The encoding process consists of several steps: The representation of the colors in the image is converted from RGB to , consisting of one luma component (Y'), representing brightness, and two chroma components, (CB and CR), representing color. This step is sometimes skipped. The resolution of the chroma data is reduced, usually by a factor of 2 or 3. This reflects the fact that the eye is less sensitive to fine color details than to fine brightness details. The image is split into blocks of 8×8 pixels, and for each block, each of the Y, CB, and CR data undergoes the discrete cosine transform (DCT). A DCT is similar to a Fourier transform in the sense that it produces a kind of spatial frequency spectrum. The amplitudes of the frequency components are quantized. Human vision is much more sensitive to small variations in color or brightness over large areas than to the strength of high-frequency brightness variations. Therefore, the magnitudes of the high-frequency components are stored with a lower accuracy than the low-frequency components. The quality setting of the encoder (for example 50 or 95 on a scale of 0–100 in the Independent JPEG Group's library) affects to what extent the resolution of each frequency component is reduced. If an excessively low quality setting is used, the high-frequency components are discarded altogether. The resulting data for all 8×8 blocks is further compressed with a lossless algorithm, a variant of Huffman encoding. The decoding process reverses these steps, except the quantization because it is irreversible. In the remainder of this section, the encoding and decoding processes are described in more detail. Encoding Many of the options in the JPEG standard are not commonly used, and as mentioned above, most image software uses the simpler JFIF format when creating a JPEG file, which among other things specifies the encoding method. Here is a brief description of one of the more common methods of encoding when applied to an input that has 24 bits per pixel (eight each of red, green, and blue). This particular option is a lossy data compression method. Color space transformation First, the image should be converted from RGB (by default sRGB, but other color spaces are possible) into a different color space called (or, informally, YCbCr). It has three components Y', CB and CR: the Y' component represents the brightness of a pixel, and the CB and CR components represent the chrominance (split into blue and red components). This is basically the same color space as used by digital color television as well as digital video including video DVDs. The color space conversion allows greater compression without a significant effect on perceptual image quality (or greater perceptual image quality for the same compression). The compression is more efficient because the brightness information, which is more important to the eventual perceptual quality of the image, is confined to a single channel. This more closely corresponds to the perception of color in the human visual system. The color transformation also improves compression by statistical decorrelation. A particular conversion to is specified in the JFIF standard, and should be performed for the resulting JPEG file to have maximum compatibility. However, some JPEG implementations in "highest quality" mode do not apply this step and instead keep the color information in the RGB color model, where the image is stored in separate channels for red, green and blue brightness components. This results in less efficient compression, and would not likely be used when file size is especially important. Downsampling Due to the densities of color- and brightness-sensitive receptors in the human eye, humans can see considerably more fine detail in the brightness of an image (the Y' component) than in the hue and color saturation of an image (the Cb and Cr components). Using this knowledge, encoders can be designed to compress images more efficiently. The transformation into the color model enables the next usual step, which is to reduce the spatial resolution of the Cb and Cr components (called "downsampling" or "chroma subsampling"). The ratios at which the downsampling is ordinarily done for JPEG images are 4:4:4 (no downsampling), 4:2:2 (reduction by a factor of 2 in the horizontal direction), or (most commonly) 4:2:0 (reduction by a factor of 2 in both the horizontal and vertical directions). For the rest of the compression process, Y', Cb and Cr are processed separately and in a very similar manner. Block splitting After subsampling, each channel must be split into 8×8 blocks. Depending on chroma subsampling, this yields Minimum Coded Unit (MCU) blocks of size 8×8 (4:4:4 – no subsampling), 16×8 (4:2:2), or most commonly 16×16 (4:2:0). In video compression MCUs are called macroblocks. If the data for a channel does not represent an integer number of blocks then the encoder must fill the remaining area of the incomplete blocks with some form of dummy data. Filling the edges with a fixed color (for example, black) can create ringing artifacts along the visible part of the border; repeating the edge pixels is a common technique that reduces (but does not necessarily eliminate) such artifacts, and more sophisticated border filling techniques can also be applied. Discrete cosine transform Next, each 8×8 block of each component (Y, Cb, Cr) is converted to a frequency-domain representation, using a normalized, two-dimensional type-II discrete cosine transform (DCT), see Citation 1 in discrete cosine transform. The DCT is sometimes referred to as "type-II DCT" in the context of a family of transforms as in discrete cosine transform, and the corresponding inverse (IDCT) is denoted as "type-III DCT". As an example, one such 8×8 8-bit subimage might be: Before computing the DCT of the 8×8 block, its values are shifted from a positive range to one centered on zero. For an 8-bit image, each entry in the original block falls in the range . The midpoint of the range (in this case, the value 128) is subtracted from each entry to produce a data range that is centered on zero, so that the modified range is . This step reduces the dynamic range requirements in the DCT processing stage that follows. This step results in the following values: The next step is to take the two-dimensional DCT, which is given by: where is the horizontal spatial frequency, for the integers . is the vertical spatial frequency, for the integers . is a normalizing scale factor to make the transformation orthonormal is the pixel value at coordinates is the DCT coefficient at coordinates If we perform this transformation on our matrix above, we get the following (rounded to the nearest two digits beyond the decimal point): Note the top-left corner entry with the rather large magnitude. This is the DC coefficient (also called the constant component), which defines the basic hue for the entire block. The remaining 63 coefficients are the AC coefficients (also called the alternating components). The advantage of the DCT is its tendency to aggregate most of the signal in one corner of the result, as may be seen above. The quantization step to follow accentuates this effect while simultaneously reducing the overall size of the DCT coefficients, resulting in a signal that is easy to compress efficiently in the entropy stage. The DCT temporarily increases the bit-depth of the data, since the DCT coefficients of an 8-bit/component image take up to 11 or more bits (depending on fidelity of the DCT calculation) to store. This may force the codec to temporarily use 16-bit numbers to hold these coefficients, doubling the size of the image representation at this point; these values are typically reduced back to 8-bit values by the quantization step. The temporary increase in size at this stage is not a performance concern for most JPEG implementations, since typically only a very small part of the image is stored in full DCT form at any given time during the image encoding or decoding process. Quantization The human eye is good at seeing small differences in brightness over a relatively large area, but not so good at distinguishing the exact strength of a high frequency brightness variation. This allows one to greatly reduce the amount of information in the high frequency components. This is done by simply dividing each component in the frequency domain by a constant for that component, and then rounding to the nearest integer. This rounding operation is the only lossy operation in the whole process (other than chroma subsampling) if the DCT computation is performed with sufficiently high precision. As a result of this, it is typically the case that many of the higher frequency components are rounded to zero, and many of the rest become small positive or negative numbers, which take many fewer bits to represent. The elements in the quantization matrix control the compression ratio, with larger values producing greater compression. A typical quantization matrix (for a quality of 50% as specified in the original JPEG Standard), is as follows: The quantized DCT coefficients are computed with where is the unquantized DCT coefficients; is the quantization matrix above; and is the quantized DCT coefficients. Using this quantization matrix with the DCT coefficient matrix from above results in: For example, using −415 (the DC coefficient) and rounding to the nearest integer Notice that most of the higher-frequency elements of the sub-block (i.e., those with an x or y spatial frequency greater than 4) are quantized into zero values. Entropy coding Entropy coding is a special form of lossless data compression. It involves arranging the image components in a "zigzag" order employing run-length encoding (RLE) algorithm that groups similar frequencies together, inserting length coding zeros, and then using Huffman coding on what is left. The JPEG standard also allows, but does not require, decoders to support the use of arithmetic coding, which is mathematically superior to Huffman coding. However, this feature has rarely been used, as it was historically covered by patents requiring royalty-bearing licenses, and because it is slower to encode and decode compared to Huffman coding. Arithmetic coding typically makes files about 5–7% smaller. The previous quantized DC coefficient is used to predict the current quantized DC coefficient. The difference between the two is encoded rather than the actual value. The encoding of the 63 quantized AC coefficients does not use such prediction differencing. The zigzag sequence for the above quantized coefficients are shown below. (The format shown is just for ease of understanding/viewing.) {| style="text-align: right" |- |style="width: 2em"| −26 || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| || style="width: 2em"| |- | −3 || 0 |- | −3 || −2 || −6 |- | 2 || −4 || 1 || −3 |- | 1 || 1 || 5 || 1 || 2 |- | −1 || 1 || −1 || 2 || 0 || 0 |- | 0 || 0 || 0 || −1 || −1 || 0 || 0 |- | 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 |- | 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 |- | 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 |- | 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 |- | 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 |- | 0 || 0 || 0 |- | 0 || 0 |- | 0 |} If the i-th block is represented by and positions within each block are represented by where and , then any coefficient in the DCT image can be represented as . Thus, in the above scheme, the order of encoding pixels (for the -th block) is , , , , , , , and so on. This encoding mode is called baseline sequential encoding. Baseline JPEG also supports progressive encoding. While sequential encoding encodes coefficients of a single block at a time (in a zigzag manner), progressive encoding encodes similar-positioned batch of coefficients of all blocks in one go (called a scan), followed by the next batch of coefficients of all blocks, and so on. For example, if the image is divided into N 8×8 blocks , then a 3-scan progressive encoding encodes DC component, for all blocks, i.e., for all , in first scan. This is followed by the second scan which encoding a few more components (assuming four more components, they are to , still in a zigzag manner) coefficients of all blocks (so the sequence is: ), followed by all the remained coefficients of all blocks in the last scan. Once all similar-positioned coefficients have been encoded, the next position to be encoded is the one occurring next in the zigzag traversal as indicated in the figure above. It has been found that baseline progressive JPEG encoding usually gives better compression as compared to baseline sequential JPEG due to the ability to use different Huffman tables (see below) tailored for different frequencies on each "scan" or "pass" (which includes similar-positioned coefficients), though the difference is not too large. In the rest of the article, it is assumed that the coefficient pattern generated is due to sequential mode. In order to encode the above generated coefficient pattern, JPEG uses Huffman encoding. The JPEG standard provides general-purpose Huffman tables; encoders may also choose to generate Huffman tables optimized for the actual frequency distributions in images being encoded. The process of encoding the zig-zag quantized data begins with a run-length encoding explained below, where: is the non-zero, quantized AC coefficient. RUNLENGTH is the number of zeroes that came before this non-zero AC coefficient. SIZE is the number of bits required to represent . AMPLITUDE is the bit-representation of . The run-length encoding works by examining each non-zero AC coefficient and determining how many zeroes came before the previous AC coefficient. With this information, two symbols are created: {| style="text-align: center" class="wikitable" |- ! Symbol 1 || Symbol 2 |- | (RUNLENGTH, SIZE) || (AMPLITUDE) |} Both RUNLENGTH and SIZE rest on the same byte, meaning that each only contains four bits of information. The higher bits deal with the number of zeroes, while the lower bits denote the number of bits necessary to encode the value of . This has the immediate implication of Symbol 1 being only able store information regarding the first 15 zeroes preceding the non-zero AC coefficient. However, JPEG defines two special Huffman code words. One is for ending the sequence prematurely when the remaining coefficients are zero (called "End-of-Block" or "EOB"), and another when the run of zeroes goes beyond 15 before reaching a non-zero AC coefficient. In such a case where 16 zeroes are encountered before a given non-zero AC coefficient, Symbol 1 is encoded "specially" as: (15, 0)(0). The overall process continues until "EOB" denoted by (0, 0) is reached. With this in mind, the sequence from earlier becomes: (0, 2)(-3);(1, 2)(-3);(0, 1)(-2);(0, 2)(-6);(0, 1)(2);(0, 1)(-4);(0, 1)(1);(0, 2)(-3);(0, 1)(1);(0, 1)(1); (0, 2)(5);(0, 1)(1);(0, 1)(2);(0, 1)(-1);(0, 1)(1);(0, 1)(-1);(0, 1)(2);(5, 1)(-1);(0, 1)(-1);(0, 0); (The first value in the matrix, −26, is the DC coefficient; it is not encoded the same way. See above.) From here, frequency calculations are made based on occurrences of the coefficients. In our example block, most of the quantized coefficients are small numbers that are not preceded immediately by a zero coefficient. These more-frequent cases will be represented by shorter code words. Compression ratio and artifacts The resulting compression ratio can be varied according to need by being more or less aggressive in the divisors used in the quantization phase. Ten to one compression usually results in an image that cannot be distinguished by eye from the original. A compression ratio of 100:1 is usually possible, but will look distinctly artifacted compared to the original. The appropriate level of compression depends on the use to which the image will be put. Those who use the World Wide Web may be familiar with the irregularities known as compression artifacts that appear in JPEG images, which may take the form of noise around contrasting edges (especially curves and corners), or "blocky" images. These are due to the quantization step of the JPEG algorithm. They are especially noticeable around sharp corners between contrasting colors (text is a good example, as it contains many such corners). The analogous artifacts in MPEG video are referred to as mosquito noise, as the resulting "edge busyness" and spurious dots, which change over time, resemble mosquitoes swarming around the object. These artifacts can be reduced by choosing a lower level of compression; they may be completely avoided by saving an image using a lossless file format, though this will result in a larger file size. The images created with ray-tracing programs have noticeable blocky shapes on the terrain. Certain low-intensity compression artifacts might be acceptable when simply viewing the images, but can be emphasized if the image is subsequently processed, usually resulting in unacceptable quality. Consider the example below, demonstrating the effect of lossy compression on an edge detection processing step. Some programs allow the user to vary the amount by which individual blocks are compressed. Stronger compression is applied to areas of the image that show fewer artifacts. This way it is possible to manually reduce JPEG file size with less loss of quality. Since the quantization stage always results in a loss of information, JPEG standard is always a lossy compression codec. (Information is lost both in quantizing and rounding of the floating-point numbers.) Even if the quantization matrix is a matrix of ones, information will still be lost in the rounding step. Decoding Decoding to display the image consists of doing all the above in reverse. Taking the DCT coefficient matrix (after adding the difference of the DC coefficient back in) and taking the entry-for-entry product with the quantization matrix from above results in which closely resembles the original DCT coefficient matrix for the top-left portion. The next step is to take the two-dimensional inverse DCT (a 2D type-III DCT), which is given by: where is the pixel row, for the integers . is the pixel column, for the integers . is defined as above, for the integers . is the reconstructed approximate coefficient at coordinates is the reconstructed pixel value at coordinates Rounding the output to integer values (since the original had integer values) results in an image with values (still shifted down by 128) and adding 128 to each entry This is the decompressed subimage. In general, the decompression process may produce values outside the original input range of . If this occurs, the decoder needs to clip the output values so as to keep them within that range to prevent overflow when storing the decompressed image with the original bit depth. The decompressed subimage can be compared to the original subimage (also see images to the right) by taking the difference (original − uncompressed) results in the following error values: with an average absolute error of about 5 values per pixels (i.e., ). The error is most noticeable in the bottom-left corner where the bottom-left pixel becomes darker than the pixel to its immediate right. Required precision The encoding description in the JPEG standard does not fix the precision needed for the output compressed image. However, the JPEG standard (and the similar MPEG standards) includes some precision requirements for the decoding, including all parts of the decoding process (variable length decoding, inverse DCT, dequantization, renormalization of outputs); the output from the reference algorithm must not exceed: a maximum of one bit of difference for each pixel component low mean square error over each 8×8-pixel block very low mean error over each 8×8-pixel block very low mean square error over the whole image extremely low mean error over the whole image These assertions are tested on a large set of randomized input images, to handle the worst cases. The former IEEE 1180–1990 standard contained some similar precision requirements. The precision has a consequence on the implementation of decoders, and it is critical because some
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support of such influential figures as the Duke of Devonshire, John Flaxman and Sir Thomas Lawrence. Severn's spacious apartment in the Via di San Isidoro became the busy center of Academy life. Among those who joined the academy were Charles Eastlake, Richard Westmacott (the younger), William Bewick and Thomas Uwins. Perhaps the most dedicated patron of Severn's work in the 1830s was William Gladstone, who was drawn to Severn more for his reputation as a painter than as Keats's friend. On his return to England in 1841 Severn fell on hard times, trying desperately to earn enough money to support his growing family by painting portraits. Although he was never able to match his early artistic success in Rome and eventually had to flee his creditors for the Isle of Jersey in 1853, between 1819 and 1857, Severn exhibited 53 paintings at the Royal Academy in London. In 1861, Severn was appointed British Consul in Rome during the ferment over Italian unification. A few months before his arrival Garibaldi had seized the Kingdom of Naples, and all of Southern Italy and Sicily had been annexed to the new Kingdom of Italy. Many of the kingdoms, principalities and dukedoms in the Italian peninsula had come together under the leadership of Victor Emmanuel II, but Rome and its surroundings remained as the rump of the Papal States. This was the case throughout the majority of Severn's tenure as Consul, as Pope Pius IX managed to retain a fragile hold on power, relying on a garrison of French troops to control Rome. Although the official position of the British government on "The Roman Question" was neutrality and nonintervention, Severn often took diplomatic action that his superiors viewed as exceeding his mandate as Consul. On several occasions, such as when he used his office to liberate Italian political prisoners in 1864, he was rebuked by the Foreign Office. His knowledge of the Italian language and his affability and good humor, however, often helped in mediating between the papal regime and the British government, and he was able on many occasions to offer advice and protection for British visitors who found themselves in awkward scrapes. He eventually retired as Consul in 1872. Marriage and family In 1828 Severn married Elizabeth Montgomerie, the natural (i.e. illegitimate) daughter of Archibald, Lord Montgomerie (1773–1814) and the ward of Lady Westmoreland, one of the artist's patrons in Rome. Together they had seven children, three of whom became noteworthy artists: Walter and Arthur Severn, and Ann Mary Newton, who married the archeologist and Keeper of Antiquities at the British Museum, Charles Thomas Newton. Mary had a successful painting career in England, supporting the family for a time and executing a number of portraits of the Royal Family. Her early death from measles at the age of 32 affected Severn. In 1871, Arthur Severn married Joan Ruskin Agnew, a cousin of the Victorian art and social critic John Ruskin. The Severns had another child, Arthur, who died as an infant in a crib accident. He is buried between Keats and Severn in the Protestant Cemetery in Rome. Death Severn died on 3 August 1879 at the age of 85, and was buried in the Protestant Cemetery alongside John Keats. Both gravestones are still standing today. Shelley and Trelawny are also buried side by side in the same Cemetery. Paintings Severn is best known for his many portraits of Keats, the most famous being the miniature portrait in The Fitzwilliam Museum (1819), the pen-and-ink sketch, Keats on his Deathbed (1821), in the Keats-Shelley house, Rome, and the oil painting of the poet reading, John Keats at Wentworth Place (1821–23), in the National Portrait Gallery. A later painting, Keats, at Hampstead, when he first imagined his Ode to a Nightingale (1849), now at Keats House, is also notable. In the 1860s Severn produced a number of copies and memory portraits as Keats's reputation continued to grow. The most influential of Severn's early Italian genre paintings are The Vintage, commissioned by the Duke of Bedford in 1825, and The Fountain (Royal Palace, Brussels) commissioned by Leopold I of Belgium in 1826. The latter picture likely influenced J. M. W. Turner's major work, The View of Orvieto. One of his most remarkably inventive works is the Rime of the Ancient Mariner (1839) based on Samuel Coleridge's famous poem, which recently sold at Sotheby's for £32,400. Another historical subject, The Abdication of Mary, Queen of Scots, sold for £115,250 at Sotheby's Gleneagles sale on 26 August 2008. Severn also painted such works as Cordelia Watching by the Bed of Lear, Shepherds in the Campagna, Shelley Composing Prometheus Unbound, Isabella and the Pot of Basil, Portia with the Casket, Ariel, Rienzi, The Infant of the Apocalypse Saved from the Dragon, a large altarpiece for the church of San Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, and many portraits of statesman and aristocrats, including Baron Bunsen and William Gladstone. The last picture he exhibited at the Royal Academy was a scene from Oliver Goldsmith's The Deserted Village in 1857. Links to images and descriptions of Severn's drawings and paintings A slideshow of paintings by Severn on the Art UK website Portraits by Severn at the National Portrait Gallery, London The Infant of the Apocalypse Saved from the Dragon at Tate Britain, London Ariel at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London Ariel: 'Where the Bee Sucks... at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London Keats on his Deathbed at the Keats-Shelley house, Rome Severn's original miniature of Keats, painted in 1819 at The Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge Supposed portrait of Keats, attributed to Severn at The New Art Gallery, Walsall Portrait of John Crossley of Scaitcliffe at the Christchurch Art Gallery, Christchurch, New Zealand Ariel riding on a Bat at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford Sketches by Severn at Wake Forest University, North Carolina Results of Severn's paintings sold at public auction Portrait of John Keats sold at Bonhams auction house in October 2005 for £21,600 A lady painting in her album sold at Bonhams auction house in November 2006 for £7,767 Ophelia auctioned at Sotheby's auction house in November 2011 Odalisque sold at Sotheby's auction house in November 2006 for £14,400 Rime of the Ancient Mariner sold at Sotheby's auction house in October 2006 for £32,400 Italian peasants on the Campagna sold at Sotheby's auction house in October 2006 for £12,000 The Abdication of Mary, Queen of Scots sold at Sotheby's auction house in August 2008 for £115,250 Biographies and books In 1892 the first significant collection of Severn's papers was published by William Sharp in The Life and Letters of Joseph Severn. Modern critics have cast doubt on the accuracy of Sharp's transcriptions and noted important omissions and embellishments. In 1965, Sheila Birkenhead published Illustrious Friends: The story of Joseph Severn and his son Arthur. In 2005, Grant F. Scott published Joseph Severn: Letters and Memoirs in which he re-edited the original material, added hundreds of newly discovered letters, included numerous reproductions of Severn's paintings, and prefaced this material with a critical introduction and commentary. In 2009, Sue Brown published the biography Joseph Severn, A Life: The Rewards of Friendship using Scott's new information to provide a reassessment of Severn's character, his friendship with Keats, and his own subsequent artistic and diplomatic career. Notes References William Sharp, The Life and Letters of Joseph Severn (London: Sampson Low, Marston, 1892) Sheila Birkenhead, Against Oblivion: The Life of Joseph Severn (London: Cassell, 1943) Noel Blakiston, The Roman Question: Extracts from the Despatches of Odo Russell from Rome 1858-1870 (London: Chapman Hall, 1962) Cecelia Powell, Turner in the South: Rome, Naples, Florence (New Haven and London: Yale UP, 1987) Grant F. Scott, ed. Joseph Severn: Letters and Memoirs (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005) Grant F. Scott and Sue Brown, ed. New Letters from Charles Brown to Joseph Severn (College Park,
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Keats's friend. On his return to England in 1841 Severn fell on hard times, trying desperately to earn enough money to support his growing family by painting portraits. Although he was never able to match his early artistic success in Rome and eventually had to flee his creditors for the Isle of Jersey in 1853, between 1819 and 1857, Severn exhibited 53 paintings at the Royal Academy in London. In 1861, Severn was appointed British Consul in Rome during the ferment over Italian unification. A few months before his arrival Garibaldi had seized the Kingdom of Naples, and all of Southern Italy and Sicily had been annexed to the new Kingdom of Italy. Many of the kingdoms, principalities and dukedoms in the Italian peninsula had come together under the leadership of Victor Emmanuel II, but Rome and its surroundings remained as the rump of the Papal States. This was the case throughout the majority of Severn's tenure as Consul, as Pope Pius IX managed to retain a fragile hold on power, relying on a garrison of French troops to control Rome. Although the official position of the British government on "The Roman Question" was neutrality and nonintervention, Severn often took diplomatic action that his superiors viewed as exceeding his mandate as Consul. On several occasions, such as when he used his office to liberate Italian political prisoners in 1864, he was rebuked by the Foreign Office. His knowledge of the Italian language and his affability and good humor, however, often helped in mediating between the papal regime and the British government, and he was able on many occasions to offer advice and protection for British visitors who found themselves in awkward scrapes. He eventually retired as Consul in 1872. Marriage and family In 1828 Severn married Elizabeth Montgomerie, the natural (i.e. illegitimate) daughter of Archibald, Lord Montgomerie (1773–1814) and the ward of Lady Westmoreland, one of the artist's patrons in Rome. Together they had seven children, three of whom became noteworthy artists: Walter and Arthur Severn, and Ann Mary Newton, who married the archeologist and Keeper of Antiquities at the British Museum, Charles Thomas Newton. Mary had a successful painting career in England, supporting the family for a time and executing a number of portraits of the Royal Family. Her early death from measles at the age of 32 affected Severn. In 1871, Arthur Severn married Joan Ruskin Agnew, a cousin of the Victorian art and social critic John Ruskin. The Severns had another child, Arthur, who died as an infant in a crib accident. He is buried between Keats and Severn in the Protestant Cemetery in Rome. Death Severn died on 3 August 1879 at the age of 85, and was buried in the Protestant Cemetery alongside John Keats. Both gravestones are still standing today. Shelley and Trelawny are also buried side by side in the same Cemetery. Paintings Severn is best known for his many portraits of Keats, the most famous being the miniature portrait in The Fitzwilliam Museum (1819), the pen-and-ink sketch, Keats on his Deathbed (1821), in the Keats-Shelley house, Rome, and the oil painting of the poet reading, John Keats at Wentworth Place (1821–23), in the National Portrait Gallery. A later painting, Keats, at Hampstead, when he first imagined his Ode to a Nightingale (1849), now at Keats House, is also notable. In the 1860s Severn produced a number of copies and memory portraits as Keats's reputation continued to grow. The most influential of Severn's early Italian genre paintings are The Vintage, commissioned by the Duke of Bedford in 1825, and The Fountain (Royal Palace, Brussels) commissioned by Leopold I of Belgium in 1826. The latter picture likely influenced J. M. W. Turner's major work, The View of Orvieto. One of his most remarkably inventive works is the Rime of the Ancient Mariner (1839) based on Samuel Coleridge's famous poem, which recently sold at Sotheby's for £32,400. Another historical subject, The Abdication of Mary, Queen of Scots, sold for £115,250 at Sotheby's Gleneagles sale on 26 August 2008. Severn also painted such works as Cordelia Watching by the Bed of Lear, Shepherds in the Campagna, Shelley Composing Prometheus Unbound, Isabella and the Pot of Basil, Portia with the Casket, Ariel, Rienzi, The Infant of the Apocalypse Saved from the Dragon, a large altarpiece for the church of San Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, and many portraits of statesman and aristocrats, including Baron Bunsen and William Gladstone. The last picture he exhibited at the Royal Academy was a scene from Oliver Goldsmith's The Deserted Village in 1857. Links to images and descriptions of Severn's drawings and paintings A slideshow of paintings by Severn on the Art UK website Portraits by Severn at the National Portrait Gallery, London The Infant of the Apocalypse Saved from the Dragon at Tate Britain, London Ariel at the Victoria
