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removal of fibroids and even retained products of conception. It allows direct visualization of the inside of the uterus and may allow targeted sampling and removal of tissue inside the uterus. Procedure Depending on the anticipated duration and difficulty expected with the procedure, as well as the clinical indication and patient preferences, a D&C may be performed with local anesthesia, moderate sedation, deep sedation, or general anesthesia. The first step in a D&C is to place a speculum in the vagina so as to see the cervix. Often, a tenaculum is placed to steady the cervix. Next, the provider will dilate the cervix. This can be done with Hegar or similar dilators. The amount of dilation depends on the amount of tissue to be removed as well as the size of the instruments to be used. After sufficient dilation, a curette, a metal rod with a handle on one end and a loop on the other, is then inserted into the uterus through the dilated cervix. The curette is used to gently scrape the lining of the uterus and remove the tissue in the uterus. If a suction curette is used, as in a vacuum aspiration, a plastic tubular curette will be introduced into the uterus and connected to suction to remove all tissue in the uterus. This tissue is examined for completeness (in the case of abortion or miscarriage treatment) or by pathology for abnormalities (in the case of treatment for abnormal bleeding). Complications The most common complications associated with D&C are infection, bleeding, or damage to nearby organs, including through uterine perforation. Aside from the surgery itself, complications related to anesthesia administration may also occur. Infection is uncommon after D&C for a non-pregnant patient, and society practice guidelines do not recommend routine prophylactic antibiotics to patients. However, for curettage of a pregnant patient, the risk of infection is higher, and patients should receive antibiotics that cover the bacteria commonly found in the vagina and gastrointestinal tract; doxycycline is a common recommendation, though azithromycin may also be used. Another risk of D&C is uterine perforation. The highest rate of uterine perforation appears to be in the setting of postpartum hemorrhage (5.1%) compared with a lower rate in diagnostic curettage in non-pregnant patients (0.3% in the premenopausal patient and 2.6% in the postmenopausal patient). Perforation may cause excessive bleeding | surgical abortion only when manual vacuum aspiration with a suction curette is unavailable. For patients who have recently given birth, a D&C may be indicated to remove retained placental tissue that does not pass spontaneously or for postpartum hemorrhage. Non-pregnant patients D&Cs for non-pregnant patients are commonly performed for the diagnosis of gynecological conditions leading to abnormal uterine bleeding; to remove the excess uterine lining in women who have conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome; to remove tissue in the uterus that may be causing abnormal uterine bleeding, such as endometrial polyps or uterine fibroids; or to diagnose the cause of post-menopausal bleeding, such as in the case of endometrial cancer. Hysteroscopy is a valid alternative or addition to D&C for many surgical indications, from diagnosis of uterine pathology to the removal of fibroids and even retained products of conception. It allows direct visualization of the inside of the uterus and may allow targeted sampling and removal of tissue inside the uterus. Procedure Depending on the anticipated duration and difficulty expected with the procedure, as well as the clinical indication and patient preferences, a D&C may be performed with local anesthesia, moderate sedation, deep sedation, or general anesthesia. The first step in a D&C is to place a speculum in the vagina so as to see the cervix. Often, a tenaculum is placed to steady the cervix. Next, the provider will dilate the cervix. This can be done with Hegar or similar dilators. The amount of dilation depends on the amount of tissue to be removed as well as the size of the instruments to be used. After sufficient dilation, a curette, a metal rod with a handle on one end and a loop on the other, is then inserted into the uterus through the dilated cervix. The curette is used to gently scrape the lining of the uterus and remove the tissue in the uterus. If a suction |
"The Doctor Falls" and "Twice Upon a Time". In 2020’s “Fugitive of the Judoon”, Jodie Whittaker as the Thirteenth Doctor meets Jo Martin's incarnation of the Doctor, subsequently known as the Fugitive Doctor. They met, albeit briefly, in “The Timeless Children” later that year and "Once Upon Time" in 2021. Revelations about the Doctor Throughout the programme's long history, there have been revelations about the Doctor that have raised additional questions. In The Brain of Morbius (1976), it was hinted that the First Doctor might not have been the first incarnation (although the other faces depicted might have been incarnations of the Time Lord Morbius). In subsequent stories, the First Doctor was depicted as the earliest incarnation of the Doctor. In Mawdryn Undead (1983), the Fifth Doctor explicitly confirmed that he was then currently in his fifth incarnation. Later that same year, during 1983's 20th Anniversary special The Five Doctors, the First Doctor enquires as to the Fifth Doctor's regeneration; when the Fifth Doctor confirms "Fourth", the First Doctor excitedly replies "Goodness me. So there are five of me now." In 2010, the Eleventh Doctor similarly calls himself "the Eleventh" in "The Lodger". In the 2013 episode "The Time of the Doctor", the Eleventh Doctor clarified that he was the product of the twelfth regeneration, due to a previous incarnation which he chose not to count and one other aborted regeneration. The name Eleventh is still used for this incarnation; the same episode depicts the prophesied "Fall of the Eleventh" which had been trailed throughout the series. While the Doctor was early on described as from the planet Gallifrey, as first mentioned in The Time Warrior (1973), these origins were retconned in The Timeless Children (2020), and the Doctor was shown as from another unknown dimension or universe. In the same story, it was revealed that First Doctor was not actually the earliest incarnation of the Doctor. During the Seventh Doctor's era, it was hinted that the Doctor was more than just an ordinary Time Lord. In the 1996 television film, the Eighth Doctor describes himself as being "half human". The BBC's FAQ for the programme notes that "purists tend to disregard this", instead focusing on his Gallifreyan heritage. The programme's first serial, An Unearthly Child, shows that the Doctor has a granddaughter, Susan Foreman. In the 1967 serial, Tomb of the Cybermen, when Victoria Waterfield doubts the Doctor can remember his family because of "being so ancient", the Doctor says that he can when he really wants to—"The rest of the time they sleep in my mind". The 2005 series reveals that the Ninth Doctor thought he was the last surviving Time Lord, and that his home planet had been destroyed; in "The Empty Child" (2005), Dr. Constantine states that, "Before the war even began, I was a father and a grandfather. Now I am neither." The Doctor remarks in response, "Yeah, I know the feeling." In "Smith and Jones" (2007), when asked if he had a brother, he replied, "No, not any more." In both "Fear Her" (2006) and "The Doctor's Daughter" (2008), he states that he had, in the past, been a father. In "The Wedding of River Song" (2011), it is implied that the Doctor's true name is a secret that must never be revealed; this is explored further in "The Name of the Doctor" (2013), when River Song speaking his name allows the Great Intelligence to enter his tomb, and in "The Time of the Doctor" (2013) where speaking his true name becomes the signal by which the Time Lords would know they can safely return to the universe. Companions The companion figure – generally a human – has been a constant feature in Doctor Who since the programme's inception in 1963. One of the roles of the companion is to be a reminder for the Doctor's "moral duty". The Doctor's first companions seen on screen were his granddaughter Susan Foreman (Carole Ann Ford) and her teachers Barbara Wright (Jacqueline Hill) and Ian Chesterton (William Russell). These characters were intended to act as audience surrogates, through which the audience would discover information about the Doctor who was to act as a mysterious father figure. The only story from the original series in which the Doctor travels alone is The Deadly Assassin (1976). Notable companions from the earlier series included Romana (Mary Tamm and Lalla Ward), a Time Lady; Sarah Jane Smith (Elisabeth Sladen); and Jo Grant (Katy Manning). Dramatically, these characters provide a figure with whom the audience can identify, and serve to further the story by requesting exposition from the Doctor and manufacturing peril for the Doctor to resolve. The Doctor regularly gains new companions and loses old ones; sometimes they return home or find new causes—or loves—on worlds they have visited. Some have died during the course of the series. Companions are usually human, or humanoid aliens. Since the 2005 revival, the Doctor generally travels with a primary female companion, who occupies a larger narrative role. Steven Moffat described the companion as the main character of the show, as the story begins anew with each companion and she undergoes more change than the Doctor. The primary companions of the Ninth and Tenth Doctors were Rose Tyler (Billie Piper), Martha Jones (Freema Agyeman), and Donna Noble (Catherine Tate) with Mickey Smith (Noel Clarke) and Jack Harkness (John Barrowman) recurring as secondary companion figures. The Eleventh Doctor became the first to travel with a married couple, Amy Pond (Karen Gillan) and Rory Williams (Arthur Darvill), whilst out-of-sync meetings with River Song (Alex Kingston) and Clara Oswald (Jenna Coleman) provided ongoing story arcs. The tenth series introduced Pearl Mackie as Bill Potts, the Doctor's first openly gay companion. Pearl Mackie said that the increased representation for LGBTQ people is important on a mainstream show. Some companions have gone on to re-appear, either in the main series or in spin-offs. Sarah Jane Smith became the central character in The Sarah Jane Adventures (2007–2011) following a return to Doctor Who in 2006. Guest stars in the series included former companions Jo Grant, K9, and Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart (Nicholas Courtney). The character of Jack Harkness also served to launch a spin-off, Torchwood, (2006–2011) in which Martha Jones also appeared. Adversaries When Sydney Newman commissioned the series, he specifically did not want to perpetuate the cliché of the "bug-eyed monster" of science fiction. However, monsters were popular with audiences and so became a staple of Doctor Who almost from the beginning. With the show's 2005 revival, executive producer Russell T Davies stated his intention to reintroduce classic icons of Doctor Who. The Autons with the Nestene Consciousness and Daleks returned in series 1, Cybermen in series 2, the Macra and the Master in series 3, the Sontarans and Davros in series 4, and the Time Lords including Rassilon in the 2009–2010 Specials. Davies' successor, Steven Moffat, has continued the trend by reviving the Silurians in series 5, Cybermats in series 6, the Great Intelligence and the Ice Warriors in Series 7, and Zygons in the 50th Anniversary Special. Since its 2005 return, the series has also introduced new recurring aliens: Slitheen (Raxacoricofallapatorians), Ood, Judoon, Weeping Angels and the Silence. Besides infrequent appearances by enemies such as the Ice Warriors, Ogrons, the Rani, and Black Guardian, three adversaries have become particularly iconic: the Daleks, the Cybermen, and the Master. Daleks The Dalek race, which first appeared in the show's second serial in 1963, are Doctor Whos oldest villains. The Daleks are Kaleds from the planet Skaro, mutated by the scientist Davros and housed in mechanical armour shells for mobility. The actual creatures resemble octopuses with large, pronounced brains. Their armour shells have a single eye-stalk, a sink-plunger-like device that serves the purpose of a hand, and a directed-energy weapon. Their main weakness is their eyestalk; attacks upon them using various weapons can blind a Dalek, making it go mad. Their chief role in the series plot, as they frequently remark in their instantly recognisable metallic voices, is to "exterminate" all non-Dalek beings. They even attack the Time Lords in the Time War, as shown during the 50th Anniversary of the show. They continue to be a recurring 'monster' within the Doctor Who franchise, their most recent appearance being the 2022 episode "Eve of the Daleks". Davros has also been a recurring figure since his debut in Genesis of the Daleks, although played by several different actors. The Daleks were created by writer Terry Nation (who intended them to be an allegory of the Nazis) and BBC designer Raymond Cusick. The Daleks' début in the programme's second serial, The Daleks (1963–1964), made both the Daleks and Doctor Who very popular. A Dalek appeared on a postage stamp celebrating British popular culture in 1999, photographed by Lord Snowdon. In "Victory of the Daleks" a new set of Daleks were introduced that come in a range of colours; the colour denoting its role within the species. Cybermen Cybermen were originally a wholly organic species of humanoids originating on Earth's twin planet Mondas that began to implant more and more artificial parts into their bodies. This led to the race becoming coldly logical and calculating cyborgs, with emotions usually only shown when naked aggression was called for. With the demise of Mondas, they acquired Telos as their new home planet. They continue to be a recurring 'monster' within the Doctor Who franchise. The 2006 series introduced a totally new variation of Cybermen. These Cybus Cybermen were created in a parallel universe by the mad inventor John Lumic; he was attempting to preserve the humans by transplanting their brains into powerful metal bodies, sending them orders using a mobile phone network and inhibiting their emotions with an electronic chip. The Master The Master is the Doctor's archenemy, a renegade Time Lord who desires to rule the universe. Conceived as "Professor Moriarty to the Doctor's Sherlock Holmes", the character first appeared in 1971. As with the Doctor, the role has been portrayed by several actors, since the Master is a Time Lord as well and able to regenerate; the first of these actors was Roger Delgado, who continued in the role until his death in 1973. The Master was briefly played by Peter Pratt and Geoffrey Beevers until Anthony Ainley took over and continued to play the character until Doctor Who's hiatus in 1989. The Master returned in the 1996 television movie of Doctor Who, and was played by American actor Eric Roberts. Following the series revival in 2005, Derek Jacobi provided the character's re-introduction in the 2007 episode "Utopia". During that story, the role was then assumed by John Simm who returned to the role multiple times through the Tenth Doctor's tenure. As of the 2014 episode "Dark Water", it was revealed that the Master had become a female incarnation or "Time Lady", going by the name of "Missy" (short for Mistress, the feminine equivalent of "Master"). This incarnation is played by Michelle Gomez. Simm returned to his role as the Master alongside Gomez in the tenth series. The Master returned for the 2020 twelfth series with Sacha Dhawan in the role. The character had dubbed himself the "Spy Master" referencing a role he had taken with MI6. Music Theme music The Doctor Who theme music was one of the first electronic music signature tunes for television, and after more than a half century remains one of the most easily recognised. The original theme was composed by Ron Grainer and realised by Delia Derbyshire of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop, with assistance from Dick Mills, and was released as a single on Decca F 11837 in 1964. The Derbyshire arrangement served, with minor edits, as the theme tune up to the end of season 17 (1979–1980). It is regarded as a significant and innovative piece of electronic music, recorded well before the availability of commercial synthesisers or multitrack mixers. Each note was individually created by cutting, splicing, speeding up and slowing down segments of analogue tape containing recordings of a single plucked string, white noise, and the simple harmonic waveforms of test-tone oscillators, intended for calibrating equipment and rooms, not creating music. New techniques were invented to allow mixing of the music, as this was before the era of multitrack tape machines. On hearing the finished result, Grainer asked, "Jeez, Delia, did I write that?" She answered "Most of it." Although Grainer was willing to give Derbyshire the co-composer credit, it was against BBC policy at the time. Derbyshire would not receive an on-screen credit until the 50th anniversary story "The Day of the Doctor" in 2013. A different arrangement was recorded by Peter Howell for season 18 (1980), which was in turn replaced by Dominic Glynn's arrangement for the season-long serial The Trial of a Time Lord in season 23 (1986). Keff McCulloch provided the new arrangement for the Seventh Doctor's era which lasted from season 24 (1987) until the series' suspension in 1989. American composer John Debney created a new arrangement of Ron Grainer's original theme for Doctor Who in 1996. For the return of the series in 2005, Murray Gold provided a new arrangement which featured samples from the 1963 original with further elements added; in the 2005 Christmas episode "The Christmas Invasion". A new arrangement of the theme, once again by Gold, was introduced in the 2007 Christmas special episode, "Voyage of the Damned"; Gold returned as composer for the 2010 series. He was responsible for a new version of the theme which was reported to have had a hostile reception from some viewers. In 2011, the theme tune charted at number 228 of radio station Classic FM's Hall of Fame, a survey of classical music tastes. A revised version of Gold's 2010 arrangement had its debut over the opening titles of the 2012 Christmas special "The Snowmen", and a further revision of the arrangement was made for the 50th Anniversary special "The Day of the Doctor" in November 2013. Versions of the "Doctor Who Theme" have also been released as pop music over the years. In the early 1970s, Jon Pertwee, who had played the Third Doctor, recorded a version of the Doctor Who theme with spoken lyrics, titled, "Who Is the Doctor". In 1978, a disco version of the theme was released in the UK, Denmark and Australia by the group Mankind, which reached number 24 in the UK charts. In 1988, the band The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu (later known as The KLF) released the single "Doctorin' the Tardis" under the name The Timelords, which reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 2 in Australia; this version incorporated several other songs, including "Rock and Roll Part 2" by Gary Glitter (who recorded vocals for some of the CD-single remix versions of "Doctorin' the Tardis"). Others who have covered or reinterpreted the theme include Orbital, Pink Floyd, the Australian string ensemble Fourplay, New Zealand punk band Blam Blam Blam, The Pogues, Thin Lizzy, Dub Syndicate, and the comedians Bill Bailey and Mitch Benn. Both the theme and obsessive fans were satirised on The Chaser's War on Everything. The theme tune has also appeared on many compilation CDs, and has made its way into mobile-phone ringtones. Fans have also produced and distributed their own remixes of the theme. In January 2011, the Mankind version was released as a digital download on the album Gallifrey And Beyond. On 26 June 2018, producer Chris Chibnall announced that the musical score for series 11 would be provided by Royal Birmingham Conservatoire alumnus Segun Akinola. Incidental music Most of the innovative incidental music for Doctor Who has been specially commissioned from freelance composers, although in the early years some episodes also used stock music, as well as occasional excerpts from original recordings or cover versions of songs by popular music acts such as The Beatles and The Beach Boys. Since its 2005 return, the series has featured occasional use of excerpts of pop music from the 1970s to the 2000s. The incidental music for the first Doctor Who adventure, An Unearthly Child, was written by Norman Kay. Many of the stories of the William Hartnell period were scored by electronic music pioneer Tristram Cary, whose Doctor Who credits include The Daleks, Marco Polo, The Daleks' Master Plan, The Gunfighters and The Mutants. Other composers in this early period included Richard Rodney Bennett, Carey Blyton and Geoffrey Burgon. The most frequent musical contributor during the first 15 years was Dudley Simpson, who is also well known for his theme and incidental music for Blake's 7, and for his haunting theme music and score for the original 1970s version of The Tomorrow People. Simpson's first Doctor Who score was Planet of Giants (1964) and he went on to write music for many adventures of the 1960s and 1970s, including most of the stories of the Jon Pertwee/Tom Baker periods, ending with The Horns of Nimon (1979). He also made a cameo appearance in The Talons of Weng-Chiang (as a Music hall conductor). In 1980 starting with the serial The Leisure Hive the task of creating incidental music was assigned to the Radiophonic Workshop. Paddy Kingsland and Peter Howell contributed many scores in this period and other contributors included Roger Limb, Malcolm Clarke and Jonathan Gibbs. The Radiophonic Workshop was dropped after 1986's The Trial of a Time Lord series, and Keff McCulloch took over as the series' main composer until the end of its run, with Dominic Glynn and Mark Ayres also contributing scores. From the 2005 revival to the 2017 Christmas episode "Twice Upon a Time", all incidental music for the series was composed by Murray Gold and Ben Foster, and has been performed by the BBC National Orchestra of Wales from the 2005 Christmas episode "The Christmas Invasion" onwards. A concert featuring the orchestra performing music from the first two series took place on 19 November 2006 to raise money for Children in Need. David Tennant hosted the event, introducing the different sections of the concert. Murray Gold and Russell T Davies answered questions during the interval and Daleks and Cybermen appeared whilst music from their stories was played. The concert aired on BBCi on Christmas Day 2006. A Doctor Who Prom was celebrated on 27 July 2008 in the Royal Albert Hall as part of the annual BBC Proms. The BBC Philharmonic and the London Philharmonic Choir performed Murray Gold's compositions for the series, conducted by Ben Foster, as well as a selection of classics based on the theme of space and time. The event was presented by Freema Agyeman and guest-presented by various other stars of the show with numerous monsters participating in the proceedings. It also featured the specially filmed mini-episode "Music of the Spheres", written by Russell T Davies and starring David Tennant. On 26 June 2018, producer Chris Chibnall announced that the musical score for the eleventh series would be provided by Royal Birmingham Conservatoire alumnus Segun Akinola. Six soundtrack releases have been released since 2005. The first featured tracks from the first two series, the second and third featured music from the third and fourth series respectively. The fourth was released on 4 October 2010 as a two disc special edition and contained music from the 2008–2010 specials (The Next Doctor to "End of Time Part 2"). The soundtrack for Series 5 was released on 8 November 2010. In February 2011, a soundtrack was released for the 2010 Christmas special: "A Christmas Carol", and in December 2011 the soundtrack for Series 6 was released, both by Silva Screen Records. In 2013, a 50th-anniversary boxed set of audio CDs was released featuring music and sound effects from Doctor Who's 50-year history. The celebration continued in 2016 with the release of Doctor Who: The 50th Anniversary Collection Four LP Box Set by New York City-based Spacelab9. The company pressed 1,000 copies of the set on "Metallic Silver" vinyl, dubbed the "Cyberman Edition". Viewership United Kingdom Premiering the day after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the first episode of Doctor Who was repeated with the second episode the following week. Doctor Who has always appeared initially on the BBC's mainstream BBC One channel, where it is regarded as a family show, drawing audiences of many millions of viewers; episodes were also repeated on BBC Three, before its transition to an online-only channel. The programme's popularity has waxed and waned over the decades, with three notable periods of high ratings. The first of these was the "Dalekmania" period (), when the popularity of the Daleks regularly brought Doctor Who ratings of between 9 and 14 million, even for stories which did not feature them. The second was the mid to late 1970s, when Tom Baker occasionally drew audiences of over 12 million. During the ITV network strike of 1979, viewership peaked at 16 million. Figures remained respectable into the 1980s, but fell noticeably after the programme's 23rd series was postponed in 1985 and the show was off the air for 18 months. Its late 1980s performance of three to five million viewers was seen as poor at the time and was, according to the BBC Board of Control, a leading cause of the programme's 1989 suspension. Some fans considered this disingenuous, since the programme was scheduled against the soap opera Coronation Street, the most popular show at the time. During Tennant's run (the third notable period of high ratings), the show had consistently high viewership; with the Christmas specials regularly attracting over 10 million. The BBC One broadcast of "Rose", the first episode of the 2005 revival, drew an average audience of 10.81 million, third highest for BBC One that week and seventh across all channels. The current revival also garners the highest audience Appreciation Index of any drama on television. International Doctor Who has been broadcast internationally outside of the United Kingdom since 1964, a year after the show first aired. , the modern series has been broadcast in more than 50 countries. The 50th anniversary was broadcast In 94 countries and screened to more than half a million people in cinemas across Australia, Latin America, North America and Europe. The scope of the broadcast was a world record, according to Guinness World Records. Doctor Who is one of the five top-grossing titles for BBC Worldwide, the BBC's commercial arm. BBC Worldwide CEO John Smith has said that Doctor Who is one of a small number of "Superbrands" which Worldwide will promote heavily. Only four episodes have ever had their premiere showings on channels other than BBC One. The 1983 20th anniversary special The Five Doctors had its début on 23 November (the actual date of the anniversary) on a number of PBS stations two days prior to its BBC One broadcast. The 1988 story Silver Nemesis was broadcast with all three episodes airing back to back on TVNZ in New Zealand in November, after the first episode had been shown in the UK but before the final two instalments had aired there. Oceania New Zealand was the first country outside the United Kingdom to screen Doctor Who, beginning in September 1964, and continued to screen the series for many years, including the new revived series that aired on Prime Television from 2005–2017. In 2018, the series is aired on Fridays on TVNZ 2, and on TVNZ On Demand on the same episode as the UK. The series moved to TVNZ 1 in 2021. In Australia, the show has had a strong fan base since its inception, having been exclusively first run by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) since January 1965. (See Doctor Who in Australia) The ABC has periodically repeated episodes; of note were the weekly screenings of all available classic episodes starting in 2003, for the show's 40th anniversary, and the weekdaily screenings of all available revived episodes in 2013 for the show's 50th anniversary. The ABC broadcasts the modern series first run on ABC1 and ABC ME, with repeats on ABC2 and streaming available on ABC iview. Americas The series also has a fan base in the United States, where it was shown in syndication from the 1970s to the 1990s, particularly on PBS stations. TVOntario picked up the show in 1976 beginning with The Three Doctors and aired each series (several years late) through to series 24 in 1991. From 1979 to 1981, TVO airings were bookended by science-fiction writer Judith Merril who introduced the episode and then, after the episode concluded, tried to place it in an educational context in keeping with TVO's status as an educational channel. Its airing of The Talons of Weng-Chiang was cancelled as a result of accusations that the story was racist; the story was later broadcast in the 1990s on cable station YTV. CBC began showing the series again in 2005. The series moved to the Canadian cable channel Space in 2009. Series three began broadcasting on CBC on 18 June 2007 followed by the second Christmas special, "The Runaway Bride" at midnight, and the Sci Fi Channel began on 6 July 2007 starting with the second Christmas special at 8:00 pm E/P followed by the first episode. Series four aired in the United States on the Sci Fi Channel (now known as Syfy), beginning in April 2008. It aired on CBC beginning 19 September 2008, although the CBC did not air the Voyage of the Damned special. The Canadian cable network Space (now known as CTV Sci-Fi Channel) broadcast "The Next Doctor" (in March 2009) and all subsequent series and specials. Asia Series 1 through 3 of Doctor Who were broadcast on various NHK channels from 2006 to 2008 with Japanese subtitles. Beginning on 2 August 2009, upon the launch of Disney XD in Japan, the series has been broadcast with Japanese dubbing. Home media A wide selection of serials are available from BBC Video on DVD, on sale in the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and the United States. Every fully extant serial has been released on VHS, and BBC Worldwide continues to regularly release serials on DVD. The 2005 series is also available in its entirety on UMD for the PlayStation Portable. Eight original series serials have been released on Laserdisc and many have also been released on Betamax tape and Video 2000. One episode of Doctor Who (The Infinite Quest) was released on VCD. Only the series from 2005 onwards are also available on Blu-ray, except for the 1970 story Spearhead from Space, released in July 2013 and the 1996 TV film Doctor Who released in September 2016. Over 600 episodes of the classic series (the first 8 Doctors, from 1963 to 1996) are available to stream on BritBox (launched in 2017) and Pluto TV. From 2020, the revival series is available for streaming on HBO Max, as well as spinoffs Sarah Jane Adventures and Torchwood. Adaptations and other appearances Dr. Who films There are two Dr. Who feature films: Dr. Who and the Daleks, released in 1965 and Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D. in 1966. Both are retellings of existing television stories (specifically, the first two Dalek serials, The Daleks and The Dalek Invasion of Earth respectively) with a larger budget and alterations to the series concept. In these films, Peter Cushing plays a human scientist named "Dr. Who", who travels with his granddaughter, niece and other companions in a time machine he has invented. The Cushing version of the character reappears in both comic strips and a short story, the latter attempting to reconcile the film continuity with that of the series. In addition, several planned films were proposed, including a sequel, The Chase, loosely based on the original series story, for the Cushing Doctor, plus many attempted television movie and big screen productions to revive the original Doctor Who, after the original series was cancelled. Paul McGann starred in the only television film as the eighth incarnation of the Doctor. After the film, he continued the role in audio books and was confirmed as the eighth incarnation through flashback footage and a mini episode in the 2005 revival, effectively linking the two series and the television movie. In 2011, David Yates announced that he had started work with the BBC on a Doctor Who film, a project that would take three or more years to complete. Yates indicated that the film would take a different approach from Doctor Who, although then Doctor Who showrunner Steven Moffat stated later that any such film would not be a reboot of the series and that a film should be made by the BBC team and star the current TV Doctor. Spin-offs Doctor Who has appeared on stage numerous times. In the early 1970s, Trevor Martin played the role in Doctor Who and the Daleks in the Seven Keys to Doomsday. In the late 1980s, Jon Pertwee and Colin Baker both played the Doctor at different times during the run of a play titled Doctor Who – The Ultimate Adventure. For two performances, while Pertwee was ill, David Banks (better known for playing Cybermen) played the Doctor. Other original plays have been staged as amateur productions, with other actors playing the Doctor, while Terry Nation wrote The Curse of the Daleks, a stage play mounted in the late 1960s, but without the Doctor. A pilot episode ("A Girl's Best Friend") for a potential spinoff series, K-9 and Company, was aired in 1981 with Elisabeth Sladen reprising her role as companion Sarah Jane Smith and John Leeson as the voice of K9, but was not picked up as a regular series. Concept art for an animated Doctor Who series was produced by animation company Nelvana in the 1980s, but the series was not produced. Following the success of the 2005 series produced by Russell T Davies, the BBC commissioned Davies to produce a 13-part spin-off series titled Torchwood (an anagram of "Doctor Who"), set in modern-day Cardiff and investigating alien activities and crime. The series debuted on BBC Three on 22 October 2006. John Barrowman reprised his role of Jack Harkness from the 2005 series of Doctor Who. Two other actresses who appeared in Doctor Who also star in the series; Eve Myles as Gwen Cooper, who also played the similarly named servant girl Gwyneth in the 2005 Doctor Who episode "The Unquiet Dead", and Naoko Mori who reprised her role as Toshiko Sato first seen in "Aliens of London". A second series of Torchwood aired in 2008; for three episodes, the cast was joined by Freema Agyeman reprising her Doctor Who role of Martha Jones. A third series was broadcast from 6 to 10 July 2009, and consisted of a single five-part story called Children of Earth which was set largely in London. A fourth series, Torchwood: Miracle Day jointly produced by BBC Wales, BBC Worldwide and the American entertainment company Starz debuted in 2011. The series was predominantly set in the United States, though Wales remained part of the show's setting. The Sarah Jane Adventures, starring Elisabeth Sladen who reprised her role as investigative journalist Sarah Jane Smith, was developed by CBBC; a special aired on New Year's Day 2007 and a full series began on 24 September 2007. A second series followed in 2008, notable for (as noted above) featuring the return of Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart. A third in 2009 featured a crossover appearance from the main show by David Tennant as the Tenth Doctor. In 2010, a further such appearance featured Matt Smith as the Eleventh Doctor alongside former companion actress Katy Manning reprising her role as Jo Grant. A final, three-story fifth series was transmitted in autumn 2011 – uncompleted due to the death of Elisabeth Sladen in early 2011. An animated serial, The Infinite Quest, aired alongside the 2007 series of Doctor Who as part of the children's television series Totally Doctor Who. The serial featured the voices of series regulars David Tennant and Freema Agyeman but is not considered part of the 2007 series. A second animated serial, Dreamland, aired in six parts on the BBC Red Button service, and the official Doctor Who website in 2009. Class, featuring students of Coal Hill School, was first aired on-line on BBC Three from 22 October 2016, as a series of eight 45 minute episodes, written by Patrick Ness. Peter Capaldi as the Twelfth Doctor appears in the show's first episode. The series was picked up by BBC America on 8 January 2016 and by BBC One a day later. On 7 September 2017, BBC Three controller Damian Kavanagh confirmed that the series had officially been cancelled. Numerous other spin-off series have been created not by the BBC but by the respective owners of the characters and concepts. Such spin-offs include the novel and audio drama series Faction Paradox, Iris Wildthyme and Bernice Summerfield; as well as the made-for-video series P.R.O.B.E.; the Australian-produced television series K-9, which aired a 26-episode first season on Disney XD; and the audio spin-off Counter-Measures. Aftershows When the revived series of Doctor Who was brought back, an aftershow series was created by the BBC, titled Doctor Who Confidential. There have been three aftershow series created, with the latest one titled Doctor Who: The Fan Show, which began airing from the tenth series. Each series follows behind-the-scenes footage on the making of Doctor Who through clips and interviews with the cast, production crew and other people, including those who have participated in the television series in some manner. Each episode deals with a different topic, and in most cases refers to the Doctor Who episode that preceded it. Charity episodes In 1983, coinciding with the series' 20th anniversary, The Five Doctors was shown as part of the annual BBC Children in Need Appeal, however it was not a charity-based production, simply scheduled within | dates to reprise the role of their specific Doctor. In 1973's The Three Doctors, William Hartnell and Patrick Troughton returned alongside Jon Pertwee. For 1983's The Five Doctors, Troughton and Pertwee returned to star with Peter Davison, and Tom Baker appeared in previously unseen footage from the uncompleted Shada serial. For this episode, Richard Hurndall replaced William Hartnell. Patrick Troughton again returned in 1985's The Two Doctors with Colin Baker. In 2007, Peter Davison returned in the Children in Need short "Time Crash" alongside David Tennant. In "The Name of the Doctor" (2013), the Eleventh Doctor meets a previously unseen incarnation of himself, subsequently revealed to be the War Doctor. In the following episode, "The Day of the Doctor", David Tennant's Tenth Doctor appeared alongside Matt Smith as the Eleventh Doctor and John Hurt as the War Doctor, as well as brief footage from all of the previous actors. Additionally, multiple incarnations of the Doctor have met in various audio dramas and novels based on the television show. In 2017, the First Doctor (this time portrayed by David Bradley) returned alongside Peter Capaldi in "The Doctor Falls" and "Twice Upon a Time". In 2020’s “Fugitive of the Judoon”, Jodie Whittaker as the Thirteenth Doctor meets Jo Martin's incarnation of the Doctor, subsequently known as the Fugitive Doctor. They met, albeit briefly, in “The Timeless Children” later that year and "Once Upon Time" in 2021. Revelations about the Doctor Throughout the programme's long history, there have been revelations about the Doctor that have raised additional questions. In The Brain of Morbius (1976), it was hinted that the First Doctor might not have been the first incarnation (although the other faces depicted might have been incarnations of the Time Lord Morbius). In subsequent stories, the First Doctor was depicted as the earliest incarnation of the Doctor. In Mawdryn Undead (1983), the Fifth Doctor explicitly confirmed that he was then currently in his fifth incarnation. Later that same year, during 1983's 20th Anniversary special The Five Doctors, the First Doctor enquires as to the Fifth Doctor's regeneration; when the Fifth Doctor confirms "Fourth", the First Doctor excitedly replies "Goodness me. So there are five of me now." In 2010, the Eleventh Doctor similarly calls himself "the Eleventh" in "The Lodger". In the 2013 episode "The Time of the Doctor", the Eleventh Doctor clarified that he was the product of the twelfth regeneration, due to a previous incarnation which he chose not to count and one other aborted regeneration. The name Eleventh is still used for this incarnation; the same episode depicts the prophesied "Fall of the Eleventh" which had been trailed throughout the series. While the Doctor was early on described as from the planet Gallifrey, as first mentioned in The Time Warrior (1973), these origins were retconned in The Timeless Children (2020), and the Doctor was shown as from another unknown dimension or universe. In the same story, it was revealed that First Doctor was not actually the earliest incarnation of the Doctor. During the Seventh Doctor's era, it was hinted that the Doctor was more than just an ordinary Time Lord. In the 1996 television film, the Eighth Doctor describes himself as being "half human". The BBC's FAQ for the programme notes that "purists tend to disregard this", instead focusing on his Gallifreyan heritage. The programme's first serial, An Unearthly Child, shows that the Doctor has a granddaughter, Susan Foreman. In the 1967 serial, Tomb of the Cybermen, when Victoria Waterfield doubts the Doctor can remember his family because of "being so ancient", the Doctor says that he can when he really wants to—"The rest of the time they sleep in my mind". The 2005 series reveals that the Ninth Doctor thought he was the last surviving Time Lord, and that his home planet had been destroyed; in "The Empty Child" (2005), Dr. Constantine states that, "Before the war even began, I was a father and a grandfather. Now I am neither." The Doctor remarks in response, "Yeah, I know the feeling." In "Smith and Jones" (2007), when asked if he had a brother, he replied, "No, not any more." In both "Fear Her" (2006) and "The Doctor's Daughter" (2008), he states that he had, in the past, been a father. In "The Wedding of River Song" (2011), it is implied that the Doctor's true name is a secret that must never be revealed; this is explored further in "The Name of the Doctor" (2013), when River Song speaking his name allows the Great Intelligence to enter his tomb, and in "The Time of the Doctor" (2013) where speaking his true name becomes the signal by which the Time Lords would know they can safely return to the universe. Companions The companion figure – generally a human – has been a constant feature in Doctor Who since the programme's inception in 1963. One of the roles of the companion is to be a reminder for the Doctor's "moral duty". The Doctor's first companions seen on screen were his granddaughter Susan Foreman (Carole Ann Ford) and her teachers Barbara Wright (Jacqueline Hill) and Ian Chesterton (William Russell). These characters were intended to act as audience surrogates, through which the audience would discover information about the Doctor who was to act as a mysterious father figure. The only story from the original series in which the Doctor travels alone is The Deadly Assassin (1976). Notable companions from the earlier series included Romana (Mary Tamm and Lalla Ward), a Time Lady; Sarah Jane Smith (Elisabeth Sladen); and Jo Grant (Katy Manning). Dramatically, these characters provide a figure with whom the audience can identify, and serve to further the story by requesting exposition from the Doctor and manufacturing peril for the Doctor to resolve. The Doctor regularly gains new companions and loses old ones; sometimes they return home or find new causes—or loves—on worlds they have visited. Some have died during the course of the series. Companions are usually human, or humanoid aliens. Since the 2005 revival, the Doctor generally travels with a primary female companion, who occupies a larger narrative role. Steven Moffat described the companion as the main character of the show, as the story begins anew with each companion and she undergoes more change than the Doctor. The primary companions of the Ninth and Tenth Doctors were Rose Tyler (Billie Piper), Martha Jones (Freema Agyeman), and Donna Noble (Catherine Tate) with Mickey Smith (Noel Clarke) and Jack Harkness (John Barrowman) recurring as secondary companion figures. The Eleventh Doctor became the first to travel with a married couple, Amy Pond (Karen Gillan) and Rory Williams (Arthur Darvill), whilst out-of-sync meetings with River Song (Alex Kingston) and Clara Oswald (Jenna Coleman) provided ongoing story arcs. The tenth series introduced Pearl Mackie as Bill Potts, the Doctor's first openly gay companion. Pearl Mackie said that the increased representation for LGBTQ people is important on a mainstream show. Some companions have gone on to re-appear, either in the main series or in spin-offs. Sarah Jane Smith became the central character in The Sarah Jane Adventures (2007–2011) following a return to Doctor Who in 2006. Guest stars in the series included former companions Jo Grant, K9, and Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart (Nicholas Courtney). The character of Jack Harkness also served to launch a spin-off, Torchwood, (2006–2011) in which Martha Jones also appeared. Adversaries When Sydney Newman commissioned the series, he specifically did not want to perpetuate the cliché of the "bug-eyed monster" of science fiction. However, monsters were popular with audiences and so became a staple of Doctor Who almost from the beginning. With the show's 2005 revival, executive producer Russell T Davies stated his intention to reintroduce classic icons of Doctor Who. The Autons with the Nestene Consciousness and Daleks returned in series 1, Cybermen in series 2, the Macra and the Master in series 3, the Sontarans and Davros in series 4, and the Time Lords including Rassilon in the 2009–2010 Specials. Davies' successor, Steven Moffat, has continued the trend by reviving the Silurians in series 5, Cybermats in series 6, the Great Intelligence and the Ice Warriors in Series 7, and Zygons in the 50th Anniversary Special. Since its 2005 return, the series has also introduced new recurring aliens: Slitheen (Raxacoricofallapatorians), Ood, Judoon, Weeping Angels and the Silence. Besides infrequent appearances by enemies such as the Ice Warriors, Ogrons, the Rani, and Black Guardian, three adversaries have become particularly iconic: the Daleks, the Cybermen, and the Master. Daleks The Dalek race, which first appeared in the show's second serial in 1963, are Doctor Whos oldest villains. The Daleks are Kaleds from the planet Skaro, mutated by the scientist Davros and housed in mechanical armour shells for mobility. The actual creatures resemble octopuses with large, pronounced brains. Their armour shells have a single eye-stalk, a sink-plunger-like device that serves the purpose of a hand, and a directed-energy weapon. Their main weakness is their eyestalk; attacks upon them using various weapons can blind a Dalek, making it go mad. Their chief role in the series plot, as they frequently remark in their instantly recognisable metallic voices, is to "exterminate" all non-Dalek beings. They even attack the Time Lords in the Time War, as shown during the 50th Anniversary of the show. They continue to be a recurring 'monster' within the Doctor Who franchise, their most recent appearance being the 2022 episode "Eve of the Daleks". Davros has also been a recurring figure since his debut in Genesis of the Daleks, although played by several different actors. The Daleks were created by writer Terry Nation (who intended them to be an allegory of the Nazis) and BBC designer Raymond Cusick. The Daleks' début in the programme's second serial, The Daleks (1963–1964), made both the Daleks and Doctor Who very popular. A Dalek appeared on a postage stamp celebrating British popular culture in 1999, photographed by Lord Snowdon. In "Victory of the Daleks" a new set of Daleks were introduced that come in a range of colours; the colour denoting its role within the species. Cybermen Cybermen were originally a wholly organic species of humanoids originating on Earth's twin planet Mondas that began to implant more and more artificial parts into their bodies. This led to the race becoming coldly logical and calculating cyborgs, with emotions usually only shown when naked aggression was called for. With the demise of Mondas, they acquired Telos as their new home planet. They continue to be a recurring 'monster' within the Doctor Who franchise. The 2006 series introduced a totally new variation of Cybermen. These Cybus Cybermen were created in a parallel universe by the mad inventor John Lumic; he was attempting to preserve the humans by transplanting their brains into powerful metal bodies, sending them orders using a mobile phone network and inhibiting their emotions with an electronic chip. The Master The Master is the Doctor's archenemy, a renegade Time Lord who desires to rule the universe. Conceived as "Professor Moriarty to the Doctor's Sherlock Holmes", the character first appeared in 1971. As with the Doctor, the role has been portrayed by several actors, since the Master is a Time Lord as well and able to regenerate; the first of these actors was Roger Delgado, who continued in the role until his death in 1973. The Master was briefly played by Peter Pratt and Geoffrey Beevers until Anthony Ainley took over and continued to play the character until Doctor Who's hiatus in 1989. The Master returned in the 1996 television movie of Doctor Who, and was played by American actor Eric Roberts. Following the series revival in 2005, Derek Jacobi provided the character's re-introduction in the 2007 episode "Utopia". During that story, the role was then assumed by John Simm who returned to the role multiple times through the Tenth Doctor's tenure. As of the 2014 episode "Dark Water", it was revealed that the Master had become a female incarnation or "Time Lady", going by the name of "Missy" (short for Mistress, the feminine equivalent of "Master"). This incarnation is played by Michelle Gomez. Simm returned to his role as the Master alongside Gomez in the tenth series. The Master returned for the 2020 twelfth series with Sacha Dhawan in the role. The character had dubbed himself the "Spy Master" referencing a role he had taken with MI6. Music Theme music The Doctor Who theme music was one of the first electronic music signature tunes for television, and after more than a half century remains one of the most easily recognised. The original theme was composed by Ron Grainer and realised by Delia Derbyshire of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop, with assistance from Dick Mills, and was released as a single on Decca F 11837 in 1964. The Derbyshire arrangement served, with minor edits, as the theme tune up to the end of season 17 (1979–1980). It is regarded as a significant and innovative piece of electronic music, recorded well before the availability of commercial synthesisers or multitrack mixers. Each note was individually created by cutting, splicing, speeding up and slowing down segments of analogue tape containing recordings of a single plucked string, white noise, and the simple harmonic waveforms of test-tone oscillators, intended for calibrating equipment and rooms, not creating music. New techniques were invented to allow mixing of the music, as this was before the era of multitrack tape machines. On hearing the finished result, Grainer asked, "Jeez, Delia, did I write that?" She answered "Most of it." Although Grainer was willing to give Derbyshire the co-composer credit, it was against BBC policy at the time. Derbyshire would not receive an on-screen credit until the 50th anniversary story "The Day of the Doctor" in 2013. A different arrangement was recorded by Peter Howell for season 18 (1980), which was in turn replaced by Dominic Glynn's arrangement for the season-long serial The Trial of a Time Lord in season 23 (1986). Keff McCulloch provided the new arrangement for the Seventh Doctor's era which lasted from season 24 (1987) until the series' suspension in 1989. American composer John Debney created a new arrangement of Ron Grainer's original theme for Doctor Who in 1996. For the return of the series in 2005, Murray Gold provided a new arrangement which featured samples from the 1963 original with further elements added; in the 2005 Christmas episode "The Christmas Invasion". A new arrangement of the theme, once again by Gold, was introduced in the 2007 Christmas special episode, "Voyage of the Damned"; Gold returned as composer for the 2010 series. He was responsible for a new version of the theme which was reported to have had a hostile reception from some viewers. In 2011, the theme tune charted at number 228 of radio station Classic FM's Hall of Fame, a survey of classical music tastes. A revised version of Gold's 2010 arrangement had its debut over the opening titles of the 2012 Christmas special "The Snowmen", and a further revision of the arrangement was made for the 50th Anniversary special "The Day of the Doctor" in November 2013. Versions of the "Doctor Who Theme" have also been released as pop music over the years. In the early 1970s, Jon Pertwee, who had played the Third Doctor, recorded a version of the Doctor Who theme with spoken lyrics, titled, "Who Is the Doctor". In 1978, a disco version of the theme was released in the UK, Denmark and Australia by the group Mankind, which reached number 24 in the UK charts. In 1988, the band The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu (later known as The KLF) released the single "Doctorin' the Tardis" under the name The Timelords, which reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 2 in Australia; this version incorporated several other songs, including "Rock and Roll Part 2" by Gary Glitter (who recorded vocals for some of the CD-single remix versions of "Doctorin' the Tardis"). Others who have covered or reinterpreted the theme include Orbital, Pink Floyd, the Australian string ensemble Fourplay, New Zealand punk band Blam Blam Blam, The Pogues, Thin Lizzy, Dub Syndicate, and the comedians Bill Bailey and Mitch Benn. Both the theme and obsessive fans were satirised on The Chaser's War on Everything. The theme tune has also appeared on many compilation CDs, and has made its way into mobile-phone ringtones. Fans have also produced and distributed their own remixes of the theme. In January 2011, the Mankind version was released as a digital download on the album Gallifrey And Beyond. On 26 June 2018, producer Chris Chibnall announced that the musical score for series 11 would be provided by Royal Birmingham Conservatoire alumnus Segun Akinola. Incidental music Most of the innovative incidental music for Doctor Who has been specially commissioned from freelance composers, although in the early years some episodes also used stock music, as well as occasional excerpts from original recordings or cover versions of songs by popular music acts such as The Beatles and The Beach Boys. Since its 2005 return, the series has featured occasional use of excerpts of pop music from the 1970s to the 2000s. The incidental music for the first Doctor Who adventure, An Unearthly Child, was written by Norman Kay. Many of the stories of the William Hartnell period were scored by electronic music pioneer Tristram Cary, whose Doctor Who credits include The Daleks, Marco Polo, The Daleks' Master Plan, The Gunfighters and The Mutants. Other composers in this early period included Richard Rodney Bennett, Carey Blyton and Geoffrey Burgon. The most frequent musical contributor during the first 15 years was Dudley Simpson, who is also well known for his theme and incidental music for Blake's 7, and for his haunting theme music and score for the original 1970s version of The Tomorrow People. Simpson's first Doctor Who score was Planet of Giants (1964) and he went on to write music for many adventures of the 1960s and 1970s, including most of the stories of the Jon Pertwee/Tom Baker periods, ending with The Horns of Nimon (1979). He also made a cameo appearance in The Talons of Weng-Chiang (as a Music hall conductor). In 1980 starting with the serial The Leisure Hive the task of creating incidental music was assigned to the Radiophonic Workshop. Paddy Kingsland and Peter Howell contributed many scores in this period and other contributors included Roger Limb, Malcolm Clarke and Jonathan Gibbs. The Radiophonic Workshop was dropped after 1986's The Trial of a Time Lord series, and Keff McCulloch took over as the series' main composer until the end of its run, with Dominic Glynn and Mark Ayres also contributing scores. From the 2005 revival to the 2017 Christmas episode "Twice Upon a Time", all incidental music for the series was composed by Murray Gold and Ben Foster, and has been performed by the BBC National Orchestra of Wales from the 2005 Christmas episode "The Christmas Invasion" onwards. A concert featuring the orchestra performing music from the first two series took place on 19 November 2006 to raise money for Children in Need. David Tennant hosted the event, introducing the different sections of the concert. Murray Gold and Russell T Davies answered questions during the interval and Daleks and Cybermen appeared whilst music from their stories was played. The concert aired on BBCi on Christmas Day 2006. A Doctor Who Prom was celebrated on 27 July 2008 in the Royal Albert Hall as part of the annual BBC Proms. The BBC Philharmonic and the London Philharmonic Choir performed Murray Gold's compositions for the series, conducted by Ben Foster, as well as a selection of classics based on the theme of space and time. The event was presented by Freema Agyeman and guest-presented by various other stars of the show with numerous monsters participating in the proceedings. It also featured the specially filmed mini-episode "Music of the Spheres", written by Russell T Davies and starring David Tennant. On 26 June 2018, producer Chris Chibnall announced that the musical score for the eleventh series would be provided by Royal Birmingham Conservatoire alumnus Segun Akinola. Six soundtrack releases have been released since 2005. The first featured tracks from the first two series, the second and third featured music from the third and fourth series respectively. The fourth was released on 4 October 2010 as a two disc special edition and contained music from the 2008–2010 specials (The Next Doctor to "End of Time Part 2"). The soundtrack for Series 5 was released on 8 November 2010. In February 2011, a soundtrack was released for the 2010 Christmas special: "A Christmas Carol", and in December 2011 the soundtrack for Series 6 was released, both by Silva Screen Records. In 2013, a 50th-anniversary boxed set of audio CDs was released featuring music and sound effects from Doctor Who's 50-year history. The celebration continued in 2016 with the release of Doctor Who: The 50th Anniversary Collection Four LP Box Set by New York City-based Spacelab9. The company pressed 1,000 copies of the set on "Metallic Silver" vinyl, dubbed the "Cyberman Edition". Viewership United Kingdom Premiering the day after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the first episode of Doctor Who was repeated with the second episode the following week. Doctor Who has always appeared initially on the BBC's mainstream BBC One channel, where it is regarded as a family show, drawing audiences of many millions of viewers; episodes were also repeated on BBC Three, before its transition to an online-only channel. The programme's popularity has waxed and waned over the decades, with three notable periods of high ratings. The first of these was the "Dalekmania" period (), when the popularity of the Daleks regularly brought Doctor Who ratings of between 9 and 14 million, even for stories which did not feature them. The second was the mid to late 1970s, when Tom Baker occasionally drew audiences of over 12 million. During the ITV network strike of 1979, viewership peaked at 16 million. Figures remained respectable into the 1980s, but fell noticeably after the programme's 23rd series was postponed in 1985 and the show was off the air for 18 months. Its late 1980s performance of three to five million viewers was seen as poor at the time and was, according to the BBC Board of Control, a leading cause of the programme's 1989 suspension. Some fans considered this disingenuous, since the programme was scheduled against the soap opera Coronation Street, the most popular show at the time. During Tennant's run (the third notable period of high ratings), the show had consistently high viewership; with the Christmas specials regularly attracting over 10 million. The BBC One broadcast of "Rose", the first episode of the 2005 revival, drew an average audience of 10.81 million, third highest for BBC One that week and seventh across all channels. The current revival also garners the highest audience Appreciation Index of any drama on television. International Doctor Who has been broadcast internationally outside of the United Kingdom since 1964, a year after the show first aired. , the modern series has been broadcast in more than 50 countries. The 50th anniversary was broadcast In 94 countries and screened to more than half a million people in cinemas across Australia, Latin America, North America and Europe. The scope of the broadcast was a world record, according to Guinness World Records. Doctor Who is one of the five top-grossing titles for BBC Worldwide, the BBC's commercial arm. BBC Worldwide CEO John Smith has said that Doctor Who is one of a small number of "Superbrands" which Worldwide will promote heavily. Only four episodes have ever had their premiere showings on channels other than BBC One. The 1983 20th anniversary special The Five Doctors had its début on 23 November (the actual date of the anniversary) on a number of PBS stations two days prior to its BBC One broadcast. The 1988 story Silver Nemesis was broadcast with all three episodes airing back to back on TVNZ in New Zealand in November, after the first episode had been shown in the UK but before the final two instalments had aired there. Oceania New Zealand was the first country outside the United Kingdom to screen Doctor Who, beginning in September 1964, and continued to screen the series for many years, including the new revived series that aired on Prime Television from 2005–2017. In 2018, the series is aired on Fridays on TVNZ 2, and on TVNZ On Demand on the same episode as the UK. The series moved to TVNZ 1 in 2021. In Australia, the show has had a strong fan base since its inception, having been exclusively first run by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) since January 1965. (See Doctor Who in Australia) The ABC has periodically repeated episodes; of note were the weekly screenings of all available classic episodes starting in 2003, for the show's 40th anniversary, and the weekdaily screenings of all available revived episodes in 2013 for the show's 50th anniversary. The ABC broadcasts the modern series first run on ABC1 and ABC ME, with repeats on ABC2 and streaming available on ABC iview. Americas The series also has a fan base in the United States, where it was shown in syndication from the 1970s to the 1990s, particularly on PBS stations. TVOntario picked up the show in 1976 beginning with The Three Doctors and aired each series (several years late) through to series 24 in 1991. From 1979 to 1981, TVO airings were bookended by science-fiction writer Judith Merril who introduced the episode and then, after the episode concluded, tried to place it in an educational context in keeping with TVO's status as an educational channel. Its airing of The Talons of Weng-Chiang was cancelled as a result of accusations that the story was racist; the story was later broadcast in the 1990s on cable station YTV. CBC began showing the series again in 2005. The series moved to the Canadian cable channel Space in 2009. Series three began broadcasting on CBC on 18 June 2007 followed by the second Christmas special, "The Runaway Bride" at midnight, and the Sci Fi Channel began on 6 July 2007 starting with the second Christmas special at 8:00 pm E/P followed by the first episode. Series four aired in the United States on the Sci Fi Channel (now known as Syfy), beginning in April 2008. It aired on CBC beginning 19 September 2008, although the CBC did not air the Voyage of the Damned special. The Canadian cable network Space (now known as CTV Sci-Fi Channel) broadcast "The Next Doctor" (in March 2009) and all subsequent series and specials. Asia Series 1 through 3 of Doctor Who were broadcast on various NHK channels from 2006 to 2008 with Japanese subtitles. Beginning on 2 August 2009, upon the launch of Disney XD in Japan, the series has been broadcast with Japanese dubbing. Home media A wide selection of serials are available from BBC Video on DVD, on sale in the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and the United States. Every fully extant serial has been released on VHS, and BBC Worldwide continues to regularly release serials on DVD. The 2005 series is also available in its entirety on UMD for the PlayStation Portable. Eight original series serials have been released on Laserdisc and many have also been released on Betamax tape and Video 2000. One episode of Doctor Who (The Infinite Quest) was released on VCD. Only the series from 2005 onwards are also available on Blu-ray, except for the 1970 story Spearhead from Space, released in July 2013 and the 1996 TV film Doctor Who released in September 2016. Over 600 episodes of the classic series (the first 8 Doctors, from 1963 to 1996) are available to stream on BritBox (launched in 2017) and Pluto TV. From 2020, the revival series is available for streaming on HBO Max, as well as spinoffs Sarah Jane Adventures and Torchwood. Adaptations and other appearances Dr. Who films There are two Dr. Who feature films: Dr. Who and the Daleks, released in 1965 and Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D. in 1966. Both are retellings of existing television stories (specifically, the first two Dalek serials, The Daleks and The Dalek Invasion of Earth respectively) with a larger budget and alterations to the series concept. In these films, Peter Cushing plays a human scientist named "Dr. Who", who travels with his granddaughter, niece and other companions in a time machine he has invented. The Cushing version of the character reappears in both comic strips and a short story, the latter attempting to reconcile the film continuity with that of the series. In addition, several planned films were proposed, including a sequel, The Chase, loosely based on the original series story, for the Cushing Doctor, plus many attempted television movie and big screen productions to revive the original Doctor Who, after the original series was cancelled. Paul McGann starred in the only television film as the eighth incarnation of the Doctor. After the film, he continued the role in audio books and was confirmed as the eighth incarnation through flashback footage and a mini episode in the 2005 revival, effectively linking the two series and the television movie. In 2011, David Yates announced that he had started work with the BBC on a Doctor Who film, a project that would take three or more years to complete. Yates indicated that the film would take a different approach from Doctor Who, although then Doctor Who showrunner Steven Moffat stated later that any such film would not be a reboot of the series and that a film should be made by the BBC team and star the current TV Doctor. Spin-offs Doctor Who has appeared on stage numerous times. In the early 1970s, Trevor Martin played the role in Doctor Who and the Daleks in the Seven Keys to Doomsday. In the late 1980s, Jon Pertwee and Colin Baker both played the Doctor at different times during the run of a play titled Doctor Who – The Ultimate Adventure. For two performances, while Pertwee was ill, David Banks (better known for playing Cybermen) played the Doctor. Other original plays have been staged as amateur productions, with other actors playing the Doctor, while Terry Nation wrote The Curse of the Daleks, a stage play mounted in the late 1960s, but without the Doctor. A pilot episode ("A Girl's Best Friend") for a potential spinoff series, K-9 and Company, was aired in 1981 with Elisabeth Sladen reprising her role as companion Sarah Jane Smith and John Leeson as the voice of K9, but was not picked up as a regular series. Concept art for an animated Doctor Who series was produced by animation company Nelvana in the 1980s, but the series was not produced. Following the success of the 2005 series produced by Russell T Davies, the BBC commissioned Davies to produce a 13-part spin-off series titled Torchwood (an anagram of "Doctor Who"), set in modern-day Cardiff and investigating alien activities and crime. The series debuted on BBC Three on 22 October 2006. John Barrowman reprised his role of Jack Harkness from the 2005 series of Doctor Who. Two other actresses who appeared in Doctor Who also star in the series; Eve Myles as Gwen Cooper, who also played the similarly named servant girl Gwyneth in the 2005 Doctor Who episode "The Unquiet Dead", and Naoko Mori who reprised her role as Toshiko Sato first seen in "Aliens of London". A second series of Torchwood aired in 2008; for three episodes, the cast was joined by Freema Agyeman reprising her Doctor Who role of Martha Jones. A third series was broadcast from 6 to 10 July 2009, and consisted of a single five-part story called Children of Earth which was set largely in London. A fourth series, Torchwood: Miracle Day jointly produced by BBC Wales, BBC Worldwide and the American entertainment company Starz debuted in 2011. The series was predominantly set in the United States, though Wales remained part of the show's setting. The Sarah Jane Adventures, starring Elisabeth Sladen who reprised her role as investigative journalist Sarah Jane Smith, was developed by CBBC; a special aired on New Year's Day 2007 and a full series began on 24 September 2007. A second series followed in 2008, notable for (as noted above) featuring the return of Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart. A third in 2009 featured a crossover appearance from the main show by David Tennant as the Tenth Doctor. In 2010, a further such appearance featured Matt Smith as the Eleventh Doctor alongside former companion actress Katy Manning reprising her role as Jo Grant. A final, three-story fifth series was transmitted in autumn 2011 – uncompleted due to the death of Elisabeth Sladen in early 2011. An animated serial, The Infinite Quest, aired alongside the 2007 series of Doctor Who as part of the children's television series Totally Doctor Who. The serial featured the voices of series regulars David Tennant and Freema Agyeman but is not considered part of the 2007 series. A second animated serial, Dreamland, aired in six parts on the BBC Red Button service, and the official Doctor Who website in 2009. Class, featuring students of Coal Hill School, was first aired on-line on BBC Three from 22 October 2016, as a series of eight 45 minute episodes, written by Patrick Ness. Peter Capaldi as the Twelfth Doctor appears in the show's first episode. The series was picked up by BBC America on 8 January 2016 and by BBC One a day later. On 7 September 2017, BBC Three controller Damian Kavanagh confirmed that the series had officially been cancelled. Numerous other spin-off series have been created not by the BBC but by the respective owners of the characters and concepts. Such spin-offs include the novel and audio drama series Faction Paradox, Iris Wildthyme and Bernice Summerfield; as well as the made-for-video series P.R.O.B.E.; the Australian-produced television series K-9, which aired a 26-episode first season on Disney XD; and the audio spin-off Counter-Measures. Aftershows When the revived series of Doctor Who was brought back, an aftershow series was created by the BBC, titled Doctor Who Confidential. There have been three aftershow series created, with the latest one titled Doctor Who: The Fan Show, which began airing from the tenth series. Each series follows behind-the-scenes footage on the making of Doctor Who through clips and interviews with the cast, production crew and other people, including those who have participated in the television series in some manner. Each episode deals with a different topic, and in most cases refers to the Doctor Who episode that preceded it. Charity episodes In 1983, coinciding with the series' 20th anniversary, The Five Doctors was shown as part of the annual BBC Children in Need Appeal, however it was not a charity-based production, simply scheduled within the line-up of Friday 25 November 1983. This was the programme's first co-production with Australian broadcaster ABC. At 90 minutes long it was the longest single episode of Doctor Who produced to date. It featured three of the first five Doctors, a new actor to replace the deceased William Hartnell, and unused footage to represent Tom Baker. In 1993, for the franchise's 30th anniversary, another charity special, titled Dimensions in Time was produced for Children in Need, featuring all of the surviving actors who played the Doctor and a number of previous companions. It also featured a crossover with the soap opera EastEnders, the action taking place in the latter's Albert Square location and around Greenwich. The special was one of several special 3D programmes the BBC produced at the time, using a 3D system that made use of the Pulfrich effect requiring glasses with one darkened lens; the picture would look normal to those viewers who watched without the glasses. In 1999, another special, Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death, was made for Comic Relief and later released on VHS. An affectionate parody of the television series, it was split into four segments, mimicking the traditional serial format, complete with cliffhangers, and running down the same corridor several times when being chased (the version released on video was split into only two episodes). In the story, the Doctor (Rowan Atkinson) encounters both the Master (Jonathan Pryce) and the Daleks. During the special the Doctor is forced to regenerate several times, with his subsequent incarnations played by, in order, Richard E. Grant, Jim Broadbent, Hugh Grant and Joanna Lumley. The script was written by Steven Moffat, later to be head writer and executive producer to the revived series. Since the return of Doctor Who in 2005, the franchise has produced two original "mini-episodes" to support Children in Need. The first, aired in November 2005, was an untitled seven-minute scene which introduced David Tennant as the Tenth Doctor. It was followed in November 2007 by "Time Crash", a 7-minute scene which featured the Tenth Doctor meeting the Fifth Doctor Peter Davison. A set of two mini-episodes, titled "Space" and "Time" respectively, were produced to support Comic Relief. They were aired during the Comic Relief 2011 event. During Children in Need 2011, an exclusively filmed segment showed the Doctor addressing the viewer, attempting to persuade them to purchase items of his clothing, which were going up for auction for Children in Need. Children in Need 2012 featured the mini-episode "The Great Detective". Spoofs and cultural references Doctor Who has been satirised and spoofed on many occasions by comedians including Spike Milligan (a Dalek invades his bathroom—Milligan, naked, hurls a soap sponge at it) and Lenny Henry. Jon Culshaw frequently impersonates the Fourth Doctor in the BBC Dead Ringers series. Doctor Who fandom has also been lampooned on programs such as Saturday Night Live, The Chaser's War on Everything, Mystery Science Theater 3000, Family Guy, American Dad!, Futurama, South Park, Community as Inspector Spacetime, The Simpsons and The Big Bang Theory. As part of the 50th anniversary programmes, former Fifth Doctor Peter Davison directed, wrote and co-starred in the parody The Five(ish) Doctors Reboot, which also starred two other former Doctors, Colin Baker and Sylvester McCoy, and cameo appearances from cast and crew involved in the programme, including showrunner Steven Moffat and Doctors Paul McGann, David Tennant and Matt Smith. The Doctor in his fourth incarnation has been represented on several episodes of The Simpsons and Matt Groening's other animated series Futurama. A fan of Doctor Who since childhood, Groening favours Tom Baker's fourth Doctor, with Simpsons writer Ron Hauge stating, "There are several Doctor Who actors but Tom Baker is the one we always go with." There have also been many references to Doctor Who in popular culture and other science fiction, including Star Trek: The Next Generation ("The Neutral Zone") and Leverage. In the Channel 4 series Queer as Folk (created by later Doctor Who executive producer Russell T. Davies), the character of Vince was portrayed as an avid Doctor Who fan, with references appearing many times throughout in the form of clips from the programme. In a similar manner, the character of Oliver on Coupling (created and written by Steven Moffat) is portrayed as a Doctor Who collector and enthusiast. References to Doctor Who have also appeared in the young adult fantasy novels Brisingr and High Wizardry, the video game Rock Band, the Adult Swim comedy show Robot Chicken, the Family Guy episodes "Blue Harvest" and "420", and the game RuneScape. It has also been referenced in Destroy All Humans! 2, by civilians in |
Parmenides on the grounds that motion was an observable fact. Therefore, they asserted, there must be a void. This idea survived in a refined version as Newton's theory of absolute space, which met the logical requirements of attributing reality to not-being. Einstein's theory of relativity provided a new answer to Parmenides and Zeno, with the insight that space by itself is relative and cannot be separated from time as part of a generally curved space-time manifold. Consequently, Newton's refinement is now considered superfluous. Epistemology The knowledge of truth, according to Democritus, is difficult, since the perception through the senses is subjective. As from the same senses derive different impressions for each individual, then through the sensual impressions we cannot judge the truth. We can interpret the senses' data and grasp the truth only through the intellect, because the truth is in an abyss: And: There are two kinds of knowing, the one he calls "legitimate" (γνησίη, gnēsiē, "genuine") and the other "bastard" (σκοτίη, skotiē, "secret"). The "bastard" knowledge is concerned with the perception through the senses; therefore it is insufficient and subjective. The reason is that the sensual perception is due to the effluences of the atoms from the objects to the senses. When these different shapes of atoms come to us, they stimulate our senses according to their shape, and our sensual impressions arise from those stimulations. The second sort of knowledge, the "legitimate" one, can be achieved through the intellect, in other words, all the sense data from the "bastard" must be elaborated through reasoning. In this way one can get away from the false perception of the "bastard" knowledge and grasp the truth through inductive reasoning. After taking into account the sense impressions, one can examine the causes of the appearances, draw conclusions about the laws that govern the appearances, and discover the causality (αἰτιολογία, aetiologia) by which they are related. This is the procedure of thought from the parts to the whole or else from the apparent to nonapparent (inductive reasoning). This is one example of why Democritus is considered to be an early scientific thinker. The process is reminiscent of that by which science gathers its conclusions: And: As well as: Ethics and politics The ethics and politics of Democritus come to us mostly in the form of maxims. As such, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy has gone as far as to say that: "despite the large number of ethical sayings, it is difficult to construct a coherent account of Democritus's ethical views," noting that there is a "difficulty of deciding which fragments are genuinely Democritean." He says that "Equality is everywhere noble." Poverty in a democracy is better than prosperity under tyrants, for the same reason one is to prefer liberty over slavery. In his History of Western Philosophy, Bertrand Russell writes that Democritus was in love with "what the Greeks called democracy." Democritus said that "the wise man belongs to all countries, for the home of a great soul is the whole world." Democritus wrote that those in power should "take it upon themselves to lend to the poor and to aid them and to favor them, then is there pity and no isolation but companionship and mutual defense and concord among the citizens and other good things too many to catalogue." Money when used with sense leads to generosity and charity, while money used in folly leads to a common expense for the whole society—excessive hoarding of money for one's children is avarice. While making money is not useless, he says, doing so as a result of wrongdoing is the "worst of all things." He is on the whole ambivalent towards wealth, and values it much less than self-sufficiency. He disliked violence but was not a pacifist: he urged cities to be prepared for war, and believed that a society had the right to execute a criminal or enemy so long as this did not violate some law, treaty, or oath. Goodness, he believed, came more from practice and discipline than from innate human nature. He believed that one should distance oneself from the wicked, stating that such association increases disposition to vice. Anger, while difficult to control, must be mastered in order for one to be rational. Those who take pleasure from the disasters of their neighbors fail to understand that their fortunes are tied to the society in which they live, and they rob themselves of any joy of their own. Democritus believed that happiness (euthymia) was a property of the soul. He advocated a life of contentment with as little grief as possible, which he said could not be achieved through either idleness or preoccupation with worldly pleasures. Contentment would be gained, he said, through moderation and a measured life; to be content one must set one's judgment on the possible and be satisfied with what one has—giving little thought to envy or admiration. Democritus approved of extravagance on occasion, as he held that feasts and celebrations were necessary for joy and relaxation. He considers education to be the noblest of pursuits, but cautioned that learning without sense leads to error. Mathematics Democritus was also a pioneer of mathematics and geometry in particular. We only know this through citations of his works (titled On Numbers, On Geometrics, On Tangencies, On Mapping, and On Irrationals) in other writings, since all of Democritus's body of work did not survive the Middle Ages. According to Archimedes, Democritus was among the first to observe that a cone and pyramid with the same base area and height has one-third the volume of a cylinder or prism respectively. Archimedes pointed out that Democritus didn't provide any proof of this statement, which was instead provided by Eudoxus of Cnidus. Moreover Plutarch (Plut. De Comm. 39) stated that Democritus had raised the following question: if a plane parallel to the base cuts a cone, are the surfaces of the section and of the base of the cone equal or unequal? If they are equal, the cone becomes a cylinder, while if they are unequal, the cone becomes an "irregular cone" with indentations or steps. This question could be easily solved through calculus and it's been suggested, therefore, that Democritus may be considered a forerunner of infinitesimals and of integral calculus. Anthropology, biology, and cosmology His work on nature is known through citations of his books on the subjects, On the Nature of Man, On Flesh (two books), On Mind, On the Senses, On Flavors, On Colors, Causes concerned with Seeds and Plants and Fruits, and Causes concerned with Animals (three books). He spent much of his life experimenting with and examining plants and minerals, and wrote at length on many scientific topics. Democritus thought that the first humans lived an anarchic and animal sort of life, going out to forage individually and living off the most palatable herbs and the fruit which grew wild on the trees. They were driven together into societies for fear of wild animals, he said. He believed that these early people had no language, but that they gradually began to articulate their expressions, establishing symbols for every sort of object, and in this manner came to understand each other. He says that the earliest men lived laboriously, having none of the utilities of life; clothing, houses, fire, domestication, and farming were unknown to them. Democritus presents the early period of mankind as one of learning by trial and error, and says that each step slowly led to more discoveries; they took refuge in the caves in winter, stored fruits that could be preserved, and through reason and keenness of mind came to build upon each new idea. Democritus held that originally the universe was composed of nothing but tiny atoms churning in chaos, until they collided together to form larger units—including the earth and everything on it. He surmised that there are many worlds, some growing, some decaying; some with no sun or moon, some with several. He held that every world has a beginning and an end and that a world could be destroyed by collision with another world. Like the other atomists, Democritus believed in a flat Earth and challenged arguments for its sphericity. Twentieth-century appraisals According to Bertrand Russell, the point of view of Leucippus and Democritus "was remarkably like that of modern science, and avoided most of the faults to which Greek speculation was prone." Karl R. Popper admired Democritus's rationalism, humanism, and love of freedom and writes that Democritus, along with fellow countryman Protagoras, "formulated the doctrine that human institutions of language, custom, and law are not taboos but man-made, not natural but conventional, insisting, at the same time, that we are responsible for them." Works None of Democritus's writings have survived to the present day complete; only fragments are known from his vast body of work. Ethics Pythagoras On the Disposition of the Wise Man On the Things in Hades Tritogenia On Manliness or On Virtue The Horn of Amaltheia On Contentment Ethical Commentaries Natural science The Great World-ordering (may have been written by Leucippus) Cosmography On the Planets On Nature On the Nature of Man or On Flesh (two books) On the Mind On the Senses On Flavours On Colours On Different Shapes On Changing Shape Buttresses On Images On Logic (three books) Nature Heavenly Causes Atmospheric Causes Terrestrial Causes Causes Concerned with Fire and Things in Fire Causes Concerned with Sounds Causes Concerned with Seeds and Plants and Fruits Causes Concerned with Animals (three books) Miscellaneous Causes On Magnets Mathematics On Different Angles or On contact of Circles and Spheres On Geometry Geometry Numbers On Irrational Lines and Solids (two books) Planispheres On the Great Year or Astronomy (a calendar) Contest of the Waterclock Description of the Heavens Geography Description of the Poles Description of Rays of Light Literature On the Rhythms and Harmony On Poetry On the Beauty of Verses On Euphonious and Harsh-sounding Letters On Homer On Song On Verbs Names Technical works Prognosis On Diet Medical Judgment Causes Concerning Appropriate and Inappropriate Occasions On Farming On Painting Tactics Fighting in Armor Commentaries On the Sacred Writings of Babylon On Those in Meroe Circumnavigation of the Ocean On History Chaldaean Account Phrygian Account On Fever and Coughing Sicknesses Legal Causes Problems Eponymous institutions Democritus University of Thrace National Centre of Scientific Research "DEMOKRITOS" Numismatics Democritus was depicted on the following contemporary coins/banknotes: The reverse of the Greek 10 drachmas coin of 1976–2001. The obverse of the Greek 100 drachmas banknote of 1967–1978. See also Atom Democrates John Dalton Kanada Mochus Pseudo-Democritus Vaisheshika Notes References Citations Sources Bailey, C. (1928). The Greek Atomists and Epicurus. Oxford. Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics: Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, . Barnes, Jonathan (1982). The Presocratic Philosophers, Routledge Revised Edition. _ (1987). Early Greek Philosophy, Penguin. Burnet, J. (2003). Early Greek Philosophy, Kessinger Publishing Diodorus Siculus (1st | The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy notes, "This theologically motivated view does not seem to claim much historical evidence, however". Democritus, along with Leucippus and Epicurus, proposed the earliest views on the shapes and connectivity of atoms. They reasoned that the solidness of the material corresponded to the shape of the atoms involved. Thus, iron atoms are solid and strong with hooks that lock them into a solid; water atoms are smooth and slippery; salt atoms, because of their taste, are sharp and pointed; and air atoms are light and whirling, pervading all other materials. Using analogies from humans' sense experiences, he gave a picture or an image of an atom that distinguished them from each other by their shape, their size, and the arrangement of their parts. Moreover, connections were explained by material links in which single atoms were supplied with attachments: some with hooks and eyes, others with balls and sockets. The Democritean atom is an inert solid (merely excluding other bodies from its volume) that interacts with other atoms mechanically. In contrast, modern, quantum-mechanical atoms interact via electric and magnetic force fields and are far from inert. The theory of the atomists appears to be more nearly aligned with that of modern science than any other theory of antiquity. However, the similarity with modern concepts of science can be confusing when trying to understand where the hypothesis came from. Classical atomists could not have had an empirical basis for modern concepts of atoms and molecules. However, Lucretius, describing atomism in his De rerum natura, gives very clear and compelling empirical arguments for the original atomist theory. He observes that any material is subject to irreversible decay. Through time, even hard rocks are slowly worn down by drops of water. Things have the tendency to get mixed up: Mix water with soil and mud will result, seldom disintegrating by itself. Wood decays. However, there are mechanisms in nature and technology to recreate "pure" materials like water, air, and metals. The seed of an oak will grow out into an oak tree, made of similar wood as historical oak trees, the wood of which has already decayed. The conclusion is that many properties of materials must derive from something inside, that will itself never decay, something that stores for eternity the same inherent, indivisible properties. The basic question is: Why has everything in the world not yet decayed, and how can exactly some of the same materials, plants, and animals be recreated again and again? One obvious solution to explain how indivisible properties can be conveyed in a way not easily visible to human senses, is to hypothesize the existence of "atoms". These classical "atoms" are nearer to humans' modern concept of "molecule" than to the atoms of modern science. The other central point of classical atomism is that there must be considerable open space between these "atoms": the void. Lucretius gives reasonable arguments that the void is absolutely necessary to explain how gases and liquids can flow and change shape, while metals can be molded without their basic material properties changing. Void hypothesis The atomistic void hypothesis was a response to the paradoxes of Parmenides and Zeno, the founders of metaphysical logic, who put forth difficult-to-answer arguments in favor of the idea that there can be no movement. They held that any movement would require a void—which is nothing—but a nothing cannot exist. The Parmenidean position was "You say there is a void; therefore the void is not nothing; therefore there is not the void." The position of Parmenides appeared validated by the observation that where there seems to be nothing there is air, and indeed even where there is not matter there is something, for instance light waves. The atomists agreed that motion required a void, but simply ignored the argument of Parmenides on the grounds that motion was an observable fact. Therefore, they asserted, there must be a void. This idea survived in a refined version as Newton's theory of absolute space, which met the logical requirements of attributing reality to not-being. Einstein's theory of relativity provided a new answer to Parmenides and Zeno, with the insight that space by itself is relative and cannot be separated from time as part of a generally curved space-time manifold. Consequently, Newton's refinement is now considered superfluous. Epistemology The knowledge of truth, according to Democritus, is difficult, since the perception through the senses is subjective. As from the same senses derive different impressions for each individual, then through the sensual impressions we cannot judge the truth. We can interpret the senses' data and grasp the truth only through the intellect, because the truth is in an abyss: And: There are two kinds of knowing, the one he calls "legitimate" (γνησίη, gnēsiē, "genuine") and the other "bastard" (σκοτίη, skotiē, "secret"). The "bastard" knowledge is concerned with the perception through the senses; therefore it is insufficient and subjective. The reason is that the sensual perception is due to the effluences of the atoms from the objects to the senses. When these different shapes of atoms come to us, they stimulate our senses according to their shape, and our sensual impressions arise from those stimulations. The second sort of knowledge, the "legitimate" one, can be achieved through the intellect, in other words, all the sense data from the "bastard" must be elaborated through reasoning. In this way one can get away from the false perception of the "bastard" knowledge and grasp the truth through inductive reasoning. After taking into account the sense impressions, one can examine the causes of the appearances, draw conclusions about the laws that govern the appearances, and discover the causality (αἰτιολογία, aetiologia) by which they are related. This is the procedure of thought from the parts to the whole or else from the apparent to nonapparent (inductive reasoning). This is one example of why Democritus is considered to be an early scientific thinker. The process is reminiscent of that by which science gathers its conclusions: And: As well as: Ethics and politics The ethics and politics of Democritus come to us mostly in the form of maxims. As such, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy has gone as far as to say that: "despite the large number of ethical sayings, it is difficult to construct a coherent account of Democritus's ethical views," noting that there is a "difficulty of deciding which fragments are genuinely Democritean." He says that "Equality is everywhere noble." Poverty in a democracy is better than prosperity under tyrants, for the same reason one is to prefer liberty over slavery. In his History of Western Philosophy, Bertrand Russell writes that Democritus was in love with "what the Greeks called democracy." Democritus said that "the wise man belongs to all countries, for the home of a great soul is the whole world." Democritus wrote that those in power should "take it upon themselves to lend to the poor and to aid them and to favor them, then is there pity and no isolation but companionship and mutual defense and concord among the citizens and other good things too many to catalogue." Money when used with sense leads to generosity and charity, while money used in folly leads to a common expense for the whole society—excessive hoarding of money for one's children is avarice. While making money is not useless, he says, doing so as a result of wrongdoing is the "worst of all things." He is on the whole ambivalent towards wealth, and values it much less than self-sufficiency. He disliked violence but was not a pacifist: he urged cities to be prepared for war, and believed that a society had the right to execute a criminal or enemy so long as this did not |
to players of different ability levels. Most disc golf courses are built in more natural and less manicured environments than golf and require minimal maintenance. Professional course designers consider safety a critical factor in course design, and are careful to minimize the danger of being hit by a flying disc while providing designs that create strategy in play and variety in shots for enjoyment. Holes are designed to require a range of different throws to challenge players with different strengths or particular skills. Many courses are central organizing points for local disc golf clubs, and some include shops selling disc golf equipment. More than 80% of the courses listed on Disc Golf Course Review are listed as public and free to play. List of disc golf courses by country Three countries account for 85% of all disc golf courses worldwide: the United States (75%), Finland (7%) and Canada (3%). Other notable countries include Sweden, and Estonia, which has the highest density of disc golf courses per km2 of dry land of any country and the second-highest number of courses per capita, between Iceland and Finland, which have 150 and 111 courses per million inhabitants, respectively. Outside North American and European strongholds, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and South Korea have the most courses. There are disc golf courses on every continent, including 24 in Latin America, 8 in Africa, and one in Antarctica. Åland has been defined as the world's largest single disc golf park, with one course in each of the 16 municipalities of Åland. * indicates "Disc golf in COUNTRY or TERRITORY" links. Tees A disc golf tee (commonly referred to as a tee box or the box) is the starting position of a hole. The PDGA recommends that the tee box be no smaller than 1.2 meters wide by 3 meters long. The tee box is usually a pad of concrete, asphalt, rubber, gravel, or artificial turf. Some courses have natural turf with only the front of the tee position marked or no tee boxes at all and players begin from a general location based on the course layout. Signs Established courses have tee signs near each tee position. Signs may depict a simple map of the hole including the tee, target, expected disc flight, out-of-bounds areas, water hazards, trees, and mandatory paths. Signs typically include the distance to the hole, and par. Some courses include a unique name for the hole and may have sponsor logos. They are often supplemented with a larger sign near the course entrance which has a map of the entire course. Targets Although early courses were played using trees, fence posts, or park equipment as the target, standard disc golf baskets are by far the most common type of target on modern courses. Some courses feature tone targets that are designed to make a distinctive sound when hit with a disc. Disc golf baskets are constructed with a central pole holding a basket under an assembly of hanging chains. When a disc hits the chains, it is often, but not always, deflected into the basket. Per PDGA rules, in order to complete a hole with a basket target, the disc must "enter the target above the top of the tray and below the bottom of the chain support, and come to rest supported by the target. There are many different brands of baskets made by numerous manufacturers. Gameplay The sport of disc golf is set up similar to a game of golf. A "round" is played on a disc golf course consisting of a number of "holes", usually 9 or 18. Each hole includes a tee position for starting play and a disc golf target some distance away, often with obstacles such as trees, hills or bodies of water in between. Players begin by throwing a disc from the tee, without crossing over the front of the tee prior to releasing the disc when throwing. This could lead to a fault similar to a bowling foot fault in cricket. Players then navigate the hole by picking up the disc where it lands and throwing again until they reach the target. The object of the game is to get through the course with the lowest number of total throws. Play is usually in groups of five or fewer, with each player taking turn at the tee box, then progressing with the player furthest from the hole throwing first, while the other players stand aside. Each course is unique, so each course requires a different combination of throws to complete, with the best players aiming to shape the flight of the disc to account for distance, terrain, obstacles and weather. In order to facilitate making different shots, players carry a variety of discs with different flight characteristics, choosing an appropriate disc for each throw. Some players also carry a mini marker disc, used to accurately mark the throwing position before each throw. Use of mini marker discs is particularly prevalent in formal competitive play. Many courses include out-of-bounds areas, commonly called "OB zones" or just "OB". If the disc lands in these areas, the player is usually required to add a penalty throw onto his or her score and continue play from near where the disc entered the out-of-bounds zone. Some courses include out-of-bounds areas with special rules requiring the player to resume play from a specified area called a drop zone, or requiring the player to restart the hole from the tee. Some courses also include Mandatories (also called "Mandos") which require the path of the disc to be above, below or to one side of a specific line indicated by a sign. By tradition, players throw from the tee box in the order of their score on the previous hole, with the lowest scorer throwing first. Most players also follow a loose code of courtesy while playing, which includes norms such as standing out of the sight line of the throwing player and avoiding making distracting noises. Because a thrown disc could injure someone, the Professional Disc Golf Association recommends that players "Never throw into a blind area or when spectators, pedestrians or facility users are within range." Formal competitive play is governed by the PDGA Official Rules of Disc Golf and the PDGA Competition Manual for Disc Golf events. Disc types Disc golf discs are smaller than Ultimate flying discs or general-purpose recreational frisbees. They typically measure in diameter and weigh . All PDGA-approved discs measure in diameter and weigh no more than . Discs used for disc golf are designed and shaped for control, speed, and accuracy, while general-purpose flying discs, such as those used for playing guts or ultimate, have a more traditional shape, similar to a catch disc. There is a wide variety of discs used in disc golf and they are generally divided into three categories: drivers, mid-range discs, and putters. Driver Drivers are recognized by their sharp, beveled edge and have most of their mass concentrated on the outer rim of the disc rather than distributed equally throughout. They are optimized for aerodynamics and designed to travel maximum distances at high speeds. They are typically thrown by experienced players during tee-off and other long distance fairway throws. Some disc brands further sub-divide their drivers into different categories. For example, Innova has Distance Drivers and Fairway Drivers, with a fairway driver being somewhere between a distance driver and a mid-range disc. Discraft has three categories of drivers: Long Drivers, Extra Long Drivers, and Maximum Distance Drivers. Another type of driver, used less frequently, is a roller. As the name indicates, it has an edge designed to roll rather than fly. (Although any disc can be used for a roller, some behave quite differently than others.) Because the physics of a disc require "snap" or "flick", which means putting spin on the disc, new players generally find that throwing a distance driver accurately can be somewhat difficult and will require experience with golf disc response. This is why it is better for players to begin with fairway drivers, long drivers, or even mid-ranges, and incorporate maximum distance drivers as their strength and disc control increases. Most players that are starting off will be most likely throwing lighter discs. The world record distance for a golf disc was once , thrown by Simon Lizotte on October 25, 2014. David Wiggins, Jr. broke the record with a distance of on March 28, 2016. Mid-range Mid-range discs feature a dull, beveled edge and a moderate rim width. They offer more control than drivers, but they have a smaller range. Mid-range discs are typically used as approach discs. Beginner players will often use mid-ranges instead of drivers at tee-off, as they require less strength and technique to fly straight than higher speed drivers. Putter Putters are similar to the discs used in simple games of catch, such as the Wham-O brand Frisbee. They are designed to fly straight, predictably, and very slowly compared to mid-range discs and drivers. They are typically used for tight, controlled shots that are close to the basket, although some players use them for short drives where trees or other obstacles come into play. Usually a pro carries 1–7 putters depending on their flight characteristics. As a beginner it is suggested that you only use a putter or mid-range while building fundamentals such as proper follow-through, disc throw positioning, and hyzer/anhyzer technique. Additionally, higher speed discs will not fly properly without a fast enough release snap, so a putter or mid-range with lower snap requirements is more forgiving and will behave in a more regular way. Stability Stability is the measurement of a disc's tendency to bank laterally during its flight. A disc that is over-stable will tend to track left (for a right handed, backhand throw), whereas a disc that is under-stable will tend to track right (also for a right handed, backhand throw). The stability rating of the discs differs depending on the manufacturer of the disc. Innova Discs rate stability as "turn" and "fade". "Turn" references how the disc will fly at high speed during the beginning and middle of its flight, and is rated on a scale of +1 to −5, where +1 is the most overstable and −5 is the most understable. "Fade" references how the disc will fly at lower speeds towards the end of its flight, and is rated on a scale of 0 to 5, where 0 has the least fade, and 5 has the most fade. | DGA was to manufacture discs and targets and to formalize the game for disc golf. The first disc golf target was Ed's pole hole design which basically consisted of a pole sticking out of the ground. The First Disc Golf Basket In 1977, Headrick and his son Ken developed the modern basket catch for disc golf, US Patent 4039189A, titled Flying Disc Entrapment Device, which they trademarked "Disc Pole Hole". The Disc Pole Hole created a standardized catching device that had a chain-hanger that held vertical hanging rows of chain out and away from a center pole. The vertical rows of chain came together forming a parabolic shape above and angling down towards a metal basket that attached to and surrounded the center pole, and could catch a disc from all directions. Ed and his company DGA revised and obtained patents for basket designs until his death in 2002. Today there are over 7000 disc golf courses installed throughout the world, the majority of them using baskets modeled on the Disc Pole Hole DGA baskets Headrick designed. Disc golf courses Most disc golf courses have 9 or 18 holes, and exceptions most often have holes in multiples of three. Courses with 6, 12, 21, 24 or 27 holes are not uncommon. The PDGA recommends that courses average per hole, with holes no shorter than . The longest holes in the world measure more than long. Course designers use trees, bushes, elevation changes, water hazards, and distance variation, along with out-of-bounds zones and mandatory flight paths to make each hole challenging and unique. Many courses include multiple tee positions or multiple target positions to cater to players of different ability levels. Most disc golf courses are built in more natural and less manicured environments than golf and require minimal maintenance. Professional course designers consider safety a critical factor in course design, and are careful to minimize the danger of being hit by a flying disc while providing designs that create strategy in play and variety in shots for enjoyment. Holes are designed to require a range of different throws to challenge players with different strengths or particular skills. Many courses are central organizing points for local disc golf clubs, and some include shops selling disc golf equipment. More than 80% of the courses listed on Disc Golf Course Review are listed as public and free to play. List of disc golf courses by country Three countries account for 85% of all disc golf courses worldwide: the United States (75%), Finland (7%) and Canada (3%). Other notable countries include Sweden, and Estonia, which has the highest density of disc golf courses per km2 of dry land of any country and the second-highest number of courses per capita, between Iceland and Finland, which have 150 and 111 courses per million inhabitants, respectively. Outside North American and European strongholds, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and South Korea have the most courses. There are disc golf courses on every continent, including 24 in Latin America, 8 in Africa, and one in Antarctica. Åland has been defined as the world's largest single disc golf park, with one course in each of the 16 municipalities of Åland. * indicates "Disc golf in COUNTRY or TERRITORY" links. Tees A disc golf tee (commonly referred to as a tee box or the box) is the starting position of a hole. The PDGA recommends that the tee box be no smaller than 1.2 meters wide by 3 meters long. The tee box is usually a pad of concrete, asphalt, rubber, gravel, or artificial turf. Some courses have natural turf with only the front of the tee position marked or no tee boxes at all and players begin from a general location based on the course layout. Signs Established courses have tee signs near each tee position. Signs may depict a simple map of the hole including the tee, target, expected disc flight, out-of-bounds areas, water hazards, trees, and mandatory paths. Signs typically include the distance to the hole, and par. Some courses include a unique name for the hole and may have sponsor logos. They are often supplemented with a larger sign near the course entrance which has a map of the entire course. Targets Although early courses were played using trees, fence posts, or park equipment as the target, standard disc golf baskets are by far the most common type of target on modern courses. Some courses feature tone targets that are designed to make a distinctive sound when hit with a disc. Disc golf baskets are constructed with a central pole holding a basket under an assembly of hanging chains. When a disc hits the chains, it is often, but not always, deflected into the basket. Per PDGA rules, in order to complete a hole with a basket target, the disc must "enter the target above the top of the tray and below the bottom of the chain support, and come to rest supported by the target. There are many different brands of baskets made by numerous manufacturers. Gameplay The sport of disc golf is set up similar to a game of golf. A "round" is played on a disc golf course consisting of a number of "holes", usually 9 or 18. Each hole includes a tee position for starting play and a disc golf target some distance away, often with obstacles such as trees, hills or bodies of water in between. Players begin by throwing a disc from the tee, without crossing over the front of the tee prior to releasing the disc when throwing. This could lead to a fault similar to a bowling foot fault in cricket. Players then navigate the hole by picking up the disc where it lands and throwing again until they reach the target. The object of the game is to get through the course with the lowest number of total throws. Play is usually in groups of five or fewer, with each player taking turn at the tee box, then progressing with the player furthest from the hole throwing first, while the other players stand aside. Each course is unique, so each course requires a different combination of throws to complete, with the best players aiming to shape the flight of the disc to account for distance, terrain, obstacles and weather. In order to facilitate making different shots, players carry a variety of discs with different flight characteristics, choosing an appropriate disc for each throw. Some players also carry a mini marker disc, used to accurately mark the throwing position before each throw. Use of mini marker discs is particularly prevalent in formal competitive play. Many courses include out-of-bounds areas, commonly called "OB zones" or just "OB". If the disc lands in these areas, the player is usually required to add a penalty throw onto his or her score and continue play from near where the disc entered the out-of-bounds zone. Some courses include out-of-bounds areas with special rules requiring the player to resume play from a specified area called a drop zone, or requiring the player to restart the hole from the tee. Some courses also include Mandatories (also called "Mandos") which require the path of the disc to be above, below or to one side of a specific line indicated by a sign. By tradition, players throw from the tee box in the order of their score on the previous hole, with the lowest scorer throwing first. Most players also follow a loose code of courtesy while playing, which includes norms such as standing out of the sight line of the throwing player and avoiding making distracting noises. Because a thrown disc could injure someone, the Professional Disc Golf Association recommends that players "Never throw into a blind area or when spectators, pedestrians or facility users are within range." Formal competitive play is governed by the PDGA Official Rules of Disc Golf and the PDGA Competition Manual for Disc Golf events. Disc types Disc golf discs are smaller than Ultimate flying discs or general-purpose recreational frisbees. They typically measure in diameter and weigh . All PDGA-approved discs measure in diameter and weigh no more than . Discs used for disc golf are designed and shaped for control, speed, and accuracy, while general-purpose flying discs, such as those used for playing guts or ultimate, have a more traditional shape, similar to a catch disc. There is a wide variety of discs used in disc golf and they are generally divided into three categories: drivers, mid-range discs, and putters. Driver Drivers are recognized by their sharp, beveled edge and have most of their mass concentrated on the outer rim of the disc rather than distributed equally throughout. They are optimized for aerodynamics and designed to travel maximum distances at high speeds. They are typically thrown by experienced players during tee-off and other long distance fairway throws. Some disc brands further sub-divide their drivers into different categories. For example, Innova has Distance Drivers and Fairway Drivers, with a fairway driver being somewhere between a distance driver and a mid-range disc. Discraft has three categories of drivers: Long Drivers, Extra Long Drivers, and Maximum Distance Drivers. Another type of driver, used less frequently, is a roller. As the name indicates, it has an edge designed to roll rather than fly. (Although any disc can be used for a roller, some behave quite differently than others.) Because the physics of a disc require "snap" or "flick", which means putting spin on the disc, new players generally find that throwing a distance driver accurately can be somewhat difficult and will require experience with golf disc response. This is why it is better for players to begin with fairway drivers, long drivers, or even mid-ranges, and incorporate maximum distance drivers as their strength and disc control increases. Most players that are starting off will be most likely throwing lighter discs. The world record distance for a golf disc was once , thrown by Simon Lizotte on October 25, 2014. David Wiggins, Jr. broke the record with a distance of on March 28, 2016. Mid-range Mid-range discs feature a dull, beveled edge and a moderate rim width. They offer more control than drivers, but they have a smaller range. Mid-range discs are typically used as approach discs. Beginner players will often use mid-ranges instead of drivers at tee-off, as they require less strength and technique to fly straight than higher speed drivers. Putter Putters are similar to the discs used in simple games of |
in the numeral. That is, the decimal system is a positional numeral system. Decimal fractions Decimal fractions (sometimes called decimal numbers, especially in contexts involving explicit fractions) are the rational numbers that may be expressed as a fraction whose denominator is a power of ten. For example, the decimals represent the fractions , , , and , and are therefore decimal numbers. More generally, a decimal with digits after the separator (a point or comma) represents the fraction with denominator , whose numerator is the integer obtained by removing the separator. It follows that a number is a decimal fraction if and only if it has a finite decimal representation. Expressed as a fully reduced fraction, the decimal numbers are those whose denominator is a product of a power of 2 and a power of 5. Thus the smallest denominators of decimal numbers are Real number approximation Decimal numerals do not allow an exact representation for all real numbers, e.g. for the real number . Nevertheless, they allow approximating every real number with any desired accuracy, e.g., the decimal 3.14159 approximates the real , being less than 10−5 off; so decimals are widely used in science, engineering and everyday life. More precisely, for every real number and every positive integer , there are two decimals and with at most digits after the decimal mark such that and . Numbers are very often obtained as the result of measurement. As measurements are subject to measurement uncertainty with a known upper bound, the result of a measurement is well-represented by a decimal with digits after the decimal mark, as soon as the absolute measurement error is bounded from above by . In practice, measurement results are often given with a certain number of digits after the decimal point, which indicate the error bounds. For example, although 0.080 and 0.08 denote the same number, the decimal numeral 0.080 suggests a measurement with an error less than 0.001, while the numeral 0.08 indicates an absolute error bounded by 0.01. In both cases, the true value of the measured quantity could be, for example, 0.0803 or 0.0796 (see also significant figures). Infinite decimal expansion For a real number and an integer , let denote the (finite) decimal expansion of the greatest number that is not greater than that has exactly digits after the decimal mark. Let denote the last digit of . It is straightforward to see that may be obtained by appending to the right of . This way one has , and the difference of and amounts to , which is either 0, if , or gets arbitrarily small as tends to infinity. According to the definition of a limit, is the limit of when tends to infinity. This is written asor , which is called an infinite decimal expansion of . Conversely, for any integer and any sequence of digits the (infinite) expression is an infinite decimal expansion of a real number . This expansion is unique if neither all are equal to 9 nor all are equal to 0 for large enough (for all greater than some natural number ). If all for equal to 9 and , the limit of the sequence is the decimal fraction obtained by replacing the last digit that is not a 9, i.e.: , by , and replacing all subsequent 9s by 0s (see 0.999...). Any such decimal fraction, i.e.: for , may be converted to its equivalent infinite decimal expansion by replacing by and replacing all subsequent 0s by 9s (see 0.999...). In summary, every real number that is not a decimal fraction has a unique infinite decimal expansion. Each decimal fraction has exactly two infinite decimal expansions, one containing only 0s after some place, which is obtained by the above definition of , and the other containing only 9s after some place, which is obtained by defining as the greatest number that is less than , having exactly digits after the decimal mark. Rational numbers Long division allows computing the infinite decimal expansion of a rational number. If the rational number is a decimal fraction, the division stops eventually, producing a decimal numeral, which may be prolongated into an infinite expansion by adding infinitely many zeros. If the rational number is not a decimal fraction, the division may continue indefinitely. However, as all successive remainders are less than the divisor, there are only a finite number of possible remainders, and after some place, the same sequence of digits must be repeated indefinitely in the quotient. That is, one has a repeating decimal. For example, = 0.012345679012... (with the group 012345679 indefinitely repeating). The converse is also true: if, at some point in the decimal representation of a number, the same string of digits starts repeating indefinitely, the number is rational. or, dividing both numerator and denominator by 6, . Decimal computation Most modern computer hardware and software systems commonly use a binary representation internally (although many early computers, such as the ENIAC or the IBM 650, used decimal representation internally). For external use by computer specialists, this binary representation is sometimes presented in the related octal or hexadecimal systems. For most purposes, however, binary values are converted to or from the equivalent decimal values for presentation to or input from humans; computer programs express literals in decimal by default. (123.1, for example, is written as such in a computer program, even though many computer languages are unable to encode that number precisely.) Both computer hardware and software also use internal representations which are effectively decimal for storing decimal values and doing arithmetic. Often this arithmetic is done on data which are encoded using some variant of binary-coded decimal, especially in database implementations, but there are other decimal representations in use (including decimal floating point such as in newer revisions of the IEEE 754 Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic). Decimal arithmetic is used in computers so that decimal fractional results of adding (or subtracting) values with a fixed length of their fractional part always are computed to this same length of precision. This is especially important for financial calculations, e.g., requiring in their results integer multiples of the smallest currency unit for book keeping purposes. This is not possible in binary, because the negative powers of have no finite binary fractional representation; and is generally impossible for multiplication (or division). See Arbitrary-precision arithmetic for exact calculations. History Many ancient cultures calculated with numerals based on ten, sometimes argued due to human hands typically having ten fingers/digits. Standardized weights used in the Indus Valley Civilization () were based on the ratios: 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500, while their standardized ruler – the Mohenjo-daro ruler – was divided into ten equal parts. Egyptian hieroglyphs, in evidence since around 3000 BCE, used a purely decimal system, as did the Cretan hieroglyphs () of the Minoans whose numerals are closely based on the Egyptian model. The decimal system was handed down to the consecutive Bronze Age cultures of Greece, including Linear A (c. 18th century BCE−1450 BCE) and Linear B (c. 1375−1200 BCE) – the number system of classical Greece also used powers of ten, including, Roman numerals, an intermediate base of 5. Notably, the polymath Archimedes (c. 287–212 BCE) invented a decimal positional system in his Sand Reckoner which was based on 108 and later led the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss to lament what heights science would have already reached in his days if Archimedes had fully realized the potential of his ingenious discovery. Hittite hieroglyphs (since 15th century BCE) were also strictly decimal. Some non-mathematical ancient texts such as the Vedas, dating back to 1700–900 BCE make use of decimals and mathematical decimal fractions. The Egyptian hieratic numerals, the Greek alphabet numerals, the Hebrew alphabet numerals, the Roman numerals, the Chinese numerals and early Indian Brahmi numerals are all non-positional decimal systems, and required large numbers of symbols. For instance, Egyptian numerals used different symbols for 10, 20 to 90, 100, 200 to 900, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, to 10,000. The world's earliest positional decimal system was the Chinese rod calculus. History of decimal fractions Decimal fractions were first developed and used by the Chinese in the end of 4th century BCE, and then spread to the Middle East and from there to Europe. The written Chinese decimal fractions were non-positional. However, counting rod fractions were positional. Qin Jiushao in his book Mathematical | by a decimal separator (usually "." or "," as in or ). Decimal may also refer specifically to the digits after the decimal separator, such as in " is the approximation of to two decimals". Zero-digits after a decimal separator serve the purpose of signifying the precision of a value. The numbers that may be represented in the decimal system are the decimal fractions. That is, fractions of the form , where is an integer, and is a non-negative integer. The decimal system has been extended to infinite decimals for representing any real number, by using an infinite sequence of digits after the decimal separator (see decimal representation). In this context, the decimal numerals with a finite number of non-zero digits after the decimal separator are sometimes called terminating decimals. A repeating decimal is an infinite decimal that, after some place, repeats indefinitely the same sequence of digits (e.g., ). An infinite decimal represents a rational number, the quotient of two integers, if and only if it is a repeating decimal or has a finite number of non-zero digits. Origin Many numeral systems of ancient civilizations use ten and its powers for representing numbers, possibly because there are ten fingers on two hands and people started counting by using their fingers. Examples are firstly the Egyptian numerals, then the Brahmi numerals, Greek numerals, Hebrew numerals, Roman numerals, and Chinese numerals. Very large numbers were difficult to represent in these old numeral systems, and only the best mathematicians were able to multiply or divide large numbers. These difficulties were completely solved with the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system for representing integers. This system has been extended to represent some non-integer numbers, called decimal fractions or decimal numbers, for forming the decimal numeral system. Decimal notation For writing numbers, the decimal system uses ten decimal digits, a decimal mark, and, for negative numbers, a minus sign "−". The decimal digits are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; the decimal separator is the dot "" in many countries (mostly English-speaking), and a comma "" in other countries. For representing a non-negative number, a decimal numeral consists of either a (finite) sequence of digits (such as "2017"), where the entire sequence represents an integer, or a decimal mark separating two sequences of digits (such as "20.70828") . If , that is, if the first sequence contains at least two digits, it is generally assumed that the first digit is not zero. In some circumstances it may be useful to have one or more 0's on the left; this does not change the value represented by the decimal: for example, . Similarly, if the final digit on the right of the decimal mark is zero—that is, if —it may be removed; conversely, trailing zeros may be added after the decimal mark without changing the represented number; for example, and . For representing a negative number, a minus sign is placed before . The numeral represents the number . The integer part or integral part of a decimal numeral is the integer written to the left of the decimal separator (see also truncation). For a non-negative decimal numeral, it is the largest integer that is not greater than the decimal. The part from the decimal separator to the right is the fractional part, which equals the difference between the numeral and its integer part. When the integral part of a numeral is zero, it may occur, typically in computing, that the integer part is not written (for example , instead of ). In normal writing, this is generally avoided, because of the risk of confusion between the decimal mark and other punctuation. In brief, the contribution of each digit to the value of a number depends on its position in the numeral. That is, the decimal system is a positional numeral system. Decimal fractions Decimal fractions (sometimes called decimal numbers, especially in contexts involving explicit fractions) are the rational numbers that may be expressed as a fraction whose denominator is a power of ten. For example, the decimals represent the fractions , , , and , and are therefore decimal numbers. More generally, a decimal with digits after the separator (a point or comma) represents the fraction with denominator , whose numerator is the integer obtained by removing the separator. It follows that a number is a decimal fraction if and only if it has a finite decimal representation. Expressed as a fully reduced fraction, the decimal numbers are those whose denominator is a product of a power of 2 and a power of 5. Thus the smallest denominators of decimal numbers are Real number approximation Decimal numerals do not allow an exact representation for all real numbers, e.g. for the real number . Nevertheless, they allow approximating every real number with any desired accuracy, e.g., the decimal 3.14159 approximates the real , being less than 10−5 off; so decimals are widely used in science, engineering and everyday life. More precisely, for every real number and every positive integer , there are two decimals and with at most digits after the decimal mark such that and . Numbers are very often obtained as the result of measurement. As measurements are subject to measurement uncertainty with a known upper bound, the result of a measurement is well-represented by a decimal with digits after the decimal mark, as soon as the absolute measurement error is bounded from above by . In practice, measurement results are often given with a certain number of digits after the decimal point, which indicate the error bounds. For example, although 0.080 and 0.08 denote the same number, the decimal numeral 0.080 suggests a measurement with an error less than 0.001, while the numeral 0.08 indicates an absolute error bounded by 0.01. In both cases, the true value of the measured quantity could be, for example, 0.0803 or 0.0796 (see also significant figures). Infinite decimal expansion For a real number and an integer , let denote the (finite) decimal expansion of the greatest number that is not greater than that has exactly digits after the decimal mark. Let denote the last digit of . It is straightforward to see that may be obtained by appending to the right of . This way one has , and the difference of and amounts to , which is either 0, if , or gets arbitrarily small as tends to infinity. According to the definition of a limit, is the limit of when tends to infinity. This is written asor , which is called an infinite decimal expansion of . Conversely, for any integer and any sequence of digits the (infinite) expression is an infinite decimal expansion of a real number . This expansion is unique if neither all are equal to 9 nor all are equal to 0 for large enough (for all greater than some natural number ). If all for equal to 9 and , the limit of the sequence is the decimal fraction obtained by replacing the last digit that is not a 9, i.e.: , by , and replacing all subsequent 9s by 0s (see 0.999...). Any such decimal fraction, i.e.: for , may be converted to its equivalent infinite decimal expansion by replacing by and replacing all subsequent 0s by 9s (see 0.999...). In summary, every real number that is not a decimal fraction has a unique infinite decimal expansion. Each decimal fraction has exactly two infinite decimal expansions, one containing only 0s after some place, which is obtained by the above definition of , and the other containing only 9s after some place, which is obtained by defining as the greatest number that is less than , having exactly digits after the decimal mark. Rational numbers Long division allows computing the infinite decimal expansion of a rational number. If the rational number is a decimal fraction, the division stops eventually, producing a decimal numeral, which may be prolongated into an infinite expansion by adding infinitely many zeros. If the rational number is not a decimal fraction, the division may continue indefinitely. However, as all successive remainders are less than the divisor, there are only a finite number of possible remainders, and after some place, the same sequence of digits must be repeated indefinitely in the quotient. That is, one has a repeating decimal. For example, = 0.012345679012... (with the group 012345679 indefinitely repeating). The converse is also true: if, at some point in the decimal representation of a number, the same string of digits starts repeating indefinitely, the number is rational. or, dividing both numerator and denominator by 6, . Decimal computation Most modern computer hardware and software systems commonly use a binary representation internally (although many early computers, such as the ENIAC or the IBM 650, used decimal representation internally). For external use by computer specialists, this binary representation is sometimes presented in the related octal or hexadecimal systems. For most purposes, however, binary values are converted to or from the |
Tyrtaeus' five books of martial verse survive. His is the earliest mention of the three Dorian tribes: Pamphyli, Hylleis, Dymanes. He also says: For Cronus' Son Himself, Zeus the husband of fair-crowned Hera, hath given this city to the children of Heracles, with whom we came into the wide isle of Pelops from windy Erineus. Erineus was a village of Doris. He helped to establish the Spartan constitution, giving the kings and elders, among other powers, the power to dismiss the assembly. He established a rigorous military training program for the young including songs and poems he wrote himself, such as the "Embateria or Songs of the Battle-Charge which are also called Enoplia or Songs-under-Arms." These were chants used to establish the timing of standard drills under arms. He stressed patriotism:For 'tis a fair thing for a good man to fall and die fighting in the van for his native land, ... let us fight with a will for this land, and die for our children and never spare our lives. Herodotus Herodotus was from Halicarnassus, a Dorian colony on the southwest coast of Asia Minor; following the literary tradition of the times he wrote in Ionic Greek, being one of the last authors to do so. He described the Persian Wars, giving a thumbnail account of the histories of the antagonists, Greeks and Persians. Herodotus gives a general account of the events termed "the Dorian Invasion", presenting them as transfers of population. Their original home was in Thessaly, central Greece. He goes on to expand in mythological terms, giving some of the geographic details of the myth:1.56.2-3 And inquiring he found that the Lacedemonians and the Athenians had the pre-eminence, the first of the Dorian and the others of the Ionian race. For these were the most eminent races in ancient time, the second being a Pelasgian and the first a Hellenic race: and the one never migrated from its place in any direction, while the other was very exceedingly given to wanderings; for in the reign of Deucalion this race dwelt in Pthiotis, and in the time of Doros the son of Hellen in the land lying below Ossa and Olympos, which is called Histiaiotis; and when it was driven from Histiaiotis by the sons of Cadmos, it dwelt in Pindos and was called Makednian; and thence it moved afterwards to Dryopis, and from Dryopis it came finally to Peloponnesus, and began to be called Dorian. 1.57.1-3 What language however the Pelasgians used to speak I am not able with certainty to say. But if one must pronounce judging by those that still remain of the Pelasgians who dwelt in the city of Creston above the Tyrsenians, and who were once neighbours of the race now called Dorian, dwelling then in the land which is now called Thessaliotis, and also by those that remain of the Pelasgians who settled at Plakia and Skylake in the region of the Hellespont, who before that had been settlers with the Athenians, and of the natives of the various other towns which are really Pelasgian, though they have lost the name,—if one must pronounce judging by these, the Pelasgians used to speak a Barbarian language. If therefore all the Pelasgian race was such as these, then the Attic race, being Pelasgian, at the same time when it changed and became Hellenic, unlearnt also its language. For the people of Creston do not speak the same language with any of those who dwell about them, nor yet do the people of Phakia, but they speak the same language one as the other: and by this it is proved that they still keep unchanged the form of language which they brought with them when they migrated to these places. 1.58 As for the Hellenic race, it has used ever the same language, as I clearly perceive, since it first took its rise; but since the time when it parted off feeble at first from the Pelasgian race, setting forth from a small beginning it has increased to that great number of races which we see, and chiefly because many Barbarian races have been added to it besides. Moreover it is true, as I think, of the Pelasgian race also, that so far as it remained Barbarian it never made any great increase. Thus, according to Herodotus, the Dorians did not name themselves after Dorus until they had reached Peloponnesus. Herodotus does not explain the contradictions of the myth; for example, how Doris, located outside the Peloponnesus, acquired its name. However, his goal, as he relates in the beginning of the first book, is only to report what he had heard from his sources without judgement. In the myth, the Achaeans displaced from the Peloponnesus gathered at Athens under a leader Ion and became identified as "Ionians". Herodotus' list of Dorian states is as follows. From northeastern Greece were Phthia, Histiaea and Macedon. In central Greece were Doris (the former Dryopia) and in the south Peloponnesus, specifically the states of Lacedaemon, Corinth, Sicyon, Epidaurus and Troezen. Hermione was not Dorian but had joined the Dorians. Overseas were the islands of Rhodes, Cos, Nisyrus and the Anatolian cities of Cnidus, Halicarnassus, Phaselis and Calydna. Dorians also colonised Crete including founding of such towns as Lato, Dreros and Olous. The Cynurians were originally Ionians but had become Dorian under the influence of their Argive masters. Thucydides Thucydides professes little of Greece before the Trojan War except to say that it was full of barbarians and that there was no distinction between barbarians and Greeks. The Hellenes came from Phthiotis. The whole country indulged in and suffered from piracy and was not settled. After the Trojan War, "Hellas was still engaged in removing and settling." Some 60 years after the Trojan War the Boeotians were driven out of Arne by the Thessalians into Boeotia and 20 years later "the Dorians and the Heraclids became masters of the Peloponnese." So the lines were drawn between the Dorians and the Aeolians (here Boeotians) with the Ionians (former Peloponnesians). Other than these few brief observations Thucydides names but few Dorians. He does make it clear that some Dorian states aligned or were forced to align with the Athenians while some Ionians went with the Lacedaemonians and that the motives for alignment were not always ethnic but were diverse. Among the Dorians was Lacedaemon, Corcyra, Corinth and Epidamnus, Leucadia, Ambracia, Potidaea, Rhodes, Cythera, Argos, Carystus, Syracuse, Gela, Acragas (later Agrigentum), Acrae, Casmenae. He does explain with considerable dismay what happened to incite ethnic war after the unity between the Greek states during the Battle of Thermopylae. The Congress of Corinth, formed prior to it, "split into two sections." Athens headed one and Lacedaemon the other:For a short time the league held together, till the Lacedaemonians and Athenians quarreled, and made war upon each other with their allies, a duel into which all the Hellenes sooner or later were drawn. He adds: "the real cause I consider to be ... the growth of the power of Athens and the alarm which this inspired in Lacedaemon...." Plato In the Platonic work Laws is mentioned that the Achaeans who fought in the Trojan War, on their return from Troy were driven out from their homes and cities by the young residents, so they migrated under a leader named Dorieus and hence they were renamed "Dorians". Now during this period of ten years, while the siege lasted, the affairs of each of the besiegers at home suffered much owing to the seditious conduct of the young men. For when the soldiers returned to their own cities and homes, these young people did not receive them fittingly and justly, but in such a way that there ensued a vast number of cases of death, slaughter, and exile. So they, being again driven out, migrated by sea; and because Dorieus was the man who then banded together the exiles, they got the new name of "Dorians", instead of "Achaeans". But as to all the events that follow this, you Lacedaemonians relate them all fully in your traditions. Pausanias The Description of Greece by Pausanias relates that the Achaeans were driven from their lands by Dorians coming from Oeta, a mountainous region bordering on Thessaly. They were led by Hyllus, a son of Heracles, but were defeated by the Achaeans. Under other leadership they managed to be victorious over the Achaeans and remain in the Peloponnesus, a mythic theme called "the return of the Heracleidae." They had built ships at Naupactus in which to cross the Gulf of Corinth. This invasion is viewed by the tradition of Pausanias as a return of the Dorians to the Peloponnesus, apparently meaning a return of families ruling in Aetolia and northern Greece to a land in which they had once had a share. The return is described in detail: there were "disturbances" throughout the Peloponnesus except in Arcadia, and new Dorian settlers. Pausanias goes on to describe the conquest and resettlement of Laconia, Messenia, Argos and elsewhere, and the emigration from there to Crete and the coast of Asia Minor. Diodorus Siculus Diodorus is a rich source of traditional information concerning the mythology and history of the Dorians, especially the Library of History. He does not make any such distinction but the fantastic nature of the earliest material marks it as mythical or legendary. The myths do attempt to justify some Dorian operations, suggesting that they were in part political. Diodorus quoting from an earlier historian Hecataeus of Abdera details that during the Exodus many Israelites went into the islands of Greece and other places. All the foreigners were forthwith expelled, and the most valiant and noble among them, under some notable leaders, were brought to Greece and other places, as some relate; the most famous of their leaders were Danaus and Cadmus. But the majority of the people descended into a country not far from Egypt, which is now called Judaea and at that time was altogether uninhabited. Heracles was a Perseid, a member of the ruling family of Greece. His mother Alcmene had both Perseids and Pelopids in her ancestry. A princess of the realm, she received Zeus thinking he was Amphitryon. Zeus intended his son to rule Greece but according to the rules of succession Eurystheus, born slightly earlier, preempted the right. Attempts to kill Heracles as a child failed. On adulthood he was forced into the service of Eurystheus, who commanded him to perform 12 labors. Heracles became a warrior without a home, wandering from place to place assisting the local rulers with various problems. He took a retinue of Arcadians with him acquiring also over time a family of grown sons, the Heraclidae. He continued this mode of life even after completing the 12 labors. The legend has it that he became involved with Achaean Sparta when the family of king Tyndareus was unseated and driven into exile by Hippocoön and his family, who in the process happened to kill the son of a friend of Heracles. The latter and his retinue assaulted Sparta, taking it back from Hippocoön. He recalled Tyndareus, set him up as a guardian regent, and instructed him to turn the kingdom over to any descendants of his that should claim it. Heracles went on with the way of life to which he had become accustomed, which was by today's standards that of a mercenary, as he was being paid for his assistance. Subsequently, he founded a colony in Aetolia, then in Trachis. After displacing the Dryopes, he went to the assistance of the Dorians, who lived in a land called Hestiaeotis under king Aegimius and were campaigning against the numerically superior Lapithae. The Dorians promised him of Doris (which they did not yet possess). He asked Aegimius to keep his share of the land "in trust" until it should be claimed by a descendant. He went on to further adventures but was poisoned by his jealous wife, Deianeira. He immolated himself in full armor dressed for combat and "passed from among men into the company of the gods." Strabo Strabo, who depends of course on the books available to him, goes on to elaborate: Beside this sole reference to Dorians in Crete, the mention of the Iliad of the Heraclid Tlepolemus, a warrior on the side of Achaeans and colonist of three important Dorian cities in Rhodes has been also regarded as a later interpolation. See also Language Ancient Greek dialects Doric Greek Mythology Dorus, the eponymous founder Dymas Heracleidae History Dorian invasion Greek Dark Ages Sea | War, "Hellas was still engaged in removing and settling." Some 60 years after the Trojan War the Boeotians were driven out of Arne by the Thessalians into Boeotia and 20 years later "the Dorians and the Heraclids became masters of the Peloponnese." So the lines were drawn between the Dorians and the Aeolians (here Boeotians) with the Ionians (former Peloponnesians). Other than these few brief observations Thucydides names but few Dorians. He does make it clear that some Dorian states aligned or were forced to align with the Athenians while some Ionians went with the Lacedaemonians and that the motives for alignment were not always ethnic but were diverse. Among the Dorians was Lacedaemon, Corcyra, Corinth and Epidamnus, Leucadia, Ambracia, Potidaea, Rhodes, Cythera, Argos, Carystus, Syracuse, Gela, Acragas (later Agrigentum), Acrae, Casmenae. He does explain with considerable dismay what happened to incite ethnic war after the unity between the Greek states during the Battle of Thermopylae. The Congress of Corinth, formed prior to it, "split into two sections." Athens headed one and Lacedaemon the other:For a short time the league held together, till the Lacedaemonians and Athenians quarreled, and made war upon each other with their allies, a duel into which all the Hellenes sooner or later were drawn. He adds: "the real cause I consider to be ... the growth of the power of Athens and the alarm which this inspired in Lacedaemon...." Plato In the Platonic work Laws is mentioned that the Achaeans who fought in the Trojan War, on their return from Troy were driven out from their homes and cities by the young residents, so they migrated under a leader named Dorieus and hence they were renamed "Dorians". Now during this period of ten years, while the siege lasted, the affairs of each of the besiegers at home suffered much owing to the seditious conduct of the young men. For when the soldiers returned to their own cities and homes, these young people did not receive them fittingly and justly, but in such a way that there ensued a vast number of cases of death, slaughter, and exile. So they, being again driven out, migrated by sea; and because Dorieus was the man who then banded together the exiles, they got the new name of "Dorians", instead of "Achaeans". But as to all the events that follow this, you Lacedaemonians relate them all fully in your traditions. Pausanias The Description of Greece by Pausanias relates that the Achaeans were driven from their lands by Dorians coming from Oeta, a mountainous region bordering on Thessaly. They were led by Hyllus, a son of Heracles, but were defeated by the Achaeans. Under other leadership they managed to be victorious over the Achaeans and remain in the Peloponnesus, a mythic theme called "the return of the Heracleidae." They had built ships at Naupactus in which to cross the Gulf of Corinth. This invasion is viewed by the tradition of Pausanias as a return of the Dorians to the Peloponnesus, apparently meaning a return of families ruling in Aetolia and northern Greece to a land in which they had once had a share. The return is described in detail: there were "disturbances" throughout the Peloponnesus except in Arcadia, and new Dorian settlers. Pausanias goes on to describe the conquest and resettlement of Laconia, Messenia, Argos and elsewhere, and the emigration from there to Crete and the coast of Asia Minor. Diodorus Siculus Diodorus is a rich source of traditional information concerning the mythology and history of the Dorians, especially the Library of History. He does not make any such distinction but the fantastic nature of the earliest material marks it as mythical or legendary. The myths do attempt to justify some Dorian operations, suggesting that they were in part political. Diodorus quoting from an earlier historian Hecataeus of Abdera details that during the Exodus many Israelites went into the islands of Greece and other places. All the foreigners were forthwith expelled, and the most valiant and noble among them, under some notable leaders, were brought to Greece and other places, as some relate; the most famous of their leaders were Danaus and Cadmus. But the majority of the people descended into a country not far from Egypt, which is now called Judaea and at that time was altogether uninhabited. Heracles was a Perseid, a member of the ruling family of Greece. His mother Alcmene had both Perseids and Pelopids in her ancestry. A princess of the realm, she received Zeus thinking he was Amphitryon. Zeus intended his son to rule Greece but according to the rules of succession Eurystheus, born slightly earlier, preempted the right. Attempts to kill Heracles as a child failed. On adulthood he was forced into the service of Eurystheus, who commanded him to perform 12 labors. Heracles became a warrior without a home, wandering from place to place assisting the local rulers with various problems. He took a retinue of Arcadians with him acquiring also over time a family of grown sons, the Heraclidae. He continued this mode of life even after completing the 12 labors. The legend has it that he became involved with Achaean Sparta when the family of king Tyndareus was unseated and driven into exile by Hippocoön and his family, who in the process happened to kill the son of a friend of Heracles. The latter and his retinue assaulted Sparta, taking it back from Hippocoön. He recalled Tyndareus, set him up as a guardian regent, and instructed him to turn the kingdom over to any descendants of his that should claim it. Heracles went on with the way of life to which he had become accustomed, which was by today's standards that of a mercenary, as he was being paid for his assistance. Subsequently, he founded a colony in Aetolia, then in Trachis. After displacing the Dryopes, he went to the assistance of the Dorians, who lived in a land called Hestiaeotis under king Aegimius and were campaigning against the numerically superior Lapithae. The Dorians promised him of Doris (which they did not yet possess). He asked Aegimius to keep his share of the land "in trust" until it should be claimed by a descendant. He went on to further adventures but was poisoned by his jealous wife, Deianeira. He immolated himself in full armor dressed for combat and "passed from among men into the company of the gods." Strabo Strabo, who depends of course on the books available to him, goes on to elaborate: Beside this sole reference to Dorians in Crete, the mention of the Iliad of the Heraclid Tlepolemus, a warrior on the side of Achaeans and colonist of three important Dorian cities in Rhodes has been also regarded as a later interpolation. See also Language Ancient Greek dialects Doric Greek Mythology Dorus, the eponymous founder Dymas Heracleidae History Dorian invasion Greek Dark Ages Sea Peoples List of Dorian states Acragas Ambracia Argos Calydna Cameiros Cnidus Corinth Corcyra Crete various cities Cos Cythera Doris (Asia Minor) Doris (Greece) Epidaurus Gela Halicarnassus Histiaea Ialyssos Leucadia Lindos Macedon Megara Nisyros Phaselis Phthia Potidaea Rhodes |
that at the time of the Declaration only male property owners held these rights. The deputies in the National Assembly believed that only those who held tangible interests in the nation could make informed political decisions. This distinction directly affects articles 6, 12, 14, and 15 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen as each of these rights is related to the right to vote and to participate actively in the government. With the decree of 29 October 1789, the term active citizen became embedded in French politics. The concept of passive citizens was created to encompass those populations that had been excluded from political rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Because of the requirements set down for active citizens, the vote was granted to approximately 4.3 million Frenchmen out of a population of around 29 million. These omitted groups included women, slaves, children, and foreigners. As these measures were voted upon by the General Assembly, they limited the rights of certain groups of citizens while implementing the democratic process of the new French Republic (1792–1804). This legislation, passed in 1789, was amended by the creators of the Constitution of the Year III in order to eliminate the label of active citizen. The power to vote was then, however, to be granted solely to substantial property owners. Tensions arose between active and passive citizens throughout the Revolution. This happened when passive citizens started to call for more rights, or when they openly refused to listen to the ideals set forth by active citizens. This cartoon clearly demonstrates the difference that existed between the active and passive citizens along with the tensions associated with such differences. In the cartoon, an active citizen is holding a spade and a passive citizen (on the right) says "Take care that my patience does not escape me". Women, in particular, were strong passive citizens who played a significant role in the Revolution. Olympe de Gouges penned her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen in 1791 and drew attention to the need for gender equality. By supporting the ideals of the French Revolution and wishing to expand them to women, she represented herself as a revolutionary citizen. Madame Roland also established herself as an influential figure throughout the Revolution. She saw women of the French Revolution as holding three roles; "inciting revolutionary action, formulating policy, and informing others of revolutionary events." By working with men, as opposed to working apart from men, she may have been able to further the fight of revolutionary women. As players in the French Revolution, women occupied a significant role in the civic sphere by forming social movements and participating in popular clubs, allowing them societal influence, despite their lack of direct political power. Women's rights The Declaration recognized many rights as belonging to citizens (who could only be male). This was despite the fact that after The March on Versailles on 5 October 1789, women presented the Women's Petition to the National Assembly in which they proposed a decree giving women equal rights. In 1790, Nicolas de Condorcet and Etta Palm d'Aelders unsuccessfully called on the National Assembly to extend civil and political rights to women. Condorcet declared that "he who votes against the right of another, whatever the religion, color, or sex of that other, has henceforth abjured his own". The French Revolution did not lead to a recognition of women's rights and this prompted Olympe de Gouges to publish the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen in September 1791. The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen is modeled on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and is ironic in formulation and exposes the failure of the French Revolution, which had been devoted to equality. It states that: This revolution will only take effect when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights, they have lost in society. The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen follows the seventeen articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point and has been described by Camille Naish as "almost a parody... of the original document". The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaims that "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility." The first article of Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen replied: "Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on common utility". De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under French law women were fully punishable, yet denied equal rights, declaring "Women have the right to mount the scaffold, they must also have the right to mount the speaker's rostrum". Slavery The declaration did not revoke the institution of slavery, as lobbied for by Jacques-Pierre Brissot's Les Amis des Noirs and defended by the group of colonial planters called the Club Massiac because they met at the Hôtel Massiac. Despite the lack of explicit mention of slavery in the Declaration, slave uprisings in Saint-Domingue in the Haitian Revolution were inspired by it, as discussed in C. L. R. James' history of the Haitian Revolution, The Black Jacobins. Deplorable conditions for the thousands of slaves in Saint-Domingue, the most profitable slave colony in the world, led to the uprisings which would be known as the first successful slave revolt in the New World. Free persons of color were part of the first wave of revolt, but later former slaves took control. In 1794 the Convention dominated by the Jacobins abolished slavery, including in the colonies of Saint-Domingue and Guadeloupe. However, Napoleon reinstated it in 1802 and attempted to regain control of Saint-Domingue by sending in thousands of troops. After suffering the losses of two-thirds of the men, many to yellow fever, the French withdrew from Saint-Domingue in 1803. Napoleon gave up on North America and agreed to the Louisiana Purchase by the United States. In 1804, the leaders of Saint-Domingue declared it as an independent state, the Republic of Haiti, the second republic of the New World. Napoleon abolished the slave trade in 1815. Homosexuality The wide amount of personal freedom given to citizens by the document created a situation where homosexuality was decriminalized by the French Penal Code of 1791, which covered felonies; the law simply failed to mention sodomy as a crime, and thus no one could be prosecuted for it. The 1791 Code of Municipal Police did provide misdemeanor penalties for "gross public indecency," which the police could use to punish anyone having sex in public places or otherwise violating social norms. This approach to punishing homosexual conduct was reiterated in the French Penal Code of 1810. See also Bill of rights Human rights in France Universality Other early declarations of rights The decreta of León Magna Carta Statute of Kalisz Henrician Articles and Pacta Conventa Petition of Right Bill of Rights Claim of Right Virginia Declaration of Rights Pennsylvania Declaration of Rights Bill of Rights Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of Franchimont "Belgian" Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen "Batavian" Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen Citations General references Jack Censer and Lynn Hunt, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001. Susan Dalton, "Gender and the Shifting Ground of Revolutionary Politics: The Case of Madame Roland", Canadian Journal of | public force: this force is thus instituted for the advantage of all and not for the particular utility of those in whom it is trusted. Article XIII – For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenditures of administration, a common contribution is indispensable; it must be equally distributed to all the citizens, according to their ability to pay. Article XIV – Each citizen has the right to ascertain, by himself or through his representatives, the need for a public tax, to consent to it freely, to know the uses to which it is put, and of determining the proportion, basis, collection, and duration. Article XV – The society has the right of requesting an account from any public agent of its administration. Article XVI – Any society in which the guarantee of rights is not assured, nor the separation of powers determined, has no Constitution. Article XVII – Property being an inviolable and sacred right, no one can be deprived of private usage, if it is not when the public necessity, legally noted, evidently requires it, and under the condition of a just and prior indemnity. Active and passive citizenship While the French Revolution provided rights to a larger portion of the population, there remained a distinction between those who obtained the political rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and those who did not. Those who were deemed to hold these political rights were called active citizens. Active citizenship was granted to men who were French, at least 25 years old, paid taxes equal to three days work, and could not be defined as servants. This meant that at the time of the Declaration only male property owners held these rights. The deputies in the National Assembly believed that only those who held tangible interests in the nation could make informed political decisions. This distinction directly affects articles 6, 12, 14, and 15 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen as each of these rights is related to the right to vote and to participate actively in the government. With the decree of 29 October 1789, the term active citizen became embedded in French politics. The concept of passive citizens was created to encompass those populations that had been excluded from political rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Because of the requirements set down for active citizens, the vote was granted to approximately 4.3 million Frenchmen out of a population of around 29 million. These omitted groups included women, slaves, children, and foreigners. As these measures were voted upon by the General Assembly, they limited the rights of certain groups of citizens while implementing the democratic process of the new French Republic (1792–1804). This legislation, passed in 1789, was amended by the creators of the Constitution of the Year III in order to eliminate the label of active citizen. The power to vote was then, however, to be granted solely to substantial property owners. Tensions arose between active and passive citizens throughout the Revolution. This happened when passive citizens started to call for more rights, or when they openly refused to listen to the ideals set forth by active citizens. This cartoon clearly demonstrates the difference that existed between the active and passive citizens along with the tensions associated with such differences. In the cartoon, an active citizen is holding a spade and a passive citizen (on the right) says "Take care that my patience does not escape me". Women, in particular, were strong passive citizens who played a significant role in the Revolution. Olympe de Gouges penned her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen in 1791 and drew attention to the need for gender equality. By supporting the ideals of the French Revolution and wishing to expand them to women, she represented herself as a revolutionary citizen. Madame Roland also established herself as an influential figure throughout the Revolution. She saw women of the French Revolution as holding three roles; "inciting revolutionary action, formulating policy, and informing others of revolutionary events." By working with men, as opposed to working apart from men, she may have been able to further the fight of revolutionary women. As players in the French Revolution, women occupied a significant role in the civic sphere by forming social movements and participating in popular clubs, allowing them societal influence, despite their lack of direct political power. Women's rights The Declaration recognized many rights as belonging to citizens (who could only be male). This was despite the fact that after The March on Versailles on 5 October 1789, women presented the Women's Petition to the National Assembly in which they proposed a decree giving women equal rights. In 1790, Nicolas de Condorcet and Etta Palm d'Aelders unsuccessfully called on the National Assembly to extend civil and political rights to women. Condorcet declared that "he who votes against the right of another, whatever the religion, color, or sex of that other, has henceforth abjured his own". The French Revolution did not lead to a recognition of women's rights and this prompted Olympe de Gouges to publish the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen in September 1791. The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen is modeled on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and is ironic in formulation and exposes the failure of the French Revolution, which had been devoted to equality. It states that: This revolution will only take effect when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights, they have lost in society. The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen follows the seventeen articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point and has been described by Camille Naish as "almost a parody... of the original document". The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaims that "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility." The first article of Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen replied: "Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on common utility". De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under French law women were fully punishable, yet denied equal rights, declaring "Women have the right to mount the scaffold, they must also have the right to mount the speaker's rostrum". Slavery The declaration did not revoke the institution of slavery, as lobbied for by Jacques-Pierre Brissot's Les Amis des Noirs and defended by the group of colonial planters called the Club Massiac because they met at the Hôtel Massiac. Despite the lack of explicit mention of slavery in the Declaration, slave uprisings in Saint-Domingue in the Haitian Revolution were inspired by it, as discussed in C. L. R. James' history of the Haitian Revolution, The Black Jacobins. Deplorable conditions for the thousands of slaves in Saint-Domingue, the most profitable slave colony in the world, led to the uprisings which would be known as the first successful slave revolt in the New World. Free persons of color were part of the first wave of revolt, but later former slaves took control. In 1794 the Convention dominated by the Jacobins abolished slavery, including in the colonies of Saint-Domingue and Guadeloupe. However, Napoleon reinstated it in 1802 and attempted to regain control of Saint-Domingue by sending in thousands of troops. After suffering the losses of two-thirds of the men, many to yellow fever, the French withdrew from Saint-Domingue in 1803. Napoleon gave up on North America and agreed to the Louisiana Purchase by the United States. In 1804, the leaders of Saint-Domingue declared it as an independent state, the Republic of Haiti, the second republic of the New World. Napoleon abolished the slave trade in 1815. Homosexuality The wide amount of personal freedom given to citizens by the document created a situation where homosexuality was decriminalized by the French Penal Code of 1791, which covered felonies; the law simply failed to mention sodomy as a crime, and thus no one could be prosecuted for it. The 1791 Code of Municipal Police did provide misdemeanor penalties for "gross public indecency," which the police could use to punish anyone having sex in public places or otherwise violating social norms. This approach to punishing homosexual conduct was reiterated in the French Penal Code of 1810. See also Bill of rights Human rights in France Universality Other early declarations of rights The decreta of León Magna Carta Statute of Kalisz Henrician Articles and Pacta Conventa Petition of Right Bill of Rights Claim of Right Virginia Declaration of Rights Pennsylvania Declaration of Rights Bill of Rights Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of Franchimont "Belgian" Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen "Batavian" Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen Citations General references Jack Censer and Lynn |
adopted. In an interview from 1999, Ritchie clarified that he saw Linux and BSD operating systems as a continuation of the basis of the Unix operating system, and as derivatives of Unix: In the same interview, he stated that he viewed both Unix and Linux as "the continuation of ideas that were started by Ken and me and many others, many years ago." Awards In 1983, Ritchie and Thompson received the Turing Award "for their development of generic operating systems theory and specifically for the implementation of the UNIX operating system". Ritchie's Turing Award lecture was titled "Reflections on Software Research". In 1990, both Ritchie and Thompson received the IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), "for the origination of the UNIX operating system and the C programming language". In 1997, both Ritchie and Thompson were made Fellows of the Computer History Museum, "for co-creation of the UNIX operating system, and for development of the C programming language." On April 21, 1999, Thompson and Ritchie jointly received the National Medal of Technology of 1998 from President Bill Clinton for co-inventing the UNIX operating system and the C programming language which, according to the citation for the medal, "led to enormous advances in computer hardware, software, and networking systems and stimulated growth of an entire industry, thereby enhancing American leadership in the Information Age". In 2005, the Industrial Research Institute awarded Ritchie its Achievement Award in recognition of his contribution to science and technology, and to society generally, with his development of the Unix operating system. In 2011, Ritchie, along with Thompson, was awarded the Japan Prize for Information and Communications for his work in the development of the Unix operating system. Death Ritchie was found dead on October 12, 2011, at the age of 70 at his home in Berkeley Heights, New Jersey, where he lived alone. First news of his death came from his former colleague, Rob Pike. He had been in frail health for several years following treatment for prostate cancer and heart disease. News of Ritchie's death was largely overshadowed by the media coverage of the death of Apple co-founder Steve Jobs, which occurred the week before. Legacy Following Ritchie's death, computer historian Paul E. Ceruzzi stated: In an interview shortly after Ritchie's death, long time colleague Brian Kernighan said Ritchie never expected C to be so significant. Kernighan told The New York Times "The tools that Dennis built—and their direct descendants—run pretty much everything today." Kernighan reminded readers of how important a role C and Unix had played in the development of later high-profile projects, such as the iPhone. Other testimonials to his influence followed. Reflecting upon his death, a commentator compared the relative importance of Steve Jobs and Ritchie, concluding that "[Ritchie's] work played a key role in spawning the technological revolution of the last | programming language which, according to the citation for the medal, "led to enormous advances in computer hardware, software, and networking systems and stimulated growth of an entire industry, thereby enhancing American leadership in the Information Age". In 2005, the Industrial Research Institute awarded Ritchie its Achievement Award in recognition of his contribution to science and technology, and to society generally, with his development of the Unix operating system. In 2011, Ritchie, along with Thompson, was awarded the Japan Prize for Information and Communications for his work in the development of the Unix operating system. Death Ritchie was found dead on October 12, 2011, at the age of 70 at his home in Berkeley Heights, New Jersey, where he lived alone. First news of his death came from his former colleague, Rob Pike. He had been in frail health for several years following treatment for prostate cancer and heart disease. News of Ritchie's death was largely overshadowed by the media coverage of the death of Apple co-founder Steve Jobs, which occurred the week before. Legacy Following Ritchie's death, computer historian Paul E. Ceruzzi stated: In an interview shortly after Ritchie's death, long time colleague Brian Kernighan said Ritchie never expected C to be so significant. Kernighan told The New York Times "The tools that Dennis built—and their direct descendants—run pretty much everything today." Kernighan reminded readers of how important a role C and Unix had played in the development of later high-profile projects, such as the iPhone. Other testimonials to his influence followed. Reflecting upon his death, a commentator compared the relative importance of Steve Jobs and Ritchie, concluding that "[Ritchie's] work played a key role in spawning the technological revolution of the last forty years—including technology on which Apple went on to build its fortune." Another commentator said, "Ritchie, on the other hand, invented and co-invented two key software technologies which make up the DNA of effectively every single computer software product we use directly or even indirectly in the modern age. It sounds like a wild claim, but it really is true." Another said, "many in computer science and related fields knew of Ritchie’s importance to the growth and development of, well, everything to do with computing,..." The Fedora 16 Linux distribution, which was released about a month after he died, was dedicated to his memory. FreeBSD 9.0, released January 12, 2012 was also dedicated in his memory. Asteroid 294727 Dennisritchie, discovered by astronomers Tom Glinos and David H. Levy in 2008, was named in his memory. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 7 February 2012 (). Gallery Notable works B programming language C programming language on which many currently used languages and technologies are based. Unix, a multiuser operating system. Several workalikes (commonly referred to as Unix-like systems) have been developed based on Unix's design. Some of these follow POSIX standards, again based on Unix. Unix Programmer's Manual (1971) The C Programming Language (sometimes referred to as K&R; 1978 with Brian Kernighan) Publications and academic papers Ritchie has been the author or contributor to about 50 academic papers, books and textbooks and which have had over 15,000 citations. Here are some of his most cited works: The C programming language, BW Kernighan, DM Ritchie, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey (1978) Programming languages, D Ritchie (1978) The UNIX time-sharing system, DM Ritchie, K Thompson, Classic operating systems, 195-220 (2001) Advanced programming in the UNIX environment, WR Stevens, SA Rago, DM Ritchie, Addison-Wesley (1992, 2008) See also List of pioneers in computer science References External links Dennis Ritchie's home page at Bell Labs "The C Family of Languages: Interview with Dennis Ritchie, Bjarne Stroustrup, and James Gosling" – article in Java Report, 5(7), July 2000 and C++ Report, 12(7), July/August 2000 "The Guru" – article in Linux Magazine, June 2001 Dennis Ritchie's video interview June 2011 1941 births 2011 deaths American computer scientists American technology writers Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences alumni Turing Award laureates Multics people Unix people Plan 9 people Inferno (operating system) people C |
of four severe earthquakes occur in the vicinity of New Madrid, Missouri. 1826 – Benjamin W. Edwards rides into Mexican-controlled Nacogdoches, Texas, and declares himself ruler of the Republic of Fredonia. 1838 – Great Trek: Battle of Blood River: Voortrekkers led by Andries Pretorius and Sarel Cilliers defeat Zulu impis, led by Dambuza (Nzobo) and Ndlela kaSompisi in what is today KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. 1843 – The discovery of octonions by John T. Graves, who denoted them with a boldface O, was announced to his mathematician friend William Hamilton, discoverer of quaternions, in a letter on this date. 1850 – The Charlotte Jane and the Randolph bring the first of the Canterbury Pilgrims to Lyttelton, New Zealand. 1863 – American Civil War: Joseph E. Johnston replaces Braxton Bragg as commander of the Confederate Army of Tennessee. 1864 – American Civil War: Battle of Nashville: The Union's Army of the Cumberland routs and destroys the Confederacy's Army of Tennessee, ending its effectiveness as a combat unit. 1880 – Outbreak of the First Boer War between the Boer South African Republic and the British Empire. 1882 – Wales and England contest the first Home Nations (now Six Nations) rugby union match. 1883 – Tonkin Campaign: French forces capture the Sơn Tây citadel. 1901–present 1903 – Taj Mahal Palace & Tower hotel in Bombay first opens its doors to guests. 1905 – In Rugby Union, The "Match of the Century" is played between Wales and New Zealand at Cardiff Arms Park. 1907 – The American Great White Fleet begins its circumnavigation of the world. 1912 – First Balkan War: The Royal Hellenic Navy defeats the Ottoman Navy at the Battle of Elli. 1914 – World War I: Admiral Franz von Hipper commands a raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby. 1918 – Vincas Mickevičius-Kapsukas declares the formation of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic; it is dissolved in 1919. 1920 – The Haiyuan earthquake of 8.5, rocks the Gansu province in China, killing an estimated 200,000. 1922 – President of Poland Gabriel Narutowicz is assassinated by Eligiusz Niewiadomski at the Zachęta Gallery in Warsaw. 1930 – Bank robber Herman Lamm and members of his crew are killed by a 200-strong posse, following a botched bank robbery, in Clinton, Indiana. 1937 – Theodore Cole and Ralph Roe attempt to escape from the American federal prison on Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay; neither is ever seen again. 1938 – Adolf Hitler institutes the Cross of Honour of the German Mother. 1942 – The Holocaust: Schutzstaffel chief Heinrich Himmler orders that Roma candidates for extermination be deported to Auschwitz. 1944 – World War II: The Battle of the Bulge begins with the surprise offensive of three German armies through the Ardennes forest. 1947 – William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain build the first practical point-contact transistor. 1950 – Korean War: In response to China's Second Phase Offensive, U.S. President Harry S. Truman declares a limited state of emergency. 1960 – A United Airlines Douglas DC-8 and a TWA Lockheed Super Constellation collide over Staten Island, New York and crash, killing all 128 people aboard both aircraft and six more on the ground. 1965 – Vietnam War: General William Westmoreland sends U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara a request for 243,000 more men by the end of 1966. 1968 – Second Vatican Council: Official revocation of the Edict of Expulsion of Jews from Spain. 1971 – Bangladesh Liberation War and Indo-Pakistani War of 1971: The ceasefire of the Pakistan Army brings an end to both conflicts. This is commemorated annually as Victory Day in Bangladesh, and as Vijay Diwas in India. 1971 – The United Kingdom recognizes Bahrain's independence, which is commemorated annually as Bahrain's National Day. 1978 – Cleveland, Ohio becomes the first major American city to default on its financial obligations since the Great Depression. 1979 – Libya joins four other OPEC nations in raising crude oil prices, which has an immediate, dramatic effect on the United States. 1985 – Paul Castellano and Thomas Bilotti are shot dead on the orders of John Gotti, who assumes leadership of New York's Gambino crime family. 1989 – Romanian Revolution: Protests break out in Timișoara, Romania, in response to an attempt by the government to evict dissident Hungarian pastor László Tőkés. 1989 – U.S. Appeals Court Judge Robert Smith Vance is assassinated by a mail bomb sent by Walter Leroy Moody, Jr. 1991 – Kazakhstan declares independence from the Soviet Union. 2013 – A bus falls from an elevated highway in the Philippines capital Manila killing at least 18 people with 20 injured. 2014 – Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan militants attack an Army Public School in Peshawar, Pakistan, killing 150 people, 132 of them schoolchildren. Births Pre-1600 1364 – Emperor Manuel III of Trebizond (d. 1417) 1485 – Catherine of Aragon, Spanish princess, later queen consort of England (d. 1536) 1534 – Hans Bol, Flemish artist (d. 1593) 1582 – Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey (d. 1642) 1584 – John Selden, English jurist and scholar (d. 1654) 1585 – Livia della Rovere, Italian noble (d. 1641) 1601–1900 1605 – Jerome Weston, 2nd Earl of Portland, English diplomat (d. 1663) 1614 – Eberhard III, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1674) 1630 – Mary Somerset, Duchess of Beaufort, British botanist (d. 1715) 1714 – George Whitefield, English Anglican priest (d. 1770) 1716 – Louis Jules Mancini Mazarini, French poet and diplomat (d. 1798) 1717 – Elizabeth Carter, English poet and scholar (d. 1806) 1730 – Diego Silang, Filipino revolutionary leader (d. 1763) 1742 – Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, German field marshal (d. 1819) 1770 – Ludwig van Beethoven, composer (d. 1827) 1775 – Jane Austen, English novelist (d. 1817) 1775 – François-Adrien Boieldieu, French pianist and composer (d. 1834) 1776 – Johann Wilhelm Ritter, German chemist, physicist, and philosopher (d. 1810) 1778 – John Ordronaux, French-American soldier (d. 1841) 1787 – Mary Russell Mitford, English author and playwright (d. 1855) 1790 – Leopold I of Belgium (d. 1865) 1804 – Viktor Bunyakovsky, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 1889) 1812 – Stuart Donaldson, English-Australian politician, 1st Premier of New South Wales (d. 1867) 1834 – Léon Walras, French-Swiss economist and theorist (d. 1910) 1836 – Ernst von Bergmann, Latvian-German surgeon and academic (d. 1907) 1849 – Mary Hartwell Catherwood, American author and poet (d. 1902) 1861 – Antonio de La Gándara, French painter and illustrator (d. 1917) 1863 – George Santayana, Spanish philosopher, novelist, and poet (d. 1952) 1865 – Olavo Bilac, Brazilian journalist and poet (d. 1918) 1866 – Wassily Kandinsky, Russian-French painter and theorist (d. 1944) 1867 – Amy Carmichael, Irish missionary and humanitarian (d. 1951) 1869 – Hristo Tatarchev, Bulgarian physician and activist, co-founded the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (d. 1952) 1869 – Bertha Lamme Feicht, American electrical engineer (d. 1943) 1872 – Anton Denikin, Russian general (d. 1947) 1882 – Jack Hobbs, English cricketer and journalist (d. 1963) 1882 – Zoltán Kodály, Hungarian composer, conductor, and musicologist (d. 1967) 1882 – Walther Meissner, German physicist and engineer (d. 1974) 1883 – Károly Kós, Hungarian-Romanian architect, ethnologist, and politician (d. 1977) 1883 – Max Linder, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1925) 1884 – John Gunn, Australian politician, 29th Premier of South Australia (d. 1959) 1884 – Seibo Kitamura, Japanese sculptor (d. 1987) 1888 – Alexander I of Yugoslavia (d. 1934) 1888 – Alphonse Juin, Algerian-French general (d. 1967) 1889 – Kim Chwa-chin, South Korean guerrilla leader (d. 1930) 1895 – Marie Hall Ets, American author and illustrator (d. 1984) 1896 – Anna Anderson, an imposter who claimed to be Grand Duchess Anastasia of Russia (d. 1984) 1899 – Noël Coward, English actor, playwright, and composer (d. 1973) 1900 – Lucille Lortel, American actress and producer (d. | dancer 1961 – Jon Tenney, American actor and director 1962 – Maruschka Detmers, Dutch-French actress 1962 – William Perry, American football player and wrestler 1963 – Benjamin Bratt, American actor and producer 1963 – Cathy Johnston-Forbes, American golfer 1963 – James Mangold, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1964 – Heike Drechsler, German sprinter and long jumper 1964 – John Kirwan, New Zealand rugby player and coach 1964 – Georgie Parker, Australian actress 1964 – Billy Ripken, American baseball player and sportscaster 1964 – Todd Glass, American comedian 1965 – Chris Jones, American baseball player and manager 1965 – Melanie Sloan, American lawyer and activist 1966 – Paul McGinley, Irish golfer 1966 – Clifford Robinson, American basketball player (d. 2020) 1966 – Dennis Wise, English footballer and manager 1967 – Donovan Bailey, Canadian sprinter and sportscaster 1967 – Indrek Kaseorg, Estonian decathlete 1967 – Miranda Otto, Australian actress 1968 – Wendy Doolan, Australian golfer 1968 – Lalah Hathaway, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer 1968 – Greg Kovacs, Canadian bodybuilder (d. 2013) 1969 – Simon Grayson, English footballer and manager 1969 – Adam Riess, American astrophysicist, astronomer, and academic Nobel Prize laureate 1969 – Michelle Smith, Irish swimmer 1969 – Dmitri Tymoczko, American composer and theorist 1969 – Craig White, English cricketer and coach 1969 – Kent Hehr, Canadian politician 1970 – Valerie Chow, Canadian-Hong Kong actress and publicist 1971 – Seyhan Kurt, French-Turkish poet and sociologist 1971 – Michael McCary, American R&B singer 1972 – Charles Gipson, American baseball player 1972 – Paul Leyden, Australian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1972 – Travis Morrison, American singer-songwriter 1973 – Themba Mnguni, South African footballer 1973 – Scott Storch, American songwriter and producer, founded Storch Music Company 1975 – Valentin Bădoi, Romanian footballer and manager 1975 – Kaba Diawara, French-Guinean footballer 1975 – Benjamin Kowalewicz, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1975 – Paul Maynard, English politician 1976 – Jen Golbeck, American computer scientist and academic 1977 – Éric Bélanger, Canadian ice hockey player 1977 – Sylvain Distin, French footballer 1978 – John Morris, Canadian curler and firefighter 1978 – Gunter Van Handenhoven, Belgian footballer and manager 1979 – Trevor Immelman, South African golfer 1979 – Daniel Narcisse, French handball player 1979 – Mihai Trăistariu, Romanian singer-songwriter 1979 – Jessie Ward, American wrestler and producer 1980 – Danish Kaneria, Pakistani cricketer 1981 – Krysten Ritter, American actress, musician, and model 1981 – Gareth Williams, Scottish footballer 1982 – Antrel Rolle, American football player 1982 – Anna Sedokova, Ukrainian singer, actress and television presenter 1982 – Stanislav Šesták, Slovak footballer 1983 – Kelenna Azubuike, American basketball player 1983 – Frankie Ballard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1984 – Theo James, English actor 1985 – Stanislav Manolev, Bulgarian footballer 1985 – James Nash, English race car driver 1986 – Alcides Escobar, Venezuelan baseball player 1986 – Zoltán Kovács, Hungarian footballer (d. 2013) 1986 – Pärt Uusberg, Estonian actor, composer, and conductor. 1987 – Mame Biram Diouf, Senegalese footballer 1987 – Beau Dowler, Australian footballer 1987 – Hallee Hirsh, American actress 1988 – Mats Hummels, German footballer 1988 – Anna Popplewell, English actress 1989 – Mirei Kiritani, Japanese model, actress, and journalist 1991 – Craig Goodwin, Australian footballer 1992 – Ulrikke Eikeri, Norwegian tennis player 1992 – Anamul Haque, Bangladeshi cricketer 1992 – Moe Miura, Japanese model, actress, and singer 1992 – Pietro Perdichizzi, Belgian footballer 1992 – Tom Rogic, Australian footballer 1994 – Elliot Lee, English footballer 1994 – Nicola Murru, Italian footballer 1994 – José Rodríguez Martínez, Spanish footballer 1997 – Zara Larsson, Swedish singer and songwriter 1998 – Mira Antonitsch, Austrian tennis player Deaths Pre-1600 604 – Houzhu, emperor of the Chen dynasty (b. 553) 705 – Wu Zetian, Empress of the Zhou dynasty (b. 624) 714 – Pepin of Herstal, Frankish statesman (b. 635) 867 – Eberhard of Friuli, Frankish duke (b. 815) 874 – Ado, archbishop of Vienne 882 – John VIII, pope of the Catholic Church 902 – Wei Yifan, chancellor of the Tang dynasty 999 – Adelaide of Italy, Holy Roman Empress (b. 931) 1153 – Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester, Norman nobleman 1263 – Haakon IV, king of Norway (b. 1204) 1316 – Öljaitü, Mongolian ruler (b. 1280) 1325 – Charles, French nobleman (b. 1270) 1378 – Secondotto, marquess of Montferrat (b. 1360) 1379 – John FitzAlan, 1st Baron Arundel, English general and politician, Lord Marshall of England (b. 1348) 1470 – John II, duke of Lorraine (b. 1424) 1474 – Ali Qushji, Uzbek astronomer, mathematician, and physicist (b. 1403) 1515 – Afonso de Albuquerque, Portuguese admiral and politician, 3rd Viceroy of Portuguese India (b. 1453) 1558 – Thomas Cheney, English diplomat and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports 1583 – Ivan Fyodorov, Russian printer 1594 – Allison Balfour, Scottish witch 1598 – Yi Sun-sin, Korean general (b. 1545) 1601–1900 1669 – Nathaniel Fiennes, English soldier and politician (b. 1608) 1687 – William Petty, English economist and philosopher (b. 1623) 1751 – Leopold II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau (b. 1700) 1774 – François Quesnay, French economist, physician, and philosopher (b. 1694) 1783 – Johann Adolph Hasse, German composer and educator (b. 1699) 1783 – Sir William James, 1st Baronet, Welsh-English commander and politician (b. 1720) 1805 – Saverio Cassar, Gozitan priest and rebel leader (b. 1746) 1809 – Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, French chemist and entomologist (b. 1755) 1859 – Wilhelm Grimm, German anthropologist and author (b. 1786) 1892 – Henry Yesler, American businessman and politician, 7th Mayor of Seattle (b. 1810) 1897 – Alphonse Daudet, French author, poet, and playwright (b. 1840) 1898 – Pavel Tretyakov, Russian businessman and art collector (b. 1832) 1901–present 1908 – American Horse, American tribal leader and educator (b. 1840) 1917 – Frank Gotch, American wrestler (b. 1878) 1921 – Camille Saint-Saëns, French pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1835) 1922 – Gabriel Narutowicz, Lithuanian–Polish engineer and politician, 1st President of the Republic of Poland (b. 1865) 1928 – Elinor Wylie, American poet and author (b. 1885) 1935 – Thelma Todd, American actress and comedian (b. 1905) 1936 – Frank Eugene, American-German photographer and educator (b. 1865) 1940 – Eugène Dubois, Dutch paleoanthropologist (b. 1858) 1940 – Billy Hamilton, American baseball player and manager (b. 1866) 1943 – George Bambridge, English diplomat (b. 1892) 1944 – Betsie ten Boom, Dutch Holocaust victim (b. 1885) 1945 – Giovanni Agnelli, Italian businessman, founded Fiat (b. 1866) 1945 – Fumimaro Konoe, Japanese lawyer and politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1891) 1949 – Sidney Olcott, Canadian-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1873) 1952 – Robert Henry Best, American journalist (b. 1896) 1956 – Nina Hamnett, Welsh painter and author (b. 1890) 1961 – Hans Rebane, Estonian journalist and politician, 8th Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1882) 1965 – W. Somerset Maugham, British playwright, novelist, and short story writer (b. 1874) 1968 – Futabayama Sadaji, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 35th Yokozuna (b. 1912) 1968 – Muhammad Suheimat, Jordanian general and politician (b. 1916) 1969 – Alphonse Castex, French rugby union player (b. 1899) 1969 – Soe Hok Gie, Indonesian activist and academic (b. 1942) 1970 – Oscar Lewis, American anthropologist of Latin America (b. 1914) 1974 – Kostas Varnalis, Greek poet and playwright (b. 1884) 1976 – Réal Caouette, Canadian journalist and politician (b. 1917) 1977 – Risto Jarva, Finnish director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1934) 1980 – Colonel Sanders, American businessman, founded KFC (b. 1890) 1980 – Hellmuth Walter, German-American engineer (b. 1900) 1982 – Colin Chapman, English engineer and businessman, founded Lotus Cars (b. 1928) 1983 – Debs Garms, American baseball player (b. 1907) 1984 – Karl Deichgräber, German philologist and academic (b. 1903) 1985 – Thomas Bilotti, American mobster (b. 1940) 1985 – Paul Castellano, American mobster (b. 1915) 1989 – Oscar Alfredo Gálvez, Argentinian race car driver (b. 1913) 1989 – Silvana Mangano, Italian actress (b. 1930) 1989 – Aileen Pringle, American actress (b. 1895) 1989 – Lee Van Cleef, American actor (b. 1925) 1991 – Eszter Tamási, Hungarian actress and journalist (b. 1938) 1993 – Moses Gunn, American actor (b. 1929) 1993 – Kakuei Tanaka, Japanese soldier and politician, 64th Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1918) 1996 – Quentin Bell, English historian and author (b. 1910) 1997 – Lillian Disney, American illustrator and philanthropist (b. 1899) 1998 – William Gaddis, American author and academic (b. 1922) 2001 – Stuart Adamson, English-Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1958) 2001 – Stefan Heym, German-American soldier and author (b. 1913) 2003 – Robert Stanfield, Canadian economist, lawyer, and politician, 17th Premier of Nova Scotia (b. 1914) 2003 – Gary Stewart, American singer-songwriter (b. 1945) 2004 – Ted Abernathy, American baseball player (b. 1933) 2004 – Deyda Hydara, Gambian journalist, co-founded The Point (b. 1946) 2004 – Agnes Martin, American painter and educator (b. 1912) 2005 – Kenneth Bulmer, English author (b. 1921) 2005 – Ed Hansen, American director and screenwriter (b. 1937) 2005 – John Spencer, American actor (b. 1946) 2006 – Don Jardine, Canadian wrestler and trainer (b. 1940) 2006 – Taliep Petersen, South African singer-songwriter and director (b. 1950) 2006 – Pnina Salzman, Israeli pianist and educator (b. 1922) 2006 – Stanford J. Shaw, American historian and academic (b. 1930) 2007 – Dan Fogelberg, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1951) 2009 – Roy E. Disney, American businessman (b. 1930) 2009 – Yegor Gaidar, Russian economist and politician, Prime Minister of Russia (b. 1956) 2009 – Manto Tshabalala-Msimang, South African physician and politician, 22nd South African Minister of Health (b. 1940) 2010 – Melvin E. Biddle, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b. |
in April 1976. No new revelatory sections have been added since 1981. The LDS Church's 1981 edition contains two "Official Declarations" at the book's conclusion. The 1890 Official Declaration 1 ended the church-authorized practice of plural marriage, and the 1978 Official Declaration 2 announces the opening of priesthood ordination to all worthy male members without regard to race or color. The two Official Declarations are not revelations, but they serve as the formal announcements that a revelation was received. In neither case is the revelation included in the Doctrine and Covenants. The text of Official Declaration 1 has been included in every LDS Church printing of the Doctrine and Covenants since 1908. Portions removed from the LDS edition In 1876, section 101 from the 1835 edition (and subsequent printings) was removed. Section 101 was a "Statement on Marriage" as adopted by an 1835 conference of the church, and contained the following text: This section was removed because it had been superseded by section 132 of the modern LDS edition, recorded in 1843, which contains a revelation received by Joseph Smith on eternal marriage and plural marriage, the origin of the principles of which the LDS Church traces to as early as 1831. In 1921, the LDS Church removed the "Lectures on Faith" portion of the book, with an explanation that the lectures "were never presented to nor accepted by the Church as being otherwise than theological lectures or lessons". The lectures contain theology concerning the Godhead and emphasize the importance of faith and works. Until 1981, editions of the book used code names for certain people and places in those sections that dealt with the United Order. The 1981 LDS edition replaced these with the real names, relegating the code names to footnotes. The Community of Christ edition still uses the code names. Community of Christ editions Officials of the Community of Christ (formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints [RLDS Church]) first published an edition of the Doctrine and Covenants in 1864, based on the previous 1844 edition. A general conference of the church in 1878 approved a resolution that declared that the revelations of the Prophet-President Joseph Smith III had equal standing to those previously included in the work. Since that time, the church has continued to add sections to its edition of the Doctrine and Covenants, containing the revelations of succeeding Prophet-Presidents. The most recent addition was formally authorized on April 14, 2010, after being presented to the church for informal consideration on January 17, 2010. The numbers of the sections and versification differ from the edition published by the LDS Church and both modern editions differ from the original 1835 edition numeration. Sections added to the Community of Christ edition The 167 sections of the Community of Christ's Doctrine and Covenants break down as follows: Sections 1–113 (includes 108A): From the presidency of Joseph Smith (1828–44) Sections 114–131: From the presidency of Joseph Smith III (1860–1914) Sections 132–138: From the presidency of Frederick M. Smith (1914–46) Sections 139–144: From the presidency of Israel A. Smith (1946–58) Sections 145–152 (includes 149A): From the presidency of W. Wallace Smith (1958–78) Sections 153–160: From the presidency of Wallace B. Smith (1978–96) Sections 161–162: From the presidency of W. Grant McMurray (1996–2004) Sections 163–165: From the presidency of Stephen M. Veazey (2005–) The following sections are not revelations, but letters, reports, statements, and other similar documents: 99, 108A, 109–113, and 123. Based on the above, the number of revelations (accounting for sections that are not revelations) presented by each Community of Christ president, are as follows: Joseph Smith: 107 Joseph Smith III: 17 Frederick M. Smith: 7 Israel A. Smith: 6 W. Wallace Smith: 9 Wallace B. Smith: 8 W. Grant McMurray: 2 Stephen M. Veazey: 3 Portions removed from the Community of Christ edition The Community of Christ removed the "Lectures on Faith" in 1897. The 1970 World Conference concluded that several sections that had been added between the 1835 and 1844 editions—mainly dealing with the subjects of temple worship and baptism for the dead—had been published without proper approval of a church conference. As a result, the World Conference removed sections 107, 109, 110, 113, and 123 to a historical appendix, which also includes documents that were never published as sections. Of these, only section 107 was a revelation. The World Conference of 1990 subsequently removed the entire appendix from the Doctrine and Covenants. Section 108A contained the minutes of a business meeting, which, because of its historical nature, was moved to the Introduction in the 1970s. After 1990, the Introduction was updated, and what was section 108A was removed entirely. Doctrinal developments in the Community of Christ edition The ongoing additions to the Community of Christ edition provide a record of the leadership changes and doctrinal developments within the denomination. When W. Grant McMurray became Prophet-President, he declared that instruction specific to leadership changes would no longer be included, so that the focus of the work could be more doctrinal in nature, and less administrative. The record of these leadership changes are still maintained in the form of published "letters of counsel." Prophet-President Stephen M. Veazey has conformed to this pattern. Although these letters are not formally published in the Doctrine and Covenants, they are still deemed to be inspired, and are dealt with in the same manner that revelations are (that is, they must be deliberated and approved by the voting members of a World Conference). A modern revelation that resulted in some "disaffection" and "led to intense conflict in scattered areas of the RLDS Church" is contained in the Community of Christ version's section 156, presented by Prophet–President Wallace B. Smith and added in 1984, which called for the ordination of women to the priesthood and set out the primary purpose of temples to be "the pursuit of peace". A resulting schism over the legitimacy of these change led to the formation of the Restoration Branches movement, the Restoration Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints and the Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. While some of the prose in the new revelations seems designed to guide the denomination on matters of church governance and doctrine, others are seen as inspirational. One such example can be cited from section 161, presented as counsel to | Smith and Williams, two of the Presiding Elders on the committee, were absent, but Cowdery and Rigdon were present. The church membership at the time had not yet seen the Doctrine and Covenants manuscript as it had been compiled and revised solely by the committee; however, various church members who were familiar with the work "bore record" of the book's truth. At the end of the conference, the church "by a unanimous vote" agreed to accept the compilation as "the doctrine and covenants of their faith" and to make arrangements for its printing. In 1835, the book was printed and published under the title Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of the Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God. A copy of the Doctrine and Covenants from NASA photographer M. Edward Thomas traveled to the moon and back in 1972 with astronaut John Young aboard Apollo 16. LDS Church editions In the LDS Church, The Doctrine and Covenants of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints stands alongside the Bible, the Book of Mormon, and the Pearl of Great Price as scripture. Together the LDS Church's scriptures are referred to as the "standard works". The LDS Church's version of the Doctrine and Covenants is described by the church as "containing revelations given to Joseph Smith, the Prophet, with some additions by his successors in the Presidency of the Church." Sections added to LDS edition The 138 sections and two official declarations in LDS Church's Doctrine and Covenants break down as follows: Sections 1–134, 137: From the presidency of Joseph Smith (1828–44) Sections 135–136: During the administration of the Quorum of the Twelve (1844–47) Official Declaration 1: From the presidency of Wilford Woodruff (1889–98) Section 138: From the presidency of Joseph F. Smith (1901–18) Official Declaration 2: From the presidency of Spencer W. Kimball (1973–85) The following sections are not revelations, but letters, reports, statements, and other similar documents: 102, 123, 127–131, 134, 135, and Official Declarations 1 and 2. In 1844, the church added eight sections not included in the 1835 edition. In the current edition, these added sections are numbered 103, 105, 112, 119, 124, 127, 128, and 135. In 1876, a new LDS Church edition renumbered most of the sections in a roughly chronological order instead of the earlier topical order, and included 26 sections not included in previous editions, now numbered as sections 2, 13, 77, 85, 87, 108–111, 113–118, 120–123, 125, 126, 129–132, and 136. Previous editions had been divided into verses with the early versifications generally following the paragraph structure of the original text. It was with the 1876 edition that the currently used versification was first employed. During the 1880s, five foreign editions contained two revelations to John Taylor that were received in 1882 and 1883; these revelations "set in order" the priesthood, gave more clarification about the roles of priesthood offices—especially the seventy—and required "men who ... preside over my priesthood" to live plural marriage in order to qualify to hold their church positions. Due to the LDS Church's change in attitude to polygamy in 1890, these sections were not included in future English editions of the Doctrine and Covenants. In 1930, a small volume edited by apostle James E. Talmage titled Latter-day Revelations was published, which was a highly edited selective version of the Doctrine and Covenants. Talmage wrote that the book's purpose was "to make the strictly doctrinal parts of the Doctrine and Covenants of easy access and reduce its bulk" by including only "the sections comprising scriptures of general and enduring value". Ninety-five of the sections of the Doctrine and Covenants were completely omitted—most notably section 132 on plural and celestial marriage—along with parts of 21 others. Twenty complete sections were retained along with parts of 21 others. Fundamentalist Mormons were offended, particularly at the exclusion of section 132, and accused the church of "changing the scriptures." As a result, church president Heber J. Grant ordered the withdrawal of the book from sale with the remaining copies shredded in order to "avoid further conflict with the fundamentalists". Sections 137 and 138 were added to the LDS Church's 1981 edition of the Doctrine and Covenants, which is the edition currently in use by the church. These were accounts of two visions, one from Joseph Smith in 1837 and the other from his nephew, Joseph F. Smith, in 1918. The revelations were earlier accepted as scripture when added to the Pearl of Great Price in April 1976. No new revelatory sections have been added since 1981. The LDS Church's 1981 edition contains two "Official Declarations" at the book's conclusion. The 1890 Official Declaration 1 ended the church-authorized practice of plural marriage, and the 1978 Official Declaration 2 announces the opening of priesthood ordination to all worthy male members without regard to race or color. The two Official Declarations are not revelations, but they serve as the formal announcements that a revelation was received. In neither case is the revelation included in the Doctrine and Covenants. The text of Official Declaration 1 has been included in every LDS Church printing of the Doctrine and Covenants since 1908. Portions removed from the LDS edition In 1876, section 101 from the 1835 edition (and subsequent printings) was removed. Section 101 was a "Statement on Marriage" as adopted by an 1835 conference of the church, and contained the following text: This section was removed because it had been superseded by section 132 of the modern LDS edition, recorded in 1843, which contains a revelation received by Joseph Smith on eternal marriage and plural marriage, the origin of the principles of which the LDS Church traces to as early as 1831. In 1921, the LDS Church removed the "Lectures on Faith" portion of the book, with an explanation that the lectures "were never presented to nor accepted by the Church as being otherwise than theological lectures or lessons". The lectures contain theology concerning the Godhead and emphasize the importance of faith and works. Until 1981, editions of the book used code names for certain people and places in those sections that dealt with the United Order. The 1981 LDS edition replaced these with the real names, relegating the code names to footnotes. The Community of Christ edition still uses the code names. Community of Christ editions Officials of the Community of Christ (formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints [RLDS Church]) first published an edition of the Doctrine and Covenants in 1864, based on the previous 1844 edition. A general conference of the church in 1878 approved a resolution that declared that the revelations of the Prophet-President Joseph Smith III had equal standing to those previously included in the work. Since that time, the church has continued to add sections to its edition of the Doctrine and Covenants, containing the revelations of succeeding Prophet-Presidents. The most recent addition was formally authorized on April 14, 2010, after being presented to the church for informal consideration on January 17, 2010. The numbers of the sections and versification differ from the edition published by the LDS Church and both modern editions differ from the original 1835 edition numeration. Sections added to the Community of Christ edition The 167 sections of the Community of Christ's Doctrine and Covenants break down as follows: Sections 1–113 (includes 108A): From the presidency of Joseph Smith (1828–44) Sections 114–131: From the presidency of Joseph Smith III (1860–1914) Sections 132–138: From the presidency of Frederick M. Smith (1914–46) Sections 139–144: From the presidency of Israel A. Smith (1946–58) Sections 145–152 (includes 149A): From the presidency of W. Wallace Smith (1958–78) Sections 153–160: From the presidency of Wallace B. Smith (1978–96) Sections 161–162: From the presidency of W. Grant McMurray (1996–2004) Sections 163–165: From the presidency of Stephen M. Veazey (2005–) The following sections are not revelations, but letters, reports, statements, and other similar documents: 99, 108A, 109–113, and 123. Based on the above, the number of revelations (accounting for sections that are not revelations) presented by each Community of Christ president, are as follows: Joseph Smith: 107 Joseph Smith III: 17 Frederick M. Smith: 7 Israel A. Smith: 6 W. Wallace Smith: 9 Wallace B. Smith: 8 W. Grant McMurray: 2 Stephen M. Veazey: 3 Portions removed from the Community of Christ edition The Community of Christ removed the "Lectures on Faith" in 1897. The 1970 World Conference concluded that several sections that had been added between the 1835 and 1844 editions—mainly dealing with the subjects of temple worship and baptism for the dead—had been published without proper approval of a church conference. As a result, the World Conference removed sections 107, 109, 110, 113, and 123 to a historical appendix, which also includes documents that were never published as sections. Of these, only section 107 was a revelation. The World Conference of 1990 subsequently removed the entire appendix from the Doctrine and Covenants. Section 108A contained the minutes of a business |