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Meanwhile, the French attempt to break the siege in the Battle of Buzenval will end unsuccessfully the following day. 1883 – The first electric lighting system employing overhead wires, built by Thomas Edison, begins service at Roselle, New Jersey. 1899 – Anglo-Egyptian Sudan is formed. 1901–present 1901 – Queen Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom, stricken with paralysis. She dies three days later at the age of 81. 1915 – Georges Claude patents the neon discharge tube for use in advertising. 1915 – German strategic bombing during World War I: German zeppelins bomb the towns of Great Yarmouth and King's Lynn in the United Kingdom killing at least 20 people, in the first major aerial bombardment of a civilian target. 1917 – Silvertown explosion: A blast at a munitions factory in London kills 73 and injures over 400. The resulting fire causes over £2,000,000 worth of damage. 1920 – The United States Senate votes against joining the League of Nations. 1920 – The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) is founded. 1937 – Howard Hughes sets a new air record by flying from Los Angeles to New York City in seven hours, 28 minutes, 25 seconds. 1941 – World War II: and other escorts of convoy AS-12 sink Italian submarine with all hands northeast of Falkonera. 1942 – World War II: The Japanese conquest of Burma begins. 1945 – World War II: Soviet forces liberate the Łódź Ghetto. Of more than 200,000 inhabitants in 1940, less than 900 had survived the Nazi occupation. 1946 – General Douglas MacArthur establishes the International Military Tribunal for the Far East in Tokyo to try Japanese war criminals. 1953 – Almost 72 percent of all television sets in the United States are tuned into I Love Lucy to watch Lucy give birth. 1960 – Japan and the United States sign the US–Japan Mutual Security Treaty 1960 – Scandinavian Airlines System Flight 871 crashes near Ankara Esenboğa Airport in Turkey, killing all 42 aboard. 1969 – Student Jan Palach dies after setting himself on fire three days earlier in Prague's Wenceslas Square to protest about the invasion of Czechoslovakia by the Soviet Union in 1968. His funeral turns into another major protest. 1977 – President Gerald Ford pardons Iva Toguri D'Aquino (a.k.a. "Tokyo Rose"). 1978 – The last Volkswagen Beetle made in Germany leaves VW's plant in Emden. Beetle production in Latin America continues until 2003. 1981 – Iran hostage crisis: United States and Iranian officials sign an agreement to release 52 American hostages after 14 months of captivity. 1983 – Nazi war criminal Klaus Barbie is arrested in Bolivia. 1983 – The Apple Lisa, the first commercial personal computer from Apple Inc. to have a graphical user interface and a computer mouse, is announced. 1986 – The first IBM PC computer virus is released into the wild. A boot sector virus dubbed (c)Brain, it was created by the Farooq Alvi Brothers in Lahore, Pakistan, reportedly to deter unauthorized copying of the software they had written. 1991 – Gulf War: Iraq fires a second Scud missile into Israel, causing 15 injuries. 1993 – Czech Republic and Slovakia join the United Nations. 1995 – After being struck by lightning the crew of Bristow Helicopters Flight 56C are forced to ditch. All 18 aboard are later rescued. 1996 – The barge North Cape oil spill occurs as an engine fire forces the tugboat Scandia ashore on Moonstone Beach in South Kingstown, Rhode Island. 1997 – Yasser Arafat returns to Hebron after more than 30 years and joins celebrations over the handover of the last Israeli-controlled West Bank city. 1999 – British Aerospace agrees to acquire the defence subsidiary of the General Electric Company plc, forming BAE Systems in November 1999. 2007 – Turkish-Armenian journalist Hrant Dink is assassinated in front of his newspaper's Istanbul office by 17-year-old Turkish ultra-nationalist Ogün Samast. 2007 – Four-man Team N2i, using only skis and kites, completes a trek to reach the Antarctic pole of inaccessibility for the first time since 1965 and for the first time ever without mechanical assistance. 2012 – The Hong Kong-based file-sharing website Megaupload is shut down by the FBI. 2014 – A bomb attack on an army convoy in the city of Bannu kills at least 26 Pakistani soldiers and injures 38 others. Births Pre-1600 399 – Pulcheria, Byzantine empress and saint (d. 453) 1200 – Dōgen Zenji, founder of Sōtō Zen (d. 1253) 1544 – Francis II of France (d. 1560) 1601–1900 1617 – Lucas Faydherbe, Flemish sculptor and architect (d. 1697) 1628 – Charles Stanley, 8th Earl of Derby, English noble (d. 1672) 1676 – John Weldon, English organist and composer (d. 1736) 1721 – Jean-Philippe Baratier, German scholar and author (d. 1740) 1736 – James Watt, Scottish-English chemist and engineer (d. 1819) 1737 – Giuseppe Millico, Italian soprano, composer, and educator (d. 1802) 1739 – Joseph Bonomi the Elder, Italian architect, designed Longford Hall and Barrells Hall (d. 1808) 1752 – James Morris III, American captain (d. 1820) 1757 – Countess Augusta Reuss of Ebersdorf (d. 1831) 1788 – Pavel Kiselyov, Russian general and politician (d. 1874) 1790 – Per Daniel Amadeus Atterbom, Swedish poet and academic (d. 1855) 1798 – Auguste Comte, French economist, sociologist, and philosopher (d. 1857) 1803 – Sarah Helen Whitman, American poet, essayist, and romantic interest of Edgar Allan Poe (d. 1878) 1807 – Robert E. Lee, American general and academic (d. 1870) 1808 – Lysander Spooner, American philosopher and author (d. 1887) 1809 – Edgar Allan Poe, American short story writer, poet, and critic (d. 1849) 1810 – Talhaiarn, Welsh poet and architect (d. 1869) 1813 – Henry Bessemer, English engineer and businessman (d. 1898) 1832 – Ferdinand Laub, Czech violinist and composer (d. 1875) 1833 – Alfred Clebsch, German mathematician and academic (d. 1872) 1839 – Paul Cézanne, French painter (d. 1906) 1848 – Arturo Graf, Italian poet, of German ancestry (d. 1913). 1848 – John Fitzwilliam Stairs, Canadian businessman and politician (d. 1904) 1848 – Matthew Webb, English swimmer and diver (d. 1883) 1851 – Jacobus Kapteyn, Dutch astronomer and academic (d. 1922) 1852 – Thomas Price, Welsh-Australian politician, 24th Premier of South Australia (d. 1909) 1863 – Werner Sombart, German economist and sociologist (d. 1941) 1866 – Harry Davenport, American stage and film actor (d. 1949) 1871 – Dame Gruev, Bulgarian educator and activist, co-founded the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (d. 1906) 1874 – Hitachiyama Taniemon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 19th Yokozuna (d. 1922) 1876 – Wakashima Gonshirō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 21st Yokozuna (d. 1943) 1876 – Dragotin Kette, Slovenian poet and author (d. 1899) 1878 – Herbert Chapman, English footballer and manager (d. 1934) 1879 – Boris Savinkov, Russian soldier and author (d. 1925) 1882 – John Cain Sr., Australian politician, 34th Premier of Victoria (d. 1957) 1883 – Hermann Abendroth, German conductor (d. 1956) 1887 – Alexander Woollcott, American actor, playwright, and critic (d. 1943) 1889 – Sophie Taeuber-Arp, Swiss painter and sculptor (d. 1943) 1892 – Ólafur Thors, Icelandic lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Iceland (d. 1964) 1893 – Magda Tagliaferro, Brazilian pianist and educator (d. 1986) 1901–present 1903 – Boris Blacher, German composer and playwright (d. 1975) 1905 – Stanley Hawes, English-Australian director and producer (d. 1991) 1907 – Briggs Cunningham, American race car driver, sailor, and businessman (d. 2003) 1908 – Ish Kabibble, American comedian and cornet player (d. 1994) 1908 – Aleksandr Gennadievich Kurosh, Russian mathematician and theorist (d. 1971) 1911 – Choor Singh, Indian-Singaporean lawyer and judge (d. 2009) 1912 – Leonid Kantorovich, Russian mathematician and economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1986) 1913 – Rex Ingamells, Australian author and poet (d. 1955) 1913 – Rudolf Wanderone, American professional pocket billiards player (d. 1996) 1918 – John H. Johnson, American publisher, founded the Johnson Publishing Company (d. 2005) 1920 – Bernard Dunstan, English painter and educator (d. 2017) 1920 – Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Peruvian politician and diplomat, 135th Prime Minister of Peru (d. 2020) 1921 – Patricia Highsmith, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1995) 1922 – Arthur Morris, Australian cricketer and journalist (d. 2015) 1922 – Miguel Muñoz, Spanish footballer and manager (d. 1990) 1923 – Jean Stapleton, American actress and singer (d. 2013) 1924 – Nicholas Colasanto, American actor and director (d. 1985) 1924 – Jean-François Revel, French philosopher (d. 2006) 1925 – Nina Bawden, English author (d. 2012) 1926 – Hans Massaquoi, German-American journalist and author (d. 2013) 1926 – Fritz Weaver, American actor (d. 2016) 1930 – Tippi Hedren, American model, actress, and animal rights-welfare activist 1930 – John Waite, South African cricketer (d. 2011) 1931 – Robert MacNeil, Canadian-American journalist and author 1932 – Russ Hamilton, English singer-songwriter (d. 2008) 1932 – Richard Lester, American-English director, producer, and screenwriter 1932 – Harry Lonsdale, American chemist, businessman, and politician (d. 2014) 1933 – George Coyne, American priest, astronomer, and theologian (d. 2020) 1935 – Johnny O'Keefe, Australian singer-songwriter (d. 1978) 1936 – Ziaur Rahman, Bangladeshi general and politician, seventh President of Bangladesh (d. 1981) 1936 – Willie "Big Eyes" Smith, American singer, harmonica player, and drummer (d. 2011) 1936 – Fred J. Lincoln, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013) 1937 – John Lions, Australian computer scientist and academic (d. 1998) 1939 – Phil Everly, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2014) 1940 – Paolo Borsellino, Italian lawyer and judge (d. 1992) 1941 – Colin Gunton, English theologian and academic (d. 2003) 1941 – Pat Patterson, Canadian wrestler, trainer, and referee (d. 2020) 1942 – Michael Crawford, English actor and singer 1943 – Larry Clark, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1943 – Janis Joplin, American singer-songwriter (d. 1970) 1943 – Princess Margriet of the Netherlands 1944 – Shelley Fabares, American actress and singer 1944 – Thom Mayne, American architect and academic, designed the San Francisco Federal Building and Phare Tower 1944 – Dan Reeves, American football player and coach (d. 2022) 1945 – Trevor Williams, English singer-songwriter and bass player 1946 – Julian Barnes, English novelist, short story writer, essayist, and critic 1946 – Dolly Parton, American singer-songwriter and actress 1947 – Frank Aarebrot, Norwegian political scientist and academic (d. 2017) 1947 – Paula Deen, American chef and author 1947 – Rod Evans, English singer-songwriter 1948 – Nancy Lynch, American computer scientist and academic 1948 – Frank McKenna, Canadian politician and diplomat, 27th Premier of New Brunswick 1948 – Mal Reilly, English rugby league player and coach 1949 – Arend Langenberg, Dutch voice actor and radio host (d. 2012) 1949 – Robert Palmer, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2003) 1950 – Sébastien Dhavernas, Canadian actor 1951 – Martha Davis, American singer 1952 – Dewey Bunnell, British-American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1952 – Nadiuska, German television actress 1952 – Bruce Jay Nelson, American computer scientist (d. 1999) 1953 – Desi Arnaz, Jr., American actor and singer 1953 – Richard Legendre, Canadian tennis player and politician 1953 – Wayne Schimmelbusch, Australian footballer and coach 1954 – Katey Sagal, American actress and singer 1954 – Cindy Sherman, American photographer and director 1954 – Esther Shkalim, Israeli poet and Mizrahi feminist 1955 – Sir Simon Rattle, English orchestral conductor 1956 – Carman, American singer-songwriter, actor, and television host (d. 2021) 1956 – Susan Solomon, American atmospheric chemist 1957 – Ottis Anderson, American football player and sportscaster 1957 – Roger Ashton-Griffiths, English actor, screenwriter and film director 1957 – Kenneth McClintock, Puerto
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Manninen, Finnish cellist 1973 – Yevgeny Sadovyi, Russian swimmer and coach 1974 – Dainius Adomaitis, Lithuanian basketball player and coach 1974 – Frank Caliendo, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1974 – Ian Laperrière, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1974 – Jaime Moreno, Bolivian footballer and manager 1975 – Natalie Cook, Australian volleyball player 1975 – Zdeňka Málková, Czech tennis player 1976 – Natale Gonnella, Italian footballer 1976 – Tarso Marques, Brazilian race car driver 1977 – Benjamin Ayres, Canadian actor, director, and photographer 1979 – Svetlana Khorkina, Russian gymnast and sportscaster 1979 – Josu Sarriegi, Spanish footballer 1979 – Wiley, English rapper and producer 1980 – Jenson Button, English race car driver 1980 – Pasha Kovalev, Russian-American dancer and choreographer 1980 – Luke Macfarlane, Canadian-American actor and singer 1980 – Arvydas Macijauskas, Lithuanian basketball player 1980 – Michael Vandort, Sri Lankan cricketer 1981 – Paolo Bugia, Filipino basketball player 1981 – Asier del Horno, Spanish footballer 1981 – Lucho González, Argentinian footballer 1982 – Pete Buttigieg, American politician 1982 – Mike Komisarek, American ice hockey player 1982 – Jodie Sweetin, American actress and singer 1982 – Shane Tronc, Australian rugby league player 1982 – Kim Yoo-suk, South Korean pole vaulter 1982 – Robin tom Rink, German singer-songwriter 1983 – Hikaru Utada, American-Japanese singer-songwriter and producer 1984 – Fabio Catacchini, Italian footballer 1984 – Karun Chandhok, Indian race car driver 1984 – Jimmy Kébé, Malian footballer 1984 – Thomas Vanek, Austrian ice hockey player 1985 – Jake Allen, American football player 1985 – Pascal Behrenbruch, German decathlete 1985 – Benny Feilhaber, American soccer player 1985 – Esteban Guerrieri, Argentinian race car driver 1985 – Rika Ishikawa, Japanese singer and actress 1985 – Elliott Ward, English footballer 1985 – Aleksandr Yevgenyevich Nikulin, Russian footballer 1986 – Claudio Marchisio, Italian footballer 1986 – Oleksandr Miroshnychenko, Ukrainian footballer 1986 – Moussa Sow, Senegalese footballer 1987 – Edgar Manucharyan, Armenian footballer 1988 – JaVale McGee, American basketball player 1988 – Tyler Breeze, Canadian wrestler 1990 – Tatiana Búa, Argentine tennis player 1991 – Petra Martić, Croatian tennis player 1991 – Erin Sanders, American actress 1992 – Shawn Johnson, American gymnast 1992 – Mac Miller, American rapper (d. 2018) 1993 – Erick Torres Padilla, Mexican footballer 1994 – Matthias Ginter, German footballer 1994 – Alfie Mawson, English footballer Deaths Pre-1600 520 – John of Cappadocia, patriarch of Constantinople 639 – Dagobert I, Frankish king (b. 603) 914 – García I, king of León 1003 – Kilian of Cologne, Irish abbot 1302 – Al-Hakim I, caliph of Cairo 1401 – Robert Bealknap, British justice 1526 – Isabella of Austria, Danish queen (b. 1501) 1547 – Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, English poet (b. 1516) 1565 – Diego Laynez, Spanish Jesuit theologian (b. 1512) 1571 – Paris Bordone, Venetian painter (b. 1495) 1576 – Hans Sachs, German poet and playwright (b. 1494) 1597 – Maharana Pratap, Hindu Rajput king of Mewar (b.1540) 1601–1900 1636 – Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, Flemish painter (b.1561) 1661 – Thomas Venner, English rebel leader (b. 1599) 1729 – William Congreve, English playwright and poet (b. 1670) 1755 – Jean-Pierre Christin, French physicist, mathematician, and astronomer (b. 1683) 1757 – Thomas Ruddiman, Scottish scholar and academic (b. 1674) 1766 – Giovanni Niccolò Servandoni, Italian-French architect and painter (b. 1695) 1785 – Jonathan Toup, English scholar and critic (b. 1713) 1833 – Ferdinand Hérold, French pianist and composer (b. 1791) 1847 – Charles Bent, American soldier and politician, first Governor of New Mexico (b. 1799) 1847 – Athanasios Christopoulos, Greek poet (b. 1772) 1851 – Esteban Echeverría, Argentinian poet and author (b. 1805) 1853 – Karl Faber, German historian and academic (b. 1773) 1865 – Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, French philosopher and politician (b. 1809) 1869 – Carl Reichenbach, German chemist and philosopher (b. 1788) 1874 – August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben, German poet and scholar (b. 1798) 1878 – Henri Victor Regnault, French physicist and chemist (b. 1810) 1895 – António Luís de Seabra, 1st Viscount of Seabra, Portuguese magistrate and politician (b. 1798) 1901–present 1906 – Bartolomé Mitre, Argentinian historian and politician, sixth President of Argentina (b. 1821) 1929 – Liang Qichao, Chinese journalist, philosopher, and scholar (b. 1873) 1930 – Frank P. Ramsey, British mathematician, philosopher and economist (b. 1903) 1938 – Branislav Nušić, Serbian author, playwright, and journalist (b. 1864) 1945 – Gustave Mesny, French general (b. 1886) 1948 – Tony Garnier, French architect and urban planner, designed the Stade de Gerland (b. 1869) 1954 – Theodor Kaluza, German mathematician and physicist (b. 1885) 1957 – József Dudás, Romanian-Hungarian activist and politician (b. 1912) 1963 – Clement Smoot, American golfer (b. 1884) 1964 – Firmin Lambot, Belgian cyclist (b. 1886) 1965 – Arnold Luhaäär, Estonian weightlifter (b. 1905) 1968 – Ray Harroun, American race car driver and engineer (b. 1879) 1972 – Michael Rabin, American violinist (b. 1936) 1973 – Max Adrian, Irish-English actor (b. 1903) 1975 – Thomas Hart Benton, American painter and educator (b. 1889) 1976 – Hidetsugu Yagi, Japanese engineer and academic (b. 1886) 1979 – Moritz Jahn, German novelist and poet (b. 1884) 1980 – William O. Douglas, American lawyer and jurist (b. 1898) 1981 – Francesca Woodman, American photographer (b. 1958) 1982 – Elis Regina, Brazilian soprano (b. 1945) 1984 – Max Bentley, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1920) 1987 – Lawrence Kohlberg, American psychologist and academic (b. 1927) 1990 – Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, Indian guru and mystic (b. 1931) 1990 – Alberto Semprini, English pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1908) 1990 – Herbert Wehner, German politician, sixth Minister of Intra-German Relations (b. 1906) 1991 – Marcel Chaput, Canadian biochemist and journalist (b. 1918) 1995 – Gene MacLellan, Canadian singer-songwriter (b. 1938) 1996 – Don Simpson, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1943) 1997 – James Dickey, American poet and novelist (b. 1923) 1998 – Carl Perkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1932) 1999 – Ivan Francescato, Italian rugby player (b. 1967) 2000 – Amatu'l-Bahá Rúhíyyih Khánum, a Baháʼí Faith Hand of the Cause of God and wife of Shoghi Effendi (b. 1910) 2000 – Bettino Craxi, Italian lawyer and politician, 45th Prime Minister of Italy (b. 1934) 2000 – Hedy Lamarr, Austrian-American actress, singer, and mathematician (b. 1913) 2002 – Vavá, Brazilian footballer and manager (b. 1934) 2003 – Milton Flores, Honduran footballer (b. 1974) 2003 – Françoise Giroud, French journalist, screenwriter, and politician, French Minister of Culture (b. 1916) 2004 – Harry E. Claiborne, American lawyer and judge (b. 1917) 2004 – David Hookes, Australian cricketer and coach (b. 1955) 2005 – K. Sello Duiker, South African author and screenwriter (b. 1974) 2006 – Anthony Franciosa, American actor (b. 1928) 2006 – Wilson Pickett, American singer-songwriter (b. 1941) 2007 – Hrant Dink, Turkish-Armenian journalist and activist (b. 1954) 2007 – Denny
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the Union Internationale Motonautique, with hosting rotating between New Zealand, Australia and the U.S.A. Format The race itself consists of a predefined course through the channels with 25 to 30 changes of direction. These races generally take just 45–60 seconds. Once qualifying is completed, the competitors each run the course with the fastest qualifiers running last. The fastest 16 (typically depending on the number of competitions) proceed to the next round. This is then reduced to the top 12, Top 8 then the top 5 and finally the fastest three. Boats A jetsprint hull is typically short - just 3.8 to 4.0 metres (12½ to 13 feet) long. The hull's vee is usually 23 to 25 degrees with several strakes on each side. A short hull is preferred, as a longer hull takes more distance to turn and usually must be turned at a slower speed. The strakes provide "traction' by stopping the boat from sliding
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to 13 feet) long. The hull's vee is usually 23 to 25 degrees with several strakes on each side. A short hull is preferred, as a longer hull takes more distance to turn and usually must be turned at a slower speed. The strakes provide "traction' by stopping the boat from sliding sideways across the water when turning at high speed. A rollcage must be fitted to the boat. Crew A crew consists of the driver and a navigator, whose responsibility is to guide the driver through the course - typically via simple hand signals, pointing the hand in the direction that the boat must go at the next intersection. Classes There are two internationally recognised classes Group A - engines in Group A boats are restricted to either 6.7-litre (412 cubic inch) engines with cast iron blocks and heads, or 6-litre (365 cubic inch) engines with aluminium heads. Both engines are only allowed two push-rod operated valves per cylinder. Furthermore, the engine must be normally aspirated, using a four-barrel carburetor. Fuel is 100+ octane aviation fuel. Typically these engines produce up to 650 horsepower Super Boats - engines in the Super Boat class have no maximum size, but instead have a minimum size restriction. Normally aspirated engines must have a displacement of 6.5 litres (400 cubic inches), while forced induction (turbocharged or supercharged) engines
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been a historic part of Jain society, and Jainism focused on transforming the individual, not society. Monasticism is similar in all three traditions, with similar rules, hierarchical structure, not traveling during the four-month monsoon season, and celibacy, originating before the Buddha or the Mahāvīra. Jain and Hindu monastic communities have traditionally been more mobile and had an itinerant lifestyle, while Buddhist monks have favored belonging to a sangha (monastery) and staying in its premises. Buddhist monastic rules forbid a monk to go outside without wearing the sangha's distinctive ruddy robe, or to use wooden bowls. In contrast, Jain monastic rules have either required nakedness (Digambara) or white clothes (Śvētāmbara), and they have disagreed on the legitimacy of the wooden or empty gourd as the begging bowl by Jain monks. Jains have similar views with Hindus that violence in self-defence can be justified, and that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty. Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence; there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers. The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting. Some Hindu temples have included a Jain Tirthankara within its premises in a place of honour, while temple complexes such as the Badami cave temples and Khajuraho feature both Hindu and Jain monuments. Art and architecture Jainism has contributed significantly to Indian art and architecture. Jain arts depict life legends of tirthankara or other important people, particularly with them in a seated or standing meditative posture. Yakshas and yakshinis, attendant spirits who guard the tirthankara, are usually shown with them. The earliest known Jain image is in the Patna museum. It is dated approximately to the third century BCE. Bronze images of Pārśva can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these are dated to the second century BCE. Ayagapata is a type of votive tablet used in Jainism for donation and worship in the early centuries. These tablets are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as the stupa, dharmacakra and triratna. They present simultaneous trends or image and symbol worship. Numerous such stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like Kankali Tila near Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, India. The practice of donating these tablets is documented from first century BCE to third century CE. Samavasarana, a preaching hall of tirthankaras with various beings concentrically placed, is an important theme of Jain art. The Jain tower in Chittor, Rajasthan, is a good example of Jain architecture. Decorated manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries, containing diagrams from Jain cosmology. Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known as Panch Kalyanaka, from the life of the tirthankara. Rishabha, the first tirthankara, is usually depicted in either the lotus position or kayotsarga, the standing position. He is distinguished from other tirthankara by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Bull images also appear in his sculptures. In paintings, incidents from his life, like his marriage and Indra marking his forehead, are depicted. Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers; he is also seen painting a house, weaving, and being visited by his mother Marudevi. Each of the twenty-four tirthankara is associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in such texts as Tiloyapannati, Kahavaali and Pravacanasaarodhara. Temples A Jain temple, a Derasar or Basadi, is a place of worship. Temples contain tirthankara images, some fixed, others moveable. These are stationed in the inner sanctum, one of the two sacred zones, the other being the main hall. One of the images is marked as the moolnayak (primary deity). A manastambha (column of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. Temple construction is considered a meritorious act. Ancient Jain monuments include the Udaigiri Hills near Bhelsa (Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh, the Ellora in Maharashtra, the Palitana temples in Gujarat, and the Jain temples at Dilwara Temples near Mount Abu, Rajasthan. Chaumukha temple in Ranakpur is considered one of the most beautiful Jain temples and is famous for its detailed carvings. According to Jain texts, Shikharji is the place where twenty of the twenty-four Jain Tīrthaṅkaras along with many other monks attained moksha (died without being reborn, with their soul in Siddhashila). The Shikharji site in northeastern Jharkhand is therefore a revered pilgrimage site. The Palitana temples are the holiest shrine for the Śvētāmbara Murtipujaka sect. Along with Shikharji the two sites are considered the holiest of all pilgrimage sites by the Jain community. The Jain complex, Khajuraho and Jain Narayana temple are part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Shravanabelagola, Saavira Kambada Basadi or 1000 pillars and Brahma Jinalaya are important Jain centers in Karnataka. In and around Madurai, there are 26 caves, 200 stone beds, 60 inscriptions, and over 100 sculptures. The second–first century BCE Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are rich with carvings of tirthanakars and deities with inscriptions including the Elephant Cave inscription. Jain cave temples at Badami, Mangi-Tungi and the Ellora Caves are considered important. The Sittanavasal Cave temple is a fine example of Jain art with an early cave shelter, and a medieval rock-cut temple with excellent fresco paintings comparable to Ajantha. Inside are seventeen stone beds with second century BCE Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. The eighth century Kazhugumalai temple marks the revival of Jainism in South India. Pilgrimages Jain Tirtha (pilgrim) sites are divided into the following categories: SiddhakshetraSite believed to be of the moksha of an arihant (kevalin) or tirthankara, such as: Ashtapada, Shikharji, Girnar, Pawapuri, Palitana, Mangi-Tungi, and Champapuri (capital of Anga). AtishayakshetraLocations where divine events are believed to have occurred, such as: Mahavirji, Rishabhdeo, Kundalpur, Tijara, and Aharji. Puranakshetra Places associated with the lives of great men, such as: Ayodhya, Vidisha, Hastinapur, and Rajgir. Gyanakshetra Places associated with famous acharyas, or centers of learning, such as Shravanabelagola. Outside contemporary India, Jain communities built temples in locations such as Nagarparkar, Sindh (Pakistan). However, according to a UNESCO tentative world heritage site application, Nagarparkar was not a "major religious centre or a place of pilgrimage" for Jainism, but it was once an important cultural landscape before "the last remaining Jain community left the area in 1947 at Partition". Statues and sculptures Jain sculptures usually depict one of the twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras; Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha and Mahāvīra are among the more popular, often seated in lotus position or kayotsarga, along with Arihant, Bahubali, and protector deities like Ambika. Quadruple images are also popular. Tirthankar idols look similar, differentiated by their individual symbol, except for Parshvanatha whose head is crowned by a snake. Digambara images are naked without any beautification, whereas Śvētāmbara depictions are clothed and ornamented. A monolithic, statue of Bahubali, Gommateshvara, built in 981 CE by the Ganga minister and commander Chavundaraya, is situated on a hilltop in Shravanabelagola in Karnataka. This statue was voted first in the SMS poll Seven Wonders of India conducted by The Times of India. The tall Statue of Ahiṃsā (depicting Rishabhanatha) was erected in the Nashik district in 2015. Idols are often made in Ashtadhatu (literally "eight metals"), namely Akota Bronze, brass, gold, silver, stone monoliths, rock cut, and precious stones. Symbols Jain icons and arts incorporate symbols such as the swastika, Om, and the Ashtamangala. In Jainism, Om is a condensed reference to the initials "A-A-A-U-M" of the five parameshthis: "Arihant, Ashiri, Acharya, Upajjhaya, Muni", or the five lines of the Ṇamōkāra Mantra. The Ashtamangala is a set of eight auspicious symbols: in the Digambara tradition, these are chatra, dhvaja, kalasha, fly-whisk, mirror, chair, hand fan and vessel. In the Śvētāmbar tradition, they are Swastika, Srivatsa, Nandavarta, Vardhmanaka (food vessel), Bhadrasana (seat), Kalasha (pot), Darpan (mirror) and pair of fish. The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes ahimsā. The wheel represents the dharmachakra, which stands for the resolve to halt the saṃsāra (wandering) through the relentless pursuit of ahimsā. The five colours of the Jain flag represent the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi and the five vows. The swastika's four arms symbolise the four realms in which rebirth occurs according to Jainism: humans, heavenly beings, hellish beings and non-humans. The three dots on the top represent the three jewels mentioned in ancient texts: correct faith, correct understanding and correct conduct, believed to lead to spiritual perfection. In 1974, on the 2500th anniversary of the nirvana of Mahāvīra, the Jain community chose a single combined image for Jainism. It depicts the three lokas, heaven, the human world and hell. The semi-circular topmost portion symbolizes Siddhashila, a zone beyond the three realms. The Jain swastika and the symbol of Ahiṃsā are included, with the Jain mantra Parasparopagraho Jīvānām from sūtra 5.21 of Umaswati's Tattvarthasūtra, meaning "souls render service to one another". History Ancient Jainism is an ancient Indian religion of obscure origins. Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the first tirthankara Rishabhanatha as the reinforcer of Jain Dharma in the current time cycle. It is one of the Śramaṇa traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the Vedas, and according to the twentieth-century scholar of comparative religion Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Jainism was in existence before the Vedas were composed. The historicity of first twenty two Tirthankaras is not determined yet. The 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha, was a historical being, dated by the Jain tradition to the ninth century BCE; historians date him to the eighth or seventh century BC. Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the sixth century BCE. The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha; later, they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them. Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines. Jains consider the kings Bimbisara (c. 558–491 BCE), Ajatashatru (c. 492–460 BCE), and Udayin (c. 460–440 BCE) of the Haryanka dynasty as patrons of Jainism. Jain tradition states that Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE), the founder of the Mauryan Empire and grandfather of Ashoka, became a monk and disciple of Jain ascetic Bhadrabahu in the later part of his life. Jain texts state that he died intentionally at Shravanabelagola by fasting. Versions of Chandragupta's story appear in Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu texts. The third century BCE emperor Ashoka, in his pillar edicts, mentions the Niganthas (Jains). Tirthankara statues date back to the second century BCE. Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain center from the second century BCE onwards. Inscriptions from as early as the first century CE already show the schism between Digambara and Śvētāmbara. There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BCE, and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE. Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth and decline of Jainism. In the second half of the first century CE, Hindu kings of the Rashtrakuta dynasty sponsored major Jain cave temples. King Harshavardhana of the seventh century championed Jainism, Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism. The Pallava King Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE) converted from Jainism to Shaivism. His work Mattavilasa Prahasana ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and expresses contempt for Jain ascetics. The Yadava dynasty built many temples at the Ellora Caves between 700 and 1000 CE. King Āma of the eighth century converted to Jainism, and the Jain pilgrimage tradition was well established in his era. Mularaja (10th century CE), the founder of the Chalukya dynasty, constructed a Jain temple, even though he was not a Jain. During the 11th century, Basava, a minister to the Jain Kalachuri king Bijjala, converted many Jains to the Lingayat Shaivite sect. The Lingayats destroyed Jain temples and adapted them to their use. The Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana (c. 1108–1152 CE) became a Vaishnavite under the influence of Ramanuja, and Vaishnavism then grew rapidly in what is now Karnataka. Medieval Jainism faced persecution during and after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. Muslims rulers, such as Mahmud Ghazni (1001), Mohammad Ghori (1175) and Ala-ud-din Muhammed Shah Khalji (1298) further oppressed the Jain community. They vandalised idols and destroyed temples or converted them into mosques. They also burned Jain books and killed Jains. There were significant exceptions, such as Emperor Akbar (15421605)
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supported by laypersons (śrāvakas and śrāvikas). The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has three sub-traditions: Mandirvāsī, Terapanthi, and Sthānakavasī. The religion has between four and five million followers, known as Jains, who reside mostly in India. Outside India, some of the largest communities are in Canada, Europe, and the United States, with Japan hosting a fast-growing community of converts. Major festivals include Paryushana and Das Lakshana, Ashtanika, Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, Akshaya Tritiya, and Dipawali. Estimates for the population of Jains differ from just over four million to twelve million. Beliefs and philosophy Jainism is transtheistic and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating the law of substance dualism, and the actual realization of this principle plays out through the phenomena of both parallelism and interactionism. Dravya (Ontological facts) Dravya means substances or entity in Sanskrit. The universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls (jīva), non-sentient substance or matter (pudgala), the principle of motion (dharma), the principle of rest (adharma), space (ākāśa), and time (kāla). The last five are united as the ajiva (non-living). Jain philosophers distinguish a substance from a body, or thing, by declaring the former a simple indestructible element, while the latter is a compound made of one or more substances that can be destroyed. Tattva (Soteriological facts) Tattva connotes reality or truth in Jain philosophy and is the framework for salvation. According to Digambara Jains, there are seven tattvas: the sentient (jiva or living), the insentient (ajiva or non-living), the karmic influx to the soul (Āsrava, which is a mix of living and non-living), the bondage of karmic particles to the soul (Bandha), the stoppage of karmic particles (Saṃvara), the wiping away of past karmic particles (Nirjarā), and the liberation (Moksha). Śvētāmbaras add two further tattvas, namely good karma (Punya) and bad karma (Paapa). The true insight in Jain philosophy is considered as "faith in the tattvas". The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach moksha for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons, it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation. Pramana (Epistemological facts) Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge (pramana). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception (pratyaksa), inference (anumana) and testimony (sabda or the word of scriptures). These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as Tattvarthasūtra, Parvacanasara, Nandi and Anuyogadvarini. Some Jain texts add analogy (upamana) as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to epistemological theories found in other Indian religions. In Jainism, jnāna (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – Kevala Jnana (Omniscience), Śrutu Jñāna (Scriptural Knowledge), Mati Jñāna (Sensory Knowledge), Avadhi Jñāna (Clairvoyance), and Manah prayāya Jñāna (Telepathy). According to the Jain text Tattvartha sūtra, the first two are indirect knowledge and the remaining three are direct knowledge. Soul and karma According to Jainism, the existence of "a bound and ever changing soul" is a self-evident truth, an axiom which does not need to be proven. It maintains that there are numerous souls, but every one of them has three qualities (Guṇa): consciousness (chaitanya, the most important), bliss (sukha) and vibrational energy (virya). It further claims that the vibration draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages, but is also what adds merit or demerit to the soul. Jain texts state that souls exist as "clothed with material bodies", where it entirely fills up the body. Karma, as in other Indian religions, connotes in Jainism the universal cause and effect law. However, it is envisioned as a material substance (subtle matter) that can bind to the soul, travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the jiva in the lokas. Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth. Saṃsāra The conceptual framework of the Saṃsāra doctrine differs between Jainism and other Indian religions. Soul (jiva) is accepted as a truth, as in Hinduism but not Buddhism. The cycle of rebirths has a definite beginning and end in Jainism. Jain theosophy asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations as they circle through Saṃsāra, going through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives, constantly changing with all human and non-human activities from rainfall to breathing. Harming any life form is a sin in Jainism, with negative karmic effects. Jainism states that souls begin in a primordial state, and either evolve to a higher state or regress if driven by their karma. It further clarifies that abhavya (incapable) souls can never attain moksha (liberation). It explains that the abhavya state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act. Souls can be good or evil in Jainism, unlike the nondualism of some forms of Hinduism and Buddhism. According to Jainism, a Siddha (liberated soul) has gone beyond Saṃsāra, is at the apex, is omniscient, and remains there eternally. Cosmology Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal lokas (realms of existence). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, both time and the universe are eternal, but the universe is transient. The universe, body, matter and time are considered separate from the soul (jiva). Their interaction explains life, living, death and rebirth in Jain philosophy. The Jain cosmic universe has three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds (urdhva loka, madhya loka, and adho loka). Jainism states that Kāla (time) is without beginning and eternal; the cosmic wheel of time, kālachakra, rotates ceaselessly. In this part of the universe, it explains, there are six periods of time within two eons (ara), and in the first eon the universe generates, and in the next it degenerates. Thus, it divides the worldly cycle of time into two half-cycles, utsarpiṇī (ascending, progressive prosperity and happiness) and avasarpiṇī (descending, increasing sorrow and immorality). It states that the world is currently in the fifth ara of avasarpiṇī, full of sorrow and religious decline, where the height of living beings shrinks. According to Jainism, after the sixth ara, the universe will be reawakened in a new cycle. God Jainism is a transtheistic religion, holding that the universe was not created, and will exist forever. It is believed to be independent, having no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer. In this, it is unlike the Abrahamic religions, but similar to Buddhism. However, Jainism believes in the world of heavenly and hell beings who are born, die and are reborn like earthly beings. Jain texts maintain that souls who live happily in the body of a god do so because of their positive karma. It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms. However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans, animals or other beings. In Jainism, perfect souls with a body are called arihant (victors) and perfect souls without a body are called Siddhas (liberated souls). The important vow of Jainism is to avoid superstitious beliefs and to avoid praising superstitious lords and gods.[50] Salvation, liberation According to Jainism, purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of four jewels: Samyak Darśana (Correct View), meaning faith, acceptance of the truth of soul (jīva); Samyak Gyana (Correct Knowledge), meaning undoubting knowledge of the tattvas; and Samyak Charitra (Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows. Jain texts often add samyak tap (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation (moksha). The four jewels are called Moksha Marg (the path of liberation). Main principles Non-violence (ahimsa) The principle of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism. It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless. In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty. Jain texts such as Acaranga Sūtra and Tattvarthasūtra state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable. Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly. Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought. It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other". Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being. The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism. The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths. Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad karma which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering. Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined the Ahiṃsā doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns. According to Dundas, the Jain scholar Jinadattasuri wrote during a time of Muslim destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance". However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare. Many-sided reality (anekāntavāda) The second main principle of Jainism is anekāntavāda, from anekānta ("many-sidedness") and vada ("doctrine"). The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are Naya, "partial expression of the truth". According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are syāt, or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete". It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed. It suggests that the great error is belief in ekānta (one-sidedness), where some relative truth is treated as absolute. The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (syāt). These texts identify anekāntavāda as a key difference from the Buddha's teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality. The permanent being is conceptualized as jiva (soul) and ajiva (matter) within a dualistic anekāntavāda framework. According to Paul Dundas, in contemporary times the anekāntavāda doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote a universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings. According to him, the "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of absolute reality and human existence. He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right". The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" about them. Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa. Non-attachment (aparigraha) The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions. For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions. The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition. For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity. According to Natubhai Shah, aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to one's personality. Jain ethics and five vows Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called anuvratas (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas (great vows) for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a guru (teacher, counsellor), deva (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, sincere desire for Jain teachings, recognition of fellow Jains, and admiration for their spiritual pursuits. Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism: Ahiṃsā, "intentional non-violence" or "noninjury": The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all living beings (particularly animals). This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts. Satya, "truth": This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth. Asteya, "not stealing": A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given. Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given. Brahmacharya, "celibacy": Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner. Aparigraha, "non-possessiveness": This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed. Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one. Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three guņa vratas (merit vows) and four śikşā vratas. The Sallekhana (or Santhara) vow is a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age. In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion, This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths. Practices Asceticism and monasticism Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition. Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching siddha and moksha ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation"). Jain texts like Tattvartha Sūtra and Uttaradhyayana Sūtra discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts. Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation). Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants, studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body. Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition. Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify the jiva (soul). The tirthankaras such as the Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years. Monastic organization, sangh, has a four-fold order consisting of sadhu (male ascetics, muni), sadhvi (female ascetics, aryika), śrāvaka (laymen), and śrāvikā (laywomen). The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations called gacch or samuday, in autonomous regional Jain congregations. Jain monastic rules have encouraged the use of mouth cover, as well as the Dandasan – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path. Food and fasting The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being vegetarian. Devout
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first professional short story in 1959. Her papers are part of the University of Oregon's Special Collections and University Archives. Criticism The late 1960s and 1970s marked the beginnings of feminist SF scholarship—a field of inquiry that was all but created single-handedly by Russ, who contributed many essays on feminism and science fiction that appeared in journals such as College English and Science Fiction Studies. She also contributed 25 reviews to the Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, covering more than 100 books of all genres. In their article "Learning the 'Prophet Business': The Merril-Russ Intersection," Newell and Tallentire described Russ as an "intelligent, tough-minded reviewer who routinely tempered harsh criticism with just the sort of faint praise she handed out to Judith Merril", who in turn was among the foremost editors and critics in American science fiction in the late 1960s. Russ was also described as a fearless, incisive, and radical person, whose writing was often characterized as acerbic and angry. Russ was acclaimed as one of science fiction's most revolutionary and accomplished writers. Helen Merrick went so far as to claim that Russ was an inescapable figure in science fiction history. James Tiptree, Jr. once commented on how Russ could be an "absolute delight" one minute, but then she "rushes out and bites my ankles with one sentence". For example, Russ criticized Ursula K. Le Guin's 1969 The Left Hand of Darkness, which won both the 1969 Nebula and 1970 Hugo awards for best science fiction novel, arguing that gender discriminations that permeated science fiction by men showed up just as frequently in science fiction by women. According to Russ, Le Guin's novel represented these stereotypes. However, Russ was well aware of the pressures of writing for a living since she was also an author herself. Russ also felt that science fiction gives something to its readers that cannot be easily acquired anywhere else. She maintained that science should be accurate, and seriousness is a virtue. She insisted on the unique qualities of her chosen genre, maintaining that science fiction shared certain qualities with art and its flexibility compared to other forms writing. Russ was also interested in demonstrating the unique potentials of women science fiction writers. As her career moved into its second decade in the 1980s, she started to worry about reviewing standards. She once said, "The reviewer's hardest task is to define standards." Russ's reviewing style was characterized by logic. She was attacked by readers because of her harsh reviews of Stephen R. Donaldson's Lord Foul's Bane (1977) and Joy Chant's The Grey Mane of Morning (1977). She organized attacks into these seven categories, taken directly from the cited article: Don't shove your politics into your reviews. Just review the books. "I will," Russ said, "when authors keep politics out of their books." You don't prove what you say; you just assert it. "There is no way to "prove" anything in aesthetic or moral matters." Then your opinion is purely subjective. "I might be subjective, but not arbitrary. It is based on a critic's whole education." Everyone's entitled to his [sic] own opinion. "Writing is a craft too, and it can be judged. And some opinions are worth a good deal more than others." I knew it. You're a snob. "Science fiction is a small world that often doesn't look outside of its own bounds." You're vitriolic too. "The only way to relieve oneself of the pain that has to be endured by reading every line is to express one's opinions vividly, precisely, and compactly." Never mind all that stuff. Just tell me what I'd enjoy reading. "Bless you, what makes you think I know?" However, she felt guilty about dire and frank criticism. She apologized for her harsh words on Lloyd Biggle's The Light That Never Was (1972) by saying, "It's narsty to beat up on authors who are probably starving to death on turnip soup (ghoti soup) but critics ought to be honest." Personal life Around the time of the publication of The Female Man in 1975, Russ came out as a lesbian. However, Russ remained protective of her personal life, and as late as a December 1981 interview with Charles Platt, she was still evasive on the subject. Health In her later life she published little, largely because of chronic pain and chronic fatigue syndrome. On April 27, 2011, it was reported that Russ had been admitted to a hospice after suffering a series of strokes. Samuel R. Delany was quoted as saying that Russ was "slipping away" and had long had a "do not resuscitate" order on file. She died early in the morning on April 29, 2011. Selected works Novels Picnic on Paradise (1968) And Chaos Died (1970) The Female Man (1975) We Who Are About To... (1977) The Two of Them (1978) On Strike Against God: A Lesbian Love Story (1980) (novella) Short fiction collections The Adventures of Alyx (1976) (includes Picnic on Paradise) The Zanzibar Cat (1983) Extra(ordinary) People (1985) The Hidden Side of the Moon (1987) Children's fiction Kittatinny: A Tale of Magic (1978) Play "Window Dressing" in The New Women's Theatre edited by Honor Moore. New York, Random House (1977) Nonfiction essays and collections Speculations on the Subjunctivity of Science Fiction (1973) Somebody's Trying to Kill Me and I Think It's My Husband: The Modern Gothic (1973) How to Suppress Women's Writing (1983) Magic Mommas, Trembling Sisters, Puritans and Perverts: Feminist Essays (1985) To Write Like a Woman (1995) What Are We Fighting For?: Sex, Race, Class, and the Future of Feminism (1997) The Country You Have Never Seen: Essays and
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male dominance of the field, and is generally regarded as one of the leading feminist science fiction scholars and writers. She was also one of the first major science fiction writers to take slash fiction and its cultural and literary implications seriously. Over the course of her life, she published over fifty short stories. Russ was associated with the American New Wave of science fiction. Along with her work as a writer of prose fiction, Russ was also a playwright, essayist, and author of nonfiction works, generally literary criticism and feminist theory, including the essay collection Magic Mommas, Trembling Sisters, Puritans & Perverts; How to Suppress Women's Writing; and the book-length study of modern feminism, What Are We Fighting For?. Her essays and articles have been published in Women's Studies Quarterly, Signs, Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, Science Fiction Studies, and College English. Russ was a self-described socialist feminist, expressing particular admiration for the work and theories of Clara Fraser and her Freedom Socialist Party. Both fiction and nonfiction, for Russ, were modes of engaging theory with the real world; in particular, The Female Man can be read as a theoretical or narrative text. The short story, "When It Changed," which became a part of the novel, explores the constraints of gender and asks if gender is necessary in a society. Russ's writing is characterized by anger interspersed with humor and irony. James Tiptree Jr, in a letter to her, wrote, "Do you imagine that anyone with half a functional neuron can read your work and not have his fingers smoked by the bitter, multi-layered anger in it? It smells and smoulders like a volcano buried so long and deadly it is just beginning to wonder if it can explode." In a letter to Susan Koppelman, Russ asks of a young feminist critic "where is her anger?" and adds "I think from now on, I will not trust anyone who isn't angry." For nearly 15 years she was an influential (if intermittent) review columnist for The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction. Though by then she was no longer an active member of science fiction fandom, she was interviewed by phone during Wiscon (the feminist science fiction convention in Madison, Wisconsin) in 2006 by her friend and member of the same cohort, Samuel R. Delany. Her first SF story was "Nor Custom Stale" in F&SF (1959). Notable short works include Hugo winner and Nebula Award finalist "Souls" (1982), Nebula Award and Tiptree Award winner "When It Changed" (1972), Nebula Award finalists "The Second Inquisition" (1970), "Poor Man, Beggar Man" (1971), "The Extraordinary Voyages of Amélie Bertrand" (1979), and "The Mystery of the Young Gentlemen" (1982). Her fiction has been nominated for nine Nebula and three Hugo Awards, and her genre-related scholarly work was recognized with a Pilgrim Award in 1988. Her story "The Autobiography of My Mother" was one of the 1977 O. Henry Prize stories. She wrote several contributions to feminist thinking about pornography and sexuality including "Pornography by Women, for Women, with Love" (1985), "Pornography and the Doubleness of Sex for Women", and "Being Against Pornography", which can be found in her archival pieces located in the University of Oregon's Special Collections. These essays include very detailed descriptions of her views on pornography and how influential it was to feminist thought in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Specifically, in "Being Against Pornography", she calls pornography a feminist issue. She sees pornography to be the essence of evil in society, calling it "a monolithic, easily recognizable, uniquely evil essence; and at the same time, commercially available, explicit, sexual fantasy." Her issues with pornography range from feminist issues, to women's sexuality in general and how porn prevents women from freely express their sexual selves, like men can. Russ believed that anti-pornography activists were not addressing how women experienced pornography created by men, a topic that she addressed in "Being Against Pornography". Reputation and legacy Her work is widely taught in courses on science fiction and feminism throughout the English speaking world. Russ is the subject of Farah Mendlesohn's book On Joanna Russ and Jeanne Cortiel's Demand My Writing: Joanna Russ, Feminism, Science Fiction. Russ and her work are prominently featured in Sarah LeFanu's In the Chinks of the World Machine: Feminism and Science Fiction (1988). She was named to the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame in 2013. Gwyneth Jones wrote a 2019 book about Joanna Russ that was part of the University of Illinois Press series called Modern Masters of Science Fiction. In a 2004 essay about the connections between Russ's work and D. W. Griffith's film Intolerance, Samuel R. Delany describes her as being "one of the finest - and most necessary - writers of American fiction" since she published her first professional short story in 1959. Her papers are part of the University of Oregon's Special Collections and University Archives. Criticism The late 1960s and 1970s marked the beginnings of feminist SF scholarship—a field of inquiry that was all but created single-handedly by Russ, who contributed many essays on feminism and science fiction that appeared in journals such as College English and Science Fiction Studies. She also contributed 25 reviews to the Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, covering more than 100 books of all genres. In their article "Learning the 'Prophet Business': The Merril-Russ Intersection," Newell and Tallentire described Russ as an "intelligent, tough-minded reviewer who routinely tempered harsh criticism with just the sort of faint praise she handed out to Judith Merril", who in turn was among the foremost editors and critics in American science fiction in the late 1960s. Russ was also described as a fearless, incisive, and radical person, whose writing was often characterized as acerbic and angry. Russ was acclaimed as one of science fiction's most revolutionary and accomplished writers. Helen Merrick went so far as to claim that Russ was an inescapable figure in science fiction history. James Tiptree, Jr. once commented on how Russ could be an "absolute delight" one minute, but then she "rushes out and bites my ankles with one sentence". For example, Russ criticized Ursula K. Le Guin's 1969 The Left Hand of Darkness, which won both the 1969 Nebula and 1970 Hugo awards for best science fiction novel, arguing
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from alleged genetic disorders. 1943 – In Diamond, Missouri, the George Washington Carver National Monument becomes the first United States National Monument in honor of an African American. 1948 – Palmiro Togliatti, leader of the Italian Communist Party, is shot and wounded near the Italian Parliament. 1950 – Korean War: beginning of the Battle of Taejon. 1951 – Ferrari take their first Formula One grand prix victory at the British Grand Prix at Silverstone. 1957 – Rawya Ateya takes her seat in the National Assembly of Egypt, thereby becoming the first female parliamentarian in the Arab world. 1958 – In the 14 July Revolution in Iraq, the monarchy is overthrown by popular forces led by Abd al-Karim Qasim, who becomes the nation's new leader. 1960 – Jane Goodall arrives at the Gombe Stream Reserve in present-day Tanzania to begin her study of chimpanzees in the wild. 1965 – Mariner 4 flyby of Mars takes the first close-up photos of another planet. The photographs take approximately six hours to be transmitted back to Earth. 1983 – Mario Bros. is released in Japan, beginning the popular Super Mario Bros franchise. 2002 – French president Jacques Chirac escapes an assassination attempt from Maxime Brunerie during a Bastille Day parade at Champs-Élysées. 2013 – Dedication of statue of Rachel Carson, a sculpture named for the environmentalist, in Woods Hole, Massachusetts. 2015 – NASA's New Horizons probe performs the first flyby of Pluto, and thus completes the initial survey of the Solar System. 2016 – A man ploughs a truck into a Bastille Day celebration in Nice, France, killing 86 people and injuring another 434 before being shot by police. Births Pre-1600 926 – Murakami, emperor of Japan (d. 967) 1410 – Arnold, Duke of Guelders, (d. 1473) 1454 – Poliziano, Italian poet and scholar (d. 1494) 1515 – Philip I, Duke of Pomerania (d. 1560) 1601–1900 1602 – Cardinal Jules Mazarin, Italian-French cardinal and politician, chief minister of France from 5 December 1642 to 9 March 1661 (d. 1661) 1608 – George Goring, Lord Goring, English general (d. 1657) 1610 – Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1670) 1634 – Pasquier Quesnel, French priest and theologian (d. 1719) 1671 – Jacques d'Allonville, French astronomer and mathematician (d. 1732) 1675 – Claude Alexandre de Bonneval, French general (d. 1747) 1696 – William Oldys, English historian and author (d. 1761) 1721 – John Douglas, Scottish bishop and scholar (d. 1807) 1743 – Gavrila Derzhavin, Russian poet and politician (d. 1816) 1755 – Michel de Beaupuy, French general (d. 1796) 1785 – Mordecai Manuel Noah, American journalist, playwright, and diplomat (d. 1851) 1801 – Johannes Peter Müller, German physiologist and anatomist (d. 1858) 1816 – Arthur de Gobineau, French writer who founded Gobinism to promote development of racism (d. 1882) 1829 – Edward Benson, English archbishop (d. 1896) 1859 – Willy Hess, German violinist and educator (d. 1928) 1861 – Kate M. Gordon, American activist (d. 1931) 1862 – Florence Bascom, American geologist and educator (d. 1945) 1862 – Gustav Klimt, Austrian painter and illustrator (d. 1918) 1865 – Arthur Capper, American journalist and politician, 20th Governor of Kansas (d. 1951) 1866 – Juliette Wytsman, Belgian painter (d. 1925) 1868 – Gertrude Bell, English archaeologist and spy (d. 1926) 1872 – Albert Marque, French sculptor and doll maker (d. 1939) 1874 – Abbas II of Egypt (d. 1944) 1874 – Crawford Vaughan, Australian politician, 27th Premier of South Australia (d. 1947) 1878 – Donald Meek, Scottish-American stage and film actor (d. 1946) 1885 – Sisavang Vong, Laotian king (d. 1959) 1888 – Scipio Slataper, Italian author and critic (d. 1915) 1889 – Marco de Gastyne, French painter and illustrator (d. 1982) 1889 – Ante Pavelic, Croatian fascist dictator during World War II (d. 1959) 1893 – Clarence J. Brown, American publisher and politician, 36th Lieutenant Governor of Ohio (d. 1965) 1893 – Garimella Satyanarayana, Indian poet and author (d. 1952) 1894 – Dave Fleischer, American animator, director, and producer (d. 1979) 1896 – Buenaventura Durruti, Spanish soldier and anarchist (d. 1936) 1898 – Happy Chandler, American lawyer and politician, 49th Governor of Kentucky, second Commissioner of Baseball (d. 1991) 1901–present 1901 – Gerald Finzi, English composer and academic (d. 1956) 1903 – Irving Stone, American author and educator (d. 1989) 1907 – Chico Landi, Brazilian racing driver (d. 1989) 1910 – William Hanna, American animator, director, producer, and actor, co-founded Hanna-Barbera (d. 2001) 1911 – Pavel Prudnikau, Belarusian poet and author (d. 2000) 1912 – Woody Guthrie, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1967) 1913 – Gerald Ford, American commander, lawyer, and politician, 38th President of the United States (d. 2006) 1918 – Ingmar Bergman, Swedish director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2007) 1918 – Arthur Laurents, American
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Garrett in the Maxwell House at Fort Sumner, New Mexico. 1900 – Armies of the Eight-Nation Alliance capture Tientsin during the Boxer Rebellion. 1901–present 1902 – The Campanile in St Mark's Square, Venice collapses, also demolishing the loggetta. 1911 – Harry Atwood, an exhibition pilot for the Wright brothers, is greeted by President Taft after he lands his aeroplane on the South Lawn of the White House, having flown from Boston. 1915 – Beginning of the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence between Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca and the British official Henry McMahon concerning the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire. 1916 – Battle of Delville Wood begins as an action within the Battle of the Somme, lasting until 3 September 1916. 1933 – In a decree called the Gleichschaltung, Adolf Hitler abolishes all German political parties except the Nazis. 1933 – Nazi eugenics programme begins with the proclamation of the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring requiring the compulsory sterilization of any citizen who suffers from alleged genetic disorders. 1943 – In Diamond, Missouri, the George Washington Carver National Monument becomes the first United States National Monument in honor of an African American. 1948 – Palmiro Togliatti, leader of the Italian Communist Party, is shot and wounded near the Italian Parliament. 1950 – Korean War: beginning of the Battle of Taejon. 1951 – Ferrari take their first Formula One grand prix victory at the British Grand Prix at Silverstone. 1957 – Rawya Ateya takes her seat in the National Assembly of Egypt, thereby becoming the first female parliamentarian in the Arab world. 1958 – In the 14 July Revolution in Iraq, the monarchy is overthrown by popular forces led by Abd al-Karim Qasim, who becomes the nation's new leader. 1960 – Jane Goodall arrives at the Gombe Stream Reserve in present-day Tanzania to begin her study of chimpanzees in the wild. 1965 – Mariner 4 flyby of Mars takes the first close-up photos of another planet. The photographs take approximately six hours to be transmitted back to Earth. 1983 – Mario Bros. is released in Japan, beginning the popular Super Mario Bros franchise. 2002 – French president Jacques Chirac escapes an assassination attempt from Maxime Brunerie during a Bastille Day parade at Champs-Élysées. 2013 – Dedication of statue of Rachel Carson, a sculpture named for the environmentalist, in Woods Hole, Massachusetts. 2015 – NASA's New Horizons probe performs the first flyby of Pluto, and thus completes the initial survey of the Solar System. 2016 – A man ploughs a truck into a Bastille Day celebration in Nice, France, killing 86 people and injuring another 434 before being shot by police. Births Pre-1600 926 – Murakami, emperor of Japan (d. 967) 1410 – Arnold, Duke of Guelders, (d. 1473) 1454 – Poliziano, Italian poet and scholar (d. 1494) 1515 – Philip I, Duke of Pomerania (d. 1560) 1601–1900 1602 – Cardinal Jules Mazarin, Italian-French cardinal and politician, chief minister of France from 5 December 1642 to 9 March 1661 (d. 1661) 1608 – George Goring, Lord Goring, English general (d. 1657) 1610 – Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1670) 1634 – Pasquier Quesnel, French priest and theologian (d. 1719) 1671 – Jacques d'Allonville, French astronomer and mathematician (d. 1732) 1675 – Claude Alexandre de Bonneval, French general (d. 1747) 1696 – William Oldys, English historian and author (d. 1761) 1721 – John Douglas, Scottish bishop and scholar (d. 1807) 1743 – Gavrila Derzhavin, Russian poet and politician (d. 1816) 1755 – Michel de Beaupuy, French general (d. 1796) 1785 – Mordecai Manuel Noah, American journalist, playwright, and diplomat (d. 1851) 1801 – Johannes Peter Müller, German physiologist and anatomist (d. 1858) 1816 – Arthur de Gobineau, French writer who founded Gobinism to promote development of racism (d. 1882) 1829 – Edward Benson, English archbishop (d. 1896) 1859 – Willy Hess, German violinist and educator (d. 1928) 1861 – Kate M. Gordon, American activist (d. 1931) 1862 – Florence Bascom, American geologist and educator (d. 1945) 1862 – Gustav Klimt, Austrian painter and illustrator (d. 1918) 1865 – Arthur Capper, American journalist and politician, 20th Governor of Kansas (d. 1951) 1866 – Juliette Wytsman, Belgian painter (d. 1925) 1868 – Gertrude Bell, English archaeologist and spy (d. 1926) 1872 – Albert Marque, French sculptor and doll maker (d. 1939) 1874 – Abbas II of Egypt (d. 1944) 1874 – Crawford Vaughan, Australian politician, 27th Premier of South Australia (d. 1947) 1878 – Donald Meek, Scottish-American stage and film actor (d. 1946) 1885 – Sisavang Vong, Laotian king (d. 1959) 1888 – Scipio Slataper, Italian author and critic (d. 1915) 1889 – Marco de Gastyne, French painter and illustrator (d. 1982) 1889 – Ante Pavelic, Croatian fascist dictator during World War II (d. 1959) 1893 – Clarence J. Brown, American publisher and politician, 36th Lieutenant Governor of Ohio (d. 1965) 1893 – Garimella Satyanarayana, Indian poet and author (d. 1952) 1894 – Dave Fleischer, American animator, director, and producer (d. 1979) 1896 – Buenaventura Durruti, Spanish soldier and anarchist (d. 1936) 1898 – Happy Chandler, American lawyer and politician, 49th Governor of Kentucky, second Commissioner of Baseball (d. 1991) 1901–present 1901 – Gerald Finzi, English composer and academic (d. 1956) 1903 – Irving Stone, American author and educator (d. 1989) 1907 – Chico Landi, Brazilian racing driver (d. 1989) 1910 – William Hanna, American animator, director, producer, and actor, co-founded Hanna-Barbera (d. 2001) 1911 – Pavel Prudnikau, Belarusian poet and author (d. 2000) 1912 – Woody Guthrie, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1967) 1913 – Gerald Ford, American commander, lawyer, and politician, 38th President of the United States (d. 2006) 1918 – Ingmar
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There were 13,294 households, of which 35.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.7% were married couples living together, 22.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40.8% were non-families. 33.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 3.14. The median age in the city was 32.2 years. 28.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.7% were from 25 to 44; 23.1% were from 45 to 64; and 10.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.7% male and 52.3% female. 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 36,316 people, 14,210 households, and 8,668 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 15,241 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 73.87% White, 19.70% Black or African American, 0.56% Native American, 0.51% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 1.65% from other races, and 3.67% from two or more races. 4.05% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 14,210 households, out of which 33.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.8% were married couples living together, 19.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.0% were non-families. 32.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.12. In the city, the population was spread out, with 29.7% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 30.4% from 25 to 44, 18.2% from 45 to 64, and 11.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.5 males. The median income for a household in the city was $31,294, and the median income for a family was $39,072. Males had a median income of $31,957 versus $23,817 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,230. About 15.2% of families and 19.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.9% of those under age 18 and 11.0% of those age 65 or over. Places of worship Jackson has a number of notable historic churches, several of which were established prior to the American Civil War. The First Baptist Church was established in 1839; the present building, a Romanesque Revival structure, was dedicated in March 1872. The First Congregational Church is housed in a monumental Romanesque Revival building constructed in 1859. A basement was added after the structure had been in operation for several years. In 1871 the building was raised eight feet to accommodate lower-level classrooms. Its congregation has actively participated in local social reform efforts, becoming part of the antislavery movement in the 1840s and later supporting the temperance and the civil rights movement. St. Paul's Episcopal Church was also founded in 1839. The congregation's first church building, constructed in 1840, was replaced by a Romanesque Revival building in 1853; it is one of the oldest Episcopal Church structures in southern Michigan. Constructed in 1857, St. John's the Evangelist Church is the oldest Roman Catholic church in the city. It was established as a mission in 1836 to serve a congregation that was originally predominately Irish immigrants. Given the following waves of Catholic immigrants from other countries, its congregation today is more diverse. St. Mary Star of the Sea was established in 1881 as Jackson's second Catholic church. The present building, a limestone Romanesque structure built between 1923 and 1926, incorporates elements of the parish's first church as well as stained glass windows, marble altars and communion rails imported from Italy and Austria. The first and only Eastern Orthodox Church is St. Demetrius Orthodox Church, founded in 1958. Among the modern churches in the town is Westwinds Community Church, a non-denominational, evangelical Christian church. Founded in 1865 in a blacksmith shop, Community Jackson African Methodist Episcopal Church became the first place of worship for African Americans in Jackson County. Late 19th-century immigrants included Jews from Germany and eastern Europe. Jackson is home to Temple Beth Israel, a Reform synagogue founded in 1862 by German Jewish immigrants. Transportation From the late nineteenth century into the mid-twentieth century, Jackson was a major railway hub and for over a century has been known as the crossroads of Michigan. Today the Michigan Central Railroad Jackson Depot on East Michigan Avenue is the nation's oldest train station in continuous active use. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2002. Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Jackson, operating its Wolverine three times daily in each direction between Chicago and Pontiac, Michigan, via Detroit. Baggage cannot be checked at this location; however, up to two suitcases, in addition to any "personal items" such as briefcases, purses, laptop bags, and infant equipment, are allowed on board as carry-ons. Jackson and Lansing Railroad (JAIL) owns a line from Jackson to Lansing, Michigan. Norfolk Southern (NS) owns a yard in Jackson as well. Major highways The junction of I-94 and US 127 was built at Jackson. is a north–south highway providing access northerly toward Lansing and Clare and southerly into Ohio. In the Jackson area, US 127 runs concurrently with I-94 for approximately . It is freeway from Jackson northerly past Lansing, while the freeway south of Jackson quickly transitions to a two-lane, uncontrolled access highway. is a loop route running through downtown, connecting with US 127 at either end. enters Jackson from the northwest, and exits southeast of town. approaches Jackson from the southwest, ending at I-94 west of the city. enters Jackson from the northeast and ends downtown. Airport Reynolds Field at Jackson County Airport is the main airport for the city. It hosted commercial service, primarily under the North Central Airlines banner, until 1984. With the "Blue Goose" aircraft now gone, the airport today operates as a general aviation facility. The 700-acre airport, equipped with an ILS system, is located just south of I-94 ( Airport Road exit #137). More than 100 general aviation aircraft are housed here, ranging from single-engine planes to business/corporate jet aircraft. The Airport is home to many related businesses, including the Jackson College Flight School, a restaurant, bar, and car rental. The Jackson Blues Festival is held here annually in June. Public transportation Jackson Area Transportation Authority operates ten routes Monday through Saturday out of a central station located downtown. Greyhound Lines provides service from the JATA station. In addition to the publicly funded JATA, there are four private taxicab companies operating in town. Parks and recreation The City of Jackson Parks and Recreation Department includes: 1 18-hole golf course 1 driving range 1 horseshoe court 1 miniature golf course 1 outdoor swimming pool 2 community recreation centers 2 outdoor volleyball courts 3 baseball fields 7 picnic shelters 11 soccer fields 12 outdoor basketball courts 17 softball fields – 4 lighted, 13 unlighted 14 fully equipped playground areas 26 parks, totaling 645 acres Some of the parks include: Blackman Park: a small city park on Michigan Avenue in the middle of the city of Jackson, contains a fountain