reach 90–100M by 2025. According to Jean Ziegler (United Nations Special Reporter on the Right to Food, 2000 – Mar 2008), mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality rate in 2006. Ziegler says worldwide approximately 62M people died from all causes and of those deaths more than 36M died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients. Tobacco smoking killed 100 million people worldwide in the 20th century and could kill 1 billion people around the world in the 21st century, a World Health Organization report warned. Many leading developed world causes of death can be postponed by diet and physical activity, but the accelerating incidence of disease with age still imposes limits on human longevity. The evolutionary cause of aging is, at best, only just beginning to be understood. It has been suggested that direct intervention in the aging process may now be the most effective intervention against major causes of death. Selye proposed a unified non-specific approach to many causes of death. He demonstrated that stress decreases adaptability of an organism and proposed to describe the adaptability as a special resource, adaptation energy. The animal dies when this resource is exhausted. Selye assumed that the adaptability is a finite supply, presented at birth. Later on, Goldstone proposed the concept of a production or income of adaptation energy which may be stored (up to a limit), as a capital reserve of adaptation. In recent works, adaptation energy is considered as an internal coordinate on the "dominant path" in the model of adaptation. It is demonstrated that oscillations of well-being appear when the reserve of adaptability is almost exhausted. In 2012, suicide overtook car crashes for leading causes of human injury deaths in the U.S., followed by poisoning, falls and murder. Causes of death are different in different parts of the world. In high-income and middle income countries nearly half up to more than two thirds of all people live beyond the age of 70 and predominantly die of chronic diseases. In low-income countries, where less than one in five of all people reach the age of 70, and more than a third of all deaths are among children under 15, people predominantly die of infectious diseases. Autopsy An autopsy, also known as a postmortem examination or an obduction, is a medical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a human corpse to determine the cause and manner of a person's death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present. It is usually performed by a specialized medical doctor called a pathologist. Autopsies are either performed for legal or medical purposes. A forensic autopsy is carried out when the cause of death may be a criminal matter, while a clinical or academic autopsy is performed to find the medical cause of death and is used in cases of unknown or uncertain death, or for research purposes. Autopsies can be further classified into cases where external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and an internal examination is conducted. Permission from next of kin may be required for internal autopsy in some cases. Once an internal autopsy is complete the body is generally reconstituted by sewing it back together. Autopsy is important in a medical environment and may shed light on mistakes and help improve practices. A necropsy, which is not always a medical procedure, was a term previously used to describe an unregulated postmortem examination . In modern times, this term is more commonly associated with the corpses of animals. Senescence Senescence refers to a scenario when a living being is able to survive all calamities, but eventually dies due to causes relating to old age. Animal and plant cells normally reproduce and function during the whole period of natural existence, but the aging process derives from deterioration of cellular activity and ruination of regular functioning. Aptitude of cells for gradual deterioration and mortality means that cells are naturally sentenced to stable and long-term loss of living capacities, even despite continuing metabolic reactions and viability. In the United Kingdom, for example, nine out of ten of all the deaths that occur on a daily basis relates to senescence, while around the world it accounts for two-thirds of 150,000 deaths that take place daily (Hayflick & Moody, 2003). Almost all animals who survive external hazards to their biological functioning eventually die from biological aging, known in life sciences as "senescence". Some organisms experience negligible senescence, even exhibiting biological immortality. These include the jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii, the hydra, and the planarian. Unnatural causes of death include suicide and predation. From all causes, roughly 150,000 people die around the world each day. Of these, two thirds die directly or indirectly due to senescence, but in industrialized countries – such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany – the rate approaches 90% (i.e., nearly nine out of ten of all deaths are related to senescence). Physiological death is now seen as a process, more than an event: conditions once considered indicative of death are now reversible. Where in the process a dividing line is drawn between life and death depends on factors beyond the presence or absence of vital signs. In general, clinical death is neither necessary nor sufficient for a determination of legal death. A patient with working heart and lungs determined to be brain dead can be pronounced legally dead without clinical death occurring. Cryonics Cryonics (from Greek κρύος 'kryos-' meaning 'icy cold') is the low-temperature preservation of animals and humans who cannot be sustained by contemporary medicine, with the hope that healing and resuscitation may be possible in the future. Cryopreservation of people or large animals is not reversible with current technology. The stated rationale for cryonics is that people who are considered dead by current legal or medical definitions may not necessarily be dead according to the more stringent information-theoretic definition of death. Some scientific literature is claimed to support the feasibility of cryonics. Medical science and cryobiologists generally regards cryonics with skepticism. Reperfusion "One of medicine's new frontiers: treating the dead", recognizes that cells that have been without oxygen for more than five minutes die, not from lack of oxygen, but rather when their oxygen supply is resumed. Therefore, practitioners of this approach, e.g., at the Resuscitation Science institute at the University of Pennsylvania, "aim to reduce oxygen uptake, slow metabolism and adjust the blood chemistry for gradual and safe reperfusion." Life extension Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans, by slowing down or reversing the processes of aging through anti-aging measures. Despite the fact that aging is by far the most common cause of death worldwide, it is socially mostly ignored as such and seen as "necessary" and "inevitable" anyway, which is why little money is spent on research into anti-aging therapies, a phenomenon known as the pro-aging trance. Average lifespan is determined by vulnerability to accidents and age or lifestyle-related afflictions such as cancer, or cardiovascular disease. Extension of average lifespan can be achieved by good diet, exercise and avoidance of hazards such as smoking. Maximum lifespan is also determined by the rate of aging for a species inherent in its genes. Currently, the only widely recognized method of extending maximum lifespan is calorie restriction. Theoretically, extension of maximum lifespan can be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by periodic replacement of damaged tissues, or by molecular repair or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues. A United States poll found that religious people and irreligious people, as well as men and women and people of different economic classes have similar rates of support for life extension, while Africans and Hispanics have higher rates of support than white people. 38 percent of the polled said they would desire to have their aging process cured. Researchers of life extension are a subclass of biogerontologists known as "biomedical gerontologists". They try to understand the nature of aging and they develop treatments to reverse aging processes or to at least slow them down, for the improvement of health and the maintenance of youthful vigor at every stage of life. Those who take advantage of life extension findings and seek to apply them upon themselves are called "life extensionists" or "longevists". The primary life extension strategy currently is to apply available anti-aging methods in the hope of living long enough to benefit from a complete cure to aging once it is developed. Location Before about 1930, most people in Western countries died in their own homes, surrounded by family, and comforted by clergy, neighbors, and doctors making house calls. By the mid-20th century, half of all Americans died in a hospital. By the start of the 21st century, only about 20–25% of people in developed countries died outside of a medical institution. The shift away from dying at home towards dying in a professional medical environment has been termed the "Invisible Death". This shift occurred gradually over the years, until most deaths now occur outside the home. Psychology Death studies is a field within psychology. Many people are afraid of dying. Discussing, thinking, or planning their own deaths causes them discomfort. This fear may cause them to put off financial planning, preparing a will and testament, or requesting help from a hospice organization. Different people have different responses to the idea of their own deaths. Philosopher Galen Strawson writes that the death that many people wish for is an instant, painless, unexperienced annihilation. In this unlikely scenario, the person dies without realizing it and without being able to fear it. One moment the person is walking, eating, or sleeping, and the next moment, the person is dead. Strawson reasons that this type of death would not take anything away from the person, as he believes that a person cannot have a legitimate claim to ownership in the future. Society and culture In society, the nature of death and humanity's awareness of its own mortality has for millennia been a concern of the world's religious traditions and of philosophical inquiry. This includes belief in resurrection or an afterlife (associated with Abrahamic religions), reincarnation or rebirth (associated with Dharmic religions), or that consciousness permanently ceases to exist, known as eternal oblivion (associated with Secular humanism). Commemoration ceremonies after death may include various mourning, funeral practices and ceremonies of honouring the deceased. The physical remains of a person, commonly known as a corpse or body, are usually interred whole or cremated, though among the world's cultures there are a variety of other methods of mortuary disposal. In the English language, blessings directed towards a dead person include rest in peace (originally the Latin requiescat in pace), or its initialism RIP. Death is the center of many traditions and organizations; customs relating to death are a feature of every culture around the world. Much of this revolves around the care of the dead, as well as the afterlife and the disposal of bodies upon the onset of death. The disposal of human corpses does, in general, begin with the last offices before significant time has passed, and ritualistic ceremonies often occur, most commonly interment or cremation. This is not a unified practice; in Tibet, for instance, the body is given a sky burial and left on a mountain top. Proper preparation for death and techniques and ceremonies for producing the ability to transfer one's spiritual attainments into another body (reincarnation) are subjects of detailed study in Tibet. Mummification or embalming is also prevalent in some cultures, to retard the rate of decay. Legal aspects of death are also part of many cultures, particularly the settlement of the deceased estate and the issues of inheritance and in some countries, inheritance taxation. Capital punishment is also a culturally divisive aspect of death. In most jurisdictions where capital punishment is carried out today, the death penalty is reserved for premeditated murder, espionage, treason, or as part of military justice. In some countries, sexual crimes, such as adultery and sodomy, carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes such as apostasy, the formal renunciation of one's religion. In many retentionist countries, drug trafficking is also a capital offense. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are also punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offenses such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. Death in warfare and in suicide attack also have cultural links, and the ideas of dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, mutiny punishable by death, grieving relatives of dead soldiers and death notification are embedded in many cultures. Recently in the western world, with the increase in terrorism following the September 11 attacks, but also further back in time with suicide bombings, kamikaze missions in World War II and suicide missions in a host of other conflicts in history, death for a cause by way of suicide attack, and martyrdom have had significant cultural impacts. Suicide in general, and particularly euthanasia, are also points of cultural debate. Both acts are understood very differently in different cultures. In Japan, for example, ending a life with honor by seppuku was considered a desirable death, whereas according to traditional Christian and Islamic cultures, suicide is viewed as a sin. Death is personified in many cultures, with such symbolic representations as the Grim Reaper, Azrael, the Hindu god Yama and Father Time. In Brazil, a human death is counted officially when it is registered by existing family members at a cartório, a government-authorized registry. Before being able to file for an official death, the deceased must have been registered for an official birth at the cartório. Though a Public Registry Law guarantees all Brazilian citizens the right to register deaths, regardless of their financial means, of their family members (often children), the Brazilian government has not taken away the burden, the hidden costs and fees, of filing for a death. For many impoverished families, the indirect costs and burden of filing for a death lead to a more appealing, unofficial, local, cultural burial, which in turn raises the debate about inaccurate mortality rates. Talking about death and witnessing it is a difficult issue with most cultures. Western societies may like to treat the dead with the utmost material respect, with an official embalmer and associated rites. Eastern societies (like India) may be more open to accepting it as a fait accompli, with a funeral procession of the dead body ending in an open-air burning-to-ashes of the same. Consciousness Much interest and debate surround the question of what happens to one's consciousness as one's body dies. The belief in the permanent loss of consciousness after death is often called eternal oblivion. Belief that the stream of consciousness is preserved after physical death is described by the term afterlife. Neither are likely to ever be confirmed without the ponderer having to actually die. In biology After death, the remains of a former organism become part of the biogeochemical cycle, during which animals may be consumed by a predator or a scavenger. Organic material may then be further decomposed by detritivores, organisms which recycle detritus, returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain, where these chemicals may eventually end up being consumed and assimilated into the cells of an organism. Examples of detritivores include earthworms, woodlice and dung beetles. Microorganisms also play a vital role, raising the temperature of the decomposing matter as they break it down into yet simpler molecules. Not all materials need to be fully decomposed. Coal, a fossil fuel formed over vast tracts of time in swamp ecosystems, is one example. Natural selection Contemporary evolutionary theory sees death as an important part of the process of natural selection. It is considered that organisms less adapted to their environment are more likely to die having produced fewer offspring, thereby reducing their contribution to the gene pool. Their genes are thus eventually bred out of a population, leading at worst to extinction and, more positively, making the process possible, referred to as speciation. Frequency of reproduction plays an equally important role in determining species survival: an organism that dies young but leaves numerous offspring displays, according to Darwinian criteria, much greater fitness than a long-lived organism leaving only one. Extinction Extinction is the cessation of existence of a species or group of taxa, reducing biodiversity. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species (although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point). Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where species presumed extinct abruptly "reappear" (typically in the fossil record) after a period of apparent absence. New species arise through the process of speciation, an aspect of evolution. New varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche – and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition. Evolution of aging and mortality Inquiry into the evolution of aging aims to explain why so many living things and the vast majority of animals weaken and die with age (exceptions include Hydra and the already cited jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii, which research shows to be biologically immortal). The evolutionary origin of senescence remains one of the fundamental puzzles of biology. Gerontology specializes in the science of human aging processes. Organisms showing only asexual reproduction (e.g. bacteria, some protists, like the euglenoids and many amoebozoans) and unicellular organisms with sexual reproduction (colonial or not, like the volvocine algae Pandorina and Chlamydomonas) are "immortal" at some extent, dying only due to external hazards, like being eaten or meeting with a fatal accident. In multicellular organisms (and also in multinucleate | around the world in the 21st century, a World Health Organization report warned. Many leading developed world causes of death can be postponed by diet and physical activity, but the accelerating incidence of disease with age still imposes limits on human longevity. The evolutionary cause of aging is, at best, only just beginning to be understood. It has been suggested that direct intervention in the aging process may now be the most effective intervention against major causes of death. Selye proposed a unified non-specific approach to many causes of death. He demonstrated that stress decreases adaptability of an organism and proposed to describe the adaptability as a special resource, adaptation energy. The animal dies when this resource is exhausted. Selye assumed that the adaptability is a finite supply, presented at birth. Later on, Goldstone proposed the concept of a production or income of adaptation energy which may be stored (up to a limit), as a capital reserve of adaptation. In recent works, adaptation energy is considered as an internal coordinate on the "dominant path" in the model of adaptation. It is demonstrated that oscillations of well-being appear when the reserve of adaptability is almost exhausted. In 2012, suicide overtook car crashes for leading causes of human injury deaths in the U.S., followed by poisoning, falls and murder. Causes of death are different in different parts of the world. In high-income and middle income countries nearly half up to more than two thirds of all people live beyond the age of 70 and predominantly die of chronic diseases. In low-income countries, where less than one in five of all people reach the age of 70, and more than a third of all deaths are among children under 15, people predominantly die of infectious diseases. Autopsy An autopsy, also known as a postmortem examination or an obduction, is a medical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a human corpse to determine the cause and manner of a person's death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present. It is usually performed by a specialized medical doctor called a pathologist. Autopsies are either performed for legal or medical purposes. A forensic autopsy is carried out when the cause of death may be a criminal matter, while a clinical or academic autopsy is performed to find the medical cause of death and is used in cases of unknown or uncertain death, or for research purposes. Autopsies can be further classified into cases where external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and an internal examination is conducted. Permission from next of kin may be required for internal autopsy in some cases. Once an internal autopsy is complete the body is generally reconstituted by sewing it back together. Autopsy is important in a medical environment and may shed light on mistakes and help improve practices. A necropsy, which is not always a medical procedure, was a term previously used to describe an unregulated postmortem examination . In modern times, this term is more commonly associated with the corpses of animals. Senescence Senescence refers to a scenario when a living being is able to survive all calamities, but eventually dies due to causes relating to old age. Animal and plant cells normally reproduce and function during the whole period of natural existence, but the aging process derives from deterioration of cellular activity and ruination of regular functioning. Aptitude of cells for gradual deterioration and mortality means that cells are naturally sentenced to stable and long-term loss of living capacities, even despite continuing metabolic reactions and viability. In the United Kingdom, for example, nine out of ten of all the deaths that occur on a daily basis relates to senescence, while around the world it accounts for two-thirds of 150,000 deaths that take place daily (Hayflick & Moody, 2003). Almost all animals who survive external hazards to their biological functioning eventually die from biological aging, known in life sciences as "senescence". Some organisms experience negligible senescence, even exhibiting biological immortality. These include the jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii, the hydra, and the planarian. Unnatural causes of death include suicide and predation. From all causes, roughly 150,000 people die around the world each day. Of these, two thirds die directly or indirectly due to senescence, but in industrialized countries – such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany – the rate approaches 90% (i.e., nearly nine out of ten of all deaths are related to senescence). Physiological death is now seen as a process, more than an event: conditions once considered indicative of death are now reversible. Where in the process a dividing line is drawn between life and death depends on factors beyond the presence or absence of vital signs. In general, clinical death is neither necessary nor sufficient for a determination of legal death. A patient with working heart and lungs determined to be brain dead can be pronounced legally dead without clinical death occurring. Cryonics Cryonics (from Greek κρύος 'kryos-' meaning 'icy cold') is the low-temperature preservation of animals and humans who cannot be sustained by contemporary medicine, with the hope that healing and resuscitation may be possible in the future. Cryopreservation of people or large animals is not reversible with current technology. The stated rationale for cryonics is that people who are considered dead by current legal or medical definitions may not necessarily be dead according to the more stringent information-theoretic definition of death. Some scientific literature is claimed to support the feasibility of cryonics. Medical science and cryobiologists generally regards cryonics with skepticism. Reperfusion "One of medicine's new frontiers: treating the dead", recognizes that cells that have been without oxygen for more than five minutes die, not from lack of oxygen, but rather when their oxygen supply is resumed. Therefore, practitioners of this approach, e.g., at the Resuscitation Science institute at the University of Pennsylvania, "aim to reduce oxygen uptake, slow metabolism and adjust the blood chemistry for gradual and safe reperfusion." Life extension Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans, by slowing down or reversing the processes of aging through anti-aging measures. Despite the fact that aging is by far the most common cause of death worldwide, it is socially mostly ignored as such and seen as "necessary" and "inevitable" anyway, which is why little money is spent on research into anti-aging therapies, a phenomenon known as the pro-aging trance. Average lifespan is determined by vulnerability to accidents and age or lifestyle-related afflictions such as cancer, or cardiovascular disease. Extension of average lifespan can be achieved by good diet, exercise and avoidance of hazards such as smoking. Maximum lifespan is also determined by the rate of aging for a species inherent in its genes. Currently, the only widely recognized method of extending maximum lifespan is calorie restriction. Theoretically, extension of maximum lifespan can be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by periodic replacement of damaged tissues, or by molecular repair or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues. A United States poll found that religious people and irreligious people, as well as men and women and people of different economic classes have similar rates of support for life extension, while Africans and Hispanics have higher rates of support than white people. 38 percent of the polled said they would desire to have their aging process cured. Researchers of life extension are a subclass of biogerontologists known as "biomedical gerontologists". They try to understand the nature of aging and they develop treatments to reverse aging processes or to at least slow them down, for the improvement of health and the maintenance of youthful vigor at every stage of life. Those who take advantage of life extension findings and seek to apply them upon themselves are called "life extensionists" or "longevists". The primary life extension strategy currently is to apply available anti-aging methods in the hope of living long enough to benefit from a complete cure to aging once it is developed. Location Before about 1930, most people in Western countries died in their own homes, surrounded by family, and comforted by clergy, neighbors, and doctors making house calls. By the mid-20th century, half of all Americans died in a hospital. By the start of the 21st century, only about 20–25% of people in developed countries died outside of a medical institution. The shift away from dying at home towards dying in a professional medical environment has been termed the "Invisible Death". This shift occurred gradually over the years, until most deaths now occur outside the home. Psychology Death studies is a field within psychology. Many people are afraid of dying. Discussing, thinking, or planning their own deaths causes them discomfort. This fear may cause them to put off financial planning, preparing a will and testament, or requesting help from a hospice organization. Different people have different responses to the idea of their own deaths. Philosopher Galen Strawson writes that the death that many people wish for is an instant, painless, unexperienced annihilation. In this unlikely scenario, the person dies without realizing it and without being able to fear it. One moment the person is walking, eating, or sleeping, and the next moment, the person is dead. Strawson reasons that this type of death would not take anything away from the person, as he believes that a person cannot have a legitimate claim to ownership in the future. Society and culture In society, the nature of death and humanity's awareness of its |
no longer distinguished in many dialects of English. Speakers who exhibit the father–bother merger no longer distinguish (𐐪) and (𐐱), and so both "father" and "bother" would be written with 𐐪: as 𐑁𐐪𐑄𐐲𐑉 and 𐐺𐐪𐑄𐐲𐑉 as opposed to 𐑁𐐪𐑄𐐲𐑉 and 𐐺𐐱𐑄𐐲𐑉. For those with the cot–caught merger, (𐐫) and (𐐱) are no longer distinguished: both "cot" and "caught" are thus written by them as 𐐿𐐱𐐻 () in the case of North American English, and as 𐐿𐐫𐐻 () in the case of Scottish English. For those exhibiting both mergers, both would be written 𐐿𐐪𐐻 (). Versions There have been several published versions of the alphabet. Most versions (including the versions used in The Deseret First Book, The Deseret Second Book, The Deseret News and The Book of Mormon) had only 38 letters, but some versions contained two ligatures, 𐐧 (ew) and 𐐦 (oi). In place of 𐐮𐐭 or 𐐷𐐭, 𐑏 was to be used; in place of 𐐱𐐮, 𐑎. In the 23 February 1859 edition of the Deseret News, the editors announced their approval of the two new letters and eventual intention to use them in the newsletter. However, due to the hot metal typesetting technology in use at the time, casting the new letters for use would have been a considerable expense, so it was never realized. Representation of The Deseret alphabet does not have a distinct symbol for the mid central vowel (, "schwa"). The lack of a schwa has been cited as the biggest "phonological flaw" in the alphabet. Because of the lack of a schwa, the author must write the sound that would be used if the word was stressed. For example, the word enough is commonly pronounced , but when it is stressed (as in a declaration of irritation) it is pronounced . The Deseret spelling of the word, 𐐨𐑌𐐲𐑁, reflects that stressed pronunciation. If does not have an inherent stressed value in a word, as is often the case before , then it is written as 𐐲. Marion J. Shelton, an early Mormon missionary, proposed the addition of a new glyph to represent the schwa, a simple vertical line of the same height as other Deseret characters with a similar appearance to the Turkish dotless i (ı). The addition of this glyph did not catch on among his contemporaries, however, and no document outside of ones penned by Shelton makes use of it. Shelton used the new glyph in an 1860 letter to Brigham Young reporting on a recently completed mission to the Paiute people. Syllabic values Each letter in the Deseret alphabet has a name, and when a letter is written on its own it has the value of that name. This allows some short words to be written with a single letter, and is called a letter's "syllabic value". The most common word in English, the, is written simply 𐑄, as the letter's name is and that is the stressed pronunciation of the word. The consonants with syllabic values are 𐐶 (woo), 𐐷 (yee), 𐐸 (ha), 𐐹 (pee), 𐐺 (be/bee), 𐐻 (tee/tea), 𐐽 (qi), 𐐾 (gee), 𐑀 (gay), and 𐑄 (the/thee). Syllabic values do not apply within words, although this was formerly the case. In early documents, Watt writes "people" as 𐐹𐐹𐑊 with the expectation that readers will interpret the first 𐐹 as , but the second 𐐹 as . This contextual value switching was soon done away with, so in later documents, while "bee" is written 𐐺, "bees" is written 𐐺𐐨𐑆. In 40-letter versions of the alphabet which include the letter 𐐧 (ew) which represents , the letter 𐐧 when standing alone can be used to represent the word "you". Examples – Hello, how are you? – I'm doing great, thanks! – It was nice seeing you, but I've got to run! Take care! Oil floats on water, but mercury sinks below both. This is due to their relative densities. The first lesson in the Deseret First Book reads simply: In the Deseret Second Book, there is a version of Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star on page 19: Handwriting There were two main handwritten forms of the Deseret alphabet: a cursive version and a printed version. Over the lifetime of the alphabet, the cursive form fell out of favor among most users of the alphabet and by 1856 no more cursive documents exist. Its impact on the glyphs can however still be plainly seen in the loops of certain characters such as 𐑅, 𐑀 and 𐐼. The earliest surviving versions of the Deseret alphabet, from 1853 (one year before its January 1854 approval), have printed and cursive forms side-by-side, suggesting that a cursive form was part of the plan from the very beginning. Cursive The cursive form of the Deseret alphabet was mainly used by two people: George D. Watt, and James Henry Martineau. Watt, a stenographer, recorded several bishops meetings and wrote other personal documents in this cursive style. A chart of the cursive form appears below. The blue glyphs represent how to write each character, while the top row of printed glyphs shows the corresponding Unicode reference glyph. The cursive style has many unorthodox characteristics uncommon to Western writing systems. Vowels can be dropped if the writer is in a hurry and feels the word is obvious as in an abjad, letters can be written above or below the base line depending on what precedes them, and 𐐮 is placed on letters after they are already written as in an abugida. Furthermore, unlike the typeset alphabet, the cursive alphabet has no letter case. These characteristics could have arisen because Watt was a local expert in Pitman shorthand, which is written in a similar way. The table below shows some examples of how the cursive form is written. Dropped vowels are marked in parenthesis. Block letters George D. Watt found his own alphabet cumbersome to write and abandoned it. As he wrote to Brigham Young on 21 August 1854: His new alphabet closely resembled an 1853 publication of Isaac Pitman, containing only 33 letters. However, at this point, Young was still enamored with the original Deseret alphabet, and so he rejected the proposal and Watt continued to publicly promote the alphabet as part of his job despite his reservations. After 1855, no more cursive documents appear, and all surviving journals are written in block letters. Marion J. Shelton, an early Mormon missionary who wrote a dictionary of the Hopi language in the alphabet, was a "typical" 40-letter Deseret writer, and his style of writing is shown below. Design criticism The Deseret alphabet was purposely designed so as to not have ascenders and descenders. This was envisioned as a practical benefit for the alphabet in an era of metal type: after many uses, the edges of type sorts become dull, and narrow ascenders and descenders are most prone to this effect. While well intentioned, this lack has been described as a "catastrophic" mistake that makes type look "monotonous" and makes all words look alike. The Mormon pioneers were apparently aware of the problems caused by its monotony: Other criticism of the design was harsher still. In an 18 December 1857 editorial in the Boston Globe, the alphabet was described as being "so arranged and named as to cause the greatest possible annoyance to outsiders" and the design of the letters as "incomprehensible as [...] the hieroglyphics of the [...] Egyptians." On 4 March 1872, The New York Times called the alphabet "rude, awkward and cumbersome." Some modern computer fonts and printed books have attempted to correct this perceived fault: in the books in John Jenkins' Deseret Alphabet Classics series, the font used adds a descender to 𐑉 and 𐐻 and an ascender to 𐐼 and 𐑇 among other tweaks. Other motives Officially, the Deseret alphabet was created to simplify the spelling of English words for the benefit of children and English as a second language learners. Some of the alphabet's contemporaries, however, posited an alternative motivation for its development: increasing the isolation of the early Mormons. To keep outsiders from reading Mormon secrets (largely dismissed) The charge that the Deseret alphabet's main purpose was to keep outsiders ("gentiles" in LDS terminology) in the dark was brought almost immediately, as evidenced by the following 1858 Lyttelton Times reprint of an unnamed "New York newspaper": Having obtained a copy of the Deseret News in 1859, the Richmond Dispatch disparaged it on April 25, writing "The Deseret News is filled with a lot of hieroglyphs. It seems to be [an alphabet] which the Mormons alone are to be taught." Modern historians, however, doubt the veracity of this theory. For one thing, notes Kenneth R. Beesley, the Deseret News and every book published in the alphabet prominently features the key to the alphabet, and anyone without a key could have gotten a copy of A Journey to Great-Salt-Lake City, or traveled to Salt Lake City themselves and bought one. Contemporary scholars Richard F. Burton and Jules Remy also dismissed the secrecy argument, in 1860 and 1855 respectively. To keep Mormons from reading outside literature With the impending completion of the Transcontinental Railroad, the Mormon pioneers would have easy, cheap access to publications from the east, including yellowbacks, penny dreadfuls, pulp magazines, and other often scandalous or dirty publications that were rising to prominence in the 19th century. Indeed, in an article about the benefits of the alphabet, the Deseret News proudly wrote: In another article, the Deseret News cited an example of the kind of literature Mormons would benefit from not being able to read: The Police Gazette. Historians A. J. Simmonds and Roby Wentz contend that while this may have been a tertiary goal of the alphabet, a sort of "happy accident", the main purpose of it was simple orthographic reform. Simmonds notes that the teaching of English to foreigners was not a mere hypothetical to mask isolationist tendencies: 35% of the Utah Territory's population at the time was Scandinavian, with German, Italian and Welsh speaking people also making up a considerable percentage of inhabitants; therefore, communication between the recently baptized and the community was a real problem. Encodings The Deseret alphabet (U+10400–U+1044F) was added to the Unicode Standard in March 2001 with the release of version 3.1, after a request by John H. Jenkins of Apple, making it one of the first scripts to be added outside of the Basic Multilingual Plane. The letters 𐐧 (ew) and 𐐦 (oi) were added to the Unicode Standard in April 2003 with the release of version 4.0. According to Kenneth R. Beesley, who submitted the proposal to expand the encoding, "Unicode fonts based on the current heterogeneous collection of glyphs will be useless for any practical typesetting of 40-letter Deseret Alphabet documents." This is because the Unicode Consortium chose to use glyphs from 1855 as the reference glyphs, while by 1859 those glyphs were already outmoded and replaced with newer glyphs. Beesley thus recommends using LaTeX along with his Metafont font to typeset Deseret text, but fonts which use the alternate glyphs for the two | expensive and even the most devout Mormons could not be convinced to purchase and study the Deseret edition books over the books in the traditional orthography. In the winter of 1870, just one year after their publication, advertisements for the Deseret alphabet books were quietly removed from the Deseret News. Contemporary writers noted that thousands of copies of the 15¢ and 20¢ Deseret primers went unsold, and historian Roby Wentz speculated that the LDS Church at that time had a "cache" of the primers in mint condition, which it was slowly selling off; according to him, one such primer sold for $250 in 1978. The Mormons had planned to use the profits from sale of the earlier books to fund printing of more books, and in anticipation Orson Pratt had already transcribed the complete Bible, Doctrine and Covenants, and John Jaques's Catechism for Children. Pratt had also prepared an apparent sequel to the primers, the Deseret Phonetic Speller. After the sales failure, however, none of these books were ever published and were thought lost until being rediscovered in a storage area of the LDS Church Archives in Salt Lake City in May 1967. Ralph Vigoda, a reporter for The Philadelphia Inquirer, has speculated that the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad may have contributed to the alphabet's downfall: non-Mormons, not loyal to Brigham Young, became a large part of the city, and without the religious motivation it would be difficult indeed to get them to learn a new alphabet. In a retrospective piece, historian A. J. Simmonds claims that the new railroad doomed the alphabet. According to him, easy access to "the whole literature of the English speaking world" rendered the alphabet useless. In July 1877, Young tried one more time at a spelling reform, ordering lead type designed for the orthography of Benn Pitman (Isaac's brother) with the intention of printing an edition of the Book of Mormon and Doctrine and Covenants using it. Most of the type had arrived by August, but with Young's death, the translation was never undertaken and the type never used. Young's death thus marked the end of the Mormon experimentation with English spelling reforms. Rediscovery in the computer era Modern digital typography has reduced the costs of typesetting substantially, especially for small print runs. As long as a freely licensed Deseret alphabet font and a font of the standard orthography have similar inked surface areas, printing a book in the Deseret alphabet using modern technology would have a similar cost as printing a book in the standard orthography. Film director Trent Harris used the Deseret alphabet in his 1994 satire of Mormon theology, Plan 10 from Outer Space, where it features as an alien language used on a mysterious "Plaque of Kolob". During the 1996 Utah Centennial celebration, an activity book for children was distributed, within which one of the activities was for a child to write their own name in the alphabet. The book says that a child who does this will be "the first kid in 100 years to write [their] name in the Deseret alphabet!" Also in 1996, Buffalo River Press published a reprint of the Deseret First Book, of which only 10,000 were originally printed. The entire Book of Mormon in the Deseret alphabet has been likewise reprinted, as only 500 copies from the original print run exist, and they can sell on eBay for ≈$7,500 (as of 2004). In 1997, John Jenkins uploaded a free three part PDF of the so-called "triple combination", that is, a combined Book of Mormon, Doctrine and Covenants and Pearl of Great Price. John Jenkins has gone on to publish many classic pieces of English literature in the Deseret alphabet, such as Alice in Wonderland, Pride and Prejudice, and The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Owing to the character set's inclusion in Unicode, most of the original books and many of the original manuscripts have been transcribed into plain text, and, when this is not possible due to discrepancies between the Unicode reference glyphs and the documents, LaTeX. Fonts The first digital font for the Deseret alphabet, called "Deseret", was designed by Greg Kearney as part of work he was doing for the LDS Church History Department in 1991; the font was used in an exhibit that year. In August 1995, a cleaned up, digitized version of the font in use in the Deseret Second Book was created by Salt Lake City graphic designer Edward Bateman, who made the font in Fontographer while working on Plan 10 from Outer Space. Kenneth R. Beesley created a Metafont (and thus, LaTeX-compatible) font called in 2002. All computers running Microsoft's Windows 7 operating system or newer can display the entire Deseret alphabet Unicode range as the glyphs are included in the Segoe UI Symbol font. Besides maintaining a Deseret input method for Windows, Joshua Erickson, a UCLA alumnus, also maintains a large collection of freeware Unicode fonts for the alphabet, which he collectively terms the "Bee Fonts." There also exist free software fonts for the Deseret alphabet. Google, through its Noto Sans project, the aim of which is "to support all languages with a harmonious look and feel", has also released a Deseret font under the name "Noto Sans Deseret". George Douros maintains a public domain font called "Analecta" as part of his Unicode Fonts for Ancient Scripts project, which supports the Coptic, Gothic, and Deseret scripts. Deseret glyphs are also available in the popular pan-Unicode fonts Code2001 and Everson Mono (as of version 5.1.5). Alphabet Although the Deseret alphabet has letter case, usually the only difference between the minuscule and majuscule forms is that the majuscule forms are larger. A degree of free spelling is allowed to accommodate dialectal differences in English. For example, in the Deseret edition of The Book of Mormon, the word "wherefore" is written as 𐐸𐐶𐐯𐑉𐑁𐐬𐑉 (), which means that the translator of the book did not exhibit the wine–whine merger. Those who do exhibit the merger might instead prefer the spelling 𐐶𐐯𐑉𐑁𐐬𐑉 to match the pronunciation (), or, depending on dialect, perhaps 𐐶𐐯𐑉𐑁𐐫𐑉 (). The alphabet was designed to be able to write all of the vowels used in the dialect spoken in 19th century Utah. The vowel inventory has also been attributed to the fact that, unlike other American pioneers, the Mormon pioneers were from New England as opposed to the American South. As such, many of the vowels in the Deseret alphabet have since merged in the modern era: they are no longer distinguished in many dialects of English. Speakers who exhibit the father–bother merger no longer distinguish (𐐪) and (𐐱), and so both "father" and "bother" would be written with 𐐪: as 𐑁𐐪𐑄𐐲𐑉 and 𐐺𐐪𐑄𐐲𐑉 as opposed to 𐑁𐐪𐑄𐐲𐑉 and 𐐺𐐱𐑄𐐲𐑉. For those with the cot–caught merger, (𐐫) and (𐐱) are no longer distinguished: both "cot" and "caught" are thus written by them as 𐐿𐐱𐐻 () in the case of North American English, and as 𐐿𐐫𐐻 () in the case of Scottish English. For those exhibiting both mergers, both would be written 𐐿𐐪𐐻 (). Versions There have been several published versions of the alphabet. Most versions (including the versions used in The Deseret First Book, The Deseret Second Book, The Deseret News and The Book of Mormon) had only 38 letters, but some versions contained two ligatures, 𐐧 (ew) and 𐐦 (oi). In place of 𐐮𐐭 or 𐐷𐐭, 𐑏 was to be used; in place of 𐐱𐐮, 𐑎. In the 23 February 1859 edition of the Deseret News, the editors announced their approval of the two new letters and eventual intention to use them in the newsletter. However, due to the hot metal typesetting technology in use at the time, casting the new letters for use would have been a considerable expense, so it was never realized. Representation of The Deseret alphabet does not have a distinct symbol for the mid central vowel (, "schwa"). The lack of a schwa has been cited as the biggest "phonological flaw" in the alphabet. Because of the lack of a schwa, the author must write the sound that would be used if the word was stressed. For example, the word enough is commonly pronounced , but when it is stressed (as in a declaration of irritation) it is pronounced . The Deseret spelling of the word, 𐐨𐑌𐐲𐑁, reflects that stressed pronunciation. If does not have an inherent stressed value in a word, as is often the case before , then it is written as 𐐲. Marion J. Shelton, an early Mormon missionary, proposed the addition of a new glyph to represent the schwa, a simple vertical line of the same height as other Deseret characters with a similar appearance to the Turkish dotless i (ı). The addition of this glyph did not catch on among his contemporaries, however, and no document outside of ones penned by Shelton makes use of it. Shelton used the new glyph in an 1860 letter to Brigham Young reporting on a recently completed mission to the Paiute people. Syllabic values Each letter in the Deseret alphabet has a name, and when a letter is written on its own it has the value of that name. This allows some short words to be written with a single letter, and is called a letter's "syllabic value". The most common word in English, the, is written simply 𐑄, as the letter's name is and that is the stressed pronunciation of the word. The consonants with syllabic values are 𐐶 (woo), 𐐷 (yee), 𐐸 (ha), 𐐹 (pee), 𐐺 (be/bee), 𐐻 (tee/tea), 𐐽 (qi), 𐐾 (gee), 𐑀 (gay), and 𐑄 (the/thee). Syllabic values do not apply within words, although this was formerly the case. In early documents, Watt writes "people" as 𐐹𐐹𐑊 with the expectation that readers will interpret the first 𐐹 as , but the second 𐐹 as . This contextual value switching was soon done away with, so in later documents, while "bee" is written 𐐺, "bees" is written 𐐺𐐨𐑆. In 40-letter versions of the alphabet which include the letter 𐐧 (ew) which represents , the letter 𐐧 when standing alone can be used to represent the word "you". Examples – Hello, how are you? – I'm doing great, thanks! – It was nice seeing you, but I've got to run! Take care! Oil floats on water, but mercury sinks below both. This is due to their relative densities. The first lesson in the Deseret First Book reads simply: In the Deseret Second Book, there is a version of Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star on page 19: Handwriting There were two main handwritten forms of the Deseret alphabet: a cursive version and a printed version. Over the lifetime of the alphabet, the cursive form fell out of favor among most users of the alphabet and by 1856 no more cursive documents exist. Its impact on the glyphs can however still be plainly seen in the loops of certain characters such as 𐑅, 𐑀 and 𐐼. The earliest surviving versions of the Deseret alphabet, from 1853 (one year before its January 1854 approval), have printed and cursive forms side-by-side, suggesting that a cursive form was part of the plan from the very beginning. Cursive The cursive form of the Deseret alphabet was mainly used by two people: George D. Watt, and James Henry Martineau. Watt, a stenographer, recorded several bishops meetings and wrote other personal documents in this cursive style. A chart of the cursive form appears below. The blue glyphs represent how to write each character, while the top row of printed glyphs shows the corresponding Unicode reference glyph. The cursive style |
from, or related to the country of Denmark A national or citizen of Denmark, also called a "Dane," see Demographics of Denmark Danish people or Danes, people with a Danish ancestral or ethnic identity Danish language, a North Germanic language used mostly in Denmark and Northern Germany Danish cuisine Danish culture Danish pastry, | Germany Danish cuisine Danish culture Danish pastry, often simply called a "Danish" Danish tongue or Old Norse, the parent language of all North Germanic languages A member of the Danes, a Germanic tribe Danish (name), a male given name and surname See also Dane (disambiguation) |
Swedish that use trilled . Only very few, middle-aged or elderly, speakers of Jutlandic retain a frontal which is then usually realised as a flapped or approximant . Prosody Danish is characterized by a prosodic feature called (lit. "thrust"). This is a form of laryngealization or creaky voice. Some sources have described it as a glottal stop, but this is a very infrequent realization, and today phoneticians consider it a phonation type or a prosodic phenomenon. It has phonemic status, since it serves as the sole distinguishing feature of words with different meanings in minimal pairs such as ("peasants") with stød, versus ("beans") without stød. The distribution of stød in the vocabulary is related to the distribution of the common Scandinavian pitch accents found in most dialects of Norwegian and Swedish. Stress is phonemic and distinguishes words such as "cheapest" and "car driver". Danish intonation has been described by Nina Grønnum as a hierarchical model where components such as the stress group, sentence type and prosodic phrase are combined, and where the stress group is the main intonation unit and in Copenhagen Standard Danish mainly has a certain pitch pattern that reaches its lowest peak on the stressed syllable followed by its highest peak on the following unstressed syllable, after which it declines gradually until the next stress group. The is also dependent on stress, while some varieties also realize it primarily as a tone. There are also various studies on specific interactional phenomena in Danish focusing on pitch, such as Mikkelsen & Kragelund on ways to mark the end of a story and Steensig (2001) on turn-taking. Grammar Similarly to the case of English, modern Danish grammar is the result of a gradual change from a typical Indo-European dependent-marking pattern with a rich inflectional morphology and relatively free word order, to a mostly analytic pattern with little inflection, a fairly fixed SVO word order and a complex syntax. Some traits typical of Germanic languages persist in Danish, such as the distinction between irregularly inflected strong stems inflected through ablaut or umlaut (i.e. changing the vowel of the stem, as in the pairs ("takes/took") and ("foot/feet")) and weak stems inflected through affixation (such as "love/loved", "car/cars"). Vestiges of the Germanic case and gender system are found in the pronoun system. Typical for an Indo-European language, Danish follows accusative morphosyntactic alignment. Danish distinguishes at least seven major word classes: verbs, nouns, numerals, adjectives, adverbs, articles, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and onomatopoeia. Nouns Nouns are inflected for number (singular vs. plural) and definiteness, and are classified into two grammatical genders. Only pronouns inflect for case, and the previous genitive case has become an enclitic. A distinctive feature of the Nordic languages, including Danish, is that the definite articles, which also mark noun gender, have developed into suffixes. Typical of Germanic languages plurals are either irregular or "strong" stems inflected through umlaut (i.e. changing the vowel of the stem (e.g. "foot/feet", "man/men") or "weak" stems inflected through affixation (e.g. "ship/ships", "woman/women"). Gender Standard Danish has two nominal genders: common and neuter; the common gender arose as the historical feminine and masculine genders conflated into a single category. Some traditional dialects retain a three-way gender distinction, between masculine, feminine and neuter, and some dialects of Jutland have a masculine/feminine contrast. While the majority of Danish nouns (ca. 75%) have the common gender, and neuter is often used for inanimate objects, the genders of nouns are not generally predictable and must in most cases be memorized. The gender of a noun determines the form of adjectives that modify it, and the form of the definite suffixes. Definiteness Definiteness is marked by two mutually exclusive articles: either a postposed enclitic or a preposed article which is the obligatory way to mark definiteness when nouns are modified by an adjective. Neuter nouns take the clitic , and common gender nouns take . Indefinite nouns take the articles (common gender) or (neuter). Hence, the common gender noun "a man" (indefinite) has the definite form "the man", whereas the neuter noun "a house" (indefinite) has the definite form, "the house" (definite) . Indefinite: Jeg så et hus: "I saw a house" Definite with enclitic article: Jeg så huset: "I saw the house" Definite with preposed demonstrative article: Jeg så det store hus: "I saw the big house" The plural definite ending is (e.g. "boys > "the boys" and "girls" > "the girls"), and nouns ending in lose the last before adding the -ne suffix (e.g. "Danes" > "the Danes"). When the noun is modified by an adjective, the definiteness is marked by the definite article (common) or (neuter) and the definite/plural form of the adjective: "the big man", "the big house". Number There are three different types of regular plurals: Class 1 forms the plural with the suffix (indefinite) and (definite), Class 2 with the suffix (indefinite) and (definite), and Class 3 takes no suffix for the plural indefinite form and for the plural definite. Most irregular nouns have an ablaut plural (i.e. with a change in the stem vowel), or combine ablaut stem-change with the suffix, and some have unique plural forms. Unique forms may be inherited (e.g. the plural of "eye", which is the old dual form ), or for loan words they may be borrowed from the donor language (e.g. the word "account" which is borrowed from Italian and uses the Italian masculine plural form "accounts"). Possession Possessive phrases are formed with the enclitic -s, for example "my father's house" where the noun carries the possessive enclitic. This is however not an example of genitive case marking, because in the case of longer noun phrases the -s attaches to the last word in the phrase, which need not be the head-noun or even a noun at all. For example, the phrases "the king of Denmark's candy factory", where the factory is owned by the king of Denmark, or "that is the daughter of the girl that Uffe lives with", where the enclitic attaches to a stranded preposition. Pronouns As does English, the Danish pronominal system retains a distinction between nominative and oblique case. The nominative form of pronouns is used when pronouns occur as grammatical subject of a sentence (and only when non-coordinated and without a following modifier), and oblique forms are used for all non-subject functions including direct and indirect object, predicative, comparative and other types of constructions. The third person singular pronouns also distinguish between animate masculine ( "he"), animate feminine ( "she") forms, as well as inanimate neuter ( "it") and inanimate common gender ( "it"). : "I sleep" : "you sleep" : "I kiss you" : "you kiss me" Possessive pronouns have independent and adjectival uses, but the same form. The form is used both adjectivally preceding a possessed noun ( "it is my horse"), and independently in place of the possessed noun ( "it is mine"). In the third person singular, is used when the possessor is also the subject of the sentence, whereas ("his"), (her) and "its" is used when the possessor is different from the grammatical subject. Han tog sin hat: He took his (own) hat Han tog hans hat: He took his hat (someone else's hat) Nominal compounds Like all Germanic languages, Danish forms compound nouns. These are represented in Danish orthography as one word, as in , "the female national handball team". In some cases, nouns are joined with s as a linking element, originally possessive in function, like (from , "country", and , "man", meaning "compatriot"), but (from same roots, meaning "farmer"). Some words are joined with the linking element instead, like (from and , meaning "guest book"). There are also irregular linking elements. Verbs Danish verbs are morphologically simple, marking very few grammatical categories. They do not mark person or number of subject, although the marking of plural subjects was still used in writing as late as the 19th century. Verbs have a past, non-past and infinitive form, past and present participle forms, and a passive, and an imperative. Tense, aspect, mood, and voice Verbs can be divided into two main classes, the strong/irregular verbs and the regular/weak verbs. The regular verbs are also divided into two classes, those that take the past suffix and those that take the suffix . The infinitive always ends in a vowel, usually -e (pronounced ), infinitive forms are preceded by the article (pronounced ) in some syntactic functions. The non-past or present tense takes the suffix , except for a few strong verbs that have irregular non-past forms. The past form does not necessarily mark past tense, but also counterfactuality or conditionality, and the non-past has many uses besides present tense time reference. The present participle ends in (e.g. "running"), and the past participle ends in (e.g. "run"), (e.g. købt "bought"). The Perfect is constructed with ("to have") and participial forms, like in English. But some transitive verbs form the perfect using ("to be") instead, and some may use both with a difference in meaning. . : She has walked. The plane has flown . : She has left. The plane has taken off . : She had walked. The plane had flown . : She had left. The plane had taken off The passive form takes the suffix -s: ("the newspaper is read every day"). Another passive construction uses the auxiliary verb "to become": . The imperative form is the infinitive without the final schwa-vowel, with potentially being applied depending on syllable structure.: : "run!" Numerals The numerals are formed on the basis of a vigesimal system with various rules. In the word forms of numbers above 20, the units are stated before the tens, so 21 is rendered , literally "one and twenty". The numeral means 1½ (literally "half second", implying "one plus half of the second one"). The numerals (2½), (3½) and (4½) are obsolete, but still implicitly used in the vigesimal system described below. Similarly, the temporal designation () halv tre, literally "half three (o'clock)", is half past two. One peculiar feature of the Danish language is that the numerals 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90 are (as are the French numerals from 80 through 99) based on a vigesimal system, meaning that the score (20) is used as a base unit in counting. (short for , "three times twenty") means 60, while 50 is (short for , "half third times twenty", implying two score plus half of the third score). The ending meaning "times twenty" is no longer included in cardinal numbers, but may still be used in ordinal numbers. Thus, in modern Danish fifty-two is usually rendered as from the now obsolete , whereas 52nd is either or . Twenty is (derived from Old Danish , a haplology of , meaning 'two tens'), while thirty is (Old Danish , "three tens"), and forty is (Old Danish , "four tens", still used today as the archaism ). Thus, the suffix should be understood as a plural of (10), though to modern Danes means 20, making it hard to explain why is 40 (four tens) and not 80 (four twenties). For large numbers (one billion or larger), Danish uses the long scale, so that the short-scale billion (1,000,000,000) is called , and the short-scale trillion (1,000,000,000,000) is . Syntax Danish basic constituent order in simple sentences with both a subject and an object is Subject–Verb–Object. However, Danish is | SVO word order and a complex syntax. Some traits typical of Germanic languages persist in Danish, such as the distinction between irregularly inflected strong stems inflected through ablaut or umlaut (i.e. changing the vowel of the stem, as in the pairs ("takes/took") and ("foot/feet")) and weak stems inflected through affixation (such as "love/loved", "car/cars"). Vestiges of the Germanic case and gender system are found in the pronoun system. Typical for an Indo-European language, Danish follows accusative morphosyntactic alignment. Danish distinguishes at least seven major word classes: verbs, nouns, numerals, adjectives, adverbs, articles, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and onomatopoeia. Nouns Nouns are inflected for number (singular vs. plural) and definiteness, and are classified into two grammatical genders. Only pronouns inflect for case, and the previous genitive case has become an enclitic. A distinctive feature of the Nordic languages, including Danish, is that the definite articles, which also mark noun gender, have developed into suffixes. Typical of Germanic languages plurals are either irregular or "strong" stems inflected through umlaut (i.e. changing the vowel of the stem (e.g. "foot/feet", "man/men") or "weak" stems inflected through affixation (e.g. "ship/ships", "woman/women"). Gender Standard Danish has two nominal genders: common and neuter; the common gender arose as the historical feminine and masculine genders conflated into a single category. Some traditional dialects retain a three-way gender distinction, between masculine, feminine and neuter, and some dialects of Jutland have a masculine/feminine contrast. While the majority of Danish nouns (ca. 75%) have the common gender, and neuter is often used for inanimate objects, the genders of nouns are not generally predictable and must in most cases be memorized. The gender of a noun determines the form of adjectives that modify it, and the form of the definite suffixes. Definiteness Definiteness is marked by two mutually exclusive articles: either a postposed enclitic or a preposed article which is the obligatory way to mark definiteness when nouns are modified by an adjective. Neuter nouns take the clitic , and common gender nouns take . Indefinite nouns take the articles (common gender) or (neuter). Hence, the common gender noun "a man" (indefinite) has the definite form "the man", whereas the neuter noun "a house" (indefinite) has the definite form, "the house" (definite) . Indefinite: Jeg så et hus: "I saw a house" Definite with enclitic article: Jeg så huset: "I saw the house" Definite with preposed demonstrative article: Jeg så det store hus: "I saw the big house" The plural definite ending is (e.g. "boys > "the boys" and "girls" > "the girls"), and nouns ending in lose the last before adding the -ne suffix (e.g. "Danes" > "the Danes"). When the noun is modified by an adjective, the definiteness is marked by the definite article (common) or (neuter) and the definite/plural form of the adjective: "the big man", "the big house". Number There are three different types of regular plurals: Class 1 forms the plural with the suffix (indefinite) and (definite), Class 2 with the suffix (indefinite) and (definite), and Class 3 takes no suffix for the plural indefinite form and for the plural definite. Most irregular nouns have an ablaut plural (i.e. with a change in the stem vowel), or combine ablaut stem-change with the suffix, and some have unique plural forms. Unique forms may be inherited (e.g. the plural of "eye", which is the old dual form ), or for loan words they may be borrowed from the donor language (e.g. the word "account" which is borrowed from Italian and uses the Italian masculine plural form "accounts"). Possession Possessive phrases are formed with the enclitic -s, for example "my father's house" where the noun carries the possessive enclitic. This is however not an example of genitive case marking, because in the case of longer noun phrases the -s attaches to the last word in the phrase, which need not be the head-noun or even a noun at all. For example, the phrases "the king of Denmark's candy factory", where the factory is owned by the king of Denmark, or "that is the daughter of the girl that Uffe lives with", where the enclitic attaches to a stranded preposition. Pronouns As does English, the Danish pronominal system retains a distinction between nominative and oblique case. The nominative form of pronouns is used when pronouns occur as grammatical subject of a sentence (and only when non-coordinated and without a following modifier), and oblique forms are used for all non-subject functions including direct and indirect object, predicative, comparative and other types of constructions. The third person singular pronouns also distinguish between animate masculine ( "he"), animate feminine ( "she") forms, as well as inanimate neuter ( "it") and inanimate common gender ( "it"). : "I sleep" : "you sleep" : "I kiss you" : "you kiss me" Possessive pronouns have independent and adjectival uses, but the same form. The form is used both adjectivally preceding a possessed noun ( "it is my horse"), and independently in place of the possessed noun ( "it is mine"). In the third person singular, is used when the possessor is also the subject of the sentence, whereas ("his"), (her) and "its" is used when the possessor is different from the grammatical subject. Han tog sin hat: He took his (own) hat Han tog hans hat: He took his hat (someone else's hat) Nominal compounds Like all Germanic languages, Danish forms compound nouns. These are represented in Danish orthography as one word, as in , "the female national handball team". In some cases, nouns are joined with s as a linking element, originally possessive in function, like (from , "country", and , "man", meaning "compatriot"), but (from same roots, meaning "farmer"). Some words are joined with the linking element instead, like (from and , meaning "guest book"). There are also irregular linking elements. Verbs Danish verbs are morphologically simple, marking very few grammatical categories. They do not mark person or number of subject, although the marking of plural subjects was still used in writing as late as the 19th century. Verbs have a past, non-past and infinitive form, past and present participle forms, and a passive, and an imperative. Tense, aspect, mood, and voice Verbs can be divided into two main classes, the strong/irregular verbs and the regular/weak verbs. The regular verbs are also divided into two classes, those that take the past suffix and those that take the suffix . The infinitive always ends in a vowel, usually -e (pronounced ), infinitive forms are preceded by the article (pronounced ) in some syntactic functions. The non-past or present tense takes the suffix , except for a few strong verbs that have irregular non-past forms. The past form does not necessarily mark past tense, but also counterfactuality or conditionality, and the non-past has many uses besides present tense time reference. The present participle ends in (e.g. "running"), and the past participle ends in (e.g. "run"), (e.g. købt "bought"). The Perfect is constructed with ("to have") and participial forms, like in English. But some transitive verbs form the perfect using ("to be") instead, and some may use both with a difference in meaning. . : She has walked. The plane has flown . : She has left. The plane has taken off . : She had walked. The plane had flown . : She had left. The plane had taken off The passive form takes the suffix -s: ("the newspaper is read every day"). Another passive construction uses the auxiliary verb "to become": . The imperative form is the infinitive without the final schwa-vowel, with potentially being applied depending on syllable structure.: : "run!" Numerals The numerals are formed on the basis of a vigesimal system with various rules. In the word forms of numbers above 20, the units are stated before the tens, so 21 is rendered , literally "one and twenty". The numeral means 1½ (literally "half second", implying "one plus half of the second one"). The numerals (2½), (3½) and (4½) are obsolete, but still implicitly used in the vigesimal system described below. Similarly, the temporal designation () halv tre, literally "half three (o'clock)", is half past two. One peculiar feature of the Danish language is that the numerals 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90 are (as are the French numerals from 80 through 99) based on a vigesimal system, meaning that the score (20) is used as a base unit in counting. (short for , "three times twenty") means 60, while 50 is (short for , "half third times twenty", implying two score plus half of the third score). The ending meaning "times twenty" is no longer included in cardinal numbers, but may still be used in ordinal numbers. Thus, in modern Danish fifty-two is usually rendered as from the now obsolete , whereas 52nd is either or . Twenty is (derived from Old Danish , a haplology of , meaning 'two tens'), while thirty is (Old Danish , "three tens"), and forty is (Old Danish , "four tens", still used today as the archaism ). Thus, the suffix should be understood as a plural of (10), though to modern Danes means 20, making it hard to explain why is 40 (four tens) and not 80 (four twenties). For large numbers (one billion or larger), Danish uses the long scale, so that the short-scale billion (1,000,000,000) is called , and the short-scale trillion (1,000,000,000,000) is . Syntax Danish basic constituent order in simple sentences with both a subject and an object is Subject–Verb–Object. However, Danish is also a V2 language, which means that the verb must always be the second constituent of the sentence. Following the Danish grammarian Paul Diderichsen Danish grammar tends to be analyzed as consisting of slots or fields, and in which certain types of sentence material can be moved to the pre-verbal (or foundation) field to achieve different pragmatic effects. Usually the sentence material occupying the preverbal slot has to be pragmatically marked, usually either new information or topics. There is no rule that subjects must occur in the preverbal slot, but since subject and topic often coincide, they often do. Therefore, whenever any sentence material that is not the subject occurs in the preverbal position the subject is demoted to postverbal position and the sentence order becomes VSO. : "Peter saw Jytte" but : "Yesterday, Peter saw Jytte" When there is no pragmatically marked constituents in the sentence to take the preverbal slot (for example when all the information is new), the slot has to take a dummy subject "der". : there came a girl in through the door, "A girl came in the door" Main clauses describes the basic order of sentence constituents in main clauses as comprising the following 8 positions: Position 0 is not part of the sentence and can only contain sentential connectors (such as conjunctions or interjections). Position 1 can contain any sentence constituent. Position 2 can only contain the finite verb. Position 3 is the subject position, unless the subject is fronted to occur in position 1. Position 4 can only contain light adverbs and the negation. Position 5 is for non-finite verbs, such as auxiliaries. Position 6 is the position of direct and indirect objects, and position 7 is for heavy adverbial constituents. Questions with wh-words are formed differently from yes/no questions. In wh-questions the question word occupies the preverbal field, regardless of whether its grammatical role is subject or object or adverbial. In yes/no questions the preverbal field is empty, so that the sentence begins with the verb. Wh-question: : whom saw she, "whom did she see?" : saw she him?, "did she see him?" Subordinate clauses In subordinate clauses, the word order differs from that of main clauses. In the subordinate clause structure the verb is preceded by the subject and any light adverbial material (e.g. negation). Complement clauses begin with the particle in the "connector field". Han sagde, at han ikke ville gå: he said that he not would go, "He said that he did not want to go" Relative clauses are marked by the relative pronouns or which occupy the preverbal slot: Jeg kender en mand, som bor i Helsingør: "I know a man who lives in Elsinore" Writing system and alphabet The oldest preserved examples of written |
Buffalo Springfield Again (1967) "Broken Arrow" – 6:13 Performed by Buffalo Springfield; appears on the album Buffalo Springfield Again "Expecting to Fly" – 3:44 Appears on the album Buffalo Springfield Again but no band member other than Neil Young appears on the track. "Sugar Mountain" – 5:43 Recorded live in concert on November 10, 1968, at the Canterbury House, Ann Arbor, Michigan; released as the B-side to "The Loner", February 21, 1969 Side two "I Am a Child" – 2:17 Appears on the Buffalo Springfield album Last Time Around (1968) but features no members of the band other than Neil Young and drummer Dewey Martin "The Loner" – 3:50 Appears on the album Neil Young (1968) "The Old Laughing Lady" – 5:59/5:35** Appears on the album Neil Young (** – Edited version on 1990 CD reissue) "Cinnamon Girl" – 2:59 Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere (1969) "Down by the River" – 9:16/9:00** Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere Side three "Cowgirl in the Sand" – 10:01 Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere "I Believe in You" – 3:27 Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album After the Gold Rush (1970) "After the Gold Rush" – 3:45 Appears on the album After the Gold Rush "Southern Man" – 5:31 Appears on the album After the Gold Rush "Helpless" – 3:34 Performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young; appears on the album Déjà Vu (1970) Side four "Ohio" – 2:56 Performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young; released as a single, June 1970 and later appeared on So Far, 1974 "Soldier" – 2:28 Edited version originally from the album Journey Through the Past (1972) "Old Man" – 3:21 Appears on the album Harvest (1972) "A Man Needs a Maid" – 3:58 Appears on the album Harvest "Harvest" – 3:08 Appears on the album Harvest "Heart of Gold" – 3:06 Appears on the album Harvest "Star of Bethlehem" – 2:46 Appears on the album American Stars 'n Bars (1977); originally recorded in November 1974 Side five "The Needle and the Damage Done" – 2:02 Recorded live in concert on January 30, 1971, at the Royce Hall, University of California, Westwood, Los Angeles, California; appears on the album Harvest "Tonight's the Night" (Part 1) – 4:41 Appears on the album Tonight's the Night (1975); originally recorded in 1973 "Tired Eyes" – 4:33 Appears on the album Tonight's the Night "Walk On" – 2:40 Appears on the album On the Beach (1974) "For the Turnstiles" – 3:01 Appears on the album On the Beach "Winterlong" – 3:05 Previously unreleased; recorded in November 1973 and appeared on certain acetate pressings of Tonight's the Night "Deep Forbidden Lake" – 3:39 Previously unreleased Side six "Like a Hurricane" – 8:16 Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; previously unreleased (but originally recorded in November 1975); different lead vocal dub from version on American Stars 'n Bars (Regular version on 1990 reissue CD) "Love Is a Rose" – 2:16 Previously unreleased; later released on Homegrown (2020) "Cortez the Killer" – 7:29 Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; | at No. 43 on the Billboard Top Pop Albums chart, and was certified platinum by the RIAA in 1986. History Compiled by Young himself, with his hand-written liner notes about each track, Decade represents almost every album from his career and various affiliations through 1977 with the exception of 4 Way Street and Time Fades Away. Of the previously unreleased songs, "Down to the Wire" features the New Orleans pianist Dr. John with Buffalo Springfield on an item from their shelved Stampede album; "Love Is a Rose" was a minor hit for Linda Ronstadt in 1975; "Winterlong" received a cover by Pixies on the Neil Young tribute album from 1989, The Bridge; and "Campaigner" is a Young song critical of Richard Nixon. The track "Long May You Run" is a different mix to that found on the album of the same name, featuring the harmonies of the full Crosby Stills & Nash before David Crosby and Graham Nash left the recording sessions. For many years, Decade was the only Neil Young compilation album available. A 1993 compilation called Lucky Thirteen was released, but it only covered Young's 1982–1988 output. It was not until 2004 that Reprise Records released a single-disc retrospective of his best-known tracks, titled Greatest Hits. Throughout the 1980s and '90s, Young promised fans a follow-up to the original Decade collection, provisionally titled Decade II; eventually, this idea was scrapped in favor of a much more comprehensive anthology to be titled Archives, spanning his entire career and ranging in size from a box set to an entire series of audio and/or video releases. The first release of archival material since Decade and Lucky Thirteen would appear in 2006, Live at the Fillmore East, a recording from a 1970 concert featuring Crazy Horse with Danny Whitten. Several other archival live releases followed, and in 2009 the first of several planned multi-disc box sets, The Archives Vol. 1 1963–1972, was issued. In April 2017 Decade was reissued on vinyl as a limited-edition Record Store Day release, with remastered vinyl and CD editions planned for general release in June 2017. Alternate early version Initially, Decade was to be released in 1976, but was pulled at the last minute by Young. It was shelved until the following year, where it appeared with two songs removed from the original track list (a live version of "Don't Cry No Tears" recorded in Japan in 1976, and a live version of "Pushed It Over the End" recorded in 1974). Also removed were the following comments on those two songs and Time Fades Away, from Young's handwritten liner notes: Reception The album has been lauded in many quarters as one of the best examples of a career retrospective for a rock artist, and as a template for the box set collections that would follow in the 1980s and beyond. However, in the original article on Young from the first edition of the Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock and Roll and a subsequent article in the 1983 Rolling Stone Record Guide, critic Dave Marsh used this album to accuse Young of deliberately manufacturing a self-mythology, arguing that while his highlights could be seen to place him on a level with other artists from his generation like Bob Dylan or The Beatles, the particulars of his catalogue did not bear this out. The magazine has since excised the article from subsequent editions of the Illustrated History book. Track listing |
Cretan cult which was eventually carried to the Eleusinian Mysteries in Classical Greece. In a clay statuette from Gazi, the Minoan poppy goddess wears the seed capsules, sources of nourishment and narcosis, in her diadem. According to Kerényi, "It seems probable that the Great Mother Goddess who bore the names Rhea and Demeter, brought the poppy with her from her Cretan cult to Eleusis and it is almost certain that in the Cretan cult sphere opium was prepared from poppies." Robert Graves speculated that the meaning of the depiction and use of poppies in the Greco-Roman myths is the symbolism of the bright scarlet color as signifying the promise of resurrection after death. Other functions and titles Demeter's epithets show her many religious functions. She was the "Corn-Mother" who blesses the harvesters. Some cults interpreted her as "Mother-Earth". Demeter may be linked to goddess-cults of Minoan Crete, and embody aspects of a pre-Hellenic Mother Goddess. The most common epithets of Demeter are: Achaea, Ἀχαία (" probably from achaine: loaf ,or achos: grief"). She was worshipped at Athens by the Gephyraeans who had emigrated from Boeotia. Aganippe, Ἀγανίππη ("the Mare who destroys mercifully", "Night-Mare"). Anesidora, Ἀνησιδώρα ("sender-up of gifts") at Phlya in Attica. Cabeiraea, Καβειραία΄ ("Related with the Cabeiri") at Thebes. Chloe, Χλόη, ("Green"), that invokes her powers of ever-returning fertility, as does Chthonia. Chthonia, Χθονία, ("under or beneath the earth") in Laconia. Despoina, Δέσποινα ("mistress of the house"), a Greek word similar to the Mycenean potnia. This title was also applied to Persephone, Aphrodite and Hecate. Europa, Εὐρώπη, "broad face or eyes" at Livadeia of Boeotia. She was the nurse of Trophonios to whom a chthonic cult and oracle was dedicated. Eleusinia, Ἐλευσίνια in the Mysteries at Pheneus. Erinys, Ερινύς, ("Fury"), with a function similar with the function of the avenging Dike (Justice), goddess of moral justice based on custom rules who represents the divine retribution, and the Erinyes, female ancient chthonic deities of vengeance and implacable agents of retribution. Ioulo Ἰουλώ, ("related with corn-sheafs") Karpophorus, Καρποφόρος ("fruit bearing"). Kidaria, Κιδαρία ("kidaris : Arcadian dance") at Pheneus. Lusia, Λουσία, ("Bather"). Malophorus, Μαλοφόρος, ("Apple-bearer" or "Sheep-bearer") at Megara and Selinus. Melaina, Μέλαινα ("black") . Mysia, Μυσία at Pellene. Potnia, Πότνια, ("mistress") in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter. Hera especially, but also Artemis and Athena, are addressed as "potnia" as well. Prosymne, Προσύμνη ("to whom one addresses hymns") at Lerna. Thermasia, Θερμασία ("Warmth") at Hermione. Thesmia, Θεσμία ("law goddess") in the Mysteries at Pheneus. Thesmophoros, Θεσμοφόρος, ("giver of customs" or "legislator"), a title connected with the Thesmophoria, a festival of secret women-only rituals connected with marriage customs. Worship In Crete The earliest recorded worship of a deity possibly equivalent to Demeter is found in Linear B Mycenean Greek tablets of c. 1400–1200 BC found at Pylos. The tablets describe worship of the "two queens and the king", which may be related to Demeter, Persephone and Poseidon. An early name which may refer to Demeter, si-to-po-ti-ni-ja (Sito Potnia), appears in Linear B inscriptions found at Mycenae and Pylos. In Crete, Poseidon was often given the title wa-na-ka (wanax) in Linear B inscriptions, in his role as king of the underworld, and his title E-ne-si-da-o-ne indicates his chthonic nature. In the cave of Amnisos, Enesidaon is associated with the cult of Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, who was involved with the annual birth of the divine child. During the Bronze Age, a goddess of nature dominated both in Minoan and Mycenean cults, and Wanax (wa-na-ka) was her male companion (paredros) in the Mycenean cult. Elements of this early form of worship survived in the Eleusinian cult, where the following words were uttered: "the mighty Potnia had born a strong son." On the Greek mainland Tablets from Pylos record sacrificial goods destined for "the Two Queens and Poseidon" ("to the Two Queens and the King" :wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te). The "Two Queens" may be related with Demeter and Persephone, or their precursors, goddesses who were no longer associated with Poseidon in later periods. Major cults to Demeter are known at Eleusis in Attica, Hermion (in Crete), Megara, Celeae, Lerna, Aegila, Munychia, Corinth, Delos, Priene, Akragas, Iasos, Pergamon, Selinus, Tegea, Thoricus, Dion (in Macedonia) Lykosoura, Mesembria, Enna (Sicily), and Samothrace. An ancient Amphictyony, probably the earliest centred on the cult of Demeter at Anthele (Ἀνθήλη), which lay on the coast of Malis south of Thessaly. This was the locality of Thermopylae. After the "First Sacred War", the Anthelan body was known thenceforth as the Delphic Amphictyony Mysian Demeter had a seven-day festival at Pellené in Arcadia. The geographer Pausainias passed the shrine to Mysian Demeter on the road from Mycenae to Argos, and reports that according to Argive tradition the shrine was founded by an Archive named Mysius who venerated Demeter. Festivals Demeter's two major festivals were sacred mysteries. Her Thesmophoria festival (11–13 October) was women-only. Her Eleusinian mysteries were open to initiates of any gender or social class. At the heart of both festivals were myths concerning Demeter as Mother and Persephone as her daughter. Conflation with other goddesses In the Roman period, Demeter became conflated with the Roman agricultural goddess Ceres under the Interpretatio graeca. The worship of Demeter was formally merged with that of Ceres around 205 BC, along with the ritus graecia cereris, a Greek-inspired form of cult, as part of Rome's general religious recruitment of deities as allies against Carthage, towards the end of the Second Punic War. The cult originated in southern Italy (part of Magna Graecia) and was probably based on the Thesmophoria, a mystery cult dedicated to Demeter and Persephone as "Mother and Maiden". It arrived along with its Greek priestesses, who were granted Roman citizenship so that they could pray to the gods "with a foreign and external knowledge, but with a domestic and civil intention". The new cult was installed in the already ancient Temple of Ceres, Liber and Libera, Rome's Aventine patrons of the plebs; from the end of the 3rd century BC, Demeter's temple at Enna, in Sicily, was acknowledged as Ceres' oldest, most authoritative cult center, and Libera was recognized as Proserpina, Roman equivalent to Persephone. Their joint cult recalls Demeter's search for Persephone, after the latter's abduction into the underworld by Hades (or Pluto). At the Aventine, the new cult took its place alongside the old. It made no reference to Liber, whose open and gender-mixed cult continued to play a central role in plebeian culture, as a patron and protector of plebeian rights, freedoms and values. The exclusively female initiates and priestesses of the new "greek style" mysteries of Ceres and Proserpina were expected to uphold Rome's traditional, patrician-dominated social hierarchy and traditional morality. Unmarried girls should emulate the chastity of Proserpina, the maiden; married women should seek to emulate Ceres, the devoted and fruitful Mother. Their rites were intended to secure a good harvest, and increase the fertility of those who partook in the mysteries. Beginning in the 5th century BCE in Asia Minor, Demeter was also considered equivalent to the Phrygian goddess Cybele. Demeter's festival of Thesmophoria was popular throughout Asia Minor, and the myth of Persephone and Adonis in many ways mirrors the myth of Cybele and Attis. Some late antique sources syncretized several "great goddess" figures into a single deity. The Platonist philosopher Apuleius, writing in the late 2nd century, identified Ceres (Demeter) with Isis, having her declare: I, mother of the universe, mistress of all the elements, first-born of the ages, highest of the gods, queen of the shades, first of those who dwell in heaven, representing in one shape all gods and goddesses. My will controls the shining heights of heaven, the health-giving sea-winds, and the mournful silences of hell; the entire world worships my single godhead in a thousand shapes, with divers rites, and under many a different name. The Phrygians, first-born of mankind, call me the Pessinuntian Mother of the gods; ... the ancient Eleusinians Actaean Ceres; ... and the Egyptians who excel in ancient learning, honour me with the worship which is truly mine and call me by my true name: Queen Isis. --Apuleius, translated by E. J. Kenny. The Golden Ass Mythology Lovers and children Some of the earliest accounts of Demeter's relationships to other deities comes from Hesiod's Theogony, written c. 700 BC. In it, Demeter is described as the daughter of Cronus and Rhea. Demeter's most well-known relationship is with her daughter, Persephone, queen of the underworld. Both Hesiod and the Homeric Hymn to Demeter(2), describe Persephone as the daughter of Zeus and his older sister, Demeter, though no myths exist describing her conception or birth. The exception is a fragment of the lost Orphic theogony, which preserves part of a myth in which Zeus mates with his mother, Rhea, in the form of a snake, explaining the origin of the symbol on Hermes' staff. Their daughter is said to be Persephone, whom Zeus in turn mates with to conceive Dionysus. According to the Orphic fragments, "After becoming the mother of Zeus, she who was formerly Rhea became Demeter." Before her abduction by Hades, Persephone was known as Kore ("maiden"), and there is some evidence that the figures of Persephone Queen of the Underworld and Kore daughter of Demeter were originally considered separate goddesses. However, they must have become conflated with each other by the time of Hesiod in the 7th century BC. Demeter and Persephone were often worshiped together and were often referred to by joint cultic titles. In their cult at Eleusis, they were referred to simply as "the goddesses", often distinguished as "the older" and "the younger"; in Rhodes and Sparta, they were worshiped as "the Demeters"; in the Thesmophoria, they were known as "the thesmophoroi" ("the legislators"). In Arcadia they were known as "the Great Goddesses" and "the mistresses". In Mycenaean Pylos, Demeter and Persephone were probably called the "queens" (wa-na-ssoi). Both Homer and Hesiod, writing c. 700 BC, described Demeter making love with the agricultural hero Iasion in a ploughed field. According to Hesiod, this union resulted in the birth of Plutus. According to Diodorus Siculus, in his Bibliotheca historica written in the 1st century BC, Demeter and Zeus were also the parents of Dionysus. Diodorus described the myth of Dionysus' double birth (once from the earth, i.e. Demeter, when the plant sprouts) and once from the vine (when the fruit sprouts from the plant). Diodorus also related a version of the myth of Dionysus' destruction by the Titans ("sons of Gaia"), who boiled him, and how Demeter gathered up his remains so that he could be born a third time (Diod. iii.62). Diodorus states that Dionysus' birth from Zeus and his older sister Demeter was somewhat of a minority belief, possibly via conflation of Demeter with her daughter, as most sources state that the parents of Dionysus were Zeus and Persephone, and later Zeus and Semele. In Arcadia, a major Arcadian deity known as Despoina ("Mistress") was said to be the daughter of Demeter and Poseidon. According to Pausanias, a Thelpusian tradition said that during Demeter's search for Persephone, Poseidon pursued her. Demeter turned into a horse in order to avoid her younger brother's advances, but he turned into a stallion and mated with the goddess, resulting in the birth of the horse god Arion and a daughter "whose name they are not wont to divulge to the uninitiated". Elsewhere he says that the Phigalians assert that the offspring of Poseidon and Demeter, was not a horse but in fact Despoina, "as the Arcadians call her". In Orphic literature, Demeter seems to be the mother of the witchcraft goddess Hecate. Abduction of Persephone Demeter's daughter Persephone was abducted to the underworld by Hades, who received permission from her father Zeus to take her as his bride. Demeter searched for her ceaselessly, preoccupied with her grief. The seasons halted; living things ceased their growth, then began to die. Faced with the extinction of all life on earth, Zeus sent his messenger Hermes to the underworld to bring Persephone back. Hades agreed to release her if she had eaten nothing while in his realm; but Persephone had eaten a small number of pomegranate seeds. This bound her to Hades and the underworld for certain months of every year, either the dry Mediterranean summer, when plant life is threatened by drought, or the autumn and winter. There are several variations on the basic myth; the earliest account, the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, relates that Persephone is secretly slipped a pomegranate seed by Hades and in Ovid's version, Persephone willingly and secretly eats the pomegranate seeds, thinking to deceive Hades, but is discovered and made to stay. Contrary to popular perception, Persephone's time in the underworld does not correspond with the unfruitful seasons of the ancient Greek calendar, nor her return to the upper world with springtime. Demeter's descent to retrieve Persephone from the underworld is connected to the Eleusinian Mysteries. The myth of the capture of Persephone seems to be pre-Greek. In the Greek version, Ploutos (πλούτος, wealth) represents the wealth of the corn that was stored in underground silos or ceramic jars (pithoi). Similar subterranean pithoi were used in ancient times for funerary practices. At the beginning of the autumn, when the corn of the old crop is laid on the fields, she ascends and is reunited with her mother Demeter, for at this time the old crop and the new meet each other. According to the personal mythology of Robert Graves, Persephone is not only the younger self of Demeter, she is in turn also one of three guises of the Triple Goddess – Kore (the youngest, the maiden, signifying green young grain), Persephone (in the middle, the nymph, signifying the ripe grain waiting to be harvested), and Hecate (the eldest of the three, the crone, the harvested | Misme took her in and offered her a cup of water with pennyroyal and barley groats in it, for it was a hot day. Demeter, in her thirst, swallowed the drink clumsily. Witnessing that, Misme's son Ascalabus laughed and mocked her and asked her if she would like a deep jar of that drink. Demeter then poured her drink over him and turned him into a gecko, hated by both men and gods. It was said that Demeter showed her favour to those who killed geckos. Minthe Before Hades abducted her daughter, he had kept the nymph Minthe as his mistress. But after he married Persephone, he set Minthe aside. Minthe would often brag about being lovelier than Persephone, and saying Hades would soon come back to her and kick Persephone out of his halls. Demeter, hearing that, grew angry and trampled Minthe; from the earth then sprang a lovely-smelling herb named after the nymph. In other versions, Persephone herself is the one who kills and turns Minthe into a plant for sleeping with Hades. Pelops Once Tantalus, a son of Zeus, invited the gods over for dinner. Tantalus, wanting to test them, cut his son Pelops, cooked him and offered him as meal to them. They all saw through Tantalus' crime except Demeter, who ate Pelops' shoulder before the gods brought him back to life. Other wrath myths In the Argive version of this myth, when Demeter arrived in Argolis, a man named Colontas refused to receive her in his house, whereas his daughter Chthonia disapproved of his actions. Colontas was punished by being burnt along with his house, while Demeter took Chthonia to Hermione, where she built a sanctuary for the goddess. Demeter pinned Ascalaphus under a rock for reporting, as sole witness, to Hades that Persephone had consumed some pomegranate seeds. Later, after Heracles rolled the stone off Ascalaphus, Demeter turned him into a short-eared owl instead. Demeter also turned the Sirens into half-bird monsters for not helping her daughter Persephone when she was abducted by Hades. Other favour myths Demeter gave Triptolemus her serpent-drawn chariot and seed, and bade him scatter it across the earth (teach mankind the knowledge of agriculture). Triptolemus rode through Europe and Asia until he came to the land of Lyncus, a Scythian king. Lyncus pretended to offer what's accustomed of hospitality to him, but once Triptolemus fell asleep, he attacked him with a dagger, wanting to take credit of his work. Demeter then saved Triptolemus by turning Lyncus into a lynx, and ordered Triptolemus to return home air-borne. Hyginus records a very similar myth, in which Demeter saves Triptolemus from an evil king named Carnabon who additionally seized Triptolemus' chariot and killed one of the dragons, so he might not escape; Demeter restored the chariot to Triptolemus, substituted the dead dragon with another one, and punished Carnabon by putting him among the stars holding a dragon as if to kill it. During her wanderings, Demeter came upon the town of Pheneus; to the Pheneates that receives her warmly and offered her shelter she gave all sorts of pulse, except for beans, deeming it impure. Two of the Pheneates, Trisaules and Damithales, had a temple of Demeter built for her. Demeter also gifted a fig tree to Phytalus, an Eleusinian man, for welcoming her in his home. When her son Philomelus invented the plow and used it to cultivate the fields, Demeter was so impressed by his good work she immortalized him in the sky by turning him into a constellation, the Boötes. Besides giving gifts to those who were welcoming to her, Demeter was also a goddess who nursed the young; all of Plemaeus's children born by his first wife died in cradle; Demeter took pity of him and reared herself his son Orthopolis. Plemaeus built a temple to her to thank her. Demeter also raised Trophonius, the prophetic son of either Apollo or Erginus. Genealogy See also Family tree of the Greek gods 1 Ceres, the first asteroid and dwarf planet discovered, named after Demeter's Roman equivalent and called Demeter in Greek 1108 Demeter, a main belt asteroid 26 km in diameter, which was discovered in 1929 by Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth at Heidelberg. Greek mythology in popular culture Isis and Osiris Law of Demeter, a software design guideline named in honor of Demeter. Notes References Antoninus Liberalis, The Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis translated by Francis Celoria (Routledge 1992). Online version at the Topos Text Project. Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Apuleius, The golden ass, or, Metamorphoses. E. J. Kenney. 2004. London: Penguin Books. Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion, Harvard University Press, 1985. . Callimachus, Callimachus and Lycophron with an English Translation by A. W. Mair; Aratus, with an English Translation by G. R. Mair, London: W. Heinemann, New York: G. P. Putnam 1921. Internet Archive. Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, Volume III: Books 4.59-8, translated by C. H. Oldfather, Loeb Classical Library No. 340. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1939. . Online version at Harvard University Press. Online version by Bill Thayer. Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2). Graf, Fritz. "Demeter," Brill's New Pauly, Ed. Hubert Cancik and et al. Brill Reference Online. Web. 27 September 2017. Graves, Robert; The Greek Myths, Moyer Bell Ltd; Unabridged edition (December 1988), . Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. . Halieutica in Oppian, Colluthus, Tryphiodorus. Oppian, Colluthus, and Tryphiodorus. Translated by A. W. Mair. Loeb Classical Library 219. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1928. Online version at topos text. Hard, Robin, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology", Psychology Press, 2004, . Google Books. Harrison, Jane Ellen (1908), Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, second edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1908. Internet Archive. Harrison, Jane Ellen (1928), Myths of Greece and Rome, Garden City, New York, Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc., 1928. Online version at Internet Sacred Text Archive. Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Hesiod, Works and Days, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homeric Hymn 2 to Demeter, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Hyginus, Gaius Julius, Fabulae, in The Myths of Hyginus, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. Online version at ToposText. Hyginus, Gaius Julius, Astronomica from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Kerényi, Karl (1951), The Gods of the Greeks, Thames and Hudson, London, 1951. Kerényi, Karl (1967), Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter, Princeton University Press, 1991. . Kerényi, Karl (1976), Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, Princeton University Press, 1996. . Kern, Otto. Orphicorum Fragmenta, Berlin, 1922. Internet Archive. Lycophron, Alexandra (or Cassandra) in Callimachus and Lycophron with an English translation by A. W. Mair ; Aratus, with an English translation by G. R. Mair, London: W. Heinemann, New York: G. P. Putnam 1921 . Internet Archive. Morford, Mark P. O., Robert J. Lenardon, Classical Mythology, Eighth Edition, Oxford University Press, 2007. . Martin P. Nilsson, Greek Popular Religion, 1940. Sacred-texts.com Ovid. Metamorphoses, Volume I: Books 1-8. Translated by Frank Justus Miller. Revised by G. P. Goold. Loeb Classical Library No. 42. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1977, first published 1916. . Online version at Harvard University Press. The Oxford Classical Dictionary, second edition, Hammond, N.G.L. and Howard Hayes Scullard (editors), Oxford University Press, 1992. . Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Strabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Tripp, Edward, Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology, Thomas Y. Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970). . West, M. L. (1983), The Orphic Poems, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1983. . West, M. L. (2007), Indo-European Poetry and Myth, OUP Oxford, 2007. . Google Books. External links Hymn to Demeter, Ancient Greek and English text, Interlinear Translation edited & adapted from the 1914 prose translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, with Greek-English glossary, notes and illustrations. Foley P. Helene, The Homeric hymn to Demeter: translation, commentary, and interpretive essays, Princeton Univers. Press, 1994. with Ancient Greek text and English translation. |
followed by several more. The tapes circulated through the tape trader world, quickly establishing the band's name. With Death guitarist Schuldiner adopting vocal duties, the band made a major impact the emerging Florida death metal scene. The fast minor-key riffs and solos were complemented with fast drumming, creating a style that would catch on in tape trading circles. Schuldiner has been credited by Allmusic's Eduardo Rivadavia for being widely recognized as the "Father of Death Metal". Death's 1987 debut release, Scream Bloody Gore, has been described by About.com's Chad Bowar as being the "evolution from thrash metal to death metal", and "the first true death metal record" by the San Francisco Chronicle. In an Interview Jeff Becerra talked about the discussions of being the creator of the genre, saying that Schuldiner cited Possessed as a massive influence, and Death were even called "Possessed clones" early on. Along with Possessed and Death, other pioneers of death metal in the United States include Macabre, Master, Massacre, Immolation, Cannibal Corpse, Obituary, and Post Mortem. Growing popularity By 1989, many bands had been signed by eager record labels wanting to cash in on the subgenre, including Florida's Obituary, Morbid Angel and Deicide. This collective of death metal bands hailing from Florida are often labeled as "Florida death metal". Morbid Angel pushed the genre's limits both musically and lyrically, with the release of their debut album Altars of Madness in 1989. The album "redefined what it meant to be heavy while influencing an upcoming class of brutal death metal." Death metal spread to Sweden in the late 1980s, flourishing with pioneers such as Carnage, God Macabre, Entombed, Dismember, Grave and Unleashed. In the early 1990s, the rise of melodic death metal was recognized, with Swedish bands such as Dark Tranquillity, At the Gates, and In Flames. Following the original death metal innovators, new subgenres began by the end of the decade. British band Napalm Death became increasingly associated with death metal, in particular, on their 1990 album Harmony Corruption. This album displays aggressive and fairly technical guitar riffing, complex rhythmics, a sophisticated growling vocal delivery by Mark "Barney" Greenway, and socially aware lyrical subjects merging death metal with the grindcore subgenre. Other bands contributing significantly to this early movement include Britain's Bolt Thrower and Carcass and New York's Suffocation. To close the circle, Death released their fourth album Human in 1991. Death's founder Schuldiner helped push the boundaries of uncompromising speed and technical virtuosity, mixing technical and intricate rhythm guitar work with complex arrangements and emotive guitar solos. Earache Records, Relativity Records and Roadrunner Records became the genre's most important labels, with Earache releasing albums by Carcass, Napalm Death, Morbid Angel, and Entombed, and Roadrunner releasing albums by Obituary, and Pestilence. Although these labels had not been death metal labels, they initially became the genre's flagship labels at the beginning of the 1990s. In addition to these, other labels formed as well, such as Nuclear Blast, Century Media, and Peaceville. Many of these labels would go on to achieve successes in other genres of metal throughout the 1990s. In September 1990, Death's manager Eric Greif held one of the first North American death metal festivals, Day of Death, in Milwaukee suburb Waukesha, Wisconsin, and featured 26 bands including Autopsy, Broken Hope, Hellwitch, Obliveon, Revenant, Viogression, Immolation, Atheist, and Cynic. Later history Death metal's popularity achieved its initial peak during 1992–1993, with some bands such as Morbid Angel and Cannibal Corpse enjoying mild commercial success. However, the genre as a whole never broke into the mainstream. The genre's mounting popularity may have been partly responsible for a strong rivalry between Norwegian black metal and Swedish death metal scenes. Fenriz of Darkthrone has noted that Norwegian black metal musicians were "fed up with the whole death metal scene" at the time. Death metal diversified in the 1990s, spawning a rich variety of subgenres that still have a large "underground" following at the present. Characteristics Instrumentation The setup most frequently used within the death metal genre is two guitarists, a bass player, a vocalist, and a drummer often using "hyper double-bass blast beats". Although this is the standard setup, bands have been known to occasionally incorporate other instruments such as electronic keyboards. The genre is often identified by fast, heavily distorted and low tuned guitars, played with techniques such as palm muting and tremolo picking. The percussion is usually aggressive and powerful. Death metal is known for its abrupt tempo, key, and time signature changes. It may include chromatic chord progressions and a varied song structure. In some circumstances, the style will incorporate melodic riffs and harmonies for effect. This incorporation of melody and harmonious playing was even further used in the creation of melodic death metal. These compositions tend to emphasize an ongoing development of themes and motifs. Vocals and lyrics Death metal vocals are referred to as death growls; hoarse roars/snarls. Death growling is mistakenly thought to be a form of screaming using the lowest vocal register known as vocal fry, however vocal fry is actually a form of overtone screaming, and while growling can be performed this way by experienced vocalists who use the fry screaming technique, "true" death growling is in fact created by an altogether different technique. The three major methods of harsh vocalization used in the genre are often mistaken for each other, encompassing vocal fry screaming, false chord screaming, and "true" death growls. Growling is sometimes also referred to as Cookie Monster vocals, tongue-in-cheek, due to the vocal similarity to the voice of the popular Sesame Street character of the same name. Although often criticized, death growls serve the aesthetic purpose of matching death metal's aggressive lyrical content. High-pitched screaming is occasionally utilized in death metal, being heard in songs by Death, Aborted, Exhumed, Dying Fetus, Cannibal Corpse, and Deicide. The lyrical themes of death metal may invoke slasher film-stylised violence, but may also extend to topics like religion (sometimes including Satanism), occultism, Lovecraftian horror, nature, mysticism, mythology, theology, philosophy, science fiction, and politics. Although violence may be explored in various other genres as well, death metal may elaborate on the details of extreme acts, including blood and gore, psychopathy, delirium, mutilation, mutation, dissection, exorcism, torture, rape, cannibalism, and necrophilia. Sociologist Keith Kahn-Harris commented this apparent glamorisation of violence may be attributed to a "fascination" with the human body that all people share to some degree, a fascination that mixes desire and disgust. Heavy metal author Gavin Baddeley also stated there does seem to be a connection between "how acquainted one is with their own mortality" and "how much they crave images of death and violence" via the media. Additionally, contributing artists to the genre often defend death metal as little more than an extreme form of art and entertainment, similar to horror films in the motion picture industry. This explanation has brought such musicians under fire from activists internationally, who claim that this is often lost on a large number of adolescents, who are left with the glamorisation of such violence without social context or awareness of why such imagery is stimulating. According to Alex Webster, bassist of Cannibal Corpse, "The gory lyrics are probably not, as much as people say, [what's keeping us] from being mainstream. Like, 'death metal would never go into the mainstream because the lyrics are too gory?' I think it's really the music, because violent entertainment is totally mainstream." Etymology The most popular theory of the subgenre's christening is Possessed's 1984 demo, Death Metal; the song from the eponymous demo would also be featured on the band's 1985 debut album, Seven Churches. Possessed vocalist/bassist Jeff Becerra said he coined the term in early 1983 for a high school English class assignment. Another possible origin was a magazine called Death Metal, started by Thomas Fischer and Martin Ain of Hellhammer and Celtic Frost. The name was later given to the 1984 compilation Death Metal released by Noise Records. The term might also have originated from other recordings, such as the demo released by Death in 1984, called Death by Metal. Subgenres and fusion genres Cited examples are not necessarily exclusive to one particular style. Many bands can easily be placed in two or more of the following categories, and a band's specific categorization is often a source of contention due to personal opinion and interpretation. Blackened death-doom Blackened death-doom is a microgenre that combines the slow tempos and monolithic drumming of doom metal, the complex and loud riffage of death metal and the shrieking vocals of black metal. Examples of blackened death-doom bands include Morast, Faustcoven, The Ruins of Beverast, Bölzer, Necros Christos, Harvest Gulgaltha, Dragged into | Post Mortem. Growing popularity By 1989, many bands had been signed by eager record labels wanting to cash in on the subgenre, including Florida's Obituary, Morbid Angel and Deicide. This collective of death metal bands hailing from Florida are often labeled as "Florida death metal". Morbid Angel pushed the genre's limits both musically and lyrically, with the release of their debut album Altars of Madness in 1989. The album "redefined what it meant to be heavy while influencing an upcoming class of brutal death metal." Death metal spread to Sweden in the late 1980s, flourishing with pioneers such as Carnage, God Macabre, Entombed, Dismember, Grave and Unleashed. In the early 1990s, the rise of melodic death metal was recognized, with Swedish bands such as Dark Tranquillity, At the Gates, and In Flames. Following the original death metal innovators, new subgenres began by the end of the decade. British band Napalm Death became increasingly associated with death metal, in particular, on their 1990 album Harmony Corruption. This album displays aggressive and fairly technical guitar riffing, complex rhythmics, a sophisticated growling vocal delivery by Mark "Barney" Greenway, and socially aware lyrical subjects merging death metal with the grindcore subgenre. Other bands contributing significantly to this early movement include Britain's Bolt Thrower and Carcass and New York's Suffocation. To close the circle, Death released their fourth album Human in 1991. Death's founder Schuldiner helped push the boundaries of uncompromising speed and technical virtuosity, mixing technical and intricate rhythm guitar work with complex arrangements and emotive guitar solos. Earache Records, Relativity Records and Roadrunner Records became the genre's most important labels, with Earache releasing albums by Carcass, Napalm Death, Morbid Angel, and Entombed, and Roadrunner releasing albums by Obituary, and Pestilence. Although these labels had not been death metal labels, they initially became the genre's flagship labels at the beginning of the 1990s. In addition to these, other labels formed as well, such as Nuclear Blast, Century Media, and Peaceville. Many of these labels would go on to achieve successes in other genres of metal throughout the 1990s. In September 1990, Death's manager Eric Greif held one of the first North American death metal festivals, Day of Death, in Milwaukee suburb Waukesha, Wisconsin, and featured 26 bands including Autopsy, Broken Hope, Hellwitch, Obliveon, Revenant, Viogression, Immolation, Atheist, and Cynic. Later history Death metal's popularity achieved its initial peak during 1992–1993, with some bands such as Morbid Angel and Cannibal Corpse enjoying mild commercial success. However, the genre as a whole never broke into the mainstream. The genre's mounting popularity may have been partly responsible for a strong rivalry between Norwegian black metal and Swedish death metal scenes. Fenriz of Darkthrone has noted that Norwegian black metal musicians were "fed up with the whole death metal scene" at the time. Death metal diversified in the 1990s, spawning a rich variety of subgenres that still have a large "underground" following at the present. Characteristics Instrumentation The setup most frequently used within the death metal genre is two guitarists, a bass player, a vocalist, and a drummer often using "hyper double-bass blast beats". Although this is the standard setup, bands have been known to occasionally incorporate other instruments such as electronic keyboards. The genre is often identified by fast, heavily distorted and low tuned guitars, played with techniques such as palm muting and tremolo picking. The percussion is usually aggressive and powerful. Death metal is known for its abrupt tempo, key, and time signature changes. It may include chromatic chord progressions and a varied song structure. In some circumstances, the style will incorporate melodic riffs and harmonies for effect. This incorporation of melody and harmonious playing was even further used in the creation of melodic death metal. These compositions tend to emphasize an ongoing development of themes and motifs. Vocals and lyrics Death metal vocals are referred to as death growls; hoarse roars/snarls. Death growling is mistakenly thought to be a form of screaming using the lowest vocal register known as vocal fry, however vocal fry is actually a form of overtone screaming, and while growling can be performed this way by experienced vocalists who use the fry screaming technique, "true" death growling is in fact created by an altogether different technique. The three major methods of harsh vocalization used in the genre are often mistaken for each other, encompassing vocal fry screaming, false chord screaming, and "true" death growls. Growling is sometimes also referred to as Cookie Monster vocals, tongue-in-cheek, due to the vocal similarity to the voice of the popular Sesame Street character of the same name. Although often criticized, death growls serve the aesthetic purpose of matching death metal's aggressive lyrical content. High-pitched screaming is occasionally utilized in death metal, being heard in songs by Death, Aborted, Exhumed, Dying Fetus, Cannibal Corpse, and Deicide. The lyrical themes of death metal may invoke slasher film-stylised violence, but may also extend to topics like religion (sometimes including Satanism), occultism, Lovecraftian horror, nature, mysticism, mythology, theology, philosophy, science fiction, and politics. Although violence may be explored in various other genres as well, death metal may elaborate on the details of extreme acts, including blood and gore, psychopathy, delirium, mutilation, mutation, dissection, exorcism, torture, rape, cannibalism, and necrophilia. Sociologist Keith Kahn-Harris commented this apparent glamorisation of violence may be attributed to a "fascination" with the human body that all people share to some degree, a fascination that mixes desire and disgust. Heavy metal author Gavin Baddeley also stated there does seem to be a connection between "how acquainted one is with their own mortality" and "how much they crave images of death and violence" via the media. Additionally, contributing artists to the genre often defend death metal as little more than an extreme form of art and entertainment, similar to horror films in the motion picture industry. This explanation has brought such musicians under fire from activists internationally, who claim that this is often lost on a large number of adolescents, who are left with the glamorisation of such violence without social context or awareness of why such imagery is stimulating. According to Alex Webster, bassist of Cannibal Corpse, "The gory lyrics are probably not, as much as people say, [what's keeping us] from being mainstream. Like, 'death metal would never go into the mainstream because the lyrics are too gory?' I think it's really the music, because violent entertainment is totally mainstream." Etymology The most popular theory of the subgenre's christening is Possessed's 1984 demo, Death Metal; the song from the eponymous demo would also be featured on the band's 1985 debut album, Seven Churches. Possessed vocalist/bassist Jeff Becerra said he coined the term in early 1983 for a high school English class assignment. Another possible origin was a magazine called Death Metal, started by Thomas Fischer and Martin Ain of Hellhammer and Celtic Frost. The name was later given to the 1984 compilation Death Metal released by Noise Records. The term might also have originated from other recordings, such as the demo released by Death in 1984, called Death by Metal. Subgenres and fusion genres Cited examples are not necessarily exclusive to one particular style. Many bands can easily be placed in two or more of the following categories, and a band's specific categorization is often a source of contention due to personal opinion and interpretation. Blackened death-doom Blackened death-doom is a microgenre that combines the slow tempos and monolithic drumming of doom metal, the complex and loud riffage of death metal and the shrieking vocals of black metal. Examples of blackened death-doom bands include Morast, Faustcoven, The Ruins of Beverast, Bölzer, Necros Christos, Harvest Gulgaltha, Dragged into Sunlight, Hands of Thieves, and Soulburn. Blackened death metal Blackened death metal is commonly death metal that incorporates musical, lyrical or ideological elements of black metal, such as an increased use of tremolo picking, anti-Christian or Satanic lyrical themes and chord progressions similar to those used in black metal. Blackened death metal bands are also more likely to wear corpse paint and suits of armour, than bands from other styles of death metal. Lower range guitar tunings, death growls and abrupt tempo changes are common in the genre. Examples of blackened death metal bands are Belphegor, Behemoth, Akercocke, and Sacramentum. Melodic |
is, for instance, the completely medieval Spanish of the Poema de mio Cid, a kind of Spanish that is as different from Cervantes' language as Middle English is from Modern English. The Old Castilian language was also used to show the higher class that came with being a knight errant. In Don Quixote, there are basically two different types of Castilian: Old Castilian is spoken only by Don Quixote, while the rest of the roles speak a contemporary (late 16th century) version of Spanish. The Old Castilian of Don Quixote is a humoristic resource—he copies the language spoken in the chivalric books that made him mad; and many times, when he talks nobody is able to understand him because his language is too old. This humorous effect is more difficult to see nowadays because the reader must be able to distinguish the two old versions of the language, but when the book was published it was much celebrated. (English translations can get some sense of the effect by having Don Quixote use King James Bible or Shakespearean English, or even Middle English.) In Old Castilian, the letter x represented the sound written sh in modern English, so the name was originally pronounced . However, as Old Castilian evolved towards modern Spanish, a sound change caused it to be pronounced with a voiceless velar fricative sound (like the Scots or German ch), and today the Spanish pronunciation of "Quixote" is . The original pronunciation is reflected in languages such as Asturian, Leonese, Galician, Catalan, Italian, Portuguese, and French, where it is pronounced with a "sh" or "ch" sound; the French opera Don Quichotte is one of the best-known modern examples of this pronunciation. Today, English speakers generally attempt something close to the modern Spanish pronunciation of Quixote (Quijote), as , although the traditional English spelling-based pronunciation with the value of the letter x in modern English is still sometimes used, resulting in or . In Australian English, the preferred pronunciation amongst members of the educated classes was until well into the 1970s, as part of a tendency for the upper class to "anglicise its borrowing ruthlessly". The traditional English rendering is preserved in the pronunciation of the adjectival form quixotic, i.e., , defined by Merriam-Webster as the foolishly impractical pursuit of ideals, typically marked by rash and lofty romanticism. Setting Cervantes' story takes place on the plains of La Mancha, specifically the comarca of Campo de Montiel. The story also takes place in El Toboso where Don Quixote goes to seek Dulcinea's blessings. The location of the village to which Cervantes alludes in the opening sentence of Don Quixote has been the subject of debate since its publication over four centuries ago. Indeed, Cervantes deliberately omits the name of the village, giving an explanation in the final chapter: Theories In 2004, a multidisciplinary team of academics from Complutense University, led by Francisco Parra Luna, Manuel Fernández Nieto, and Santiago Petschen Verdaguer, deduced that the village was that of Villanueva de los Infantes. Their findings were published in a paper titled "'El Quijote' como un sistema de distancias/tiempos: hacia la localización del lugar de la Mancha", which was later published as a book: El enigma resuelto del Quijote. The result was replicated in two subsequent investigations: "La determinación del lugar de la Mancha como problema estadístico" and "The Kinematics of the Quixote and the Identity of the 'Place in La Mancha'". Researchers Isabel Sanchez Duque and Francisco Javier Escudero have found relevant information regarding the possible sources of inspiration of Cervantes for writing Don Quixote. Cervantes was friend of the family Villaseñor, which was involved in a combat with Francisco de Acuña. Both sides combated disguised as medieval knights in the road from El Toboso to Miguel Esteban in 1581. They also found a person called Rodrigo Quijada, who bought the title of nobility of "hidalgo", and created diverse conflicts with the help of a squire. Language Because of its widespread influence, Don Quixote also helped cement the modern Spanish language. The opening sentence of the book created a classic Spanish cliché with the phrase ("whose name I do not wish to recall"): ("In a village of La Mancha, whose name I do not wish to recall, there lived, not very long ago, one of those gentlemen with a lance in the lance-rack, an ancient shield, a skinny old horse, and a fast greyhound.") The novel's farcical elements make use of punning and similar verbal playfulness. Character-naming in Don Quixote makes ample figural use of contradiction, inversion, and irony, such as the names Rocinante (a reversal) and Dulcinea (an allusion to illusion), and the word itself, possibly a pun on (jaw) but certainly (Catalan: thighs), a reference to a horse's rump. As a military term, the word quijote refers to cuisses, part of a full suit of plate armour protecting the thighs. The Spanish suffix -ote denotes the augmentative—for example, grande means large, but grandote means extra large, with grotesque connotations. Following this example, Quixote would suggest 'The Great Quijano', an oxymoronic play on words that makes much sense in light of the character's delusions of grandeur. La Mancha is a region of Spain, but mancha (Spanish word) means spot, mark, stain. Translators such as John Ormsby have declared La Mancha to be one of the most desertlike, unremarkable regions of Spain, the least romantic and fanciful place that one would imagine as the home of a courageous knight. Don Quixote, alongside its many translations, has also provided a number of idioms and expressions within the English language. Examples with their own articles include the phrase "the pot calling the kettle black" and the adjective "quixotic." Publication In July 1604, Cervantes sold the rights of El ingenioso hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha (known as Don Quixote, Part I) to the publisher-bookseller Francisco de Robles for an unknown sum. License to publish was granted in September, the printing was finished in December, and the book came out on 16 January 1605. The novel was an immediate success. The majority of the 400 copies of the first edition were sent to the New World, with the publisher hoping to get a better price in the Americas. Although most of them disappeared in a shipwreck near La Havana, approximately 70 copies reached Lima, from where they were sent to Cuzco in the heart of the defunct Inca Empire. No sooner was it in the hands of the public than preparations were made to issue derivative (pirated) editions. In 1614 a fake second part was published by a mysterious author under the pen name Avellaneda. This author was never satisfactorily identified. This rushed Cervantes into writing and publishing a genuine second part in 1615, which was a year before his own death. Don Quixote had been growing in favour, and its author's name was now known beyond the Pyrenees. By August 1605, there were two Madrid editions, two published in Lisbon, and one in Valencia. Publisher Francisco de Robles secured additional copyrights for Aragon and Portugal for a second edition. Sale of these publishing rights deprived Cervantes of further financial profit on Part One. In 1607, an edition was printed in Brussels. Robles, the Madrid publisher, found it necessary to meet demand with a third edition, a seventh publication in all, in 1608. Popularity of the book in Italy was such that a Milan bookseller issued an Italian edition in 1610. Yet another Brussels edition was called for in 1611. Since then, numerous editions have been released and in total, the novel is believed to have sold more than 500 million copies worldwide. The work has been produced in numerous editions and languages, the Cervantes Collection, at the State Library of New South Wales includes over 1,100 editions. These were collected, by Dr Ben Haneman, over a period of thirty years. In 1613, Cervantes published the Novelas Ejemplares, dedicated to the Maecenas of the day, the Conde de Lemos. Eight and a half years after Part One had appeared came the first hint of a forthcoming Segunda Parte (Part Two). "You shall see shortly," Cervantes says, "the further exploits of Don Quixote and humours of Sancho Panza." Don Quixote, Part Two, published by the same press as its predecessor, appeared late in 1615, and quickly reprinted in Brussels and Valencia (1616) and Lisbon (1617). Parts One and Two were published as one edition in Barcelona in 1617. Historically, Cervantes' work has been said to have "smiled Spain's chivalry away", suggesting that Don Quixote as a chivalric satire contributed to the demise of Spanish Chivalry. English editions in translation There are many translations of the book, and it has been adapted many times in shortened versions. Many derivative editions were also written at the time, as was the custom of envious or unscrupulous writers. Seven years after the Parte Primera appeared, Don Quixote had been translated into French, German, Italian, and English, with the first French translation of 'Part II' appearing in 1618, and the first English translation in 1620. One abridged adaptation, authored by Agustín Sánchez, runs slightly over 150 pages, cutting away about 750 pages. Thomas Shelton's English translation of the First Part appeared in 1612 while Cervantes was still alive, although there is no evidence that Shelton had met the author. Although Shelton's version is cherished by some, according to John Ormsby and Samuel Putnam, it was far from satisfactory as a carrying over of Cervantes' text. Shelton's translation of the novel's Second Part appeared in 1620. Near the end of the 17th century, John Phillips, a nephew of poet John Milton, published what Putnam considered the worst English translation. The translation, as literary critics claim, was not based on Cervantes' text but mostly upon a French work by Filleau de Saint-Martin and upon notes which Thomas Shelton had written. Around 1700, a version by Pierre Antoine Motteux appeared. Motteux's translation enjoyed lasting popularity; it was reprinted as the Modern Library Series edition of the novel until recent times. Nonetheless, future translators would find much to fault in Motteux's version: Samuel Putnam criticized "the prevailing slapstick quality of this work, especially where Sancho Panza is involved, the obtrusion of the obscene where it is found in the original, and the slurring of difficulties through omissions or expanding upon the text". John Ormsby considered Motteux's version "worse than worthless", and denounced its "infusion of Cockney flippancy and facetiousness" into the original. The proverb "The proof of the pudding is in the eating" is widely attributed to Cervantes. The Spanish word for pudding ("budín"), however, doesn't appear in the original text but premieres in the Motteux translation. In Smollett's translation of 1755 he notes that the original text reads literally "you will see when the eggs are fried", meaning "time will tell". A translation by Captain John Stevens, which revised Thomas Shelton's version, also appeared in 1700, but its publication was overshadowed by the simultaneous release of Motteux's translation. In 1742, the Charles Jervas translation appeared, posthumously. Through a printer's error, it came to be known, and is still known, as "the Jarvis translation". It was the most scholarly and accurate English translation of the novel up to that time, but future translator John Ormsby points out in his own introduction to the novel that the Jarvis translation has been criticized as being too stiff. Nevertheless, it became the most frequently reprinted translation of the novel until about 1885. Another 18th-century translation into English was that of Tobias Smollett, himself a novelist, first published in 1755. Like the Jarvis translation, it continues to be reprinted today. A translation by Alexander James Duffield appeared in 1881 and another by Henry Edward Watts in 1888. Most modern translators take as their model the 1885 translation by John Ormsby. An expurgated children's version, under the title The Story of Don Quixote, was published in 1922 (available on Project Gutenberg). It leaves out the risqué sections as well as chapters that young readers might consider dull, and embellishes a great deal on Cervantes' original text. The title page actually gives credit to the two editors as if they were the authors, and omits any mention of Cervantes. The most widely read English-language translations of the mid-20th century are by Samuel Putnam (1949), J. M. Cohen (1950; Penguin Classics), and Walter Starkie (1957). The last English translation of the novel in the 20th century was by Burton Raffel, published in 1996. The 21st century has already seen five new translations of the novel into English. The first is by John D. Rutherford and the second by Edith Grossman. Reviewing the novel in the New York Times, Carlos Fuentes called Grossman's translation a "major literary achievement" and another called it the "most transparent and least impeded among more than a dozen English translations going back to the 17th century." In 2005, the year of the novel's 400th anniversary, Tom Lathrop published a new English translation of the novel, based on a lifetime of specialized study of the novel and its history. The fourth translation of the 21st century was released in 2006 by former university librarian James H Montgomery, 26 years after he had begun it, in an attempt to "recreate the sense of the original as closely as possible, though not at the expense of Cervantes' literary style." In 2011, another translation by Gerald J. Davis appeared. It is the latest and the fifth translation of the 21st century. Tilting at windmills Tilting at windmills is an English idiom that means attacking imaginary enemies. The expression is derived from Don Quixote, and the word "tilt" in this context refers to jousting. The phrase is sometimes used to describe either confrontations where adversaries are incorrectly perceived, or courses of action that are based on misinterpreted or misapplied heroic, romantic, or idealistic justifications. It may also connote an inopportune, unfounded, and vain effort against adversaries real or imagined. List of English translations Thomas Shelton (1612 & 1620) Captain John Stevens (1700) (revision of Thomas Shelton) John Phillips (1687) – the nephew of John Milton Pierre Antoine Motteux (1700) John Ozell (1719) (revision of Pierre Antoine Motteux) George Kelly (1769) (considered as another revision of Pierre Antoine Motteux) Ned Ward (1700), (The) Life & Notable Adventures of Don Quixote merrily translated into Hudibrastic Verse Charles Jervas (1742) Tobias Smollett (1755) (revision of Charles Jervas) Charles Henry Wilmot (1774) Mary Smirke with engravings by Robert Smirke (1818) Alexander James Duffield (1881) John Ormsby (1885). The original version, available free on the Internet Archive, is to be preferred to the WikiSource and similar versions, which do not include Ormsby's careful notes and with his Introduction much abbreviated. Joseph Ramon Jones and Kenneth Douglas (1981) (revision of Ormsby). () - Norton Critical Edition Henry Edward Watts (1888) Robinson Smith (1910) Samuel Putnam (Modern Library, 1949) J. M. Cohen (Penguin, 1950) Walter Starkie (1964) Burton Raffel (Norton, 1996) John Rutherford (Penguin, 2000) Edith Grossman (2003) Thomas Lathrop (2005) James H. Montgomery (2006) Gerald J. Davis (2011) Reviewing the English translations as a whole, Daniel Eisenberg stated that there is no one translation ideal for every purpose, but expressed a preference for those of Putnam and the revision of Ormsby's translation by Douglas and Jones. English Translation of the Spurious Don Quixote Captain John Stevens (1705) William Augustus Yardley (1784) Influence and media See also Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda – author of a spurious sequel to Don Quixote, which in turn is referenced in the actual sequel List of Don Quixote characters List of works influenced by Don Quixote – including a gallery of paintings and illustrations Tirant lo Blanch – one of the chivalric novels frequently referenced by Don Quixote Amadís de Gaula – one of the chivalric novels found in the library of Don Quixote António José da Silva – writer of Vida do Grande Dom Quixote de la Mancha e do Gordo Sancho Pança (1733) Belianís – one of the chivalric novels found in the library of Don Quixote coco – In the last chapter, the epitaph of Don Quijote identifies him as "el coco". Man of La Mancha, a musical play based on the life of Cervantes, author of Don Quixote. Monsignor Quixote, a novel by the English author Graham Greene Pierre Menard, Author | come to occupy a canonical space as one of the foundations of modern literature. Summary Cervantes wrote that the first chapters were taken from "the archives of La Mancha", and the rest were translated from an Arabic text by the Moorish author Cide Hamete Benengeli. This metafictional trick appears to give a greater credibility to the text, implying that Don Quixote is a real character and that the events related truly occurred several decades prior to the recording of this account. However, it was also common practice in that era for fictional works to make some pretense of being factual, such as the common opening line of fairy tales "Once upon a time in a land far away...". In the course of their travels, the protagonists meet innkeepers, prostitutes, goat-herders, soldiers, priests, escaped convicts and scorned lovers. The aforementioned characters sometimes tell tales that incorporate events from the real world. Their encounters are magnified by Don Quixote's imagination into chivalrous quests. Don Quixote's tendency to intervene violently in matters irrelevant to himself, and his habit of not paying debts, result in privations, injuries, and humiliations (with Sancho often the victim). Finally, Don Quixote is persuaded to return to his home village. The narrator hints that there was a third quest, but says that records of it have been lost. Part 1 (1605) For Cervantes and the readers of his day, Don Quixote was a one-volume book published in 1605, divided internally into four parts, not the first part of a two-part set. The mention in the 1605 book of further adventures yet to be told was totally conventional, does not indicate any authorial plans for a continuation, and was not taken seriously by the book's first readers. The First Sally (Chapters 1–5) Alonso Quixano, the protagonist of the novel (though he is not given this name until much later in the book), is a hidalgo (member of the lesser Spanish nobility), nearing 50 years of age, living in an unnamed section of La Mancha with his niece and housekeeper, as well as a boy who is never heard of again after the first chapter. Although Quixano is usually a rational man, in keeping with the humoral physiology theory of the time, not sleeping adequately—because he was reading—has caused his brain to dry. Quixano's temperament is thus choleric, the hot and dry humor. As a result, he is easily given to anger and believes every word of some of these fictional books of chivalry to be true such were the "complicated conceits"; "what Aristotle himself could not have made out or extracted had he come to life again for that special purpose". Imitating the protagonists of these books, he decides to become a knight errant in search of adventure. To these ends, he dons an old suit of armor, renames himself "Don Quixote", names his exhausted horse "Rocinante", and designates Aldonza Lorenzo, a neighboring farm girl, as his lady love, renaming her Dulcinea del Toboso, while she knows nothing of this. Expecting to become famous quickly, he arrives at an inn, which he believes to be a castle, calls the prostitutes he meets "ladies" (doncellas), and demands that the innkeeper, whom he takes to be the lord of the castle, dub him a knight. He spends the night holding vigil over his armor and becomes involved in a fight with muleteers who try to remove his armor from the horse trough so that they can water their mules. In a pretended ceremony, the innkeeper dubs him a knight to be rid of him and sends him on his way. Don Quixote next "frees" a slave named Andres who is tied to a tree and beaten by his master, and makes his master swear to treat the slave fairly, but the slave's beating is continued (and in fact redoubled) as soon as Quixote leaves. Don Quixote then encounters traders from Toledo, who "insult" the imaginary Dulcinea. He attacks them, only to be severely beaten and left on the side of the road, and is returned to his home by a neighboring peasant. Destruction of Don Quixote's library (Chapters 6–7) While Don Quixote is unconscious in his bed, his niece, the housekeeper, the parish curate, and the local barber burn most of his chivalric and other books. A large part of this section consists of the priest deciding which books deserve to be burned and which to be saved. It is a scene of high comedy: If the books are so bad for morality, how does the priest know them well enough to describe every naughty scene? Even so, this gives an occasion for many comments on books Cervantes himself liked and disliked. For example, Cervantes' own pastoral novel La Galatea is saved, while the rather unbelievable romance Felixmarte de Hyrcania is burned. After the books are dealt with, they seal up the room which contained the library, later telling Don Quixote that it was the action of a wizard (encantador). The Second Sally (Chapters 8–10) After a short period of feigning health, Don Quixote requests his neighbour, Sancho Panza, to be his squire, promising him a petty governorship (ínsula). Sancho is a poor and simple farmer but more practical than the head-in-the-clouds Don Quixote and agrees to the offer, sneaking away with Don Quixote in the early dawn. It is here that their famous adventures begin, starting with Don Quixote's attack on windmills that he believes to be ferocious giants. The two next encounter two Benedictine friars travelling on the road ahead of a lady in a carriage. The friars are not travelling with the lady, but happen to be travelling on the same road. Don Quixote takes the friars to be enchanters who hold the lady captive, knocks a friar from his horse, and is challenged by an armed Basque traveling with the company. As he has no shield, the Basque uses a pillow from the carriage to protect himself, which saves him when Don Quixote strikes him. Cervantes chooses this point, in the middle of the battle, to say that his source ends here. Soon, however, he resumes Don Quixote's adventures after a story about finding Arabic notebooks containing the rest of the story by Cid Hamet Ben Engeli. The combat ends with the lady leaving her carriage and commanding those traveling with her to "surrender" to Don Quixote. The Pastoral Peregrinations (Chapters 11–15) Sancho and Don Quixote fall in with a group of goat herders. Don Quixote tells Sancho and the goat herders about the "Golden Age" of man, in which property does not exist and men live in peace. The goatherders invite the Knight and Sancho to the funeral of Grisóstomo, a former student who left his studies to become a shepherd after reading pastoral novels (paralleling Don Quixote's decision to become a knight), seeking the shepherdess Marcela. At the funeral Marcela appears, vindicating herself from the bitter verses written about her by Grisóstomo, and claiming her own autonomy and freedom from expectations put on her by pastoral clichés. She disappears into the woods, and Don Quixote and Sancho follow. Ultimately giving up, the two dismount by a pond to rest. Some Galicians arrive to water their ponies, and Rocinante (Don Quixote's horse) attempts to mate with the ponies. The Galicians hit Rocinante with clubs to dissuade him, whereupon Don Quixote tries to defend Rocinante. The Galicians beat Don Quixote and Sancho, leaving them in great pain. The inn (Chapters 16–17) After escaping the musketeers, Don Quixote and Sancho ride to a nearby inn. Once again, Don Quixote imagines the inn is a castle, although Sancho is not quite convinced. Don Quixote is given a bed in a former hayloft, and Sancho sleeps on the rug next to the bed; they share the loft with a muleteer. When night comes, Don Quixote imagines the servant girl at the inn, Helen, to be a beautiful princess, and makes her sit on his bed with him, scaring her. Seeing what is happening, the muleteer attacks Don Quixote, breaking the fragile bed and leading to a large and chaotic fight in which Don Quixote and Sancho are once again badly hurt. Don Quixote's explanation for everything is that they fought with an enchanted Moor. He also believes that he can cure their wounds with a mixture he calls "the balm of Fierabras", which only makes them sick. Don Quixote and Sancho decide to leave the inn, but Quixote, following the example of the fictional knights, leaves without paying. Sancho, however, remains and ends up wrapped in a blanket and tossed up in the air (blanketed) by several mischievous guests at the inn, something that is often mentioned over the rest of the novel. After his release, he and Don Quixote continue their travels. The galley slaves and Cardenio (Chapters 19–24) After Don Quixote has adventures involving a dead body, a helmet, and freeing a group of galley slaves, he and Sancho wander into the Sierra Morena and there encounter the dejected Cardenio. Cardenio relates the first part of his story, in which he falls deeply in love with his childhood friend Lucinda, and is hired as the companion to the Duke's son, leading to his friendship with the Duke's younger son, Don Fernando. Cardenio confides in Don Fernando his love for Lucinda and the delays in their engagement, caused by Cardenio's desire to keep with tradition. After reading Cardenio's poems praising Lucinda, Don Fernando falls in love with her. Don Quixote interrupts when Cardenio suggests that his beloved may have become unfaithful after the formulaic stories of spurned lovers in chivalric novels. They get into a fight, ending with Cardenio beating all of them and walking away to the mountains. The priest, the barber, and Dorotea (Chapters 25–31) Quixote pines for Dulcinea, imitating Cardenio. Quixote sends Sancho to deliver a letter to Dulcinea, but instead Sancho finds the barber and priest from his village and brings them to Quixote. The priest and barber make plans with Sancho to trick Don Quixote to come home. They get the help of Dorotea, a woman whom they discover in the forest, that has been deceived by Don Fernando with promises of love and marriage. She pretends that she is the Princess Micomicona and coming from Guinea desperate to get Quixote's help. Quixote runs into Andrés, who insults his incompetence. Return to the inn (Chapters 32–42) Convinced that he is on a quest to return princess Micomicona to the throne of her kingdom, Quixote and the group return to the previous inn where the priest reads aloud the manuscript of the story of Anselmo (The Impertinentely Curious Man) while Quixote, sleepwalking, battles with winesacks that he takes to be the giant who stole the princess Micomicona's kingdom. A stranger arrives at the inn accompanying a young woman. The stranger is revealed to be Don Fernando, and the young woman Lucinda. Dorotea is reunited with Don Fernando and Cardenio with Lucinda. A captive from Moorish lands in company of an Arabic speaking lady arrive and is asked to tell the story of his life; "If your worships will give me your attention you will hear a true story which, perhaps, fictitious one constructed with ingenious and studied art can not come up to." A judge arrives, and it is found that the captive is his long-lost brother, and the two are reunited. The ending (Chapters 45–52) An officer of the Santa Hermandad has a warrant for Quixote's arrest for freeing the galley slaves. The priest begs for the officer to have mercy on account of Quixote's insanity. The officer agrees, and Quixote is locked in a cage and made to think that it is an enchantment and that there is a prophecy of his heroic return home. He has a learned conversation with a Toledo canon (church official) he encounters by chance on the road, in which the canon expresses his scorn for untruthful chivalric books, but Don Quixote defends them. The group stops to eat and lets Don Quixote out of the cage; he gets into a fight with a goatherd and with a group of pilgrims, who beat him into submission, and he is finally brought home. The narrator ends the story by saying that he has found manuscripts of Quixote's further adventures. Part 2 Although the two parts are now published as a single work, Don Quixote, Part Two was a sequel published ten years after the original novel. While Part One was mostly farcical, the second half is more serious and philosophical about the theme of deception and "sophistry". Opening just prior to the third Sally, the first chapters of Part Two show Don Quixote found to be still some sort of a modern day "highly" literate know-it-all, knight errant - Sancho his squire, however. Part Two of Don Quixote explores the concept of a character understanding that he is written about, an idea much explored in the 20th century. As Part Two begins, it is assumed that the literate classes of Spain have all read the first part of the story. Cervantes' meta-fictional device was to make even the characters in the story familiar with the publication of Part One, as well as with an actually published, fraudulent Part Two. The Third Sally When a Duke and Duchess encounter the duo they already know their famous history and they themselves "very fond" of books of chivalry plan to "fall in with his humor and agree to everything he said" in accepting his advancements and then their terrible dismount setting forth a string of imagined adventures resulting in a series of practical jokes. Some of them put Don Quixote's sense of chivalry and his devotion to Dulcinea through many tests. Pressed into finding Dulcinea, Sancho decides they are both mad here but as for Don Quixote, "with a madness that mostly takes one thing for another" and plans to persuade him into seeing Dulcinea as a "sublimated presence" of a sorts. Sancho's luck brings three ragged peasant girls along the road he was sitting not far from where he set out from and he quickly tells Don Quixote that they are Dulcinea and her ladies-in-waiting. When Don Quixote only sees the peasant girls, Sancho pretends (reversing some incidents of Part One) that their derelict appearance results from an enchantment for Sancho is perceiving it as he explained. Don Quixote's lack of conviction in this matter results in "Sancho, the rogue" having "nicely befooled" him into thinking he'd met Dulcinea, delivered by Sancho. Don Quixote then has the opportunity to purport that "for from a child I was fond of the play, and in my youth a keen lover of the actor's art" while with players of a company and for him thus far an unusually high regard for poetry when with Don Diego de Miranda, "She is the product of an Alchemy of such virtue that he who is able to practice it, will turn her into pure gold of inestimable worth" "sublime conceptions". Don Quixote makes to the other world meeting enchanted people, at return reversing the timestamp of the usual event and with a possible apocryphal example. As one of his deeds, Don Quixote joins into a puppet troop, "Melisendra was Melisendra, Don Gaiferos Don Gaiferos, Marsilio Marsilio, and Charlemagne Charlemagne." Having created a lasting false premise for them, Sancho later gets his comeuppance for this when, as part of one of the Duke and Duchess's pranks, the two are led to believe that the only method to release Dulcinea from this spell (if among possibilities under consideration, she has been changed rather than Don Quixote's perception has been enchanted - which at one point he explains is not possible however) is for Sancho to give himself three thousand three hundred lashes. Sancho naturally resists this course of action, leading to friction with his master. Under the Duke's patronage, Sancho eventually gets a governorship, though it is false, and he proves to be a wise and practical ruler although this ends in humiliation as well. Near the end, Don Quixote reluctantly sways towards sanity. The lengthy untold "history" of Don Quixote's adventures in knight-errantry comes to a close after his battle with the Knight of the White Moon (a young man from Don Quixote's hometown who had previously posed as the Knight of Mirrors) on the beach in Barcelona, in which the reader finds him conquered. Bound by the rules of chivalry, Don Quixote submits to prearranged terms that the vanquished is to obey the will of the conqueror: here, it is that Don Quixote is to lay down his arms and cease his acts of chivalry for the period of one year (in which he may be cured of his madness). He and Sancho undergo one more prank by the Duke and Duchess before setting off. A play-like event, though perceived as mostly real life by Sancho and Don Quixote, over Altisidora's required remedy from death (over her love for Don Quixote). "Print on Sancho's face four-and-twenty smacks, and give him twelve pinches and six pin-thrusts in the back and arms." Upon returning to his village, Don Quixote announces his plan to retire to the countryside as a shepherd, but his housekeeper urges him to stay at home. Soon after, he retires to his bed with a deathly illness, and later awakes from a dream, having fully recovered his sanity. Sancho tries to restore his faith, but Quixano (his proper name) only renounces his previous ambition and apologizes for the harm he has caused. He dictates his will, which includes a provision that his niece will be disinherited if she marries a man who reads books of chivalry. After Alonso Quixano dies, the author emphasizes that there are no more adventures to relate and that any further books about Don Quixote would be spurious. Meaning Harold Bloom says Don Quixote is the first modern novel, and that the protagonist is at war with Freud's reality principle, which accepts the necessity of dying. Bloom says that the novel has an endless range of meanings, but that a recurring theme is the human need to withstand suffering. Edith Grossman, who wrote and published a highly acclaimed English translation of the novel in 2003, says that the book is mostly meant to move people into emotion using a systematic change of course, on the verge of both tragedy and comedy at the same time. Grossman has stated:The question is that Quixote has multiple interpretations [...] and how do I deal with that in my translation. I'm going to answer your question by avoiding it [...] so when I first started reading the Quixote I thought it was the most tragic book in the world, and I would read it and weep [...] As I grew older [...] my skin grew thicker [...] and so when I was working on the translation I was actually sitting at my computer and laughing out loud. This is done [...] as Cervantes did it [...] by never letting the reader rest. You are never certain that you truly got it. Because as soon as you think you understand something, Cervantes introduces something that contradicts your premise. Themes The novel's structure is episodic in form. The full title is indicative of the tale's object, as ingenioso (Spanish) means "quick with inventiveness", marking the transition of modern literature from dramatic to thematic unity. The novel takes place over a long period of time, including many adventures united by common themes of the nature of reality, reading, and dialogue in general. Although burlesque on the surface, the novel, especially in its second half, has served as an important thematic source not only in literature but also in much of art and music, inspiring works by Pablo Picasso and Richard Strauss. The contrasts between the tall, thin, fancy-struck and idealistic Quixote and the fat, squat, world-weary Panza is a motif echoed ever since the book's publication, and Don Quixote's imaginings are the butt of outrageous and cruel practical jokes in the novel. Even faithful and simple Sancho is forced to deceive him at certain points. The novel is considered a satire of orthodoxy, veracity and even nationalism. In exploring the individualism of his characters, Cervantes helped move beyond the narrow literary conventions of the chivalric romance literature that he spoofed, which consists of straightforward retelling of a series of acts that redound to the knightly virtues of the hero. The character of Don Quixote became so well known in its time that the word quixotic was quickly adopted by many languages. Characters such as Sancho Panza and Don Quixote's steed, Rocinante, are emblems of Western literary culture. The phrase "tilting at windmills" to describe an act of attacking imaginary enemies (or an act of extreme idealism), derives from an iconic scene in the book. It stands in a unique position between medieval romance and the modern novel. The former consist of disconnected stories featuring the same characters and settings with little exploration of the inner life of even the main character. The latter are usually focused on the psychological evolution of their characters. In Part I, Quixote imposes himself on his environment. By Part II, people know about him through "having read his adventures", and so, he needs to do less to maintain his image. By his deathbed, he has regained his sanity, and is once more "Alonso Quixano the Good". Background Sources Sources for Don Quixote include the Castilian novel Amadis de Gaula, which had enjoyed great popularity throughout the 16th century. Another prominent source, which Cervantes evidently admires more, is Tirant lo Blanch, which the priest describes in Chapter VI of Quixote as "the best book in the world." (However, the sense in which it was "best" is much debated among scholars. Since the 19th century, the passage has been called "the most difficult passage of Don Quixote".) The scene of the book burning gives an excellent list of Cervantes' likes and dislikes about literature. Cervantes makes a number of references to the Italian poem Orlando furioso. In chapter 10 of the first part of the novel, Don Quixote says he must take the magical helmet of Mambrino, an episode from Canto I of Orlando, and itself a reference to Matteo Maria Boiardo's Orlando innamorato. The interpolated story in chapter 33 of Part four of the First Part is a retelling of a tale from Canto 43 of Orlando, regarding a man who tests the fidelity of his wife. Another important source appears to have been Apuleius's The Golden Ass, one of the earliest known novels, a picaresque from late classical antiquity. The wineskins episode near the end of the interpolated tale "The Curious Impertinent" in chapter 35 of the first part of Don Quixote is a clear reference to Apuleius, and recent scholarship suggests that the moral philosophy and the basic trajectory of Apuleius's novel are fundamental to Cervantes' program. Similarly, many of both |
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Louise Arensberg. The New Yorkers, though not particularly organized, called their activities Dada, but they did not issue manifestos. They issued challenges to art and culture through publications such as The Blind Man, Rongwrong, and New York Dada in which they criticized the traditionalist basis for museum art. New York Dada lacked the disillusionment of European Dada and was instead driven by a sense of irony and humor. In his book Adventures in the arts: informal chapters on painters, vaudeville and poets Marsden Hartley included an essay on "The Importance of Being 'Dada' ". During this time Duchamp began exhibiting "readymades" (everyday objects found or purchased and declared art) such as a bottle rack, and was active in the Society of Independent Artists. In 1917 he submitted the now famous Fountain, a urinal signed R. Mutt, to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition but they rejected the piece. First an object of scorn within the arts community, the Fountain has since become almost canonized by some as one of the most recognizable modernist works of sculpture. Art world experts polled by the sponsors of the 2004 Turner Prize, Gordon's gin, voted it "the most influential work of modern art". As recent scholarship documents, the work is still controversial. Duchamp indicated in a 1917 letter to his sister that a female friend was centrally involved in the conception of this work: "One of my female friends who had adopted the pseudonym Richard Mutt sent me a porcelain urinal as a sculpture." The piece is in line with the scatological aesthetics of Duchamp's neighbour, the Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven. In an attempt to "pay homage to the spirit of Dada" a performance artist named Pierre Pinoncelli made a crack in a replica of The Fountain with a hammer in January 2006; he also urinated on it in 1993. Picabia's travels tied New York, Zürich and Paris groups together during the Dadaist period. For seven years he also published the Dada periodical 391 in Barcelona, New York City, Zürich, and Paris from 1917 through 1924. By 1921, most of the original players moved to Paris where Dada had experienced its last major incarnation. Paris The French avant-garde kept abreast of Dada activities in Zürich with regular communications from Tristan Tzara (whose pseudonym means "sad in country," a name chosen to protest the treatment of Jews in his native Romania), who exchanged letters, poems, and magazines with Guillaume Apollinaire, André Breton, Max Jacob, Clément Pansaers, and other French writers, critics and artists. Paris had arguably been the classical music capital of the world since the advent of musical Impressionism in the late 19th century. One of its practitioners, Erik Satie, collaborated with Picasso and Cocteau in a mad, scandalous ballet called Parade. First performed by the Ballets Russes in 1917, it succeeded in creating a scandal but in a different way than Stravinsky's Le Sacre du printemps had done almost five years earlier. This was a ballet that was clearly parodying itself, something traditional ballet patrons would obviously have serious issues with. Dada in Paris surged in 1920 when many of the originators converged there. Inspired by Tzara, Paris Dada soon issued manifestos, organized demonstrations, staged performances and produced a number of journals (the final two editions of Dada, Le Cannibale, and Littérature featured Dada in several editions.) The first introduction of Dada artwork to the Parisian public was at the Salon des Indépendants in 1921. Jean Crotti exhibited works associated with Dada including a work entitled, Explicatif bearing the word Tabu. In the same year Tzara staged his Dadaist play The Gas Heart to howls of derision from the audience. When it was re-staged in 1923 in a more professional production, the play provoked a theatre riot (initiated by André Breton) that heralded the split within the movement that was to produce Surrealism. Tzara's last attempt at a Dadaist drama was his "ironic tragedy" Handkerchief of Clouds in 1924. Netherlands In the Netherlands the Dada movement centered mainly around Theo van Doesburg, best known for establishing the De Stijl movement and magazine of the same name. Van Doesburg mainly focused on poetry, and included poems from many well-known Dada writers in De Stijl such as Hugo Ball, Hans Arp and Kurt Schwitters. Van Doesburg and (a cordwainer and artist in Drachten) became friends of Schwitters, and together they organized the so-called Dutch Dada campaign in 1923, where van Doesburg promoted a leaflet about Dada (entitled What is Dada?), Schwitters read his poems, Vilmos Huszár demonstrated a mechanical dancing doll and Nelly van Doesburg (Theo's wife), played avant-garde compositions on piano. Van Doesburg wrote Dada poetry himself in De Stijl, although under a pseudonym, I.K. Bonset, which was only revealed after his death in 1931. 'Together' with I.K. Bonset, he also published a short-lived Dutch Dada magazine called Mécano (1922–3). Another Dutchman identified by K. Schippers in his study of the movement in the Netherlands was the Groningen typographer H. N. Werkman, who was in touch with van Doesburg and Schwitters while editing his own magazine, The Next Call (1923–6). Two more artists mentioned by Schippers were German-born and eventually settled in the Netherlands. These were Otto van Rees, who had taken part in the liminal exhibitions at the Café Voltaire in Zürich, and Paul Citroen. Georgia Though Dada itself was unknown in Georgia until at least 1920, from 1917 until 1921 a group of poets called themselves "41st Degree" (referring both to the latitude of Tbilisi, Georgia and to the Celsius temperature of a high fever [equal to 105.8 Fahrenheit]) organized along Dadaist lines. The most important figure in this group was Iliazd (Ilia Zdanevich), whose radical typographical designs visually echo the publications of the Dadaists. After his flight to Paris in 1921, he collaborated with Dadaists on publications and events. For example, when Tristan Tzara was banned from holding seminars in Théâtre Michelin 1923, Iliazd booked the venue on his behalf for the performance, "The Bearded Heart Soirée", and designed the flyer. Yugoslavia In Yugoslavia, alongside the new art movement Zenitism, there was significant Dada activity between 1920 and 1922, run mainly by Dragan Aleksić and including work by Mihailo S. Petrov, Ljubomir Micić and Branko Ve Poljanski. Aleksić used the term "Yougo-Dada" and is known to have been in contact with Raoul Hausmann, Kurt Schwitters, and Tristan Tzara. Italy The Dada movement in Italy, based in Mantua, was met with distaste and failed to make a significant impact in the world of art. It published a magazine for a short time and held an exhibition in Rome, featuring paintings, quotations from Tristan Tzara, and original epigrams such as "True Dada is against Dada". One member of this group was Julius Evola, who went on to become an eminent scholar of occultism, as well as a right-wing philosopher. Japan A prominent Dada group in Japan was Mavo, founded in July 1923 by Tomoyoshi Murayama, and Yanase Masamu later joined by Tatsuo Okada. Other prominent artists were Jun Tsuji, Eisuke Yoshiyuki, Shinkichi Takahashi and Katué Kitasono. In Tsuburaya Productions's Ultra Series, an alien named Dada was inspired by the Dadaism movement, with said character first appearing in episode 28 of the 1966 tokusatsu series, Ultraman, its design by character artist Toru Narita. Dada's design is primarily monochromatic, and features numerous sharp lines and alternating black and white stripes, in reference to the movement and, in particular, to chessboard and Go patterns. On May 19, 2016, in celebration to the 100 year anniversary of Dadaism in Tokyo, the Ultra Monster was invited to meet the Swiss Ambassador Urs Bucher. Butoh, the Japanese dance-form originating in 1959, can be considered to have direct connections to the spirit of the Dada movement, as Tatsumi Hijikata, one of Butoh's founders, "was influenced early in his career by Dadaism". Russia Dada in itself was relatively unknown in Russia, however, avant-garde art was widespread due to the Bolshevik's revolutionary agenda. The , a literary group sharing Dadaist ideals achieved infamy after one of its members suggested that Vladimir Mayakovsky should go to the "Pampushka" (Pameatnik Pushkina – Pushkin monument) on the "Tverbul" (Tverskoy Boulevard) to clean the shoes of anyone who desired it, after Mayakovsky declared that he was going to cleanse Russian literature. For more information on Dadaism's influence upon Russian avant-garde art, see the book Russian Dada 1914–1924. Women of Dada Often overlooked when discussing the history and foundations of Dada, it is necessary to shed light on the female artists who created and inspired art and artists alike. These women were often times in platonic or romantic relationships with the male Dadaists mentioned above but are rarely written past the relative ties. However, each artist made vital contributions to the movement. Other notable mentions that do not include the artists below are: Suzanne Duchamp, Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, Emmy Hennings, Beatrice Wood, Clara Tice, and Ella Bergmann-Michel. Hannah Höch Hannah Höch of Berlin is considered to be the only female Dadaist in Berlin at the time of the movement. During this time, she was in a relationship with Raoul Hausmann who also was a Dada artist. She channeled the same anti-war and anti-government (Weimer Republic) in her works but brought out a feminist lens on the themes. With her works primarily of collage and photomontage, she often used precise placement or detailed titles to callout the misogynistic ways she and other women were treated. Sophie Taeuber-Arp Sophie Taeuber-Arp was a Swiss artist, teacher, and dancer who produced various types of fine art and handicraft pieces. While married to Dadaist Jean Arp, Taeuber-Arp was known in the Dada community for her performative dancing. As such, she worked with choreographer Rudolf von Laban and was written by Tristan Tarza for her dancing skills. Mina Loy London-born Mina Loy was known for being active in the literary sector of the New York Dada scene. She spent time writing poetry, creating Dada magazines, and acting and writing in plays. She contributed writing to Dada journal The Blind Man and Marchel Duchamp's Rongwrong. Poetry Dadists used shock, nihilism, negativity, paradox, randomness, subconscious forces and antinomianism to subvert established traditions in the aftermath of the Great War. Tzara's 1920 manifesto proposed cutting words from a newspaper and randomly selecting fragments to write poetry, a process in which the synchronous universe itself becomes an active agent in creating the art. A poem written using this technique would be a "fruit" of the words that were clipped from the article. In literary arts Dadaists focused on poetry, particularly the so-called sound poetry invented by Hugo Ball. Dadaist poems attacked traditional conceptions of poetry, including structure, order, as well as the interplay of sound and the meaning of language. For Dadaists, the existing system by which information is articulated robs language of its dignity. The dismantling of language and poetic conventions are Dadaist attempts to restore language to its purest and most innocent form: "With these sound poem, we wanted to dispense with a language which journalism had made desolate and impossible." Simultaneous poems (or poèmes simultanés) were recited by a group of speakers who, collectively, produced a chaotic and confusing set of voices. These poems are considered manifestations of modernity including advertising, technology, and conflict. Unlike movements such as Expressionism, Dadaism did not take a negative view of modernity and the urban life. The chaotic urban and futuristic world is considered natural terrain that opens up new ideas for life and art. Music Dada was not confined to the visual and literary arts; its influence reached into sound and music. These movements exerted a pervasive influence on 20th-century music, especially on mid-century avant-garde composers based in New York—among them Edgard Varèse, Stefan Wolpe, John Cage, and Morton Feldman. Kurt Schwitters developed what he called sound poems, while Francis Picabia and Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes composed Dada music performed at the Festival Dada in Paris on 26 May 1920. Other composers such as Erwin Schulhoff, Hans Heusser and Alberto Savinio all wrote Dada music, while members of Les Six collaborated with members of the Dada movement and had their works performed at Dada gatherings. Erik Satie also dabbled with Dadaist ideas during his career, although he is primarily associated with musical Impressionism. Legacy While broadly based, the movement was unstable. By 1924 in Paris, Dada was melding into Surrealism, and artists had gone on to other ideas and movements, including Surrealism, social realism and other forms of modernism. Some theorists argue that Dada was actually the beginning of postmodern art. By the dawn of the Second World War, many of the European Dadaists had emigrated to the United States. Some (Otto Freundlich, Walter Serner) died in death camps under Adolf Hitler, who actively persecuted the kind of "degenerate art" that he considered Dada to represent. The movement became less active as post-war optimism led to the development of new movements in art and literature. Dada is a named influence and reference of various anti-art and political and cultural movements, including the Situationist International and culture jamming groups like the Cacophony Society. Upon breaking up in July 2012, anarchist pop band Chumbawamba issued a statement which compared their own legacy with that of the Dada art movement. At the same time that the Zürich Dadaists were making noise and spectacle at the Cabaret Voltaire, Lenin was planning his revolutionary plans for Russia in a nearby apartment. Tom Stoppard used this coincidence as a premise for his play Travesties (1974), which includes Tzara, Lenin, and James Joyce as characters. French writer Dominique Noguez imagined Lenin as a member of the Dada group in his tongue-in-cheek Lénine Dada (1989). The former building of the Cabaret Voltaire fell into disrepair until it was occupied from January to March 2002, by a group proclaiming themselves Neo-Dadaists, led by Mark Divo. The group included Jan Thieler, Ingo Giezendanner, Aiana Calugar, Lennie Lee, and Dan Jones. After their eviction, the space was turned into a museum dedicated to the history of Dada. The work of Lee and Jones remained on the walls of the new museum. Several notable retrospectives have examined the influence of Dada upon art and society. In 1967, a large Dada retrospective was held in Paris. In 2006, the Museum of Modern Art in New York City mounted a Dada exhibition in partnership with the National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C. and the Centre Pompidou in Paris. The LTM label has released a large number of Dada-related sound recordings, including interviews with artists such as Tzara, Picabia, Schwitters, Arp, and Huelsenbeck, and musical repertoire including Satie, Ribemont-Dessaignes, Picabia, and Nelly van Doesburg. Musician Frank Zappa was a self-proclaimed Dadaist after learning of the movement:In the early days, I didn't even know what to call the stuff my life was made of. You can imagine my delight when I discovered that someone in a distant land had the same idea—AND a nice, short name for it.David Bowie adapted William S. Burrough's cut-up technique for writing lyrics and Kurt Cobain also admittedly used this method for many of his Nirvana lyrics, including "In Bloom". Art techniques developed Dadaism also blurred the line between literary and visual arts: Dada is the groundwork to abstract art and sound poetry, a starting point for performance art, a prelude to postmodernism, an influence on pop art, a celebration of antiart to be later embraced for anarcho-political uses in the 1960s and the movement that laid the foundation for Surrealism. Collage The Dadaists imitated the techniques developed during the cubist movement through the pasting of cut pieces of paper items, but extended their art to encompass items such as transportation tickets, maps, plastic wrappers, etc. to portray aspects of life, rather than representing objects viewed as still life. They also invented the “chance collage" technique, involving dropping torn scraps of paper onto a larger sheet and then pasting the pieces wherever they landed. Cut-up technique Cut-up technique is an extension of collage to words themselves, Tristan | through a rejection of the prevailing standards in art through anti-art cultural works. The creations of Duchamp, Picabia, Man Ray, and others between 1915 and 1917 eluded the term Dada at the time, and "New York Dada" came to be seen as a post facto invention of Duchamp. At the outset of the 1920s the term Dada flourished in Europe with the help of Duchamp and Picabia, who had both returned from New York. Notwithstanding, Dadaists such as Tzara and Richter claimed European precedence. Art historian David Hopkins notes: Ironically, though, Duchamp's late activities in New York, along with the machinations of Picabia, re-cast Dada's history. Dada's European chroniclers—primarily Richter, Tzara, and Huelsenbeck—would eventually become preoccupied with establishing the pre-eminence of Zurich and Berlin at the foundations of Dada, but it proved to be Duchamp who was most strategically brilliant in manipulating the genealogy of this avant-garde formation, deftly turning New York Dada from a late-comer into an originating force. History Dada emerged from a period of artistic and literary movements like Futurism, Cubism and Expressionism; centered mainly in Italy, France and Germany respectively, in those years. However, unlike the earlier movements Dada was able to establish a broad base of support, giving rise to a movement that was international in scope. Its adherents were based in cities all over the world including New York, Zürich, Berlin, Paris and others. There were regional differences like an emphasis on literature in Zürich and political protest in Berlin. Prominent Dadaists published manifestos, but the movement was loosely organized and there was no central hierarchy. On 14 July 1916, Ball originated the seminal manifesto. Tzara wrote a second Dada manifesto, considered important Dada reading, which was published in 1918. Tzara's manifesto articulated the concept of "Dadaist disgust"—the contradiction implicit in avant-garde works between the criticism and affirmation of modernist reality. In the Dadaist perspective modern art and culture are considered a type of fetishization where the objects of consumption (including organized systems of thought like philosophy and morality) are chosen, much like a preference for cake or cherries, to fill a void. The shock and scandal the movement inflamed was deliberate; Dadist magazines were banned and their exhibits closed. Some of the artists even faced imprisonment. These provocations were part of the entertainment but, over time, audiences' expectations eventually outpaced the movement's capacity to deliver. As the artists' well-known "sarcastic laugh" started to come from the audience, the provocations of Dadaists began to lose their impact. Dada was an active movement during years of political turmoil from 1916 when European countries were actively engaged in World War I, the conclusion of which, in 1918, set the stage for a new political order. Zürich There is some disagreement about where Dada originated. The movement is commonly accepted by most art historians and those who lived during this period to have identified with the Cabaret Voltaire (housed inside the Holländische Meierei bar in Zürich) co-founded by poet and cabaret singer Emmy Hennings and Hugo Ball. Some sources propose a Romanian origin, arguing that Dada was an offshoot of a vibrant artistic tradition that transposed to Switzerland when a group of Jewish modernist artists, including Tristan Tzara, Marcel Janco, and Arthur Segal settled in Zürich. Before World War I, similar art had already existed in Bucharest and other Eastern European cities; it is likely that Dada's catalyst was the arrival in Zürich of artists like Tzara and Janco. The name Cabaret Voltaire was a reference to the French philosopher Voltaire, whose novel Candide mocked the religious and philosophical dogmas of the day. Opening night was attended by Ball, Tzara, Jean Arp, and Janco. These artists along with others like Sophie Taeuber, Richard Huelsenbeck and Hans Richter started putting on performances at the Cabaret Voltaire and using art to express their disgust with the war and the interests that inspired it. Having left Germany and Romania during World War I, the artists arrived in politically neutral Switzerland. They used abstraction to fight against the social, political, and cultural ideas of that time. They used shock art, provocation, and "vaudevilleian excess" to subvert the conventions they believed had caused the Great War. The Dadaists believed those ideas to be a byproduct of bourgeois society that was so apathetic it would wage war against itself rather than challenge the status quo: Ball said that Janco's mask and costume designs, inspired by Romanian folk art, made "the horror of our time, the paralyzing background of events" visible. According to Ball, performances were accompanied by a "balalaika orchestra playing delightful folk-songs". Influenced by African music, arrhythmic drumming and jazz were common at Dada gatherings. After the cabaret closed down, Dada activities moved on to a new gallery, and Hugo Ball left for Bern. Tzara began a relentless campaign to spread Dada ideas. He bombarded French and Italian artists and writers with letters, and soon emerged as the Dada leader and master strategist. The Cabaret Voltaire re-opened, and is still in the same place at the Spiegelgasse 1 in the Niederdorf. Zürich Dada, with Tzara at the helm, published the art and literature review Dada beginning in July 1917, with five editions from Zürich and the final two from Paris. Other artists, such as André Breton and Philippe Soupault, created "literature groups to help extend the influence of Dada". After the fighting of the First World War had ended in the armistice of November 1918, most of the Zürich Dadaists returned to their home countries, and some began Dada activities in other cities. Others, such as the Swiss native Sophie Taeuber, would remain in Zürich into the 1920s. Berlin "Berlin was a city of tightened stomachers, of mounting, thundering hunger, where hidden rage was transformed into a boundless money lust, and men's minds were concentrating more and more on questions of naked existence... Fear was in everybody's bones" – Richard Hülsenbeck Raoul Hausmann, who helped establish Dada in Berlin, published his manifesto Synthethic Cino of Painting in 1918 where he attacked Expressionism and the art critics who promoted it. Dada is envisioned in contrast to art forms, such as Expressionism, that appeal to viewers' emotional states: "the exploitation of so-called echoes of the soul". In Hausmann's conception of Dada, new techniques of creating art would open doors to explore new artistic impulses. Fragmented use of real world stimuli allowed an expression of reality that was radically different from other forms of art: The groups in Germany were not as strongly anti-art as other groups. Their activity and art were more political and social, with corrosive manifestos and propaganda, satire, public demonstrations and overt political activities. The intensely political and war-torn environment of Berlin had a dramatic impact on the ideas of Berlin Dadaists. Conversely, New York's geographic distance from the war spawned its more theoretically-driven, less political nature. According to Hans Richter, a Dadaist who was in Berlin yet “aloof from active participation in Berlin Dada”, several distinguishing characteristics of the Dada movement there included: “its political element and its technical discoveries in painting and literature”; “inexhaustible energy”; “mental freedom which included the abolition of everything”; and “members intoxicated with their own power in a way that had no relation to the real world”, who would “turn their rebelliousness even against each other”. In February 1918, while the Great War was approaching its climax, Huelsenbeck gave his first Dada speech in Berlin, and he produced a Dada manifesto later in the year. Following the October Revolution in Russia, by then out of the war, Hannah Höch and George Grosz used Dada to express communist sympathies. Grosz, together with John Heartfield, Höch and Hausmann developed the technique of photomontage during this period. Johannes Baader, the uninhibited Oberdada, was the “crowbar” of the Berlin movement's direct action according to Hans Richter and is credited with creating the first giant collages, according to Raoul Hausmann. After the war, the artists published a series of short-lived political magazines and held the First International Dada Fair, 'the greatest project yet conceived by the Berlin Dadaists', in the summer of 1920. As well as work by the main members of Berlin Dada – Grosz, Raoul Hausmann, Hannah Höch, Johannes Baader, Huelsenbeck and Heartfield – the exhibition also included the work of Otto Dix, Francis Picabia, Jean Arp, Max Ernst, Rudolf Schlichter, Johannes Baargeld and others. In all, over 200 works were exhibited, surrounded by incendiary slogans, some of which also ended up written on the walls of the Nazi's Entartete Kunst exhibition in 1937. Despite high ticket prices, the exhibition lost money, with only one recorded sale. The Berlin group published periodicals such as Club Dada, Der Dada, Everyman His Own Football, and Dada Almanach. They also established a political party, the Central Council of Dada for the World Revolution. Cologne In Cologne, Ernst, Baargeld, and Arp launched a controversial Dada exhibition in 1920 which focused on nonsense and anti-bourgeois sentiments. Cologne's Early Spring Exhibition was set up in a pub, and required that participants walk past urinals while being read lewd poetry by a woman in a communion dress. The police closed the exhibition on grounds of obscenity, but it was re-opened when the charges were dropped. New York Like Zürich, New York City was a refuge for writers and artists from the First World War. Soon after arriving from France in 1915, Marcel Duchamp and Francis Picabia met American artist Man Ray. By 1916 the three of them became the center of radical anti-art activities in the United States. American Beatrice Wood, who had been studying in France, soon joined them, along with Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven. Arthur Cravan, fleeing conscription in France, was also in New York for a time. Much of their activity centered in Alfred Stieglitz's gallery, 291, and the home of Walter and Louise Arensberg. The New Yorkers, though not particularly organized, called their activities Dada, but they did not issue manifestos. They issued challenges to art and culture through publications such as The Blind Man, Rongwrong, and New York Dada in which they criticized the traditionalist basis for museum art. New York Dada lacked the disillusionment of European Dada and was instead driven by a sense of irony and humor. In his book Adventures in the arts: informal chapters on painters, vaudeville and poets Marsden Hartley included an essay on "The Importance of Being 'Dada' ". During this time Duchamp began exhibiting "readymades" (everyday objects found or purchased and declared art) such as a bottle rack, and was active in the Society of Independent Artists. In 1917 he submitted the now famous Fountain, a urinal signed R. Mutt, to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition but they rejected the piece. First an object of scorn within the arts community, the Fountain has since become almost canonized by some as one of the most recognizable modernist works of sculpture. Art world experts polled by the sponsors of the 2004 Turner Prize, Gordon's gin, voted it "the most influential work of modern art". As recent scholarship documents, the work is still controversial. Duchamp indicated in a 1917 letter to his sister that a female friend was centrally involved in the conception of this work: "One of my female friends who had adopted the pseudonym Richard Mutt sent me a porcelain urinal as a sculpture." The piece is in line with the scatological aesthetics of Duchamp's neighbour, the Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven. In an attempt to "pay homage to the spirit of Dada" a performance artist named Pierre Pinoncelli made a crack in a replica of The Fountain with a hammer in January 2006; he also urinated on it in 1993. Picabia's travels tied New York, Zürich and Paris groups together during the Dadaist period. For seven years he also published the Dada periodical 391 in Barcelona, New York City, Zürich, and Paris from 1917 through 1924. By 1921, most of the original players moved to Paris where Dada had experienced its last major incarnation. Paris The French avant-garde kept abreast of Dada activities in Zürich with regular communications from Tristan Tzara (whose pseudonym means "sad in country," a name chosen to protest the treatment of Jews in his native Romania), who exchanged letters, poems, and magazines with Guillaume Apollinaire, André Breton, Max Jacob, Clément Pansaers, and other French writers, critics and artists. Paris had arguably been the classical music capital of the world since the advent of musical Impressionism in the late 19th century. One of its practitioners, Erik Satie, collaborated with Picasso and Cocteau in a mad, scandalous ballet called Parade. First performed by the Ballets Russes in 1917, it succeeded in creating a scandal but in a different way than Stravinsky's Le Sacre du printemps had done almost five years earlier. This was a ballet that was clearly parodying itself, something traditional ballet patrons would obviously have serious issues with. Dada in Paris surged in 1920 when many of the originators converged there. Inspired by Tzara, Paris Dada soon issued manifestos, organized demonstrations, staged performances and produced a number of journals (the final two editions of Dada, Le Cannibale, and Littérature featured Dada in several editions.) The first introduction of Dada artwork to the Parisian public was at the Salon des Indépendants in 1921. Jean Crotti exhibited works associated with Dada including a work entitled, Explicatif bearing the word Tabu. In the same year Tzara staged his Dadaist play The Gas Heart to howls of derision from the audience. When it was re-staged in 1923 in a more professional production, the play provoked a theatre riot (initiated by André Breton) that heralded the split within the movement that was to produce Surrealism. Tzara's last attempt at a Dadaist drama was his "ironic tragedy" Handkerchief of Clouds in 1924. Netherlands In the Netherlands the Dada movement centered mainly around Theo van Doesburg, best known for establishing the De Stijl movement and magazine of the same name. Van Doesburg mainly focused on poetry, and included poems from many well-known Dada writers in De Stijl such as Hugo Ball, Hans Arp and Kurt Schwitters. Van Doesburg and (a cordwainer and artist in Drachten) became friends of Schwitters, and together they organized the so-called Dutch Dada campaign in 1923, where van Doesburg promoted a leaflet about Dada (entitled What is Dada?), Schwitters read his poems, Vilmos Huszár demonstrated a mechanical dancing doll and Nelly van Doesburg (Theo's wife), played avant-garde compositions on piano. Van Doesburg wrote Dada poetry himself in De Stijl, although under a pseudonym, I.K. Bonset, which was only revealed after his death in 1931. 'Together' with I.K. Bonset, he also published a short-lived Dutch Dada magazine called Mécano (1922–3). Another Dutchman identified by K. Schippers in his study of the movement in the Netherlands was the Groningen typographer H. N. Werkman, who was in touch with van Doesburg and Schwitters while editing his own magazine, The Next Call (1923–6). Two more artists mentioned by Schippers were German-born and eventually settled in the Netherlands. These were Otto van Rees, who had taken part in the liminal exhibitions at the Café Voltaire in Zürich, and Paul Citroen. Georgia Though Dada itself was unknown in Georgia until at least 1920, from 1917 until 1921 a group of poets called themselves "41st Degree" (referring both to the latitude of Tbilisi, Georgia and to the Celsius temperature of a high fever [equal to 105.8 Fahrenheit]) organized along Dadaist lines. The most important figure in this group was Iliazd (Ilia Zdanevich), whose radical typographical designs visually echo the publications of the Dadaists. After his flight to Paris in 1921, he collaborated with Dadaists on publications and events. For example, when Tristan Tzara was banned from holding seminars in Théâtre Michelin 1923, Iliazd booked the venue on his behalf for the performance, "The Bearded Heart Soirée", and designed the flyer. Yugoslavia In Yugoslavia, alongside the new art movement Zenitism, there was significant Dada activity between 1920 and 1922, run mainly by Dragan Aleksić and including work by Mihailo S. Petrov, Ljubomir Micić and Branko Ve Poljanski. Aleksić used the term "Yougo-Dada" and is known to have been in contact with Raoul Hausmann, Kurt Schwitters, and Tristan Tzara. Italy The Dada movement in Italy, based in Mantua, was met with distaste and failed to make a significant impact in the world of art. It published a magazine for a short time and held an exhibition in |