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with them, 30.7% were married couples living together, 22.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40.8% were non-families. 33.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 3.14. The median age in the city was 32.2 years. 28.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.7% were from 25 to 44; 23.1% were from 45 to 64; and 10.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.7% male and 52.3% female. 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 36,316 people, 14,210 households, and 8,668 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 15,241 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 73.87% White, 19.70% Black or African American, 0.56% Native American, 0.51% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 1.65% from other races, and 3.67% from two or more races. 4.05% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 14,210 households, out of which 33.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.8% were married couples living together, 19.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.0% were non-families. 32.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.12. In the city, the population was spread out, with 29.7% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 30.4% from 25 to 44, 18.2% from 45 to 64, and 11.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.5 males. The median income for a household in the city was $31,294, and the median income for a family was $39,072. Males had a median income of $31,957 versus $23,817 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,230. About 15.2% of families and 19.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.9% of those under age 18 and 11.0% of those age 65 or over. Places of worship Jackson has a number of notable historic churches, several of which were established prior to the American Civil War. The First Baptist Church was established in 1839; the present building, a Romanesque Revival structure, was dedicated in March 1872. The First Congregational Church is housed in a monumental Romanesque Revival building constructed in 1859. A basement was added after the structure had been in operation for several years. In 1871 the building was raised eight feet to accommodate lower-level classrooms. Its congregation has actively participated in local social reform efforts, becoming part of the antislavery movement in the 1840s and later supporting the temperance and the civil rights movement. St. Paul's Episcopal Church was also founded in 1839. The congregation's first church building, constructed in 1840, was replaced by a Romanesque Revival building in 1853; it is one of the oldest Episcopal Church structures in southern Michigan. Constructed in 1857, St. John's the Evangelist Church is the oldest Roman Catholic church in the city. It was established as a mission in 1836 to serve a congregation that was originally predominately Irish immigrants. Given the following waves of Catholic immigrants from other countries, its congregation today is more diverse. St. Mary Star of the Sea was established in 1881 as Jackson's second Catholic church. The present building, a limestone Romanesque structure built between 1923 and 1926, incorporates elements of the parish's first church as well as stained glass windows, marble altars and communion rails imported from Italy and Austria. The first and only Eastern Orthodox Church is St. Demetrius Orthodox Church, founded in 1958. Among the modern churches in the town is Westwinds Community Church, a non-denominational, evangelical Christian church. Founded in 1865 in a blacksmith shop, Community Jackson African Methodist Episcopal Church became the first place of worship for African Americans in Jackson County. Late 19th-century immigrants included Jews from Germany and eastern Europe. Jackson is home to Temple Beth Israel, a Reform synagogue founded in 1862 by German Jewish immigrants. Transportation From the late nineteenth century into the mid-twentieth century, Jackson was a major railway hub and for over a century has been known as the crossroads of Michigan. Today the Michigan Central Railroad Jackson Depot on East Michigan Avenue is the nation's oldest train station in continuous active use. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2002. Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Jackson, operating its Wolverine three times daily in each direction between Chicago and Pontiac, Michigan, via Detroit. Baggage cannot be checked at this location; however, up to two suitcases, in addition to any "personal items" such as briefcases, purses, laptop bags, and infant equipment, are allowed on board as carry-ons. Jackson and Lansing Railroad (JAIL) owns a line from Jackson to Lansing, Michigan. Norfolk Southern (NS) owns a yard in Jackson as well. Major highways The junction of I-94 and US 127 was built at Jackson. is a north–south highway providing access northerly toward Lansing and Clare and southerly into Ohio. In the Jackson area, US 127 runs concurrently with I-94 for approximately . It is freeway from Jackson northerly past Lansing, while the freeway south of Jackson quickly transitions to a two-lane, uncontrolled access highway. is a loop route running through downtown, connecting with US 127 at either end. enters Jackson from the northwest, and exits southeast of town. approaches Jackson from the southwest, ending at I-94 west of the city. enters Jackson from the northeast and ends downtown. Airport Reynolds Field at Jackson County Airport is the main airport for the city. It hosted commercial service, primarily under the North Central Airlines banner, until 1984. With the "Blue Goose" aircraft now gone, the airport today operates as a general aviation facility. The 700-acre airport, equipped with an ILS system, is located just south of I-94 ( Airport Road exit #137). More than 100 general aviation aircraft are housed here, ranging from single-engine planes to business/corporate jet aircraft. The Airport is home to many related businesses, including the Jackson College Flight School, a restaurant, bar, and car rental. The Jackson Blues Festival is held here annually in June. Public transportation Jackson Area Transportation Authority operates ten routes Monday through Saturday out of a central station located downtown. Greyhound Lines provides service from the JATA station. In addition to the publicly funded JATA, there are four private taxicab companies operating in town. Parks and recreation The City of Jackson Parks and Recreation Department includes: 1 18-hole golf course 1 driving range 1 horseshoe court 1 miniature golf course 1 outdoor swimming pool 2 community recreation centers 2 outdoor volleyball courts 3 baseball fields 7 picnic shelters 11 soccer fields 12 outdoor basketball courts 17 softball fields – 4 lighted, 13 unlighted 14 fully equipped playground areas 26 parks, totaling 645 acres Some of the parks include: Blackman Park: a small city park on Michigan Avenue in the middle of the city of Jackson, contains a fountain in the middle of the park honoring soldiers from the Civil War, a few benches and some foliage. Bloomfield Park: a small park in the Jackson city limits on Michigan Avenue. There are picnic tables, basketball courts, tennis courts, baseball/softball fields and a small playground. Falling Waters Trail: 10.5-mile asphalt rail-trail follows the old rail bed of the former Michigan Central Railroad from Weatherwax Road in Jackson to the village of Concord. The trail has been dedicated as a Jackson County Park. The trail is mostly rural, with only a few road crossings. It also crosses the Lime Lake County Park (5501 Teft Road) where you can drop a line for fish. The trail continues as the Intercity Trail for another 3.4 miles from Weatherwax Road to Morrell Street. Sparks Park and The Cascades (AKA Cascade Falls Park): one of the larger parks in the country. The park contains the Cascades Championship Golf Course, one with 18 holes and a short course with 9 hole, as well as two large play structures, basketball court, baseball and softball fields and a popular paved walking path. It is famous for the Cascade Falls, which is one of the largest man-made waterfalls in the world, with 6 immense fountains, 3 reflecting pools and 16 falls. The Cascades Manor House hosts wedding receptions and corporate events. The park is also home to the Cascades Ice Cream Co. which opens when there is usually still snow on the ground and stays open until October. Every late August, the annual Cascades Civil War Muster is held there. There are some man-made ponds and
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the film version of The Cider House Rules. After its publication in 1999, Irving appeared on the CBC Television program Hot Type to promote the book. During the interview, Irving criticized bestselling American author Tom Wolfe, saying Wolfe "can't write", and that Wolfe's writing makes Irving gag. Wolfe appeared on Hot Type later that year, calling Irving, Norman Mailer, and John Updike his "three stooges" who were panicked by his newest novel, A Man in Full (1998). Irving's 10th book, The Fourth Hand (2001), also became a bestseller. In 2004, A Sound Like Someone Trying Not to Make a Sound, a children's picture book originally included in A Widow for One Year, was published with illustrations by Tatjana Hauptmann. Irving's 11th novel, Until I Find You, was released on July 12, 2005. On June 28, 2005, The New York Times published an article revealing that Until I Find You (2005) contains two specifically personal elements about his life that he had never before discussed publicly: his sexual abuse at age 11 by an older woman, and the recent entrance in his life of his biological father's family. In his 12th novel, Last Night in Twisted River, published in 2009, Irving's central character is a novelist with, as critic Boyd Tonkin puts it, "a career that teasingly follows Irving's own". Irving has had four novels reach number one on the bestseller list of The New York Times: The Hotel New Hampshire (September 27, 1981), which stayed number one for seven weeks, and was in the top 15 for over 27 weeks; The Cider House Rules (June 16, 1985); A Widow for One Year (June 14, 1998); and The Fourth Hand (July 29, 2001). Other projects Since the publication of Garp made him independently wealthy, Irving has sporadically accepted short-term teaching positions (including one at his alma mater, the Iowa Writers' Workshop) and served as an assistant coach on his sons' high school wrestling teams. (Irving was inducted into the National Wrestling Hall of Fame as an "Outstanding American" in 1992.) In addition to his novels, he has also published Trying to Save Piggy Sneed (1996), a collection of his writings including a brief memoir and unpublished short fiction, My Movie Business, an account of the protracted process of bringing The Cider House Rules to the big screen, and The Imaginary Girlfriend, a short memoir focusing on writing and wrestling. In 2010, Irving revealed that he and Tod "Kip" Williams, director and writer of The Door in the Floor (2004), were co-writing a screenplay for an adaptation of A Widow for One Year (1998). In 2002, his four most highly regarded novels, The World According to Garp, The Cider House Rules, A Prayer for Owen Meany, and A Widow for One Year, were published in Modern Library editions. Owen Meany was adapted into the 1998 film Simon Birch (Irving required that the title and character names be changed because the screenplay's story was "markedly different" from that of the novel; Irving is on record as having enjoyed the film, however). In 2004, a portion of A Widow for One Year was adapted into The Door in the Floor, starring Jeff Bridges and Kim Basinger. In 2005, Irving received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In a New York Magazine interview in 2009, Irving stated that he had begun work on a new novel, his 13th, based in part on a speech from Shakespeare's Richard II. Simon & Schuster published the novel, titled In One Person (2012), taking over from Random House. In One Person has a first-person viewpoint, Irving's first such narrative since A Prayer for Owen Meany (Irving decided to change the first-person narrative of Until I Find You to third person less than a year before publication). In One Person features a 60-year-old, bisexual protagonist named William, looking back on his life in the 1950s and '60s. The novel shares a similar theme and concern with The World According to Garp, which was Irving says, in part about "people who hate you for your sexual differences." He won a Lambda Literary Award in 2013 in the Bisexual Fiction category for In One
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York Times published an article revealing that Until I Find You (2005) contains two specifically personal elements about his life that he had never before discussed publicly: his sexual abuse at age 11 by an older woman, and the recent entrance in his life of his biological father's family. In his 12th novel, Last Night in Twisted River, published in 2009, Irving's central character is a novelist with, as critic Boyd Tonkin puts it, "a career that teasingly follows Irving's own". Irving has had four novels reach number one on the bestseller list of The New York Times: The Hotel New Hampshire (September 27, 1981), which stayed number one for seven weeks, and was in the top 15 for over 27 weeks; The Cider House Rules (June 16, 1985); A Widow for One Year (June 14, 1998); and The Fourth Hand (July 29, 2001). Other projects Since the publication of Garp made him independently wealthy, Irving has sporadically accepted short-term teaching positions (including one at his alma mater, the Iowa Writers' Workshop) and served as an assistant coach on his sons' high school wrestling teams. (Irving was inducted into the National Wrestling Hall of Fame as an "Outstanding American" in 1992.) In addition to his novels, he has also published Trying to Save Piggy Sneed (1996), a collection of his writings including a brief memoir and unpublished short fiction, My Movie Business, an account of the protracted process of bringing The Cider House Rules to the big screen, and The Imaginary Girlfriend, a short memoir focusing on writing and wrestling. In 2010, Irving revealed that he and Tod "Kip" Williams, director and writer of The Door in the Floor (2004), were co-writing a screenplay for an adaptation of A Widow for One Year (1998). In 2002, his four most highly regarded novels, The World According to Garp, The Cider House Rules, A Prayer for Owen Meany, and A Widow for One Year, were published in Modern Library editions. Owen Meany was adapted into the 1998 film Simon Birch (Irving required that the title and character names be changed because the screenplay's story was "markedly different" from that of the novel; Irving is on record as having enjoyed the film, however). In 2004, a portion of A Widow for One Year was adapted into The Door in the Floor, starring Jeff Bridges and Kim Basinger. In 2005, Irving received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In a New York Magazine interview in 2009, Irving stated that he had begun work on a new novel, his 13th, based in part on a speech from Shakespeare's Richard II. Simon & Schuster published the novel, titled In One Person (2012), taking over from Random House. In One Person has a first-person viewpoint, Irving's first such narrative since A Prayer for Owen Meany (Irving decided to change the first-person narrative of Until I Find You to third person less than a year before publication). In One Person features a 60-year-old, bisexual protagonist named William, looking back on his life in the 1950s and '60s. The novel shares a similar theme and concern with The World According to Garp, which was Irving says, in part about "people who hate you for your sexual differences." He won a Lambda Literary Award in 2013 in the Bisexual Fiction category for In One Person, and was also awarded the organization's Bridge Builder Award to honor him as an ally of the LGBT community. On June 10, 2013, Irving announced his next novel, his 14th, titled Avenue of Mysteries, named after a street in Mexico City. In an interview the previous year, he had revealed the last line of the book: "Not every collision course comes as a surprise." On December 19, 2014, Irving posted a message on the Facebook page devoted to him and his work that he had "finished 'Avenue of Mysteries.' It is a shorter novel for me, comparable in length to 'In One Person.'" Irving speculated that "if everything remains on schedule, the English-language editions should be published in fall 2015." Simon & Schuster published the book in November, 2015. On November 3, 2015, Irving revealed that he'd been approached by HBO and Warner Brothers to reconstruct The World According to Garp as a miniseries. He described the project as being in the early stages. According to the byline of a self-penned, February 20, 2017 essay for The Hollywood Reporter, Irving completed his teleplay for the five-part series based on The World According to Garp, and he is currently working on his fifteenth novel. On June 28, 2017, Irving revealed in a long letter to fans on Facebook that his new novel will be, primarily, a ghost story. "...I have a history of being interested in ghosts. And here come the ghosts again. In my new novel, my fifteenth, the ghosts are more prominent than before; the novel begins and ends with them. Like A Widow for One Year, this novel is constructed as a play in three acts. I'm calling Act I 'Early Signs.' I began writing it on New Year's Eve—not a bad night to start a ghost story." On August 1, 2017, an update about Irving's fifteenth, in-progress, novel, was posted to his Facebook page: "It's been 45 years since John Irving published The Water-Method Man. While his second novel is regarded as a purely comic tale, and John's current project is a darker contemplation of life's disruptive forces, the two novels bear some resemblance to one another. John Irving is once again experimenting with framed narratives and writing about the evolution of a writer—like Bogus Trumper, one who writes screenplays. This time, we see the main character—Adam Brewster—mature, from childhood and early adolescence, to become a writer like Garp, or Ruth Cole, or Juan Diego, as if writing were an inevitability given the fateful circumstances of his life. And, along the way, despite the darkness, there are points of humor. John's work in progress may ultimately be his funniest novel since The Water-Method Man." In an interview with Mike Kilen for The Des Moines Register, published on October 26, 2017, Irving revealed that the title of his new novel-in-progress is Darkness As a Bride. The title comes from lines in Shakespeare's play, Measure for Measure: "If I must die, / I will encounter darkness as a bride, / and hug it in mine arms." In July 2018, the Dayton Literary Peace Prize announced Irving would be the recipient of the 2018 Richard C. Holbrooke Distinguished Achievement Award at its annual gala October 28, 2018, in Dayton, Ohio. Bibliography Setting Free the Bears (1968, Random House; ) The Water-Method Man (1972, Random House; ) The 158-Pound Marriage (1974, Random House; ) The World According to Garp (1978, E. P. Dutton; ) The Hotel New Hampshire (1981, E. P. Dutton; ) The Cider House Rules (1985, William Morrow; ) A Prayer for Owen Meany (1989, William Morrow; ) A Son of the Circus (1994, Random House; ) The Imaginary Girlfriend (non-fiction, 1995) Trying to Save Piggy Sneed (collection, 1996, Arcade Publishing; ) A Widow for One Year (1998, Random House; ) My Movie Business (non-fiction, 1999) The Cider House Rules: A Screenplay (1999) The Fourth Hand (2001, Random House; ) A Sound Like Someone Trying Not to Make a Sound (2004) Until I Find You (2005, Random House; ) Last Night in Twisted River (2009, Random House; ) In One Person (2012, Simon & Schuster; ) Avenue of Mysteries (2015, Simon & Schuster; ) The Last Chairlift (2022) Filmography based on writings The World According to Garp (1982) The Hotel New Hampshire (1984) Simon Birch (1998) (partly based on A Prayer for
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such a transfer was accomplished with a space walk. 1979 – Iranian Revolution: The last Iranian Shah flees Iran with his family for good and relocates to Egypt. 1983 – Turkish Airlines Flight 158 crashes at Ankara Esenboğa Airport in Ankara, Turkey, killing 47 and injuring 20. 1991 – Coalition Forces go to war with Iraq, beginning the Gulf War. 1992 – El Salvador officials and rebel leaders sign the Chapultepec Peace Accords in Mexico City, Mexico ending the 12-year Salvadoran Civil War that claimed at least 75,000 lives. 1995 – An avalanche hits the Icelandic village Súðavík, destroying 25 homes and burying 26 people, 14 of whom died. 2001 – Second Congo War: Congolese President Laurent-Désiré Kabila is assassinated by one of his own bodyguards in Kinshasa. 2001 – US President Bill Clinton awards former President Theodore Roosevelt a posthumous Medal of Honor for his service in the Spanish–American War. 2002 – War in Afghanistan: The UN Security Council unanimously establishes an arms embargo and the freezing of assets of Osama bin Laden, al-Qaeda, and the remaining members of the Taliban. 2003 – The Space Shuttle Columbia takes off for mission STS-107 which would be its final one. Columbia disintegrated 16 days later on re-entry. 2006 – Ellen Johnson Sirleaf is sworn in as Liberia's new president. She becomes Africa's first female elected head of state. 2011 – Syrian civil war: The Movement for a Democratic Society (TEV-DEM) is established with the stated goal of re-organizing Syria along the lines of democratic confederalism. 2012 - The Mali War begins when Tuareg militias start fighting the Malian government for independence. 2016 – Thirty-three out of 126 freed hostages are injured and 23 killed in terrorist attacks in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso on a hotel and a nearby restaurant. 2018 – Myanmar police open fire on a group of ethnic Rakhine protesters, killing seven and wounding twelve. 2020 – The first impeachment of Donald Trump formally moves into its trial phase in the United States Senate. 2020 – The United States Senate ratifies the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement as a replacement for NAFTA. Births Pre-1600 972 – Sheng Zong, emperor of the Liao Dynasty (d. 1031) 1093 – Isaac Komnenos, son of Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos (d. 1152) 1245 – Edmund Crouchback, English politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (d. 1296) 1362 – Robert de Vere, duke of Ireland (d. 1392) 1409 – René of Anjou, king of Naples (d. 1480) 1477 – Johannes Schöner, German astronomer and cartographer (d. 1547) 1501 – Anthony Denny, confidant of Henry VIII of England (d. 1559) 1516 – Bayinnaung, king of Burma (d. 1581) 1558 – Jakobea of Baden, Margravine of Baden by birth, Duchess of Jülich-Cleves-Berg by marriage (d. 1597) 1601–1900 1616 – François de Vendôme, duke of Beaufort (d. 1669) 1626 – Lucas Achtschellinck, Belgian painter and educator (d. 1699) 1630 – Guru Har Rai, Sikh Guru (d. 1661) 1634 – Dorothe Engelbretsdatter, Norwegian author and poet (d. 1716) 1675 – Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, French soldier and diplomat (d. 1755) 1691 – Peter Scheemakers, Belgian sculptor and educator (d. 1781) 1728 – Niccolò Piccinni, Italian composer and educator (d. 1800) 1749 – Vittorio Alfieri, Italian poet and playwright (d. 1803) 1757 – Richard Goodwin Keats, English admiral and politician, third Commodore-Governor of Newfoundland (d. 1834) 1807 – Charles Henry Davis, American admiral (d. 1877) 1815 – Henry Halleck, American lawyer, general, and scholar (d. 1872) 1821 – John C. Breckinridge, American general and politician, 14th Vice President of the United States (d. 1875) 1834 – Robert R. Hitt, American lawyer and politician, 13th United States Assistant Secretary of State (d. 1906) 1836 – Francis II of the Two Sicilies (d. 1894) 1838 – Franz Brentano, German philosopher and psychologist (d. 1917) 1844 – Ismail Qemali, Albanian civil servant and politician, first Prime Minister of Albania (d. 1919) 1851 – William Hall-Jones, English-New Zealand politician, 16th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1936) 1853 – Johnston Forbes-Robertson, English actor and manager (d. 1937) 1853 – Ian Standish Monteith Hamilton, Greek-English general (d. 1947) 1853 – André Michelin, French businessman, co-founded the Michelin Tyre Company (d. 1931) 1870 – Jüri Jaakson, Estonian businessman and politician, State Elder of Estonia (d. 1942) 1872 – Henri Büsser, French organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1973) 1874 – Robert W. Service, English-Canadian poet and author (d. 1958) 1875 – Leonor Michaelis, German biochemist and physician (d. 1949) 1876 – Claude Buckenham, English cricketer and footballer (d. 1937) 1878 – Harry Carey, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1947) 1880 – Samuel Jones, American high jumper (d. 1954) 1882 – Margaret Wilson, American author (d. 1973) 1885 – Zhou Zuoren, Chinese author and translator (d. 1967) 1888 – Osip Brik, Russian avant garde writer and literary critic (d. 1945) 1892 – Homer Burton Adkins, American chemist (d. 1949) 1893 – Daisy Kennedy, Australian-English violinist (d. 1981) 1894 – Irving Mills, American publisher (d. 1985) 1895 – Evripidis Bakirtzis, Greek soldier and politician (d. 1947) 1895 – T. M. Sabaratnam, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (d. 1966) 1895 – Nat Schachner, American lawyer, chemist, and author (d. 1955) 1897 – Carlos Pellicer, Mexican poet and academic (d. 1977) 1898 – Margaret Booth, American producer and editor (d. 2002) 1898 – Irving Rapper, American film director and producer (d. 1999) 1900 – Kiku Amino, Japanese author and translator (d. 1978) 1900 – Edith Frank, German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (d. 1945) 1901–present 1901 – Fulgencio Batista, Cuban colonel and politician, ninth President of Cuba (d. 1973) 1902 – Eric Liddell, Scottish runner, rugby player, and missionary (d. 1945) 1903 – William Grover-Williams, English-French racing driver (d. 1945) 1905 – Ernesto Halffter, Spanish composer and conductor (d. 1989) 1906 – Johannes Brenner, Estonian footballer and pilot (d. 1975) 1906 – Diana Wynyard, English actress (d. 1964) 1907 – Alexander Knox, Canadian-English actor and screenwriter (d. 1995) 1907 – Paul Nitze, American banker and politician, tenth United States Secretary of the Navy (d. 2004) 1908 – Sammy Crooks, English footballer (d. 1981) 1908 – Ethel Merman, American actress and singer (d. 1984) 1908 – Günther Prien, German captain (d. 1941) 1909 – Clement Greenberg, American art critic (d. 1994) 1910 – Dizzy Dean, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 1974) 1911 – Ivan Barrow, Jamaican cricketer (d. 1979) 1911 – Eduardo Frei Montalva, Chilean lawyer and politician, 28th President of Chile (d. 1982) 1911 – Roger Lapébie, French cyclist (d. 1996) 1914 – Roger Wagner, French-American conductor and educator (d. 1992) 1915 – Leslie H. Martinson, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2016) 1916 – Philip Lucock, English-Australian minister and politician (d. 1996) 1917 – Carl Karcher, American businessman, founded Carl's Jr. (d. 2008) 1918 – Nel Benschop, Dutch poet and educator (d. 2005) 1918 – Allan Ekelund, Swedish director, producer, and production manager (d. 2009) 1918 – Clem Jones, Australian surveyor and politician, eighth Lord Mayor of Brisbane (d. 2007) 1918 – Stirling Silliphant, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1996) 1919 – Jerome Horwitz, American chemist and academic (d. 2012) 1920 – Elliott Reid, American actor and screenwriter (d. 2013) 1921 – Francesco Scavullo, American photographer (d. 2004) 1923 – Gene Feist, American director and playwright, co-founded the Roundabout Theatre Company (d. 2014) 1923 – Anthony Hecht, American poet (d. 2004) 1924 – Katy Jurado, Mexican actress (d. 2002) 1925 – Peter Hirsch, German-English metallurgist and academic 1925 – James Robinson Risner, American general and pilot (d. 2013) 1928 – William Kennedy, American novelist and journalist 1928 – Pilar Lorengar, Spanish soprano and actress (d. 1996) 1929 – Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, Sri Lankan anthropologist and academic (d. 2014) 1930 – Mary Ann McMorrow, American lawyer and judge (d. 2013) 1930 – Norman Podhoretz, American journalist and author 1930 – Paula Tilbrook, English actress (d. 2019) 1931 – John Enderby, English physicist and academic (d. 2021) 1931 – Robert L. Park, American physicist and academic (d. 2020) 1931 – Johannes Rau, German journalist and politician, eighth Federal President of Germany (d. 2006) 1932 – Victor Ciocâltea, Romanian chess player (d. 1983) 1932 – Dian Fossey, American zoologist and anthropologist (d. 1985) 1933 – Susan Sontag, American novelist, essayist, and critic (d. 2004) 1934 – Bob Bogle, American rock guitarist and bass player (d. 2009) 1934 – Marilyn Horne, American soprano and actress 1935 – A. J. Foyt, American race car driver 1935 – Udo Lattek, German footballer, manager, and sportscaster (d. 2015) 1936 – Michael White, Scottish actor and producer (d. 2016) 1937 – Luiz Bueno, Brazilian racing driver (d. 2011) 1937 – Francis George, American cardinal (d. 2015) 1938 – Marina Vaizey, American journalist and critic 1939 – Ralph Gibson, American photographer 1941 – Christine Truman, English tennis player and sportscaster 1942 – René Angélil, Canadian singer and manager (d. 2016) 1942 – Barbara Lynn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1943 – Gavin Bryars, English bassist and composer 1943 – Ronnie Milsap, American singer and pianist 1944 – Dieter Moebius, Swiss-German keyboard player and producer (d. 2015) 1944 – Jim Stafford, American singer-songwriter and actor 1944 – Jill Tarter, American astronomer and biologist 1944 – Judy Baar Topinka, American journalist and politician (d. 2014) 1945 – Wim Suurbier, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2020) 1946 – Kabir Bedi, Indian actor 1946 – Katia Ricciarelli, Italian soprano and actress 1947 – Elaine Murphy, Baroness Murphy, English academic and politician 1947 – Harvey Proctor, English politician 1947 – Laura Schlessinger, American physiologist, talk show host, and author 1948 – John Carpenter, American director, producer, screenwriter, and composer 1948 – Ants Laaneots, Estonian general 1948 – Cliff Thorburn, Canadian snooker player 1948 – Ruth Reichl, American journalist and critic 1949 – Anne F. Beiler, American businesswoman, founded Auntie Anne's 1949 – R. F. Foster, Irish historian and academic 1949 – Andrew Refshauge, Australian physician and politician, 13th Deputy Premier of New South Wales 1950 – Debbie Allen, American actress, dancer, and choreographer 1950 – Robert Schimmel, American comedian, actor, and producer (d. 2010) 1952 – Fuad
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footballer, manager, and sportscaster (d. 2015) 1936 – Michael White, Scottish actor and producer (d. 2016) 1937 – Luiz Bueno, Brazilian racing driver (d. 2011) 1937 – Francis George, American cardinal (d. 2015) 1938 – Marina Vaizey, American journalist and critic 1939 – Ralph Gibson, American photographer 1941 – Christine Truman, English tennis player and sportscaster 1942 – René Angélil, Canadian singer and manager (d. 2016) 1942 – Barbara Lynn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1943 – Gavin Bryars, English bassist and composer 1943 – Ronnie Milsap, American singer and pianist 1944 – Dieter Moebius, Swiss-German keyboard player and producer (d. 2015) 1944 – Jim Stafford, American singer-songwriter and actor 1944 – Jill Tarter, American astronomer and biologist 1944 – Judy Baar Topinka, American journalist and politician (d. 2014) 1945 – Wim Suurbier, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2020) 1946 – Kabir Bedi, Indian actor 1946 – Katia Ricciarelli, Italian soprano and actress 1947 – Elaine Murphy, Baroness Murphy, English academic and politician 1947 – Harvey Proctor, English politician 1947 – Laura Schlessinger, American physiologist, talk show host, and author 1948 – John Carpenter, American director, producer, screenwriter, and composer 1948 – Ants Laaneots, Estonian general 1948 – Cliff Thorburn, Canadian snooker player 1948 – Ruth Reichl, American journalist and critic 1949 – Anne F. Beiler, American businesswoman, founded Auntie Anne's 1949 – R. F. Foster, Irish historian and academic 1949 – Andrew Refshauge, Australian physician and politician, 13th Deputy Premier of New South Wales 1950 – Debbie Allen, American actress, dancer, and choreographer 1950 – Robert Schimmel, American comedian, actor, and producer (d. 2010) 1952 – Fuad II, King of Egypt 1952 – Piercarlo Ghinzani, Italian racing driver and manager 1953 – Robert Jay Mathews, American militant, founded The Order (d. 1984) 1954 – Wolfgang Schmidt, German discus thrower 1954 – Vasili Zhupikov, Russian footballer and coach (d. 2015) 1955 – Jerry M. Linenger, American captain, physician, and astronaut 1956 – Wayne Daniel, Barbadian cricketer 1956 – Martin Jol, Dutch footballer and manager 1956 – Greedy Smith, Australian singer-songwriter and keyboardist (d. 2019) 1957 – Jurijs Andrejevs, Latvian footballer and manager 1957 – Ricardo Darín, Argentinian actor, director, and screenwriter 1958 – Anatoli Boukreev, Russian mountaineer and explorer (d. 1997) 1958 – Lena Ek, Swedish lawyer and politician, ninth Swedish Minister for the Environment 1958 – Andris Šķēle, Latvian businessman and politician, fourth Prime Minister of Latvia 1959 – Lisa Milroy, Canadian painter and educator 1959 – Sade, Nigerian-English singer-songwriter and producer 1961 – Kenneth Sivertsen, Norwegian guitarist and composer (d. 2006) 1962 – Joel Fitzgibbon, Australian electrician and politician, 51st Australian Minister of Defence 1962 – Maxine Jones, American R&B singer–songwriter and actress 1963 – James May, British journalist/co-host of Top Gear 1964 – Gail Graham, Canadian golfer 1966 – Jack McDowell, American baseball player 1968 – Rebecca Stead, American author 1969 – Marinus Bester, German footballer 1969 – Stevie Jackson, Scottish guitarist and songwriter 1969 – Roy Jones Jr., American boxer 1970 – Ron Villone, American baseball player and coach 1971 – Sergi Bruguera, Spanish tennis player and coach 1971 – Josh Evans, American film producer, screenwriter and actor 1971 – Jonathan Mangum, American actor 1972 – Ruben Bagger, Danish footballer 1972 – Ang Christou, Australian footballer 1972 – Yuri Alekseevich Drozdov, Russian footballer and manager 1972 – Ezra Hendrickson, Vincentian footballer and manager 1972 – Joe Horn, American football player and coach 1974 – Kate Moss, English model and fashion designer 1976 – Viktor Maslov, Russian racing driver 1976 – Martina Moravcová, Slovak swimmer 1977 – Jeff Foster, American basketball player 1978 – Alfredo Amézaga, Mexican baseball player 1979 – Aaliyah, American singer and actress (d. 2001) 1979 – Brenden Morrow, Canadian ice hockey player 1979 – Jason Ward, Canadian ice hockey player 1980 – Lin-Manuel Miranda, American actor, playwright, and composer 1980 – Albert Pujols, Dominican-American baseball player 1981 – Jamie Lundmark, Canadian ice hockey player 1981 – Paul Rofe, Australian cricketer 1981 – Bobby Zamora, English footballer 1982 – Preston, English singer-songwriter 1982 – Tuncay, Turkish footballer 1983 – Emanuel Pogatetz, Austrian footballer 1983 – Andriy Rusol, Ukrainian footballer 1984 – Stephan Lichtsteiner, Swiss footballer 1984 – Miroslav Radović, Serbian footballer 1985 – Jayde Herrick, Australian cricketer 1985 – Gintaras Januševičius, Russian-Lithuanian pianist 1985 – Twins Jonathan and Simon Richter, Danish-Gambian footballers 1985 – Sidharth Malhotra, Indian actor 1985 – Joe Flacco, American football player 1986 – Johannes Rahn, German footballer 1986 – Mark Trumbo, American baseball player 1986 – Reto Ziegler, Swiss footballer 1987 – Jake Epstein, Canadian actor 1987 – Charlotte Henshaw, English swimmer 1988 – Nicklas Bendtner, Danish footballer 1988 – Jorge Torres Nilo, Mexican footballer 1991 – Matt Duchene, Canadian ice hockey player 1993 – Hannes Anier, Estonian footballer 1993 – Amandine Hesse, French tennis player 1995 – Mikaela Turik, Australian-Canadian cricketer 1996 – Kim Jennie, Korean singer 2003 – Adriana Hernández, Mexican rhythmic gymnast Deaths Pre-1600 654 – Gao Jifu, Chinese politician and chancellor (b. 596) 957 – Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Ali al-Madhara'i, Tulunid vizier (b. 871) 970 – Polyeuctus of Constantinople, Byzantine patriarch (b. 956) 1263 – Shinran Shonin, Japanese founder of the Jodo Shinshu branch of Pure Land Buddhism 1289 – Buqa, Mongol minister 1327 – Nikephoros Choumnos, Byzantine monk, scholar, and politician (b. 1250) 1354 – Joanna of Châtillon, duchess of Athens (b. c.1285) 1373 – Humphrey de Bohun, 7th Earl of Hereford (b. 1342) 1391 – Muhammed V of Granada, Nasrid emir (b. 1338) 1400 – John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter, English politician, Lord Great Chamberlain (b. 1352) 1443 – Erasmo of Narni, Italian mercenary (b. 1370) 1545 – George Spalatin, German priest and reformer (b. 1484) 1547 – Johannes Schöner, German astronomer and cartographer (b. 1477) 1554 – Christiern Pedersen, Danish publisher and scholar (b. 1480) 1585 – Edward Clinton, first Earl of Lincoln, English admiral and politician (b. 1512) 1595 – Murad III, Ottoman sultan (b. 1546) 1601–1900 1659 – Charles Annibal Fabrot, French lawyer (b. 1580) 1710 – Higashiyama, Japanese emperor (b. 1675) 1711 – Joseph Vaz, Indian-Sri Lankan priest and saint (b. 1651) 1747 – Barthold Heinrich Brockes, German poet and playwright (b. 1680) 1748 – Arnold Drakenborch, Dutch lawyer and scholar (b. 1684) 1750 – Ivan Trubetskoy, Russian field marshal and politician (b. 1667) 1752 – Francis Blomefield, English historian and author (b. 1705) 1794 – Edward Gibbon, English historian and politician (b. 1737) 1809 – John Moore, Scottish general and politician (b. 1761) 1817 – Alexander J. Dallas, Jamaican-American lawyer and politician, sixth United States Secretary of the Treasury (b. 1759) 1834 – Jean Nicolas Pierre Hachette, French mathematician and academic (b. 1769) 1856 – Thaddeus William Harris, American entomologist and botanist (b. 1795) 1864 – Anton Schindler, Austrian secretary and author (b. 1795) 1865 – Edmond François Valentin About, French journalist and author (b. 1828) 1879 – Octave Crémazie, Canadian-French poet and bookseller (b. 1827) 1886 – Amilcare Ponchielli, Italian composer and academic (b. 1834) 1891 – Léo Delibes, French pianist and composer (b. 1836) 1898 – Charles Pelham Villiers, English lawyer and politician (b. 1802) 1901–present 1901 – Jules Barbier, French poet and playwright (b. 1825) 1901 – Arnold Böcklin, Swiss painter and academic (b. 1827) 1901 – Hiram Rhodes Revels, American soldier, minister, and politician (b. 1822) 1901 – Mahadev Govind Ranade, Indian scholar, social reformer, judge and author (b. 1842) 1906 – Marshall Field, American businessman and philanthropist, founded Marshall Field's (b. 1834) 1917 – George Dewey, American admiral (b. 1837) 1919 – Francisco de Paula Rodrigues Alves, Brazilian lawyer and politician, fifth President of Brazil (b. 1848) 1933 – Bekir Sami Kunduh, Turkish politician (b. 1867) 1936 – Albert Fish, American serial killer, rapist and cannibal (b. 1870) 1938 – Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay Indian author and playwright (b. 1876) 1942 – Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (b. 1850) 1942 – Villem Grünthal-Ridala, Estonian poet and linguist (b. 1885) 1942 – Carole Lombard, American actress and comedian (b. 1908) 1942 – Ernst Scheller, German lawyer and politician, Mayor of Marburg (b. 1899) 1957 – Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone, English general and politician, 16th Governor General of Canada (b. 1874) 1957 – Arturo Toscanini, Italian cellist and conductor (b. 1867) 1959 – Phan Khôi, Vietnamese journalist and author (b. 1887) 1961 – Max Schöne, German swimmer (b. 1880) 1962 – Frank Hurley, Australian photographer, director, producer, and cinematographer (b. 1885) 1962 – Ivan Meštrović, Croatian sculptor and architect, designed the Monument to the Unknown Hero (b. 1883) 1967 – Robert J. Van de Graaff, American physicist and academic (b. 1901) 1968 – Bob Jones Sr., American evangelist, founded Bob Jones University (b. 1883) 1968 – Panagiotis Poulitsas, Greek archaeologist and judge (b. 1881) 1969 – Vernon Duke, Russian-American composer and songwriter (b. 1903) 1971 – Philippe Thys, Belgian cyclist (b. 1890) 1972 – Teller Ammons, American soldier and politician, 28th Governor of Colorado (b. 1895) 1972 – Ross Bagdasarian, Sr., American singer-songwriter, pianist, producer, and actor, created Alvin and the Chipmunks (b. 1919) 1973 – Edgar Sampson, American musician and composer (b. 1907) 1975 – Israel Abramofsky, Russian-American painter (b. 1888) 1978 – A. V. Kulasingham, Sri Lankan journalist, lawyer, and politician (b. 1890) 1981 – Bernard Lee, English actor (b. 1908) 1983 – Virginia Mauret, American musician and dancer 1986 – Herbert W. Armstrong, American evangelist, author, and publisher (b. 1892) 1987 – Bertram Wainer, Australian physician and activist (b. 1928) 1988 – Andrija Artuković, Croatian politician, war criminal, and Porajmos perpetrator, first Minister of Interior of the Independent State of Croatia (b. 1899) 1990 – Lady Eve Balfour, British farmer, educator, and founding figure in the organic movement (b. 1898) 1995 – Eric Mottram, English poet and critic (b. 1924) 1996 – Marcia Davenport, American author and critic (b. 1903) 1996 – Kaye Webb, English journalist and publisher (b. 1914) 1999 – Jim McClelland, Australian lawyer, jurist, and politician, 12th Minister for Industry and Science (b. 1915) 2000 – Robert R. Wilson, American physicist and academic (b. 1914) 2001 – Auberon Waugh, English author and journalist (b. 1939) 2002 – Robert Hanbury Brown, English astronomer and physicist (b. 1916) 2003 – Richard Wainwright, English politician (b. 1918) 2004 – Kalevi Sorsa, Finnish politician 34th Prime Minister of Finland (b. 1930) 2005 – Marjorie Williams, American journalist and author (b. 1958) 2006 – Stanley Biber, American soldier and physician (b. 1923) 2009 – Joe Erskine, American boxer and runner (b. 1930) 2009 – John Mortimer, English lawyer and author (b. 1923) 2009 – Andrew Wyeth, American painter (b. 1917) 2010 – Glen Bell, American businessman, founded Taco Bell (b. 1923) 2010 – Takumi Shibano, Japanese author and translator (b. 1926) 2012 – Joe Bygraves, Jamaican-English boxer (b. 1931) 2012 – Jimmy Castor, American singer-songwriter and saxophonist (b. 1940) 2012 – Sigursteinn Gíslason, Icelandic footballer and manager (b. 1968) 2012 – Lorna Kesterson, American journalist and politician (b. 1925) 2012 – Gustav Leonhardt, Dutch pianist, conductor, and musicologist (b. 1928) 2013 – Wayne D. Anderson, American baseball player and coach (b. 1930) 2013 – André Cassagnes, French technician and toy maker, created the Etch A Sketch (b. 1926) 2013 – Gussie Moran, American tennis player and sportscaster (b. 1923) 2013 – Pauline Phillips, American journalist and radio host, created Dear Abby (b. 1918) 2013 – Glen P. Robinson, American businessman, founded Scientific Atlanta (b. 1923) 2014 – Gary Arlington, American author and illustrator (b. 1938) 2014 – Ruth Duccini, American actress (b. 1918) 2014 – Dave Madden, Canadian-American actor (b. 1931) 2014 – Hiroo Onoda, Japanese lieutenant (b. 1922) 2015 – Miriam Akavia, Polish-Israeli author and translator (b. 1927) 2015 – Yao Beina, Chinese singer (b. 1981) 2016 – Joannis Avramidis, Greek sculptor (b. 1922) 2016 – Ted Marchibroda, American football player and coach (b. 1931) 2017 – Eugene Cernan, American captain, pilot, and astronaut (b. 1934) 2018 – Ed Doolan, British radio presenter (b. 1941) 2018 – Oliver Ivanović, Kosovo Serb politician (b. 1953) 2019 – John C. Bogle, American businessman, investor, and philanthropist (b. 1929) 2019 – Lorna Doom, American musician (b. 1958) 2019 – Chris Wilson, Australian musician (b. 1956) 2020 – Christopher Tolkien, British academic and editor (b. 1924) 2021 – Pedro Trebbau, German-born Venezuelan zoologist (b. 1929) 2021 – Chris Cramer, British journalist (b.1948) 2021 – Phil Spector, American record producer, songwriter (b. 1939) 2022 – Ibrahim Boubacar Keita, Former Malian President (b. 1945) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Pope Benjamin (Coptic) Berard of Carbio Blaise (Armenian Apostolic) Fursey Joseph Vaz Honoratus of Arles Pope Marcellus I Solemnity
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Therapeutics, a biopharmaceutical company Juno Online Services, an internet service provider Juno, a German home appliance manufacturer, now part of Electrolux People Given name Juno Birch, English drag queen and sculptor Juno Calypso (born 1989), English photographer Juno Dawson, English author Juno Doran, visual and sound artist Juno Mak, Hong Kong Chinese pop singer Juno Frankie Pierce (1864-1954), African-American suffragist Juno Sauler (born 1973), Filipino basketball coach Juno Temple (born 1989), English actress Surname Madeline Juno (born 1995), German singer-songwriter Places United States Juno, Georgia Juno, Tennessee Juno, Texas Elsewhere Juno, Limpopo, South Africa Juno Beach (disambiguation) Science and technology Juno (plant), common name of Iris subg. Scorpiris Juno (protein), a protein on the surface of the mammalian egg cell that facilitates fertilisation Jiangmen Underground Neutrino Observatory (JUNO), a neutrino experiment in Jiangmen, China Eclipse Juno, an Eclipse software development environment OpenStack Juno, an OpenStack open-source software platform Space Juno (spacecraft), a NASA mission to Jupiter 3 Juno, an asteroid Juno clump, a probable asteroid family in the vicinity of 3 Juno Juno I, a satellite launch vehicle Juno II, a rocket Project Juno, a private British space programme Transportation HMS Juno, a list of ships MV Juno, a list of ships Juno (1793 ship), an English whaler and naval transport Juno (1797 ship), an English merchantman Honda Juno, a scooter Juno Racing Cars Juno, a locomotive in the South Devon Railway Dido class Juno, a locomotive in the GWR Banking Class Other uses January 2015 North American blizzard, informally called Juno See also Juneau (disambiguation) Junos OS, Juniper Networks Operating System JUNOS – Young liberal NEOS English feminine given names
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Shell, 2008 "Juno", a song by Funeral for a Friend from the album Between Order and Model, 2002 "JUNO", a song by Blank Banshee from the album MEGA Other uses in music Juno (musical), 1959 Juno Awards, a Canadian music award Juno (soundtrack), the soundtrack to the film Juno, a 2021 album by Remi Wolf Juno, synthesizers by the Roland Corporation Business Juno (cigarette), a German brand Juno (company), a transportation network company formed in 2016 Juno Records, an online music store Juno Therapeutics, a biopharmaceutical company Juno Online Services, an internet service provider Juno, a German home appliance manufacturer, now part of Electrolux People Given name Juno Birch, English drag queen and sculptor Juno Calypso (born 1989), English photographer Juno Dawson, English author Juno Doran, visual and sound artist Juno Mak, Hong Kong Chinese pop singer Juno Frankie Pierce (1864-1954), African-American suffragist Juno Sauler (born 1973), Filipino basketball coach Juno Temple (born 1989), English actress Surname Madeline Juno (born 1995), German singer-songwriter Places United States Juno, Georgia Juno, Tennessee Juno, Texas Elsewhere Juno, Limpopo, South Africa Juno Beach (disambiguation) Science and technology Juno (plant), common name of Iris subg. Scorpiris Juno (protein), a protein on the surface of the mammalian egg cell that facilitates fertilisation Jiangmen Underground Neutrino Observatory (JUNO), a neutrino experiment in Jiangmen,
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possible many contributions to organic, agricultural and biological chemistry. Liebig also popularized use of a counter-current water-cooling system for distillation, still referred to as a Liebig condenser. Liebig himself attributed the vapor condensation device to German pharmacist Johann Friedrich August Gottling, who had made improvements in 1794 to a design discovered independently by German chemist Christian Ehrenfried Weigel in 1771, by French scientist, P. J. Poisonnier in 1779, and by Finnish chemist Johan Gadolin in 1791. Although it was not widely adopted until after Liebig's death, when safety legislation finally prohibited the use of mercury in making mirrors, Liebig proposed a process for silvering that eventually became the basis of modern mirror-making. In 1835, he reported that aldehydes reduce silver salts to metallic silver. After working with other scientists, Carl August von Steinheil approached Liebig in 1856 to see if he could develop a silvering technique capable of producing high-quality optical mirrors for use in reflecting telescopes. Liebig was able to develop blemish-free mirrors by adding copper to ammoniated silver nitrate and sugar. An attempt to commercialize the process and "drive out mercury mirror-making and its injurious influence on workers' health" was unsuccessful. Organic chemistry One of Liebig's frequent collaborators was Friedrich Wöhler. They met in 1826 in Frankfurt, after independently reporting on the preparation of two substances, cyanic acid and fulminic acid, that apparently had the same composition, but very different characteristics. The silver fulminate investigated by Liebig, was explosive, whereas the silver cyanate found by Wöhler, was not. After reviewing the disputed analyses together, they agreed that both were valid. The discovery of these and other substances led Jöns Jacob Berzelius to suggest the idea of isomers, substances that are defined not simply by the number and kind of atoms in the molecule, but also by the arrangement of those atoms. In 1832, Liebig and Friedrich Wöhler published an investigation of the oil of bitter almonds. They transformed pure oil into several halogenated compounds, which were further transformed in other reactions. Throughout these transformations, "a single compound" (which they named benzoyl) "preserves its nature and composition unchanged in nearly all its associations with other bodies." Their experiments proved that a group of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms can behave like an element, take the place of an element, and can be exchanged for elements in chemical compounds. This laid the foundation for the doctrine of compound radicals, which can be seen as an early step in the development of structural chemistry. The 1830s were a period of intense investigation of organic compounds by Liebig and his students, and of vigorous debate about the theoretical implications of their results. Liebig published on a wide variety of topics, personally averaging 30 papers per year between 1830 and 1840. Liebig not only isolated individual substances, but also studied their interrelationships and the ways in which they degraded and metamorphosed into other substances, looking for clues to the understanding of both chemical composition and physiological function. Other significant contributions by Liebig during this time include his examination of the nitrogen content of bases; the study of chlorination and the isolation of chloral (1832); the identification of the ethyl radical (1834); the oxidation of alcohol and formation of aldehyde (1835); the polybasic theory of organic acids (1838); and the degradation of urea (1837). Writing about the analysis of urine, a complex organic product, he made a declaration that reveals both the changes that were occurring in chemistry over a short time and the impact of his own work. At a time when many chemists such as Jöns Jakob Berzelius still insisted on a hard and fast separation between the organic and inorganic, Liebig asserted: Liebig's arguments against any chemical distinction between living (physiological) and dead chemical processes proved a great inspiration to several of his students and others who were interested in materialism. Though Liebig distanced himself from the direct political implications of materialism, he tacitly supported the work of Carl Vogt (1817–1895), Jacob Moleschott (1822–1893), and Ludwig Büchner (1824–1899). Plant nutrition By the 1840s, Liebig was attempting to apply theoretical knowledge from organic chemistry to real-world problems of food availability. His book Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie (Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology) (1840) promoted the idea that chemistry could revolutionize agricultural practice, increasing yields and lowering costs. It was widely translated, vociferously critiqued, and highly influential. Liebig's book discussed chemical transformations within living systems, both plant and animal, outlining a theoretical approach to agricultural chemistry. The first part of the book focused on plant nutrition, the second was on chemical mechanisms of putrefaction and decay. Liebig's awareness of both synthesis and degradation led him to become an early advocate of conservation, promoting ideas such as the recycling of sewage. Liebig argued against prevalent theories about role of humus in plant nutrition, which held that decayed plant matter was the primary source of carbon for plant nutrition. Fertilizers were believed to act by breaking down humus, making it easier for plants to absorb. Associated with such ideas was the belief that some sort of "vital force" distinguished reactions involving organic as opposed to inorganic materials. Early studies of photosynthesis had identified carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen as important, but disagreed over their sources and mechanisms of action. Carbon dioxide was known to be taken in and oxygen released during photosynthesis, but researchers suggested that oxygen was obtained from carbon dioxide, rather than from water. Hydrogen was believed to come primarily from water. Researchers disagreed about whether sources of carbon and nitrogen were atmospheric or soil-based. Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure's experiments, reported in Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation (1804), suggested that carbon was obtained from atmospheric rather than soil-based sources, and that water was a likely source of hydrogen. He also studied the absorption of minerals by plants, and observed that mineral concentrations in plants tended to reflect their presence in the soil in which the plants were grown. However, the implications of De Saussure's results for theories of plant nutrition were neither clearly discussed nor easily understood. Liebig reaffirmed the importance of De Saussures' findings, and used them to critique humus theories, while regretting the limitations of De Saussure's experimental techniques. Using more precise methods of measurement as a basis for estimation, he pointed out contradictions such as the inability of existing soil humus to provide enough carbon to support the plants growing in it. By the late 1830s, researchers such as Karl Sprengel were using Liebig's methods of combustion analysis to assess manures, concluding that their value could be attributed to their constituent minerals. Liebig synthesized ideas about the mineral theory of plant nutrition and added his own conviction that inorganic materials could provide nutrients as effectively as organic sources. In his theory of mineral nutrients, Liebig identified the chemical elements of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) as essential to plant growth. He reported that plants acquire carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) from the atmosphere and from water (H2O). In addition to emphasizing the importance of minerals in the soil, he argued that plants feed on nitrogen compounds derived from the air. This assertion was a source of contention for many years, and turned out to be true for legumes, but not for other plants. Liebig also popularized Carl Sprengel's "theorem of minimum" (known as the law of the minimum), stating that plant growth is not determined by the total resources available, but by the scarcest available resource. A plant's development is limited by the one essential mineral that is in the relatively shortest supply. This concept of limitation can be visualized as "Liebig's barrel", a metaphorical barrel in which each stave represents a different element. A nutrient stave that is shorter than the others will cause the liquid contained in the barrel to spill out at that level. This is a qualitative version of the principles used for determining the application of fertilizer in modern agriculture. Organic Chemistry was not intended as a guide to practical agriculture. Liebig's lack of experience in practical applications, and differences between editions of the book, fueled considerable criticism. Nonetheless, Liebig's writings had a profound impact on agriculture, spurring experiment and theoretical debate in Germany, England, and France. One of his most recognized accomplishments is the development of nitrogen-based fertilizer. In the first two editions of his book (1840, 1842), Liebig reported that the atmosphere contained insufficient nitrogen, and argued that nitrogen-based fertilizer was needed to grow the healthiest possible crops. Liebig believed that nitrogen could be supplied in the form of ammonia, and recognized the possibility of substituting chemical fertilizers for natural ones (animal dung, etc.) He later became convinced that nitrogen was sufficiently supplied by precipitation of ammonia from the atmosphere, and argued vehemently against the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers for many years. An early commercial attempt to produce his own fertilizers was unsuccessful, due to lack of nitrogen in the mixtures. When tested in a farmer's field, Liebig's manure was found to have no appreciable effect. Liebig's difficulties in reconciling theory and practice reflected that the real world of agriculture was more complex than was at first realized. By the publication of the seventh German edition of Agricultural Chemistry he had moderated some of his views, admitting some mistakes and returning to the position that nitrogen-based fertilizers were beneficial or even necessary.He was instrumental in the use of guano for nitrogen. In 1863 he published the book "Es ist ja die Spitze meines lebens" in which he revised his early perceptions, now appreciating soil life and in particular the biological N fixation. Nitrogen fertilizers are now widely used throughout the world, and their production is a substantial segment of the chemical industry. Plant and animal physiology Liebig's work on applying chemistry to plant and animal physiology was especially influential. By 1842, he had published Chimie organique appliquée à la physiologie animale et à la pathologie, published in English as Animal Chemistry, or, Organic Chemistry in its Applications to Physiology and Pathology, presenting a chemical theory of metabolism. The experimental techniques used by Liebig and others often involved controlling and measuring diet, and monitoring and analyzing the products of animal metabolism, as indicators of internal metabolic processes. Liebig saw similarities between plant and animal metabolism, and suggested that nitrogenous animal matter was similar to, and derived from, plant matter. He categorized foodstuffs into two groups, nitrogenous materials which he believed were used to build animal tissue, and non-nitrogenous materials which he believed were involved in separate processes of respiration and generation of heat. French researchers such as Jean-Baptiste Dumas and Jean-Baptiste Boussingault believed that animals assimilated sugars, proteins, and fats from plant materials and lacked the ability to synthesize them. Liebig's work suggested a common ability of plants and animals to synthesize complex molecules from simpler ones. His experiments on fat metabolism convinced him that animals must be able to synthesize fats from sugars and starches. Other researchers built upon his work, confirming the abilities of animals to synthesize sugar and build fat. Liebig also studied respiration, at one point measuring the "ingesta and excreta" of 855 soldiers, a bodyguard of the Grand Duke of Hessen-Darmstadt, for an entire month. He outlined an extremely speculative model of equations in which he attempted to explain how protein degradation might balance within a healthy body and result in pathological imbalances in cases of illness or inappropriate nutrition. This proposed model was justifiably criticized. Berzelius stingingly stated that "this facile kind of physiological chemistry is created at the writing table". Some of the ideas that Liebig had enthusiastically incorporated were not supported by further research. The third and last edition of Animal Chemistry (1846) was substantially revised and did not include the equations. The third area discussed in Animal Chemistry was fermentation and putrefaction. Liebig proposed chemical explanations for processes such as eremacausis (organic decomposition), describing the rearrangement of atoms as a result of unstable "affinities" reacting to external causes such as air or already decaying substances. Liebig identified the blood as the site of the body's "chemical factory", where he believed processes of synthesis and degradation took place. He presented a view of disease in terms of chemical process, in which healthy blood could be attacked by external contagia; secreting organs sought to transform and excrete such substances; and failure to do so could lead to their elimination through the skin, lungs, and other organs, potentially spreading contagion. Again, although the world was much more complicated than his theory, and many of his individual ideas were later proved wrong, Liebig managed to synthesize existing knowledge in a way that had significant implications for doctors, sanitarians, and social reformers. The English medical journal The Lancet reviewed Liebig's work and translated his chemical lectures as part of its mission to establish a new era of medicine. Liebig's ideas stimulated significant medical research, led to the development of better techniques for testing experimental models of metabolism, and pointed to chemistry as fundamental to the understanding of health and disease. In 1850, Liebig investigated spontaneous human combustion, dismissing the simplistic explanations based on ethanol due to alcoholism. Liebig and the chemistry of food Methods of cookery Liebig drew upon his work in plant nutrition and plant and animal metabolism to develop a theory of nutrition, which had significant implications for cookery. In his Researches
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had significant implications for cookery. In his Researches on the Chemistry of Food (1847) Liebig argued that eating not only meat fibre, but also meat juices, which contained various inorganic chemicals, was important. These vital ingredients would be lost during conventional boiling or roasting in which cooking liquids were discarded. For optimum nutritional quality, Liebig advised that cooks should either sear the meat initially to retain fluids, or retain and use cooking liquids (as in soups or stews). Liebig was acclaimed in The Lancet for revealing "the true principles of cookery", and physicians promoted "rational diets" based on his ideas. Well-known British cookery writer Eliza Acton responded to Liebig by modifying the cookery techniques in the third edition of her Modern Cookery for Private Families, and subtitling the edition accordingly. Liebig's idea that "searing meat seals in the juices", though still widely believed, is not true. Liebig's Extract of Meat Company Building on his theories of the nutritional value of meat fluids, and seeking an inexpensive nutrition source for Europe's poor, Liebig developed a formula for producing beef extract. The details were published in 1847 so that "the benefit of it should ... be placed at the command of as large a number of persons as possible by the extension of the manufacture, and consequently a reduction in the cost". Production was not economically feasible in Europe, where meat was expensive, but in Uruguay and New South Wales, meat was an inexpensive byproduct of the leather industry. In 1865, Liebig partnered with Belgian engineer George Christian Giebert, and was named scientific director of the Liebig's Extract of Meat Company, located in Fray Bentos, Uruguay. Other companies also attempted to market meat extracts under the name "Liebig's Extract of Meat". In Britain, a competitor's right to use the name was successfully defended on the grounds that the name had fallen into general use and become a generic term before the creation of any particular company. The judge asserted that "Purchasers must use their eyes", and considered the presentation of the products to be sufficiently different to enable the discriminating consumer to determine which of the products bore Liebig's signature and was supported by Baron Liebig himself. Liebig's company initially promoted their "meat tea" for its curative powers and nutritional value as a cheap, nutritious alternative to real meat. After claims of its nutritional value were questioned, they emphasized its convenience and flavour, marketing it as a comfort food. The Liebig company worked with popular cookery writers in various countries to popularize their products. German cookery writer Henriette Davidis wrote recipes for Improved and Economic Cookery and other cookbooks. Katharina Prato wrote an Austro-Hungarian recipe book, Die Praktische Verwerthung Kochrecepte (1879). Hannah M. Young was commissioned in England to write Practical Cookery Book for the Liebig Company. In the United States, Maria Parloa extolled the benefits of Liebig's extract. Colorful calendars and trading cards were also marketed to popularize the product. The company also worked with British chemist Henry Enfield Roscoe to develop a related product, which it registered some years after Liebig's death, under the "Oxo" trademark. Oxo was trademarked worldwide in 1899 and in the United Kingdom in 1900. Originally a liquid, Oxo was released in cubed solid form in 1911. Marmite Liebig studied other foods, as well. He promoted the use of baking powder to make lighter bread, studied the chemistry of coffee-making, oatmeal, and developed a breast-milk substitute for babies who could not suckle. He is considered to have made possible the invention of Marmite, because of his discovery that yeast could be concentrated to form yeast extract. Major works Liebig founded the journal Annalen der Chemie, which he edited from 1832. Originally titled Annalen der Pharmacie, it became Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie to more accurately reflect its content. It became the leading journal of chemistry, and still exists. The volumes from his lifetime are often referenced just as Liebigs Annalen; and following his death the title was officially changed to Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie. Liebig published widely in Liebigs Annalen and elsewhere, in newspapers and journals. Most of his books were published concurrently in both German and English, and many were translated into other languages, as well. Some of his most influential titles include: Ueber das Studium der Naturwissenschaften und über den Zustand der Chemie in Preußen (1840) Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie; in English, Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology (1840) Chimie organique appliquée à la physiologie animale et à la pathologie; in English, Animal chemistry, or, Organic chemistry in its applications to physiology and pathology (1842) Familiar letters on chemistry and its relation to commerce, physiology and agriculture (1843) Chemische Briefe (1844) Digital edition (1865) by the University and State Library Düsseldorf In addition to books and articles, he wrote thousands of letters, most of them to other scientists. Liebig also played a direct role in the German publication of John Stuart Mill's Logic. Through Liebig's close friendship with the Vieweg family publishing house, he arranged for his former student Jacob Schiel (1813–1889) to translate Mill's important work for German publication. Liebig liked Mill's Logic in part because it promoted science as a means to social and political progress, but also because Mill featured several examples of Liebig's research as an ideal for the scientific method. In this way, he sought to reform politics in the German states. Later life In 1852, Liebig accepted an appointment from King Maximilian II of Bavaria to the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. He also became scientific advisor to King Maxilimian II, who hoped to transform the University of Munich into a center for scientific research and development. In part, Liebig accepted the post because, at age 50, he was finding supervision of large numbers of laboratory students increasingly difficult. His new accommodations in Munich reflected this shift in focus. They included a comfortable house suitable for extensive entertaining, a small laboratory, and a newly built lecture theatre capable of holding 300 people with a demonstration laboratory at the front. There, he gave lectures to the university and fortnightly to the public. In his position as a promoter of science, Liebig was appointed president of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, becoming perpetual president of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences in 1858. Liebig enjoyed a personal friendship with Maximilian II, who died on 10 March 1864. After Maximilian's death, Liebig and other liberal Protestant scientists in Bavaria were increasingly opposed by ultramontane Catholics. Liebig died in Munich in 1873, and is buried in the Alter Südfriedhof in Munich. Awards and honors Liebig was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1837. He became a first-class member of the Ludwig Order, founded by Ludwig I, and awarded by Ludwig II on 24 July 1837. In 1838, he became correspondent of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands; when that became the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1851, he joined as foreign member. The British Royal Society awarded him the Copley Medal "for his discoveries in organic chemistry, and particularly for his development of the composition and theory of organic radicals" in 1840. In 1841, botanist Stephan Friedrich Ladislaus Endlicher (1804–1849), published a genus of flowering plants from Malesia, belonging to the family Gesneriaceae, as Liebigia in his honour. Ludwig II of Bavaria conveyed the title of Freiherr von Liebig on 29 December 1845. In English, the closest translation is "Baron". In 1850, he received the French Légion d'honneur, presented by chemist Jean-Baptiste Dumas, the French trade minister. He was honored with the Prussian Order of Merit for Science by Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia in 1851. He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1862. In 1869, he was awarded the Albert Medal by the Royal Society of Arts, "for his numerous valuable researches and writings, which have contributed most importantly to the development of food-economy and agriculture, to the advancement of chemical science, and to the benefits derived from that science by Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce." Posthumous honors Liebig's portrait appeared on the 100 RM banknote issued by the Reichsbank from 1935 until 1945. Printing ceased in 1945 but the note remained in circulation until the issue of the Deutsche Mark on 21 June 1948. In 1946, after the end of World War II, the University of Giessen was officially renamed after him, "Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen". In 1953, the West German post office issued a stamp in his honor. In 1953, the third General Assembly of the International Scientific Centre of Fertilizers (CIEC), founded in 1932, was organized in Darmstadt to honor Justus von Liebig on the 150th anniversary of his birth. A portrait of Liebig hangs in the Burlington House headquarters of the Royal Society of Chemistry. It was presented to the society's forerunner, the Chemical Society, by his god-daughter, Mrs Alex Tweedie, née Harley, daughter of Emma Muspratt. Liebig medals Some organizations have granted medals in honor of Justus von Liebig. In 1871, the Versammlung deutscher Land- und Forstwirte (Assembly of German Farmers and Foresters) first awarded a Liebig Gold Medal, given to Theodor Reuning. The image was struck from a portrait commissioned in 1869 from Friedrich Brehmer. For several years, the Liebig Trust Fund, established by Baron Liebig, was administered by the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences at Munich and members of the Liebig family. They were empowered to award gold and silver Liebig Medals to deserving German scientists "for the purpose of encouraging research in agricultural science". Silver medals could be awarded to scientists from other countries.