part of a contest to replace the semi-official logo that had been used. The winner of the contest received an @debian.org email address, and a set of Debian 2.1 install CDs for the architecture of their choice. There has been no official statement from the Debian project on the logo's meaning, but at the time of the logo's selection, it was suggested that the logo represented the magic smoke ( or the genie ) that made computers work. One theory about the origin of the Debian logo is that Buzz Lightyear, the chosen character for the first named Debian release, has a swirl in his chin. Stefano Zacchiroli also suggested that this swirl is the Debian one. Buzz Lightyear's swirl is a more likely candidate as the codenames for Debian are names of Toy Story characters. The former Debian project leader Bruce Perens used to work for Pixar and is credited as a studio tools engineer on Toy Story 2 (1999). Hardware Hardware requirements are at least those of the kernel and the GNU toolsets. Debian's recommended system requirements depend on the level of installation, which corresponds to increased numbers of installed components: The real minimum memory requirements depend on the architecture and may be much less than the numbers listed in this table. It is possible to install Debian with 170 MB of RAM for x86-64; the installer will run in low memory mode and it is recommended to create a swap partition. The installer for z/Architecture requires about 20 MB of RAM, but relies on network hardware. Similarly, disk space requirements, which depend on the packages to be installed, can be reduced by manually selecting the packages needed. , no Pure Blend exists that would lower the hardware requirements easily. It is possible to run graphical user interfaces on older or low-end systems, but the installation of window managers instead of desktop environments is recommended, as desktop environments are more resource intensive. Requirements for individual software vary widely and must be considered, with those of the base operating environment. Architectures , the official ports are: amd64: x86-64 architecture with 64-bit userland and supporting 32-bit software arm64: ARMv8-A architecture armel: Little-endian ARM architecture (ARMv4T instruction set) on various embedded systems (embedded application binary interface (EABI)), although support has ended after Buster armhf: ARM hard-float architecture (ARMv7 instruction set) requiring hardware with a floating-point unit i386: IA-32 architecture with 32-bit userland, compatible with x86-64 machines mips64el: Little-endian 64-bit MIPS mipsel: Little-endian 32-bit MIPS ppc64el: Little-endian PowerPC architecture supporting POWER7+ and POWER8 CPUs s390x: z/Architecture with 64-bit userland, intended to replace s390 Unofficial ports are available as part of the unstable distribution: alpha: DEC Alpha architecture hppa: HP PA-RISC architecture hurd-i386: GNU Hurd kernel on IA-32 architecture ia64: Intel Itanium kfreebsd-amd64: Kernel of FreeBSD on x86-64 architecture kfreebsd-i386: Kernel of FreeBSD on IA-32 architecture m68k: Motorola 68k architecture on Amiga, Atari, Macintosh and various embedded VME systems powerpc: 32-bit PowerPC ppc64: PowerPC64 architecture supporting 64-bit PowerPC CPUs with VMX riscv64: 64-bit RISC-V sh4: Hitachi SuperH architecture sparc64: Sun SPARC architecture with 64-bit userland x32: x32 ABI userland for x86-64 Debian supports a variety of ARM-based NAS devices. The NSLU2 was supported by the installer in Debian 4.0 and 5.0, and Martin Michlmayr is providing installation tarballs since version 6.0. Other supported NAS devices are the Buffalo Kurobox Pro, GLAN Tank, Thecus N2100 and QNAP Turbo Stations. Devices based on the Kirkwood system on a chip (SoC) are supported too, such as the SheevaPlug plug computer and OpenRD products. There are efforts to run Debian on mobile devices, but this is not a project goal yet since the Debian Linux kernel maintainers would not apply the needed patches. Nevertheless, there are packages for resource-limited systems. There are efforts to support Debian on wireless access points. Debian is known to run on set-top boxes. Work is ongoing to support the AM335x processor, which is used in electronic point of service solutions. Debian may be customized to run on cash machines. BeagleBoard, a low-power open-source hardware single-board computer (made by Texas Instruments) has switched to Debian Linux preloaded on its Beaglebone Black board's flash. Roqos Core, manufactured by Roqos, is a x86-64 based IPS firewall router running Debian Linux. Organization Debian's policies and team efforts focus on collaborative software development and testing processes. As a result, a new major release tends to occur every two years with revision releases that fix security issues and important problems. The Debian project is a volunteer organization with three foundational documents: The Debian Social Contract defines a set of basic principles by which the project and its developers conduct affairs. The Debian Free Software Guidelines define the criteria for "free software" and thus what software is permissible in the distribution. These guidelines have been adopted as the basis of the Open Source Definition. Although this document can be considered separate, it formally is part of the Social Contract. The Debian Constitution describes the organizational structure for formal decision-making within the project, and enumerates the powers and responsibilities of the Project Leader, the Secretary and other roles. Debian developers are organized in a web of trust. There are about one thousand active Debian developers, but it is possible to contribute to the project without being an official developer. The project maintains official mailing lists and conferences for communication and coordination between developers. For issues with single packages and other tasks, a public bug tracking system is used by developers and end users. Internet Relay Chat is also used for communication among developers and to provide real time help. Debian is supported by donations made to organizations authorized by the leader. The largest supporter is Software in the Public Interest, the owner of the Debian trademark, manager of the monetary donations and umbrella organization for various other community free software projects. A Project Leader is elected once per year by the developers. The leader has special powers, but they are not absolute, and appoints delegates to perform specialized tasks. Delegates make decisions as they think is best, taking into account technical criteria and consensus. By way of a General Resolution, the developers may recall the leader, reverse a decision made by the leader or a delegate, amend foundational documents and make other binding decisions. The voting method is based on the Schulze method (Cloneproof Schwartz Sequential Dropping). Project leadership is distributed occasionally. Branden Robinson was helped by the Project Scud, a team of developers that assisted the leader, but there were concerns that such leadership would split Debian into two developer classes. Anthony Towns created a supplemental position, Second In Charge (2IC), that shared some powers of the leader. Steve McIntyre was 2IC and had a 2IC himself. One important role in Debian's leadership is that of a release manager. The release team sets goals for the next release, supervises the processes and decides when to release. The team is led by the next release managers and stable release managers. Release assistants were introduced in 2003. Developers The Debian Project has an influx of applicants wishing to become developers. These applicants must undergo a vetting process which establishes their identity, motivation, understanding of the project's principles, and technical competence. This process has become much harder throughout the years. Debian developers join the project for many reasons. Some that have been cited include: Debian is their main operating system and they want to promote Debian To improve the support for their favorite technology They are involved with a Debian derivative A desire to contribute back to the free-software community To make their Debian maintenance work easier Debian developers may resign their positions at any time or, when deemed necessary, they can be expelled. Those who follow the retiring protocol are granted the "emeritus" status and they may regain their membership through a shortened new member process. Development Flowchart of the life cycle of a Debian package Each software package has a maintainer that may be either one person or a team of Debian developers and non-developer maintainers. The maintainer keeps track of upstream releases, and ensures that the package coheres with the rest of the distribution and meets the standards of quality of Debian. Packages may include modifications introduced by Debian to achieve compliance with Debian Policy, even to fix non-Debian specific bugs, although coordination with upstream developers is advised. The maintainer releases a new version by uploading the package to the "incoming" system, which verifies the integrity of the packages and their digital signatures. If the package is found to be valid, it is installed in the package archive into an area called the "pool" and distributed every day to hundreds of mirrors worldwide. The upload must be signed using OpenPGP-compatible software. All Debian developers have individual cryptographic key pairs. Developers are responsible for any package they upload even if the packaging was prepared by another contributor. Initially, an accepted package is only available in the unstable branch. For a package to become a candidate for the next release, it must migrate to the Testing branch by meeting the following: It has been in unstable for a certain length of time that depends on the urgency of the changes. It does not have "release-critical" bugs, except for the ones already present in Testing. Release-critical bugs are those considered serious enough that they make the package unsuitable for release. There are no outdated versions in unstable for any release ports. The migration does not break any packages in Testing. Its dependencies can be satisfied by packages already in Testing or by packages being migrated at the same time. The migration is not blocked by a freeze. Thus, a release-critical bug in a new version of a shared library on which many packages depend may prevent those packages from entering Testing, because the updated library must meet the requirements too. From the branch viewpoint, the migration process happens twice per day, rendering Testing in perpetual beta. Periodically, the release team publishes guidelines to the developers in order to ready the release. A new release occurs after a freeze, when all important software is reasonably up-to-date in the Testing branch and any other significant issues are solved. At that time, all packages in the testing branch become the new stable branch. Although freeze dates are time-based, release dates are not, which are announced by the release managers a couple of weeks beforehand. A version of a package can belong to more than one branch, usually testing and unstable. It is possible for a package to keep the same version between stable releases and be part of oldstable, stable, testing and unstable at the same time. Each branch can be seen as a collection of pointers into the package "pool" mentioned above. One optional resolution to the challenge with release-critical bug in an application new version is the use of optional package managers. Which allow software developers, to use sandbox environments. While at the same time remaining in controle of the security. Another benefit of cross-distribution package manager is that they allows application developers to directly provide updates to users without going through distributions, and without having to package and test the application separately for each distribution. Release cycle A new stable branch of Debian gets released approximately every 2 years. It will receive official support for about 3 years with update for major security or usability fixes. Point releases will be available every several months as determined by Stable Release Managers (SRM). Debian also launched its Long Term Support (LTS) project since Debian 6 (Debian Squeeze). For each Debian release, it will receive two years of extra security updates provided by LTS Team after its End Of Life (EOL). However, no point releases will be made. Now each Debian release can receive 5 years of security support in total. Security The Debian project handles security through public disclosure. Debian security advisories are compatible with the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures dictionary, are usually coordinated with other free software vendors and are published the same day a vulnerability is made public. There used to be a security audit project that focused on packages in the stable release looking for security bugs; Steve Kemp, who started the project, retired in 2011 but resumed his activities and applied to rejoin in 2014. The stable branch is supported by the Debian security team; oldstable is supported for one year. Although Squeeze is not officially supported, Debian is coordinating an effort to provide long-term support (LTS) until February 2016, five years after the initial release, but only for the IA-32 and x86-64 platforms. Testing is supported by the testing security team, but does not receive updates in as timely a manner as stable. Unstables security is left for the package maintainers. The Debian project offers documentation and tools to harden a Debian installation both manually and automatically. AppArmor support is available and enabled by default since Buster. Debian provides an optional hardening wrapper, and does not harden all of its software by default using gcc features such as PIE and buffer overflow protection, unlike operating systems such as OpenBSD, but tries to build as many packages as possible with hardening flags. In May 2008, a Debian developer discovered that the OpenSSL package distributed with Debian and derivatives such as Ubuntu made a variety of security keys vulnerable to a random number generator attack, since only 32,767 different keys were generated. The security weakness was caused by changes made in 2006 by another Debian developer in response to memory debugger warnings. The complete resolution procedure was cumbersome because patching the security hole was not enough; it involved regenerating all affected keys and certificates. Value The cost of developing all of the packages included in Debian 5.0 Lenny (323 million lines of code) has been estimated to be about , using one method based on the COCOMO model. , Black Duck Open Hub estimates that the current codebase (74 million lines of code) would cost about to develop, using a different method based on the same model. Forks and derivatives A large number of forks | dpkg to graphical front-ends like Synaptic. The recommended standard for administering packages on a Debian system is the apt toolset. dpkg provides the low-level infrastructure for package management. The dpkg database contains the list of installed software on the current system. The dpkg command tool does not know about repositories. The command can work with local .deb package files, and information from the dpkg database. APT tools An Advanced Packaging Tool (APT) allows administering an installed Debian system to retrieve and resolve package dependencies from repositories. APT share dependency information and cached packages. The apt command itself is intended as an end user interface and enables some options better suited for interactive usage by default compared to more specialized APT like apt-get and apt-cache explained below. apt-get and apt-cache are command tools of the standard apt package. apt-get installs and removes packages, and apt-cache is used for searching packages and displaying package information. Aptitude is a command line tool that also offers a text-based user interface. The program comes with enhancements such as better search on package metadata. GDebi and other front-ends GDebi is an APT tool which can be used in command-line and on the GUI. GDebi can install a local .deb file via the command line like the dpkg command, but with access to repositories to resolve dependencies. Other graphical front-ends for APT include Software Center, Synaptic and Apper. GNOME Software is a graphical front-end for PackageKit, which itself can work on top of various software packaging systems. Repositories The Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG) define the distinctive meaning of the word "free" as in "free and open-source software". Packages that comply with these guidelines, usually under the GNU General Public License, Modified BSD License or Artistic License, are included inside the main area; otherwise, they are included inside the non-free and contrib areas. These last two areas are not distributed within the official installation media, but they can be adopted manually. Non-free includes packages that do not comply with the DFSG, such as documentation with invariant sections and proprietary software, and legally questionable packages. Contrib includes packages which do comply with the DFSG but fail other requirements. For example, they may depend on packages which are in non-free or requires such for building them. Richard Stallman and the Free Software Foundation have criticized the Debian project for hosting the non-free repository and because the contrib and non-free areas are easily accessible, an opinion echoed by some in Debian including the former project leader Wichert Akkerman. The internal dissent in the Debian project regarding the non-free section has persisted, but the last time it came to a vote in 2004, the majority decided to keep it. Cross-distribution package manager The most popular optional Linux cross-distribution package manager are graphical (front-ends) package managers. They are available within the official Debian Repository. But not installed by default. They are widely popular with both Debian users and Debian software developers who are interested in installing the most recent versions of application or using the cross-distribution package manager built-in sandbox environment. While at the same time remaining in control of the security. Three most popular cross-distribution package managers. Sorted in alphabetical order: Flatpak software code is owned and maintain by the not for profit Flatpak Team. With an open source LGPL-2.1-only license. Homebrew software code is owned and maintain by its original author Max Howell. With an open source BSD 2-Clause License license. Snap software code is owned and maintain by the for profit Canonical Group Limited. With an open source GNU General Public License, version 3.0 license. Branches Three branches of Debian (also called releases, distributions or suites) are regularly maintained: Stable is the current release and targets stable and well-tested software needs. Stable is made by freezing Testing for a few months where bugs are fixed and packages with too many bugs are removed; then the resulting system is released as stable. It is updated only if major security or usability fixes are incorporated. This branch has an optional backports service that provides more recent versions of some software. Stables CDs and DVDs can be found in the Debian website. Testing is the preview branch that will eventually become the next major release. The packages included in this branch have had some testing in unstable but they may not be fit for release yet. It contains newer packages than stable but older than unstable. This branch is updated continually until it is frozen. Testings CDs and DVDs can be found on the Debian website. Unstable, always codenamed sid, is the trunk. Packages are accepted without checking the distribution as a whole. This branch is usually run by software developers who participate in a project and need the latest libraries available, and by those who prefer bleeding-edge software. Debian does not provide full Sid installation discs, but rather a minimal ISO that can be used to install over a network connection. Additionally, this branch can be installed through a system upgrade from stable or testing. Other branches in Debian: Oldstable is the prior stable release. It is supported by the Debian Security Team until one year after a new stable is released, and since the release of Debian 6, for another 2 years through the Long Term Support project. Eventually, oldstable is moved to a repository for archived releases. Debian 10 is the current Oldstable release. Oldoldstable is the prior oldstable release. It is supported by the Long Term Support community. Eventually, oldoldstable is moved to a repository for archived releases. Debian 9 is the current Oldoldstable release. Experimental is a temporary staging area of highly experimental software that is likely to break the system. It is not a full distribution and missing dependencies are commonly found in unstable, where new software without the damage chance is normally uploaded. The snapshot archive provides older versions of the branches. They may be used to install a specific older version of some software. Numbering scheme Stable and oldstable get minor updates, called point releases; , the stable release is version 11.0, released on , and the oldstable release is version 10.10. The numbering scheme for the point releases up to Debian 4.0 was to include the letter r (for revision) after the main version number and then the number of the point release; for example, the latest point release of version 4.0 is 4.0r9. This scheme was chosen because a new dotted version would make the old one look obsolete and vendors would have trouble selling their CDs. From Debian 5.0, the numbering scheme of point releases was changed, conforming to the GNU version numbering standard; the first point release of Debian 5.0 was 5.0.1 instead of 5.0r1. The numbering scheme was once again changed for the first Debian 7 update, which was version 7.1. The r scheme is no longer in use, but point release announcements include a note about not throwing away old CDs. Derivatives and flavors Debian is one of the most popular Linux distributions, and many other distributions have been created from the Debian codebase. , DistroWatch lists 121 active Debian derivatives. The Debian project provides its derivatives with guidelines for best practices and encourages derivatives to merge their work back into Debian. Debian Pure Blends are subsets of a Debian release configured out-of-the-box for users with particular skills and interests. For example, Debian Jr. is made for children, while Debian Science is for researchers and scientists. The complete Debian distribution includes all available Debian Pure Blends. "Debian Blend" (without "Pure") is a term for a Debian-based distribution that strives to become part of mainstream Debian, and have its extra features included in future releases. Debian GNU/kFreeBSD is a discontinued Debian flavor. It used the FreeBSD kernel and GNU userland. The majority of software in Debian GNU/kFreeBSD was built from the same sources as Debian, with some kernel packages from FreeBSD. The k in kFreeBSD is an abbreviation for kernel, which refers to the FreeBSD kernel. Before discontinuing the project, Debian maintained i386 and amd64 ports. The last version of Debian kFreeBSD was Debian 8 (Jessie) RC3. Debian GNU/kFreeBSD was created in 2002. It was included in Debian 6.0 (Squeeze) as a technology preview, and in Debian 7.0 (Wheezy) as an official port. Debian GNU/kFreeBSD was discontinued as an officially supported platform as of Debian 8.0. Debian developers cited OSS, pf, jails, NDIS, and ZFS as reasons for being interested in the FreeBSD kernel. It has not been updated since Debian 8. As of July 2019, however, the operating system continues to be maintained unofficially. Debian GNU/Hurd is a flavor based on the Hurd microkernel, instead of Linux. Debian GNU/Hurd has been in development since 1998, and made a formal release in May 2013, with 78% of the software packaged for Debian GNU/Linux ported to the GNU Hurd. Hurd is not yet an official Debian release, and is maintained and developed as an unofficial port. Debian GNU/Hurd is distributed as an installer CD (running the official Debian installer) or ready-to-run virtual disk image (Live CD, Live USB). The CD uses the IA-32 architecture, making it compatible with IA-32 and x86-64 PCs. The current version of Debian GNU/Hurd is 2021, published in August 2021. Branding The Debian "swirl" logo was designed by Raul Silva in 1999 as part of a contest to replace the semi-official logo that had been used. The winner of the contest received an @debian.org email address, and a set of Debian 2.1 install CDs for the architecture of their choice. There has been no official statement from the Debian project on the logo's meaning, but at the time of the logo's selection, it was suggested that the logo represented the magic smoke ( or the genie ) that made computers work. One theory about the origin of the Debian logo is that Buzz Lightyear, the chosen character for the first named Debian release, has a swirl in his chin. Stefano Zacchiroli also suggested that this swirl is the Debian one. Buzz Lightyear's swirl is a more likely candidate as the codenames for Debian are names of Toy Story characters. The former Debian project leader Bruce Perens used to work for Pixar and is credited as a studio tools engineer on Toy Story 2 (1999). Hardware Hardware requirements are at least those of the kernel and the GNU toolsets. Debian's recommended system requirements depend on the level of installation, which corresponds to increased numbers of installed components: The real minimum memory requirements depend on the architecture and may be much less than the numbers listed in this table. It is possible to install Debian with 170 MB of RAM for x86-64; the installer will run in low memory mode and it is recommended to create a swap partition. The installer for z/Architecture requires about 20 MB of RAM, but relies on network hardware. Similarly, disk space requirements, which depend on the packages to be installed, can be reduced by manually selecting the packages needed. , no Pure Blend exists that would lower the hardware requirements easily. It is possible to run graphical user interfaces on older or low-end systems, but the installation of window managers instead of desktop environments is recommended, as desktop environments are more resource intensive. Requirements for individual software vary widely and must be considered, with those of the base operating environment. Architectures , the official ports are: amd64: x86-64 architecture with 64-bit userland and supporting 32-bit software arm64: ARMv8-A architecture armel: Little-endian ARM architecture (ARMv4T instruction set) on various embedded systems (embedded application binary interface (EABI)), although support has ended after Buster armhf: ARM hard-float architecture (ARMv7 instruction set) requiring hardware with a floating-point unit i386: IA-32 architecture with 32-bit userland, compatible with x86-64 machines mips64el: Little-endian 64-bit MIPS mipsel: Little-endian 32-bit MIPS ppc64el: Little-endian PowerPC architecture supporting POWER7+ and POWER8 CPUs s390x: z/Architecture with 64-bit userland, intended to replace s390 Unofficial ports are available as part of the unstable distribution: alpha: DEC Alpha architecture hppa: HP PA-RISC architecture hurd-i386: GNU Hurd kernel on IA-32 architecture ia64: Intel Itanium kfreebsd-amd64: Kernel of FreeBSD on x86-64 architecture kfreebsd-i386: Kernel of FreeBSD on IA-32 architecture m68k: Motorola 68k architecture on Amiga, Atari, Macintosh and various embedded VME systems powerpc: 32-bit PowerPC ppc64: PowerPC64 architecture supporting 64-bit PowerPC CPUs with VMX riscv64: 64-bit RISC-V sh4: Hitachi SuperH architecture sparc64: Sun SPARC architecture with 64-bit userland x32: x32 ABI userland for x86-64 Debian supports a variety of ARM-based NAS devices. The NSLU2 was supported by the installer in Debian 4.0 and 5.0, and Martin Michlmayr is providing installation tarballs since version 6.0. Other supported NAS devices are the Buffalo Kurobox Pro, GLAN Tank, Thecus N2100 and QNAP Turbo Stations. Devices based on the Kirkwood system on a chip (SoC) are supported too, such as the SheevaPlug plug computer and OpenRD products. There are efforts to run Debian on mobile devices, but this is not a project goal yet since the Debian Linux kernel maintainers would not apply the needed patches. Nevertheless, there are packages for resource-limited systems. There are efforts to support Debian on wireless access points. Debian is known to run on set-top boxes. Work is ongoing to support the AM335x processor, which is used in electronic point of service solutions. Debian may be customized to run on cash machines. BeagleBoard, a low-power open-source hardware single-board computer (made by Texas Instruments) has switched to Debian Linux preloaded on its Beaglebone Black board's flash. Roqos Core, manufactured by Roqos, is a x86-64 based IPS firewall router running Debian Linux. Organization Debian's policies and team efforts focus on collaborative software development and testing processes. As a result, a new major release tends to occur every two years with revision releases that fix security issues and important problems. The Debian project is a volunteer organization with three foundational documents: The Debian Social Contract defines a set of basic principles by which the project and its developers conduct affairs. The Debian Free Software Guidelines define the criteria for "free software" and thus what software is permissible in the distribution. These guidelines have been adopted as the basis of the Open Source Definition. Although this document can be considered separate, it formally is part of the Social Contract. The Debian Constitution describes the organizational structure for formal decision-making within the project, and enumerates the powers and responsibilities of the Project Leader, the Secretary and other roles. Debian developers are organized in a web of trust. There are about one thousand active Debian developers, but it is possible to contribute to the project without being an official developer. The project maintains official mailing lists and conferences for communication and coordination between developers. For issues with single packages and other tasks, a public bug tracking system is used by developers and end users. Internet Relay Chat is also used for communication among developers and to provide real time help. Debian is supported by donations made to organizations authorized by the leader. The largest supporter is Software in the Public Interest, the owner of the Debian trademark, manager of the monetary donations and umbrella organization for various other community free software projects. A Project Leader is elected once per year by the developers. The leader has special powers, but they are not absolute, and appoints delegates to perform specialized tasks. Delegates make decisions as they think is best, taking into account technical criteria and consensus. By way of a General Resolution, the developers may recall the leader, reverse a decision made by the leader or a delegate, amend foundational documents and make other binding decisions. The voting method is based on the Schulze method (Cloneproof Schwartz Sequential Dropping). Project leadership is distributed occasionally. Branden Robinson was helped by the Project Scud, a team of developers that assisted the leader, but there were concerns that such leadership would split Debian into two developer classes. Anthony Towns created a supplemental position, Second In Charge (2IC), that shared some powers of the leader. Steve McIntyre was 2IC and |
later given the name "Walden College", revealed to be in Connecticut (the same state as Yale), and depicted as devolving into a third-rate institution under the weight of grade inflation, slipping academic standards, and the end of tenure, issues that Trudeau has consistently revisited since the original characters graduated. Some of the second generation of Doonesbury characters have attended Walden, a venue Trudeau uses to advance his concerns about academic standards in the United States. President King, the leader of Walden College, was originally intended as a parody of Kingman Brewster, President of Yale, but all that remains of that is a certain physical resemblance. Use of real-life politicians as characters Even though Doonesbury frequently features real-life U.S. politicians, they are rarely depicted with their real faces. Originally, strips featuring the President of the United States would show an external view of the White House, with dialogue emerging from inside. During the Gerald Ford administration, characters would be shown speaking to Ford at press conferences, and fictional dialogue supposedly spoken by Ford would be written as coming "off-panel". Similarly, while having several characters as students in a class taught by Henry Kissinger, the dialogue made up for Kissinger would also come from "off-panel" (although Kissinger had earlier appeared as a character with his face shown in a 1972 series of strips in which he met Mark Slackmeyer while the latter was on a trip to Washington). Sometimes hands, or in rare cases, the back of heads would also be seen. Later, personal symbols reflecting some aspect of their character came into use. For example, during the 1980s, character Ron Headrest served as a doppelgänger for Ronald Reagan and was depicted as a computer-generated artificial-intelligence, an image based on the television character Max Headroom. Members of the Bush family have been depicted as invisible. During his term as Vice President, George H. W. Bush was first depicted as completely invisible, his words emanating from a little "voice box" in the air. (In one strip, published March 20, 1988, the vice president almost materialized, but only made it to an outline before reverting to invisibility.) George W. Bush was symbolized by a Stetson hat atop the same invisible point, because he was Governor of Texas prior to his presidency (Trudeau accused him of being "all hat and no cattle", reiterating the characterization of Bush by columnist Molly Ivins). The point became a giant asterisk (a la Roger Maris) following the 2000 presidential elections and the controversy over vote-counting. Later, President Bush's hat was changed to a Roman military helmet (again, atop an asterisk) representing imperialism. Towards the end of his first term, the helmet became battered, with the gilt work starting to come off and with clumps of bristles missing from the top. By late 2008, the helmet had been dented almost beyond recognition. No symbol for Barack Obama has appeared in the strip; the May 30, 2009, strip had Obama and an aide wondering what the reason for this might be (off panel). Other symbols include a waffle for Bill Clinton (chosen by popular vote—the other possibility had been a flipping coin), an unexploded (but sometimes lit) bomb for Newt Gingrich, a feather for Dan Quayle, and a giant groping hand for Arnold Schwarzenegger (who is addressed by other characters as "Herr Gröpenfuhrer", a reference to accusations of sexual assault against Schwarzenegger). Many less well-known politicians have also been represented as icons over the years, like a swastika for David Duke, but only for the purposes of a gag strip or two. Trudeau has made his use of icons something of an in joke to readers, where the first appearance of a new one is often a punchline in itself. The long career of the series and continual use of real-life political figures, analysts note, have led to some uncanny cases of the cartoon foreshadowing a national shift in the politicians' political fortunes. Tina Gianoulis in St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture observes that "In 1971, well before the conservative Reagan years, a forward-looking B.D. called Ronald Reagan his 'hero'. In 1984, almost ten years before Congressman Newt Gingrich became Speaker of the House, another character worried that he would 'wake up someday in a country run by Newt Gingrich. In 1999, Donald Trump was depicted as a presidential candidate. In its 2003 series "John Kerry: A Candidate in the Making" on the 2004 presidential race, The Boston Globe reprinted and discussed 1971 Doonesbury cartoons of the young Kerry's Vietnam War protest speeches. Characters Doonesbury has a large group of recurring characters, with 24 currently listed at the strip's website. There, it notes that "readers new to Doonesbury sometimes experience a temporary bout of character shock", as the sheer number of characters (and the historical connections among them) can be overwhelming. The main characters are a group who attended the fictional Walden College during the strip's first 12 years, and moved into a commune together in April 1972. Most of the other characters first appeared as family members, friends, or other acquaintances. The original Walden Commune residents were Mike Doonesbury, Zonker Harris, Mark Slackmeyer, Nicole, Bernie, and DiDi. In September 1972, Joanie Caucus joined the comic, meeting Mike and Mark in Colorado and eventually moving into the commune. They were later joined by B.D. and his girlfriend (later wife) Boopsie, upon B.D.'s return from Vietnam. Nicole, DiDi, and Bernie were mostly phased out in subsequent years, and Zonker's Uncle Duke was introduced as the most prominent character outside the Walden group, and the main link to many secondary characters. The Walden students graduated in 1983, after which the strip began to progress in something closer to real time. Their spouses and developing families became more important after this: Joanie's daughter J.J. Caucus married Mike and they had a daughter, Alex Doonesbury. They divorced, Mike married Kim Rosenthal, a Vietnamese refugee (who had appeared in the strip as a baby adopted by a Jewish family just after the fall of Saigon; see Operation Babylift), and J.J. married Zeke Brenner, her former boyfriend and Uncle Duke's former groundskeeper. Joanie married Rick Redfern, and they had a son, Jeff. Uncle Duke and Roland Hedley have also appeared often, frequently in more topical settings unconnected to the main characters. In more recent years the second generation has taken prominence as they have grown to college age: Jeff Redfern, Alex Doonesbury, Zonker's nephew Zipper Harris, and Uncle Duke's son Earl. Controversies Doonesbury has delved into a number of political and social issues, causing controversies and breaking new ground on the comics pages. Among the controversies: 1970s A November 1972 Sunday strip depicting Zonker telling a little boy in a sandbox a fairy tale ending in the protagonist being awarded "his weight in fine, uncut Turkish hashish" raised an uproar. During the Watergate scandal, a strip showed Mark on the radio with a "Watergate profile" of John Mitchell, declaring him "Guilty! Guilty, guilty, guilty!!" A number of newspapers removed the strip and one, The Washington Post, ran an editorial criticizing the cartoon. Following Richard Nixon's death in 1994, the strip was rerun with all the instances of the word "guilty" crossed out and replaced with "flawed". In June 1973, the military newspaper Stars and Stripes dropped Doonesbury for being too political. The strip was quickly reinstated after hundreds of protests by military readers. September 1973: The Lincoln Journal became the first newspaper to move Doonesbury to its editorial page. In February 1976, a storyline included the character Andy Lippincott saying that he was gay. Dozens of papers opted not to publish the storyline, with Miami Herald editor Larry Jinks saying, "We just decided we weren't ready for homosexuality in a comic strip." In November 1976, when the storyline included the blossoming romance of Rick Redfern and Joanie Caucus, four days of strips were devoted to a transition from one apartment to another, ending with a view of the two together in bed, marking the first time any nationally run comic strip portrayed premarital sex in this fashion. The strip was removed from the comics pages of a number of newspapers, although some newspapers opted to simply repeat the opening frame of that day's strip. In June 1978, a strip included a coupon listing various politicians and dollar amounts allegedly taken from Korean lobbyists, to be clipped and glued to a postcard to be sent to the Speaker of the House Tip O'Neill, resulting in an overflow of mail to the Speaker's office. 1980s In June 1985, a strip featuring Aniello Dellacroce and Frank Sinatra together, which referred to Dellacroce as an "alleged human" who has been charged with murder led to several papers dropping the strip and a statement from Sinatra. In December 1988, the Winston-Salem Journal dropped a Sunday strip featuring the R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company (in which a prospective executive cannot deny the link between smoking and cancer without bursting out laughing) because "it would be personally offensive to its employees." It was the first time the strip had been pulled in deference to a corporation. In June 1989, several days' comics (which had already been drawn and written) had to be replaced with repeats, because the humor of the strips was considered in bad taste in light of the violent crackdown on protesters in Tiananmen Square in Beijing. Trudeau himself asked for the recall, despite an interview published with Universal Press Syndicate Editorial Director Lee Salem in the May 28, 1989, San Jose Mercury News, in which Salem stated his hopes the strips could still be used. 1990s In November 1991, a series of strips appeared to give credibility to a real-life prison inmate who falsely stated that former Vice President Dan Quayle had connections with drug dealers. The strip sequence was dropped by some two dozen newspapers, in part because the allegations had been investigated and dispelled previously. Six years later, the reporter who broke the Quayle story, some weeks after the Doonesbury cartoons, later published a book saying he no longer believed the story had been true. In November 1993, a storyline dealing with California wildfires was dropped from several California newspapers, including the Los Angeles Times, The Orange County Register, and The San Diego Union-Tribune. In June 1994, the Roman Catholic Church took issue with a series of strips dealing with the book Same-Sex Unions in Pre-Modern Europe by John Boswell. A few newspapers dropped single strips from the series, and the Bloomington, Illinois, Pantagraph refused to run the entire series. In March 1995, John McCain denounced Trudeau on the floor of the Senate: "Suffice it to say that I hold Trudeau in utter contempt." This was in response to a strip about Bob Dole's strategy of exploiting his war record in his presidential campaign. The quotation was used on the cover of Trudeau's book Doonesbury Nation. McCain and Trudeau later made peace: McCain wrote the foreword to The Long | corroborator, adding that Trudeau had donated the $10,000 to the USO anyway. April 2004: On April 21, after nearly 34 years, readers finally saw B.D.'s head without some sort of helmet. In the same strip, it was revealed that he had lost a leg in the Iraq War. Later that month, the 23rd, after awakening and discovering his situation, B.D. exclaims "SON OF A BITCH!!!" The single strip was removed from many papers—including The Boston Globe—although in others, such as Newsday, the offending word was replaced by a line. The Dallas Morning News ran the cartoon uncensored, with a footnote that the editor believed profanity was appropriate, given the subject matter. An image of B.D. with an amputated leg also appeared on the cover of Rolling Stone that summer (issue 954). In June 2005, Trudeau came out with The Long Road Home, a book devoted to B.D.'s recovery from his loss of a leg in Iraq. Although Trudeau opposed the Iraq War, the foreword was written by Senator John McCain, a supporter of the war. McCain was impressed by Trudeau's desire to highlight the struggle of seriously wounded veterans, and his desire to assist them. Proceeds from the book, and its sequel The War Within benefited Fisher House. July 2005: Several newspapers declined to run two strips in which George W. Bush refers to his adviser Karl Rove as "Turd Blossom", a nickname Bush has been reported to use for Rove. In September 2005 when The Guardian relaunched in a smaller format, Doonesbury was dropped for reasons of space. After a flood of protests, the strip was reinstated with an omnibus covering the issues missed and a full apology. The strips scheduled to run from October 31 to November 5, 2005, and a Sunday strip scheduled for November 13 about the nomination of Harriet Miers to the Supreme Court were withdrawn after her nomination was withdrawn. The strips have been posted on the official website, and were replaced by re-runs by the syndicate. Trudeau sought input from readers as to where Alex Doonesbury should attend college in a May 15, 2006, straw poll at Doonesbury.com. Voters chose among MIT, Rensselaer, and Cornell. Students from Rensselaer and then MIT hacked the system, which was designed to limit each computer to one vote. In the end, voters logged 175,000 votes, with MIT grabbing 48% of the total. The Doonesbury Town Hall FAQ stated that given that the rules of the poll had not ruled out such methods, "the will, chutzpah, and bodacious craft of the voting public will be respected", declaring that Alex will be attending MIT. Before the 2008 presidential election, Trudeau sent out strips to run in the days after the election in which Barack Obama was portrayed as the winner. Newspapers were also provided with old strips as an alternative. When asked whether he created the original strip with complete confidence in an Obama victory, Trudeau replied: "Nope, more like rational risk assessment. Nate Silver at Fivethirtyeight.com is now giving McCain a 3.7% chance of winning – pretty comfortable odds. Here's the way I look at it: If Obama wins, I'm in the flow and commenting on a phenomenon. If he loses, it'll be a massive upset, and the goofy misprediction of a comic strip will be pretty much lost in the uproar. I figure I can survive a little egg on my face." In response, McCain spokesman Tucker Bounds said, "We hope the strip proves to be as predictive as it is consistently lame." 2010s The sequence for the week of March 12–17, 2012, lampooning the changes in abortion law in several states was pulled or moved to the editorial page by a number of newspapers. Criticism Charles M. Schulz of Peanuts called Trudeau "unprofessional" for taking a long sabbatical. (See also, similar comments by Schulz about sabbaticals taken by Bill Watterson.) Nor was the return of the strip itself greeted with universal acclaim; in 1985, Saturday Review listed Trudeau as one of the country's "Most Overrated People in American Arts and Letters", commenting that the "most publicized return since MacArthur's has produced a strip that is predictable, mean-spirited, and not as funny as before." Doonesbury has angered, irritated, or been rebuked by many of the political figures that have appeared or been referred to in the strip over the years. A 1984 series of strips showing Vice President George H.W. Bush placing his manhood in a blind trust—in parody of Bush's use of that financial instrument to fend off concerns that his governmental decisions would be influenced by his investment holdings—brought the politician to complain, "Doonesbury carrying water for the opposition. Trudeau is coming out of deep left field." Some conservatives have intensely criticized Doonesbury. Several examples are cited in the Milestones section of the strip's website. The strip has also met criticism from its readers almost since it began syndicated publication. For example, when Lacey Davenport's husband Dick, in the last moments before his death, calls on God, several conservative pundits called the strip blasphemous. The sequence of Dick Davenport's final bird-watching and fatal heart attack was run in November 1986. Liberal politicians skewered by Trudeau in the strip have also complained, including Democrats such as former U.S. House Speaker Tip O'Neill and California Governor Jerry Brown. Strips about United States wars have also generated controversy, including Vietnam, Grenada, Panama and both Gulf Wars. After many letter-writing campaigns demanding the removal of the strip were unsuccessful, conservatives changed their tactics, and instead of writing to newspaper editors, they began writing to one of the printers who prints the color Sunday comics. In 2005, Continental Features gave in to their demands, and refused to continue printing the Sunday Doonesbury, causing it to disappear from the 38 Sunday papers that Continental Features printed. Of the 38, only one newspaper, The Anniston Star in Anniston, Alabama, continued to carry the Sunday Doonesbury, though of necessity in black and white. Some newspapers have dealt with the criticism by moving the strip from the comics page to the editorial page, because many people believe that a politically based comic strip like Doonesbury does not belong in a traditionally child-friendly comics section. The Lincoln Journal started the trend in 1973. In some papers (such as the Tulsa World and Orlando Sentinel) Doonesbury appears on the opinions page alongside Mallard Fillmore, a politically conservative comic strip. Awards and honors In 1975, the strip won Trudeau a Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning, the first strip cartoon to be so honored. The Editorial Cartoonists' Society subsequently passed a resolution condemning the Pulitzer Committee. (After being assured that the award was irrevocable, Trudeau supported the resolution.) Doonesbury was also a Nominated Pulitzer Finalist in 1990, 2004, and 2005. In 1977, the short film won the Grand Jury Prize from the Cannes Film Festival. It was nominated for the Palme d'Or for "Best Short Film". It was also nominated for an Academy Award. Trudeau received Certificates of Achievement from the US Army 4th Battalion 67th Armor Regiment and the Ready First Brigade in 1991 for his comic strips dealing with the first Gulf War. The texts of these citations are quoted on the back of the comic strip collection Welcome to Club Scud! Trudeau won the Reuben Award from the National Cartoonists Society in 1995. Trudeau was awarded the US Army's Commander's Award for Public Service in 2006 for his series of strips about B.D.'s recovery following the loss of his leg in Iraq. In 2008, Trudeau received the Mental Health Research Advocacy Award from the Yale School of Medicine for his depiction of the mental-health issues facing soldiers upon returning home from the Afghanistan and Iraq wars. See also List of published collections of Doonesbury Notes References Trudeau, Garry, Doonesbury Flashbacks CD-ROM for Microsoft Windows. Published by Mindscape, 1995. NCS Awards External links Doonesbury home page Doonesbury—The Sandbox-Military Blog Doonesbury: Drawing and Quartering for Fun and Profit—Time article from February 9, 1976 Garry Trudeau Papers. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. 1970 comics debuts American comic strips American comics adapted into films American political |
sets of polyhedral dice started around the end of the 1960s when non-cubical dice became popular among players of wargames, and since have been employed extensively in role-playing games and trading card games. Dice using both the numerals 6 and 9, which are reciprocally symmetric through rotation, typically distinguish them with a dot or underline. Common variations Dice are often sold in sets, matching in color, of six different shapes. Five of the dice are shaped like the Platonic solids, whose faces are regular polygons. Aside from the cube, the other four Platonic solids have 4, 8, 12, and 20 faces, allowing for those number ranges to be generated. The only other common non-cubical die is the 10-sided die, a pentagonal trapezohedron die, whose faces are ten kites, each with two different edge lengths, three different angles, and two different kinds of vertices. Such sets frequently include a second 10-sided die either of contrasting color or numbered by tens, allowing the pair of 10-sided dice to be combined to generate numbers between 1 and 100. Using these dice in various ways, games can closely approximate a variety of probability distributions. For instance, 10-sided dice can be rolled in pairs to produce a uniform distribution of random percentages, and summing the values of multiple dice will produce approximations to normal distributions. Unlike other common dice, a four-sided (tetrahedral) die does not have a side that faces upward when it is at rest on a surface, so it must be read in a different way. On some four-sided dice, each face features multiple numbers, with the same number printed near each vertex on all sides. In this case, the number around the vertex pointing up is used. Alternatively, the numbers on a tetrahedral die can be placed at the middles of the edges, in which case the numbers around the base are used. Normally, the faces on a die will be placed so opposite faces will add up to one more than the number of faces. (This is not possible with 4-sided dice and dice with an odd-number of faces.) Some dice, such as those with 10 sides, are usually numbered sequentially beginning with 0, in which case the opposite faces will add to one less than the number of faces. Some twenty-sided dice have a different arrangement used for the purpose of keeping track of an integer that counts down, such as health points. These spindown dice are arranged such that adjacent integers appear on adjacent faces, allowing the user to easily find the next lower number. They are commonly used with collectible card games. Rarer variations "Uniform fair dice" are dice where all faces have equal probability of outcome due to the symmetry of the die as it is face-transitive. In addition to the Platonic solids, these theoretically include: Bipyramids, the duals of the infinite set of prisms, with triangle faces: any multiple of 4 (so that a face will face up) above 8 Catalan solids, the duals of the 13 Archimedean solids: 12, 24, 30, 48, 60, 120 sides Disphenoids, an infinite set of tetrahedra made from congruent non-regular triangles: 4 sides. This is a less symmetric tetrahedron than the Platonic tetrahedron, but still sufficiently symmetrical to be face-transitive. Similarly, pyritohedra and tetartoids are less symmetrical but still face-transitive dodecahedra: 12 sides. Trapezohedra, the duals of the infinite set of antiprisms, with kite faces: any even number not divisible by 4 (so that a face will face up) above 6 Two other types of polyhedra are technically not face-transitive, but are still fair dice due to symmetry: antiprisms: the basis of barrel dice prisms: the basis of long dice and teetotums Long dice and teetotums can in principle be made with any number of faces, including odd numbers. Long dice are based on the infinite set of prisms. All the rectangular faces are mutually face-transitive, so they are equally probable. The two ends of the prism may be rounded or capped with a pyramid, designed so that the die cannot rest on those faces. 4-sided long dice are easier to roll than tetrahedra, and are used in the traditional board games dayakattai and daldøs. Non-numeric dice The faces of most dice are labelled using sequences of whole numbers, usually starting at one, expressed with either pips or digits. However, there are some applications that require results other than numbers. Examples include letters for Boggle, directions for Warhammer Fantasy Battle, Fudge dice, playing card symbols for poker dice, and instructions for sexual acts using sex dice. Alternatively-numbered dice Dice may have numbers that do not form a counting sequence starting at one. One variation on the standard die is known as the "average" die. These are six-sided dice with sides numbered 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, which | with flat two-sided throwsticks which indicated the number of squares a player could move, and thus functioned as a form of dice. Senet was played before 3000 BC and up to the 2nd century AD. Bone dice from Skara Brae, Scotland have been dated to 3100–2400 BC. Excavations from graves at Mohenjo-daro, an Indus Valley civilization settlement, unearthed terracotta dice dating to 2500–1900 BC. Games involving dice are mentioned in the ancient Indian Rigveda, Atharvaveda, Mahabharata and Buddhist games list. There are several biblical references to "casting lots" ( yappîlū ḡōrāl), as in Psalm 22, indicating that dicing (or a related activity) was commonplace when the psalm was composed. Knucklebones was a game of skill played in ancient Greece; a derivative form had the four sides of bones receive different values like modern dice. Although gambling was illegal, many Romans were passionate gamblers who enjoyed dicing, which was known as aleam ludere ("to play at dice"). There were two sizes of Roman dice. Tali were large dice inscribed with one, three, four, and six on four sides. Tesserae were smaller dice with sides numbered from one to six. Twenty-sided dice date back to the 2nd century AD and from Ptolemaic Egypt as early as the 2nd century BC. Dominoes and playing cards originated in China as developments from dice. The transition from dice to playing cards occurred in China around the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD), and coincides with the technological transition from rolls of manuscripts to block printed books. In Japan, dice were used to play a popular game called sugoroku. There are two types of sugoroku. Ban-sugoroku is similar to backgammon and dates to the Heian period (794–1185), while e-sugoroku is a racing game. Use Dice are thrown onto a surface either from the hand or from a container designed for this (such as a cup or tray). The face of the die that is uppermost when it comes to rest provides the value of the throw. The result of a die roll is determined by the way it is thrown, according to the laws of classical mechanics. A die roll is made random by uncertainty in minor factors such as tiny movements in the thrower's hand; they are thus a crude form of hardware random number generator. One typical contemporary dice game is craps, where two dice are thrown simultaneously and wagers are made on the total value of the two dice. Dice are frequently used to introduce randomness into board games, where they are often used to decide the distance through which a piece will move along the board (as in backgammon and Monopoly). Construction Arrangement Common dice are small cubes, most often across, whose faces are numbered from one to six, usually by patterns of round dots called pips. (While the use of Arabic numerals is occasionally seen, such dice are less common.) Opposite sides of a modern die traditionally add up to seven, requiring the 1, 2, and 3 faces to share a vertex. The faces of a die may be placed clockwise or counterclockwise about this vertex. If the 1, 2, and 3 faces run counterclockwise, the die is called "right-handed". If those faces run clockwise, the die is called "left-handed". Western dice are normally right-handed, and Chinese dice are normally left-handed. The pips on standard six-sided dice are arranged in specific patterns as shown. Asian style dice bear similar patterns to Western ones, but the pips are closer to the center of the face; in addition, the pips are differently sized on Asian style dice, and the pips are colored red on the 1 and 4 sides. Red fours may be of Indian origin. Manufacturing Non-precision dice are manufactured via the plastic injection molding process, often made of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). The pips or numbers on the die are a part of the mold. Different pigments can be added to the dice to make them opaque or transparent, or multiple pigments may be added to make the dice speckled or marbled. The coloring for numbering is achieved by submerging the die entirely in paint, which is allowed to dry. The die is then polished via a tumble finishing process similar to rock polishing. The abrasive agent scrapes off all of the paint except for the indents of the numbering. A finer abrasive is then used to polish the die. This process also produces the smoother, rounded edges on the dice. Precision casino dice may have a polished or sand finish, making them transparent or translucent respectively. Casino dice have their pips drilled, then filled flush with a paint of the same density as the material used for the dice, such that the center of gravity of the dice is as close to the geometric center as possible. This mitigates concerns that the pips will cause a small bias. All such dice are stamped with a serial number to prevent potential cheaters from substituting a die. Precision backgammon dice are made the same way; they tend to be slightly smaller and have rounded corners and edges, to allow better movement inside the dice cup and stop forceful rolls from damaging the playing surface. Etymology and terms The word die comes from Old French dé; from Latin datum "something which is given or played". While the terms ace, deuce, trey, cater, cinque and sice are generally obsolete, with the names of the numbers preferred, they are still used by some professional gamblers to designate different sides of the dice. Ace is from the Latin as, meaning "a unit"; the others are 2 to 6 in Old French. When rolling two dice, certain combinations have slang names. The term snake eyes is a roll of one pip on each die. The Online Etymology Dictionary traces use of the term as far back as 1919. The US term boxcars, also known as midnight, is a roll of six pips on each die. The pair of six pips resembles a pair of boxcars on a freight train. Many rolls have names in the |
not considered violations; evidence seized in this manner has been permitted in many criminal trials. In the United States this has been affirmed by numerous courts including and up to the Supreme Court, in the decision California v. Greenwood. The doctrine is not as well established in regards to civil litigation. Companies run by private investigators specializing in such techniques have emerged as a result of the need for discreet, undetected retrieval of documents and evidence for civil and criminal trials. Private investigators have also written books on "P.I. technique" in which dumpster diving or its equivalent "wastebasket recovery" figures prominently. By country In 2009, a Belgian dumpster diver and eco-activist nicknamed Ollie was detained for a month for removing food from a garbage can, and was accused of theft and burglary. On February 25, 2009, he was arrested for removing food from a garbage can at an AD Delhaize supermarket in Bruges. Ollie's trial evoked protests in Belgium against restrictions from taking discarded food items. In Ontario, Canada, the Trespass to Property Act—legislation dating back to the British North America Act of 1867—grants property owners and security guards the power to ban anyone from their premises, for any reason, permanently. This is done by issuing a notice to the intruder, who will only be breaking the law upon return. Similar laws exist in Prince Edward Island and Saskatchewan. A recent case in Canada, which involved a police officer who retrieved a discarded weapon from a trash receptacle as evidence, created some controversy. The judge ruled the policeman's actions as legal although there was no warrant present, which led some to speculate the event as validation for any Canadian citizen to raid garbage disposals. Skipping in England and Wales may qualify as theft within the Theft Act 1968 or as common-law theft in Scotland, though there is very little enforcement in practice. In Germany, dumpster diving is referred to as "containern", and a waste container's contents are regarded as the property of the container's owner. Therefore, taking items from such a container is viewed as theft. However, the police will routinely disregard the illegality of garbage picking since the items found are generally of low value. There has only been one known instance where people were prosecuted. In 2009 individuals were arrested on assumed burglary as they had surmounted a supermarket's fence which was then followed by a theft complaint by the owner; the case was suspended. In the United States, the 1988 California v. Greenwood case in the U.S. Supreme Court held that there is no common law expectation of privacy for discarded materials. There are, however, limits to what can legally be taken from a company's refuse. In a 1983 Minnesota case involving the theft of customer lists from a garbage can, Tennant Company v. Advance Machine Company (355 N.W.2d 720), the owner of the discarded information was awarded $500,000 in damages. Items Dumpster diving is practiced differently in developed countries than in developing countries. Food. In many developing countries, food is rarely thrown away unless it is rotten as food is scarce in comparison to developed nations. In countries like the United States, where 40 to 50 percent of food is wasted, the trash contains a lot more food to gather. In many countries, charities collect excess food from supermarkets and restaurants and distribute it to impoverished neighbourhoods. Trash pickers, Karung guni, Zabaleen, and rag and bone men in these countries may concentrate on looking for usable items or scrap materials to sell rather than food items. In the United States, Canada, and Europe, some bakeries, grocery stores, or restaurants will routinely donate food according to a Good Samaritan Food Donation Act, but more often, because of health laws or company policy, they are required to discard food items by the expiration date, because of overstock, being overly ripened, spoiled, cosmetically imperfect, or blemished. Books and periodicals. As proof to publishing houses of unsold merchandise, booksellers will routinely remove the front covers of printed materials to render them destroyed prior to disposing of their remains in the garbage. Though readable, many damaged publications have disclaimers and legal notices against their existence or sale. Irregular or damaged goods. Offices, factories, department stores, and other commercial establishments may equally throw out non-perishable items that are irregular, were returned, have minor damages, or are replaced by newer inventory. Many items tend to be in such a state of disrepair or cosmetically flawed that they will require some work to make the items functionally usable. For this reason, employees will at times intentionally destroy their items prior to being discarded to prevent them from being | people do this out of necessity due to poverty, others do it for ideological reasons or professionally and systematically for profit. Etymology The term "dumpster diving" emerged in the 1980s, combining "diving" with "dumpster", a large commercial trash bin. The term "Dumpster" itself comes from the Dempster Dumpster, a brand of bins manufactured by Dempster Brothers beginning in 1937. "Dumpster" became genericized by the 1970s. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term "dumpster diving" is chiefly found in American English and first appeared in print in 1983, with the verb "dumpster-dive" appearing a few years later. In British English, the practice may be known as "skipping", from skip, another term for this type of container. Alternative names for the practice include bin-diving, containering, D-mart, dumpstering, totting, and skipping. In Australia, garbage picking is called "skip dipping." Participants The term "binner" is often used to describe individuals who collect recyclable materials for their deposit value. For example, in Vancouver, British Columbia, binners, or bottle collectors, search garbage cans and dumpsters for recyclable materials that can be redeemed for their deposit value. On average, these binners earn about $40 a day for several garbage bags full of discarded containers. Some are scammers seeking for receipts to use in committing return fraud. The karung guni, Zabbaleen, the rag and bone man, waste picker, junk man or bin hoker are terms for people who make their living by sorting and trading trash. A similar process known as gleaning was practised in rural areas and some ancient agricultural societies, where the residue from farmers' fields was collected. Some dumpster divers, who self-identify as freegans, aim to reduce their ecological footprint by living from dumpster-dived-goods, sometimes exclusively. Overview The activity is performed by people out of necessity in the developing world. Some scavengers perform in organized groups, and some organize on various internet forums and social networking websites. By reusing, or repurposing, resources destined for the landfill, dumpster diving is sometimes considered to be an environmentalist endeavor, and is thus practiced by many pro-green communities. The wastefulness of consumer society and throw-away culture compels some individuals to rescue usable items (for example, computers or smartphones, which are frequently discarded due to the extensive use of planned obsolescence in the technology industry) from destruction and divert them to those who can make use of the items. A wide variety of things may be disposed while still repairable or in working condition, making salvage of them a source of potentially free items for personal use, or to sell for profit. Irregular, blemished or damaged items that are still otherwise functional are regularly thrown away. Discarded food that might have slight imperfections, near its expiration date, or that is simply being replaced by newer stock is often tossed out despite being still edible. Many retailers are reluctant to sell this stock at reduced prices because of the risks that people will buy it instead of the higher-priced newer stock, that extra handling time is required, and that there are liability risks. In the United Kingdom, cookery books have been written on the cooking and consumption of such foods, which has contributed to the popularity of skipping. Artists often use discarded materials retrieved from trash receptacles to create works of found objects or assemblage. Students have been known to partake in dumpster diving to obtain high tech items for technical projects, or simply to indulge their curiosity for unusual items. Dumpster diving can additionally be used in support of academic research. Garbage picking serves as the main tool for garbologists, who study the sociology and archeology of trash in modern life. Private and government investigators may pick through garbage to obtain information for their inquiries. Illegal cigarette consumption may be deduced from discarded packages. Dumpster diving can be hazardous, due to potential exposure to biohazardous matter, broken glass, and overall unsanitary conditions that may exist in dumpsters. Arguments against garbage picking often focus on the health and cleanliness implications of people rummaging in trash. This exposes the dumpster divers to potential health risks, and, especially if the dumpster diver does not return the non-usable items to their previous location, may leave trash scattered around. Divers can also be seriously injured or killed by garbage collection vehicles; in January 2012, in La Jolla, Swiss-American man Alfonso de Bourbon was killed by a truck while dumpster diving. Dumpster diving with criminal intentions Discarded billing records may be used for identity theft. As a privacy violation, discarded medical records as trash led to a $140,000 penalty against Massachusetts billing company Goldthwait Associates and a group of pathology offices in 2013 and a $400,000 settlement between Midwest Women's Healthcare Specialists and 1,532 clients in Kansas City in 2014. Criminals have been known to dumpster dive for cash receipts as part of a scheme to steal items and return them for cash, a form of return fraud known as "shoplisting." Police investigating shoplifting in Bellingham, Washington found dozens of receipts from retailers such as The Home Depot, Rite Aid and Fred Meyer, along with a list of items on the receipts. Suspects believed to have taken receipts from trash receptacles near Walmart locations were arrested for return fraud in 2016 in Madison, Wisconsin. Legal status Since dumpsters are usually located on private premises, divers may occasionally get in trouble for trespassing while dumpster diving, though the law is enforced with varying degrees of rigor. Some businesses may lock dumpsters to prevent pickers from congregating on their property, vandalism to their property, and to limit potential liability if a dumpster diver is injured while on their property. Police searches of discarded waste as well as similar methods are also generally not considered violations; evidence seized in this manner has been permitted in many criminal trials. In the United States this has been affirmed by numerous courts including and up to the Supreme Court, in the decision California v. |
memory fell, new types of synthesizers emerged, offering a variety of novel sound synthesis options. The Korg Oasys was one such example, packaging multiple digital synthesizers into a single unit. Digital synthesizers can now be completely emulated in software ("softsynth"), and run on conventional PC hardware. Such soft implementations require careful programming and a fast CPU to get the same latency response as their dedicated equivalents. To reduce latency, some professional sound card manufacturers have developed specialized Digital Signal Processing ([DSP]) hardware. Dedicated digital synthesizers have the advantage of a performance-friendly user interface (physical controls like buttons for selecting features and enabling functionality, and knobs for setting variable parameters). On the other hand, software synthesizers have the advantages afforded by a rich graphical display. With focus on performance-oriented keyboards and digital computer technology, manufacturers of commercial electronic instruments created some of the earliest digital synthesizers for studio and experimental use with computers being able to handle built-in sound synthesis algorithms. Analog vs. digital The main difference is that a digital synthesizer uses digital processors and usually uses the direct digital synthesis architecture, while an analog synthesizer uses analog circuitry and a phase-locked loop. A digital synthesizer uses a numerically-controlled oscillator while an analog synthesizer may use a voltage-controlled oscillator. A digital synthesizer is in essence a computer with (often) a piano-keyboard and an LCD as an interface. An analog synthesizer is made up of sound-generating circuitry and modulators. Because computer technology is rapidly advancing, it is often possible to offer more features in a digital synthesizer than in an analog synthesizer at a given price. However, both technologies have their own merit. Some forms of synthesis, such as, for instance, sampling and additive synthesis are not feasible in analog synthesizers, while on the other hand, many musicians prefer the character of analog synthesizers over their digital equivalent. Bands using digital synths The new wave era of the 1980s first brought the digital synthesizer to the public ear. Bands like Talking Heads and Duran Duran used the digitally made sounds on some of their most popular albums. Other more pop-inspired bands like Hall & Oates began incorporating the digital synthesizer into their sound in the 1980s. Through breakthroughs in technology in the 1990s many modern synthesizers use DSP. Digital synthesis Working in more or less the same way, every digital synthesizer appears similar to a computer. At a steady | FM synthesis and, although it was incapable of the sampling synthesis of the Fairlight CMI, its price was around $2,000, putting it within range of a much larger number of musicians. The DX-7 was also known for its "key scaling" method to avoid distortion and for its recognizably bright tonality that was partly due to its high sampling rate of 57 kHz. It became indispensable to many music artists of the 1980s, and would become one of the best-selling synthesizers of all time. In 1987, Roland released its own influential synthesizer of the time, the D-50. This popular synth broke new ground in affordably combining short samples and digital oscillators, as well as the innovation of built-in digital effects (reverb., chorus, equalizer). Roland called this Linear Arithmetic (LA) synthesis. This instrument is responsible for some of the very recognisable preset synthesizer sounds of the late 1980s, such as the Pizzagogo sound used on Enya's "Orinoco Flow." It gradually became feasible to include high quality samples of existing instruments as opposed to synthesizing them. In 1988, Korg introduced the last of the hugely popular trio of digital synthesizers of the 1980s after the DX7 and D50, the M1. This heralded both the increasing popularisation of digital sample-based synthesis, and the rise of 'workstation' synthesizers. After this time, many popular modern digital synthesizers have been described as not being full synthesizers in the most precise sense, as they play back samples stored in their memory. However, they still include options to shape the sounds through use of envelopes, LFOs, filters and effects such as reverb. The Yamaha Motif and Roland Fantom series of keyboards are typical examples of this type, described as 'ROMplers'; at the same time, they are also examples of "workstation" synthesizers. With the addition of sophisticated sequencers on board, now added to built-in effects and other features, the 'workstation' synthesizer had been born. These always include a multi-track sequencer, and can often record and play back samples, and in later years full audio tracks, to be used to record an entire song. These are usually also ROMplers, playing back samples, to give a wide variety of realistic instrument and other sounds such as drums, string instruments and wind instruments to sequence and compose songs, along with popular keyboard instrument sounds such as electric pianos and organs. As there was still interest in analog synthesizers, and with the increase of computing power, over the 1990s another type of synthesizer arose: the analog modeling, or "virtual analog" synthesizer. These use computing power to simulate traditional analog waveforms and circuitry such as envelopes and filters, with the most popular examples of this type of instrument including the Nord Lead and Access Virus. As the cost of processing power and memory fell, new types of synthesizers emerged, offering a variety of novel sound synthesis options. The Korg Oasys was one such example, packaging multiple digital synthesizers into a single unit. Digital synthesizers can now be completely emulated in software ("softsynth"), and |
music, such as human speech and sounds found in both natural and industrial environments . The problem of defining music is further complicated by the influence of culture in music cognition. The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines music as "the art of combining vocal or instrumental sounds (or both) to produce beauty of form, harmony, and expression of emotion".. However, some music genres, such as noise music and musique concrète, challenge these ideas by using sounds not widely considered as musical, beautiful or harmonious, like randomly produced electronic distortion, feedback, static, cacophony, and sounds produced using compositional processes which utilize indeterminacy.). An oft cited example of the dilemma in defining music is the work 4′33″ (1952) by the American composer John Cage (1912–1992). The written score has three movements and directs the performer(s) to appear on stage, indicate by gesture or other means when the piece begins, then make no sound throughout the duration of the piece, marking sections and the end by gesture. The audience hears only whatever ambient sounds may occur in the room. Some argue that 4′33″ is not music because, among other reasons, it contains no sounds that are conventionally considered "musical" and the composer and performer(s) exert no control over the organization of the sounds heard. Others argue it is music because the conventional definitions of musical sounds are unnecessarily and arbitrarily limited, and control over the organization of the sounds is achieved by the composer and performer(s) through their gestures that divide what is heard into specific sections and a comprehensible form. Concepts of music Because of differing fundamental concepts of music, the languages of many cultures do not contain a word that can be accurately translated as "music" as that word is generally understood by Western cultures. Inuit and most North American Indian languages do not have a general term for music. Among the Aztecs, the ancient Mexican theory of rhetoric, poetry, dance, and instrumental music used the Nahuatl term In xochitl-in kwikatl to refer to a complex mix of music and other poetic verbal and non-verbal elements, and reserved the word Kwikakayotl (or cuicacayotl) only for the sung expressions. There is no term for music in Nigerian languages Tiv, Yoruba, Igbo, Efik, Birom, Hausa, Idoma, Eggon or Jarawa. Many other languages have terms which only partly cover what Western culture typically means by the term music.() The Mapuche of Argentina do not have a word for music, but they do have words for instrumental versus improvised forms (kantun), European and non-Mapuche music (kantun winka), ceremonial songs (öl), and tayil. While some languages in West Africa have no term for music, some West African languages accept the general concepts of music.() Musiqi is the Persian word for the science and art of music, muzik being the sound and performance of music,() though some things European-influenced listeners would include, such as Quran chanting, are excluded. Music vs. noise Ben Watson points out that Ludwig van Beethoven's Große Fuge (1825) "sounded like noise" to his audience at the time. Indeed, Beethoven's publishers persuaded him to remove it from its original setting as the last movement of a string quartet. He did so, replacing it with a sparkling Allegro. They subsequently published it separately. Musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez considers the difference between noise and music nebulous, explaining that "The border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus ... By all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be". Definitions Organized sound An often-cited definition of music is that it is "organized sound", a term originally coined by modernist composer Edgard Varèse in reference to his own musical aesthetic. Varèse's concept of music as "organized sound" fits into his vision of "sound as living matter" and of "musical space as open rather than bounded". He conceived the elements of his music in terms of "sound-masses", likening their organization to the natural phenomenon of crystallization. Varèse thought that "to stubbornly conditioned ears, anything new in music has always been called noise", and he posed the question, "what is music but organized noises?" The fifteenth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica states that "while there are no sounds | composer Edgard Varèse in reference to his own musical aesthetic. Varèse's concept of music as "organized sound" fits into his vision of "sound as living matter" and of "musical space as open rather than bounded". He conceived the elements of his music in terms of "sound-masses", likening their organization to the natural phenomenon of crystallization. Varèse thought that "to stubbornly conditioned ears, anything new in music has always been called noise", and he posed the question, "what is music but organized noises?" The fifteenth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica states that "while there are no sounds that can be described as inherently unmusical, musicians in each culture have tended to restrict the range of sounds they will admit." A human organizing element is often felt to be implicit in music (sounds produced by non-human agents, such as waterfalls or birds, are often described as "musical", but perhaps less often as "music"). The composer R. Murray states that the sound of classical music "has decays; it is granular; it has attacks; it fluctuates, swollen with impurities—and all this creates a musicality that comes before any 'cultural' musicality." However, in the view of semiologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez, "just as music is whatever people choose to recognize as such, noise is whatever is recognized as disturbing, unpleasant, or both". (See "music as social construct" below.) Language Levi R. Bryant defines music not as a language, but as a marked-based, problem-solving method, comparable to mathematics. Musical universals Most definitions of music include a reference to sound and a list of universals of music can be generated by stating the elements (or aspects) of sound: pitch, timbre, loudness, duration, spatial location and texture.). However, in terms more specifically relating to music: following Wittgenstein, cognitive psychologist Eleanor Rosch proposes that categories are not clean cut but that something may be more or less a member of a category. As such the search for musical universals would fail and would not provide one with a valid definition. This is primarily because other cultures have different understandings in relation to the sounds that English language writers refer to as music. Social construct Many people do, however, share a general idea of music. The Websters definition of music is a typical example: "the science or art of ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination, and in temporal relationships to produce a composition having unity and continuity" (Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, online edition). Subjective experience This approach to the definition focuses not on the construction but on the experience of music. An extreme statement of the position has been articulated by the Italian composer Luciano Berio: "Music is everything that one listens to with the intention of listening to music". This approach permits the boundary between music and noise to change over time as the conventions of musical interpretation evolve within a culture, to be different in different cultures at any given moment, and to vary from person to person according to their experience and proclivities. It is further consistent with the subjective reality that even what would commonly be considered music is experienced as non-music if the mind is concentrating on other matters and thus not perceiving the sound's essence as music. Specific definitions Clifton In his 1983 book, Music as Heard, which sets out from the phenomenological position of Husserl, Merleau-Ponty, and Ricœur, Thomas Clifton defines music as "an ordered arrangement of sounds and silences whose meaning is presentative rather than denotative ... This definition distinguishes music, as an end in itself, from compositional technique, and from sounds as purely physical objects." More precisely, "music is the actualization of the possibility of any sound whatever to present to some human being a meaning which he experiences with his body—that is to say, with his mind, his feelings, his senses, his will, and his metabolism". It is therefore "a certain reciprocal relation established between a person, his behavior, and a sounding object". Clifton accordingly differentiates music from non-music on the basis of the human behavior involved, rather than on either the nature of compositional technique or of sounds as purely physical objects. Consequently, the distinction becomes a question of what is meant by musical behavior: "a musically behaving person is one whose very being is absorbed in the significance of the sounds being experienced." However, "It is not altogether accurate to say that this person is listening to the sounds. First, the person is doing more than listening: he is perceiving, interpreting, judging, and feeling. Second, the preposition 'to' puts too much stress on the sounds as such. Thus, the musically behaving person experiences musical significance by means of, or through, the sounds". In this framework, Clifton finds that there are two things that separate music from non-music: (1) musical meaning is presentative, and (2) music and non-music are distinguished in the idea of personal involvement. "It is the notion of personal involvement which lends significance to the word ordered in this definition of music".. This is not to be understood, however, as a sanctification of extreme relativism, since "it is precisely the 'subjective' aspect of experience which lured many writers earlier in this century down the path of sheer opinion-mongering. Later on this trend was reversed by a renewed interest in 'objective,' scientific, or otherwise non-introspective musical analysis. But we have good reason to believe that a musical experience is not a purely private thing, like seeing pink elephants, and that reporting about such an experience need not be subjective in the sense of it being a mere matter of opinion". Clifton's task, then, is to describe musical experience and the objects of this experience which, together, are called "phenomena", and the activity of describing phenomena is called "phenomenology".. It is important to stress that this definition of music says nothing about aesthetic standards. Music is not a fact or a thing in the world, but a meaning constituted by human beings. ... To talk about such experience in a meaningful way demands several things. First, we have to be willing to let the composition speak to us, to let it reveal its own order and significance. ... Second, we have to be willing to question our assumptions about the nature and role of musical materials. ... Last, and perhaps most important, we have to be ready to admit that describing a meaningful experience is itself meaningful. Nattiez "Music, often an art/entertainment, is a total social fact whose definitions vary according to era and culture", according to Jean. It is often contrasted with noise. According to musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez: "The border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus ... By all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what |
typically cooler than in downtown. At the airport, monthly mean temperatures range from in January to in July. The highest temperature ever recorded in Dayton was on July 22, 1901, and the coldest was on February 13 during the Great Blizzard of 1899. On average, there are 14 days of + highs and 4.5 nights of sub- lows annually. Snow is moderate, with a normal seasonal accumulation of , usually occurring from November to March, occasionally April, and rarely October. Precipitation averages annually, with total rainfall peaking in May. Dayton is subject to severe weather typical of the Midwestern United States. Tornadoes are possible from the spring to the fall. Floods, blizzards, and severe thunderstorms can also occur. Around midnight May 27–28, 2019, 14 tornadoes cut a path through the region, causing extensive property damage, but only one death. The tornadoes closed several streets, including portions of I-75 and North Dixie Street. 64,000 residents lost power and much of the region's water supply was cut off. Although some of the tornadoes were only EF0 and remained on the ground for less than a mile, an EF4 tornado passed through the communities of Brookville, Trotwood, Dayton, Beavercreek, and Riverside. Ecology The Dayton Audubon Society is the National Audubon Society's local chapter. The Dayton chapter manages local activities contributing to the annual, hemisphere-wide Christmas Bird Count. The Chapter began participation in the National Count in 1924. The local Count was initially coordinated by Ben Blincoe, who was succeeded by Jim Hill in 1970. In the mid-1960s, the freezing of Lake Erie and associated marshlands led species of waterfowl to appear in the Dayton-area, where surface waters remained unfrozen. Nine varieties of birds have been observed every year in the Dayton area: downy woodpecker, Carolina chickadee, tufted titmouse, brown creeper, cardinal, junco, tree sparrow, song sparrow and crow. Demographics Note: the following demographic information applies only to the city of Dayton proper. For other Dayton-area communities, see their respective articles. Dayton's population declined significantly from a peak of 262,332 residents in 1960 to only 141,759 in 2010. This was in part due to the slowdown of the region's manufacturing and the growth of Dayton's affluent suburbs including Oakwood, Englewood, Beavercreek, Springboro, Miamisburg, Kettering, and Centerville. The city's most populous ethnic group, white, declined from 78.1% in 1960 to 51.7% by 2010. Recent census estimates show a population decline since 2010. As of the 2000 census, the median income for a household in the city was $27,523, and the median income for a family was $34,978. Males had a median income of $30,816 versus $24,937 for females. The per capita income for the city was $34,724. About 18.2% of families and 23.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 32.0% of those under age 18 and 15.3% of those age 65 or over. 2010 census As of the 2010 census, there were 141,759 people, 58,404 households, and 31,064 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 74,065 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 51.7% White, 42.9% African American, 0.3% Native American, 0.9% Asian, 1.3% from other races, and 2.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.0% of the population. There were 58,404 households, of which 28.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 25.9% were married couples living together, 21.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46.8% were non-families. 38.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26, and the average family size was 3.03. The median age in the city was 34.4 years. 22.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 14.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.3% were from 25 to 44; 25.8% were from 45 to 64, and 11.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.7% male and 51.3% female. 2013 census population estimates The 2013 census population estimate showed a slight Dayton population increase for the first time in five decades. However, the 2014 population estimate indicated a decrease of individuals from 2013's estimate. Economy Dayton's economy is relatively diversified and vital to the overall economy of the state of Ohio. In 2008 and 2009, Site Selection magazine ranked Dayton the #1 medium-sized metropolitan area in the U.S. for economic development. Dayton is also among the top 100 metropolitan areas in both exports and export-related jobs, ranked 16 and 14 respectively by the Brookings Institution. The 2010 report placed the value of exports at $4.7 billion and the number of export-related jobs at 44,133. The Dayton Metropolitan Statistical Area ranks 4th in Ohio's Gross Domestic Product with a 2008 industry total of $33.78 billion. Additionally, Dayton ranks third among 11 major metropolitan areas in Ohio for exports to foreign countries. The Dayton Development Coalition is attempting to leverage the region's large water capacity, estimated to be 1.5 trillion gallons of renewable water aquifers, to attract new businesses. Moody's Investment Services revised Dayton's bond rating from A1 to the stronger rating of Aa2 as part of its global recalibration process. Standard & Poor's upgraded Dayton's rating from A+ to AA- in the summer of 2009. Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Dayton in 2010 as one of the best places in the U.S. for college graduates looking for a job. Companies such as Reynolds and Reynolds, CareSource, DP&L (soon AES inc), LexisNexis, Kettering Health Network, Premier Health Partners, and Standard Register have their headquarters in Dayton. It is also the former home of the Speedwell Motor Car Company, MeadWestvaco (formerly known as the Mead Paper Company), and NCR. NCR was headquartered in Dayton for over 125 years and was a major innovator in computer technology. Research, development, aerospace and aviation The Dayton region gave birth to aviation and is known for its high concentration of aerospace and aviation technology. In 2009, Governor Ted Strickland designated Dayton as Ohio's aerospace innovation hub, the state's first such technology hub. Two major United States research and development organizations have leveraged Dayton's historical leadership in aviation and maintain their headquarters in the area: The National Air and Space Intelligence Center (NASIC) and the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL). Both have their headquarters at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. Several research organizations support NASIC, AFRL, and the Dayton community. The Advanced Technical Intelligence Center is a confederation of government, academic, and industry partners. The University of Dayton Research Institute (UDRI) is led by the University of Dayton. The Cognitive Technologies Division (CTD) of Applied Research Associates, Inc., which carries out human-centered research and design, is headquartered in the Dayton suburb of Fairborn. The city of Dayton has started Tech Town, a development project to attract technology-based firms and revitalize the downtown area. Tech Town is home to the world's first RFID business incubator. The University of Dayton–led Institute for Development & Commercialization of Sensor Technologies (IDCAST) at TechTown is a center for remote sensing and sensing technology. It is one of Dayton's technology business incubators housed in The Entrepreneurs Center building. Healthcare The Kettering Health Network and Premier Health Partners have a major role on the Dayton area's economy. Hospitals in the Greater Dayton area have an estimated combined employment of nearly 32,000 and a yearly economic impact of $6.8 billion. In addition, several Dayton area hospitals consistently earn top national ranking and recognition including the U.S. News & World Reports list of "America's Best Hospitals" as well as many of HealthGrades top ratings. The most notable hospitals are Miami Valley Hospital and Kettering Medical Center. The Dayton region has several key institutes and centers for health care. The Center for Tissue Regeneration and Engineering at Dayton focuses on the science and development of human tissue regeneration. The National Center for Medical Readiness (NCMR) is also in the Dayton area. The center includes Calamityville, which is a disaster training facility. Over five years, Calamityville is estimated to have a regional economic impact of $374 million. Also, the Neurological Institute at Miami Valley Hospital is an institute focused on the diagnosis, treatment, and research of neurological disorders. Top employers According to the city's 2019 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city proper are: Government The Dayton City Commission is composed of the mayor and four city commissioners. Each city commission member is elected at-large on a non-partisan basis for four-year, overlapping terms. All policy items are decided by the city commission, which is empowered by the City Charter to pass ordinances and resolutions, adopt regulations, and appoint the city manager. The city manager is responsible for budgeting and implementing policies and initiatives. Dayton was the first large American city to adopt the city manager form of municipal government, in 1913. Cityscape Architecture Unlike many Midwestern cities its age, Dayton has very broad and straight downtown streets (generally two or three full lanes in each direction) that improved access to the downtown even after the automobile became popular. The main reason for the broad streets was that Dayton was a marketing and shipping center from its beginning; streets were broad to enable wagons drawn by teams of three to four pairs of oxen to turn around. Also, some of today's streets were once barge canals flanked by draw-paths. A courthouse building was built in downtown Dayton in 1888 to supplement Dayton's original Neoclassical courthouse, which still stands. This second, "new" courthouse has since been replaced with new facilities as well as a park. The Old Court House has been a favored political campaign stop. On September 17, 1859, Abraham Lincoln delivered an address on its steps. Eight other presidents have visited the courthouse, either as presidents or during presidential campaigns: Andrew Johnson, James Garfield, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton. The Dayton Arcade, which opened on March 3, 1904, was built in the hopes of replacing open-air markets throughout the city. Throughout the decades, the Arcade has gone through many transformations but has retained its charm. Some of its main features include a Flemish facade at the Third Street entrance, a glass dome above the Arcade rotunda, and a chateau roof line above the Third Street facade. The Dayton Arcade is currently under renovations with no official completion date set. In 2009, the CareSource Management Group finished construction of a $55 million corporate headquarters in downtown Dayton. The , 10-story building was downtown's first new office tower in more than a decade. Dayton's two tallest buildings are the Kettering Tower at and the KeyBank Tower at . Kettering Tower was originally Winters Tower, the headquarters of Winters Bank. The building was renamed after Virginia Kettering when Winters was merged into Bank One. KeyBank Tower was known as the MeadWestvaco Tower before KeyBank gained naming rights to the building in 2008. Ted Rall said in 2015 that over the last five decades Dayton has been demolishing some of its architecturally significant buildings to reduce the city's rental vacancy rate and thus increase the occupancy rate. Neighborhoods Dayton's ten historic neighborhoods—Oregon District, Wright Dunbar, Dayton View, Grafton Hill, McPherson Town, Webster Station, Huffman, Kenilworth, St. Anne's Hill, and South Park—feature mostly single-family houses and mansions in the Neoclassical, Jacobethan, Tudor Revival, English Gothic, Chateauesque, Craftsman, Queen Anne, Georgian Revival, Colonial Revival, Renaissance Revival Architecture, Shingle Style Architecture, Prairie, Mission Revival, Eastlake/Italianate, American Foursquare, and Federal styles. Downtown Dayton is also a large area that encompasses several neighborhoods itself and has seen a recent uplift and revival. Suburbs Dayton's suburbs with a population of 10,000 or more include Beavercreek, Centerville, Clayton, Englewood, Fairborn, Harrison Township, Huber Heights, Kettering, Miami Township, Miamisburg, Oakwood, Riverside, Springboro (partial), Trotwood, Vandalia, Washington Township, West Carrollton, and Xenia. In the federal government's National Urban Policy and New Community Development Act of 1970, funding was provided for thirteen "new towns" or planned cities throughout the country. One location was set to become a suburb of Dayton and was known variously as Brookwood or Newfields. The goal was to have an entirely new suburb that would eventually house about 35,000 residents. The new town was to be located between Trotwood and Brookville, and modeled on the ideas of Ian McHarg. The project was abandoned in 1978 and most of the land became Sycamore State Park. Recreation Dayton was named National Geographic's outdoor adventure capital of the Midwest in 2019 due in large part to the metropolitan area's revitalized Five Rivers MetroPark, extensive bicycle and jogging trail system, urban green spaces, lakes and camping areas. Bicycling In cooperation with the Miami Conservancy District, Five Rivers MetroParks hosts 340 miles of paved trails, the largest network of paved off-street trails in the United States. The regional trail system represents over 35% of the 900 miles in Ohio's off-street trail network. In 2010, the city of Troy was named "bike friendly" by the League of American Bicyclists, which gave the city the organization's bronze designation. The honorable mention made Dayton one of two cities in Ohio to receive the award, the other being Columbus, and one of 15 cities nationwide. Culture Fine arts The Dayton Region ranked within the top 10% in the nation in arts and culture. In a 2012 readers' poll by American Style magazine, Dayton ranked #2 in the country among mid-size cities as an arts destination, ranking higher than larger cities such as Atlanta, St. Louis, and Cincinnati. Dayton is the home of the Dayton Art Institute. The Benjamin and Marian Schuster Performing Arts Center in downtown Dayton is a world-class performing arts center and the home venue of the Dayton Philharmonic Orchestra, Dayton Opera, and the Dayton Ballet. In addition to philharmonic and opera performances, the Schuster Center hosts concerts, lectures, and traveling Broadway shows, and is a popular spot for weddings and other events. The historic Victoria Theatre in downtown Dayton hosts concerts, traveling Broadway shows, ballet, a summertime classic film series, and more. The Loft Theatre, also downtown, is the home of the Human Race Theatre Company. The Dayton Playhouse, in West Dayton, is the site of numerous plays and theatrical productions. Between 1957 and 1995, the Kenley Players presented live theater productions in Dayton. In 2013, John Kenley was inducted into the Dayton Theatre Hall of Fame. Dayton is the home to several ballet companies including: The Dayton Ballet, one of the oldest professional dance companies in the United States. The Dayton Ballet runs the Dayton Ballet School, the oldest dance school in Dayton and one of the oldest in the country. It is the only ballet school in the Miami Valley associated with a professional dance company. The Dayton Contemporary Dance Company (established in 1968), which hosts the largest repertory of African-American-based contemporary dance in the world. The company travels nationally and internationally and has been recognized by critics worldwide. Front Street, the largest artists' collective in Dayton, is housed in three industrial buildings on East Second Street. Food The city's fine dining restaurants include The Pine Club, a nationally known steakhouse. Dayton is home to a variety of pizza chains that have become woven into local culture, the most notable of which are Cassano's and Marion's Piazza. Notable Dayton-based restaurant chains include Hot Head Burritos. In addition to restaurants, the city is also home to Esther Price Candies, a candy and chocolate company, and Mike-sells, the oldest potato chip company in the United States. The city began developing a reputation for its number of breweries and craft beer venues by the late 2010s. Religion Many major religions are represented in Dayton. Christianity is represented in Dayton by dozens of denominations and their respective churches. Notable Dayton churches include the First Lutheran Church, Sacred Heart Church, and Ginghamsburg Church. Dayton's Muslim community is largely represented by the Islamic Society of Greater Dayton (ISGD), a Muslim community that includes a mosque on Josie Street. Dayton is also home to the United Theological Seminary, one of 13 seminaries affiliated with the United Methodist Church. Judaism is represented by Temple Israel. Hinduism is represented by the Hindu Temple of Dayton. Old North Dayton also has a number of Catholic churches built by immigrants from Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, and Germany. Tourism Tourism also accounts for one out of every 14 private sector jobs in the county. Tourism in the Dayton region is led by the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, the largest and oldest military aviation museum in the world. The museum draws over 1.3 million visitors per year and is one of the most-visited tourist attractions in Ohio. The museum houses the National Aviation Hall of Fame. Other museums also play significant roles in the tourism and economy of the Dayton area. The Dayton Art Institute, a museum of fine arts, owns collections containing more than 20,000 objects spanning 5,000 years of art and archaeological history. The Dayton Art Institute was rated one of the top 10 best art museums in the United States for children. The Boonshoft Museum of Discovery is a children's museum of science with numerous exhibits, one of which includes an indoor zoo with nearly 100 different animals. There are also some notable historical museums in the region. The Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park, operated by the National Park Service, commemorates the lives and achievements of Dayton natives Orville and Wilbur Wright and Paul Laurence Dunbar. The Wright brothers' famous Wright Flyer III aircraft is housed in a museum at Carillon Historical Park. Dayton is also home to America's Packard Museum, which contains many restored historical Packard vehicles. SunWatch Indian Village/Archaeological Park, a partially reconstructed 12th-century prehistoric American Indian village, is on the south end of Dayton; it is organized around a central plaza dominated by wood posts forming an astronomical calendar. The park includes a museum where visitors can learn about the Indian history of the Miami Valley. Entertainment The Vectren Dayton Air Show is an annual air show that takes place at the Dayton International Airport. The Vectren Dayton Airshow is one of the largest air shows in the United States. The Dayton area is served by Five Rivers MetroParks, encompassing over 23 facilities for year-round recreation, education, and conservation. In cooperation with the Miami Conservancy District, the MetroParks maintains over of paved, multi-use scenic trails that connect Montgomery County with Greene, Miami, Warren, and Butler counties. Dayton was home to a thriving funk music scene from the 1970s to the early 1980s, that included bands such as Ohio Players, Roger Troutman & Zapp, Lakeside, Dayton and Slave. From 1996 to 1998, Dayton hosted the National Folk Festival. Since then, the annual Cityfolk Festival has continued to bring folk, ethnic, and world music and arts to Dayton. The Five Rivers MetroParks also owns and operates the PNC Second Street Market near downtown Dayton. The Dayton area hosts several arenas and venues. South of Dayton in Kettering is the Fraze Pavilion, whose notable performances have included the Backstreet Boys, Boston, and Steve Miller Band. South of downtown, on the banks of the Great Miami River, is the University of Dayton Arena, home venue for the University of Dayton Flyers basketball teams and the location of various other events and concerts. It also hosts the Winter Guard International championships, at which hundreds of percussion and color guard ensembles from around the world compete. In addition, the Dayton Amateur Radio Association hosts the annual Dayton Hamvention, North America's largest hamfest, at the Greene County Fairgrounds in nearby Xenia. The Nutter Center, which is just east of Dayton in the suburb of Fairborn, is the home arena for athletics of Wright State University and the former Dayton Bombers hockey team. This venue is used for many concerts, community events, and various national traveling shows and performances. The Oregon District is a historic residential and commercial district in southeast downtown Dayton. The district is populated with art galleries, specialty shops, pubs, nightclubs, and coffee houses. The city of Dayton is also host to yearly festivals, such as the Dayton Celtic Festival, the Dayton Blues Festival, Dayton Music Fest, Urban Nights, Women in Jazz, the African American and Cultural Festival, and the Dayton Reggae Fest. Sports The Dayton area is home to several minor league and semi pro teams, as well as NCAA Division I sports programs. Baseball The Dayton Dragons professional baseball team is a Class A minor league affiliate for the Cincinnati Reds. The Dayton Dragons are the first (and only) team in minor league baseball history to sell out an entire season before it began and was voted as one of the top 10 hottest tickets to get in all of professional sports by Sports Illustrated. The Dayton Dragons 815 consecutive sellouts surpassed the NBA's Portland Trail Blazers for the longest sellout streak across all professional sports in the U.S. Collegiate The University of Dayton and Wright State University both host NCAA basketball. The University of Dayton Arena has hosted more games in the NCAA men's basketball tournament over its history than any other venue. UD Arena is also the site of the First Round games of the NCAA Tournament. In 2012, eight teams competed for the final four spots in the NCAA Basketball Tournament. Wright State University's NCAA men's basketball is the Wright State Raiders and the University of Dayton's NCAA men's basketball team is the Dayton Flyers. Hockey The Dayton Gems were a minor league ice hockey team in the International Hockey League from 1964 to 1977, 1979 to 1980, and most recently 2009 to 2012. The Dayton Bombers were an ECHL ice hockey team from 1991 to 2009. They most recently played the North Division of the ECHL's American Conference. In June 2009, it was announced the Bombers would turn in their membership back to the league. Despite the folding of the Bombers, hockey remained in Dayton as the Dayton Gems of the International Hockey League were formed in the fall of 2009 at Hara Arena. The Gems folded after the 2011–12 season. Shortly after the Gems folded, it was announced a new team, the Dayton Demonz, would begin play in 2012 in the Federal Hockey League (FHL). The Demonz folded in 2015 and were immediately replaced by the Dayton Demolition, also in the FHL. However, the Demolition would cease operations after only one season when Hara Arena decided to close due to financial difficulties. Football Dayton hosted the first American Professional Football Association game (precursor to the NFL). The game was played at Triangle Park between the Dayton Triangles and the Columbus Panhandles on October 3, 1920, and is considered one of the first professional football games ever played. Football teams in the Dayton area include the Dayton Flyers and the Dayton Sharks. Golf The Dayton region is also known for the many golf courses and clubs | Tech Town, a development project to attract technology-based firms and revitalize the downtown area. Tech Town is home to the world's first RFID business incubator. The University of Dayton–led Institute for Development & Commercialization of Sensor Technologies (IDCAST) at TechTown is a center for remote sensing and sensing technology. It is one of Dayton's technology business incubators housed in The Entrepreneurs Center building. Healthcare The Kettering Health Network and Premier Health Partners have a major role on the Dayton area's economy. Hospitals in the Greater Dayton area have an estimated combined employment of nearly 32,000 and a yearly economic impact of $6.8 billion. In addition, several Dayton area hospitals consistently earn top national ranking and recognition including the U.S. News & World Reports list of "America's Best Hospitals" as well as many of HealthGrades top ratings. The most notable hospitals are Miami Valley Hospital and Kettering Medical Center. The Dayton region has several key institutes and centers for health care. The Center for Tissue Regeneration and Engineering at Dayton focuses on the science and development of human tissue regeneration. The National Center for Medical Readiness (NCMR) is also in the Dayton area. The center includes Calamityville, which is a disaster training facility. Over five years, Calamityville is estimated to have a regional economic impact of $374 million. Also, the Neurological Institute at Miami Valley Hospital is an institute focused on the diagnosis, treatment, and research of neurological disorders. Top employers According to the city's 2019 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city proper are: Government The Dayton City Commission is composed of the mayor and four city commissioners. Each city commission member is elected at-large on a non-partisan basis for four-year, overlapping terms. All policy items are decided by the city commission, which is empowered by the City Charter to pass ordinances and resolutions, adopt regulations, and appoint the city manager. The city manager is responsible for budgeting and implementing policies and initiatives. Dayton was the first large American city to adopt the city manager form of municipal government, in 1913. Cityscape Architecture Unlike many Midwestern cities its age, Dayton has very broad and straight downtown streets (generally two or three full lanes in each direction) that improved access to the downtown even after the automobile became popular. The main reason for the broad streets was that Dayton was a marketing and shipping center from its beginning; streets were broad to enable wagons drawn by teams of three to four pairs of oxen to turn around. Also, some of today's streets were once barge canals flanked by draw-paths. A courthouse building was built in downtown Dayton in 1888 to supplement Dayton's original Neoclassical courthouse, which still stands. This second, "new" courthouse has since been replaced with new facilities as well as a park. The Old Court House has been a favored political campaign stop. On September 17, 1859, Abraham Lincoln delivered an address on its steps. Eight other presidents have visited the courthouse, either as presidents or during presidential campaigns: Andrew Johnson, James Garfield, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton. The Dayton Arcade, which opened on March 3, 1904, was built in the hopes of replacing open-air markets throughout the city. Throughout the decades, the Arcade has gone through many transformations but has retained its charm. Some of its main features include a Flemish facade at the Third Street entrance, a glass dome above the Arcade rotunda, and a chateau roof line above the Third Street facade. The Dayton Arcade is currently under renovations with no official completion date set. In 2009, the CareSource Management Group finished construction of a $55 million corporate headquarters in downtown Dayton. The , 10-story building was downtown's first new office tower in more than a decade. Dayton's two tallest buildings are the Kettering Tower at and the KeyBank Tower at . Kettering Tower was originally Winters Tower, the headquarters of Winters Bank. The building was renamed after Virginia Kettering when Winters was merged into Bank One. KeyBank Tower was known as the MeadWestvaco Tower before KeyBank gained naming rights to the building in 2008. Ted Rall said in 2015 that over the last five decades Dayton has been demolishing some of its architecturally significant buildings to reduce the city's rental vacancy rate and thus increase the occupancy rate. Neighborhoods Dayton's ten historic neighborhoods—Oregon District, Wright Dunbar, Dayton View, Grafton Hill, McPherson Town, Webster Station, Huffman, Kenilworth, St. Anne's Hill, and South Park—feature mostly single-family houses and mansions in the Neoclassical, Jacobethan, Tudor Revival, English Gothic, Chateauesque, Craftsman, Queen Anne, Georgian Revival, Colonial Revival, Renaissance Revival Architecture, Shingle Style Architecture, Prairie, Mission Revival, Eastlake/Italianate, American Foursquare, and Federal styles. Downtown Dayton is also a large area that encompasses several neighborhoods itself and has seen a recent uplift and revival. Suburbs Dayton's suburbs with a population of 10,000 or more include Beavercreek, Centerville, Clayton, Englewood, Fairborn, Harrison Township, Huber Heights, Kettering, Miami Township, Miamisburg, Oakwood, Riverside, Springboro (partial), Trotwood, Vandalia, Washington Township, West Carrollton, and Xenia. In the federal government's National Urban Policy and New Community Development Act of 1970, funding was provided for thirteen "new towns" or planned cities throughout the country. One location was set to become a suburb of Dayton and was known variously as Brookwood or Newfields. The goal was to have an entirely new suburb that would eventually house about 35,000 residents. The new town was to be located between Trotwood and Brookville, and modeled on the ideas of Ian McHarg. The project was abandoned in 1978 and most of the land became Sycamore State Park. Recreation Dayton was named National Geographic's outdoor adventure capital of the Midwest in 2019 due in large part to the metropolitan area's revitalized Five Rivers MetroPark, extensive bicycle and jogging trail system, urban green spaces, lakes and camping areas. Bicycling In cooperation with the Miami Conservancy District, Five Rivers MetroParks hosts 340 miles of paved trails, the largest network of paved off-street trails in the United States. The regional trail system represents over 35% of the 900 miles in Ohio's off-street trail network. In 2010, the city of Troy was named "bike friendly" by the League of American Bicyclists, which gave the city the organization's bronze designation. The honorable mention made Dayton one of two cities in Ohio to receive the award, the other being Columbus, and one of 15 cities nationwide. Culture Fine arts The Dayton Region ranked within the top 10% in the nation in arts and culture. In a 2012 readers' poll by American Style magazine, Dayton ranked #2 in the country among mid-size cities as an arts destination, ranking higher than larger cities such as Atlanta, St. Louis, and Cincinnati. Dayton is the home of the Dayton Art Institute. The Benjamin and Marian Schuster Performing Arts Center in downtown Dayton is a world-class performing arts center and the home venue of the Dayton Philharmonic Orchestra, Dayton Opera, and the Dayton Ballet. In addition to philharmonic and opera performances, the Schuster Center hosts concerts, lectures, and traveling Broadway shows, and is a popular spot for weddings and other events. The historic Victoria Theatre in downtown Dayton hosts concerts, traveling Broadway shows, ballet, a summertime classic film series, and more. The Loft Theatre, also downtown, is the home of the Human Race Theatre Company. The Dayton Playhouse, in West Dayton, is the site of numerous plays and theatrical productions. Between 1957 and 1995, the Kenley Players presented live theater productions in Dayton. In 2013, John Kenley was inducted into the Dayton Theatre Hall of Fame. Dayton is the home to several ballet companies including: The Dayton Ballet, one of the oldest professional dance companies in the United States. The Dayton Ballet runs the Dayton Ballet School, the oldest dance school in Dayton and one of the oldest in the country. It is the only ballet school in the Miami Valley associated with a professional dance company. The Dayton Contemporary Dance Company (established in 1968), which hosts the largest repertory of African-American-based contemporary dance in the world. The company travels nationally and internationally and has been recognized by critics worldwide. Front Street, the largest artists' collective in Dayton, is housed in three industrial buildings on East Second Street. Food The city's fine dining restaurants include The Pine Club, a nationally known steakhouse. Dayton is home to a variety of pizza chains that have become woven into local culture, the most notable of which are Cassano's and Marion's Piazza. Notable Dayton-based restaurant chains include Hot Head Burritos. In addition to restaurants, the city is also home to Esther Price Candies, a candy and chocolate company, and Mike-sells, the oldest potato chip company in the United States. The city began developing a reputation for its number of breweries and craft beer venues by the late 2010s. Religion Many major religions are represented in Dayton. Christianity is represented in Dayton by dozens of denominations and their respective churches. Notable Dayton churches include the First Lutheran Church, Sacred Heart Church, and Ginghamsburg Church. Dayton's Muslim community is largely represented by the Islamic Society of Greater Dayton (ISGD), a Muslim community that includes a mosque on Josie Street. Dayton is also home to the United Theological Seminary, one of 13 seminaries affiliated with the United Methodist Church. Judaism is represented by Temple Israel. Hinduism is represented by the Hindu Temple of Dayton. Old North Dayton also has a number of Catholic churches built by immigrants from Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, and Germany. Tourism Tourism also accounts for one out of every 14 private sector jobs in the county. Tourism in the Dayton region is led by the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, the largest and oldest military aviation museum in the world. The museum draws over 1.3 million visitors per year and is one of the most-visited tourist attractions in Ohio. The museum houses the National Aviation Hall of Fame. Other museums also play significant roles in the tourism and economy of the Dayton area. The Dayton Art Institute, a museum of fine arts, owns collections containing more than 20,000 objects spanning 5,000 years of art and archaeological history. The Dayton Art Institute was rated one of the top 10 best art museums in the United States for children. The Boonshoft Museum of Discovery is a children's museum of science with numerous exhibits, one of which includes an indoor zoo with nearly 100 different animals. There are also some notable historical museums in the region. The Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park, operated by the National Park Service, commemorates the lives and achievements of Dayton natives Orville and Wilbur Wright and Paul Laurence Dunbar. The Wright brothers' famous Wright Flyer III aircraft is housed in a museum at Carillon Historical Park. Dayton is also home to America's Packard Museum, which contains many restored historical Packard vehicles. SunWatch Indian Village/Archaeological Park, a partially reconstructed 12th-century prehistoric American Indian village, is on the south end of Dayton; it is organized around a central plaza dominated by wood posts forming an astronomical calendar. The park includes a museum where visitors can learn about the Indian history of the Miami Valley. Entertainment The Vectren Dayton Air Show is an annual air show that takes place at the Dayton International Airport. The Vectren Dayton Airshow is one of the largest air shows in the United States. The Dayton area is served by Five Rivers MetroParks, encompassing over 23 facilities for year-round recreation, education, and conservation. In cooperation with the Miami Conservancy District, the MetroParks maintains over of paved, multi-use scenic trails that connect Montgomery County with Greene, Miami, Warren, and Butler counties. Dayton was home to a thriving funk music scene from the 1970s to the early 1980s, that included bands such as Ohio Players, Roger Troutman & Zapp, Lakeside, Dayton and Slave. From 1996 to 1998, Dayton hosted the National Folk Festival. Since then, the annual Cityfolk Festival has continued to bring folk, ethnic, and world music and arts to Dayton. The Five Rivers MetroParks also owns and operates the PNC Second Street Market near downtown Dayton. The Dayton area hosts several arenas and venues. South of Dayton in Kettering is the Fraze Pavilion, whose notable performances have included the Backstreet Boys, Boston, and Steve Miller Band. South of downtown, on the banks of the Great Miami River, is the University of Dayton Arena, home venue for the University of Dayton Flyers basketball teams and the location of various other events and concerts. It also hosts the Winter Guard International championships, at which hundreds of percussion and color guard ensembles from around the world compete. In addition, the Dayton Amateur Radio Association hosts the annual Dayton Hamvention, North America's largest hamfest, at the Greene County Fairgrounds in nearby Xenia. The Nutter Center, which is just east of Dayton in the suburb of Fairborn, is the home arena for athletics of Wright State University and the former Dayton Bombers hockey team. This venue is used for many concerts, community events, and various national traveling shows and performances. The Oregon District is a historic residential and commercial district in southeast downtown Dayton. The district is populated with art galleries, specialty shops, pubs, nightclubs, and coffee houses. The city of Dayton is also host to yearly festivals, such as the Dayton Celtic Festival, the Dayton Blues Festival, Dayton Music Fest, Urban Nights, Women in Jazz, the African American and Cultural Festival, and the Dayton Reggae Fest. Sports The Dayton area is home to several minor league and semi pro teams, as well as NCAA Division I sports programs. Baseball The Dayton Dragons professional baseball team is a Class A minor league affiliate for the Cincinnati Reds. The Dayton Dragons are the first (and only) team in minor league baseball history to sell out an entire season before it began and was voted as one of the top 10 hottest tickets to get in all of professional sports by Sports Illustrated. The Dayton Dragons 815 consecutive sellouts surpassed the NBA's Portland Trail Blazers for the |
many other internal diodes. Avalanche diodes These are diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes (and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes), but break down by a different mechanism: the avalanche effect. This occurs when the reverse electric field applied across the p–n junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current. Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed. The difference between the avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the channel length of the former exceeds the mean free path of the electrons, resulting in many collisions between them on the way through the channel. The only practical difference between the two types is they have temperature coefficients of opposite polarities. Constant-current diodes These are actually JFETs with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-terminal current-limiting analog to the voltage-limiting Zener diode. They allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value. Also called CLDs, constant-current diodes, diode-connected transistors, or current-regulating diodes. Crystal rectifiers or crystal diodes These are point-contact diodes. The 1N21 series and others are used in mixer and detector applications in radar and microwave receivers. The 1N34A is another example of a crystal diode. Gunn diodes These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that exhibit a region of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency microwave oscillators to be built. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, charge carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors) from the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs produce incoherent, narrow-spectrum light; "white" LEDs are actually a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating, or combinations of three LEDs of a different color. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an opto-isolator. Laser diodes When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for high speed optical communication. Thermal diodes This term is used both for conventional p–n diodes used to monitor temperature because of their varying forward voltage with temperature, and for Peltier heat pumps for thermoelectric heating and cooling. Peltier heat pumps may be made from semiconductors, though they do not have any rectifying junctions, they use the differing behavior of charge carriers in N and P-type semiconductor to move heat. Photodiodes All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation. This is typically an undesired effect, so most semiconductors are packaged in light-blocking material. Photodiodes are intended to sense light (photodetector), so they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, and are usually PIN (the kind of diode most sensitive to light). A photodiode can be used in solar cells, in photometry, or in optical communications. Multiple photodiodes may be packaged in a single device, either as a linear array or as a two-dimensional array. These arrays should not be confused with charge-coupled devices. PIN diodes A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a p-type/intrinsic/n-type structure. They are used as radio frequency switches and attenuators. They are also used as large-volume, ionizing-radiation detectors and as photodetectors. PIN diodes are also used in power electronics, as their central layer can withstand high voltages. Furthermore, the PIN structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and thyristors. Schottky diodes Schottky diodes are constructed from metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower forward voltage drop than p–n junction diodes. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low loss rectifiers, although their reverse leakage current is in general higher than that of other diodes. Schottky diodes are majority carrier devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier storage problems that slow down many other diodes—so they have a faster reverse recovery than p–n junction diodes. They also tend to have much lower junction capacitance than p–n diodes, which provides for high switching speeds and their use in high-speed circuitry and RF devices such as switched-mode power supply, mixers, and detectors. Super barrier diodes Super barrier diodes are rectifier diodes that incorporate the low forward voltage drop of the Schottky diode with the surge-handling capability and low reverse leakage current of a normal p–n junction diode. Gold-doped diodes As a dopant, gold (or platinum) acts as recombination centers, which helps the fast recombination of minority carriers. This allows the diode to operate at signal frequencies, at the expense of a higher forward voltage drop. Gold-doped diodes are faster than other p–n diodes (but not as fast as Schottky diodes). They also have less reverse-current leakage than Schottky diodes (but not as good as other p–n diodes). A typical example is the 1N914. Snap-off or step recovery diodes The term step recovery relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of these devices. After a forward current has been passing in an SRD and the current is interrupted or reversed, the reverse conduction will cease very abruptly (as in a step waveform). SRDs can, therefore, provide very fast voltage transitions by the very sudden disappearance of the charge carriers. Stabistors or forward reference diodes The term stabistor refers to a special type of diodes featuring extremely stable forward voltage characteristics. These devices are specially designed for low-voltage stabilization applications requiring a guaranteed voltage over a wide current range and highly stable over temperature. Transient voltage suppression diode (TVS) These are avalanche diodes designed specifically to protect other semiconductor devices from high-voltage transients. Their p–n junctions have a much larger cross-sectional area than those of a normal diode, allowing them to conduct large currents to ground without sustaining damage. Tunnel diodes or Esaki diodes These have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum tunneling, allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. Because of the high carrier concentration, tunnel diodes are very fast, may be used at low (mK) temperatures, high magnetic fields, and in high radiation environments. Because of these properties, they are often used in spacecraft. Varicap or varactor diodes These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. These are important in PLL (phase-locked loop) and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock quickly on to the frequency. They also enabled tunable oscillators in the early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator provided the reference frequency for a voltage-controlled oscillator. Zener diodes These can be made to conduct in reverse bias (backward), and are correctly termed reverse breakdown diodes. This effect called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. The term Zener diodes is colloquially applied to several types of breakdown diodes, but strictly speaking, Zener diodes have a breakdown voltage of below 5 volts, whilst avalanche diodes are used for breakdown voltages above that value. In practical voltage reference circuits, Zener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient response of the diodes to near-zero. Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see above). Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber (or Transorb, a registered trademark). Other uses for semiconductor diodes include the sensing of temperature, and computing analog logarithms (see Operational amplifier applications#Logarithmic output). Graphic symbols The symbol used to represent a particular type of diode in a circuit diagram conveys the general electrical function to the reader. There are alternative symbols for some types of diodes, though the differences are minor. The triangle in the symbols points to the forward direction, i.e. in the direction of conventional current flow. Numbering and coding schemes There are a number of common, standard and manufacturer-driven numbering and coding schemes for diodes; the two most common being the EIA/JEDEC standard and the European Pro Electron standard: EIA/JEDEC The standardized 1N-series numbering EIA370 system was introduced in the US by EIA/JEDEC (Joint Electron Device Engineering Council) about 1960. Most diodes have a 1-prefix designation (e.g., 1N4003). Among the most popular in this series were: 1N34A/1N270 (germanium signal), 1N914/1N4148 (silicon signal), 1N400x (silicon 1A power rectifier), and 1N580x (silicon 3A power rectifier). JIS The JIS semiconductor designation system has all semiconductor diode designations starting with "1S". Pro Electron The European Pro Electron coding system for active components was introduced in 1966 and comprises two letters followed by the part code. The first letter represents the semiconductor material used for the component (A = germanium and B = silicon) and the second letter represents the general function of the part (for diodes, A = low-power/signal, B = variable capacitance, X = multiplier, Y = rectifier and Z = voltage reference); for example: AA-series germanium low-power/signal diodes (e.g., AA119) BA-series silicon low-power/signal diodes (e.g., BAT18 silicon RF switching diode) BY-series silicon rectifier diodes (e.g., BY127 1250V, 1A rectifier diode) BZ-series silicon Zener diodes (e.g., BZY88C4V7 4.7V Zener diode) Other common numbering/coding systems (generally manufacturer-driven) include: GD-series germanium diodes (e.g., GD9)this is a very old coding system OA-series germanium diodes (e.g., OA47)a coding sequence developed by Mullard, a UK company Related devices Rectifier Transistor Thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) TRIAC DIAC Varistor In optics, an equivalent device for the diode but with laser light would be the optical isolator, also known as an optical diode, that allows light to only pass in one direction. It uses a Faraday rotator as the main component. Applications Radio demodulation The first use for the diode was the demodulation of amplitude modulated (AM) radio broadcasts. The history of this discovery is treated in depth in the crystal detector article. In summary, an AM signal consists of alternating positive and negative peaks of a radio carrier wave, whose amplitude or envelope is proportional to the original audio signal. The diode rectifies the AM radio frequency signal, leaving only the positive peaks of the carrier wave. The audio is then extracted from the rectified carrier wave using a simple filter and fed into an audio amplifier or transducer, which generates sound waves. In microwave and millimeter wave technology, beginning in the 1930s, researchers improved and miniaturized the crystal detector. Point contact diodes (crystal diodes) and Schottky diodes are used in radar, microwave and millimeter wave detectors. Power conversion Rectifiers are constructed from diodes, where they are used to convert alternating current (AC) electricity into direct current (DC). Automotive alternators are a common example, where the diode, which rectifies the AC into DC, provides better performance than the commutator or earlier, dynamo. Similarly, diodes are also used in Cockcroft–Walton voltage multipliers to convert AC into higher DC voltages. Reverse-voltage protection Since most electronic circuits can be damaged when the polarity of their power supply inputs are reversed, a series diode is sometimes used to protect against such situations. This concept is known by multiple naming variations that mean the same thing: reverse voltage protection, reverse polarity protection, and reverse battery protection. Over-voltage protection Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal circumstances. When the voltage rises above the normal range, the diodes become forward-biased (conducting). For example, diodes are used in (stepper motor and H-bridge) motor controller and relay circuits to de-energize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur. (A diode used in such an application is called a flyback diode). Many integrated circuits also incorporate diodes on the connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive transistors. Specialized diodes are used to protect from over-voltages at higher power (see Diode types above). Logic gates Diodes can be combined with other components to construct AND and OR logic gates. This is referred to as diode logic. Ionizing radiation detectors In addition to light, mentioned above, semiconductor diodes are sensitive to more energetic radiation. In electronics, cosmic rays and other sources of ionizing radiation cause noise pulses and single and multiple bit errors. This effect is sometimes exploited by particle detectors to detect radiation. A single particle of radiation, with thousands or millions of electron volt, s of energy, generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy is deposited in the semiconductor material. If the depletion layer is large enough to catch the whole shower or to stop a heavy particle, a fairly accurate measurement of the particle's energy can be made, simply by measuring the charge conducted and without the complexity of a magnetic spectrometer, etc. These semiconductor radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge collection and low leakage current. They are often cooled by liquid nitrogen. For longer-range (about a centimeter) particles, they need a very large depletion depth and large area. For short-range particles, they need any contact or un-depleted | the plate, so no current can pass from the plate to the cathode. Semiconductor diodes Point-contact diodes Point-contact diodes were developed starting in the 1930s, out of the early crystal detector technology, and are now generally used in the 3 to 30 gigahertz range. Point-contact diodes use a small diameter metal wire in contact with a semiconductor crystal, and are of either non-welded contact type or welded contact type. Non-welded contact construction utilizes the Schottky barrier principle. The metal side is the pointed end of a small diameter wire that is in contact with the semiconductor crystal. In the welded contact type, a small P region is formed in the otherwise N-type crystal around the metal point during manufacture by momentarily passing a relatively large current through the device. Point contact diodes generally exhibit lower capacitance, higher forward resistance and greater reverse leakage than junction diodes. Junction diodes p–n junction diode A p–n junction diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor, usually silicon, but germanium and gallium arsenide are also used. Impurities are added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative charge carriers (electrons), called an n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called a p-type semiconductor. When the n-type and p-type materials are attached together, a momentary flow of electrons occurs from the n to the p side resulting in a third region between the two where no charge carriers are present. This region is called the depletion region because there are no charge carriers (neither electrons nor holes) in it. The diode's terminals are attached to the n-type and p-type regions. The boundary between these two regions called a p–n junction, is where the action of the diode takes place. When a sufficiently higher electrical potential is applied to the P side (the anode) than to the N side (the cathode), it allows electrons to flow through the depletion region from the N-type side to the P-type side. The junction does not allow the flow of electrons in the opposite direction when the potential is applied in reverse, creating, in a sense, an electrical check valve. Schottky diode Another type of junction diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from a metal–semiconductor junction rather than a p–n junction, which reduces capacitance and increases switching speed. Current–voltage characteristic A semiconductor diode's behavior in a circuit is given by its current–voltage characteristic, or I–V graph (see graph below). The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the p–n junction between differing semiconductors. When a p–n junction is first created, conduction-band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (vacant places for electrons) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor (dopant) on the N side and negatively charged acceptor (dopant) on the P side. The region around the p–n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator. However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow without limit. For each electron–hole pair recombination made, a positively charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is created in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone that acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a "built-in" potential across the depletion zone. Reverse bias If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow (unless electron–hole pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light; see photodiode). This is called the reverse bias phenomenon. Forward bias However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in a substantial electric current through the p–n junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at the junction). For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.7 V (0.3 V for germanium and 0.2 V for Schottky). Thus, if an external voltage greater than and opposite to the built-in voltage is applied, a current will flow and the diode is said to be "turned on" as it has been given an external forward bias. The diode is commonly said to have a forward "threshold" voltage, above which it conducts and below which conduction stops. However, this is only an approximation as the forward characteristic is smooth (see I-V graph above). A diode's I–V characteristic can be approximated by four regions of operation: At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a process called reverse breakdown occurs that causes a large increase in current (i.e., a large number of electrons and holes are created at, and move away from the p–n junction) that usually damages the device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in that manner. In the Zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A Zener diode contains a heavily doped p–n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material, such that the reverse voltage is "clamped" to a known value (called the Zener voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum current and power they can withstand in the clamped reverse-voltage region. Also, following the end of forwarding conduction in any diode, there is reverse current for a short time. The device does not attain its full blocking capability until the reverse current ceases. For a bias less than the PIV, the reverse current is very small. For a normal P–N rectifier diode, the reverse current through the device in the micro-ampere (μA) range is very low. However, this is temperature dependent, and at sufficiently high temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse current can be observed (mA or more). There is also a tiny surface leakage current caused by electrons simply going around the diode as though it were an imperfect insulator. With a small forward bias, where only a small forward current is conducted, the current-voltage curve is exponential in accordance with the ideal diode equation. There is a definite forward voltage at which the diode starts to conduct significantly. This is called the knee voltage or cut-in voltage and is equal to the barrier potential of the p-n junction. This is a feature of the exponential curve and appears sharper on a current scale more compressed than in the diagram shown here. At larger forward currents the current-voltage curve starts to be dominated by the ohmic resistance of the bulk semiconductor. The curve is no longer exponential, it is asymptotic to a straight line whose slope is the bulk resistance. This region is particularly important for power diodes. The diode can be modeled as an ideal diode in series with a fixed resistor. In a small silicon diode operating at its rated currents, the voltage drop is about 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is different for other diode types—Schottky diodes can be rated as low as 0.2 V, germanium diodes 0.25 to 0.3 V, and red or blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can have values of 1.4 V and 4.0 V respectively. At higher currents, the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. A drop of 1 V to 1.5 V is typical at full rated current for power diodes. Shockley diode equation The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law (named after the bipolar junction transistor co-inventor William Bradford Shockley) gives the I–V characteristic of an ideal diode in either forward or reverse bias (or no bias). The following equation is called the Shockley ideal diode equation when n, the ideality factor, is set equal to 1 : where I is the diode current, IS is the reverse bias saturation current (or scale current), VD is the voltage across the diode, VT is the thermal voltage, and n is the ideality factor, also known as the quality factor or sometimes emission coefficient. The ideality factor n typically varies from 1 to 2 (though can in some cases be higher), depending on the fabrication process and semiconductor material and is set equal to 1 for the case of an "ideal" diode (thus the n is sometimes omitted). The ideality factor was added to account for imperfect junctions as observed in real transistors. The factor mainly accounts for carrier recombination as the charge carriers cross the depletion region. The thermal voltage VT is approximately 25.85 mV at 300 K, a temperature close to "room temperature" commonly used in device simulation software. At any temperature it is a known constant defined by: where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature of the p–n junction, and q is the magnitude of charge of an electron (the elementary charge). The reverse saturation current, IS, is not constant for a given device, but varies with temperature; usually more significantly than VT, so that VD typically decreases as T increases. The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law is derived with the assumption that the only processes giving rise to the current in the diode are drift (due to electrical field), diffusion, and thermal recombination–generation (R–G) (this equation is derived by setting n = 1 above). It also assumes that the R–G current in the depletion region is insignificant. This means that the Shockley ideal diode equation does not account for the processes involved in the reverse breakdown and photon-assisted R–G. Additionally, it does not describe the "leveling off" of the I–V curve at high forward bias due to internal resistance. Introducing the ideality factor, n, accounts for recombination and generation of carriers. Under reverse bias voltages the exponential in the diode equation is negligible, and the current is a constant (negative) reverse current value of −IS. The reverse breakdown region is not modeled by the Shockley diode equation. For even rather small forward bias voltages the exponential is very large since the thermal voltage is very small in comparison. The subtracted '1' in the diode equation is then negligible and the forward diode current can be approximated by The use of the diode equation in circuit problems is illustrated in the article on diode modeling. Small-signal behavior At forward voltages less than the saturation voltage, the voltage versus current characteristic curve of most diodes is not a straight line. The current can be approximated by as mentioned in the previous section. In detector and mixer applications, the current can be estimated by a Taylor's series. The odd terms can be omitted because they produce frequency components that are outside the pass band of the mixer or detector. Even terms beyond the second derivative usually need not be included because they are small compared to the second order term. The desired current component is approximately proportional to the square of the input voltage, so the response is called square law in this region. Reverse-recovery effect Following the end of forwarding conduction in a p–n type diode, a reverse current can flow for a short time. The device does not attain its blocking capability until the mobile charge in the junction is depleted. The effect can be significant when switching large currents very quickly. A certain amount of "reverse recovery time" r (on the order of tens of nanoseconds to a few microseconds) may be required to remove the reverse recovery charge r from the diode. During this recovery time, the diode can actually conduct in the reverse direction. This might give rise to a large constant current in the reverse direction for a short time while the diode is reverse biased. The magnitude of such a reverse current is determined by the operating circuit (i.e., the series resistance) and the diode is said to be in the storage-phase. In certain real-world cases it is important to consider the losses that are incurred by this non-ideal diode effect. However, when the slew rate of the current is not so severe (e.g. Line frequency) the effect can be safely ignored. For most applications, the effect is also negligible for Schottky diodes. The reverse current ceases abruptly when the stored charge is depleted; this abrupt stop is exploited in step recovery diodes for the generation of extremely short pulses. Types of semiconductor diode Normal (p–n) diodes, which operate as described above, are usually made of doped silicon or germanium. Before the development of silicon power rectifier diodes, cuprous oxide and later selenium was used. Their low efficiency required a much higher forward voltage to be applied (typically 1.4 to 1.7 V per "cell", with multiple cells stacked so as to increase the peak inverse voltage rating for application in high voltage rectifiers), and required a large heat sink (often an extension of the diode's metal substrate), much larger than the later silicon diode of the same current ratings would require. The vast majority of all diodes are the p–n diodes found in CMOS integrated circuits, which include two diodes per pin and many other internal diodes. Avalanche diodes These are diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes (and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes), but break down by a different mechanism: the avalanche effect. This occurs when the reverse electric field applied across the p–n junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current. Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed. The difference between the avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the channel length of the former exceeds the mean free path of the electrons, resulting in many collisions between them on the way through the channel. The only practical difference between the two types is they have temperature coefficients of opposite polarities. Constant-current diodes These are actually JFETs with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-terminal current-limiting analog to the voltage-limiting Zener diode. They allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value. Also called CLDs, constant-current diodes, diode-connected transistors, or current-regulating diodes. Crystal rectifiers or crystal diodes These are point-contact diodes. The 1N21 series and others are used in mixer and detector applications in radar and microwave receivers. The 1N34A is another example of a crystal diode. Gunn diodes These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that exhibit a region of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency microwave oscillators to be built. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, charge carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors) from the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs produce incoherent, narrow-spectrum light; "white" LEDs are actually a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating, or combinations of three LEDs of a different color. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an opto-isolator. Laser diodes When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for high |
of Drexel University. Founded in 1812, the Academy of Natural Sciences is America's oldest natural history museum and is a world leader in biodiversity and environmental research. Drexel University Sacramento On January 5, 2009, Drexel University opened the Center for Graduate Studies in Sacramento, California. Eventually renamed Drexel University Sacramento upon the addition of an undergraduate program in business administration, the campus also offered an Ed.D. program in Educational Leadership and Management and master's degree programs in Business Administration, Finance, Higher Education, Human Resource Development, Public Health, and Interdepartmental Medical Science. On March 5, 2015, Drexel University announced the closure of the Sacramento campus, with an 18-month "phase out" period designed to allow current students to complete their degrees. Student life Student government The Undergraduate Student Government Association of Drexel University works with administrators to solve student problems and tries to promote communication between the students and the administration. Graduate Students Association The Graduate Student Association "advocates the interests and addresses concerns of graduate students at Drexel; strives to enhance graduate student life at the University in all aspects, from academic to campus security; and provides a formal means of communication between graduate students and the University community". Campus Activities Board The Campus Activities Board (CAB) is an undergraduate, student-run event planning organization. CAB creates events for the undergraduate population. To assist with planning and organization, the Campus Activities Board is broken down into 5 committees: Special Events, Traditions, Marketing, Culture and Discovery, and Performing and Fine Arts. Jewish Life on Campus Drexel has an approximate Jewish population of 5% and has both a Chabad House and a Hillel. Both provide services to Jewish and non-Jewish students at Drexel. Due to the recent influx of Orthodox Jewish students the Chabad now has its own daily kosher meal plan. The Hillel also has hot kosher food but only on select nights. There is also an eruv which is jointly managed by Jewish students from Drexel and the University of Pennsylvania. Press and radio Radio WKDU is Drexel's student-run FM radio station, with membership open to all undergraduate students. Its status as an 800-watt, non-commercial station in a major market city has given it a wider audience and a higher profile than many other college radio stations. Television DUTV is Drexel's Philadelphia cable television station. The student operated station is part of the Paul F. Harron Studios at Drexel University. The purpose of DUTV is to provide "the people of Philadelphia with quality educational television, and providing Drexel students the opportunity to gain experience in television management and production". The Programing includes an eclectic variety of shows from a bi-monthly news show, DNews, to old films, talk shows dealing with important current issues and music appreciation shows. Over 75 percent of DUTV's programming is student produced. Publications The Triangle has been the university's newspaper since 1926 and currently publishes on a weekly basis every Friday. The Triangle has won several Mark of Excellence Awards which honor the best in Student Journalism from the Society of Professional Journalists. First place in Editorial Writing (2000), General Column Writing (2000), Second place in Editorial Writing (2001), and third place in Sports Column Writing (2001). In 2004, it won two National Pacemaker Awards for excellence in college newspapers. In December 2019 The Triangle announced the creation of their podcasting division, "Tri-Pod,", which debuted on January 10, 2020. Tri-Pod currently has two active podcasts, "Last Call". and "Mark and Jair Explain Sports". The school yearbook was first published in 1911 and named the Lexerd in 1913. Prior to the publishing of a campus wide yearbook in 1911 The Hanseatic and The Eccentric were both published in 1896 as class books. Other publications include MAYA, the undergraduate student literary and artistic magazine; D&M Magazine, Design & Merchandising students crafted magazine; The Smart Set from Drexel University, an online magazine founded in 2005; and The Drexelist a blog-style news source founded in 2010. The Drexel Publishing Group serves as a medium for literary publishing on campus. The Drexel Publishing Group oversees ASK (The Journal of the College of Arts and Sciences at Drexel University), Painted Bride Quarterly, a 36-year-old national literary magazine housed at Drexel; The 33rd, an annual anthology of student and faculty writing at Drexel; DPG Online Magazine, and Maya, the undergraduate literary and artistic magazine. The Drexel Publishing Group also serves as a pedagogical organization by allowing students to intern and work on its publications. Housing Drexel requires all non-commuting first- and second-year students to live in one of its ten residence halls or in "university approved housing". First year students must live in one of the residence halls designated specifically for first-years. These residence halls include Millennium, Bentley, Kelly, Myers, Towers, Van Rensselaer, North, and Race Halls. Kelly, Myers, Towers, and Bentley Halls are traditional residence halls (a bedroom shared with one or more roommate(s) and one bathroom per floor), while Race, North, Caneris, and Van Rensselaer Halls are suite-style residence halls (shared bedrooms, private bathrooms, kitchens, and common area within the suite). Millennium Hall, Drexel's newest residence hall, is a modified suite (a bedroom shared with one roommate, and bathrooms and showers that look like closets with open sinks in the hallway). Each residence hall is designed to facilitate the Freshman Experience in a slightly different way. Millennium, Kelly, and Towers Halls are all typical residence halls. Myers Hall offers "Living Learning Communities" where a group of students who share common interests such as language or major live together. Most of Bentley Hall is reserved for students of the Pennoni Honors College, although some floors are occupied by other students. Second-year students have the option of living in a residence hall designated for upperclassmen, or "university approved housing". The residence halls for upperclassmen are North and Caneris Halls. North Hall operates under the For Students By Students Residential Experience Engagement Model, developed by the Residential Living Office. There are many apartments that are university approved that second-year students can choose to live in. Three of the largest apartment buildings that fit this description are Chestnut Square, University Crossings, and The Summit, all owned by American Campus Communities. Many other students live in smaller apartment buildings or individual townhouse-style apartments in Powelton Village. A second-year student can choose one of the already listed university approved housing options or petition the university to add a new property to the approved list. While living in a university approved apartment offers the freedom of living outside a residence hall, due to the Drexel co-op system, many students end up in the residence halls because they operate on a quarter to quarter basis, and don't require students to be locked into leases. Graduate students can live in Stiles Hall. All residence halls except Caneris Hall and Stiles Memorial Hall are located north of Arch Street between 34th Street and 32nd Street in the Powelton Village area. Student organizations Drexel University recognizes over 250 student organizations in the following categories: Academic Club Sports Community Service/Social Action Cultural Fraternity & Sorority Life General Interest Honorary Media Performing and Fine Arts Political Spiritual & Religious Honorary and professional organizations The following groups are recognized as honors or professional organizations under the Office of Campus Activities and are not considered part of social Greek life at Drexel University. Alpha Kappa Psi - Eta Psi chapter (est. 2008) - Professional Business Fraternity Alpha Omega Epsilon - Social and Professional Sorority for Engineers Alpha Phi Omega, Zeta Theta chapter (est. 1948) - National Service Fraternity Alpha Phi Sigma - National Criminal Justice Honor Society Beta Alpha Psi, Delta Tau chapter - Honors Fraternity for Accounting, Finance and MIS Beta Beta Beta - National Biological Honor Society Beta Gamma Sigma, - International Business Honor Society Chi Epsilon - National Civil Engineering Honors Society Delta Epsilon Iota, Upsilon Delta chapter - (Dragons for Excellence and Inspiration) National Honors Society Delta Sigma Pi, Omega Chi Chapter - Co-Ed Professional Fraternity Eta Kappa Nu, Beta Alpha chapter (est. 1935) - Electrical Engineering Honor Society Gamma Sigma Sigma - National Service Sorority Kappa Delta Pi - International Honor Society in Education Phi Chi Theta - Zeta Delta (est. 2008) - Professional Business Fraternity Phi Eta Sigma - National Honors Society Phi Sigma Pi, Gamma Xi chapter - Honors Fraternity Pi Nu Epsilon - Music and Performing Arts Fraternity Pi Sigma Alpha, Alpha Epsilon Chi chapter - The National Political Science Honor Society Pi Tau Sigma, Xi chapter - International Mechanical Engineering Fraternity Psi Chi - International Honors Society - Psychology Fraternity Tau Beta Pi, Pennsylvania Zeta chapter - Engineering Honor Society Upsilon Pi Epsilon - Computer Science FraternityGreek life Approximately 12 percent of Drexel's undergraduate population are members of a social Greek-letter organization. There are currently fourteen Interfraternity Council (IFC) chapters, seven Panhellenic Council (PHC) chapters and thirteen Multi-cultural Greek Council (MGC) chapters. Two IFC chapters have been awarded Top Chapters in 2008 by their respective national organizations; Pi Kappa Alpha, and Alpha Chi Rho. In 2013, Sigma Phi Epsilon and Alpha Epsilon Pi were awarded the Top Chapter award by their respective national headquarters. IFC fraternities Alpha Chi Rho, Lambda Chi Phi chapter (est. 1992) Alpha Epsilon Pi, Delta Rho chapter (est. 1995) Alpha Pi Lambda, local fraternity (est. 1935) Beta Chi Theta, Alpha Beta colony (est. 2014) Beta Theta Pi, Eta Omicron chapter (est. 2016) Delta Sigma Phi, Gamma Chi chapter (est. 1956, Recolonized 2011) Lambda Chi Alpha, Epsilon Kappa Zeta chapter, (est. 1941, Recolonized Fall 2009) Phi Kappa Psi, PA Upsilon chapter (est. 2002) Pi Kappa Alpha, Lambda Zeta chapter (est. 2001) Pi Kappa Phi, Alpha Upsilon chapter (est. 1919, Recolonized 2007) Pi Lambda Phi, PA Delta Iota chapter (est. 1965, Recolonized 2017) Sigma Alpha Mu, Mu Eta chapter, (est. 1947, Recolonized 2009) Sigma Phi Epsilon, Pennsylvania Beta Beta chapter (est. 1999) Theta Chi, Beta Theta chapter (est. 1927) MGC organizations Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority, Gamma Epsilon chapter (est. 1945) Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, Psi chapter (Recolonized at Drexel in fall 2011) Delta Epsilon Psi fraternity, Xi chapter (est. 2010) Delta Phi Omega sorority, Gamma chapter (est. 2000) Delta Sigma Theta sorority, (Recolonized 2008) Iota Nu Delta fraternity, Gamma chapter (est. 1997) Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity, Kappa Phi Gamma, Nu colony (est. 2011) Omega Psi Phi Pi Alpha Phi, Fraternity, Phi chapter (est. 2014) Sigma Beta Rho fraternity, Upsilon chapter, (est. 2002) Sigma Psi Zeta sorority, Nu chapter (est. 2002) Sororities Alpha Sigma Alpha, Nu Nu chapter (est. 1925) Delta Gamma, Eta Upsilon chapter (est. 2016) Delta Phi Epsilon, Delta Epsilon chapter (est. 1942, recolonized 2003) Delta Zeta, Epsilon Zeta chapter (est. 1928) Phi Mu, Beta Tau chapter (est. 1954) Phi Sigma Sigma, Beta Rho chapter (est. 1959) Sigma Sigma Sigma, Alpha Delta chapter (est. 1926, recolonized 2011) Zeta Phi Beta Athletics Drexel's school mascot is a dragon known as "Mario the Magnificent", named in honor of alumnus and Board of Trustees member Mario V. Mascioli. The Dragon has been the mascot of the school since around the mid-1920s; the first written reference to the Dragons occurred in 1928, when the football team was called "The Dragons in The Triangle". Before becoming known as the Dragons, the athletic teams had been known by such names as the Blue & Gold, the Engineers, and the Drexelites. The school's sports teams, now known as the Drexel Dragons, participate in the NCAA's Division I as a member of the Colonial Athletic Association. They do not currently field a varsity football team. In addition to its NCAA Division I teams, Drexel University is home to 33 active club teams including men's ice hockey, lacrosse, water polo, squash, triathlon, and cycling. Other club teams include soccer, baseball, rugby, field hockey, and roller hockey. The club teams operate under the direction of the Club Sports Council and the Recreational Sports Office. Student lore and traditions Tradition suggests that rubbing the toe of the bronze "Waterboy" statue, located in the Main Building atrium, can result in receiving good grades on exams. Although the rest of the bronze statue has developed a dark brown patina over the years, the toe has remained highly polished and shines like new. In popular culture Drexel has appeared in news and television media several times. In 2006 Drexel served as the location for ABC Family's reality show "Back on Campus". Also in 2006, the Epsilon Zeta chapter of Delta Zeta won ABC Daytime's Summer of Fun contest. As a result, the sorority was featured in national television spots for a week and hosted an ABC party on campus, which was attended by cast members from General Hospital and All My Children''. John Langdon, who taught typography in the Antoinette Westphal College of Media Arts & Design from 1988 to 2015, created the ambigram featured on the cover of Dan Brown's Angels & Demons; a number of other ambigrams served as the central focus of the book and | program typically has a total of 18 months of co-op with up to three different companies. The majority of co-ops are paid, averaging $18,720 per 6-month period, however this figure changes with major. About one third of Drexel graduates are offered full-time positions by their co-op employers right after graduation. Research activity Drexel is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity". The university was ranked 51st in the 2018 edition of the "Top 100 Worldwide Universities Granted U.S. Utility Patents" list released by the National Academy of Inventors and the Intellectual Property Owners Association. Research Centers and Institutes at Drexel include: Arts and Sciences Center for Interdisciplinary Programs Center for Public Policy Mobilities and Research Policy Education The Center for Labor Markets and Policy The Center for the Prevention of School-Aged Violence The Math Forum Information Science Data Mining & Bioinformatics Lab Geographic Information Systems & Spatial Analysis Lab Institute for Healthcare Informatics Metadata Research Center Media Arts & Design Kal and Lucille Rudman Institute for Entertainment Industry Studies The RePlay Lab Business and Leadership Laurence A. Baiada Institute for Entrepreneurship Center for Corporate Governance Sovereign Institute for Strategic Leadership Center for Corporate Reputation Management Engineering A.J. Drexel Plasma Institute A.J. Drexel Applied Communications and Information Networking (ACIN) Institute A. J. Drexel Institute of Basic and Applied Protein Science A. J. Drexel Nanotechnology Institute (DNI) Ben Franklin Technology Partners' Nanotechnology Institute Center for Electric Power Engineering Center for Telecommunications and Information Networking Centralized Research Facilities (CRF) Public Health Autism Public Health Research Institute Center for Health Equality (CHE) Center for Public Health Readiness and Communication (CPHRC) Center for Nonviolence and Social Justice National Resource Center on Advancing Emergency Preparedness Center for Public Health Practice Rankings In its 2022 rankings, U.S. News & World Report ranked Drexel tied for 103rd among national universities in the United States, tied for 57th in the "Most Innovative Schools" category, 100th in "Best Value Schools", and tied for 249th in "Top Performers on Social Mobility. In its 2018 rankings, Times Higher Education World University Rankings and The Wall Street Journal ranked Drexel 74th among national universities and 351st-400th among international universities. In its 2018 rankings, Forbes ranked Drexel 24th among STEM universities. In 2019, it also ranked Drexel 226th among 650 national universities, liberal arts colleges and service academies, 120th among research universities, 154th among private universities, and 96th among universities in the Northeast. In 2016, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked the undergraduate business program 78th in the country. In 2014, Business Insider ranked Drexel's graduate business school 19th in the country for networking. In 2014, The Princeton Review ranked Drexel 20th in its list of worst college libraries. Campuses Drexel University's programs are divided across three Philadelphia-area campuses: the University City Campus, the Center City Campus and the Queen Lane College of Medicine Campus. University City Main Campus The University City Main Campus of Drexel University is located just west of the Schuylkill River in the University City district of Philadelphia. It is Drexel's largest and oldest campus; the campus contains the university's administrative offices and serves as the main academic center for students. The northern, residential portion of the main campus is located in the Powelton Village section of West Philadelphia. The two prominent performing stages at Drexel University are the Mandell Theater and the Main Auditorium. The Main Auditorium dates back to the founding of Drexel and construction of its main hall. It features over 1000 seats, and a pipe organ installed in 1928. The organ was purchased by Saturday Evening Post publisher Cyrus H. K. Curtis after he had donated a similar organ, the Curtis Organ, to nearby University of Pennsylvania and it was suggested that he do the same for Drexel. The 424-seat Mandell Theater was built in 1973 and features a more performance-oriented stage, including a full fly system, modern stage lighting facilities, stadium seating, and accommodations for wheelchairs. It is used for the semiannual spring musical, as well as various plays and many events. Queen Lane Campus The Queen Lane Campus was purchased by Drexel University as part of its acquisition of MCP Hahnemann University. It is located in the East Falls neighborhood of northwest Philadelphia and is primarily utilized by first- and second-year medical students, and researchers. A free shuttle is available, connecting the Queen Lane Campus to the Center City Hahnemann and University City Main campuses. Center City Campus The Center City Campus is in the middle of Philadelphia, straddling the Vine Street Expressway between Broad and 15th Streets. Shuttle service is offered between the Center City Campus and both the University City and Queen Lane campuses of the university. The Academy of Natural Sciences In 2011, The Academy of Natural Sciences entered into an agreement to become a subsidiary of Drexel University. Founded in 1812, the Academy of Natural Sciences is America's oldest natural history museum and is a world leader in biodiversity and environmental research. Drexel University Sacramento On January 5, 2009, Drexel University opened the Center for Graduate Studies in Sacramento, California. Eventually renamed Drexel University Sacramento upon the addition of an undergraduate program in business administration, the campus also offered an Ed.D. program in Educational Leadership and Management and master's degree programs in Business Administration, Finance, Higher Education, Human Resource Development, Public Health, and Interdepartmental Medical Science. On March 5, 2015, Drexel University announced the closure of the Sacramento campus, with an 18-month "phase out" period designed to allow current students to complete their degrees. Student life Student government The Undergraduate Student Government Association of Drexel University works with administrators to solve student problems and tries to promote communication between the students and the administration. Graduate Students Association The Graduate Student Association "advocates the interests and addresses concerns of graduate students at Drexel; strives to enhance graduate student life at the University in all aspects, from academic to campus security; and provides a formal means of communication between graduate students and the University community". Campus Activities Board The Campus Activities Board (CAB) is an undergraduate, student-run event planning organization. CAB creates events for the undergraduate population. To assist with planning and organization, the Campus Activities Board is broken down into 5 committees: Special Events, Traditions, Marketing, Culture and Discovery, and Performing and Fine Arts. Jewish Life on Campus Drexel has an approximate Jewish population of 5% and has both a Chabad House and a Hillel. Both provide services to Jewish and non-Jewish students at Drexel. Due to the recent influx of Orthodox Jewish students the Chabad now has its own daily kosher meal plan. The Hillel also has hot kosher food but only on select nights. There is also an eruv which is jointly managed by Jewish students from Drexel and the University of Pennsylvania. Press and radio Radio WKDU is Drexel's student-run FM radio station, with membership open to all undergraduate students. Its status as an 800-watt, non-commercial station in a major market city has given it a wider audience and a higher profile than many other college radio stations. Television DUTV is Drexel's Philadelphia cable television station. The student operated station is part of the Paul F. Harron Studios at Drexel University. The purpose of DUTV is to provide "the people of Philadelphia with quality educational television, and providing Drexel students the opportunity to gain experience in television management and production". The Programing includes an eclectic variety of shows from a bi-monthly news show, DNews, to old films, talk shows dealing with important current issues and music appreciation shows. Over 75 percent of DUTV's programming is student produced. Publications The Triangle has been the university's newspaper since 1926 and currently publishes on a weekly basis every Friday. The Triangle has won several Mark of Excellence Awards which honor the best in Student Journalism from the Society of Professional Journalists. First place in Editorial Writing (2000), General Column Writing (2000), Second place in Editorial Writing (2001), and third place in Sports Column Writing (2001). In 2004, it won two National Pacemaker Awards for excellence in college newspapers. In December 2019 The Triangle announced the creation of their podcasting division, "Tri-Pod,", which debuted on January 10, 2020. Tri-Pod currently has two active podcasts, "Last Call". and "Mark and Jair Explain Sports". The school yearbook was first published in 1911 and named the Lexerd in 1913. Prior to the publishing of a campus wide yearbook in 1911 The Hanseatic and The Eccentric were both published in 1896 as class books. Other publications include MAYA, the undergraduate student literary and artistic magazine; D&M Magazine, Design & Merchandising students crafted magazine; The Smart Set from Drexel University, an online magazine founded in 2005; and The Drexelist a blog-style news source founded in 2010. The Drexel Publishing Group serves as a medium for literary publishing on campus. The Drexel Publishing Group oversees ASK (The Journal of the College of Arts and Sciences at Drexel University), Painted Bride Quarterly, a 36-year-old national literary magazine housed at Drexel; The 33rd, an annual anthology of student and faculty writing at Drexel; DPG Online Magazine, and Maya, the undergraduate literary and artistic magazine. The Drexel Publishing Group also serves as a pedagogical organization by allowing students to intern and work on its publications. Housing Drexel requires all non-commuting first- and second-year students to live in one of its ten residence halls or in "university approved housing". First year students must live in one of the residence halls designated specifically for first-years. These residence halls include Millennium, Bentley, Kelly, Myers, Towers, Van Rensselaer, North, and Race Halls. Kelly, Myers, Towers, and Bentley Halls are traditional residence halls (a bedroom shared with one or more roommate(s) and one bathroom per floor), while Race, North, Caneris, and Van Rensselaer Halls are suite-style residence halls (shared bedrooms, private bathrooms, kitchens, and common area within the suite). Millennium Hall, Drexel's newest residence hall, is a modified suite (a bedroom shared with one roommate, and bathrooms and showers that look like closets with open sinks in the hallway). Each residence hall is designed to facilitate the |
the seashore, he took a piece of iron and notched it on the edge, and thus invented the saw. He put two pieces of iron together, connecting them at one end with a rivet, and sharpening the other ends, and made a pair of compasses. Daedalus was so envious of his nephew's accomplishments that he attempted to murder him by throwing him down from the Acropolis in Athens. Athena saved his nephew and turned him into a partridge. Tried and convicted for this murder attempt, Daedalus left Athens and fled to Crete. The Labyrinth Daedalus created the Labyrinth on Crete, in which the Minotaur was kept. Poseidon had given a white bull to King Minos to use it as a sacrifice. Instead, the king kept the bull for himself and sacrificed another. As revenge, Poseidon, with the help of Aphrodite, made King Minos's wife, Pasiphaë, lust for the bull. Pasiphaë asked Daedalus to help her. Daedalus built a hollow, wooden cow, covered in real cow hide for Pasiphaë, so she could mate with the bull. As a result, Pasiphaë gave birth to the Minotaur, a creature with the body of a man, but the face of a bull. King Minos ordered the Minotaur to be imprisoned and guarded in the Labyrinth built by Daedalus for that purpose. In the story of the Labyrinth as told by the Hellenes, the Athenian hero Theseus is challenged to kill the Minotaur, finding his way back out with the help of Ariadne's thread. It is Daedalus himself who gives Ariadne the clue as to how to escape the labyrinth. Ignoring Homer, later writers envisaged the Labyrinth as an edifice rather than a single dancing path to the center and out again, and gave it numerous winding passages and turns that opened into one another, seeming to have neither beginning nor end. Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, suggests that Daedalus constructed the Labyrinth so cunningly that he himself could barely escape it after he built it. Icarus The most familiar literary telling explaining Daedalus' wings is a late one by Ovid in his Metamorphoses.After Theseus and Ariadne eloped together, Daedalus and his son Icarus were imprisoned by King Minos in the labyrinth that he had built. He could not leave Crete by sea, as King Minos kept a strict watch on all vessels, permitting none to sail without being carefully searched. Since Minos controlled the land routes as well, Daedalus set to work to make wings for himself and his son Icarus. Using bird feathers of various sizes, thread, and wax, he shaped them to resemble a bird's wings. When both were prepared for flight, Daedalus warned Icarus not to fly too high, because the heat of the sun would melt the wax, nor too low, because the sea foam would soak the feathers and make them heavy. They had passed Samos, Delos and Lebynthos, and the boy, forgetting himself, began to soar upward toward the sun. The blazing sun melted and softened the wax that held the feathers together and they fell off one by one. Losing his wings, Icarus fell in the sea and drowned. Daedalus wept, lamenting his own arts, and took Icarus's body and buried it. He called the island near the place where Icarus fell into the ocean Icaria, in the memory of his son. The southeast end of the Aegean Sea where Icarus fell into the water | the face of a bull. King Minos ordered the Minotaur to be imprisoned and guarded in the Labyrinth built by Daedalus for that purpose. In the story of the Labyrinth as told by the Hellenes, the Athenian hero Theseus is challenged to kill the Minotaur, finding his way back out with the help of Ariadne's thread. It is Daedalus himself who gives Ariadne the clue as to how to escape the labyrinth. Ignoring Homer, later writers envisaged the Labyrinth as an edifice rather than a single dancing path to the center and out again, and gave it numerous winding passages and turns that opened into one another, seeming to have neither beginning nor end. Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, suggests that Daedalus constructed the Labyrinth so cunningly that he himself could barely escape it after he built it. Icarus The most familiar literary telling explaining Daedalus' wings is a late one by Ovid in his Metamorphoses.After Theseus and Ariadne eloped together, Daedalus and his son Icarus were imprisoned by King Minos in the labyrinth that he had built. He could not leave Crete by sea, as King Minos kept a strict watch on all vessels, permitting none to sail without being carefully searched. Since Minos controlled the land routes as well, Daedalus set to work to make wings for himself and his son Icarus. Using bird feathers of various sizes, thread, and wax, he shaped them to resemble a bird's wings. When both were prepared for flight, Daedalus warned Icarus not to fly too high, because the heat of the sun would melt the wax, nor too low, because the sea foam would soak the feathers and make them heavy. They had passed Samos, Delos and Lebynthos, and the boy, forgetting himself, began to soar upward toward the sun. The blazing sun melted and softened the wax that held the feathers together and they fell off one by one. Losing his wings, Icarus fell in the sea and drowned. Daedalus wept, lamenting his own arts, and took Icarus's body and buried it. He called the island near the place where Icarus fell into the ocean Icaria, in the memory of his son. The southeast end of the Aegean Sea where Icarus fell into the water was also called "Mare Icarium" or the Icarian Sea.In a twist of fate, a partridge, presumably the nephew Daedalus murdered, mocked Daedalus as he buried his son. The fall and death of Icarus is seemingly portrayed as punishment for Daedalus's murder of his nephew. The shell riddle After burying Icarus, Daedalus traveled to Camicus in Sicily, where he stayed as a guest under the protection of King Cocalus. There Daedalus built a temple to Apollo, and hung up his wings as an offering to the god. In an invention of Virgil (Aeneid VI), Daedalus flies to Cumae and founds his temple there, rather than in Sicily. Minos, meanwhile, searched for Daedalus by traveling from city to city asking a riddle. He presented a spiral seashell and asked for a string to be run through it. When he reached Camicus, King Cocalus, knowing Daedalus would be able to solve the riddle, accepted the shell and gave it to Daedalus. Daedalus tied the string to an ant which, lured by a drop of honey at one end, walked through the seashell stringing it all the way through. With the riddle solved, Minos realized that Daedalus was in the court of King Cocalus and insisted he be handed over. Cocalus agreed to do so, but convinced Minos to take a bath first. In the bath, Cocalus' daughters killed Minos, possibly by pouring boiling water over his body. In some versions, it's Cocalus that kills Minos in the bath. Still, in others, Daedalus himself poured the boiling water on Minos, killing him. The anecdotes are literary and late. However, in the founding tales of the Greek colony of Gela, founded in the 680s BC on the southwest coast of Sicily, a tradition was preserved that the Greeks had seized cult images wrought by Daedalus from their local predecessors, the Sicani. Later depictions in art and literature Daedalus and the myths associated with him are often depicted in paintings, sculptures, and more by later artists. The myth about his flight and the fall of Icarus is especially popular in depictions. A few noteworthy pieces are included below. There are also |
George Vancouver gave it the name "Deception" because it had misled him into thinking Whidbey Island was a peninsula. The "deception" was heightened due to Whidbey's failure to find the strait at first. In May 1792, Vancouver was anchored near the southern end of Whidbey Island. He sent Joseph Whidbey to explore the waters east of Whidbey Island, now known as Saratoga Passage, using small boats. Whidbey reached the northern end of Saratoga Passage and explored eastward into Skagit Bay, which is shallow and difficult to navigate. He returned south to rejoin Vancouver without having found Deception Pass. It appeared that Skagit Bay was a dead-end and that Whidbey Island and Fidalgo Island were a long peninsula attached to the mainland. In June, the expedition sailed north along the west coast of Whidbey Island. Vancouver sent Joseph Whidbey to explore inlets leading to the east. The first inlet turned out to be a "very narrow and intricate channel, which...abounded with rocks above and beneath the surface of the water". This channel led to Skagit Bay, thus separating Whidbey Island from the mainland. Vancouver apparently felt he and Joseph Whidbey had been deceived by the tricky strait. Vancouver wrote of Whidbey's efforts: "This determined [the shore they had been exploring] to be an island, which, in consequence of Mr. Whidbey’s circumnavigation, I distinguished by the name of Whidbey’s Island: and this northern pass, leading into [Skagit Bay], Deception Passage". In the waters of Deception Pass, just east of the present-day Deception Pass Bridge, is a small island known as Ben Ure Island. The island became infamous for its activity of human smuggling of migrant Chinese people for local labor. Ben Ure and his partner Lawrence "Pirate" Kelly were quite profitable at their human smuggling business and played hide-and-seek with the United States Customs Department for years. Ure's own operation at Deception Pass in the late 1880s consisted of Ure and his Native-American wife. Local tradition has it that his wife would camp on the nearby Strawberry Island (which was visible from the open sea) and signal him with a fire on the island's summit to alert him to whether or not it was safe to attempt to bring the human cargo he illegally transported ashore. For transport, Ure would tie the people up in burlap bags so that if customs agents approached he could toss the bagged people overboard. The tidal currents carried the entrapped drowned migrants' bodies to San Juan Island to the north and west of the pass; many ended up in Dead Man's Bay. Between 1910 and | commute between Fidalgo and Whidbey islands. Currents Deception Pass is a dramatic seascape where the tidal flow and whirlpools beneath the twin bridges connecting Fidalgo Island to Whidbey Island move quickly. During ebb and flood tide current speed reaches about , flowing in opposite directions between ebb and flood. This swift current can lead to standing waves, large whirlpools, and roiling eddies. This swift current phenomenon can be viewed from the twin bridges' pedestrian walkways or from the trail leading below the larger south bridge from the parking lot on the Whidbey Island side. Boats can be seen waiting on either side of the pass for the current to stop or change direction before going through. Thrill-seeking kayakers go there during large tide changes to surf the standing waves and brave the class 2 and 3 rapid conditions. Scuba diving Diving Deception Pass is dangerous and only for the most competent and prepared divers. There are a few times each year that the tides are right for a drift dive from the cove, under the bridge, and back to the cove as the tide changes. These must be planned well in advance by divers who know how to read currents and are aware of the dangerous conditions. However, because of the large tidal exchange, Deception Pass hosts some of the most spectacular colors and life in the Pacific Northwest. The walls and bottom are covered in colorful invertebrates, lingcod, greenlings, and barnacles everywhere. State park Deception Pass is surrounded by Deception Pass State Park, one of the most visited Washington state parks with over two million annual visitors. History The park was officially established in 1923, when the original of a military reserve was transferred to Washington State Parks. The park's facilities were greatly enhanced in the 1930s when the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) built roads, trails, and buildings in order to develop the park. The road to West Beach was created in 1950, opening up a stretch of beach to hordes of vehicles. The former fish hatchery at Bowman Bay became a part of the park in the early 1970s. The old entrance to the park was closed in 1997 when a new entrance was created at the intersection of Highway 20 and Cornet Bay road, improving access into and out of the park. Activities and amenities The park's recreational facilities include campgrounds, hiking trails, beaches, and tidepools. Several miles of the Pacific Northwest Trail are within the park, most notably including the section that crosses Deception Pass on the Highway 20 bridge. In addition, the Cornet Bay Retreat Center provides cabins and dining and recreation facilities. Cornet Bay offers boat launches and |
pips in a double-n set is found by: i.e. the number of tiles multiplied by the maximum pip-count (n) e.g. a 6-6 set has (7 x 8) / 2 = 56/2 = 28 tiles, the average number of pips per tile is 6 (range is from 0 to 12), giving a total pip count of 6 x 28 = 168 This formula can be simplified a little bit when is made equal to the total number of doubles in the domino set: Rules The most popular type of play are layout games, which fall into two main categories, blocking games and scoring games. Most domino games are blocking games, where the objective is to empty one's hand while blocking the opponent's. In the end, a score may be determined by counting the pips in the losing players' hands. In scoring games, the scoring is different and happens mostly during game play, making it the principal objective. A popular version played predominantly in Singapore, referenced as Hector's Rules, allows for playing double tiles on opponents' hands and awards a bonus play of an additional tile immediately after playing a double tile. If an opponent lays all their tiles on their turn, the game is a tie. Blocking game The most basic domino variant is for two players and requires a double-six set. The 28 tiles are shuffled face down and form the stock or boneyard. Each player draws seven tiles from the stock. Once the players begin drawing tiles, they are typically placed on-edge in front of the players, so each player can see their own tiles, but none can see the value of other players' tiles. Every player can thus see how many tiles remain in the opponent's hands at all times during gameplay. One player begins by downing (playing the first tile) one of their tiles. This tile starts the line of play, in which values of adjacent pairs of tile ends must match. The players alternately extend the line of play with one tile at one of its two ends; if a player is unable to place a valid tile, they must continue drawing tiles from the stock until they are able to place a tile. The game ends when one player wins by playing their last tile, or when the game is blocked because neither player can play. If that occurs, whoever caused the block receives all of the remaining player points not counting their own. Scoring game Players accrue points during game play for certain configurations, moves, or emptying one's hand. Most scoring games use variations of the draw game. If a player does not call "domino" before the tile is laid on the table, and another player says domino after the tile is laid, the first player must pick up an extra domino. Draw game In a draw game (blocking or scoring), players are additionally allowed to draw as many tiles as desired from the stock before playing a tile, and they are not allowed to pass before the stock is (nearly) empty. The score of a game is the number of pips in the losing player's hand plus the number of pips in the stock. Most rules prescribe that two tiles need to remain in the stock. The draw game is often referred to as simply "dominoes". Adaptations of both games can accommodate more than two players, who may play individually or in teams. Line of play The line of play is the configuration of played tiles on the table. It starts with a single tile and typically grows in two opposite directions when players add matching tiles. In practice, players often play tiles at right angles when the line of play gets too close to the edge of the table. The rules for the line of play often differ from one variant to another. In many rules, the doubles serve as spinners, i.e., they can be played on all four sides, causing the line of play to branch. Sometimes, the first tile is required to be a double, which serves as the only spinner. In some games such as Chicken Foot, all sides of a spinner must be occupied before anybody is allowed to play elsewhere. Matador has unusual rules for matching. Bendomino uses curved tiles, so one side of the line of play (or both) may be blocked for geometrical reasons. In Mexican Train and other train games, the game starts with a spinner from which various trains branch off. Most trains are owned by a player and in most situations players are allowed to extend only their own train. Scoring In blocking games, scoring happens at the end of the game. After a player has emptied their hand, thereby winning the game for the team, the score consists of the total pip count of the losing team's hands. In some rules, the pip count of the remaining stock is added. If a game is blocked because no player can move, the winner is often determined by adding the pips in players' hands. In scoring games, each individual can potentially add to the score. For example, in Bergen, players score two points whenever they cause a configuration in which both open ends have the same value and three points if additionally one open end is formed by a double. In Muggins, players score by ensuring the total pip count of the open ends is a multiple of a certain number. In variants of Muggins, the line of play may branch due to spinners. In British public houses and social clubs, a scoring version of "5s-and-3s" is used. The game is | a score may be determined by counting the pips in the losing players' hands. In scoring games, the scoring is different and happens mostly during game play, making it the principal objective. A popular version played predominantly in Singapore, referenced as Hector's Rules, allows for playing double tiles on opponents' hands and awards a bonus play of an additional tile immediately after playing a double tile. If an opponent lays all their tiles on their turn, the game is a tie. Blocking game The most basic domino variant is for two players and requires a double-six set. The 28 tiles are shuffled face down and form the stock or boneyard. Each player draws seven tiles from the stock. Once the players begin drawing tiles, they are typically placed on-edge in front of the players, so each player can see their own tiles, but none can see the value of other players' tiles. Every player can thus see how many tiles remain in the opponent's hands at all times during gameplay. One player begins by downing (playing the first tile) one of their tiles. This tile starts the line of play, in which values of adjacent pairs of tile ends must match. The players alternately extend the line of play with one tile at one of its two ends; if a player is unable to place a valid tile, they must continue drawing tiles from the stock until they are able to place a tile. The game ends when one player wins by playing their last tile, or when the game is blocked because neither player can play. If that occurs, whoever caused the block receives all of the remaining player points not counting their own. Scoring game Players accrue points during game play for certain configurations, moves, or emptying one's hand. Most scoring games use variations of the draw game. If a player does not call "domino" before the tile is laid on the table, and another player says domino after the tile is laid, the first player must pick up an extra domino. Draw game In a draw game (blocking or scoring), players are additionally allowed to draw as many tiles as desired from the stock before playing a tile, and they are not allowed to pass before the stock is (nearly) empty. The score of a game is the number of pips in the losing player's hand plus the number of pips in the stock. Most rules prescribe that two tiles need to remain in the stock. The draw game is often referred to as simply "dominoes". Adaptations of both games can accommodate more than two players, who may play individually or in teams. Line of play The line of play is the configuration of played tiles on the table. It starts with a single tile and typically grows in two opposite directions when players add matching tiles. In practice, players often play tiles at right angles when the line of play gets too close to the edge of the table. The rules for the line of play often differ from one variant to another. In many rules, the doubles serve as spinners, i.e., they can be played on all four sides, causing the line of play to branch. Sometimes, the first tile is required to be a double, which serves as the only spinner. In some games such as Chicken Foot, all sides of a spinner must be occupied before anybody is allowed to play elsewhere. Matador has unusual rules for matching. Bendomino uses curved tiles, so one side of the line of play (or both) may be blocked for geometrical reasons. In Mexican Train and other train games, the game starts with a spinner from which various trains branch off. Most trains are owned by a player and in most situations players are allowed to extend only their own train. Scoring In blocking games, scoring happens at the end of the game. After a player has emptied their hand, thereby winning the game for the team, the score consists of the total pip count of the losing team's hands. In some rules, the pip count of the remaining stock is added. If a game is blocked because no player can move, the winner is often determined by adding the pips in players' hands. In scoring games, each individual can potentially add to the score. For example, in Bergen, players score two points whenever they cause a configuration in which both open ends have the same value and three points if additionally one open end is formed by a double. In Muggins, players score by ensuring the total pip count of the open ends is a multiple of a certain number. In variants of Muggins, the line of play may branch due to spinners. In British public houses and social clubs, a scoring version of "5s-and-3s" is used. The game is normally played in pairs (two against two) and is played as a series of "ends". In each "end", the objective is for players to attach a domino from their hand to one end of those already played so that the sum of the end tiles is divisible by five or three. One point is scored for each time five or three can be divided into the sum of the two tiles, i.e. four at one end and five at the other makes nine, which is divisible by three three times, resulting in three points. Double five at one end and five at the other makes 15, which is divisible by three five times (five points) and divisible by five three times (three points) for a total of eight points. An "end" stops when one of the players is out, i.e., has played all of their tiles. In the event no player is able to empty their hand, then the player with the lowest domino left in hand is deemed to be out and scores one point. A game consists of any number of ends with points scored in the ends accumulating towards a total. The game ends when one of the pair's total score exceeds a set number of points. A running total score is often kept on a cribbage board. 5s-and-3s is played in a number of competitive leagues in the British Isles. Card games using domino sets Apart from the usual blocking and scoring games, also domino games of a very different character are played, such as solitaire or trick-taking games. Most of these are adaptations of card games and were once popular in certain areas to circumvent religious proscriptions against playing cards. A very simple example is a Concentration variant played with a double-six set; two tiles are considered to match if their total pip count is 12. A popular domino game in Texas is 42. The game is similar to the card game spades. It is played with four players paired into teams. Each player draws seven tiles, and the tiles are played into tricks. Each trick counts as one point, and any domino with a multiple of five dots counts toward the total of the hand. These 35 points of "five count" and seven tricks equals 42 points, hence the name. Competitive play Dominoes is played at a professional level, similar to poker. Numerous organisations and clubs of amateur domino players exist around the world. Some organizations organize international competitions. Dominoes in Unicode Since April 2008, the character encoding standard Unicode includes characters that represent the double-six domino tiles. While a complete domino set has only 28 tiles, the Unicode set has "reversed" versions of the 21 tiles with different numbers on each end, a "back" image, and everything duplicated as horizontal and vertical orientations, for a total of 100 glyphs. Few fonts are known to support these glyphs. Historical domino competitions Col. Henry T. Titus vs. Capt. Clark Rice for the naming of Titusville, Florida. See also Domino games Glossary of domino terms List of domino games Chinese dominoes Other related articles Domino theory Domino show/Domino toppling Polyominoes Pub games Tile-based game List of world championships in mind sports Notes References This article incorporates text from the public domain 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. Further reading _ (1889). Chambers's Encyclopaedia. London & Edinburgh: Chambers; Philadelphia: Lippincott. |