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a rebellion and pogrom by the Iron Guard, killing 125 Jews and 30 soldiers. 1942 – World War II: At the Wannsee Conference held in the Berlin suburb of Wannsee, senior Nazi German officials discuss the implementation of the "Final Solution to the Jewish question". 1945 – World War II: The provisional government of Béla Miklós in Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies. 1945 – World War II: Germany begins the evacuation of 1.8 million people from East Prussia, a task which will take nearly two months. 1949 – Point Four Program, a program for economic aid to poor countries, is announced by United States President Harry S. Truman in his inaugural address for a full term as president. 1954 – In the United States, the National Negro Network is established with 40 charter member radio stations. 1961 – John F. Kennedy is inaugurated the 35th President of the United States of America, becoming the youngest man to be elected into that office, and the first Catholic. 1972 – Pakistan launches its nuclear weapons program, a few weeks after its defeat in the Bangladesh Liberation War, as well as the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. 1973 – Amílcar Cabral, leader of the independence movement in Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde, is assassinated in Conakry, Guinea. 1974 – China gains control over all the Paracel Islands after a military engagement between the naval forces of China and South Vietnam. 1981 – Twenty minutes after Ronald Reagan is inaugurated as the 40th President of the United States of America, Iran releases 52 American hostages. 1986 – In the United States, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is celebrated as a federal holiday for the first time. 1990 – Protests in Azerbaijan, part of the Dissolution of the Soviet Union. 1991 – Sudan's government imposes Islamic law nationwide, worsening the civil war between the country's Muslim north and Christian south. 1992 – Air Inter Flight 148, an Airbus A320-111, crashes into a mountain near Strasbourg, France, killing 87 of the 96 people on board. 2001 – President of the Philippines Joseph Estrada is ousted in a nonviolent four-day revolution, and is succeeded by Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. 2009 – Barack Obama is inaugurated as the 44th President of the United States of America, becoming the first African-American President of the United States. 2009 – A protest movement in Iceland culminates as the 2009 Icelandic financial crisis protests start. 2018 – A group of four or five gunmen attack The Inter-Continental Hotel in Kabul, Afghanistan, sparking a 12-hour battle. The attack kills 40 people and injures many others. 2018 – Syrian civil war: The Government of Turkey announces the initiation of the Afrin offensive and begins shelling Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) positions in Afrin Region. 2021 – Joe Biden is inaugurated as the 46th President of the United States of America. At 78, he becomes the oldest person ever inaugurated. Kamala Harris becomes the first female Vice President of the United States. Births Pre-1600 225 – Gordian III, Roman emperor (d. 244) 1029 – Alp Arslan, Seljuk sultan (probable; d. 1072) 1292 – Elizabeth of Bohemia, queen consort of Bohemia (d. 1330) 1436 – Ashikaga Yoshimasa, Japanese shōgun (d. 1490) 1488 – Sebastian Münster, German scholar, cartographer, and cosmographer (d. 1552) 1499 – Sebastian Franck, German humanist (probable; d. 1543) 1500 – Jean Quintin, French priest, knight and writer (d. 1561) 1502 – Sebastian de Aparicio, Spanish-Mexican rancher and missionary (d. 1600) 1526 – Rafael Bombelli, Italian mathematician (d. 1572) 1554 – Sebastian of Portugal (d. 1578) 1569 – Heribert Rosweyde, Jesuit hagiographer (d. 1629) 1573 – Simon Marius, German astronomer and academic (d. 1624) 1586 – Johann Hermann Schein, German composer (d. 1630) 1601–1900 1664 – Giovanni Vincenzo Gravina, Italian lawyer and jurist (d. 1718) 1703 – Joseph-Hector Fiocco, Flemish violinist and composer (d. 1741) 1716 – Jean-Jacques Barthélemy, French archaeologist and numismatist (d. 1795) 1716 – Charles III of Spain (d. 1788) 1732 – Richard Henry Lee, American lawyer and politician, President of the Continental Congress (d. 1794) 1741 – Carl Linnaeus the Younger, Swedish botanist and author (d. 1783) 1755 – Sir Albemarle Bertie, 1st Baronet, English admiral (d. 1824) 1762 – Jérôme-Joseph de Momigny, Belgian-French composer and theorist (d. 1842) 1775 – André-Marie Ampère, French physicist and mathematician (d. 1836) 1781 – Joseph Hormayr, Baron zu Hortenburg, Austrian-German historian and politician (d. 1848) 1783 – Friedrich Dotzauer, German cellist and composer (d. 1860) 1799 – Anson Jones, American physician and politician, 5th President of the Republic of Texas (d. 1858) 1812 – Thomas Meik, Scottish engineer (d. 1896) 1814 – David Wilmot, American politician, sponsor of Wilmot Proviso (d. 1868) 1819 – Göran Fredrik Göransson, Swedish merchant, ironmaster and industrialist (d. 1900) 1834 – George D. Robinson, American lawyer and politician, 34th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1896) 1855 – Ernest Chausson, French composer (d. 1899) 1856 – Harriot Stanton Blatch, U.S. suffragist and organizer (d. 1940) 1865 – Yvette Guilbert, French singer and actress (d. 1944) 1865 – Wilhelm Ramsay, Finnish geologist and professor (d. 1928) 1870 – Guillaume Lekeu, Belgian pianist and composer (d. 1894) 1873 – Johannes V. Jensen, Danish author, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1950) 1874 – Steve Bloomer, English footballer and coach (d. 1938) 1876 – Josef Hofmann, Polish-American pianist and composer (d. 1957) 1878 – Finlay Currie, Scottish-English actor (d. 1968) 1879 – Ruth St. Denis, American dancer and educator (d. 1968) 1880 – Walter W. Bacon, American accountant and politician, 60th Governor of Delaware (d. 1962) 1882 – Johnny Torrio, Italian-American mob boss (d. 1957) 1883 – Enoch L. Johnson, American mob boss (d. 1968) 1883 – Forrest Wilson, American journalist and author (d. 1942) 1888 – Lead Belly, American folk/blues musician and songwriter (d. 1949) 1889 – Allan Haines Loughead, American engineer and businessman, founded the Alco Hydro-Aeroplane Company (d. 1969) 1891 – Mischa Elman, Ukrainian-American violinist (d. 1967) 1893 – Georg Åberg, Swedish triple jumper (d. 1946) 1894 – Harold Gray, American cartoonist, created Little Orphan Annie (d. 1968) 1894 – Walter Piston, American composer, theorist, and academic (d. 1976) 1895 – Gábor Szegő, Hungarian mathematician and academic (d. 1985) 1896 – George Burns, American actor, comedian, and producer (d. 1996) 1898 – U Razak, Burmese educator and politician (d. 1947) 1899 – Clarice Cliff, English potter (d. 1972) 1899 – Kenjiro Takayanagi, Japanese engineer (d. 1990) 1900 – Dorothy Annan, English painter, potter, and muralist (d. 1983) 1900 – Colin Clive, English actor (d. 1937) 1901–present 1902 – Leon Ames, American actor (d. 1993) 1902 – Kevin Barry, Irish Republican Army volunteer (d. 1920) 1906 – Aristotle Onassis, Greek shipping magnate (d. 1975) 1907 – Paula Wessely, Austrian actress and producer (d. 2000) 1908 – Fleur Cowles, American author and illustrator (d. 2009) 1909 – Gōgen Yamaguchi, Japanese martial artist (d. 1989) 1910 – Joy Adamson, Austria-Kenyan painter and conservationist (d. 1980) 1913 – W. Cleon Skousen, American author and academic (d. 2006) 1915 – Ghulam Ishaq Khan, Pakistani businessman and politician, 7th President of Pakistan (d. 2006) 1918 – Juan García Esquivel, Mexican pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 2002) 1918 – Nevin Scrimshaw, American scientist (d. 2013) 1920 – Federico Fellini, Italian director and screenwriter (d. 1993) 1920 – DeForest Kelley, American actor (d. 1999) 1920 – Thorleif Schjelderup, Norwegian ski jumper and author (d. 2006) 1921 – Telmo Zarra, Spanish footballer (d. 2006) 1922 – Ray Anthony, American trumpet player, composer, bandleader, and actor 1922 – Don Mankiewicz, American author and screenwriter (d. 2015) 1923 – Slim Whitman, American country and western singer-songwriter and musician (d. 2013) 1924 – Yvonne Loriod, French pianist and composer (d. 2010) 1925 – Jamiluddin Aali, Pakistani poet, playwright, and critic (d. 2015) 1925 – Ernesto Cardenal, Nicaraguan priest, poet, and politician (d. 2020) 1926 – Patricia Neal, American actress (d. 2010) 1926 – David Tudor, American pianist and composer (d. 1996) 1927 – Qurratulain Hyder, Indian-Pakistani journalist and academic (d. 2007) 1928 – Antonio de Almeida, French conductor and musicologist (d. 1997) 1929 – Arte Johnson, American actor and comedian (d. 2019) 1929 – Masaharu Kawakatsu, Japanese biologist 1929 – Fireball Roberts, American race car driver (d. 1964) 1930 – Buzz Aldrin, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut 1931 – David Lee, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1931 – Hachidai Nakamura, Japanese pianist and composer (d. 1992) 1932 – Lou Fontinato, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2016) 1934 – Hennie Aucamp, South African poet, author, and academic (d. 2014) 1934 – Tom Baker, English actor 1935 – Dorothy Provine, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2010) 1937 – Bailey Howell, American basketball player 1938 – Derek Dougan, Irish-English footballer and journalist (d. 2007) 1939 – Paul Coverdell, American captain and politician (d. 2000) 1939 – Chandra Wickramasinghe, Sri Lankan-English mathematician, astronomer, and biologist 1940 – Carol Heiss, American figure skater and actress 1940 – Krishnam Raju, Indian actor and politician 1940 – Mandé Sidibé, Malian economist and politician, Prime Minister of Mali (d. 2009) 1942 – Linda Moulton Howe, American journalist and producer 1944 – José Luis Garci, Spanish director and producer 1944 – Farhad Mehrad, Iranian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002) 1944 – Pat Parker, American poet (d. 1989) 1945 – Christopher Martin-Jenkins, English journalist and sportscaster (d. 2013) 1945 – Eric Stewart, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1946 – David Lynch, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1946 – Vladimír Merta, Czech singer-songwriter, guitarist, and journalist 1947 – Cyrille Guimard, French cyclist and sportscaster 1948 – Nancy Kress, American author and academic 1948 – Natan Sharansky, Ukrainian-Israeli physicist and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Israel 1949 – Göran Persson, Swedish lawyer and politician, 31st Prime Minister of Sweden 1950 – Daniel Benzali, Brazilian-American actor 1950 – William Mgimwa, Tanzanian banker and politician, 13th Tanzanian Minister of Finance (d. 2014) 1950 – Mahamane Ousmane, Nigerien politician, President of Niger 1951 – Ian Hill, English rock bassist 1951 – Iván Fischer, Hungarian conductor and composer 1952 – Nikos Sideris, Greek psychiatrist and poet 1952 – Paul Stanley, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1952 – John Witherow, South African-English journalist and author 1953 – Jeffrey Epstein, American financier and convicted sex offender (d. 2019) 1954 – Alison Seabeck, English lawyer and politician 1955 – McKeeva Bush, Caymanian politician, Premier of the Cayman Islands 1956 – Maria Larsson, Swedish educator and politician, Swedish Minister of Health and Social Affairs 1956 – Bill Maher, American comedian, political commentator, media critic, television host, and producer 1956 – John Naber, American swimmer 1957 – Andy Sheppard, English saxophonist and composer 1958 – Lorenzo Lamas, American actor, director, and producer 1958 – Amanda Villepastour (), Australian-born ethnomusicologist and professional musician 1959 – Tami Hoag, American author 1959 – R. A. Salvatore, American author 1963 – James Denton, American actor 1963 – Mark Ryden, American painter and illustrator 1964 – Ozzie Guillén, Venezuelan-American baseball player and manager 1964 – Ron Harper, American basketball player and coach 1964 – Jack Lewis, American soldier and author 1964 – Kazushige Nojima, Japanese screenwriter and songwriter 1964 – Aquilino Pimentel III, Filipino lawyer and politician 1964 – Fareed Zakaria, Indian-American journalist and author 1965 – Colin Calderwood, Scottish footballer and manager 1965 – Sophie, Countess of Wessex 1965 – Warren Joyce, English footballer and manager 1965 – John Michael Montgomery, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1965 – Anton Weissenbacher, Romanian footballer 1966 – Rainn Wilson, American actor 1967 – Stacey Dash, American actress and television journalist 1967 – Kellyanne Conway, American political strategist and pundit 1968 – Nick Anderson, American basketball player and sportscaster 1968 – Junior Murray,
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source and exercise of sovereignty by consecrating the principle of national sovereignty. 1929 – The first full-length talking motion picture filmed outdoors, In Old Arizona, is released. 1936 – King George V of the United Kingdom dies. His eldest son succeeds to the throne, becoming Edward VIII. The title Prince of Wales is not used for another 22 years. 1937 – Franklin D. Roosevelt and John Nance Garner are sworn in for their second terms as U.S. President and U.S. Vice President; it is the first time a Presidential Inauguration takes place on January 20 since the 20th Amendment changed the dates of presidential terms. 1941 – A German officer is killed in Bucharest, Romania, sparking a rebellion and pogrom by the Iron Guard, killing 125 Jews and 30 soldiers. 1942 – World War II: At the Wannsee Conference held in the Berlin suburb of Wannsee, senior Nazi German officials discuss the implementation of the "Final Solution to the Jewish question". 1945 – World War II: The provisional government of Béla Miklós in Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies. 1945 – World War II: Germany begins the evacuation of 1.8 million people from East Prussia, a task which will take nearly two months. 1949 – Point Four Program, a program for economic aid to poor countries, is announced by United States President Harry S. Truman in his inaugural address for a full term as president. 1954 – In the United States, the National Negro Network is established with 40 charter member radio stations. 1961 – John F. Kennedy is inaugurated the 35th President of the United States of America, becoming the youngest man to be elected into that office, and the first Catholic. 1972 – Pakistan launches its nuclear weapons program, a few weeks after its defeat in the Bangladesh Liberation War, as well as the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. 1973 – Amílcar Cabral, leader of the independence movement in Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde, is assassinated in Conakry, Guinea. 1974 – China gains control over all the Paracel Islands after a military engagement between the naval forces of China and South Vietnam. 1981 – Twenty minutes after Ronald Reagan is inaugurated as the 40th President of the United States of America, Iran releases 52 American hostages. 1986 – In the United States, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is celebrated as a federal holiday for the first time. 1990 – Protests in Azerbaijan, part of the Dissolution of the Soviet Union. 1991 – Sudan's government imposes Islamic law nationwide, worsening the civil war between the country's Muslim north and Christian south. 1992 – Air Inter Flight 148, an Airbus A320-111, crashes into a mountain near Strasbourg, France, killing 87 of the 96 people on board. 2001 – President of the Philippines Joseph Estrada is ousted in a nonviolent four-day revolution, and is succeeded by Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. 2009 – Barack Obama is inaugurated as the 44th President of the United States of America, becoming the first African-American President of the United States. 2009 – A protest movement in Iceland culminates as the 2009 Icelandic financial crisis protests start. 2018 – A group of four or five gunmen attack The Inter-Continental Hotel in Kabul, Afghanistan, sparking a 12-hour battle. The attack kills 40 people and injures many others. 2018 – Syrian civil war: The Government of Turkey announces the initiation of the Afrin offensive and begins shelling Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) positions in Afrin Region. 2021 – Joe Biden is inaugurated as the 46th President of the United States of America. At 78, he becomes the oldest person ever inaugurated. Kamala Harris becomes the first female Vice President of the United States. Births Pre-1600 225 – Gordian III, Roman emperor (d. 244) 1029 – Alp Arslan, Seljuk sultan (probable; d. 1072) 1292 – Elizabeth of Bohemia, queen consort of Bohemia (d. 1330) 1436 – Ashikaga Yoshimasa, Japanese shōgun (d. 1490) 1488 – Sebastian Münster, German scholar, cartographer, and cosmographer (d. 1552) 1499 – Sebastian Franck, German humanist (probable; d. 1543) 1500 – Jean Quintin, French priest, knight and writer (d. 1561) 1502 – Sebastian de Aparicio, Spanish-Mexican rancher and missionary (d. 1600) 1526 – Rafael Bombelli, Italian mathematician (d. 1572) 1554 – Sebastian of Portugal (d. 1578) 1569 – Heribert Rosweyde, Jesuit hagiographer (d. 1629) 1573 – Simon Marius, German astronomer and academic (d. 1624) 1586 – Johann Hermann Schein, German composer (d. 1630) 1601–1900 1664 – Giovanni Vincenzo Gravina, Italian lawyer and jurist (d. 1718) 1703 – Joseph-Hector Fiocco, Flemish violinist and composer (d. 1741) 1716 – Jean-Jacques Barthélemy, French archaeologist and numismatist (d. 1795) 1716 – Charles III of Spain (d. 1788) 1732 – Richard Henry Lee, American lawyer and politician, President of the Continental Congress (d. 1794) 1741 – Carl Linnaeus the Younger, Swedish botanist and author (d. 1783) 1755 – Sir Albemarle Bertie, 1st Baronet, English admiral (d. 1824) 1762 – Jérôme-Joseph de Momigny, Belgian-French composer and theorist (d. 1842) 1775 – André-Marie Ampère, French physicist and mathematician (d. 1836) 1781 – Joseph Hormayr, Baron zu Hortenburg, Austrian-German historian and politician (d. 1848) 1783 – Friedrich Dotzauer, German cellist and composer (d. 1860) 1799 – Anson Jones, American physician and politician, 5th President of the Republic of Texas (d. 1858) 1812 – Thomas Meik, Scottish engineer (d. 1896) 1814 – David Wilmot, American politician, sponsor of Wilmot Proviso (d. 1868) 1819 – Göran Fredrik Göransson, Swedish merchant, ironmaster and industrialist (d. 1900) 1834 – George D. Robinson, American lawyer and politician, 34th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1896) 1855 – Ernest Chausson, French composer (d. 1899) 1856 – Harriot Stanton Blatch, U.S. suffragist and organizer (d. 1940) 1865 – Yvette Guilbert, French singer and actress (d. 1944) 1865 – Wilhelm Ramsay, Finnish geologist and professor (d. 1928) 1870 – Guillaume Lekeu, Belgian pianist and composer (d. 1894) 1873 – Johannes V. Jensen, Danish author, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1950) 1874 – Steve Bloomer, English footballer and coach (d. 1938) 1876 – Josef Hofmann, Polish-American pianist and composer (d. 1957) 1878 – Finlay Currie, Scottish-English actor (d. 1968) 1879 – Ruth St. Denis, American dancer and educator (d. 1968) 1880 – Walter W. Bacon, American accountant and politician, 60th Governor of Delaware (d. 1962) 1882 – Johnny Torrio, Italian-American mob boss (d. 1957) 1883 – Enoch L. Johnson, American mob boss (d. 1968) 1883 – Forrest Wilson, American journalist and author (d. 1942) 1888 – Lead Belly, American folk/blues musician and songwriter (d. 1949) 1889 – Allan Haines Loughead, American engineer and businessman, founded the Alco Hydro-Aeroplane Company (d. 1969) 1891 – Mischa Elman, Ukrainian-American violinist (d. 1967) 1893 – Georg Åberg, Swedish triple jumper (d. 1946) 1894 – Harold Gray, American cartoonist, created Little Orphan Annie (d. 1968) 1894 – Walter Piston, American composer, theorist, and academic (d. 1976) 1895 – Gábor Szegő, Hungarian mathematician and academic (d. 1985) 1896 – George Burns, American actor, comedian, and producer (d. 1996) 1898 – U Razak, Burmese educator and politician (d. 1947) 1899 – Clarice Cliff, English potter (d. 1972) 1899 – Kenjiro Takayanagi, Japanese engineer (d. 1990) 1900 – Dorothy Annan, English painter, potter, and muralist (d. 1983) 1900 – Colin Clive, English actor (d. 1937) 1901–present 1902 – Leon Ames, American actor (d. 1993) 1902 – Kevin Barry, Irish Republican Army volunteer (d. 1920) 1906 – Aristotle Onassis, Greek shipping magnate (d. 1975) 1907 – Paula Wessely, Austrian actress and producer (d. 2000) 1908 – Fleur Cowles, American author and illustrator (d. 2009) 1909 – Gōgen Yamaguchi, Japanese martial artist (d. 1989) 1910 – Joy Adamson, Austria-Kenyan painter and conservationist (d. 1980) 1913 – W. Cleon Skousen, American author and academic (d. 2006) 1915 – Ghulam Ishaq Khan, Pakistani businessman and politician, 7th President of Pakistan (d. 2006) 1918 – Juan García Esquivel, Mexican pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 2002) 1918 – Nevin Scrimshaw, American scientist (d. 2013) 1920 – Federico Fellini, Italian director and screenwriter (d. 1993) 1920 – DeForest Kelley, American actor (d. 1999) 1920 – Thorleif Schjelderup, Norwegian ski jumper and author (d. 2006) 1921 – Telmo Zarra, Spanish footballer (d. 2006) 1922 – Ray Anthony, American trumpet player, composer, bandleader, and actor 1922 – Don Mankiewicz, American author and screenwriter (d. 2015) 1923 – Slim Whitman, American country and western singer-songwriter and musician (d. 2013) 1924 – Yvonne Loriod, French pianist and composer (d. 2010) 1925 – Jamiluddin Aali, Pakistani poet, playwright, and critic (d. 2015) 1925 – Ernesto Cardenal, Nicaraguan priest, poet, and politician (d. 2020) 1926 – Patricia Neal, American actress (d. 2010) 1926 – David Tudor, American pianist and composer (d. 1996) 1927 – Qurratulain Hyder, Indian-Pakistani journalist and academic (d. 2007) 1928 – Antonio de Almeida, French
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of magic in the books: they do not attempt to understand the moral messages in the series. Legacy Rowling's Harry Potter series has been credited with a resurgence in crossover fiction: children's literature with an adult appeal. Crossovers were prevalent in 19th-century American and British fiction, but fell out of favour in the 20th century and did not occur at the same scale. The post-Harry Potter crossover trend is associated with the fantasy genre. In the 1970s, children's books were generally realistic as opposed to fantastic, while adult fantasy became popular because of the influence of The Lord of the Rings. The next decade saw an increasing interest in grim, realist themes, with an outflow of fantasy readers and writers to adult works. The commercial success of Harry Potter in 1997 reversed this trend. The scale of its growth had no precedent in the children's market: within four years, it occupied 28% of that field by revenue. Children's literature rose in cultural status, and fantasy became a dominant genre. Older works of children's fantasy, including Diana Wynne Jones's Chrestomanci series and Diane Duane's Young Wizards, were reprinted and rose in popularity; some authors re-established their careers. In the following decades, many Harry Potter imitators and subversive responses grew popular. Rowling has been compared to Enid Blyton, who also wrote in simple language about groups of children and long held sway over the British children's market. She has also been described as an heir to Roald Dahl. Some critics view Harry Potter rise, along with the concurrent success of Philip Pullman's His Dark Materials, as part of a broader shift in reading tastes: a rejection of literary fiction in favour of plot and adventure. This is reflected in the BBC's 2003 "Big Read" survey of the UK's favourite books, where Pullman and Rowling ranked at numbers 3 and 5, respectively, with very few British literary classics in the top 10. Harry Potter popularity led its publishers to plan elaborate releases and spawned a textual afterlife among fans and forgers. Beginning with the release of Prisoner of Azkaban on 8 July 1999 at 3:45 pm, its publishers coordinated selling the books at the same time globally, introduced security protocols to prevent premature purchases, and required booksellers to agree not to sell copies before the appointed time. Driven by the growth of internet access and use around its initial publication, fan fiction about the series proliferated and has spawned a diverse community of readers and writers. While Rowling has supported fan fiction, her statements about characters – for instance, that Harry and Hermione could have been a couple, and that Dumbledore was gay – have complicated her relationship with readers. According to scholars, this shows that modern readers feel a sense of ownership over the text that is independent of, and sometimes contradicts, authorial intent. Legal disputes In the 1990s and 2000s, Rowling was both a plaintiff and defendant in lawsuits alleging copyright infringement. Nancy Stouffer sued Rowling in 1999, alleging that Harry Potter was based on stories she published in 1984. Rowling won in September 2002. Richard Posner describes Stouffer's suit as deeply flawed and notes that the court, finding she had used "forged and altered documents", assessed a $50,000 penalty against her. With her literary agents and Warner Bros., Rowling has brought legal action against publishers and writers of Harry Potter knockoffs in several countries. In the mid-2000s, Rowling and her publishers obtained a series of injunctions prohibiting sales or published reviews of her books before their official release dates. Beginning in 2001, after Rowling sold film rights to Warner Bros., the studio tried to take Harry Potter fan sites offline unless it determined that they were made by "authentic" fans for innocuous purposes. In 2007, with Warner Bros., Rowling started proceedings to cease publication of a book based on content from a fan site called The Harry Potter Lexicon. The court held that Lexicon was neither a fair use of Rowling's material nor a derivative work, but it did not prevent the book from being published in a different form. Lexicon was published in 2009. Philanthropy With an awareness of the good fortune that led to her wealth and fame, and wanting to use her public image to help others despite her concerns about publicity and the press, Rowling became, in the words of Smith, "emboldened ... to stand up and be counted on issues that were important to her". As early as 2000, while she was still writing the Harry Potter series, Rowling established the Volant Charitable Trust, named after her mother. Its mission is to "alleviate social deprivation, with a particular emphasis on supporting women, children and young people at risk". Rowling and MEP Emma Nicholson founded Lumos in 2005 (then the Children's High Level Group). She was appointed president of the charity Gingerbread (originally One Parent Families) in 2004, after becoming its first ambassador in 2000. She also collaborated with Sarah Brown in writing a book of children's stories to benefit One Parent Families. Rowling was the second most generous UK donor in 2015 (following singer Elton John), giving about US$14 million. Rowling has made donations to support medical causes. She named another institution for her mother when in 2010, she donated £10 million to found a multiple sclerosis research centre at the University of Edinburgh. During the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony, accompanied by an inflatable representation of Lord Voldemort, she read from Peter Pan as part of a tribute to Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children. To support COVID-19 relief, she donated six-figure sums to both Khalsa Aid and the British Asian Trust from royalties for The Ickabog. Several publications in the Harry Potter universe have been sold for charitable purposes. Profits from Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them and Quidditch Through the Ages, both published in 2001, went to Comic Relief. To support Children's Voice, later renamed Lumos, Rowling sold a deluxe copy of The Tales of Beedle the Bard at auction in 2007. Amazon's £1.95 million purchase set a record for a contemporary literary work and for children's literature. Rowling published the book and, in 2013, donated the proceeds of nearly £19 million (then about US$30 million) to Lumos. Rowling and 12 other writers composed short pieces in 2008 to be sold to benefit Dyslexia Action and English PEN. Rowling's contribution was an 800-word Harry Potter prequel. When the revelation that Rowling wrote The Cuckoo's Calling led to an increase in sales, she donated the royalties to ABF The Soldiers' Charity (formerly the Army Benevolent Fund). Views Politics In 2008 Rowling donated £1 million to the Labour Party, endorsed Labour Prime Minister Gordon Brown over his Conservative challenger David Cameron, and commended Labour's policies on child poverty. When asked about the 2008 United States presidential election, she stated that "it is a pity that Clinton and Obama have to be rivals because both are extraordinary". In her "Single mother's manifesto" published in The Times in 2010, Rowling criticised Prime Minister Cameron's plan to encourage married couples to stay together by offering them an annual tax credit. She thought that the proposal discriminated against single parents, whose interests the Conservative Party failed to consider. She opposed the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, due to concerns about the economic consequences, and donated £1 million to the Better Together anti-independence campaign, and campaigned for the United Kingdom to stay in the European Union in the run-up to the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum. She defined herself as an internationalist, "the mongrel product of this European continent", and expressed concern that "racists and bigots" were directing parts of the Leave campaign. She opposed Benjamin Netanyahu, and believed that depriving Israelis of shared culture would not dislodge him. In 2015, Rowling joined 150 others in signing a letter published in The Guardian espousing cultural engagement with Israel. Press Rowling has a difficult relationship with the press and has tried to influence the type of coverage she receives. She described herself in 2003 as "too thin-skinned" with regard to the press. As of 2011, she had taken more than 50 actions against the press. Rowling dislikes the British tabloid the Daily Mail, which she successfully sued in 2014 for libel about her time as a single mother. The Leveson Inquiry, an investigation of the British press, named Rowling as a "core participant" in 2011. She was one of many celebrities alleged to have been victims of phone hacking. In 2012, she wrote an op-ed for The Guardian in response to Cameron's decision not to implement all the inquiry's recommendations. She reaffirmed her stance on "Hacked Off", a campaign supporting the self-regulation of the press, by co-signing a 2014 declaration to "[safeguard] the press from political interference while also giving vital protection to the vulnerable" with other British celebrities. Transgender people In December 2019, Rowling tweeted her support for Maya Forstater, a British woman who initially lost her employment tribunal case (Maya Forstater v Centre for Global Development) but won on appeal against her former employer, the Center for Global Development, after her contract was not renewed due to her comments about transgender people. Rowling wrote on Twitter, "Dress however you please. Call yourself whatever you like. Sleep with any consenting adult who'll have you. Live your best life in peace and security. But force women out of their jobs for stating that sex is real?" On 6 June 2020, Rowling tweeted criticism of the phrase "people who menstruate", and stated "If sex isn't real, the lived reality of women globally is erased. I know and love trans people, but erasing the concept of sex removes the ability of many to meaningfully discuss their lives." Rowling's tweets were criticised by GLAAD, who called them "cruel" and "anti-trans". Some members of the cast of the Harry Potter film series criticised Rowling's views or spoke out in support of trans rights, including Daniel Radcliffe, Emma Watson, Rupert Grint, Bonnie Wright, and Katie Leung, as did Fantastic Beasts lead actor Eddie Redmayne and the fansites MuggleNet and The Leaky Cauldron. The actress Noma Dumezweni (who played Hermione Granger in Harry Potter and the Cursed Child) initially expressed support for Rowling but backtracked following criticism. On 10 June 2020, Rowling published a 3,600-word essay on her website in response to the criticism. She again wrote that many women consider terms like "people who menstruate" to be demeaning. She said that she was a survivor of domestic abuse and sexual assault, and stated that "When you throw open the doors of bathrooms and changing rooms to any man who believes or feels he's a woman ... then you open the door to any and all men who wish to come inside", while stating that most trans people were vulnerable and deserved protection. Rowling's essay was criticised by, among others, the children's charity Mermaids (which supports transgender and gender non-conforming children and their parents), Stonewall, GLAAD and the feminist gender theorist Judith Butler. Rowling has been referred to as a trans-exclusionary radical feminist (TERF) on multiple occasions, though she rejects the label. Rowling has received support from actors Robbie Coltrane and Eddie Izzard, and some feminists such as activist Ayaan Hirsi Ali and the radical feminist Julie Bindel. The BBC nominated her essay for its annual Russell Prize for best writing. In August 2020, Rowling returned her Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights Ripple of Hope Award after Kerry Kennedy released a statement expressing her "profound disappointment" in Rowling's "attacks upon the transgender community", which Kennedy called "inconsistent with the fundamental beliefs and values of RFK Human Rights and ... a repudiation of my father's vision". Rowling stated that she was "deeply saddened" by Kennedy's statement, but maintained that no award would encourage her to "forfeit the right to follow the dictates" of her conscience. Awards and honours Rowling has won numerous accolades for the Harry Potter series for general literature, children's literature and speculative fiction. In 2000, Prisoner of Azkaban was nominated for the Whitbread Book of the Year where it competed against a book by a Nobel prize laureate. The award body gave it the children's prize instead (worth half the cash amount); some scholars view this as exposing a literary prejudice against children's books. The series has won multiple British Book Awards, beginning with the Children's Book of the Year for Philosopher's Stone and Chamber of Secrets, followed by a shift to the more general Book of the Year for Half-Blood Prince. It received speculative fiction awards such as the Hugo Award for Best Novel for Goblet of Fire. Rowling's early career awards include the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for services to children's literature in 2000, and three years later, the Spanish Prince of Asturias Award for Concord. She won the British Book Awards' Author of the Year and Outstanding Achievement prizes over the span of the Harry Potter series. Following the publication of Deathly Hallows, Time named Rowling a runner-up for its 2007 Person of the Year, citing the social, moral, and political inspiration she gave her fans. Two years later, she was recognised as a Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur by French President Nicolas Sarkozy and leading magazine editors named her the "Most Influential Woman in the UK". Later awards include the Freedom of the City of London in 2012 and for her services to literature and philanthropy, the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) in 2017. Academic bodies have bestowed multiple honours on Rowling including honorary degrees from the University of Exeter (which she attended) and Harvard University, where she spoke at the 2008 commencement ceremony. The same year, Rowling won University College Dublin's James Joyce Award. Her other honours include fellowship of the Royal Society of Literature (FRSL), the Royal Society of Edinburgh (HonFRSE), and the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh (FRCPE). Rowling's other works have also received recognition. The fifth volume of the Cormoran Strike series won the British Book Awards' Crime and Thriller category in 2021. At the 2011 British Academy Film Awards, the Harry Potter film series was named an Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema; Rowling shared this honour with producer David Heyman and members of the cast and crew. Harry Potter and the Cursed Child won a record-breaking number of Laurence Olivier Awards in 2017. Bibliography Filmography Notes References Works cited External links 1965 births Living people 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 20th-century pseudonymous writers 21st-century British short story writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers 21st-century pseudonymous writers Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Alumni of the University of Exeter Anti-poverty advocates British Book Award winners British crime fiction writers British women short story writers British writers of young adult literature Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur English billionaires English children's writers English expatriates in Portugal English fantasy writers English people of Scottish descent English philanthropists English short story writers English women non-fiction writers English women novelists English women philanthropists Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature Female billionaires Hugo Award-winning writers Labour Party (UK) people Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour Officers
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then heads back successful. Rowling's prose has been described as simple and not innovative; Le Guin, like several other critics, considers it "stylistically ordinary". According to the novelist A. S. Byatt, the books reflect a dumbed-down culture dominated by soap operas and reality television. Thus, some critics argue, Harry Potter does not innovate on established literary forms; nor does it challenge readers' preconceived ideas. This view is not uniformly held. The scholar Philip Nel rejects such critiques as "snobbery" that reacts to the novels' popularity, whereas Mary Pharr argues that Harry Potter conventionalism is the point: by amalgamating literary forms familiar to her readers, Rowling invites them to "ponder their own ideas". Reception of Rowling's later works has varied among critics. The Casual Vacancy, her attempt at literary fiction, drew mixed reviews. Some critics praised its characterisation, while others stated that it would have been better if it contained magic. The Cormoran Strike series was more warmly received as a work of British detective fiction, even as some reviewers noted that its plots are occasionally contrived. Theatrical reviews of Harry Potter and the Cursed Child were highly positive. Fans have been more critical of the play's use of time travel, changes to characters' personalities, and a perceived queerbaiting in Albus and Scorpius' relationship, leading some to question its connection to the Harry Potter canon. Gender and social division Rowling's portrayal of women in Harry Potter has been described as complex and varied, but nonetheless conforming to stereotypical and patriarchal depictions of gender. Gender divides are ostensibly absent in the books: Hogwarts is coeducational and women hold positions of power in wizarding society. However, this setting obscures the typecasting of female characters and the general depiction of conventional gender roles. According to scholars Elizabeth Heilman and Trevor Donaldson, the subordination of female characters goes further early in the series. The final three books "showcase richer roles and more powerful females": for instance, the series' "most matriarchal character", Molly Weasley, engages substantially in the final battle of Deathly Hallows, while other women are shown as leaders. Hermione Granger, in particular, becomes an active and independent character essential to the protagonists' battle against evil. Yet, even particularly capable female characters such as Hermione and Minerva McGonagall are placed in supporting roles, and Hermione's status as a feminist model is debated. Girls and women are frequently shown as emotional, defined by their appearance, and denied agency in family settings. The social hierarchies in Rowling's magical world have been a matter of debate among scholars and critics. The primary antagonists of Harry Potter, Voldemort and his followers, believe blood purity is paramount, and that non-wizards, or "muggles", are subhuman. Their ideology of racial difference is depicted as unambiguously evil. However, the series cannot wholly reject racial division, according to several scholars, as it still depicts wizards as fundamentally superior to muggles. Blake and scholar Jack Zipes argue that numerous examples of wizardly superiority are depicted as "natural and comfortable". Thus, according to Gupta, Harry Potter depicts superior races as having a moral obligation of tolerance and altruism towards lesser races, rather that explicitly depicting equality. Rowling's depictions of the status of magical non-humans is similarly debated. Discussing the slavery of house-elves within Harry Potter, scholars such as Brycchan Carey have praised the books' abolitionist sentiments, viewing Hermione's Society for the Promotion of Elfish Welfare as a model for younger readers' political engagement. Other critics, including Farah Mendlesohn, find the portrayal of house-elves extremely troublesome; they are written as happy in their slavery, and Hermione's efforts on their behalf, implied to be naïve. Pharr terms the house-elves a disharmonious element in the series, writing that Rowling leaves their fate hanging; at the end of Deathly Hallows, the elves remain enslaved and cheerful. More generally, the subordination of magical non-humans remains in place, unchanged by the defeat of Voldemort. Thus, scholars suggest, the series's message is essentially conservative; it sees no reason to transform social hierarchies, only being concerned with who holds positions of power. Religious reactions There have been attempts to ban Harry Potter around the world, especially in the United States, and in the Bible Belt in particular. The series topped the American Library Association's list of most challenged books in the first three years of its publication. In the following years, parents in several US cities launched protests against teaching it in schools. Some Christian critics, particularly Evangelical Christians, have claimed that the novels promote witchcraft and harm children; similar opposition has been expressed to the film adaptations. Criticism has taken two main forms: allegations that Harry Potter is a pagan text; and claims that it encourages children to oppose authority, derived mainly from Harry's rejection of the Dursleys, his adoptive parents. Author and scholar Amanda Cockrell suggests that Harry Potter popularity, and recent preoccupation with fantasy and the occult among Christian fundamentalists, explains why the series received particular opposition. Some groups of Shia and Sunni Muslims also argued that the series contained satanic subtext, and it was banned in private schools in the United Arab Emirates. The Harry Potter books also have a group of vocal religious supporters who believe that Harry Potter espouses Christian values, or that the Bible does not prohibit the forms of magic described in the series. Christian analyses of the series have argued that it embraces ideals of friendship, loyalty, courage, love, and the temptation of power. After the final volume was published, Rowling said she intentionally incorporated Christian themes, in particular the idea that love may hold power over death. According to Farmer, it is a profound misreading to think that Harry Potter promotes witchcraft. Scholar Em McAvan writes that evangelical objections to Harry Potter are superficial, based on the presence of magic in the books: they do not attempt to understand the moral messages in the series. Legacy Rowling's Harry Potter series has been credited with a resurgence in crossover fiction: children's literature with an adult appeal. Crossovers were prevalent in 19th-century American and British fiction, but fell out of favour in the 20th century and did not occur at the same scale. The post-Harry Potter crossover trend is associated with the fantasy genre. In the 1970s, children's books were generally realistic as opposed to fantastic, while adult fantasy became popular because of the influence of The Lord of the Rings. The next decade saw an increasing interest in grim, realist themes, with an outflow of fantasy readers and writers to adult works. The commercial success of Harry Potter in 1997 reversed this trend. The scale of its growth had no precedent in the children's market: within four years, it occupied 28% of that field by revenue. Children's literature rose in cultural status, and fantasy became a dominant genre. Older works of children's fantasy, including Diana Wynne Jones's Chrestomanci series and Diane Duane's Young Wizards, were reprinted and rose in popularity; some authors re-established their careers. In the following decades, many Harry Potter imitators and subversive responses grew popular. Rowling has been compared to Enid Blyton, who also wrote in simple language about groups of children and long held sway over the British children's market. She has also been described as an heir to Roald Dahl. Some critics view Harry Potter rise, along with the concurrent success of Philip Pullman's His Dark Materials, as part of a broader shift in reading tastes: a rejection of literary fiction in favour of plot and adventure. This is reflected in the BBC's 2003 "Big Read" survey of the UK's favourite books, where Pullman and Rowling ranked at numbers 3 and 5, respectively, with very few British literary classics in the top 10. Harry Potter popularity led its publishers to plan elaborate releases and spawned a textual afterlife among fans and forgers. Beginning with the release of Prisoner of Azkaban on 8 July 1999 at 3:45 pm, its publishers coordinated selling the books at the same time globally, introduced security protocols to prevent premature purchases, and required booksellers to agree not to sell copies before the appointed time. Driven by the growth of internet access and use around its initial publication, fan fiction about the series proliferated and has spawned a diverse community of readers and writers. While Rowling has supported fan fiction, her statements about characters – for instance, that Harry and Hermione could have been a couple, and that Dumbledore was gay – have complicated her relationship with readers. According to scholars, this shows that modern readers feel a sense of ownership over the text that is independent of, and sometimes contradicts, authorial intent. Legal disputes In the 1990s and 2000s, Rowling was both a plaintiff and defendant in lawsuits alleging copyright infringement. Nancy Stouffer sued Rowling in 1999, alleging that Harry Potter was based on stories she published in 1984. Rowling won in September 2002. Richard Posner describes Stouffer's suit as deeply flawed and notes that the court, finding she had used "forged and altered documents", assessed a $50,000 penalty against her. With her literary agents and Warner Bros., Rowling has brought legal action against publishers and writers of Harry Potter knockoffs in several countries. In the mid-2000s, Rowling and her publishers obtained a series of injunctions prohibiting sales or published reviews of her books before their official release dates. Beginning in 2001, after Rowling sold film rights to Warner Bros., the studio tried to take Harry Potter fan sites offline unless it determined that they were made by "authentic" fans for innocuous purposes. In 2007, with Warner Bros., Rowling started proceedings to cease publication of a book based on content from a fan site called The Harry Potter Lexicon. The court held that Lexicon was neither a fair use of Rowling's material nor a derivative work, but it did not prevent the book from being published in a different form. Lexicon was published in 2009. Philanthropy With an awareness of the good fortune that led to her wealth and fame, and wanting to use her public image to help others despite her concerns about publicity and the press, Rowling became, in the words of Smith, "emboldened ... to stand up and be counted on issues that were important to her". As early as 2000, while she was still writing the Harry Potter series, Rowling established the Volant Charitable Trust, named after her mother. Its mission is to "alleviate social deprivation, with a particular emphasis on supporting women, children and young people at risk". Rowling and MEP Emma Nicholson founded Lumos in 2005 (then the Children's High Level Group). She was appointed president of the charity Gingerbread (originally One Parent Families) in 2004, after becoming its first ambassador in 2000. She also collaborated with Sarah Brown in writing a book of children's stories to benefit One Parent Families. Rowling was the second most generous UK donor in 2015 (following singer Elton John), giving about US$14 million. Rowling has made donations to support medical causes. She named another institution for her mother when in 2010, she donated £10 million to found a multiple sclerosis research centre at the University of Edinburgh. During the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony, accompanied by an inflatable representation of Lord Voldemort, she read from Peter Pan as part of a tribute to Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children. To support COVID-19 relief, she donated six-figure sums to both Khalsa Aid and the British Asian Trust from royalties for The Ickabog. Several publications in the Harry Potter universe have been sold for charitable purposes. Profits from Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them and Quidditch Through the Ages, both published in 2001, went to Comic Relief. To support Children's Voice, later renamed Lumos, Rowling sold a deluxe copy of The Tales of Beedle the Bard at auction in 2007. Amazon's £1.95 million purchase set a record for a contemporary literary work and for children's literature. Rowling published the book and, in 2013, donated the proceeds of nearly £19 million (then about US$30 million) to Lumos. Rowling and 12 other writers composed short pieces in 2008 to be sold to benefit Dyslexia Action and English PEN. Rowling's contribution was an 800-word Harry Potter prequel. When the revelation that Rowling wrote The Cuckoo's Calling led to an increase in sales, she donated the royalties to ABF The Soldiers' Charity (formerly the Army Benevolent Fund). Views Politics In 2008 Rowling donated £1 million to the Labour Party, endorsed Labour Prime Minister Gordon Brown over his Conservative challenger David Cameron, and commended Labour's policies on child poverty. When asked about the 2008 United States presidential election, she stated that "it is a pity that Clinton and Obama have to be rivals because both are extraordinary". In her "Single mother's manifesto" published in The Times in 2010, Rowling criticised Prime Minister Cameron's plan to encourage married couples to stay together by offering them an annual tax credit. She thought that the proposal discriminated against single parents, whose interests the Conservative Party failed to consider. She opposed the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, due to concerns about the economic consequences, and donated £1 million to the Better Together anti-independence campaign, and campaigned for the United Kingdom to stay in the European Union in the run-up to the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum. She defined herself as an internationalist, "the mongrel product of this European continent", and expressed concern that "racists and bigots" were directing parts of the Leave campaign. She opposed Benjamin Netanyahu, and believed that depriving Israelis of shared culture would not dislodge him. In 2015, Rowling joined 150 others in signing a letter published in The Guardian espousing cultural engagement with Israel. Press Rowling has a difficult relationship with the press and has tried to influence the type of coverage she receives. She described herself in 2003 as "too thin-skinned" with regard to the press. As of 2011, she had taken more than 50 actions against the press. Rowling dislikes the British tabloid the Daily Mail, which she successfully sued in 2014 for libel about her time as a single mother. The Leveson Inquiry, an investigation of the British press, named Rowling as a "core participant" in 2011. She was one of many celebrities alleged to have been victims of phone hacking. In 2012, she wrote an op-ed for The Guardian in response to Cameron's decision not to implement all the inquiry's recommendations. She reaffirmed her stance on "Hacked Off", a campaign supporting the self-regulation of the press, by co-signing a 2014 declaration to "[safeguard] the press from political interference while also giving vital protection to the vulnerable" with other British celebrities. Transgender people In December 2019, Rowling tweeted her support for Maya Forstater, a British woman who initially lost her employment tribunal case (Maya Forstater v Centre for Global Development) but won on appeal against her former employer, the Center for Global Development, after her contract was not renewed due to her comments about transgender people. Rowling wrote on Twitter, "Dress however you please. Call yourself whatever you like. Sleep with any consenting adult who'll have you. Live your best life in peace and security. But force women out of their jobs for stating that sex is real?" On 6 June 2020, Rowling tweeted criticism of the phrase "people who menstruate", and stated "If sex isn't real, the lived reality of women globally is erased. I know and love trans people, but erasing the concept of sex removes the ability of many to meaningfully discuss their lives." Rowling's tweets were criticised by GLAAD, who called them "cruel" and "anti-trans". Some members of the cast of the Harry Potter film series criticised Rowling's views or spoke out in support of trans rights, including Daniel Radcliffe, Emma Watson, Rupert Grint, Bonnie Wright, and Katie Leung, as did Fantastic Beasts lead actor Eddie Redmayne and the fansites MuggleNet and
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three votes in university affairs, while the "German nation" (composed of the former Bavarian, Saxon, and Polish nations) would have one vote in total. Due to the change in voting structure by May 1409 the German dean and rector were deposed and replaced by Czechs. The Palatine Elector called the Germans to his own University of Heidelberg, while the Margrave of Meissen started a new university in Leipzig. It is estimated that over one thousand students and masters left Prague. The emigrants also spread accusations of Bohemian heresy. Antipope Alexander V In 1409, the Council of Pisa tried to end the schism by electing Alexander V as Pope, but Gregory and Benedict did not submit. (Alexander was declared an "antipope" by the Council of Constance in 1418.) Hus, his followers, and Wenceslaus IV transferred their allegiance to Alexander V. Under pressure from King Wenceslaus IV, Archbishop Zajíc did the same. Zajíc then lodged an accusation of "ecclesiastical disturbances" against Wycliffites in Prague with Alexander V. On 20 December 1409, Alexander V issued a papal bull that empowered the Archbishop to proceed against Wycliffism in Prague. All copies of Wycliffe's writings were to be surrendered and his doctrines repudiated, and free preaching discontinued. After the publication of the bull in 1410, Hus appealed to Alexander V, but in vain. The Wycliffe books and valuable manuscripts were burned, and Hus and his adherents were excommunicated by Alexander V. Crusade against Naples Alexander V died in 1410, and was succeeded by John XXIII (also later declared an antipope). In 1411, John XXIII proclaimed a crusade against King Ladislaus of Naples, the protector of rival Pope Gregory XII. This crusade was preached in Prague as well. John XXIII also authorized indulgences to raise money for the war. Priests urged the people on and these crowded into churches to give their offerings. This traffic in indulgences was a sign of the corruption of the Church needing remediation. Condemnation of indulgences and Crusade Archbishop Zajíc died in 1411 and with his death the religious movement in Bohemia entered a new phase during which the disputes concerning indulgences assumed great importance. Hus spoke out against indulgences, but he could not carry with him the men of the university. In 1412, a dispute took place, on which occasion Hus delivered his address Quaestio magistri Johannis Hus de indulgentiis. It was taken literally from the last chapter of Wycliffe's book, De ecclesia, and his treatise, De absolutione a pena et culpa. Hus asserted that no pope or bishop had the right to take up the sword in the name of the Church; he should pray for his enemies and bless those that curse him; man obtains forgiveness of sins by true repentance, not money. The doctors of the theological faculty replied, but without success. A few days afterward some of Hus followers led by Vok Voksa z Valdštejna, burned the Papal bulls. Hus, they said, should be obeyed rather than the Church, which they considered a fraudulent mob of adulterers and Simonists. In response, three men from the lower classes who openly called the indulgences a fraud were beheaded. They were later considered the first martyrs of the Hussite Church. In the meantime, the faculty had condemned the forty-five articles and added several other theses, deemed heretical, which had originated with Hus. The king forbade the teaching of these articles but neither Hus nor the university complied with the ruling. They requested that the articles should be first proven to be un-scriptural. The tumults at Prague had stirred up a sensation. Papal legates and Archbishop Albik tried to persuade Hus to give up his opposition to the papal bulls and the king made an unsuccessful attempt to reconcile the two parties. Attempts at reconciliation King Wenceslaus IV made efforts to harmonize the opposing parties. In 1412, he convoked the heads of his kingdom for a consultation and, at their suggestion, ordered a synod to be held at Český Brod on 2 February 1412. The synod was instead held in the palace of the archbishops at Prague in order to exclude Hus from participation. Propositions were made to restore peace in the Church. Hus declared that Bohemia should have the same freedom in regard to ecclesiastical affairs as other countries and that approbation and condemnation should therefore be announced only with the permission of the state power. This was the doctrine of Wycliffe (Sermones, iii. 519, etc.). There followed treatises from both parties, but no harmony was obtained. "Even if I should stand before the stake which has been prepared for me," Hus wrote at the time, "I would never accept the recommendation of the theological faculty." The synod did not produce any results but the king ordered a commission to continue the work of reconciliation. The doctors of the university demanded Hus and his followers approve the university's conception of the Church. According to this conception the pope is the head of the Church and the Cardinals are the body of the Church. Hus protested vigorously. The Hussite party seems to have made a great effort toward reconciliation. To the article that the Roman Church must be obeyed, they added only "so far as every pious Christian is bound". Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán Páleč protested against this addition and left the convention; they were exiled by the king, with two others. Hus leaves Prague and appeals to Jesus Christ By this time, Hus' ideas had become widely accepted in Bohemia and there was broad resentment against the Church hierarchy. The attack on Hus by the pope and archbishop caused riots in parts of Bohemia. King Wenceslaus IV and his government took the side of Hus and the power of his adherents increased from day to day. Hus continued to preach in the Bethlehem Chapel. The churches of the city were put under the ban and the interdict was pronounced against Prague. To protect the city, Hus left and went into the countryside where he continued to preach and write. Before Hus left Prague, he decided to take a step which gave a new dimension to his endeavors. He wanted to become a preacher and then taught at the university he studied at before. He no longer put his trust in an indecisive king, a hostile pope or an ineffective council. On 18 October 1412, he appealed to Jesus Christ as the supreme judge. By appealing directly to the highest Christian authority, Christ himself, he bypassed the laws and structures of the medieval Church. For the Bohemian Reformation, this step was as significant as the 95 theses posted in Wittenberg by Martin Luther in 1517. After Hus left Prague for the country, he realized what a gulf there was between university education and theological speculation and the life of uneducated country priests and the laymen entrusted to their care. Therefore he started to write many texts in Czech, such as basics of the Christian faith or preachings, intended mainly for the priests whose knowledge of Latin was poor. Writings of Hus and Wycliffe Of the writings occasioned by these controversies, those of Hus on the Church, entitled De Ecclesia, were written in 1413 and have been most frequently quoted and admired or criticized yet their first ten chapters are an epitome of Wycliffe's work of the same title and the following chapters are an abstract of another of Wycliffe's works (De potentate papae) on the power of the pope. Wycliffe had written his book to oppose the common position that the Church consisted primarily of the clergy and Hus now found himself making the same point. He wrote his work at the castle of one of his protectors in Kozí Hrádek and sent it to Prague where it was publicly read in the Bethlehem Chapel. It was answered by Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán z Pálče (also Štěpán Páleč) with treatises of the same title. After the most vehement opponents of Hus had left Prague, his adherents occupied the whole ground. Hus wrote his treatises and preached in the neighborhood of Kozí Hrádek. Bohemian Wycliffism was carried into Poland, Hungary, Croatia, and Austria. But in January 1413, a general council in Rome condemned the writings of Wycliffe and ordered them to be burned. Council of Constance King Wenceslaus' brother Sigismund of Hungary, who was "King of the Romans" (that is, head of the Holy Roman Empire though not then Emperor) and heir to the Bohemian crown was anxious to put an end to religious dissension within the Church. To put an end to the papal schism and to take up the long desired reform of the Church, he arranged for a general council to convene on 1 November 1414, at Konstanz (Constance). The Council of Constance (1414–1418) became the 16th ecumenical council recognized by the Catholic Church. Hus, willing to make an end of all dissensions, agreed to go to Constance, under Sigismund's promise of safe conduct. Imprisonment and preparations for trial It is not known whether Hus knew what his fate would be but he made his will before setting out. He started on his journey on 11 October 1414, arriving in Constance on 3 November 1414. The following day, the bulletins on the church doors announced that Michal z Německého Brodu (Michal de Causis) would be opposing Hus. In the beginning, Hus was at liberty under his safe conduct from Sigismund and lived at the house of a widow. But he continued celebrating Mass and preaching to the people, in violation of restrictions decreed by the Church. After a few weeks on 28 November 1414, his opponents succeeded in imprisoning him on the strength of a rumor that he intended to flee. He was first brought into the residence of a canon and then on 6 December 1414 into the prison of the Dominican monastery. Sigismund, as the guarantor of Hus’ safety, was greatly angered and threatened the prelates with dismissal. The prelates convinced him that he could not be bound by promises to a heretic. On 4 December 1414, John XXIII entrusted a committee of three bishops with a preliminary investigation against Hus. As was common practice, witnesses for the prosecution were heard but Hus was not allowed an advocate for his defense. His situation became worse after the downfall of John XXIII, who had left Constance to avoid abdicating. Hus had been the captive of John XXIII and in constant communication with his friends but now he was delivered to the bishop of Constance and brought to his castle, Gottlieben on the Rhine. Here he remained for 73 days, separated from his friends, chained day and night, poorly fed, and ill. Trial On 5 June 1415, he was tried for the first time and was transferred to a Franciscan monastery, where he spent the last weeks of his life. Extracts from his works were read and witnesses were heard. He refused all formulae of submission but declared himself willing to recant if his errors should be proven to him from the Bible. Hus conceded his veneration of Wycliffe and said that he could only wish his soul might some time attain unto that place where Wycliffe's was. On the other hand, he denied having defended Wycliffe's doctrine of The Lord's Supper or the forty-five articles; he had only opposed their summary condemnation. King Sigismund admonished him to deliver himself up to the mercy of the council, as he did not desire to protect a heretic. At the last trial, on 8 June 1415, thirty-nine sentences were read to him. Of these, twenty-six had been excerpted from his book on the Church (De ecclesia), seven from his treatise against Páleč (Contra Palecz), and six from that against Stanislav ze Znojma (Contra Stanislaum). The danger of some of these doctrines to worldly power was explained to Sigismund to incite him against Hus. Hus again declared himself willing to submit if he could be convinced of errors. This declaration was considered an unconditional surrender, and he was asked to confess: 1. That he had erred in the theses which he had hitherto maintained; 2. That he renounced them for the future; 3. That he recanted them; and 4. That he declared the
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suggestion, ordered a synod to be held at Český Brod on 2 February 1412. The synod was instead held in the palace of the archbishops at Prague in order to exclude Hus from participation. Propositions were made to restore peace in the Church. Hus declared that Bohemia should have the same freedom in regard to ecclesiastical affairs as other countries and that approbation and condemnation should therefore be announced only with the permission of the state power. This was the doctrine of Wycliffe (Sermones, iii. 519, etc.). There followed treatises from both parties, but no harmony was obtained. "Even if I should stand before the stake which has been prepared for me," Hus wrote at the time, "I would never accept the recommendation of the theological faculty." The synod did not produce any results but the king ordered a commission to continue the work of reconciliation. The doctors of the university demanded Hus and his followers approve the university's conception of the Church. According to this conception the pope is the head of the Church and the Cardinals are the body of the Church. Hus protested vigorously. The Hussite party seems to have made a great effort toward reconciliation. To the article that the Roman Church must be obeyed, they added only "so far as every pious Christian is bound". Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán Páleč protested against this addition and left the convention; they were exiled by the king, with two others. Hus leaves Prague and appeals to Jesus Christ By this time, Hus' ideas had become widely accepted in Bohemia and there was broad resentment against the Church hierarchy. The attack on Hus by the pope and archbishop caused riots in parts of Bohemia. King Wenceslaus IV and his government took the side of Hus and the power of his adherents increased from day to day. Hus continued to preach in the Bethlehem Chapel. The churches of the city were put under the ban and the interdict was pronounced against Prague. To protect the city, Hus left and went into the countryside where he continued to preach and write. Before Hus left Prague, he decided to take a step which gave a new dimension to his endeavors. He wanted to become a preacher and then taught at the university he studied at before. He no longer put his trust in an indecisive king, a hostile pope or an ineffective council. On 18 October 1412, he appealed to Jesus Christ as the supreme judge. By appealing directly to the highest Christian authority, Christ himself, he bypassed the laws and structures of the medieval Church. For the Bohemian Reformation, this step was as significant as the 95 theses posted in Wittenberg by Martin Luther in 1517. After Hus left Prague for the country, he realized what a gulf there was between university education and theological speculation and the life of uneducated country priests and the laymen entrusted to their care. Therefore he started to write many texts in Czech, such as basics of the Christian faith or preachings, intended mainly for the priests whose knowledge of Latin was poor. Writings of Hus and Wycliffe Of the writings occasioned by these controversies, those of Hus on the Church, entitled De Ecclesia, were written in 1413 and have been most frequently quoted and admired or criticized yet their first ten chapters are an epitome of Wycliffe's work of the same title and the following chapters are an abstract of another of Wycliffe's works (De potentate papae) on the power of the pope. Wycliffe had written his book to oppose the common position that the Church consisted primarily of the clergy and Hus now found himself making the same point. He wrote his work at the castle of one of his protectors in Kozí Hrádek and sent it to Prague where it was publicly read in the Bethlehem Chapel. It was answered by Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán z Pálče (also Štěpán Páleč) with treatises of the same title. After the most vehement opponents of Hus had left Prague, his adherents occupied the whole ground. Hus wrote his treatises and preached in the neighborhood of Kozí Hrádek. Bohemian Wycliffism was carried into Poland, Hungary, Croatia, and Austria. But in January 1413, a general council in Rome condemned the writings of Wycliffe and ordered them to be burned. Council of Constance King Wenceslaus' brother Sigismund of Hungary, who was "King of the Romans" (that is, head of the Holy Roman Empire though not then Emperor) and heir to the Bohemian crown was anxious to put an end to religious dissension within the Church. To put an end to the papal schism and to take up the long desired reform of the Church, he arranged for a general council to convene on 1 November 1414, at Konstanz (Constance). The Council of Constance (1414–1418) became the 16th ecumenical council recognized by the Catholic Church. Hus, willing to make an end of all dissensions, agreed to go to Constance, under Sigismund's promise of safe conduct. Imprisonment and preparations for trial It is not known whether Hus knew what his fate would be but he made his will before setting out. He started on his journey on 11 October 1414, arriving in Constance on 3 November 1414. The following day, the bulletins on the church doors announced that Michal z Německého Brodu (Michal de Causis) would be opposing Hus. In the beginning, Hus was at liberty under his safe conduct from Sigismund and lived at the house of a widow. But he continued celebrating Mass and preaching to the people, in violation of restrictions decreed by the Church. After a few weeks on 28 November 1414, his opponents succeeded in imprisoning him on the strength of a rumor that he intended to flee. He was first brought into the residence of a canon and then on 6 December 1414 into the prison of the Dominican monastery. Sigismund, as the guarantor of Hus’ safety, was greatly angered and threatened the prelates with dismissal. The prelates convinced him that he could not be bound by promises to a heretic. On 4 December 1414, John XXIII entrusted a committee of three bishops with a preliminary investigation against Hus. As was common practice, witnesses for the prosecution were heard but Hus was not allowed an advocate for his defense. His situation became worse after the downfall of John XXIII, who had left Constance to avoid abdicating. Hus had been the captive of John XXIII and in constant communication with his friends but now he was delivered to the bishop of Constance and brought to his castle, Gottlieben on the Rhine. Here he remained for 73 days, separated from his friends, chained day and night, poorly fed, and ill. Trial On 5 June 1415, he was tried for the first time and was transferred to a Franciscan monastery, where he spent the last weeks of his life. Extracts from his works were read and witnesses were heard. He refused all formulae of submission but declared himself willing to recant if his errors should be proven to him from the Bible. Hus conceded his veneration of Wycliffe and said that he could only wish his soul might some time attain unto that place where Wycliffe's was. On the other hand, he denied having defended Wycliffe's doctrine of The Lord's Supper or the forty-five articles; he had only opposed their summary condemnation. King Sigismund admonished him to deliver himself up to the mercy of the council, as he did not desire to protect a heretic. At the last trial, on 8 June 1415, thirty-nine sentences were read to him. Of these, twenty-six had been excerpted from his book on the Church (De ecclesia), seven from his treatise against Páleč (Contra Palecz), and six from that against Stanislav ze Znojma (Contra Stanislaum). The danger of some of these doctrines to worldly power was explained to Sigismund to incite him against Hus. Hus again declared himself willing to submit if he could be convinced of errors. This declaration was considered an unconditional surrender, and he was asked to confess: 1. That he had erred in the theses which he had hitherto maintained; 2. That he renounced them for the future; 3. That he recanted them; and 4. That he declared the opposite of these sentences. He asked to be exempted from recanting doctrines which he had never taught. Other doctrines, which the assembly considered erroneous, he was not willing to revoke and to act differently would be against his conscience. These words found no favorable reception. After the trial on 8 June, several other attempts were purportedly made to induce him to recant, which he resisted. Condemnation The condemnation of Jan Hus took place on 6 July 1415 in the presence of the assembly of the council in the cathedral. After the High Mass and Liturgy, Hus was led into the church. The Bishop of Lodi (then Giacomo Balardi Arrigoni) delivered an oration on the duty of eradicating heresy; various theses of Hus and Wycliffe and a report of his trial were then read. An Italian prelate pronounced the sentence of condemnation upon Hus and his writings. Hus protested, saying that even at this hour he did not wish anything but to be convinced from Scripture. He fell upon his knees and asked God with a soft voice to forgive all his enemies. Then followed his degradation. He was dressed in priestly vestments and again asked to recant and again he refused. With curses, Hus’ ornaments were taken from him, his priestly tonsure was destroyed. The sentence of the Church was pronounced, stripping him of all rights, and he was delivered to secular authorities. A tall paper hat was then put upon his head with the inscription "Haeresiarcha" (i.e., the leader of a heretical movement). Hus was led away to the stake under a strong guard of armed men. Before his execution, Hus is said to have declared: “you may kill a weak goose (in Czech Hus means goose), but more powerful birds, eagles and falcons, will come after me”. Luther modified the statement and reported that Hus had said that they might have roasted a goose but in a hundred years a swan would have sung to whom they would have been forced to listen. In 1546 Johannes Bugenhagen gave a further twist to Hus’s saying in his funeral sermon for Luther: "You may burn a goose, but in a hundred years will come a swan you will not be able to burn", and in 1566 Johannes Mathesius, Luther’s first biographer, found in Hus’s prophecy a proof of Luther’s divine inspiration. Execution At the place of execution, he knelt down, spread out his hands and prayed aloud. The executioner undressed Hus and tied his hands behind his back with ropes. His neck was bound with a chain to a stake around which wood and straw had been piled up so that it covered him to the neck. At the last moment, the imperial marshal, von Pappenheim, in the presence of the Count Palatine, asked Hus to recant and thus save his own life. Hus declined, stating: Anecdotally, it has been claimed that the executioners had trouble intensifying the fire. An old woman then came to the stake and threw a relatively small amount of brushwood on it. Upon seeing her act, a suffering Hus then exclaimed, "O Sancta Simplicitas!". It is said that when he was about to expire, he cried out, "Christ, son of the Living God, have mercy on us!" (a variant of the Jesus Prayer). Hus’ ashes were later thrown into the Rhine River as a means of preventing the veneration of his remains. Aftermath Hussite Wars Responding with horror to the execution of Hus, the people of Bohemia moved even more rapidly away from Papal teachings. Rome then pronounced a crusade against them (1 March 1420): Pope Martin V issued a Papal bull authorizing the execution of all supporters of Hus and Wycliffe. King Wenceslaus IV died in August 1419 and his brother, Sigismund of Hungary, was unable to establish a real government in Bohemia due to the Hussite revolt. The Hussite community included most of the Czech population of the Kingdom of Bohemia. Under the leadership of Jan Žižka (c. 1360 – 1424) and later of Prokop the Great (c. 1380 – 1434) – both excellent commanders – the Hussites defeated the crusade and the other three crusades that followed (1419–1434). Fighting ended after a compromise between the Utraquist Hussites and the Catholic Council of Basel in 1436. It resulted in the Basel Compacts, in which the Catholic Church officially allowed Bohemia to practice its own version of Christianity (Hussitism). A century later as much as ninety percent of the inhabitants of the Czech Crown lands still followed Hussite teachings. Hus's scholarship and teachings Hus left reformatory writings. He translated Wycliffe's Trialogus, and was very familiar with his works on the body of Jesus, on the Church, on the power of the pope, and especially with his sermons. There are reasons to suppose that Wycliffe's doctrine of the Lord's Supper (consubstantiation rather than transubstantiation had spread to Prague as early as 1399, with strong evidence that students returning from England had brought the work back with them. It gained an even wider circulation after it had been prohibited in 1403, and Hus preached and taught it. The doctrine was seized eagerly by the Taborites, who made it the central point of their system. According to their book, the Church is not the clerical hierarchy which was generally accepted
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the Purus River, sharing with this the bottom of the immense inland Amazon depression, and having all the characteristics of the Purus as regards curvature, sluggishness and general features of the low, half-flooded forest country it traverses. For most of its length the river flows through the Purus várzea ecoregion. This is surrounded by the Juruá-Purus moist forests ecoregion. It rises among the Ucayali highlands, and is navigable and unobstructed for a distance of above its junction with the Amazon. It
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, and is one of the longest tributaries of the Amazon. The Médio Juruá Extractive Reserve, created in 1997, is on the left bank of the river as it meanders in a generally northeast direction through the municipality of Carauari. The lower Juruá River forms the western boundary of the Baixo Juruá
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in 1866 to the junction of the Shino with its Jaquirana branch. The country it traverses in its extremely sinuous course is very level, similar in character to that of the Juruá. There are a number of small
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navigation. The Brazilian Boundary Commission ascended it in 1866 to the junction of the Shino with its Jaquirana branch. The country it traverses in its extremely sinuous course is very level, similar in character to that of the Juruá. There are a number of small private reserves along the river, which arrange wildlife viewing. The town of Benjamin Constant lies at the mouth of the river, on the Brazilian
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his colleague, an honour Tiberius reserved only for heirs to the throne. When he was summoned to a meeting of the Senate later that year on 18 October AD 31, he probably expected to receive a share of the tribunician power. Instead, however, Tiberius' letter to the Senate, completely unexpectedly, requested the destruction of Sejanus and his faction. A purge followed, in which Sejanus and his most prominent supporters were killed. With Drusus dead and having had Germanicus' elder two sons Nero and Drusus convicted of treason and killed, along with their mother Agrippina, Tiberius appointed Caligula, Germanicus' youngest son, and Tiberius Gemellus, the son of Drusus the Younger and grandson of Tiberius, co-heirs. Drusus III's wife Aemilia Lepida was later forced to commit suicide after being accused of adultery. Rome's second Emperor died at the port town of Misenum on 16 March AD 37, at the age of 78 years, having reigned for 23 years. Suetonius writes that the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard Naevius Sutorius Macro smothered Tiberius with a pillow to hasten Caligula's accession. According to Suetonius, he was known for his cruelty and debauchery through his perversion on the island of Capri where he forced young boys and girls into orgies. On one account when one of the boys complained, Tiberius had his legs broken. Caligula Although Augustus' succession plans were all but ruined due to the deaths of more than several family members, including many of his own descendants, in the end, Tiberius remained faithful to his predecessor's wishes that the next emperor would hail from the Julian side of the Imperial family. Thus, Tiberius was succeeded by Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, the sole-remaining son of his nephew and adopted son Germanicus. The new emperor was a great grandson of Augustus through his mother Agrippina the Elder thus making him a Julian but he was also a Claudian through his father Germanicus being the son of Livia's younger son Drusus the Elder. More commonly remembered in history by his childhood nickname Caligula, he was the third Roman Emperor ruling from AD 37 to 41. When Tiberius died on 16 March AD 37, Caligula was well-positioned to assume power, despite the obstacle of Tiberius's will, which named him and his cousin Tiberius Gemellus as joint heirs. Caligula ordered Gemellus killed within his first year in power. Backed by Naevius Sutorius Macro, Caligula asserted himself as sole princeps, though he later had Macro disposed of as well.. Following Gemellus' death, Caligula marked his brother-in-law, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, husband of his sister Julia Drusilla, as his heir. However, after Drusilla's death, Lepidus was accused of having affairs with Caligula's other sisters Agrippina the Younger and Julia Livilla and he was executed. He had previously had Drusilla's first husband Lucius Cassius Longinus killed and upon the death of Agrippina's husband Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, he seized his inheritance. Several unsuccessful assassination attempts were made on Caligula's life. The successful conspiracy that ended Caligula's life was hatched by the disgruntled Praetorian Guard with backing by the Senate. The historian Josephus claims that the conspirators wished to restore the Republic while the historian Suetonius claims their motivations were mostly personal. On 24 January AD 41, the Praetorian tribune Cassius Chaerea and his men stopped Caligula alone in an underground passage leading to a theater. They stabbed him to death. Together with another tribune, Cornelius Sabinus, he killed Caligula's wife Caesonia and their infant daughter Julia Drusilla on the same day. Claudius After Caligula's death, the Senate attempted and failed to restore the Republic. Claudius, Caligula's paternal uncle, became emperor by the instigation of the Praetorian Guards. Despite his lack of political experience, and the disapproval of the people of Rome, Claudius proved to be an able administrator and a great builder of public works. His reign saw an expansion of the empire, including the invasion of Britain in AD 43. He took a personal interest in the law, presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day; however, he was seen as vulnerable throughout his rule, particularly by the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position—resulting in the deaths of many senators. Claudius also suffered tragic setbacks in his personal life. He married four times (to, in order, Plautia Urgulanilla, Aelia Paetina, Valeria Messalina and, finally, Agrippina the Younger) and is referenced by Suetonius as being easily manipulated. This is particularly evident during his marriage to Agrippina the Younger, his niece. Messalina saw several members of the dynasty eliminated, notably arranging for the executions of Claudius' nieces Julia Livilla, daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder, and Julia Livia, daughter of Livilla and Drusus the Younger, as well as Julia Livilla's husband Marcus Vinicius, her mother's husband Appius Junius Silanus, Gaius Asinius Pollio, son of Tiberius' first wife Vipsania by her second husband and whose brother Servius Asinius Celer was also killed around this time, Claudius' son-in-law Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, and his parents Marcus Licinius Crassus Frugi and Scribonia. Messalina herself was finally executed after being charged with adultery. Claudius' reign also included several attempts on his life. In order to gain political support, he married Agrippina and adopted his great-nephew Nero. Over time, the emperor also contracted an incurable disease. By this time Claudius had left plenty of the day-to-day running of the Empire to his wife Agrippina the Younger. With his adoption on 25 February AD 50, Nero became heir to the throne, over Claudius' own son Britannicus. Claudius died on 13 October AD 54, and Nero became emperor. A number of ancient historians accuse Agrippina of poisoning Claudius, but details on these private events vary widely. These events are recounted in book 12 of the Annals of Tacitus, book 61 of Cassius Dio's Roman History, and in the biographies of Nero and Claudius by Suetonius. Nero Nero became emperor in AD 54 at sixteen, the youngest emperor yet. Like his maternal uncle Caligula before him, Nero was also a direct descendant of Augustus, a fact which made his ascension to the throne much easier and smoother than it had been for Tiberius or Claudius. Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being strongly influenced by his mother Agrippina the Younger, his tutor Seneca, and the Praetorian Prefect Burrus, especially in the first year. In the first year of his reign, Nero had left all of the day-to-day running of the Empire to his mother Agrippina the Younger. He was made Emperor over his step-brother, Claudius' son Britannicus, who he had killed. Agrippina was believed to have poisoned Claudius, having allegedly poisoned her second husband Gaius Sallustius Crispus Passienus. She had also arranged the deaths of Caligula's third wife, Lollia Paulina and Messalina's mother Domitia Lepida the Younger. She saw that the dynasty's numbers dwindle with the execution of Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus, a grandson of Julia the Younger, to strengthen Nero's claim, having previously arranged the death of his brother Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus. In AD 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator. He was consul four times between AD 55 and 60. Nero consolidated power over time through the execution and banishment of his rivals and slowly usurped authority from the Senate. He reportedly arranged the death of his own mother and after divorcing his wife Claudia Octavia, daughter of Claudius' and Messalina, he had her killed. Other relatives whom Nero was believed to have had killed were Claudius' daughter by Aelia Paetina, Claudia Antonia, her husband and half-brother of Messalina, Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix, Decimus Junius Silanus Torquatus, brother of Marcus and Lucius Junius Silanus Torquantus, as well as Marcus' son, also named Lucius, his aunt Domitia Lepida the Elder, and Rubellius Plautus, son of Julia Livia along with his wife, children and father-in-law. In AD 64 Rome burned. Nero enacted a public relief effort as well as large reconstruction projects. To fund this, the provinces were heavily taxed following the fire. By AD 65, senators complained that they had no power left and this led to the Pisonian conspiracy, led by Gaius Calpurnius Piso, an adoptive descendant of Triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus, grandson of Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, a governor of Syria who committed suicide after being accused of killing Germanicus, and first husband of Livia Orestilla, Caligula's second wife. The conspiracy failed and its members were executed. Vacancies after the conspiracy allowed Nymphidius Sabinus, a grandson of former imperial freedman Gaius Julius Callistus, who claimed to be an illegitimate son of Caligula, to rise in the Praetorian Guard. In late AD 67 or early 68, Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis in Gaul, rebelled against Nero's tax policies. Lucius Virginius Rufus, the governor of superior Germany, was sent to put down the rebellion. To gain support, Vindex called on Galba, the governor of Hispania Citerior (in the Iberian Peninsula), to become emperor. Virginius Rufus defeated Vindex's forces and Vindex committed suicide. Galba was declared a public enemy and his legion was confined in the city of Clunia. Nero had regained the control of the empire militarily, but this opportunity was used by his enemies in Rome. Nymphidius Sabinus, who desired to become emperor himself, bribed the Praetorian Guard to betray Nero. Sabinus was later murdered in favour of Galba. Nero reportedly committed suicide with the help of his scribe Epaphroditus. The Senate had been trying to preserve the dynastic bloodline by saving Nero's life, and were additionally reluctant to let someone who was not of the family become emperor; however, once he had committed suicide, and with Galba marching on the city, it had no choice but to declare him a public enemy posthumously. With his death, the reign of the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued in the Year of the Four Emperors. Survival after the fall of Nero Augustus' bloodline outlived his dynasty through the descendants of his first granddaughter, Julia the Younger, who married Lucius Aemilius Paullus and gave birth to Aemilia Lepida. After marrying Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus, Aemilia gave birth to several children, including Junia Calvina and Junia Lepida. Although Calvina died childless, she was married to Lucius Vitellius, whose elder brother was the short-lived emperor
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great grandson of Augustus through his mother Agrippina the Elder thus making him a Julian but he was also a Claudian through his father Germanicus being the son of Livia's younger son Drusus the Elder. More commonly remembered in history by his childhood nickname Caligula, he was the third Roman Emperor ruling from AD 37 to 41. When Tiberius died on 16 March AD 37, Caligula was well-positioned to assume power, despite the obstacle of Tiberius's will, which named him and his cousin Tiberius Gemellus as joint heirs. Caligula ordered Gemellus killed within his first year in power. Backed by Naevius Sutorius Macro, Caligula asserted himself as sole princeps, though he later had Macro disposed of as well.. Following Gemellus' death, Caligula marked his brother-in-law, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, husband of his sister Julia Drusilla, as his heir. However, after Drusilla's death, Lepidus was accused of having affairs with Caligula's other sisters Agrippina the Younger and Julia Livilla and he was executed. He had previously had Drusilla's first husband Lucius Cassius Longinus killed and upon the death of Agrippina's husband Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, he seized his inheritance. Several unsuccessful assassination attempts were made on Caligula's life. The successful conspiracy that ended Caligula's life was hatched by the disgruntled Praetorian Guard with backing by the Senate. The historian Josephus claims that the conspirators wished to restore the Republic while the historian Suetonius claims their motivations were mostly personal. On 24 January AD 41, the Praetorian tribune Cassius Chaerea and his men stopped Caligula alone in an underground passage leading to a theater. They stabbed him to death. Together with another tribune, Cornelius Sabinus, he killed Caligula's wife Caesonia and their infant daughter Julia Drusilla on the same day. Claudius After Caligula's death, the Senate attempted and failed to restore the Republic. Claudius, Caligula's paternal uncle, became emperor by the instigation of the Praetorian Guards. Despite his lack of political experience, and the disapproval of the people of Rome, Claudius proved to be an able administrator and a great builder of public works. His reign saw an expansion of the empire, including the invasion of Britain in AD 43. He took a personal interest in the law, presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day; however, he was seen as vulnerable throughout his rule, particularly by the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position—resulting in the deaths of many senators. Claudius also suffered tragic setbacks in his personal life. He married four times (to, in order, Plautia Urgulanilla, Aelia Paetina, Valeria Messalina and, finally, Agrippina the Younger) and is referenced by Suetonius as being easily manipulated. This is particularly evident during his marriage to Agrippina the Younger, his niece. Messalina saw several members of the dynasty eliminated, notably arranging for the executions of Claudius' nieces Julia Livilla, daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder, and Julia Livia, daughter of Livilla and Drusus the Younger, as well as Julia Livilla's husband Marcus Vinicius, her mother's husband Appius Junius Silanus, Gaius Asinius Pollio, son of Tiberius' first wife Vipsania by her second husband and whose brother Servius Asinius Celer was also killed around this time, Claudius' son-in-law Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, and his parents Marcus Licinius Crassus Frugi and Scribonia. Messalina herself was finally executed after being charged with adultery. Claudius' reign also included several attempts on his life. In order to gain political support, he married Agrippina and adopted his great-nephew Nero. Over time, the emperor also contracted an incurable disease. By this time Claudius had left plenty of the day-to-day running of the Empire to his wife Agrippina the Younger. With his adoption on 25 February AD 50, Nero became heir to the throne, over Claudius' own son Britannicus. Claudius died on 13 October AD 54, and Nero became emperor. A number of ancient historians accuse Agrippina of poisoning Claudius, but details on these private events vary widely. These events are recounted in book 12 of the Annals of Tacitus, book 61 of Cassius Dio's Roman History, and in the biographies of Nero and Claudius by Suetonius. Nero Nero became emperor in AD 54 at sixteen, the youngest emperor yet. Like his maternal uncle Caligula before him, Nero was also a direct descendant of Augustus, a fact which made his ascension to the throne much easier and smoother than it had been for Tiberius or Claudius. Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being strongly influenced by his mother Agrippina the Younger, his tutor Seneca, and the Praetorian Prefect Burrus, especially in the first year. In the first year of his reign, Nero had left all of the day-to-day running of the Empire to his mother Agrippina the Younger. He was made Emperor over his step-brother, Claudius' son Britannicus, who he had killed. Agrippina was believed to have poisoned Claudius, having allegedly poisoned her second husband Gaius Sallustius Crispus Passienus. She had also arranged the deaths of Caligula's third wife, Lollia Paulina and Messalina's mother Domitia Lepida the Younger. She saw that the dynasty's numbers dwindle with the execution of Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus, a grandson of Julia the Younger, to strengthen Nero's claim, having previously arranged the death of his brother Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus. In AD 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator. He was consul four times between AD 55 and 60. Nero consolidated power over time through the execution and banishment of his rivals and slowly usurped authority from the Senate. He reportedly arranged the death of his own mother and after divorcing his wife Claudia Octavia, daughter of Claudius' and Messalina, he had her killed. Other relatives whom Nero was believed to have had killed were Claudius' daughter by Aelia Paetina, Claudia Antonia, her husband and half-brother of Messalina, Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix, Decimus Junius Silanus Torquatus, brother of Marcus and Lucius Junius Silanus Torquantus, as well as Marcus' son, also named Lucius, his aunt Domitia Lepida the Elder, and Rubellius Plautus, son of Julia Livia along with his wife, children and father-in-law. In AD 64 Rome burned. Nero enacted a public relief effort as well as large reconstruction projects. To fund this, the provinces were heavily taxed following the fire. By AD 65, senators complained that they had no power left and this led to the Pisonian conspiracy, led by Gaius Calpurnius Piso, an adoptive descendant of Triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus, grandson of Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, a governor of Syria who committed suicide after being accused of killing Germanicus, and first husband of Livia Orestilla, Caligula's second wife. The conspiracy failed and its members were executed. Vacancies after the conspiracy allowed Nymphidius Sabinus, a grandson of former imperial freedman Gaius Julius Callistus, who claimed to be an illegitimate son of Caligula, to rise in the Praetorian Guard. In late AD 67 or early 68, Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis in Gaul, rebelled against Nero's tax policies. Lucius Virginius Rufus, the governor of superior Germany, was sent to put down the rebellion. To gain support, Vindex called on Galba, the governor of Hispania Citerior (in the Iberian Peninsula), to become emperor. Virginius Rufus defeated Vindex's forces and Vindex committed suicide. Galba was declared a public enemy and his legion was confined in the city of Clunia. Nero had regained the control of the empire militarily, but this opportunity was used by his enemies in Rome. Nymphidius Sabinus, who desired to become emperor himself, bribed the Praetorian Guard to betray Nero. Sabinus was later murdered in favour of Galba. Nero reportedly committed suicide with the help of his scribe Epaphroditus. The Senate had been trying to preserve the dynastic bloodline by saving Nero's life, and were additionally reluctant to let someone who was not of the family become emperor; however, once he had committed suicide, and with Galba marching on the city, it had no choice but to declare him a public enemy posthumously. With his death, the reign of the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued in the Year of the Four Emperors. Survival after the fall of Nero Augustus' bloodline outlived his dynasty through the descendants of his first granddaughter, Julia the Younger, who married Lucius Aemilius Paullus and gave birth to Aemilia Lepida. After marrying Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus, Aemilia gave birth to several children, including Junia Calvina and Junia Lepida. Although Calvina died childless, she was married to Lucius Vitellius, whose elder brother was the short-lived emperor Vitellius. Her younger sister, Junia Lepida, married Gaius Cassius Longinus and produced a daughter called Cassia Longina. The Roman general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo married Cassia, who provided him with two daughters, Domitia and Domitia Longina. In AD 81 Domitia Longina became Roman empress as a result of her husband Domitian's accession as the third and last emperor of the Flavian dynasty. The lineage of Augustus endured into the era of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty, the house that succeeded the Flavians. In addition to Cassia Longina, Junia Lepida gave birth to a son called Cassius Lepidus. Around AD 80 Lepidus had a daughter named Cassia Lepida, who married Gaius Julius Alexander Berenicianus. Julia Cassia Alexandria, Lepida's daughter by Berenicianus, married Gaius Avidius Heliodorus and ultimately gave birth to Gaius Avidius Cassius. Avidius Cassius had three children with his wife (named either Volusia Vettia or Volusia Maeciana); they were Avidius Heliodorus, Avidius Maecianus and Avidia Alexandra. In AD 175 Cassius was proclaimed emperor after he received erroneous news of the death of Marcus Aurelius, whose survival made Cassius a usurper of the empire. Cassius' rebellion ended three months into his bid for the throne when one of his centurions assassinated him in favour of Marcus Aurelius. On Livia Drusilla's side of the dynasty, Rubellia Bassa was one of the few remaining Claudians who survived the downfall of the first imperial family. A great-granddaughter of Tiberius, Rubellia was the daughter of Julia Livia, whose father and mother were Drusus Julius Caesar (son of Tiberius) and Livilla (daughter of Nero Claudius Drusus), respectively. Rubellia was also related to Augustus by blood through her maternal great-great-grandmother Octavia Minor (sister of Augustus). She married Octavius Laenas, maternal uncle of the emperor Nerva. Her last known descendant was Sergius Octavius Laenas Pontianus, consul in AD 131, who lived during the reign of Hadrian. Afterward, towards Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages, the line falls into the realm of parahistory, where various Medieval royal families have claimed some sort of descent, such as the Colonna family and the Orsini family. Relationships among the rulers The great-uncle/great-nephew blood relationship and/or adopted son relationship was commonly found among the rulers of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Augustus was the great-nephew and posthumously adopted son of Julius Caesar; his mother Atia
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be named in different ways without compromising their accuracy as a description. Most Johnson solids can be constructed from the first few (pyramids, cupolae, and rotundas), together with the Platonic and Archimedean solids, prisms, and antiprisms; the centre of a particular solid's name will reflect these ingredients. From there, a series of prefixes are attached to the word to indicate additions, rotations, and transformations: Bi-[<>] indicates that two copies of the solid in question are joined base-to-base. For cupolae and rotundas, the solids can be joined so that either like faces (ortho-) or unlike faces (gyro-[*]) meet. Using this nomenclature, an octahedron can be described as a square bipyramid[4<>], a cuboctahedron as a triangular gyrobicupola[3cc*], and an icosidodecahedron as a pentagonal gyrobirotunda[5rr*]. Elongated[=] indicates a prism is joined to the base of the solid in question, or between the bases in the case of Bi- solids. A rhombicuboctahedron can thus be described as an elongated square orthobicupola. Gyroelongated[z] indicates an antiprism is joined to the base of the solid in question or between the bases in the case of Bi- solids. An icosahedron can thus be described as a gyroelongated pentagonal bipyramid. Augmented[+] indicates another polyhedron, namely a pyramid or cupola, is joined to one or more faces of the solid in question. Diminished[-] indicates a pyramid or cupola is removed from one or more faces of the solid in question. Gyrate[*] indicates a cupola mounted on or featured in the solid in question is rotated such that different edges match up, as in the difference between ortho- and gyrobicupolae. The last three operations—augmentation, diminution, and gyration—can be performed multiple times for certain large solids. Bi- & Tri- indicate a double and triple operation respectively. For example, a bigyrate solid has two rotated cupolae, and a tridiminished solid has three removed pyramids or cupolae. In certain large solids, a distinction is made between solids where altered faces are parallel and solids where altered faces are oblique. Para- indicates the former, that the solid in question has altered parallel faces, and meta- the latter, altered oblique faces. For example, a parabiaugmented solid has had two parallel faces augmented, and a metabigyrate solid has had 2 oblique faces gyrated. The last few Johnson solids have names based on certain polygon complexes from which they are assembled. These names are defined by Johnson with the following nomenclature: A lune is a complex of two triangles attached to opposite sides of a square. Spheno- indicates
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prism and biaugmented square prism. Modified Platonic solids Johnson solids 58 to 64 are built by augmenting or diminishing Platonic solids. Augmented dodecahedra Diminished and augmented diminished icosahedra Modified Archimedean solids Johnson solids 65 to 83 are built by augmenting, diminishing or gyrating Archimedean solids. Augmented Archimedean solids Gyrate and diminished rhombicosidodecahedra J37 would also appear here as a duplicate (it is a gyrate rhombicuboctahedron). Other gyrate and diminished archimedean solids Other archimedean solids can be gyrated and diminished, but they all result in previously counted solids. Elementary solids Johnson solids 84 to 92 are not derived from "cut-and-paste" manipulations of uniform solids. Snub antiprisms The snub antiprisms can be constructed as an alternation of a truncated antiprism. The gyrobianticupolae are another construction for the snub antiprisms. Only snub antiprisms with at most 4 sides can be constructed from regular polygons. The snub triangular antiprism is the regular icosahedron, so it is not a Johnson solid. Others Classification by types of faces Triangle-faced Johnson solids Five Johnson solids are deltahedra, with all equilateral triangle faces: Triangle and square-faced Johnson solids Twenty four Johnson solids have only triangle or square faces: Triangle and pentagon-faced Johnson solids Eleven Johnson solids have only triangle and pentagon faces: Triangle, square, and pentagon-faced Johnson solids Twenty Johnson solids have only triangle, square, and pentagon faces: Triangle, square, and hexagon-faced Johnson solids Eight Johnson solids have only triangle, square, and hexagon faces: Triangle, square, and octagon-faced Johnson solids Five Johnson solids have only triangle, square, and octagon faces: Triangle, pentagon, and decagon-faced Johnson solids Two Johnson solids have only triangle, pentagon, and decagon faces: Triangle, square, pentagon, and hexagon-faced Johnson solids Only one Johnson solid has triangle, square, pentagon, and hexagon faces: Triangle, square, pentagon, and decagon-faced Johnson solids Sixteen Johnson solids have only triangle, square, pentagon, and decagon faces: Circumscribable Johnson solids 25 of the Johnson solids have vertices that exist on the surface of a sphere: 1–6,11,19,27,34,37,62,63,72–83. All of them can be seen to be related to a regular or uniform polyhedra by gyration, diminishment, or dissection. See also Near-miss Johnson solid Catalan solid Toroidal polyhedron References Contains the original enumeration of the 92 solids and the conjecture that there are no others. The first proof that there are only 92 Johnson solids. English translation: Chapter 3 Further Convex polyhedra External links Paper Models of Polyhedra Many links Johnson
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