electrostatic interactions, hydrophobic and van der Waals forces. Affinities can also be affected by high concentrations of other macromolecules, which causes macromolecular crowding. The formation of a ligand-protein complex LP can be described by a two-state process L + P <=> LP the corresponding dissociation constant is defined where [P], [L] and [LP] represent molar concentrations of the protein, ligand and complex, respectively. The dissociation constant has molar units (M) and corresponds to the ligand concentration [L] at which half of the proteins are occupied at equilibrium, i.e., the concentration of ligand at which the concentration of protein with ligand bound [LP] equals the concentration of protein with no ligand bound [P]. The smaller the dissociation constant, the more tightly bound the ligand is, or the higher the affinity between ligand and protein. For example, a ligand with a nanomolar (nM) dissociation constant binds more tightly to a particular protein than a ligand with a micromolar (μM) dissociation constant. Sub-picomolar dissociation constants as a result of non-covalent binding interactions between two molecules are rare. Nevertheless, there are some important exceptions. Biotin and avidin bind with a dissociation constant of roughly 10−15 M = 1 fM = 0.000001 nM. Ribonuclease inhibitor proteins may also bind to ribonuclease with a similar 10−15 M affinity. The dissociation constant for a particular ligand-protein interaction can change significantly with solution conditions (e.g., temperature, pH and salt concentration). The effect of different solution conditions is to effectively modify the strength of any intermolecular interactions holding a particular ligand-protein complex together. Drugs can produce harmful side effects through interactions with proteins for which they were not meant to or designed to interact. Therefore, much pharmaceutical research is aimed at designing drugs that bind to only their target proteins (Negative Design) with high affinity (typically 0.1-10 nM) or at improving the affinity between a particular drug and its in-vivo protein target (Positive Design). Antibodies In the specific case of antibodies (Ab) binding to antigen (Ag), usually the term affinity constant refers to the association constant. Ab + Ag <=> AbAg This chemical equilibrium is also the ratio of the on-rate (kforward) or (ka) and off-rate (kback) or (kd) constants. Two antibodies can have the same affinity, but one may have both a high on- and off-rate constant, while the other may have both a low on- and off-rate constant. Acid–base reactions For the deprotonation of acids, K is known as Ka, the acid dissociation constant. Stronger acids, for example sulfuric or phosphoric acid, have larger dissociation constants; weaker acids, like acetic acid, have smaller dissociation constants. (The symbol , used for the acid dissociation constant, can lead to confusion with the association constant and it may be necessary to see the reaction or the equilibrium expression to know which is meant.) Acid dissociation constants are sometimes expressed by , which is defined as: This notation is seen in other contexts as | the mass conservation principle: To track the concentration of the complex [AB], one substitutes the concentration of the free molecules ([A] or [B]), of the respective conservation equations, by the definition of the dissociation constant, This yields the concentration of the complex related to the concentration of either one of the free molecules Macromolecules with identical independent binding sites Many biological proteins and enzymes can possess more than one binding site. Usually, when a ligand binds with a macromolecule , it can influence binding kinetics of other ligands binding to the macromolecule. A simplified mechanism can be formulated if the affinity of all binding sites can be considered independent of the number of ligands bound to the macromolecule. This is valid for macromolecules composed of more than one, mostly identical, subunits. It can be then assumed that each of these subunits are identical, symmetric and that they possess only one single binding site. Then, the concentration of bound ligands [L]_{bound} becomes In this case, , but comprises all partially saturated forms of the macromolecule: where the saturation occurs stepwise For the derivation of the general binding equation a saturation function is defined as the quotient from the portion of bound ligand to the total amount of the macromolecule: Even if all microscopic dissociation constants are identical, they differ from the macroscopic ones and there are differences between each binding step. The general relationship between both types of dissociation constants for n binding sites is Hence, the ratio of bound ligand to macromolecules becomes where is the binomial coefficient. Then, the first equation is proved by applying the binomial rule Protein-ligand binding The dissociation constant is commonly used to describe the affinity between a ligand L (such as a drug) and a protein P; i.e., how tightly a ligand binds to a particular protein. Ligand-protein affinities are influenced by non-covalent intermolecular interactions between the two molecules such as hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions, hydrophobic and van der Waals forces. Affinities can also be affected by high concentrations of other macromolecules, which causes macromolecular crowding. The formation of a ligand-protein complex LP can be described by a two-state process L + P <=> LP the corresponding dissociation constant is defined where [P], [L] and [LP] represent molar concentrations of the protein, ligand and complex, respectively. The dissociation constant has molar units (M) and corresponds to the ligand concentration [L] at which half of the proteins are occupied at equilibrium, i.e., the concentration of ligand at which the concentration of protein with ligand bound [LP] equals the concentration of protein with no ligand bound [P]. The smaller the dissociation constant, the more tightly bound the ligand is, or the higher the affinity between ligand and protein. For example, a ligand with a nanomolar (nM) dissociation constant binds more tightly to a particular protein than a ligand with a micromolar (μM) dissociation constant. Sub-picomolar dissociation constants as a result of non-covalent binding interactions between two molecules are rare. Nevertheless, there are some important exceptions. Biotin and avidin bind with a dissociation constant of roughly 10−15 M = 1 fM = 0.000001 nM. Ribonuclease inhibitor proteins may also bind to ribonuclease with a similar 10−15 M affinity. The dissociation constant for a particular |
L, and M – these form a 3-dimensional vector space. This is not the only valid choice of base dimensions, but it is the one most commonly used. For example, one might choose force, length and mass as the base dimensions (as some have done), with associated dimensions F, L, M; this corresponds to a different basis, and one may convert between these representations by a change of basis. The choice of the base set of dimensions is thus a convention, with the benefit of increased utility and familiarity. The choice of base dimensions is not entirely arbitrary, because they must form a basis: they must span the space, and be linearly independent. For example, F, L, M form a set of fundamental dimensions because they form a basis that is equivalent to T, L, M: the former can be expressed as [F = LM/T2], L, M, while the latter can be expressed as [T = (LM/F)1/2], L, M. On the other hand, length, velocity and time do not form a set of base dimensions for mechanics, for two reasons: There is no way to obtain mass – or anything derived from it, such as force – without introducing another base dimension (thus, they do not span the space). Velocity, being expressible in terms of length and time (V = L/T), is redundant (the set is not linearly independent). Other fields of physics and chemistry Depending on the field of physics, it may be advantageous to choose one or another extended set of dimensional symbols. In electromagnetism, for example, it may be useful to use dimensions of T, L, M and Q, where Q represents the dimension of electric charge. In thermodynamics, the base set of dimensions is often extended to include a dimension for temperature, Θ. In chemistry, the amount of substance (the number of molecules divided by the Avogadro constant, ≈ ) is also defined as a base dimension, N. In the interaction of relativistic plasma with strong laser pulses, a dimensionless relativistic similarity parameter, connected with the symmetry properties of the collisionless Vlasov equation, is constructed from the plasma-, electron- and critical-densities in addition to the electromagnetic vector potential. The choice of the dimensions or even the number of dimensions to be used in different fields of physics is to some extent arbitrary, but consistency in use and ease of communications are common and necessary features. Polynomials and transcendental functions Scalar arguments to transcendental functions such as exponential, trigonometric and logarithmic functions, or to inhomogeneous polynomials, must be dimensionless quantities. (Note: this requirement is somewhat relaxed in Siano's orientational analysis described below, in which the square of certain dimensioned quantities are dimensionless.) While most mathematical identities about dimensionless numbers translate in a straightforward manner to dimensional quantities, care must be taken with logarithms of ratios: the identity log(a/b) = log a − log b, where the logarithm is taken in any base, holds for dimensionless numbers a and b, but it does not hold if a and b are dimensional, because in this case the left-hand side is well-defined but the right-hand side is not. Similarly, while one can evaluate monomials (xn) of dimensional quantities, one cannot evaluate polynomials of mixed degree with dimensionless coefficients on dimensional quantities: for x2, the expression (3 m)2 = 9 m2 makes sense (as an area), while for x2 + x, the expression (3 m)2 + 3 m = 9 m2 + 3 m does not make sense. However, polynomials of mixed degree can make sense if the coefficients are suitably chosen physical quantities that are not dimensionless. For example, This is the height to which an object rises in time t if the acceleration of gravity is 9.8 and the initial upward speed is 500 . It is not necessary for t to be in seconds. For example, suppose t = 0.01 minutes. Then the first term would be Incorporating units The value of a dimensional physical quantity Z is written as the product of a unit [Z] within the dimension and a dimensionless numerical factor, n. When like-dimensioned quantities are added or subtracted or compared, it is convenient to express them in consistent units so that the numerical values of these quantities may be directly added or subtracted. But, in concept, there is no problem adding quantities of the same dimension expressed in different units. For example, 1 meter added to 1 foot is a length, but one cannot derive that length by simply adding 1 and 1. A conversion factor, which is a ratio of like-dimensioned quantities and is equal to the dimensionless unity, is needed: is identical to The factor is identical to the dimensionless 1, so multiplying by this conversion factor changes nothing. Then when adding two quantities of like dimension, but expressed in different units, the appropriate conversion factor, which is essentially the dimensionless 1, is used to convert the quantities to identical units so that their numerical values can be added or subtracted. Only in this manner is it meaningful to speak of adding like-dimensioned quantities of differing units. Position vs displacement Some discussions of dimensional analysis implicitly describe all quantities as mathematical vectors. (In mathematics scalars are considered a special case of vectors; vectors can be added to or subtracted from other vectors, and, inter alia, multiplied or divided by scalars. If a vector is used to define a position, this assumes an implicit point of reference: an origin. While this is useful and often perfectly adequate, allowing many important errors to be caught, it can fail to model certain aspects of physics. A more rigorous approach requires distinguishing between position and displacement (or moment in time versus duration, or absolute temperature versus temperature change). Consider points on a line, each with a position with respect to a given origin, and distances among them. Positions and displacements all have units of length, but their meaning is not interchangeable: adding two displacements should yield a new displacement (walking ten paces then twenty paces gets you thirty paces forward), adding a displacement to a position should yield a new position (walking one block down the street from an intersection gets you to the next intersection), subtracting two positions should yield a displacement, but one may not add two positions. This illustrates the subtle distinction between affine quantities (ones modeled by an affine space, such as position) and vector quantities (ones modeled by a vector space, such as displacement). Vector quantities may be added to each other, yielding a new vector quantity, and a vector quantity may be added to a suitable affine quantity (a vector space acts on an affine space), yielding a new affine quantity. Affine quantities cannot be added, but may be subtracted, yielding relative quantities which are vectors, and these relative differences may then be added to each other or to an affine quantity. Properly then, positions have dimension of affine length, while displacements have dimension of vector length. To assign a number to an affine unit, one must not only choose a unit of measurement, but also a point of reference, while to assign a number to a vector unit only requires a unit of measurement. Thus some physical quantities are better modeled by vectorial quantities while others tend to require affine representation, and the distinction is reflected in their dimensional analysis. This distinction is particularly important in the case of temperature, for which the numeric value of absolute zero is not the origin 0 in some scales. For absolute zero, −273.15 °C ≘ 0 K = 0 °R ≘ −459.67 °F, where the symbol ≘ means corresponds to, since although these values on the respective temperature scales correspond, they represent distinct quantities in the same way that the distances from distinct starting points to the same end point are distinct quantities, and cannot in general be equated. For temperature differences, 1 K = 1 °C ≠ = 1 °R. (Here °R refers to the Rankine scale, not the Réaumur scale). Unit conversion for temperature differences is simply a matter of multiplying by, e.g., 1 °F / 1 K (although the ratio is not a constant value). But because some of these scales have origins that do not correspond to absolute zero, conversion from one temperature scale to another requires accounting for that. As a result, simple dimensional analysis can lead to errors if it is ambiguous whether 1 K means the absolute temperature equal to −272.15 °C, or the temperature difference equal to 1 °C. Orientation and frame of reference Similar to the issue of a point of reference is the issue of orientation: a displacement in 2 or 3 dimensions is not just a length, but is a length together with a direction. (This issue does not arise in 1 dimension, or rather is equivalent to the distinction between positive and negative.) Thus, to compare or combine two dimensional quantities in a multi-dimensional space, one also needs an orientation: they need to be compared to a frame of reference. This leads to the extensions discussed below, namely Huntley's directed dimensions and Siano's orientational analysis. Examples A simple example: period of a harmonic oscillator What is the period of oscillation of a mass attached to an ideal linear spring with spring constant suspended in gravity of strength ? That period is the solution for of some dimensionless equation in the variables , , , and . The four quantities have the following dimensions: [T]; [M]; [M/T2]; and [L/T2]. From these we can form only one dimensionless product of powers of our chosen variables, = , and putting for some dimensionless constant gives the dimensionless equation sought. The dimensionless product of powers of variables is sometimes referred to as a dimensionless group of variables; here the term "group" means "collection" rather than mathematical group. They are often called dimensionless numbers as well. Note that the variable does not occur in the group. It is easy to see that it is impossible to form a dimensionless product of powers that combines with , , and , because is the only quantity that involves the dimension L. This implies that in this problem the is irrelevant. Dimensional analysis can sometimes yield strong statements about the irrelevance of some quantities in a problem, or the need for additional parameters. If we have chosen enough variables to properly describe the problem, then from this argument we can conclude that the period of the mass on the spring is independent of : it is the same on the earth or the moon. The equation demonstrating the existence of a product of powers for our problem can be written in an entirely equivalent way: , for some dimensionless constant (equal to from the original dimensionless equation). When faced with a case where dimensional analysis rejects a variable (, here) that one intuitively expects to belong in a physical description of the situation, another possibility is that the rejected variable is in fact relevant, but that some other relevant variable has been omitted, which might combine with the rejected variable to form a dimensionless quantity. That is, however, not the case here. When dimensional analysis yields only one dimensionless group, as here, there are no unknown functions, and the solution is said to be "complete" – although it still may involve unknown dimensionless constants, such as . A more complex example: energy of a vibrating wire Consider the case of a vibrating wire of length ℓ (L) vibrating with an amplitude A (L). The wire has a linear density ρ (M/L) and is under tension s (LM/T2), and we want to know the energy E (L2M/T2) in the wire. Let π1 and π2 be two dimensionless products of powers of the variables chosen, given by The linear density of the wire is not involved. The two groups found can be combined into an equivalent form as an equation where F is some unknown function, or, equivalently as where f is some other unknown function. Here the unknown function implies that our solution is now incomplete, but dimensional analysis has given us something that may not have been obvious: the energy is proportional to the first power of the tension. Barring further analytical analysis, we might proceed to experiments to discover the form for the unknown function f. But our experiments are simpler than in the absence of dimensional analysis. We'd perform none to verify that the energy is proportional to the tension. Or perhaps we might guess that the energy is proportional to ℓ, and so infer that . The power of dimensional analysis as an aid to experiment and forming hypotheses becomes evident. The power of dimensional analysis really becomes apparent when it is applied to situations, unlike those given above, that are more complicated, the set of variables involved are not apparent, and the underlying equations hopelessly complex. Consider, for example, a small pebble sitting on the bed of a river. If the river flows fast enough, it will actually raise the pebble and cause it to flow along with the water. At what critical velocity will this occur? Sorting out the guessed variables is not so easy as before. But dimensional analysis can be a powerful aid in understanding problems like this, and is usually the very first tool to be applied to complex problems where the underlying equations and constraints are poorly understood. In such cases, the answer may depend on a dimensionless number such as the Reynolds number, which may be interpreted by dimensional analysis. A third example: demand versus capacity for a rotating disc Consider the case of a thin, solid, parallel-sided rotating disc of axial thickness t (L) and radius R (L). The disc has a density ρ (M/L3), rotates at an angular velocity ω (T−1) and this leads to a stress S (T−2L−1M) in the material. There is a theoretical linear elastic solution, given by Lame, to this problem when the disc is thin relative to its radius, the faces of the disc are free to move axially, and the plane stress constitutive relations can be assumed to be valid. As the disc becomes thicker relative to the radius then the plane stress solution breaks down. If the disc is restrained axially on its free faces then a state of plane strain will occur. However, if this is not the case then the state of stress may only be determined though consideration of three-dimensional elasticity and there is no known theoretical solution for this case. An engineer might, therefore, be interested in establishing a relationship between the five variables. Dimensional analysis for this case leads to the following (5 − 3 = 2) non-dimensional groups: demand/capacity = ρRω/S thickness/radius or aspect ratio = t/R Through the use of numerical experiments using, for example, the finite element method, the nature of the relationship between the two non-dimensional groups can be obtained as shown in the figure. As this problem only involves two non-dimensional groups, the complete picture is provided in a single plot and this can be used as a design/assessment chart for rotating discs Extensions Huntley's extension: directed dimensions and quantity of matter Huntley has pointed out that a dimensional analysis can become more powerful by discovering new independent dimensions in the quantities under consideration, thus increasing the rank of the dimensional matrix. He introduced two approaches to doing so: The magnitudes of the components of a vector are to be considered dimensionally independent. For example, rather than an undifferentiated length dimension L, we may have Lx represent dimension in the x-direction, and so forth. This requirement stems ultimately from the requirement that each component of a physically meaningful equation (scalar, vector, or tensor) must be dimensionally consistent. Mass as a measure of the quantity of matter is to be considered dimensionally independent from mass as a measure of inertia. As an example of the usefulness of the first approach, suppose we wish to calculate the distance a cannonball travels when fired with a vertical velocity component and a horizontal velocity component , assuming it is fired on a flat surface. Assuming no use of directed lengths, the quantities of interest are then , , both dimensioned as T−1L, , the distance travelled, having dimension L, and the downward acceleration of gravity, with dimension T−2L. With these four quantities, we may conclude that the equation for the range may be written: Or dimensionally from which we may deduce that and , which leaves one exponent undetermined. This is to be expected since we have two fundamental dimensions T and L, and four parameters, with one equation. If, however, we use directed length dimensions, then will be dimensioned as T−1L, as T−1L, as L and as T−2L. The dimensional equation becomes: and we may solve completely as , and . The increase in deductive power gained by the use of directed length dimensions is apparent. In his second approach, Huntley holds that it is sometimes useful (e.g., in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics) to distinguish between mass as a measure of inertia (inertial mass), and mass as a measure of the quantity of matter. Quantity of matter is defined by Huntley as a quantity (a) proportional to inertial mass, but (b) not implicating inertial properties. No further restrictions are added to its definition. For example, consider the derivation of Poiseuille's Law. We wish to find the rate of mass flow of a viscous fluid through a circular pipe. Without drawing distinctions between inertial and substantial mass we may choose as the relevant variables the mass flow rate with dimension T−1M the pressure gradient along the pipe with dimension T−2L−2M the density with dimension L−3M the dynamic fluid viscosity with dimension T−1L−1M the radius of the pipe with dimension L There are three fundamental variables so the above five equations will yield two dimensionless variables which we may take to be and and we may express the dimensional equation as where and are undetermined constants. If we draw a distinction between inertial mass with dimension and quantity of matter with dimension , then mass flow rate and density will use quantity of matter as the mass parameter, while the pressure gradient and coefficient of viscosity will use inertial mass. We now have four fundamental parameters, and one dimensionless constant, so that the dimensional equation may be written: where now only is an undetermined constant (found to be equal to by methods outside of dimensional analysis). This equation may be solved for the mass flow rate to yield Poiseuille's law. Huntley's recognition of quantity of matter as an independent quantity dimension is evidently successful in the problems where it is applicable, but his definition of quantity of matter is open to interpretation, as it lacks specificity beyond the two requirements (a) and (b) he postulated for it. For a given substance, the SI dimension amount of substance, with unit mole, does satisfy Huntley's two requirements as a measure of quantity of matter, and could be used as a quantity of matter in any problem of dimensional analysis where Huntley's concept is applicable. Huntley's concept of directed length dimensions however has some serious limitations: It does not deal well with vector equations involving the cross product, nor does it handle well the use of angles as physical variables. It also is often quite difficult to assign the L, L, L, L, symbols to the physical variables involved in the problem of interest. He invokes a procedure that involves the "symmetry" of the physical problem. This is often very difficult to apply reliably: It is unclear as to what parts of the problem that the notion of "symmetry" is being invoked. Is it the symmetry of the physical body that forces are acting upon, or to the points, lines or areas at which forces are being applied? What if more than one body is involved with different symmetries? Consider the spherical bubble attached to a cylindrical tube, where one wants the flow rate of air as a function of the pressure difference in the two parts. What are the Huntley extended dimensions of the viscosity of the air contained in the connected parts? What are the extended dimensions of the pressure of the two parts? Are they the same or different? These difficulties are responsible for the limited application of Huntley's directed length dimensions to real problems. Siano's extension: orientational analysis Angles are, by convention, considered to be dimensionless quantities. As an example, consider again the projectile problem in which a point mass is launched from the origin at a speed and angle above the x-axis, with the force of gravity directed along the negative y-axis. It is desired to find the range , at which point the mass returns to the x-axis. Conventional analysis will yield the dimensionless variable , but offers no insight into the relationship between and . has suggested that the directed dimensions of Huntley be replaced by using orientational symbols to denote vector directions, and an orientationless symbol 10. Thus, Huntley's L becomes L1 with L specifying the dimension of length, and specifying the orientation. Siano further shows that the orientational symbols have an algebra of their own. Along with the requirement that , the following multiplication table for the orientation symbols results: Note that the orientational symbols form a group (the Klein four-group or "Viergruppe"). In this system, scalars always have the same orientation as the identity element, independent of the "symmetry of the problem". Physical quantities that are vectors have the orientation expected: a force or a velocity in the z-direction has the orientation of . For angles, consider an angle that lies in the z-plane. Form a right triangle in the z-plane with being one of the acute angles. The side of the right triangle adjacent to the angle then has an orientation and the side opposite has an orientation . Since (using to indicate orientational equivalence) we conclude that an angle in the xy-plane must have an orientation , which is not unreasonable. Analogous reasoning forces the conclusion that has orientation while has orientation 10. These are different, so one concludes (correctly), for example, that there are no solutions of physical equations that are of the form , where and are real scalars. Note that an expression such as is not dimensionally inconsistent since it is a special case of the sum of angles formula and should properly be written: which for and yields . Siano distinguishes between geometric angles, which have an orientation in 3-dimensional space, and phase angles associated with time-based oscillations, which have no spatial orientation, i.e. the orientation of a phase angle is . The assignment of orientational symbols to physical quantities and the requirement that physical equations be orientationally homogeneous can actually be used in a way that is similar to dimensional analysis to derive a little more | an infinite power series with dimensionless coefficients. All powers of x must have the same dimension for the terms to be commensurable. But if x is not dimensionless, then the different powers of x will have different, incommensurable dimensions. However, power functions including root functions may have a dimensional argument and will return a result having dimension that is the same power applied to the argument dimension. This is because power functions and root functions are, loosely, just an expression of multiplication of quantities. Even when two physical quantities have identical dimensions, it may nevertheless be meaningless to compare or add them. For example, although torque and energy share the dimension , they are fundamentally different physical quantities. To compare, add, or subtract quantities with the same dimensions but expressed in different units, the standard procedure is first to convert them all to the same units. For example, to compare 32 metres with 35 yards, use 1 yard = 0.9144 m to convert 35 yards to 32.004 m. A related principle is that any physical law that accurately describes the real world must be independent of the units used to measure the physical variables. For example, Newton's laws of motion must hold true whether distance is measured in miles or kilometres. This principle gives rise to the form that conversion factors must take between units that measure the same dimension: multiplication by a simple constant. It also ensures equivalence; for example, if two buildings are the same height in feet, then they must be the same height in metres. The factor-label method for converting units The factor-label method is the sequential application of conversion factors expressed as fractions and arranged so that any dimensional unit appearing in both the numerator and denominator of any of the fractions can be cancelled out until only the desired set of dimensional units is obtained. For example, 10 miles per hour can be converted to meters per second by using a sequence of conversion factors as shown below: Each conversion factor is chosen based on the relationship between one of the original units and one of the desired units (or some intermediary unit), before being re-arranged to create a factor that cancels out the original unit. For example, as "mile" is the numerator in the original fraction and , "mile" will need to be the denominator in the conversion factor. Dividing both sides of the equation by 1 mile yields , which when simplified results in the dimensionless . Multiplying any quantity (physical quantity or not) by the dimensionless 1 does not change that quantity. Once this and the conversion factor for seconds per hour have been multiplied by the original fraction to cancel out the units mile and hour, 10 miles per hour converts to 4.4704 meters per second. As a more complex example, the concentration of nitrogen oxides (i.e., ) in the flue gas from an industrial furnace can be converted to a mass flow rate expressed in grams per hour (i.e., g/h) of by using the following information as shown below: NOx concentration = 10 parts per million by volume = 10 ppmv = 10 volumes/106 volumes NOx molar mass = 46 kg/kmol = 46 g/mol Flow rate of flue gas = 20 cubic meters per minute = 20 m3/min The flue gas exits the furnace at 0 °C temperature and 101.325 kPa absolute pressure. The molar volume of a gas at 0 °C temperature and 101.325 kPa is 22.414 m3/kmol. After canceling out any dimensional units that appear both in the numerators and denominators of the fractions in the above equation, the NOx concentration of 10 ppmv converts to mass flow rate of 24.63 grams per hour. Checking equations that involve dimensions The factor-label method can also be used on any mathematical equation to check whether or not the dimensional units on the left hand side of the equation are the same as the dimensional units on the right hand side of the equation. Having the same units on both sides of an equation does not ensure that the equation is correct, but having different units on the two sides (when expressed in terms of base units) of an equation implies that the equation is wrong. For example, check the Universal Gas Law equation of , when: the pressure P is in pascals (Pa) the volume V is in cubic meters (m3) the amount of substance n is in moles (mol) the universal gas law constant R is 8.3145 Pa⋅m3/(mol⋅K) the temperature T is in kelvins (K) As can be seen, when the dimensional units appearing in the numerator and denominator of the equation's right hand side are cancelled out, both sides of the equation have the same dimensional units. Dimensional analysis can be used as a tool to construct equations that relate non-associated physico-chemical properties. The equations may reveal hitherto unknown or overlooked properties of matter, in the form of left-over dimensions – dimensional adjusters – that can then be assigned physical significance. It is important to point out that such 'mathematical manipulation' is neither without prior precedent, nor without considerable scientific significance. Indeed, the Planck constant, a fundamental constant of the universe, was 'discovered' as a purely mathematical abstraction or representation that built on the Rayleigh–Jeans law for preventing the ultraviolet catastrophe. It was assigned and ascended to its quantum physical significance either in tandem or post mathematical dimensional adjustment – not earlier. Limitations The factor-label method can convert only unit quantities for which the units are in a linear relationship intersecting at 0. (Ratio scale in Stevens's typology) Most units fit this paradigm. An example for which it cannot be used is the conversion between degrees Celsius and kelvins (or degrees Fahrenheit). Between degrees Celsius and kelvins, there is a constant difference rather than a constant ratio, while between degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit there is neither a constant difference nor a constant ratio. There is, however, an affine transform (, rather than a linear transform ) between them. For example, the freezing point of water is 0 °C and 32 °F, and a 5 °C change is the same as a 9 °F change. Thus, to convert from units of Fahrenheit to units of Celsius, one subtracts 32 °F (the offset from the point of reference), divides by 9 °F and multiplies by 5 °C (scales by the ratio of units), and adds 0 °C (the offset from the point of reference). Reversing this yields the formula for obtaining a quantity in units of Celsius from units of Fahrenheit; one could have started with the equivalence between 100 °C and 212 °F, though this would yield the same formula at the end. Hence, to convert the numerical quantity value of a temperature T[F] in degrees Fahrenheit to a numerical quantity value T[C] in degrees Celsius, this formula may be used: T[C] = (T[F] − 32) × 5/9. To convert T[C] in degrees Celsius to T[F] in degrees Fahrenheit, this formula may be used: T[F] = (T[C] × 9/5) + 32. Applications Dimensional analysis is most often used in physics and chemistry – and in the mathematics thereof – but finds some applications outside of those fields as well. Mathematics A simple application of dimensional analysis to mathematics is in computing the form of the volume of an n-ball (the solid ball in n dimensions), or the area of its surface, the n-sphere: being an n-dimensional figure, the volume scales as while the surface area, being -dimensional, scales as Thus the volume of the n-ball in terms of the radius is for some constant Determining the constant takes more involved mathematics, but the form can be deduced and checked by dimensional analysis alone. Finance, economics, and accounting In finance, economics, and accounting, dimensional analysis is most commonly referred to in terms of the distinction between stocks and flows. More generally, dimensional analysis is used in interpreting various financial ratios, economics ratios, and accounting ratios. For example, the P/E ratio has dimensions of time (units of years), and can be interpreted as "years of earnings to earn the price paid". In economics, debt-to-GDP ratio also has units of years (debt has units of currency, GDP has units of currency/year). Velocity of money has units of 1/years (GDP/money supply has units of currency/year over currency): how often a unit of currency circulates per year. Annual continuously compounded interest rates and simple interest rates are often expressed as a percentage (adimensional quantity) while time is expressed as an adimensional quantity consisting of the number of years. However, if the time includes year as the unit of measure, the dimension of the rate is 1/year. Of course, there is nothing special (apart from the usual convention) about using year as a unit of time: any other time unit can be used. Furthermore, if rate and time include their units of measure the use of different units for each is not problematic. In contrast, rate and time need to refer to a common period if they are adimensional. (Note that effective interest rates can only be defined as adimensional quantities.) In financial analysis, bond duration can be defined as (dV/dr)/V, where V is the value of a bond (or portfolio), r is the continuously compounded interest rate and dV/dr is a derivative. From the previous point, the dimension of r is 1/time. Therefore, the dimension of duration is time (usually expressed in years) because dr is in the "denominator" of the derivative. Fluid mechanics In fluid mechanics, dimensional analysis is performed to obtain dimensionless pi terms or groups. According to the principles of dimensional analysis, any prototype can be described by a series of these terms or groups that describe the behaviour of the system. Using suitable pi terms or groups, it is possible to develop a similar set of pi terms for a model that has the same dimensional relationships. In other words, pi terms provide a shortcut to developing a model representing a certain prototype. Common dimensionless groups in fluid mechanics include: Reynolds number (Re), generally important in all types of fluid problems: . Froude number (Fr), modeling flow with a free surface: Euler number (Eu), used in problems in which pressure is of interest: Mach number (Ma), important in high speed flows where the velocity approaches or exceeds the local speed of sound: where: is the local speed of sound. History The origins of dimensional analysis have been disputed by historians. The first written application of dimensional analysis has been credited to an article of François Daviet at the Turin Academy of Science. Daviet had the master Lagrange as teacher. His fundamental works are contained in acta of the Academy dated 1799. This led to the conclusion that meaningful laws must be homogeneous equations in their various units of measurement, a result which was eventually later formalized in the Buckingham π theorem. Simeon Poisson also treated the same problem of the parallelogram law by Daviet, in his treatise of 1811 and 1833 (vol I, p. 39). In the second edition of 1833, Poisson explicitly introduces the term dimension instead of the Daviet homogeneity. In 1822, the important Napoleonic scientist Joseph Fourier made the first credited important contributions based on the idea that physical laws like should be independent of the units employed to measure the physical variables. James Clerk Maxwell played a major role in establishing modern use of dimensional analysis by distinguishing mass, length, and time as fundamental units, while referring to other units as derived. Although Maxwell defined length, time and mass to be "the three fundamental units", he also noted that gravitational mass can be derived from length and time by assuming a form of Newton's law of universal gravitation in which the gravitational constant G is taken as unity, thereby defining . By assuming a form of Coulomb's law in which Coulomb's constant ke is taken as unity, Maxwell then determined that the dimensions of an electrostatic unit of charge were , which, after substituting his equation for mass, results in charge having the same dimensions as mass, viz. . Dimensional analysis is also used to derive relationships between the physical quantities that are involved in a particular phenomenon that one wishes to understand and characterize. It was used for the first time in this way in 1872 by Lord Rayleigh, who was trying to understand why the sky is blue. Rayleigh first published the technique in his 1877 book The Theory of Sound. The original meaning of the word dimension, in Fourier's Theorie de la Chaleur, was the numerical value of the exponents of the base units. For example, acceleration was considered to have the dimension 1 with respect to the unit of length, and the dimension −2 with respect to the unit of time. This was slightly changed by Maxwell, who said the dimensions of acceleration are T−2L, instead of just the exponents. Mathematical formulation The Buckingham π theorem describes how every physically meaningful equation involving n variables can be equivalently rewritten as an equation of dimensionless parameters, where m is the rank of the dimensional matrix. Furthermore, and most importantly, it provides a method for computing these dimensionless parameters from the given variables. A dimensional equation can have the dimensions reduced or eliminated through nondimensionalization, which begins with dimensional analysis, and involves scaling quantities by characteristic units of a system or natural units of nature. This gives insight into the fundamental properties of the system, as illustrated in the examples below. Definition The dimension of a physical quantity can be expressed as a product of the basic physical dimensions such as length, mass and time, each raised to a rational power. The dimension of a physical quantity is more fundamental than some scale unit used to express the amount of that physical quantity. For example, mass is a dimension, while the kilogram is a particular scale unit chosen to express a quantity of mass. Except for natural units, the choice of scale is cultural and arbitrary. There are many possible choices of basic physical dimensions. The SI standard recommends the usage of the following dimensions and corresponding symbols: time (T), length (L), mass (M), electric current (I), absolute temperature (Θ), amount of substance (N) and luminous intensity (J). The symbols are by convention usually written in roman sans serif typeface. Mathematically, the dimension of the quantity Q is given by where a, b, c, d, e, f, g are the dimensional exponents. Other physical quantities could be defined as the base quantities, as long as they form a linearly independent basis – for instance, one could replace the dimension (I) of electric current of the SI basis with a dimension (Q) of electric charge, since Q = TI. As examples, the dimension of the physical quantity speed v is and the dimension of the physical quantity force F is The unit chosen to express a physical quantity and its dimension are related, but not identical concepts. The units of a physical quantity are defined by convention and related to some standard; e.g., length may have units of metres, feet, inches, miles or micrometres; but any length always has a dimension of L, no matter what units of length are chosen to express it. Two different units of the same physical quantity have conversion factors that relate them. For example, 1 in = 2.54 cm; in this case 2.54 cm/in is the conversion factor, which is itself dimensionless. Therefore, multiplying by that conversion factor does not change the dimensions of a physical quantity. There are also physicists who have cast doubt on the very existence of incompatible fundamental dimensions of physical quantity, although this does not invalidate the usefulness of dimensional analysis. Mathematical properties The dimensions that can be formed from |
Christmas. 1915 – The National Protection War breaks out against the Empire of China, as military leaders Cai E and Tang Jiyao proclaim the independence of Yunnan and begin a campaign to restore the Republic. 1927 – B. R. Ambedkar and his followers burn copies of the Manusmriti in Mahad, Maharashtra, to protest its treatment of Dalit people. 1932 – A magnitude 7.6 earthquake in Gansu, China kills 275 people. 1941 – Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, appointed commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet on December 17, arrives at Pearl Harbor. 1941 – World War II: Battle of Hong Kong ends, beginning the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong. 1941 – Admiral Émile Muselier seizes the archipelago of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, which become the first part of France to be liberated by the Free French Forces. 1946 – The first European self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction is initiated within the Soviet Union's F-1 nuclear reactor. 1950 – The Stone of Scone, traditional coronation stone of British monarchs, is taken from Westminster Abbey by Scottish nationalist students. It later turns up in Scotland on April 11, 1951. 1951 – A bomb explodes at the home of Harry T. Moore and Harriette V. S. Moore, early leaders of the Civil Rights Movement, killing Harry instantly and fatally wounding Harriette. 1962 – The Soviet Union conducts its final above-ground nuclear weapon test, in anticipation of the 1963 Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. 1963 – Turkish Cypriot Bayrak Radio begins transmitting in Cyprus after Turkish Cypriots are forcibly excluded from Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation. 1968 – Apollo program: Apollo 8 performs the first successful Trans-Earth injection (TEI) maneuver, sending the crew and spacecraft on a trajectory back to Earth from Lunar orbit. 1968 – Kilvenmani massacre: Forty-four Dalits (untouchables) are burnt to death in Kizhavenmani village, Tamil Nadu, a retaliation for a campaign for higher wages by Dalit laborers. 1976 – EgyptAir Flight 664, a Boeing 707-366C, crashes on approach to Don Mueang International Airport, killing 71 people. 1977 – Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin meets in Egypt with its president Anwar Sadat. 1986 – Iraqi Airways Flight 163, a Boeing 737-270C, is hijacked and crashes in Arar, Saudi Arabia, killing 63 people. 1989 – Romanian Revolution: Deposed President of Romania Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife, Elena, are condemned to death and executed after a summary trial. 1991 – Mikhail Gorbachev resigns as President of the Soviet Union (the union itself is dissolved the next day). Ukraine's referendum is finalized and Ukraine officially leaves the Soviet Union. 1999 – Cubana de Aviación Flight 310, a Yakovlev Yak-42, crashes near Bejuma, Carabobo State, Venezuela, killing 22 people. 2003 – UTA Flight 141, a Boeing 727-223, crashes at the Cotonou Airport in Benin, killing 141 people. 2003 – The ill-fated Beagle 2 probe, released from the Mars Express spacecraft on December 19, stops transmitting shortly before its scheduled landing. 2004 – The Cassini orbiter releases Huygens probe which successfully landed on Saturn's moon Titan on January 14, 2005. 2012 – An Antonov An-72 plane crashes close to the city of Shymkent, killing 27 people. 2012 – Air Bagan Flight 011, a Fokker 100, crashes on approach to Heho Airport in Heho, Myanmar, killing two people. 2016 – A Russian Defence Ministry Tupolev Tu-154 carrying members of the Alexandrov Ensemble crashes into the Black Sea shortly after takeoff, killing all 92 people on board. 2019 – Twenty people are killed and thousands are left homeless by Typhoon Phanfone in the Philippines. 2020 – An explosion in Nashville, Tennessee occurs, leaving three civilians in the hospital. 2021 – The James Webb Space Telescope is launched. Births Pre-1600 1250 – John IV Laskaris, Byzantine emperor (d. 1305) 1281 – Alice de Lacy, 4th Countess of Lincoln (d. 1348) 1400 – John Sutton, 1st Baron Dudley, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1487) 1424 – Margaret Stewart, Dauphine of France (d. 1445) 1461 – Christina of Saxony, Queen consort of Denmark (d. 1521) 1490 – Francesco Marinoni, Italian Roman Catholic priest (d. 1562) 1493 – Antoinette de Bourbon, French noblewoman (d. 1583) 1505 – Christine of Saxony, German noblewoman (d. 1549) 1564 – Johannes Buxtorf, German Calvinist theologian (d. 1629) 1583 – Orlando Gibbons, English organist and composer (d. 1625) 1584 – Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain (d. 1611) 1601–1900 1601 – Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha (d. 1675) 1628 – Noël Coypel, French painter and educator (d. 1707) 1642 (OS) – Isaac Newton, English physicist and mathematician (d. 1726/1727) 1652 – Archibald Pitcairne, Scottish physician, anatomist, and scholar (d. 1713) 1665 – Lady Grizel Baillie, Scottish-English poet and songwriter (d. 1746) 1674 – Thomas Halyburton, Scottish minister and theologian (d. 1712) 1686 – Giovanni Battista Somis, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1763) 1700 – Leopold II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau (d. 1758) 1711 – Jean-Joseph de Mondonville, French violinist and composer (d. 1772) 1716 – Johann Jakob Reiske, German physician and scholar (d. 1774) 1717 – Pope Pius VI (d. 1799) 1728 – Johann Adam Hiller, German composer and conductor (d. 1804) 1730 – Philip Mazzei, Italian-American physician and philosopher (d. 1816) 1745 – Chevalier de Saint-Georges, Caribbean-French violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1799) 1757 – Benjamin Pierce, American general and politician, 17th Governor of New Hampshire (d. 1839) 1766 – Christmas Evans, Welsh Nonconformist preacher (d. 1838) 1771 – Dorothy Wordsworth, English diarist and poet (d. 1855) 1776 – Sydney, Lady Morgan, Irish author and poet (d. 1859) 1810 – L. L. Langstroth, American apiarist, clergyman and teacher (d. 1895) 1821 – Clara Barton, American nurse and humanitarian, founder of the American Red Cross (d. 1912) 1825 – Stephen F. Chadwick, American lawyer and politician, 5th Governor of Oregon (d. 1895) 1829 – Patrick Gilmore, Irish-American composer and bandleader (d. 1892) 1856 – Pud Galvin, American baseball player and manager (d. 1902) 1861 – Madan Mohan Malaviya, Indian educator, lawyer, and politician, President of the Indian National Congress (d. 1946) 1865 – Evangeline Booth, English 4th General of The Salvation Army (d. 1950) 1869 – Charles Finger, English-American journalist and author (d. 1941) 1872 – Helena Rubinstein, Polish-American businesswoman and philanthropist (d. 1965) 1873 – Otto Frederick Hunziker, Swiss-American agriculturalist and educator (d. 1959) 1874 – Lina Cavalieri, Italian soprano and actress (d. 1944) 1875 – Francis Aveling, Canadian psychologist and priest (d. 1941) 1875 – Theodor Innitzer, Austrian cardinal (d. 1955) 1876 – Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Indian-Pakistani lawyer and politician, 1st Governor-General of Pakistan (d. 1948) 1876 – Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1959) 1878 – Louis Chevrolet, Swiss-American race car driver and businessman, co-founded Chevrolet (d. 1941) 1878 – Noël, Countess of Rothes, philanthropist, social leader and heroine of Titanic disaster (d. 1956) 1878 – Joseph M. Schenck, Russian-American film producer (d. 1961) 1883 – Hugo Bergmann, Czech-Israeli philosopher and academic (d. 1975) 1883 – Hana Meisel, Belarusian-Israeli agronomist and politician (d. 1972) 1884 – Samuel Berger, American boxer (d. 1925) 1884 – Evelyn Nesbit, American model and actress (d. 1967) 1886 – Malak Hifni Nasif, Egyptian poet and activist (d. 1918) 1886 – Kid Ory, American trombonist and bandleader (d. 1973) 1887 – Conrad Hilton, American entrepreneur (d. 1979) 1889 – Lila Bell Wallace, American publisher and philanthropist, co-founded Reader's Digest (d. 1984) 1890 – Noel Odell, English geologist and mountaineer (d. 1987) 1891 – Kenneth Anderson, Indian-English general and politician, Governor of Gibraltar (d. 1959) 1891 – Clarrie Grimmett, New Zealand-Australian cricketer (d. 1980) 1899 – Humphrey Bogart, American actor (d. 1957) 1901–present 1901 – Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester (d. 2004) 1902 – Barton MacLane, American actor, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 1969) 1902 – William Bell, American tuba player and educator (d. 1971) 1903 – Antiochos Evangelatos, Greek composer and conductor (d. 1981) 1904 – Gerhard Herzberg, German-Canadian physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999) 1906 – Lew Grade, Baron Grade, Ukrainian-English film producer (d. 1998) 1906 – Ernst Ruska, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1988) 1907 – Cab Calloway, American singer-songwriter and bandleader (d. 1994) 1907 – Mike Mazurki, Ukrainian-American wrestler and actor (d. 1990) 1907 – Glenn McCarthy, American businessman, founded the Shamrock Hotel (d. 1988) 1908 – Quentin Crisp, English author and illustrator (d. 1999) 1908 – Ernest L. Massad, American general (d. 1993) 1908 – Jo-Jo Moore, American baseball player (d. 2001) 1909 – Zora Arkus-Duntov, Belgian-American engineer (d. 1996) 1911 – Louise Bourgeois, French-American sculptor and painter (d. 2010) 1913 – Candy Candido, American singer, bass player, and voice actor (d. 1999) 1913 – Tony Martin, American singer (d. 2012) 1914 – James Fletcher Jnr, New Zealand businessman (d. 2007) 1914 – Oscar Lewis, American anthropologist of Latin America (d. 1970) 1915 – Pete Rugolo, Italian-American composer and producer (d. 2011) 1916 – Ahmed Ben Bella, Algerian soldier and politician, 1st President of Algeria (d. 2012) 1917 – Arseny Mironov, Russian scientist, engineer, pilot, oldest active researcher in aircraft aerodynamics and flight testing (d. 2019) 1917 – Lincoln Verduga Loor, Ecuadorian journalist and politician (d. 2009) 1918 – Anwar Sadat, Egyptian lieutenant and politician, 3rd President of Egypt, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981) 1919 – Naushad Ali, Indian composer and director (d. 2006) 1919 – Paul David, Canadian cardiologist and politician, founded the Montreal Heart Institute (d. 1999) 1921 – Zaib-un-Nissa Hamidullah, Indian-Pakistani journalist and author (d. 2000) 1921 – Steve Otto, Polish-Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 1989) 1922 – William Demby, American author (d. 2013) 1923 – René Girard, French-American historian, philosopher, and critic (d. 2015) 1923 – Louis Lane, American conductor and educator (d. 2016) 1924 – Rod Serling, American screenwriter and producer, created The Twilight Zone (d. 1975) 1924 – Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Indian poet and politician, 10th Prime Minister of India (d. 2018) 1925 – Carlos Castaneda, Peruvian-American anthropologist and author (d. 1998) 1925 – Ned Garver, American baseball player (d. 2017) 1925 – Sam Pollock, Canadian businessman (d. 2007) 1926 – Enrique Jorrín, Cuban violinist and composer (d. 1987) 1927 – Nellie Fox, American baseball player and coach (d. 1975) 1927 – Leo Kubiak, American basketball and baseball player 1927 – Ram Narayan, Indian sarangi player 1928 – Irish McCalla, American actress and model (d. 2002) 1928 – Dick Miller, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2019) 1929 – Christine M. Jones, American educator and politician (d. 2013) 1929 – China Machado, Chinese-born Portuguese-American fashion model, editor and television producer (d. 2016) 1930 – Emmanuel Agassi, Iranian-American boxer and coach 1930 – Armenak Alachachian, Armenian basketball player and coach (d. 2017) 1932 | proclaim the independence of Yunnan and begin a campaign to restore the Republic. 1927 – B. R. Ambedkar and his followers burn copies of the Manusmriti in Mahad, Maharashtra, to protest its treatment of Dalit people. 1932 – A magnitude 7.6 earthquake in Gansu, China kills 275 people. 1941 – Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, appointed commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet on December 17, arrives at Pearl Harbor. 1941 – World War II: Battle of Hong Kong ends, beginning the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong. 1941 – Admiral Émile Muselier seizes the archipelago of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, which become the first part of France to be liberated by the Free French Forces. 1946 – The first European self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction is initiated within the Soviet Union's F-1 nuclear reactor. 1950 – The Stone of Scone, traditional coronation stone of British monarchs, is taken from Westminster Abbey by Scottish nationalist students. It later turns up in Scotland on April 11, 1951. 1951 – A bomb explodes at the home of Harry T. Moore and Harriette V. S. Moore, early leaders of the Civil Rights Movement, killing Harry instantly and fatally wounding Harriette. 1962 – The Soviet Union conducts its final above-ground nuclear weapon test, in anticipation of the 1963 Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. 1963 – Turkish Cypriot Bayrak Radio begins transmitting in Cyprus after Turkish Cypriots are forcibly excluded from Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation. 1968 – Apollo program: Apollo 8 performs the first successful Trans-Earth injection (TEI) maneuver, sending the crew and spacecraft on a trajectory back to Earth from Lunar orbit. 1968 – Kilvenmani massacre: Forty-four Dalits (untouchables) are burnt to death in Kizhavenmani village, Tamil Nadu, a retaliation for a campaign for higher wages by Dalit laborers. 1976 – EgyptAir Flight 664, a Boeing 707-366C, crashes on approach to Don Mueang International Airport, killing 71 people. 1977 – Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin meets in Egypt with its president Anwar Sadat. 1986 – Iraqi Airways Flight 163, a Boeing 737-270C, is hijacked and crashes in Arar, Saudi Arabia, killing 63 people. 1989 – Romanian Revolution: Deposed President of Romania Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife, Elena, are condemned to death and executed after a summary trial. 1991 – Mikhail Gorbachev resigns as President of the Soviet Union (the union itself is dissolved the next day). Ukraine's referendum is finalized and Ukraine officially leaves the Soviet Union. 1999 – Cubana de Aviación Flight 310, a Yakovlev Yak-42, crashes near Bejuma, Carabobo State, Venezuela, killing 22 people. 2003 – UTA Flight 141, a Boeing 727-223, crashes at the Cotonou Airport in Benin, killing 141 people. 2003 – The ill-fated Beagle 2 probe, released from the Mars Express spacecraft on December 19, stops transmitting shortly before its scheduled landing. 2004 – The Cassini orbiter releases Huygens probe which successfully landed on Saturn's moon Titan on January 14, 2005. 2012 – An Antonov An-72 plane crashes close to the city of Shymkent, killing 27 people. 2012 – Air Bagan Flight 011, a Fokker 100, crashes on approach to Heho Airport in Heho, Myanmar, killing two people. 2016 – A Russian Defence Ministry Tupolev Tu-154 carrying members of the Alexandrov Ensemble crashes into the Black Sea shortly after takeoff, killing all 92 people on board. 2019 – Twenty people are killed and thousands are left homeless by Typhoon Phanfone in the Philippines. 2020 – An explosion in Nashville, Tennessee occurs, leaving three civilians in the hospital. 2021 – The James Webb Space Telescope is launched. Births Pre-1600 1250 – John IV Laskaris, Byzantine emperor (d. 1305) 1281 – Alice de Lacy, 4th Countess of Lincoln (d. 1348) 1400 – John Sutton, 1st Baron Dudley, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1487) 1424 – Margaret Stewart, Dauphine of France (d. 1445) 1461 – Christina of Saxony, Queen consort of Denmark (d. 1521) 1490 – Francesco Marinoni, Italian Roman Catholic priest (d. 1562) 1493 – Antoinette de Bourbon, French noblewoman (d. 1583) 1505 – Christine of Saxony, German noblewoman (d. 1549) 1564 – Johannes Buxtorf, German Calvinist theologian (d. 1629) 1583 – Orlando Gibbons, English organist and composer (d. 1625) 1584 – Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain (d. 1611) 1601–1900 1601 – Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha (d. 1675) 1628 – Noël Coypel, French painter and educator (d. 1707) 1642 (OS) – Isaac Newton, English physicist and mathematician (d. 1726/1727) 1652 – Archibald Pitcairne, Scottish physician, anatomist, and scholar (d. 1713) 1665 – Lady Grizel Baillie, Scottish-English poet and songwriter (d. 1746) 1674 – Thomas Halyburton, Scottish minister and theologian (d. 1712) 1686 – Giovanni Battista Somis, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1763) 1700 – Leopold II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau (d. 1758) 1711 – Jean-Joseph de Mondonville, French violinist and composer (d. 1772) 1716 – Johann Jakob Reiske, German physician and scholar (d. 1774) 1717 – Pope Pius VI (d. 1799) 1728 – Johann Adam Hiller, German composer and conductor (d. 1804) 1730 – Philip Mazzei, Italian-American physician and philosopher (d. 1816) 1745 – Chevalier de Saint-Georges, Caribbean-French violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1799) 1757 – Benjamin Pierce, American general and politician, 17th Governor of New Hampshire (d. 1839) 1766 – Christmas Evans, Welsh Nonconformist preacher (d. 1838) 1771 – Dorothy Wordsworth, English diarist and poet (d. 1855) 1776 – Sydney, Lady Morgan, Irish author and poet (d. 1859) 1810 – L. L. Langstroth, American apiarist, clergyman and teacher (d. 1895) 1821 – Clara Barton, American nurse and humanitarian, founder of the American Red Cross (d. 1912) 1825 – Stephen F. Chadwick, American lawyer and politician, 5th Governor of Oregon (d. 1895) 1829 – Patrick Gilmore, Irish-American composer and bandleader (d. 1892) 1856 – Pud Galvin, American baseball player and manager (d. 1902) 1861 – Madan Mohan Malaviya, Indian educator, lawyer, and politician, President of the Indian National Congress (d. 1946) 1865 – Evangeline Booth, English 4th General of The Salvation Army (d. 1950) 1869 – Charles Finger, English-American journalist and author (d. 1941) 1872 – Helena Rubinstein, Polish-American businesswoman and philanthropist (d. 1965) 1873 – Otto Frederick Hunziker, Swiss-American agriculturalist and educator (d. 1959) 1874 – Lina Cavalieri, Italian soprano and actress (d. 1944) 1875 – Francis Aveling, Canadian psychologist and priest (d. 1941) 1875 – Theodor Innitzer, Austrian cardinal (d. 1955) 1876 – Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Indian-Pakistani lawyer and politician, 1st Governor-General of Pakistan (d. 1948) 1876 – Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1959) 1878 – Louis Chevrolet, Swiss-American race car driver and businessman, co-founded Chevrolet (d. 1941) 1878 – Noël, Countess of Rothes, philanthropist, social leader and heroine of Titanic disaster (d. 1956) 1878 – Joseph M. Schenck, Russian-American film producer (d. 1961) 1883 – Hugo Bergmann, Czech-Israeli philosopher and academic (d. 1975) 1883 – Hana Meisel, Belarusian-Israeli agronomist and politician (d. 1972) 1884 – Samuel Berger, American boxer (d. 1925) 1884 – Evelyn Nesbit, American model and actress (d. 1967) 1886 – Malak Hifni Nasif, Egyptian poet and activist (d. 1918) 1886 – Kid Ory, American trombonist and bandleader (d. 1973) 1887 – Conrad Hilton, American entrepreneur (d. 1979) 1889 – Lila Bell Wallace, American publisher and philanthropist, co-founded Reader's Digest (d. 1984) 1890 – Noel Odell, English geologist and mountaineer (d. 1987) 1891 – Kenneth Anderson, Indian-English general and politician, Governor of Gibraltar (d. 1959) 1891 – Clarrie Grimmett, New Zealand-Australian cricketer (d. 1980) 1899 – Humphrey Bogart, American actor (d. 1957) 1901–present 1901 – Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester (d. 2004) 1902 – Barton MacLane, American actor, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 1969) 1902 – William Bell, American tuba player and educator (d. 1971) 1903 – Antiochos Evangelatos, Greek composer and conductor (d. 1981) 1904 – Gerhard Herzberg, German-Canadian physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999) 1906 – Lew Grade, Baron Grade, Ukrainian-English film producer (d. 1998) 1906 – Ernst Ruska, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1988) 1907 – Cab Calloway, American singer-songwriter and bandleader (d. 1994) 1907 – Mike Mazurki, Ukrainian-American wrestler and actor (d. 1990) 1907 – Glenn McCarthy, American businessman, founded the Shamrock Hotel (d. 1988) 1908 – Quentin Crisp, English author and illustrator (d. 1999) 1908 – Ernest L. Massad, American general (d. 1993) 1908 – Jo-Jo Moore, American baseball player (d. 2001) 1909 – Zora Arkus-Duntov, Belgian-American engineer (d. 1996) 1911 – Louise Bourgeois, French-American sculptor and painter (d. 2010) 1913 – Candy Candido, American singer, bass player, and voice actor (d. 1999) 1913 – Tony Martin, American singer (d. 2012) 1914 – James Fletcher Jnr, New Zealand businessman (d. 2007) 1914 – Oscar Lewis, American anthropologist of Latin America (d. 1970) 1915 – Pete Rugolo, Italian-American composer and producer (d. 2011) 1916 – Ahmed Ben Bella, Algerian soldier and politician, 1st President of Algeria (d. 2012) 1917 – Arseny Mironov, Russian scientist, engineer, pilot, oldest active researcher in aircraft aerodynamics and flight testing (d. 2019) 1917 – Lincoln Verduga Loor, Ecuadorian journalist and politician (d. 2009) 1918 – Anwar Sadat, Egyptian lieutenant and politician, 3rd President of Egypt, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981) 1919 – Naushad Ali, Indian composer and director (d. 2006) 1919 – Paul David, Canadian cardiologist and politician, founded the Montreal Heart Institute (d. 1999) 1921 – Zaib-un-Nissa Hamidullah, Indian-Pakistani journalist and author (d. 2000) 1921 – Steve Otto, Polish-Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 1989) 1922 – William Demby, American author (d. 2013) 1923 – René Girard, French-American historian, philosopher, and critic (d. 2015) 1923 – Louis Lane, American conductor and educator (d. 2016) 1924 – Rod Serling, American screenwriter and producer, created The Twilight Zone (d. 1975) 1924 – Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Indian poet and politician, 10th Prime Minister of India (d. 2018) 1925 – Carlos Castaneda, Peruvian-American anthropologist and author (d. 1998) 1925 – Ned Garver, American baseball player (d. 2017) 1925 – Sam Pollock, Canadian businessman (d. 2007) 1926 – Enrique Jorrín, Cuban violinist and composer (d. 1987) 1927 – Nellie Fox, American baseball player and coach (d. 1975) 1927 – Leo Kubiak, American basketball and baseball player 1927 – Ram Narayan, Indian sarangi player 1928 – Irish McCalla, American actress and model (d. 2002) 1928 – Dick Miller, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2019) 1929 – Christine M. Jones, American educator and politician (d. 2013) 1929 – China Machado, Chinese-born Portuguese-American fashion model, editor and television producer (d. 2016) 1930 – Emmanuel Agassi, Iranian-American boxer and coach 1930 – Armenak Alachachian, Armenian basketball player and coach (d. 2017) 1932 – Mabel King, American actress and singer (d. 1999) 1933 – Basil Heatley, English runner (d. 2019) 1935 – Sadiq al-Mahdi, Sudanese politician, Prime Minister of Sudan (d. 2020) 1935 – Stephen Barnett, American scholar and academic (d. 2009) 1935 – Jeanne Hopkins Lucas, American educator and politician (d. 2007) 1936 – Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy 1936 – Ismail Merchant, Indian-English director and producer (d. 2005) 1937 – O'Kelly Isley Jr., American R&B/soul singer-songwriter (d. 1986) 1938 – Duane Armstrong, American painter 1938 – Noel Picard, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2017) 1939 – Ghulam Ahmad Bilour, Pakistani businessman and politician 1939 – Bob James, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer 1939 – Akong Rinpoche, Tibetan-Chinese spiritual leader (d. 2013) 1940 – Hilary Spurling, English journalist and author 1941 – Kenneth Calman, Scottish physician and academic 1942 – Françoise Dürr, French tennis player and coach 1942 – Barbara Follett, English politician 1942 – Barry Goldberg, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer 1942 – Enrique Morente, Spanish singer-songwriter (d. 2010) 1943 – Wilson Fittipaldi Júnior, Brazilian race car driver and businessman 1943 – Hanna Schygulla, German actress 1944 – Kenny Everett, British comedian and broadcaster (d. 1995) 1944 – Jairzinho, Brazilian footballer 1944 – Sam Strahan, New Zealand rugby player (d. 2019) 1945 – Rick Berman, American screenwriter and producer 1945 – Eve Pollard, English journalist and author 1945 – Mike Pringle, Zambian-Scottish lawyer and politician 1945 – Noel Redding, English singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2003) 1945 – Ken Stabler, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2015) 1946 – Jimmy Buffett, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor 1946 – Larry Csonka, American football player and sportscaster 1946 – Christopher Frayling, English author and academic 1946 – Gene Lamont, American baseball player and manager 1948 – Merry Clayton, American singer and actress 1948 – Kay Hymowitz, American sociologist and writer 1948 – Barbara Mandrell, American singer-songwriter and actress 1948 – Joel Santana, Brazilian footballer and manager 1949 – Simone Bittencourt de Oliveira, Brazilian singer 1949 – Nawaz Sharif, Pakistani politician, 12th Prime Minister of Pakistan 1949 – Sissy Spacek, American actress 1950 – Peter Boardman, English mountaineer and author (d. 1982) 1950 – Karl Rove, American political strategist and activist 1950 – Manny Trillo, Venezuelan baseball player and manager 1952 – Tolossa Kotu, Ethiopian runner and coach 1952 – CCH Pounder, Guyanese-American actress 1953 – Kaarlo Maaninka, Finnish runner 1954 – |
by the CMTT and ETSI, along with research by Italian broadcaster RAI, developed a DCT video codec that broadcast SDTV at 34Mbit/s and near-studio-quality HDTV at about 70140 Mbit/s. RAI demonstrated this with a 1990 FIFA World Cup broadcast in March 1990. An American company, General Instrument, also demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal in 1990. This led to the FCC being persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally based standard could be developed. In March 1990, when it became clear that a digital standard was feasible, the FCC made a number of critical decisions. First, the Commission declared that the new TV standard must be more than an enhanced analog signal, but be able to provide a genuine HDTV signal with at least twice the resolution of existing television images. Then, to ensure that viewers who did not wish to buy a new digital television set could continue to receive conventional television broadcasts, it dictated that the new ATV standard must be capable of being "simulcast" on different channels. The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on entirely new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements. The final standard adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This outcome resulted from a dispute between the consumer electronics industry (joined by some broadcasters) and the computer industry (joined by the film industry and some public interest groups) over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—is superior. Interlaced scanning, which is used in televisions worldwide, scans even-numbered lines first, then odd-numbered ones. Progressive scanning, which is the format used in computers, scans lines in sequences, from top to bottom. The computer industry argued that progressive scanning is superior because it does not "flicker" in the manner of interlaced scanning. It also argued that progressive scanning enables easier connections with the Internet, and is more cheaply converted to interlaced formats than vice versa. The film industry also supported progressive scanning because it offers a more efficient means of converting filmed programming into digital formats. For their part, the consumer electronics industry and broadcasters argued that interlaced scanning was the only technology that could transmit the highest quality pictures then (and currently) feasible, i.e., 1,080 lines per picture and 1,920 pixels per line. Broadcasters also favored interlaced scanning because their vast archive of interlaced programming is not readily compatible with a progressive format. Inaugural launches DirecTV in the U.S. launched the first commercial digital satellite platform in May 1994, using the Digital Satellite System (DSS) standard. Digital cable broadcasts were tested and launched in the U.S. in 1996 by TCI and Time Warner. The first digital terrestrial platform was launched in November 1998 as ONdigital in the United Kingdom, using the DVB-T standard. Technical information Formats and bandwidth Digital television supports many different picture formats defined by the broadcast television systems which are a combination of size and aspect ratio (width to height ratio). With digital terrestrial television (DTT) broadcasting, the range of formats can be broadly divided into two categories: high-definition television (HDTV) for the transmission of high-definition video and standard-definition television (SDTV). These terms by themselves are not very precise, and many subtle intermediate cases exist. One of several different HDTV formats that can be transmitted over DTV is: 1280 × 720 pixels in progressive scan mode (abbreviated 720p) or 1920 × 1080 pixels in interlaced video mode (1080i). Each of these uses a 16:9 aspect ratio. HDTV cannot be transmitted over analog television channels because of channel capacity issues. SDTV, by comparison, may use one of several different formats taking the form of various aspect ratios depending on the technology used in the country of broadcast. In terms of rectangular pixels, NTSC countries can deliver a 640 × 480 resolution in 4:3 and 854 × 480 in 16:9, while PAL can give 768 × 576 in 4:3 and 1024 × 576 in 16:9. However, broadcasters may choose to reduce these resolutions to reduce bit rate (e.g., many DVB-T channels in the United Kingdom use a horizontal resolution of 544 or 704 pixels per line). Each commercial broadcasting terrestrial television DTV channel in North America is permitted to be broadcast at a bit rate up to 19 megabits per second. However, the broadcaster does not need to use this entire bandwidth for just one broadcast channel. Instead the broadcast can use the channel to include PSIP and can also subdivide across several video subchannels (a.k.a. feeds) of varying quality and compression rates, including non-video datacasting services that allow one-way high-bit-rate streaming of data to computers like National Datacast. A broadcaster may opt to use a standard-definition (SDTV) digital signal instead of an HDTV signal, because current convention allows the bandwidth of a DTV channel (or "multiplex") to be subdivided into multiple digital subchannels, (similar to what most FM radio stations offer with HD Radio), providing multiple feeds of entirely different television programming on the same channel. This ability to provide either a single HDTV feed or multiple lower-resolution feeds is often referred to as distributing one's "bit budget" or multicasting. This can sometimes be arranged automatically, using a statistical multiplexer (or "stat-mux"). With some implementations, image resolution may be less directly limited by bandwidth; for example in DVB-T, broadcasters can choose from several different modulation schemes, giving them the option to reduce the transmission bit rate and make reception easier for more distant or mobile viewers. Receiving digital signal There are several different ways to receive digital television. One of the oldest means of receiving DTV (and TV in general) is from terrestrial transmitters using an antenna (known as an aerial in some countries). This way is known as Digital terrestrial television (DTT). With DTT, viewers are limited to channels that have a terrestrial transmitter in range of their antenna. Other ways have been devised to receive digital television. Among the most familiar to people are digital cable and digital satellite. In some countries where transmissions of TV signals are normally achieved by microwaves, digital MMDS is used. Other standards, such as Digital multimedia broadcasting (DMB) and DVB-H, have been devised to allow handheld devices such as mobile phones to receive TV signals. Another way is IPTV, that is receiving TV via Internet Protocol, relying on digital subscriber line (DSL) or optical cable line. Finally, an alternative way is to receive digital TV signals via the open Internet (Internet television), whether from a central streaming service or a P2P (peer-to-peer) system. Some signals carry encryption and specify use conditions (such as "may not be recorded" or "may not be viewed on displays larger than 1 m in diagonal measure") backed up with the force of law under the World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty (WIPO Copyright Treaty) and national legislation implementing it, such as the U.S. Digital Millennium Copyright Act. Access to encrypted channels can be controlled by a removable smart card, for example via the Common Interface (DVB-CI) standard for Europe and via Point Of Deployment (POD) for IS or named differently CableCard. Protection parameters for terrestrial DTV broadcasting Digital television signals must not interfere with each other, and they must also coexist with analog television until it is phased out. The following table gives allowable signal-to-noise and signal-to-interference ratios for various interference scenarios. This table is a crucial regulatory tool for controlling the placement and power levels of stations. Digital TV is more tolerant of interference than analog TV, and this is the reason a smaller range of channels can carry an all-digital set of television stations. Interaction People can interact with a DTV system in various ways. One can, for example, browse the electronic program guide. Modern DTV systems sometimes use a return path providing feedback from the end user to the broadcaster. This is possible with a coaxial or fiber optic cable, a dialup modem, or Internet connection but is not possible with a standard antenna. Some of these systems support video on demand using a communication channel localized to a neighborhood rather than a city (terrestrial) or an even larger area (satellite). 1-segment broadcasting 1seg (1-segment) is a special form of ISDB. Each channel is further divided into 13 segments. The 12 segments of them are allocated for HDTV and remaining segment, the 13th, is used for narrow-band receivers such as mobile television or cell phone. Timeline of transition Comparison of analog vs digital DTV has several advantages over analog TV, the most significant being that digital channels take up less bandwidth, and the bandwidth needs are continuously variable, at a corresponding reduction in image quality depending on the level of compression as well as the resolution of the transmitted image. This means that digital broadcasters can provide more digital channels in the same space, provide high-definition television service, or provide other non-television services such as multimedia or interactivity. DTV also permits special services such as multiplexing (more than one program on the same channel), electronic program guides and additional languages (spoken or subtitled). The sale of non-television services may provide an additional revenue source. Digital and analog signals react to | monitoring, and allocated bandwidth DTV images have some picture defects that are not present on analog television or motion picture cinema, because of present-day limitations of bit rate and compression algorithms such as MPEG-2. This defect is sometimes referred to as "mosquito noise". Because of the way the human visual system works, defects in an image that are localized to particular features of the image or that come and go are more perceptible than defects that are uniform and constant. However, the DTV system is designed to take advantage of other limitations of the human visual system to help mask these flaws, e.g. by allowing more compression artifacts during fast motion where the eye cannot track and resolve them as easily and, conversely, minimizing artifacts in still backgrounds that may be closely examined in a scene (since time allows). Broadcast, cable, satellite, and Internet DTV operators control the picture quality of television signal encodes using sophisticated, neuroscience-based algorithms, such as the structural similarity (SSIM) video quality measurement tool, which was accorded each of its inventors a Primetime Emmy because of its global use. Another tool, called Visual Information Fidelity (VIF), is a top-performing algorithm at the core of the Netflix VMAF video quality monitoring system, which accounts for about 35% of all U.S. bandwidth consumption. Effects of poor reception Changes in signal reception from factors such as degrading antenna connections or changing weather conditions may gradually reduce the quality of analog TV. The nature of digital TV results in a perfectly decodable video initially, until the receiving equipment starts picking up interference that overpowers the desired signal or if the signal is too weak to decode. Some equipment will show a garbled picture with significant damage, while other devices may go directly from perfectly decodable video to no video at all or lock up. This phenomenon is known as the digital cliff effect. Block error may occur when transmission is done with compressed images. A block error in a single frame often results in black boxes in several subsequent frames, making viewing difficult. For remote locations, distant channels that, as analog signals, were previously usable in a snowy and degraded state may, as digital signals, be perfectly decodable or may become completely unavailable. The use of higher frequencies will add to these problems, especially in cases where a clear line-of-sight from the receiving antenna to the transmitter is not available, because usually higher frequency signals can't pass through obstacles as easily. Effect on old analog technology Television sets with only analog tuners cannot decode digital transmissions. When analog broadcasting over the air ceases, users of sets with analog-only tuners may use other sources of programming (e.g. cable, recorded media) or may purchase set-top converter boxes to tune in the digital signals. In the United States, a government-sponsored coupon was available to offset the cost of an external converter box. Analog switch-off (of full-power stations) took place on December 11, 2006 in The Netherlands, June 12, 2009 in the United States for full-power stations, and later for Class-A Stations on September 1, 2016, July 24, 2011 in Japan, August 31, 2011 in Canada, February 13, 2012 in Arab states, May 1, 2012 in Germany, October 24, 2012 in the United Kingdom and Ireland, October 31, 2012 in selected Indian cities, and December 10, 2013 in Australia. Completion of analog switch-off is scheduled for December 31, 2017 in the whole of India, December 2018 in Costa Rica and around 2020 for the Philippines. Disappearance of TV-audio receivers Prior to the conversion to digital TV, analog television broadcast audio for TV channels on a separate FM carrier signal from the video signal. This FM audio signal could be heard using standard radios equipped with the appropriate tuning circuits. However, after the transition of many countries to digital TV, no portable radio manufacturer has yet developed an alternative method for portable radios to play just the audio signal of digital TV channels; DTV radio is not the same thing. Environmental issues The adoption of a broadcast standard incompatible with existing analog receivers has created the problem of large numbers of analog receivers being discarded during digital television transition. One superintendent of public works was quoted in 2009 saying; "some of the studies I’ve read in the trade magazines say up to a quarter of American households could be throwing a TV out in the next two years following the regulation change". In 2009, an estimated 99 million analog TV receivers were sitting unused in homes in the US alone and, while some obsolete receivers are being retrofitted with converters, many more are simply dumped in landfills where they represent a source of toxic metals such as lead as well as lesser amounts of materials such as barium, cadmium and chromium. According to one campaign group, a CRT computer monitor or TV contains an average of of lead. According to another source, the lead in glass of a CRT varies from 1.08 lb to 11.28 lb, depending on screen size and type, but the lead is in the form of "stable and immobile" lead oxide mixed into the glass. It is claimed that the lead can have long-term negative effects on the environment if dumped as landfill. However, the glass envelope can be recycled at suitably equipped facilities. Other portions of the receiver may be subject to disposal as hazardous material. Local restrictions on disposal of these materials vary widely; in some cases second-hand stores have refused to accept working color television receivers for resale due to the increasing costs of disposing of unsold TVs. Those thrift stores which are still accepting donated TVs have reported significant increases in good-condition working used television receivers abandoned by viewers who often expect them not to work after digital transition. In Michigan in 2009, one recycler estimated that as many as one household in four would dispose of or recycle |
consolidate his power, and sent his brother Edward Bruce to claim the Kingdom of Ireland in 1315 with an army landed in Ulster the previous year with the help of Gaelic lords from the Isles. Edward Bruce died in 1318 without achieving success, but the Scots campaigns in Ireland and in northern England were intended to press for the recognition of Robert's crown by King Edward. At the same time, it undermined the House of Plantagenet's claims to overlordship of the British Isles and halted the Plantagenets' effort to absorb Scotland as had been done in Ireland and Wales. Thus were the Scots nobles confident in their letters to Pope John of the distinct and independent nature of Scotland's kingdom; the Declaration of Arbroath was one such. According to historian David Crouch, "The two nations were mutually hostile kingdoms and peoples, and the ancient idea of Britain as an informal empire of peoples under the English king's presidency was entirely dead." The text makes claims about the ancient history of Scotland and especially the Scoti, forbears of the Scots, who the Declaration claims originated in Scythia Major and migrated via Spain to Britain, dating their migration to "1,200 years from the Israelite people's crossing of the Red Sea". The Declaration describes how the Scots had "thrown out the Britons and completely destroyed the Picts", resisted the invasions of "the Norse, the Danes and the English", and "held itself ever since, free from all slavery". It then claims that in the Kingdom of Scotland, "one hundred and thirteen kings have reigned of their own Blood Royal, without interruption by foreigners". The text compares Robert Bruce with the Biblical warriors Judah Maccabee and Joshua. The Declaration made a number of points: that Edward I of England had unjustly attacked Scotland and perpetrated atrocities; that Robert the Bruce had delivered the Scottish nation from this peril; and, most controversially, that the independence of Scotland was the prerogative of the Scottish people, rather than the King of Scots. Debates Some have interpreted this last point as an early expression of 'popular sovereignty' – that government is contractual and that kings can be chosen by the community rather than by God alone. It has been considered to be the first statement of the contractual theory of monarchy underlying modern constitutionalism. It has also been argued that the Declaration was not a statement of popular sovereignty (and that its signatories would have had no such concept) but a statement of royal propaganda supporting Bruce's faction. A justification had to be given for the rejection of King John Balliol in whose name William Wallace and Andrew de Moray had rebelled in 1297. The reason given in the Declaration is that Bruce was able to defend Scotland from English aggression whereas King John could not. Whatever the true motive, the idea of a contract between King and people was advanced to the Pope as a justification for Bruce's coronation whilst John de Balliol, who had abdicated the Scottish throne, still lived in as a Papal prisoner. Text For the full text in Latin and a translation in English, See Declaration of Arbroath on WikiSource. Signatories There are 39 names—eight earls and thirty-one barons—at the start of the document, all of whom may have had their seals appended, probably over the space of some time, possibly weeks, with nobles sending in their seals to be used. The folded foot of the document shows that at least eleven additional barons and freeholders (who were not noble) who were not listed on the head were associated with the letter. On the extant copy of the Declaration there are only 19 seals, and of those 19 people only 12 are named within the document. It is thought likely that at least 11 more seals than the original 39 might have been appended. The Declaration was then taken to the papal court at Avignon by Sir Adam Gordon, Sir Odard de Maubuisson, and Bishop Kininmund who was not yet a bishop and probably included for his scholarship. The Pope heeded the arguments contained in the Declaration, influenced by the offer of support from the Scots for his long-desired crusade if they no longer had to fear English invasion. He exhorted Edward II in a letter to make peace with the Scots. However, it did not lead to his recognising Robert as King of Scots, and the following year was again persuaded by the English to take their side and issued six bulls to that effect. Eight years later, on 1 March 1328, the new English king, Edward III, signed a peace treaty between Scotland and England, the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton. In this treaty, which was in effect until 1333, Edward renounced all English claims to Scotland. In October 1328, the interdict on Scotland, and the excommunication of its king, were removed by the Pope. Manuscript The original copy of the Declaration that was sent to Avignon is lost. The only existing manuscript copy of the Declaration survives among Scotland's state papers, measuring 540mm wide by 675mm long (including the seals), it is held by the National Archives of Scotland in Edinburgh, a part of the National Records of Scotland. The most widely known English language translation was made by Sir James Fergusson, formerly Keeper of the Records of Scotland, from | proclaimed the independence of the kingdom from England. By 1314 only Edinburgh, Berwick-upon-Tweed, Roxburgh, and Stirling remained in English hands. In June 1314 the Battle of Bannockburn had secured Robert Bruce's position as King of Scots; Stirling, the Central Belt, and much of Lothian came under Robert's control while the defeated Edward II's power on escaping to England via Berwick weakened under the sway of his cousin Henry, Earl of Lancaster. King Robert was thus able to consolidate his power, and sent his brother Edward Bruce to claim the Kingdom of Ireland in 1315 with an army landed in Ulster the previous year with the help of Gaelic lords from the Isles. Edward Bruce died in 1318 without achieving success, but the Scots campaigns in Ireland and in northern England were intended to press for the recognition of Robert's crown by King Edward. At the same time, it undermined the House of Plantagenet's claims to overlordship of the British Isles and halted the Plantagenets' effort to absorb Scotland as had been done in Ireland and Wales. Thus were the Scots nobles confident in their letters to Pope John of the distinct and independent nature of Scotland's kingdom; the Declaration of Arbroath was one such. According to historian David Crouch, "The two nations were mutually hostile kingdoms and peoples, and the ancient idea of Britain as an informal empire of peoples under the English king's presidency was entirely dead." The text makes claims about the ancient history of Scotland and especially the Scoti, forbears of the Scots, who the Declaration claims originated in Scythia Major and migrated via Spain to Britain, dating their migration to "1,200 years from the Israelite people's crossing of the Red Sea". The Declaration describes how the Scots had "thrown out the Britons and completely destroyed the Picts", resisted the invasions of "the Norse, the Danes and the English", and "held itself ever since, free from all slavery". It then claims that in the Kingdom of Scotland, "one hundred and thirteen kings have reigned of their own Blood Royal, without interruption by foreigners". The text compares Robert Bruce with the Biblical warriors Judah Maccabee and Joshua. The Declaration made a number of points: that Edward I of England had unjustly attacked Scotland and perpetrated atrocities; that Robert the Bruce had delivered the Scottish nation from this peril; and, most controversially, that the independence of Scotland was the prerogative of the Scottish people, rather than the King of Scots. Debates Some have interpreted this last point as an early expression of 'popular sovereignty' – that government is contractual and that kings can be chosen by the community rather than by God alone. It has been considered to be the first statement of the contractual theory of monarchy underlying modern constitutionalism. It has also been argued that the Declaration was not a statement of popular sovereignty (and that its signatories would have had no such concept) but a statement of royal propaganda supporting Bruce's faction. A justification had to be given for the rejection of King John Balliol in whose name William Wallace and Andrew de Moray had rebelled in 1297. The reason given in the Declaration is that Bruce was able to defend Scotland from English aggression whereas King John could not. Whatever the true motive, the idea of a contract between King and people was advanced to the Pope as a justification for Bruce's coronation whilst John de Balliol, who had abdicated the Scottish throne, still lived in as a Papal prisoner. Text For the full text in Latin and a translation in English, See Declaration of Arbroath on WikiSource. Signatories There are 39 names—eight earls and thirty-one barons—at the start of the document, all of whom may have had their seals appended, probably over the space of some time, possibly weeks, with nobles sending in their seals to be used. The folded foot of the document shows that at least eleven additional barons and freeholders (who were not noble) who were not listed on the head were associated with the letter. On the extant copy of the Declaration there are only 19 seals, and of those 19 people only 12 are named within the document. It is thought likely that at least 11 more seals than the original 39 might have been appended. The Declaration was then taken to the papal court at Avignon by Sir Adam Gordon, Sir Odard de Maubuisson, and Bishop Kininmund who was not yet a bishop and probably included for his scholarship. The Pope heeded the arguments contained in the Declaration, influenced by the offer of support from the Scots for his long-desired crusade if they no longer had to fear English invasion. He exhorted Edward II in a letter to make peace with the Scots. However, it did not lead to his recognising Robert as King of Scots, and the following year was again persuaded by the English to take their side and issued six bulls to that effect. Eight years later, on 1 March 1328, the new English king, Edward III, signed a peace treaty between Scotland and England, the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton. In this treaty, which was in effect until 1333, Edward renounced all English claims to Scotland. In October 1328, the interdict on Scotland, and the excommunication of its king, were removed by the Pope. Manuscript The original copy of the Declaration that was sent to Avignon is lost. The only existing manuscript copy of the |
information that the sender and receiver of the digital communication must both possess, in advance, in order for the communication to be successful. Languages are generally arbitrary and specify the meaning to be assigned to particular symbol sequences, the allowed range of values, methods to be used for synchronization, etc. Errors: Disturbances (noise) in analog communications invariably introduce some, generally small deviation or error between the intended and actual communication. Disturbances in digital communication do not result in errors unless the disturbance is so large as to result in a symbol being misinterpreted as another symbol or disturb the sequence of symbols. It is therefore generally possible to have an entirely error-free digital communication. Further, techniques such as check codes may be used to detect errors and guarantee error-free communications through redundancy or re-transmission. Errors in digital communications can take the form of substitution errors in which a symbol is replaced by another symbol, or insertion/deletion errors in which an extra incorrect symbol is inserted into or deleted from a digital message. Uncorrected errors in digital communications have an unpredictable and generally large impact on the information content of the communication. Copying: Because of the inevitable presence of noise, making many successive copies of an analog communication is infeasible because each generation increases the noise. Because digital communications are generally error-free, copies of copies can be made indefinitely. Granularity: The digital representation of a continuously variable analog value typically involves a selection of the number of symbols to be assigned to that value. The number of symbols determines the precision or resolution of the resulting datum. The difference between the actual analog value and the digital representation is known as quantization error. For example, if the actual temperature is 23.234456544453 degrees, but if only two digits (23) are assigned to this parameter in a particular digital representation, the quantizing error is: 0.234456544453. This property of digital communication is known as granularity. Compressible: According to Miller, "Uncompressed digital data is very large, and in its raw form, it would actually produce a larger signal (therefore be more difficult to transfer) than analog data. However, digital data can be compressed. Compression reduces the amount of bandwidth space needed to send information. Data can be compressed, sent and then decompressed at the site of consumption. This makes it possible to send much more information and result in, for example, digital television signals offering more room on the airwave spectrum for more television channels." Historical digital systems Even though digital signals are generally associated with the binary electronic digital systems used in modern electronics and computing, digital systems are actually ancient, and need not be binary or electronic. DNA genetic code is a naturally occurring form of digital data storage. Written text (due to the limited character set and the use of discrete symbols – the alphabet in most cases) The abacus was created sometime between 1000 BC and 500 BC, it later became a form of calculation frequency. Nowadays it can be used as a very advanced, yet basic digital calculator that uses beads on rows to represent numbers. Beads only have meaning in discrete up and down states, not in analog in-between states. A beacon is perhaps the simplest non-electronic digital signal, with just two states (on and off). In particular, | insertion/deletion errors in which an extra incorrect symbol is inserted into or deleted from a digital message. Uncorrected errors in digital communications have an unpredictable and generally large impact on the information content of the communication. Copying: Because of the inevitable presence of noise, making many successive copies of an analog communication is infeasible because each generation increases the noise. Because digital communications are generally error-free, copies of copies can be made indefinitely. Granularity: The digital representation of a continuously variable analog value typically involves a selection of the number of symbols to be assigned to that value. The number of symbols determines the precision or resolution of the resulting datum. The difference between the actual analog value and the digital representation is known as quantization error. For example, if the actual temperature is 23.234456544453 degrees, but if only two digits (23) are assigned to this parameter in a particular digital representation, the quantizing error is: 0.234456544453. This property of digital communication is known as granularity. Compressible: According to Miller, "Uncompressed digital data is very large, and in its raw form, it would actually produce a larger signal (therefore be more difficult to transfer) than analog data. However, digital data can be compressed. Compression reduces the amount of bandwidth space needed to send information. Data can be compressed, sent and then decompressed at the site of consumption. This makes it possible to send much more information and result in, for example, digital television signals offering more room on the airwave spectrum for more television channels." Historical digital systems Even though digital signals are generally associated with the binary electronic digital systems used in modern electronics and computing, digital systems are actually ancient, and need not be binary or electronic. DNA genetic code is a naturally occurring form of digital data storage. Written text (due to the limited character set and the use of discrete symbols – the alphabet in most cases) The abacus was created sometime between 1000 BC and 500 BC, it later became a form of calculation frequency. Nowadays it can be used as a very advanced, yet basic digital calculator that uses beads on rows to represent numbers. Beads only have meaning in discrete up and down states, not in analog in-between states. A beacon is perhaps the simplest non-electronic digital signal, with just two states (on and off). In particular, smoke signals are one of the oldest examples of a digital signal, where an analog "carrier" (smoke) is modulated with a blanket to generate a digital signal (puffs) that conveys information. Morse code uses six digital states—dot, dash, intra-character gap (between each dot or dash), short gap (between each letter), medium gap (between words), and long gap (between sentences)—to send messages via a variety of potential carriers such as electricity or light, for example |
the premises (due to its "top-down logic") Natural deduction, an approach to proof theory that attempts to provide a formal model of logical reasoning as it does not "naturally" occur Logical thinking Taxation Tax deduction, variable tax dollars subtracted from gross income Itemized deduction, eligible expense that individual taxpayers in the United States can report | generality than the premises (due to its "top-down logic") Natural deduction, an approach to proof theory that attempts to provide a formal model of logical reasoning as it does not "naturally" |
as well as the "demons that bring famine" and "such as cause storm and earthquake". According to some aggadic stories, demons were under the dominion of a king or chief, usually Asmodai. Kabbalah In Kabbalah, demons are regarded a necessary part of the divine emanation in the material world and a byproduct of human sin (Qliphoth). However, spirits such as the shedim may also be benevolent and were used in kabbalistic ceremonies (as with the golem of Rabbi Yehuda Loevy) and malevolent shedim (Mazikin, from the root meaning "to damage") were often credited with possession. Second Temple Judaism The sources of demonic influence were thought to originate from the Watchers or Nephilim, who are first mentioned in Genesis 6 and are the focus of 1 Enoch Chapters 1–16, and also in Jubilees 10. The Nephilim were seen as the source of the sin and evil on Earth because they are referenced in Genesis 6:4 before the story of the Flood. In Genesis 6:5, God sees evil in the hearts of men. Ethiopic Enoch refers to Genesis 6:4–5, and provides further description of the story connecting the Nephilim to the corruption of humans. According to the Book of Enoch, sin originates when angels descend from heaven and fornicate with women, birthing giants. The Book of Enoch shows that these fallen angels can lead humans to sin through direct interaction or through providing forbidden knowledge. Most scholars understand the text, that demons originate from the evil spirits of the deceased giants, cursed by God to wander the Earth. Dale Martin disagrees with this interpretation, arguing that the ghosts of the Nephilim are distinct. The evil spirits would make the people sacrifice to the demons, but they were not demons themselves. The spirits are stated in Enoch to "corrupt, fall, be excited, and fall upon the earth, and cause sorrow." The Book of Jubilees conveys that sin occurs when Cainan accidentally transcribes astrological knowledge used by the Watchers. This differs from Enoch in that it does not place blame on the angels. However, in Jubilees 10:4 the evil spirits of the Watchers are discussed as evil and still remain on Earth to corrupt the humans. God binds only 90% of the Watchers and destroys them, leaving 10% to be ruled by Mastema. Because the evil in humans is great, only 10% would be needed to corrupt and lead humans astray. These spirits of the giants are also referred to as "the bastards" in the apotropaic prayer Songs of the Sage, which lists the names of demons the narrator hopes to expel. To the Qumran community during the Second Temple period, this apotropaic prayer was assigned, stating: "And, I the Sage, declare the grandeur of his radiance in order to frighten and terri[fy] all the spirits of the ravaging angels and the bastard spirits, demons, Liliths, owls" (Dead Sea Scrolls, "Songs of the Sage," Lines 4–5). Hinduism Hindu beliefs include numerous varieties of creatures with materialistic or non-material form such as Vetalas, Bhutas and Pishachas. Rakshasas and Asuras are demons. Asuras Asura, in the earliest hymns of the Rigveda, originally meant any supernatural spirit, either good or bad. Since the /s/ of the Indic linguistic branch is cognate with the /h/ of the Early Iranian languages, the word Asura, representing a category of celestial beings, is a cognate with Old Persian Ahura. Ancient Hinduism tells that Devas (also called suras) and Asuras are half-brothers, sons of the same father Kashyapa; although some of the Devas, such as Varuna, are also called Asuras. Later, during Puranic age, Asura and Rakshasa came to exclusively mean any of a race of anthropomorphic, powerful, possibly evil beings. Daitya (lit. sons of the mother "Diti"), Maya Danava, Rakshasa (lit. from "harm to be guarded against"), and Asura are incorrectly translated into English as "demon". In post-Vedic Hindu scriptures, pious, highly enlightened Asuras, such as Prahlada and Vibhishana, are not uncommon. The Asura are not fundamentally against the gods, nor do they tempt humans to fall. Many people metaphorically interpret the Asura as manifestations of the ignoble passions in the human mind and as symbolic devices. There were also cases of power-hungry Asuras challenging various aspects of the gods, but only to be defeated eventually and seek forgiveness. Evil spirits Hinduism advocates the reincarnation and transmigration of souls according to one's karma. Souls (Atman) of the dead are adjudged by the Yama and are accorded various purging punishments before being reborn. Humans that have committed extraordinary wrongs are condemned to roam as lonely, often mischief mongers, spirits for a length of time before being reborn. Many kinds of such spirits (Vetalas, Pishachas, Bhūta) are recognized in the later Hindu texts. Iranian demons Zoroastrianism The Zorastrian belief in demons (Daeva) had strong influence on the Abrahamic religions, especially Christianity and Islam. The daevas seem to be a Zorastrian interpretation of the Hindu pantheon. Particularly Indra, one of the most eminent individual deities of Vedic texts, is portrayed as a malicious force only next to Ahriman, the principle of evil (devil). But daevas are not merely the false gods of a past religion, but also embodiment of vices and fierce side of nature. Thraotona slays the daeva Azhi Dahāka, a serpentine or dragon-like creature with three heads. Thraotona's victory over a serpentine or dragon-like creature with three heads, is not the victory of a great warrior, but to show that people who live in accordance with Asha can overcome evil. Aeshma, a demon of wrath and destruction, appears to be the direct forerunner of Asmodeus (Sakhr in Islam) from Abrahamic religion. Winter too became associated with one of the daeva. In Zarathustra's personal revelation, there are no individual daevas. They are always referred to as in a group and their worshippers are associated with violence and destruction: but ye Daevas are all spawned from Evil Thought/ as is the grandee who worships you, and from wrong and contempt... ever since you have been enjoiing those worst of things that mortals are to do/ to wax to the daevas' favor retreating from Good Thought/ losing the way from the Mindful Lord's wisdom and from Right. — Yasna 32.3-4 In their state of wickedness, they lead mankind into sin and death: So ye lure the mortal from good living and security from death/as the Evil Will does you who are daevas, by evil thought/ and that evil speech with which he assigns the deed to the wrongfil one's control. — Yasna 32.5 Demons are subordinate to the absolute power of evil, the Evil Will, embodied in Ahriman/Angra Manyu. They are both corrupted and evil themselves. Demons possess no substance on their ownand can only attach themselves to material agents. People who worship demons are blamed to give them power. In the Gathas, the primary way for demons to corrupt humans and cause suffering, manifests through their worshippers. The Vendidad (Law against Daeva) is mainly concerned to ward off demons by offering laws for ritual purity. However, demons would not increase their power only through acts in their favor but also by every act against Ahura Mazda (supreme good). Everyday actions might be considered a form of demon-worship. For example, cutting one's hair or nails and keeping them on the ground is understood as a sacrifice to the demons. Just like the demons' power increase by acts of wickedness, they are weakened by good deeds. Performaning invocations of Ahura Mazda are considered especially helpful. The Vendidad further explores the possibility for humans to turn into demons. A human who performs sexual immoralities or worships demons becomes a demon after death. A wicked person might be considered a demon in his lifetime, but only turns completely into one after death. The Bundahishn offers an overview about the creation of demons. The text explains that Ahura Mazda and Ahriman existed before the material world, one in light and the other in the abyss of darkness. When Ahriman assaulted Ahura Mazda, Ahura Mazda created a world as a battle place and Ahriman could be defeated. The first beings created by Ahura Mazda were the six Amesha Spenta, whereupon Ahriman counters by creating six daevas. The demons are not tempted but directly created by the principle of evil. According to the Bundahishn, the demons revive Ahriman, whereby calling him their father: Rise up, thou father of us! for we will cause a conflict in the world, the distress and injury from which will become those of Ohrmazd and the archangels — Bun 3.1 Demons assault the souls when passing the Chinvat Bridge. While virtuous people ward them off and succeed on entering heaven, wicked souls fail and are seized by the demons. In hell, demons continue to torment the damned. Manichaeism In Manichaean mythology demons had a real existence, as they derived from the Kingdom of Darkness, they were not metaphors expressing the absence of good nor are they fallen angels, that means they are not originally good, but entities purely evil. The demons came into the world after the Prince of Darkness assaulted the Realm of Light. The demons ultimately failed their attack and ended up imprisoned in the structures and matter of the contemporary world. Lacking virtues and being in constant conflict with both the divine creatures and themselves, they are inferior to the divine entities and overcome by the divine beings at the end of time. They are not sophisticated or inventive creatures, but only driven by their urges. Simultaneously, the Manichaean concept of demons remains abstract and is closely linked to ethical aspects of evil that many of them appear as personified evil qualities such as: Greed (desire for wealth) Wrath (desire for destruction) Envy Grief The Watcher, another group of demonic entities, known from the Enochian writings, appear in the canonical Book of Giants. The Watchers came into existence after the demons were chained up in the sky by Living Spirit. Later, outwitted by Third Messenger, they fall to earth, there they had intercourse with human women and beget the monstrous Nephilim. Thereupon they establish a tyrannical rule on earth, suppressing mankind, until they are defeated by the angels of punishment, setting an end to their rule. In the Shahnameh In Shahnameh, written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi between c. 977 and 1010 CE the term div (from the Avestan Daeva) includes both demons as well as evil humans. The divs of the legendary Mazandaran might reflect human enemies of Iran. Zahak, inspired by the daeva Azhi Dahāka, is not a degraced deity, but a human tyrant, identified as an Arab, who slayed his father in exchange for power. It is only after he was tricked by the devil for power, he grows serpentine heads on his shoulders and becomes less human. Divs are often black, long teeth, claws as hands; a monstrous but humanoid shape. Despite their human form, many divs are masters of supernatural sorcery, reflecting their former associations with the daevas. Div-e Sepid, leader of the divs, is both an outstanding warrior and a master of magic, who causes storms to overcome hostile armies. After divs are defeated, they might join their enemy. The poem begins with the kings of the Pishdadian dynasty. They defeat and subjugate the demonic divs. Tahmuras commanded the divs and became known as dīvband (binder of demons). Jamshid, the fourth king of the world, ruled over both angels and div and served as a high priest of Ahura Mazda (Hormozd). After a just reign over hundreds of years, Jamshid grew haughty and claims, because of his wealth and power, divinity for himself. His people get unsatisfied with their king and Zahhak usurps the throne, aided by demons. Jamshid dies sawn in two by two divs. Tricked by Ahriman (or Iblis), Zahhak grew two snakes on his shoulders and becomes the demonic serpant-king. The King Kay Kāvus fails to conquer the legendary Mazdaran, the land of divs and gets captured. To save his king, Rustam takes a journey and fights through seven trials. Divs are among the common enemies Rustam faces, the last one the Div-e Sepid, the demonic king of Mazdaran. Native North American demons Wendigo The Algonquian people traditionally believe in a spirit called a wendigo. The spirit is believed to possess people who then become cannibals. In Athabaskan folklore, there is a belief in wechuge, a similar cannibal spirit. Christianity Old Testament The existence of demons as inherently malicious spirits within Old Testamental texts is absent. Though there are evil spirits sent by YHWH, they can hardly be called demons, since they serve and do not oppose the governing deity. First then the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek, the "gods of other nations" were merged into a single category of demons (daimones) with implied negativity. The Greek Daimons were associated with demi-divine entities, deities, illnesses and fortune-telling. The Jewish translators rendered them all as demons, depicting their power as nullified comparable to the description of shedim in the Tanakh. Although all these supernatural powers were translated, none were angels, despite sharing a similar function to that of the Greek Daimon. This established a dualism between the angels on God's side and negatively evaluated demons of pagan origin. Their relationship to the God-head became the main difference between angels and demons, not their degree of benevolence. Both angels and demons might be fierce and terrifying. However, the angels act always at service of the high god of the Israelites, differing from the pagan demons, who represent the powers of foreign deities. The Septuagint refers to evil spirits as demons (daimon). New Testament Through the New Testament, demons appear 55 times, 46 times in reference to demonic possession or exorcisms. Some old English Bible translations such as King James Version do not have the word 'demon' in their vocabulary and translate it as 'devil'. As adversaries of Jesus, demons are not morally ambivalent spirits, but evil; cause of misery, suffering and death. They are not tempters, but cause of pain, suffering and maladies, both physical and mental. Temptation is reserved for the devil only. Unlike spirits in pagan beliefs, demons are not intermediary spirits whom must be sacrificed for appeasement of a deity. Possession also shows no trace of positivity contrary to some pagan depictions of spirit possession. They are explicitly said to be ruled by the devil or Beelzebub. Their origin is unclear, the texts take the existence of demons for granted. Many early Christians, like Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria and Lactantius assumed demons were ghosts of the Nephilim, known from Intertestamental writings. Because of references to Satan as the lord of demons, and evil angels of Satan throughout the New Testament, other scholars identified fallen angels with demons. Demons as entirely evil entities, who have been born evil, may not fit the proposed origin of evil in free-will, taught in alternate or opposing theologies. Pseudepigrapha and deuterocanonical books Demons are included into biblical interpretation. In the story of Passover, the Bible tells the story as "the Lord struck down all the firstborn in Egypt" (). In the Book of Jubilees, which is considered canonical only by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, this same event is told slightly differently: "All the powers of [the demon] Mastema had been let loose to slay all the first-born in the land of Egypt. And the powers of the Lord did everything according as the Lord commanded them." (Jubilees 49:2–4) In the Genesis flood narrative the author explains how God was noticing "how corrupt the earth had become, for all the people on earth had corrupted their ways" (). In Jubilees the sins of man are attributed to "the unclean demons [who] began to lead astray the children of the sons of Noah, and to make to err and destroy them" (Jubilees 10:1). In Jubilees, Mastema questions the loyalty of Abraham and tells God to "bid him offer him as a burnt offering on the altar, and Thou wilt see if he will do this command" | writings, appear in the canonical Book of Giants. The Watchers came into existence after the demons were chained up in the sky by Living Spirit. Later, outwitted by Third Messenger, they fall to earth, there they had intercourse with human women and beget the monstrous Nephilim. Thereupon they establish a tyrannical rule on earth, suppressing mankind, until they are defeated by the angels of punishment, setting an end to their rule. In the Shahnameh In Shahnameh, written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi between c. 977 and 1010 CE the term div (from the Avestan Daeva) includes both demons as well as evil humans. The divs of the legendary Mazandaran might reflect human enemies of Iran. Zahak, inspired by the daeva Azhi Dahāka, is not a degraced deity, but a human tyrant, identified as an Arab, who slayed his father in exchange for power. It is only after he was tricked by the devil for power, he grows serpentine heads on his shoulders and becomes less human. Divs are often black, long teeth, claws as hands; a monstrous but humanoid shape. Despite their human form, many divs are masters of supernatural sorcery, reflecting their former associations with the daevas. Div-e Sepid, leader of the divs, is both an outstanding warrior and a master of magic, who causes storms to overcome hostile armies. After divs are defeated, they might join their enemy. The poem begins with the kings of the Pishdadian dynasty. They defeat and subjugate the demonic divs. Tahmuras commanded the divs and became known as dīvband (binder of demons). Jamshid, the fourth king of the world, ruled over both angels and div and served as a high priest of Ahura Mazda (Hormozd). After a just reign over hundreds of years, Jamshid grew haughty and claims, because of his wealth and power, divinity for himself. His people get unsatisfied with their king and Zahhak usurps the throne, aided by demons. Jamshid dies sawn in two by two divs. Tricked by Ahriman (or Iblis), Zahhak grew two snakes on his shoulders and becomes the demonic serpant-king. The King Kay Kāvus fails to conquer the legendary Mazdaran, the land of divs and gets captured. To save his king, Rustam takes a journey and fights through seven trials. Divs are among the common enemies Rustam faces, the last one the Div-e Sepid, the demonic king of Mazdaran. Native North American demons Wendigo The Algonquian people traditionally believe in a spirit called a wendigo. The spirit is believed to possess people who then become cannibals. In Athabaskan folklore, there is a belief in wechuge, a similar cannibal spirit. Christianity Old Testament The existence of demons as inherently malicious spirits within Old Testamental texts is absent. Though there are evil spirits sent by YHWH, they can hardly be called demons, since they serve and do not oppose the governing deity. First then the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek, the "gods of other nations" were merged into a single category of demons (daimones) with implied negativity. The Greek Daimons were associated with demi-divine entities, deities, illnesses and fortune-telling. The Jewish translators rendered them all as demons, depicting their power as nullified comparable to the description of shedim in the Tanakh. Although all these supernatural powers were translated, none were angels, despite sharing a similar function to that of the Greek Daimon. This established a dualism between the angels on God's side and negatively evaluated demons of pagan origin. Their relationship to the God-head became the main difference between angels and demons, not their degree of benevolence. Both angels and demons might be fierce and terrifying. However, the angels act always at service of the high god of the Israelites, differing from the pagan demons, who represent the powers of foreign deities. The Septuagint refers to evil spirits as demons (daimon). New Testament Through the New Testament, demons appear 55 times, 46 times in reference to demonic possession or exorcisms. Some old English Bible translations such as King James Version do not have the word 'demon' in their vocabulary and translate it as 'devil'. As adversaries of Jesus, demons are not morally ambivalent spirits, but evil; cause of misery, suffering and death. They are not tempters, but cause of pain, suffering and maladies, both physical and mental. Temptation is reserved for the devil only. Unlike spirits in pagan beliefs, demons are not intermediary spirits whom must be sacrificed for appeasement of a deity. Possession also shows no trace of positivity contrary to some pagan depictions of spirit possession. They are explicitly said to be ruled by the devil or Beelzebub. Their origin is unclear, the texts take the existence of demons for granted. Many early Christians, like Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria and Lactantius assumed demons were ghosts of the Nephilim, known from Intertestamental writings. Because of references to Satan as the lord of demons, and evil angels of Satan throughout the New Testament, other scholars identified fallen angels with demons. Demons as entirely evil entities, who have been born evil, may not fit the proposed origin of evil in free-will, taught in alternate or opposing theologies. Pseudepigrapha and deuterocanonical books Demons are included into biblical interpretation. In the story of Passover, the Bible tells the story as "the Lord struck down all the firstborn in Egypt" (). In the Book of Jubilees, which is considered canonical only by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, this same event is told slightly differently: "All the powers of [the demon] Mastema had been let loose to slay all the first-born in the land of Egypt. And the powers of the Lord did everything according as the Lord commanded them." (Jubilees 49:2–4) In the Genesis flood narrative the author explains how God was noticing "how corrupt the earth had become, for all the people on earth had corrupted their ways" (). In Jubilees the sins of man are attributed to "the unclean demons [who] began to lead astray the children of the sons of Noah, and to make to err and destroy them" (Jubilees 10:1). In Jubilees, Mastema questions the loyalty of Abraham and tells God to "bid him offer him as a burnt offering on the altar, and Thou wilt see if he will do this command" (Jubilees 17:16). The discrepancy between the story in Jubilees and the story in Genesis 22 exists with the presence of Mastema. In Genesis, God tests the will of Abraham merely to determine whether he is a true follower, however; in Jubilees Mastema has an agenda behind promoting the sacrifice of Abraham's son, "an even more demonic act than that of the Satan in Job". In Jubilees, where Mastema, an angel tasked with the tempting of mortals into sin and iniquity, requests that God give him a tenth of the spirits of the children of the watchers, demons, in order to aid the process (Jubilees 10:7–9). These demons are passed into Mastema's authority, where once again, an angel is in charge of demonic spirits. The Testament of Solomon, written sometime in the first three centuries C.E., the demon Asmodeus explains that he is the son of an angel and a human mother. Another demon describes himself as having died in the "massacre in the age of giants". Beelzeboul, the prince of demons, appears as a fallen angel not as a demon, but makes people worship demons as their gods. Christian demonology Since Early Christianity, demonology has developed from a simple acceptance of demons to a complex study that has grown from the original ideas taken from Jewish demonology and Christian scriptures. Christian demonology is studied in depth within the Roman Catholic Church, although many other Christian churches affirm and discuss the existence of demons. Building upon the few references to daimon in the New Testament, especially the poetry of the Book of Revelation, Christian writers of apocrypha from the 2nd century onwards created a more complicated tapestry of beliefs about "demons" that was largely independent of Christian scripture. While daimons were considered as both potentially benevolent or malevolent, Origen argued against Celsus that daimons are exclusively evil entities, supporting the later idea of (evil) demons. According to Origen's cosmology, increasing corruption and evil within the soul, the more estranged the soul gets from God. Therefore, Origen opined that the most evil demons are located underground. Besides the fallen angels known from Christian scriptures, Origen talks about Greek daemons, like nature spirits and giants. These creatures were thought to inhabit nature or air and nourish from pagan sacrifices roaming the earth. However, there is no functional difference between the spirits of the underworld and of earth, since both have fallen from perfection into the material world. Origen sums them up as fallen angels and thus equal to demons. Many ascetics, like Origen and Anthony the Great, described demons as psychological powers, tempting to evil, in contrast to benevolent angels advising good. According to Life of Anthony, written in Greek around 360 by Athanasius of Alexandria, most of the time, the demons were expressed as an internal struggle, inclinations and temptations. But after Anthony successfully resisted the demons, they would appear in human form to tempt and threat him even more intense. Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite described evil as "defiancy" and does not give evil an ontological existence. He explains demons are deficiant creatures, who willingly turn themselves towards the unreal and non-existence. Their dangerous nature results not from power of their nature, but from their tendency to drag others into the "void" and the unreal, away from God. Michael Psellos proposed the existence of several types of demons, deeply influenced by the material nature of the regions they dwell. The highest and most powerful demons attack the mind of people using their "imaginative action" (phantastikos) to produce illusions in the mind. The lowest demons on the other hand are almost mindless, gross and grunting spirits, which try to possess people instinctively, simply attracted by the warmth and life of humans. These cause diseases, fatal accidents and animalistic behavior in their victims. They are unable to speak, while other lower types of demons might give out false oracles. The demons are divided into: Leliouria: The highest demons who inhabit the ether, beyond the moon Aeria: Demons of the air below the moon Chthonia: Inhabiting the land Hyraia/Enalia: Dwelling in the water Bypochtbonia: They live beneath the earth Misophaes: The lowest type of demon, blind and almost senseless in the lowest hell Invocation of Saints, holy men and women, especially ascetics, reading the Gospel, holy oil or water is said to drive them out. However, Psellos' schemes have been too inconsistent to answer questions about the hierarchy of fallen angels. The devil's position is impossible to assign in this scheme and it does not respond to living perceptions of felt experience and was considered rather impractical to have a lasting effect or impact on Christian demonology. The contemporary Roman Catholic Church unequivocally teaches that angels and demons are real beings rather than just symbolic devices. The Catholic Church has a cadre of officially sanctioned exorcists which perform many exorcisms each year. The exorcists of the Catholic Church teach that demons attack humans continually but that afflicted persons can be effectively healed and protected either by the formal rite of exorcism, authorized to be performed only by bishops and those they designate, or by prayers of deliverance, which any Christian can offer for themselves or others. At various times in Christian history, attempts have been made to classify demons according to various proposed demonic hierarchies. Mandaeism In Mandaeism, the World of Darkness (), also referred to as Sheol, is the underworld located below Tibil (Earth). It is ruled by its king Ur (Leviathan) and its queen Ruha, mother of the seven planets and twelve constellations. The great dark Ocean of Sup (or Suf) lies in the World of Darkness. The great dividing river of Hitpun, analogous to the river Styx in Greek mythology, separates the World of Darkness from the World of Light. Prominent infernal beings found in the World of Darkness include lilith, nalai (vampire), niuli (hobgoblin), gadalta (ghost), satani (Satan) and various other demons and evil spirits. Gnosticism Examples of Gnostic portrayals of demons can be found in the Apocryphon of John in which they are said to have helped construct the physical Adam and in Pistis Sophia which states they are ruled over by Hekate and punish corrupt souls. Islam Shayāṭīn (or Daeva of Indo-Iranian religion) are the usual terms for demons in Islamic belief. In Islam demons try to lead humans astray from God, by tempting them to sin, teaching them sorcery and cause mischief among humans. Occult practises albeit not forbidden per se, may include conjuring demons, which requires acts against God's laws and are therefore forbidden, such as illicit blood-sacrifices, abandoning prayer and rejecting fasting. Based on the Islamic view on Solomon, who is widely believed to have been a ruler over genies and demons, Islam has a rich tradition about conjuring demons. Among the demons are the devils (shayatin) and the fiends (div). Both are believed to have worked for Solomon as slaves. While the devils usually appear within a Judeo-Christian background, the div frequently feature in beliefs of Persian and Indian origin. But it is to be noted that in Islam both angels and demons are considered to be the creatures of God and so God has ultimate power over all of them. According to exegisis of the Quran the devils are the offspring of Iblis (Satan). They are said to live until the world ceases to exist, always shadow in humans (and jinn) whispering onto their hearts to lead them astray. Prayers are used to ward off their attacks, dissolving them temporarily. As the counterpart of the angels, they try to go against God's will and their abode in Hell is pre-destined. They lack free will and are bound to evil. The ifrit and marid are more powerful classes of devils. Jinn are different from devils in that they have free will and not all of them are wrongdoers. According to Abu Ali Bal'ami's work on the history of the world, Wahb ibn Munabbih explained that the divs were the first beings created by God. Some argue the devils were created good, but turned evil by Iblis' act of arrogance, the div were created as vicious creatures and embodiment of evil. When Iblis was still among the angels, he led an army against the spirits on the earth. Among them were the div, who formed two orders; one of which sided with the jinn and were banished with them, condemned to roam the earth. The other, treacherous div joined Iblis in battle, and exiled to Hell with him. The div are often depicted as sorcerers whose misdeeds are not bound to temptation only. They could cause sickness, mental illnesses, or even turn humans to stone by touching. While the devils frequently appear to ordinary humans to tempt them into everything disapproved by society, the div usually appear to specific heroes. Bahá'í Faith In the Bahá'í Faith, demons are not regarded as independent evil spirits as they are in some faiths. Rather, evil spirits described in various faiths' traditions, such as Satan, fallen angels, demons and jinn, are metaphors for the base character traits a human being may acquire and manifest when he turns away from God and follows his lower nature. Belief in the existence of ghosts and earthbound spirits is rejected and considered to be the product of superstition. Ceremonial magic While some people fear demons, or attempt to exorcise them, others willfully attempt to summon them for knowledge, assistance, or power. The ceremonial magician usually consults a grimoire, which gives the names and abilities of demons as well as detailed instructions for conjuring and controlling them. Grimoires are not limited to demons – some give the names of angels or spirits which can be called, a process called theurgy. The use of ceremonial magic to call demons is also known as goetia, the name taken from a section in the famous grimoire known as the Lesser Key of Solomon. Wicca According to Rosemary Ellen Guiley, "Demons are not courted or worshipped in contemporary Wicca and Paganism. The existence of negative energies is acknowledged." Modern interpretations Psychologist Wilhelm Wundt remarked that "among the activities attributed by myths all over the world to demons, the harmful predominate, so that in popular belief bad demons are clearly older than good ones." Sigmund Freud developed this idea and claimed that the concept of demons was derived from the important relation of the living to the dead: "The fact that demons are always regarded as the spirits of those who have died recently shows better than anything the influence of mourning on the origin of the belief in demons." M. Scott Peck, an American psychiatrist, wrote two books on the subject, People of the Lie: The Hope For Healing Human Evil and Glimpses of the Devil: A Psychiatrist's Personal Accounts of Possession, Exorcism, and Redemption. Peck describes in some detail several cases involving his patients. In People of the Lie he provides identifying characteristics of an evil person, whom he classified as having a character disorder. In Glimpses of the Devil Peck goes into significant detail describing how he became interested in exorcism in order to debunk the myth of possession by evil spirits – only to be convinced otherwise after encountering two cases which did not fit into any category known to psychology or psychiatry. Peck came to the conclusion that possession was a rare phenomenon related to evil and that possessed people are not actually evil; rather, they are doing battle with the forces of evil. Although Peck's earlier work was met with widespread popular acceptance, his work on the topics of evil and possession has generated significant debate and derision. Much was made of his association with (and admiration for) the controversial Malachi Martin, a Roman Catholic priest and a former Jesuit, despite the fact that Peck consistently called Martin a liar and a manipulator. Richard Woods, a Roman Catholic priest and theologian, has claimed that Dr. Peck misdiagnosed patients based upon a lack of knowledge regarding dissociative identity disorder (formerly known as multiple personality disorder) and had apparently transgressed the boundaries of professional ethics by attempting to persuade his patients into accepting Christianity. Father Woods admitted that he has never witnessed a genuine case of demonic possession in all his years. According to S. N. Chiu, God is |
in a meta-stable state; when the first domino is toppled, the energy transferred by the fall is greater than the energy needed to knock over the following domino, and so on. The domino effect is exploited in Rube Goldberg machines. Appearances in media Domino Day – world record attempt for the highest number of toppling domino stones. See also Domino effect accident Ripple effect Rube Goldberg machine Ablation cascade Relevant physical theory: Butterfly effect Cascading failure Causality Chain reaction Snowball effect Mathematical theory Mathematical induction Political theory Domino | The term domino effect is used both to imply that an event is inevitable or highly likely (as it has already started to happen), and conversely to imply that an event is impossible or highly unlikely (the one domino left standing). Demonstration of the effect The domino effect can easily be visualized by placing a row of dominoes upright, each separated by a small distance. Upon pushing the first domino, the next domino in line will be knocked over, and so on, thus firing a linear chain in which each domino's fall is triggered by the domino immediately preceding it. The effect is the same regardless of the length of the chain. The energy used in this chain reaction is the potential energy of the dominoes due to them being in a meta-stable state; when the first domino is toppled, the energy transferred by the fall is greater than the energy needed to knock over the |
range. Diffusion pumps cannot discharge directly into the atmosphere, so a mechanical forepump is typically used to maintain an outlet pressure around . The oil diffusion pump is operated with an oil of low vapor pressure. The high speed jet is generated by boiling the fluid and directing the vapor through a jet assembly. Note that the oil is gaseous when entering the nozzles. Within the nozzles, the flow changes from laminar to supersonic and molecular. Often, several jets are used in series to enhance the pumping action. The outside of the diffusion pump is cooled using either air flow, water lines or a water-filled jacket. As the vapor jet hits the outer cooled shell of the diffusion pump, the working fluid condenses and is recovered and directed back to the boiler. The pumped gases continue flowing to the base of the pump at increased pressure, flowing out through the diffusion pump outlet, where they are compressed to ambient pressure by the secondary mechanical forepump and exhausted. Unlike turbomolecular pumps and cryopumps, diffusion pumps have no moving parts and as a result are quite durable and reliable. They can function over pressure ranges of . They are driven only by convection and thus have a very low energy efficiency. One major disadvantage of diffusion pumps is the tendency to backstream oil into the vacuum chamber. This oil can contaminate surfaces inside the chamber or upon contact with hot filaments or electrical discharges may result in carbonaceous or siliceous deposits. Due to backstreaming, oil diffusion pumps are not suitable for use with highly sensitive analytical equipment or other applications which require an extremely clean vacuum environment, but mercury diffusion pumps may be in the case of ultra high vacuum chambers used for metal deposition. Often cold traps and baffles are used to minimize backstreaming, although this results in some loss of pumping speed. The oil of a diffusion pump cannot be exposed to the atmosphere when hot. If this occurs, the oil will oxidise and has to be replaced. If a fire occurs, the smoke and residue may contaminate other parts of the system. Oil types The least expensive diffusion pump oils are based on hydrocarbons which have been purified by double-distillation. Compared with the other fluids, they have higher vapor pressure, so are usually limited to a pressure of . They are | used elemental mercury as the working fluid. After its invention, the design was quickly commercialized by Leybold. It was then improved by Irving Langmuir and W. Crawford. Cecil Reginald Burch discovered the possibility of using silicone oil in 1928. Oil diffusion pumps An oil diffusion pump is used to achieve higher vacuum (lower pressure) than is possible by use of positive displacement pumps alone. Although its use has been mainly associated within the high-vacuum range, down to , diffusion pumps today can produce pressures approaching when properly used with modern fluids and accessories. The features that make the diffusion pump attractive for high and ultra-high vacuum use are its high pumping speed for all gases and low cost per unit pumping speed when compared with other types of pump used in the same vacuum range. Diffusion pumps cannot discharge directly into the atmosphere, so a mechanical forepump is typically used to maintain an outlet pressure around . The oil diffusion pump is operated with an oil of low vapor pressure. The high speed jet is generated by boiling the fluid and directing the vapor through a jet assembly. Note that the oil is gaseous when entering the nozzles. Within the nozzles, the flow changes from laminar to supersonic and molecular. Often, several jets are used in series to enhance the pumping action. The outside of the diffusion pump is cooled using either air flow, water lines or a water-filled jacket. As the vapor jet hits the outer cooled shell of the diffusion pump, the working fluid condenses and is recovered and directed back to the boiler. The pumped gases continue flowing to the base of the pump at increased pressure, flowing out through the diffusion pump outlet, where they are compressed to ambient pressure by the secondary mechanical forepump and exhausted. Unlike turbomolecular pumps and cryopumps, diffusion pumps have no moving parts and as a result are quite durable and reliable. They can function over pressure ranges of . They are driven only by convection and thus have a very low energy efficiency. One major disadvantage of diffusion pumps is the tendency to backstream oil into the vacuum chamber. This oil can contaminate surfaces inside the chamber or upon contact with hot filaments or electrical discharges may result in carbonaceous or siliceous deposits. Due to backstreaming, oil diffusion pumps are not suitable for use with highly sensitive analytical equipment or other applications which require an extremely clean vacuum environment, but mercury diffusion pumps may be in the case of ultra high vacuum chambers used for metal deposition. Often cold traps and baffles are used to minimize backstreaming, although this results in some loss of pumping speed. The oil of a diffusion pump cannot be exposed to the atmosphere when hot. If this occurs, the oil will oxidise and has to be replaced. If a fire occurs, the smoke and residue may contaminate other parts of the system. Oil types The least expensive diffusion pump oils |
The most well-known of these patterns consists of regular broken chords, with the lowest note sounding first, then the highest, then the middle and then the highest again, with the pattern repeated. Today, Alberti is regarded as a minor composer, and his works are played or recorded only irregularly. However, the Alberti bass was used by many later composers, and it became an important element in much keyboard music of the classical music era. An example of Alberti bass (Mozart's Piano Sonata, K 545): In his own lifetime, Alberti was known as a singer, and often used to accompany himself on the | bass (Mozart's Piano Sonata, K 545): In his own lifetime, Alberti was known as a singer, and often used to accompany himself on the harpsichord. In 1736, he served as a page for Pietro Andrea Cappello, the Venetian ambassador to Spain. While at the Spanish court, the famous castrato singer Farinelli heard him sing. Farinelli was said to have been impressed, although Alberti was an amateur. Alberti's best known pieces are his keyboard sonatas, although even they are very rarely performed. It is thought he wrote around 36 sonatas, of which 14 have survived. They all |
the Les Brown Band) had six other top ten hits on the Billboard chart: "My Dreams Are Getting Better All the Time", Tain't Me", "Till The End of Time", "You Won't Be Satisfied (Until You Break My Heart)", "The Whole World is Singing My Song", and "I Got the Sun in the Mornin. Les Brown said, "As a singer Doris belongs in the company of Bing Crosby and Frank Sinatra." (Aljean Harmetz (2019). "Wholesome Box-Office Star and Golden Voice of 'Que Sera, Sera' ". "The New York Times." p. 1 ) Early film career (1948–1954) While singing with the Les Brown band and for nearly two years on Bob Hope's weekly radio program, she toured extensively across the United States. Her performance of the song "Embraceable You" impressed songwriter Jule Styne and his partner, Sammy Cahn, and they recommended her for a role in Romance on the High Seas (1948). Day was cast for the role after auditioning for director Michael Curtiz. She was shocked at being offered the role in the film, and admitted to Curtiz that she was a singer without acting experience. But he said he liked that "she was honest", not afraid to admit it, and he wanted someone who "looked like the All-American Girl". Day was the discovery of which Curtiz was proudest during his career. The film provided her with a hit recording as a soloist, "It's Magic", which followed by two months her first hit ("Love Somebody" in 1948) recorded as a duet with Buddy Clark. Day recorded "Someone Like You", before the film My Dream Is Yours (1949), which featured the song. In 1950, U.S. servicemen in Korea voted her their favorite star. She continued to make minor and frequently nostalgic period musicals such as On Moonlight Bay (1951), By the Light of the Silvery Moon (1953), and Tea For Two (1950) for Warner Brothers. Her most commercially successful film for Warner was I'll See You in My Dreams (1951), which broke box-office records of 20 years. The film is a musical biography of lyricist Gus Kahn. It was Day's fourth film directed by Curtiz. Day appeared as the title character in the comedic western-themed musical, Calamity Jane (1953). A song from the film, "Secret Love", won the Academy Award for Best Original Song and became Day's fourth No. 1 hit single in the United States. Between 1950 and 1953, the albums from six of her movie musicals charted in the Top 10, three of them at No. 1. After filming Lucky Me (1954) with Bob Cummings and Young at Heart (1955) with Frank Sinatra, Day chose not to renew her contract with Warner Brothers. During this period, Day also had her own radio program, The Doris Day Show. It was broadcast on CBS in 1952–1953. Breakthrough (1955–1958) Having become primarily recognized as a musical-comedy actress, Day gradually took on more dramatic roles to broaden her range. Her dramatic star turn as singer Ruth Etting in Love Me or Leave Me (1955), with top billing above James Cagney, received critical and commercial success, becoming Day's biggest hit thus far. Cagney said she had "the ability to project the simple, direct statement of a simple, direct idea without cluttering it", comparing her to Laurette Taylor's Broadway performance in The Glass Menagerie (1945), one of the greatest performances by an American actor. Day said it was her best film performance. Producer Joe Pasternak said, "I was stunned that Doris did not get an Oscar nomination." The soundtrack album from that movie was a No. 1 hit. Day starred in Alfred Hitchcock's suspense film The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956) with James Stewart. She sang two songs in the film, "Que Sera, Sera (Whatever Will Be, Will Be)" which won an Academy Award for Best Original Song, and "We'll Love Again". The film was Day's 10th movie to be in the Top 10 at the box office. Day played the title role in the thriller/noir Julie (also 1956) with Louis Jourdan. After three successive dramatic films, Day returned to her musical/comedic roots in The Pajama Game (1957) with John Raitt. The film was based on the Broadway play of the same name. She worked with Paramount Pictures for the comedy Teacher's Pet (1958), alongside Clark Gable and Gig Young. She co-starred with Richard Widmark and Gig Young in the romantic comedy film The Tunnel of Love (also 1958), but found scant success opposite Jack Lemmon in It Happened to Jane (1959). Billboard annual nationwide poll of disc jockeys had ranked Day as the No. 1 female vocalist nine times in ten years (1949 through 1958), but her success and popularity as a singer was now being overshadowed by her box-office appeal. Box-office success (1959–1968) In 1959, Day entered her most successful phase as a film actress with a series of romantic comedies. This success began with Pillow Talk (1959), co-starring Rock Hudson who became a lifelong friend, and Tony Randall. Day received a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Actress. It was the only Oscar nomination she received in her career. Day, Hudson, and Randall made two more films together, Lover Come Back (1961) and Send Me No Flowers (1964). Along with David Niven and Janis Paige, Day starred in Please Don't Eat the Daisies (1960) and with Cary Grant in the comedy That Touch of Mink (1962). During 1960 and the 1962 to 1964 period, she ranked number one at the box office, the second woman to be number one four times, an accomplishment equalled by no other actress except Shirley Temple. She set a record that has yet to be equaled, receiving seven consecutive Laurel Awards as the top female box office star. Day teamed up with James Garner starting with The Thrill of It All, followed by Move Over, Darling (both 1963). The film's theme song, "Move Over Darling", co-written by her son, reached in the UK. In between these comedic roles, Day co-starred with Rex Harrison in the movie thriller Midnight Lace (1960), an updating of the stage thriller Gaslight. By the late 1960s, the sexual revolution of the baby boomer generation had refocused public attitudes about sex. Times changed, but Day's films did not. Day's next film Do Not Disturb (1965) was popular with audiences, but her popularity soon waned. Critics and comics dubbed Day "The World's Oldest Virgin", and audiences began to shy away from her films. As a result, she slipped from the list of top box-office stars, last appearing in the top ten with the hit film The Glass Bottom Boat (1966). One of the roles she turned down was that of Mrs. Robinson in The Graduate, a role that eventually went to Anne Bancroft. In her published memoirs, Day said she had rejected the part on moral grounds: she found the script "vulgar and offensive". She starred in the western film The Ballad of Josie (1967). That same year, Day recorded The Love Album, although it was not released until 1994. The following year (1968), she starred in the comedy film Where Were You When the Lights Went Out? which centers on the Northeast blackout of November 9, 1965. Her final feature, the comedy With Six You Get Eggroll, was released in 1968. From 1959 to 1970, Day received nine Laurel Award nominations (and won four times) for best female performance in eight comedies and one drama. From 1959 through 1969, she received six Golden Globe nominations for best female performance in three comedies, one drama (Midnight Lace), one musical (Jumbo), and her television series. Bankruptcy and television career After her third husband Martin Melcher died on April 20, 1968, a shocked Day discovered that Melcher and his business partner and "adviser" Jerome Bernard Rosenthal had squandered her earnings, leaving her deeply in debt. Rosenthal had been her attorney since 1949, when he represented her in her uncontested divorce action against her second husband, saxophonist George W. Weidler. Day filed suit against Rosenthal in February 1969, won a successful decision in 1974, but did not receive compensation until a settlement in 1979. Day also learned to her displeasure that Melcher had committed her to a television series, which became The Doris Day Show. Day hated the idea of performing on television, but felt obligated to do it. The first episode of The Doris Day Show aired on September 24, 1968, and, from 1968 to 1973, employed a rerecorded version of "Que Sera, Sera" as its theme song. Day persevered (she needed the work to help pay off her debts), but only after CBS ceded creative control to her and her son. The successful show enjoyed a five-year run, and functioned as a curtain raiser for the Carol Burnett Show. It is remembered today for its abrupt season-to-season changes in casting and premise. By the end of its run in 1973, public tastes had changed, as had those of the television industry, and her firmly established persona was regarded as passé. She largely retired from acting after The Doris Day Show, but did complete two television specials, The Doris Mary Anne Kappelhoff Special (1971) and Doris Day Today (1975), and was a guest on various shows in the 1970s. In the 1985–86 season, Day hosted her own television talk show, Doris Day's Best Friends, on the Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN). The network canceled the show after 26 episodes, despite the worldwide publicity it received. Much of that attention came from the episode featuring Rock Hudson, in which Hudson was showing the first public symptoms of AIDS including severe weight loss and admitted fatigue; Hudson would die from the disease a year later. Day later said, "He was very sick. But I just brushed that off and I came out and put my arms around him and said, 'Am I glad to see you'." 1980s and 1990s Day's husband and agent, Martin Melcher, had Beverly Hills lawyer Jerome Rosenthal handle his wife's money since the 1940s. "During that period, Rosenthal committed breaches of professional ethics that are difficult to exaggerate", as one court put it. In October 1985, the California Supreme Court rejected Rosenthal's appeal of the multimillion-dollar judgment against him for legal malpractice, and upheld conclusions of a trial court and a Court of Appeal that Rosenthal acted improperly. In April 1986, the U.S. Supreme Court refused to review the lower court's judgment. In June 1987, Rosenthal filed a $30 million lawsuit against lawyers he claimed cheated him out of millions of dollars in real estate investments. He named Day as a co-defendant, describing her as an "unwilling, involuntary plaintiff whose consent cannot be obtained". Rosenthal claimed that millions of dollars Day lost were in real estate sold after Melcher died in 1968, in which Rosenthal asserted that the attorneys gave Day bad advice, telling her to sell, at a loss, three hotels, in Palo Alto, California, Dallas, Texas, and Atlanta, Georgia, plus some oil leases in Kentucky and Ohio. He claimed he had made the investments under a long-term plan, and did not intend to sell them until they appreciated in value. Two of the hotels sold in 1970 for about $7 million, and their estimated worth in 1986 was $50 million. Terry Melcher stated that his adoptive father's premature death saved Day from financial ruin. It remains unresolved whether Martin Melcher had himself also been duped. Day stated publicly that she believed her husband innocent of any deliberate wrongdoing, stating that he "simply trusted the wrong person". According to Day's autobiography, as told to A. E. Hotchner, the usually athletic and healthy Martin Melcher had an enlarged heart. Most of the interviews on the subject given to Hotchner (and included in Day's autobiography) paint an unflattering portrait of Melcher. Author David Kaufman asserts that one of Day's costars, actor Louis Jourdan, maintained that Day herself disliked her husband, but Day's public statements regarding Melcher appear to contradict that assertion. Day was scheduled to present, along with Patrick Swayze and Marvin Hamlisch, | 10th movie to be in the Top 10 at the box office. Day played the title role in the thriller/noir Julie (also 1956) with Louis Jourdan. After three successive dramatic films, Day returned to her musical/comedic roots in The Pajama Game (1957) with John Raitt. The film was based on the Broadway play of the same name. She worked with Paramount Pictures for the comedy Teacher's Pet (1958), alongside Clark Gable and Gig Young. She co-starred with Richard Widmark and Gig Young in the romantic comedy film The Tunnel of Love (also 1958), but found scant success opposite Jack Lemmon in It Happened to Jane (1959). Billboard annual nationwide poll of disc jockeys had ranked Day as the No. 1 female vocalist nine times in ten years (1949 through 1958), but her success and popularity as a singer was now being overshadowed by her box-office appeal. Box-office success (1959–1968) In 1959, Day entered her most successful phase as a film actress with a series of romantic comedies. This success began with Pillow Talk (1959), co-starring Rock Hudson who became a lifelong friend, and Tony Randall. Day received a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Actress. It was the only Oscar nomination she received in her career. Day, Hudson, and Randall made two more films together, Lover Come Back (1961) and Send Me No Flowers (1964). Along with David Niven and Janis Paige, Day starred in Please Don't Eat the Daisies (1960) and with Cary Grant in the comedy That Touch of Mink (1962). During 1960 and the 1962 to 1964 period, she ranked number one at the box office, the second woman to be number one four times, an accomplishment equalled by no other actress except Shirley Temple. She set a record that has yet to be equaled, receiving seven consecutive Laurel Awards as the top female box office star. Day teamed up with James Garner starting with The Thrill of It All, followed by Move Over, Darling (both 1963). The film's theme song, "Move Over Darling", co-written by her son, reached in the UK. In between these comedic roles, Day co-starred with Rex Harrison in the movie thriller Midnight Lace (1960), an updating of the stage thriller Gaslight. By the late 1960s, the sexual revolution of the baby boomer generation had refocused public attitudes about sex. Times changed, but Day's films did not. Day's next film Do Not Disturb (1965) was popular with audiences, but her popularity soon waned. Critics and comics dubbed Day "The World's Oldest Virgin", and audiences began to shy away from her films. As a result, she slipped from the list of top box-office stars, last appearing in the top ten with the hit film The Glass Bottom Boat (1966). One of the roles she turned down was that of Mrs. Robinson in The Graduate, a role that eventually went to Anne Bancroft. In her published memoirs, Day said she had rejected the part on moral grounds: she found the script "vulgar and offensive". She starred in the western film The Ballad of Josie (1967). That same year, Day recorded The Love Album, although it was not released until 1994. The following year (1968), she starred in the comedy film Where Were You When the Lights Went Out? which centers on the Northeast blackout of November 9, 1965. Her final feature, the comedy With Six You Get Eggroll, was released in 1968. From 1959 to 1970, Day received nine Laurel Award nominations (and won four times) for best female performance in eight comedies and one drama. From 1959 through 1969, she received six Golden Globe nominations for best female performance in three comedies, one drama (Midnight Lace), one musical (Jumbo), and her television series. Bankruptcy and television career After her third husband Martin Melcher died on April 20, 1968, a shocked Day discovered that Melcher and his business partner and "adviser" Jerome Bernard Rosenthal had squandered her earnings, leaving her deeply in debt. Rosenthal had been her attorney since 1949, when he represented her in her uncontested divorce action against her second husband, saxophonist George W. Weidler. Day filed suit against Rosenthal in February 1969, won a successful decision in 1974, but did not receive compensation until a settlement in 1979. Day also learned to her displeasure that Melcher had committed her to a television series, which became The Doris Day Show. Day hated the idea of performing on television, but felt obligated to do it. The first episode of The Doris Day Show aired on September 24, 1968, and, from 1968 to 1973, employed a rerecorded version of "Que Sera, Sera" as its theme song. Day persevered (she needed the work to help pay off her debts), but only after CBS ceded creative control to her and her son. The successful show enjoyed a five-year run, and functioned as a curtain raiser for the Carol Burnett Show. It is remembered today for its abrupt season-to-season changes in casting and premise. By the end of its run in 1973, public tastes had changed, as had those of the television industry, and her firmly established persona was regarded as passé. She largely retired from acting after The Doris Day Show, but did complete two television specials, The Doris Mary Anne Kappelhoff Special (1971) and Doris Day Today (1975), and was a guest on various shows in the 1970s. In the 1985–86 season, Day hosted her own television talk show, Doris Day's Best Friends, on the Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN). The network canceled the show after 26 episodes, despite the worldwide publicity it received. Much of that attention came from the episode featuring Rock Hudson, in which Hudson was showing the first public symptoms of AIDS including severe weight loss and admitted fatigue; Hudson would die from the disease a year later. Day later said, "He was very sick. But I just brushed that off and I came out and put my arms around him and said, 'Am I glad to see you'." 1980s and 1990s Day's husband and agent, Martin Melcher, had Beverly Hills lawyer Jerome Rosenthal handle his wife's money since the 1940s. "During that period, Rosenthal committed breaches of professional ethics that are difficult to exaggerate", as one court put it. In October 1985, the California Supreme Court rejected Rosenthal's appeal of the multimillion-dollar judgment against him for legal malpractice, and upheld conclusions of a trial court and a Court of Appeal that Rosenthal acted improperly. In April 1986, the U.S. Supreme Court refused to review the lower court's judgment. In June 1987, Rosenthal filed a $30 million lawsuit against lawyers he claimed cheated him out of millions of dollars in real estate investments. He named Day as a co-defendant, describing her as an "unwilling, involuntary plaintiff whose consent cannot be obtained". Rosenthal claimed that millions of dollars Day lost were in real estate sold after Melcher died in 1968, in which Rosenthal asserted that the attorneys gave Day bad advice, telling her to sell, at a loss, three hotels, in Palo Alto, California, Dallas, Texas, and Atlanta, Georgia, plus some oil leases in Kentucky and Ohio. He claimed he had made the investments under a long-term plan, and did not intend to sell them until they appreciated in value. Two of the hotels sold in 1970 for about $7 million, and their estimated worth in 1986 was $50 million. Terry Melcher stated that his adoptive father's premature death saved Day from financial ruin. It remains unresolved whether Martin Melcher had himself also been duped. Day stated publicly that she believed her husband innocent of any deliberate wrongdoing, stating that he "simply trusted the wrong person". According to Day's autobiography, as told to A. E. Hotchner, the usually athletic and healthy Martin Melcher had an enlarged heart. Most of the interviews on the subject given to Hotchner (and included in Day's autobiography) paint an unflattering portrait of Melcher. Author David Kaufman asserts that one of Day's costars, actor Louis Jourdan, maintained that Day herself disliked her husband, but Day's public statements regarding Melcher appear to contradict that assertion. Day was scheduled to present, along with Patrick Swayze and Marvin Hamlisch, the Best Original Score Oscar at the 61st Academy Awards in March 1989 but she suffered a deep leg cut and was unable to attend. She had been walking through the gardens of her hotel when she cut her leg on a sprinkler. The cut required stitches. Day was inducted into the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame in 1981 and received the Cecil B. DeMille Award for career achievement in 1989. In 1994, Day's Greatest Hits album became another entry into the British charts. Her cover of "Perhaps, Perhaps, Perhaps" was included in the soundtrack of the Australian film Strictly Ballroom. 2000s Day participated in interviews and celebrations of her birthday with an annual Doris Day music marathon. In July 2008, she appeared on the Southern California radio show of longtime friend and newscaster George Putnam. Day turned down a tribute offer from the American Film Institute and from the Kennedy Center Honors because they require attendance in person. In 2004, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George W. Bush for her achievements in the entertainment industry and for her work on behalf of animals. President Bush stated: Columnist Liz Smith and film critic Rex Reed mounted vigorous campaigns to gather support for an Honorary Academy Award for Day to herald her film career and her status as the top female box-office star of all time. According to The Hollywood Reporter in 2015, the Academy offered her the Honorary Oscar multiple times, but she declined as she saw the film industry as a part of her past life. Day received a Grammy for Lifetime Achievement in Music in 2008, albeit again in absentia. She received three Grammy Hall of Fame Awards, in 1998, 1999 and 2012, for her recordings of "Sentimental Journey", "Secret Love", and "Que Sera, Sera", respectively. Day was inducted into the Hit Parade Hall of Fame in 2007, and in 2010 received the first Legend Award ever presented by the Society of Singers. 2010s Day, aged 89, released My Heart in the United Kingdom on September 5, 2011, her first new album in nearly two decades since the release of The Love Album, which, although recorded in 1967, was not released until 1994. The album is a compilation of previously unreleased recordings produced by Day's son, Terry Melcher, before his death in 2004. Tracks include the 1970s Joe Cocker hit "You Are So Beautiful", the Beach Boys' "Disney Girls" and jazz standards such as "My Buddy", which Day originally sang in the film I'll See You in My Dreams (1951). After the disc was released in the United States it soon climbed to No. 12 on Amazon's bestseller list, and helped raise funds for the Doris Day Animal League. Day became the oldest artist to score a UK Top 10 with an album featuring new material. In January 2012, the Los Angeles Film Critics Association presented Day with a Lifetime Achievement Award. In April 2014, Day made an |
may be fitted to a vacuum pump. The components are connected by ground glass joints (gray). Fractional distillation For many cases, the boiling points of the components in the mixture will be sufficiently close that Raoult's law must be taken into consideration. Therefore, fractional distillation must be used in order to separate the components by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This separation, by successive distillations, is also referred to as rectification. As the solution to be purified is heated, its vapors rise to the fractionating column. As it rises, it cools, condensing on the condenser walls and the surfaces of the packing material. Here, the condensate continues to be heated by the rising hot vapors; it vaporizes once more. However, the composition of the fresh vapors are determined once again by Raoult's law. Each vaporization-condensation cycle (called a theoretical plate) will yield a purer solution of the more volatile component. In reality, each cycle at a given temperature does not occur at exactly the same position in the fractionating column; theoretical plate is thus a concept rather than an accurate description. More theoretical plates lead to better separations. A spinning band distillation system uses a spinning band of Teflon or metal to force the rising vapors into close contact with the descending condensate, increasing the number of theoretical plates. Steam distillation Like vacuum distillation, steam distillation is a method for distilling compounds which are heat-sensitive. The temperature of the steam is easier to control than the surface of a heating element, and allows a high rate of heat transfer without heating at a very high temperature. This process involves bubbling steam through a heated mixture of the raw material. By Raoult's law, some of the target compound will vaporize (in accordance with its partial pressure). The vapor mixture is cooled and condensed, usually yielding a layer of oil and a layer of water. Steam distillation of various aromatic herbs and flowers can result in two products; an essential oil as well as a watery herbal distillate. The essential oils are often used in perfumery and aromatherapy while the watery distillates have many applications in aromatherapy, food processing and skin care. Vacuum distillation Some compounds have very high boiling points. To boil such compounds, it is often better to lower the pressure at which such compounds are boiled instead of increasing the temperature. Once the pressure is lowered to the vapor pressure of the compound (at the given temperature), boiling and the rest of the distillation process can commence. This technique is referred to as vacuum distillation and it is commonly found in the laboratory in the form of the rotary evaporator. This technique is also very useful for compounds which boil beyond their decomposition temperature at atmospheric pressure and which would therefore be decomposed by any attempt to boil them under atmospheric pressure. Short path and molecular distillation Molecular distillation is vacuum distillation below the pressure of 0.01 torr. 0.01 torr is one order of magnitude above high vacuum, where fluids are in the free molecular flow regime, i.e. the mean free path of molecules is comparable to the size of the equipment. The gaseous phase no longer exerts significant pressure on the substance to be evaporated, and consequently, rate of evaporation no longer depends on pressure. That is, because the continuum assumptions of fluid dynamics no longer apply, mass transport is governed by molecular dynamics rather than fluid dynamics. Thus, a short path between the hot surface and the cold surface is necessary, typically by suspending a hot plate covered with a film of feed next to a cold plate with a line of sight in between. Molecular distillation is used industrially for purification of oils. Short path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate travelling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure. A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate travelling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers. This technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of compound. The advantage is that the heating temperature can be considerably lower (at reduced pressure) than the boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and the distillate only has to travel a short distance before condensing. A short path ensures that little compound is lost on the sides of the apparatus. The Kugelrohr apparatus is a kind of short path distillation method which often contains multiple chambers to collect distillate fractions. Air-sensitive vacuum distillation Some compounds have high boiling points as well as being air sensitive. A simple vacuum distillation system as exemplified above can be used, whereby the vacuum is replaced with an inert gas after the distillation is complete. However, this is a less satisfactory system if one desires to collect fractions under a reduced pressure. To do this a "cow" or "pig" adaptor can be added to the end of the condenser, or for better results or for very air sensitive compounds a Perkin triangle apparatus can be used. The Perkin triangle, has means via a series of glass or Teflon taps to allows fractions to be isolated from the rest of the still, without the main body of the distillation being removed from either the vacuum or heat source, and thus can remain in a state of reflux. To do this, the sample is first isolated from the vacuum by means of the taps, the vacuum over the sample is then replaced with an inert gas (such as nitrogen or argon) and can then be stoppered and removed. A fresh collection vessel can then be added to the system, evacuated and linked back into the distillation system via the taps to collect a second fraction, and so on, until all fractions have been collected. Zone distillation Zone distillation is a distillation process in a long container with partial melting of refined matter in moving liquid zone and condensation of vapor in the solid phase at condensate pulling in cold area. The process is worked in theory. When zone heater is moving from the top to the bottom of the container then solid condensate with irregular impurity distribution is forming. Then most pure part of the condensate may be extracted as product. The process may be iterated many times by moving (without turnover) the received condensate to the bottom part of the container on the place of refined matter. The irregular impurity distribution in the condensate (that is efficiency of purification) increases with the number of iterations. Zone distillation is the distillation analog of zone recrystallization. Impurity distribution in the condensate is described by known equations of zone recrystallization – with the replacement of the distribution co-efficient k of crystallization - for the separation factor α of distillation. Other types The process of reactive distillation involves using the reaction vessel as the still. In this process, the product is usually significantly lower-boiling than its reactants. As the product is formed from the reactants, it is vaporized and removed from the reaction mixture. This technique is an example of a continuous vs. a batch process; advantages include less downtime to charge the reaction vessel with starting material, and less workup. Distillation "over a reactant" could be classified as a reactive distillation. It is typically used to remove volatile impurity from the distallation feed. For example, a little lime may be added to remove carbon dioxide from water followed by a second distillation with a little sulfuric acid added to remove traces of ammonia. Catalytic distillation is the process by which the reactants are catalyzed while being distilled to continuously separate the products from the reactants. This method is used to assist equilibrium reactions in reaching completion. Pervaporation is a method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a non-porous membrane. Extractive distillation is defined as distillation in the presence of a miscible, high boiling, relatively non-volatile component, the solvent, that forms no azeotrope with the other components in the mixture. Flash evaporation (or partial evaporation) is the partial vaporization that occurs when a saturated liquid stream undergoes a reduction in pressure by passing through a throttling valve or other throttling device. This process is one of the simplest unit operations, being equivalent to a distillation with only one equilibrium stage. Codistillation is distillation which is performed on mixtures in which the two compounds are not miscible. In the laboratory, the Dean-Stark apparatus is used for this purpose to remove water from synthesis products. The Bleidner apparatus is another example with two refluxing solvents. Membrane distillation is a type of distillation in which vapors of a mixture to be separated are passed through a membrane, which selectively permeates one component of mixture. Vapor pressure difference is the driving force. It has potential applications in seawater desalination and in removal of organic and inorganic components. The unit process of evaporation may also be called "distillation": In rotary evaporation a vacuum distillation apparatus is used to remove bulk solvents from a sample. Typically the vacuum is generated by a water aspirator or a membrane pump. In a Kugelrohr apparatus a short path distillation apparatus is typically used (generally in combination with a (high) vacuum) to distill high boiling (> 300 °C) compounds. The apparatus consists of an oven in which the compound to be distilled is placed, a receiving portion which is outside of the oven, and a means of rotating the sample. The vacuum is normally generated by using a high vacuum pump. Other uses: Dry distillation or destructive distillation, despite the name, is not truly distillation, but rather a chemical reaction known as pyrolysis in which solid substances are heated in an inert or reducing atmosphere and any volatile fractions, containing high-boiling liquids and products of pyrolysis, are collected. The destructive distillation of wood to give methanol is the root of its common name – wood alcohol. Freeze distillation is an analogous method of purification using freezing instead of evaporation. It is not truly distillation, but a recrystallization where the product is the mother liquor, and does not produce products equivalent to distillation. This process is used in the production of ice beer and ice wine to increase ethanol and sugar content, respectively. It is also used to produce applejack. Unlike distillation, freeze distillation concentrates poisonous congeners rather than removing them; As a result, many countries prohibit such applejack as a health measure. Also, distillation by evaporation can separate these since they have different boiling points. [ Distillation by filtration] In early alchemy and chemistry, otherwise known as natural philosophy, a form of "distillation" by capillary filtration was known as a | industrial-scale fractionating columns, but the principles are the same. Examples of laboratory-scale fractionating columns (in increasing efficiency) include Air condenser Vigreux column (usually laboratory scale only) Packed column (packed with glass beads, metal pieces, or other chemically inert material) Spinning band distillation system. Laboratory procedures Laboratory scale distillations are almost exclusively run as batch distillations. The device used in distillation, sometimes referred to as a still, consists at a minimum of a reboiler or pot in which the source material is heated, a condenser in which the heated vapor is cooled back to the liquid state, and a receiver in which the concentrated or purified liquid, called the distillate, is collected. Several laboratory scale techniques for distillation exist (see also distillation types). A completely sealed distillation apparatus could experience extreme and rapidly varying internal pressure, which could cause it to burst open at the joints. Therefore, some path is usually left open (for instance, at the receiving flask) to allow the internal pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure. Alternatively, a vacuum pump may be used to keep the apparatus at a lower than atmospheric pressure. If the substances involved are air- or moisture-sensitive, the connection to the atmosphere can be made through one or more drying tubes packed with materials that scavenge the undesired air components, or through bubblers that provide a movable liquid barrier. Finally, the entry of undesired air components can be prevented by pumping a low but steady flow of suitable inert gas, like nitrogen, into the apparatus. Simple distillation In simple distillation, the vapor is immediately channeled into a condenser. Consequently, the distillate is not pure but rather its composition is identical to the composition of the vapors at the given temperature and pressure. That concentration follows Raoult's law. As a result, simple distillation is effective only when the liquid boiling points differ greatly (rule of thumb is 25 °C) or when separating liquids from non-volatile solids or oils. For these cases, the vapor pressures of the components are usually different enough that the distillate may be sufficiently pure for its intended purpose. A cutaway schematic of a simple distillation operation is shown at right. The starting liquid 15 in the boiling flask 2 is heated by a combined hotplate and magnetic stirrer 13 via a silicone oil bath (orange, 14). The vapor flows through a short Vigreux column 3, then through a Liebig condenser 5, is cooled by water (blue) that circulates through ports 6 and 7. The condensed liquid drips into the receiving flask 8, sitting in a cooling bath (blue, 16). The adapter 10 has a connection 9 that may be fitted to a vacuum pump. The components are connected by ground glass joints (gray). Fractional distillation For many cases, the boiling points of the components in the mixture will be sufficiently close that Raoult's law must be taken into consideration. Therefore, fractional distillation must be used in order to separate the components by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This separation, by successive distillations, is also referred to as rectification. As the solution to be purified is heated, its vapors rise to the fractionating column. As it rises, it cools, condensing on the condenser walls and the surfaces of the packing material. Here, the condensate continues to be heated by the rising hot vapors; it vaporizes once more. However, the composition of the fresh vapors are determined once again by Raoult's law. Each vaporization-condensation cycle (called a theoretical plate) will yield a purer solution of the more volatile component. In reality, each cycle at a given temperature does not occur at exactly the same position in the fractionating column; theoretical plate is thus a concept rather than an accurate description. More theoretical plates lead to better separations. A spinning band distillation system uses a spinning band of Teflon or metal to force the rising vapors into close contact with the descending condensate, increasing the number of theoretical plates. Steam distillation Like vacuum distillation, steam distillation is a method for distilling compounds which are heat-sensitive. The temperature of the steam is easier to control than the surface of a heating element, and allows a high rate of heat transfer without heating at a very high temperature. This process involves bubbling steam through a heated mixture of the raw material. By Raoult's law, some of the target compound will vaporize (in accordance with its partial pressure). The vapor mixture is cooled and condensed, usually yielding a layer of oil and a layer of water. Steam distillation of various aromatic herbs and flowers can result in two products; an essential oil as well as a watery herbal distillate. The essential oils are often used in perfumery and aromatherapy while the watery distillates have many applications in aromatherapy, food processing and skin care. Vacuum distillation Some compounds have very high boiling points. To boil such compounds, it is often better to lower the pressure at which such compounds are boiled instead of increasing the temperature. Once the pressure is lowered to the vapor pressure of the compound (at the given temperature), boiling and the rest of the distillation process can commence. This technique is referred to as vacuum distillation and it is commonly found in the laboratory in the form of the rotary evaporator. This technique is also very useful for compounds which boil beyond their decomposition temperature at atmospheric pressure and which would therefore be decomposed by any attempt to boil them under atmospheric pressure. Short path and molecular distillation Molecular distillation is vacuum distillation below the pressure of 0.01 torr. 0.01 torr is one order of magnitude above high vacuum, where fluids are in the free molecular flow regime, i.e. the mean free path of molecules is comparable to the size of the equipment. The gaseous phase no longer exerts significant pressure on the substance to be evaporated, and consequently, rate of evaporation no longer depends on pressure. That is, because the continuum assumptions of fluid dynamics no longer apply, mass transport is governed by molecular dynamics rather than fluid dynamics. Thus, a short path between the hot surface and the cold surface is necessary, typically by suspending a hot plate covered with a film of feed next to a cold plate with a line of sight in between. Molecular distillation is used industrially for purification of oils. Short path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate travelling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure. A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate travelling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers. This technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of compound. The advantage is that the heating temperature can be considerably lower (at reduced pressure) than the boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and the distillate only has to travel a short distance before condensing. A short path ensures that little compound is lost on the sides of the apparatus. The Kugelrohr apparatus is a kind of short path distillation method which often contains multiple chambers to collect distillate fractions. Air-sensitive vacuum distillation Some compounds have high boiling points as well as being air sensitive. A simple vacuum distillation system as exemplified above can be used, whereby the vacuum is replaced with an inert gas after the distillation is complete. However, this is a less satisfactory system if one desires to collect fractions under a reduced pressure. To do this a "cow" or "pig" adaptor can be added to the end of the condenser, or for better results or for very air sensitive compounds a Perkin triangle apparatus can be used. The Perkin triangle, has means via a series of glass or Teflon taps to allows fractions to be isolated from the rest of the still, without the main body of the distillation being removed from either the vacuum or heat source, and thus can remain in a state of reflux. To do this, the sample is first isolated from the vacuum by means of the taps, the vacuum over the sample is then replaced with an inert gas (such as nitrogen or argon) and can then be stoppered and removed. A fresh collection vessel can then be added to the system, evacuated and linked back into the distillation system via the taps to collect a second fraction, and so on, until all fractions have been collected. Zone distillation Zone distillation is a distillation process in a long container with partial melting of refined matter in moving liquid zone and condensation of vapor in the solid phase at condensate pulling in cold area. The process is worked in theory. When zone heater is moving from the top to the bottom of the container then solid condensate with irregular impurity distribution is forming. Then most pure part of the condensate may be extracted as product. The process may be iterated many times by moving (without turnover) the received condensate to the bottom part of the container on the place of refined matter. The irregular impurity distribution in the condensate (that is efficiency of purification) increases with the number of iterations. Zone distillation is the distillation analog of zone recrystallization. Impurity distribution in the condensate is described by known equations of zone recrystallization – with the replacement of the distribution co-efficient k of crystallization - for the separation factor α of distillation. Other types The process of reactive distillation involves using the reaction vessel as the still. In this process, the product is usually significantly lower-boiling than its reactants. As the product is formed from the reactants, it is vaporized and removed from the reaction mixture. This technique is an example of a continuous vs. a batch process; advantages include less downtime to charge the reaction vessel with starting material, and less workup. Distillation "over a reactant" could be classified as a reactive distillation. It is typically used to remove volatile impurity from the distallation feed. For example, a little lime may be added to remove carbon dioxide from water followed by a second distillation with a little sulfuric acid added to remove traces of ammonia. Catalytic distillation is the process by which the reactants are catalyzed while being distilled to continuously separate the products from the reactants. This method is used to assist equilibrium reactions in reaching completion. Pervaporation is a method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a non-porous membrane. Extractive distillation is defined as distillation in the presence of a miscible, high boiling, relatively non-volatile component, the solvent, that forms no azeotrope with the other components in the mixture. Flash evaporation (or partial |
influential mathematicians of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Hilbert discovered and developed a broad range of fundamental ideas in many areas, including invariant theory, the calculus of variations, commutative algebra, algebraic number theory, the foundations of geometry, spectral theory of operators and its application to integral equations, mathematical physics, and the foundations of mathematics (particularly proof theory). Hilbert adopted and defended Georg Cantor's set theory and transfinite numbers. In 1900, he presented a collection of problems that set the course for much of the mathematical research of the 20th century. Hilbert and his students contributed significantly to establishing rigor and developed important tools used in modern mathematical physics. Hilbert is known as one of the founders of proof theory and mathematical logic. Life Early life and education Hilbert, the first of two children and only son of Otto and Maria Therese (Erdtmann) Hilbert, was born in the Province of Prussia, Kingdom of Prussia, either in Königsberg (according to Hilbert's own statement) or in Wehlau (known since 1946 as Znamensk) near Königsberg where his father worked at the time of his birth. In late 1872, Hilbert entered the Friedrichskolleg Gymnasium (Collegium fridericianum, the same school that Immanuel Kant had attended 140 years before); but, after an unhappy period, he transferred to (late 1879) and graduated from (early 1880) the more science-oriented Wilhelm Gymnasium. Upon graduation, in autumn 1880, Hilbert enrolled at the University of Königsberg, the "Albertina". In early 1882, Hermann Minkowski (two years younger than Hilbert and also a native of Königsberg but had gone to Berlin for three semesters), returned to Königsberg and entered the university. Hilbert developed a lifelong friendship with the shy, gifted Minkowski. Career In 1884, Adolf Hurwitz arrived from Göttingen as an Extraordinarius (i.e., an associate professor). An intense and fruitful scientific exchange among the three began, and Minkowski and Hilbert especially would exercise a reciprocal influence over each other at various times in their scientific careers. Hilbert obtained his doctorate in 1885, with a dissertation, written under Ferdinand von Lindemann, titled Über invariante Eigenschaften spezieller binärer Formen, insbesondere der Kugelfunktionen ("On the invariant properties of special binary forms, in particular the spherical harmonic functions"). Hilbert remained at the University of Königsberg as a Privatdozent (senior lecturer) from 1886 to 1895. In 1895, as a result of intervention on his behalf by Felix Klein, he obtained the position of Professor of Mathematics at the University of Göttingen. During the Klein and Hilbert years, Göttingen became the preeminent institution in the mathematical world. He remained there for the rest of his life. Göttingen school Among Hilbert's students were Hermann Weyl, chess champion Emanuel Lasker, Ernst Zermelo, and Carl Gustav Hempel. John von Neumann was his assistant. At the University of Göttingen, Hilbert was surrounded by a social circle of some of the most important mathematicians of the 20th century, such as Emmy Noether and Alonzo Church. Among his 69 Ph.D. students in Göttingen were many who later became famous mathematicians, including (with date of thesis): Otto Blumenthal (1898), Felix Bernstein (1901), Hermann Weyl (1908), Richard Courant (1910), Erich Hecke (1910), Hugo Steinhaus (1911), and Wilhelm Ackermann (1925). Between 1902 and 1939 Hilbert was editor of the Mathematische Annalen, the leading mathematical journal of the time. Personal life In 1892, Hilbert married Käthe Jerosch (1864–1945), who was the daughter of a Königsberg merchant, an outspoken young lady with an independence of mind that matched [Hilbert's]." While at Königsberg they had their one child, (1893–1969). Franz suffered throughout his life from an undiagnosed mental illness. His inferior intellect was a terrible disappointment to his father and this misfortune was a matter of distress to the mathematicians and students at Göttingen. Hilbert considered the mathematician Hermann Minkowski to be his "best and truest friend". Hilbert was baptized and raised a Calvinist in the Prussian Evangelical Church. He later left the Church and became an agnostic. He also argued that mathematical truth was independent of the existence of God or other a priori assumptions. When Galileo Galilei was criticized for failing to stand up for his convictions on the Heliocentric theory, Hilbert objected: "But [Galileo] was not an idiot. Only an idiot could believe that scientific truth needs martyrdom; that may be necessary in religion, but scientific results prove themselves in due time." Later years Like Albert Einstein, Hilbert had closest contacts with the Berlin Group whose leading founders had studied under Hilbert in Göttingen (Kurt Grelling, Hans Reichenbach and Walter Dubislav). Around 1925, Hilbert developed pernicious anemia, a then-untreatable vitamin deficiency whose primary symptom is exhaustion; his assistant Eugene Wigner described him as subject to "enormous fatigue" and how he "seemed quite old", and that even after eventually being diagnosed and treated, he "was hardly a scientist after 1925, and certainly not a Hilbert." Hilbert lived to see the Nazis purge many of the prominent faculty members at University of Göttingen in 1933. Those forced out included Hermann Weyl (who had taken Hilbert's chair when he retired in 1930), Emmy Noether and Edmund Landau. One who had to leave Germany, Paul Bernays, had collaborated with Hilbert in mathematical logic, and co-authored with him the important book Grundlagen der Mathematik (which eventually appeared in two volumes, in 1934 and 1939). This was a sequel to the Hilbert–Ackermann book Principles of Mathematical Logic from 1928. Hermann Weyl's successor was Helmut Hasse. About a year later, Hilbert attended a banquet and was seated next to the new Minister of Education, Bernhard Rust. Rust asked whether "the Mathematical Institute really suffered so much because of the departure of the Jews". Hilbert replied, "Suffered? It doesn't exist any longer, does it!" Death By the time Hilbert died in 1943, the Nazis had nearly completely restaffed the university, as many of the former faculty had either been Jewish or married to Jews. Hilbert's funeral was attended by fewer than a dozen people, only two of whom were fellow academics, among them Arnold Sommerfeld, a theoretical physicist and also a native of Königsberg. News of his death only became known to the wider world six months after he died. The epitaph on his tombstone in Göttingen consists of the famous lines he spoke at the conclusion of his retirement address to the Society of German Scientists and Physicians on 8 September 1930. The words were given in response to the Latin maxim: "Ignoramus et ignorabimus" or "We do not know, we shall not know": The day before Hilbert pronounced these phrases at the 1930 annual meeting of the Society of German Scientists and Physicians, Kurt Gödel—in a round table discussion during the Conference on Epistemology held jointly with the Society meetings—tentatively announced the first expression of his incompleteness theorem. Gödel's incompleteness theorems show that even elementary axiomatic systems such as Peano arithmetic are either self-contradicting or contain logical propositions that are impossible to prove or disprove. Contributions to mathematics and physics Hilbert solves Gordan's Problem Hilbert's first work on invariant functions led him to the demonstration in 1888 of his famous finiteness theorem. Twenty years earlier, Paul Gordan had demonstrated the theorem of the finiteness of generators for binary forms using a complex computational approach. Attempts to generalize his method to functions with more than two variables failed because of the enormous difficulty of the calculations involved. To solve what had become known in some circles as Gordan's Problem, Hilbert realized that it was necessary to take a completely different path. As a result, he demonstrated Hilbert's basis theorem, showing the existence of a finite set of generators, for the invariants of quantics in any number of variables, but in an abstract form. That is, while demonstrating the existence of such a set, it was not a constructive proof — it did not display "an object" — but rather, it was an existence proof and relied on use of the law of excluded middle in an infinite extension. Hilbert sent his results to the Mathematische Annalen. Gordan, the house expert on the theory of invariants for the Mathematische Annalen, could not appreciate the revolutionary nature of Hilbert's theorem and rejected the article, criticizing the exposition because it was insufficiently comprehensive. His comment was: Klein, on the other hand, recognized the importance of the work, and guaranteed that it would be published without any alterations. Encouraged by Klein, Hilbert extended his method in a second article, providing estimations on the maximum degree of the minimum set of generators, and he sent it once more to the Annalen. After having read the manuscript, Klein wrote to him, saying: Later, after the usefulness of Hilbert's method was universally recognized, Gordan himself would say: For all his successes, the nature of his proof created more trouble than Hilbert could have imagined. Although Kronecker had conceded, Hilbert would later respond to others' similar criticisms that "many different constructions are subsumed under one fundamental idea" — in other words (to quote Reid): "Through a proof of existence, Hilbert had been able to obtain a construction"; "the proof" (i.e. the symbols on the page) was "the object". Not all were convinced. While Kronecker would die soon afterwards, his constructivist philosophy would continue with the young Brouwer and his developing intuitionist "school", much to Hilbert's torment in his later years. Indeed, Hilbert would lose his "gifted pupil" Weyl to intuitionism — "Hilbert was disturbed by his former student's fascination with the ideas of Brouwer, which aroused in Hilbert the memory of Kronecker". Brouwer the intuitionist in particular opposed the use of the Law of Excluded Middle over infinite sets (as Hilbert had used it). Hilbert responded: Axiomatization of geometry The text Grundlagen der Geometrie (tr.: Foundations of Geometry) published by Hilbert in 1899 proposes a formal set, called Hilbert's axioms, substituting for the traditional axioms of Euclid. They avoid weaknesses identified in those of Euclid, whose works at the time were still used textbook-fashion. It is difficult to specify the axioms used by Hilbert without referring to the publication history of the Grundlagen since Hilbert changed and modified them several times. The original monograph was quickly followed by a French translation, in which Hilbert added V.2, the Completeness Axiom. An English translation, authorized by Hilbert, was made by E.J. Townsend and copyrighted in 1902. This translation incorporated the changes made in the French translation and so is considered to be a translation of the 2nd edition. Hilbert continued to make changes in the text and several editions appeared in German. The 7th edition was the last to appear in Hilbert's lifetime. New editions followed the 7th, but the main text was essentially not revised. Hilbert's approach signaled the shift to the modern axiomatic method. In this, Hilbert was anticipated | of Königsberg as a Privatdozent (senior lecturer) from 1886 to 1895. In 1895, as a result of intervention on his behalf by Felix Klein, he obtained the position of Professor of Mathematics at the University of Göttingen. During the Klein and Hilbert years, Göttingen became the preeminent institution in the mathematical world. He remained there for the rest of his life. Göttingen school Among Hilbert's students were Hermann Weyl, chess champion Emanuel Lasker, Ernst Zermelo, and Carl Gustav Hempel. John von Neumann was his assistant. At the University of Göttingen, Hilbert was surrounded by a social circle of some of the most important mathematicians of the 20th century, such as Emmy Noether and Alonzo Church. Among his 69 Ph.D. students in Göttingen were many who later became famous mathematicians, including (with date of thesis): Otto Blumenthal (1898), Felix Bernstein (1901), Hermann Weyl (1908), Richard Courant (1910), Erich Hecke (1910), Hugo Steinhaus (1911), and Wilhelm Ackermann (1925). Between 1902 and 1939 Hilbert was editor of the Mathematische Annalen, the leading mathematical journal of the time. Personal life In 1892, Hilbert married Käthe Jerosch (1864–1945), who was the daughter of a Königsberg merchant, an outspoken young lady with an independence of mind that matched [Hilbert's]." While at Königsberg they had their one child, (1893–1969). Franz suffered throughout his life from an undiagnosed mental illness. His inferior intellect was a terrible disappointment to his father and this misfortune was a matter of distress to the mathematicians and students at Göttingen. Hilbert considered the mathematician Hermann Minkowski to be his "best and truest friend". Hilbert was baptized and raised a Calvinist in the Prussian Evangelical Church. He later left the Church and became an agnostic. He also argued that mathematical truth was independent of the existence of God or other a priori assumptions. When Galileo Galilei was criticized for failing to stand up for his convictions on the Heliocentric theory, Hilbert objected: "But [Galileo] was not an idiot. Only an idiot could believe that scientific truth needs martyrdom; that may be necessary in religion, but scientific results prove themselves in due time." Later years Like Albert Einstein, Hilbert had closest contacts with the Berlin Group whose leading founders had studied under Hilbert in Göttingen (Kurt Grelling, Hans Reichenbach and Walter Dubislav). Around 1925, Hilbert developed pernicious anemia, a then-untreatable vitamin deficiency whose primary symptom is exhaustion; his assistant Eugene Wigner described him as subject to "enormous fatigue" and how he "seemed quite old", and that even after eventually being diagnosed and treated, he "was hardly a scientist after 1925, and certainly not a Hilbert." Hilbert lived to see the Nazis purge many of the prominent faculty members at University of Göttingen in 1933. Those forced out included Hermann Weyl (who had taken Hilbert's chair when he retired in 1930), Emmy Noether and Edmund Landau. One who had to leave Germany, Paul Bernays, had collaborated with Hilbert in mathematical logic, and co-authored with him the important book Grundlagen der Mathematik (which eventually appeared in two volumes, in 1934 and 1939). This was a sequel to the Hilbert–Ackermann book Principles of Mathematical Logic from 1928. Hermann Weyl's successor was Helmut Hasse. About a year later, Hilbert attended a banquet and was seated next to the new Minister of Education, Bernhard Rust. Rust asked whether "the Mathematical Institute really suffered so much because of the departure of the Jews". Hilbert replied, "Suffered? It doesn't exist any longer, does it!" Death By the time Hilbert died in 1943, the Nazis had nearly completely restaffed the university, as many of the former faculty had either been Jewish or married to Jews. Hilbert's funeral was attended by fewer than a dozen people, only two of whom were fellow academics, among them Arnold Sommerfeld, a theoretical physicist and also a native of Königsberg. News of his death only became known to the wider world six months after he died. The epitaph on his tombstone in Göttingen consists of the famous lines he spoke at the conclusion of his retirement address to the Society of German Scientists and Physicians on 8 September 1930. The words were given in response to the Latin maxim: "Ignoramus et ignorabimus" or "We do not know, we shall not know": The day before Hilbert pronounced these phrases at the 1930 annual meeting of the Society of German Scientists and Physicians, Kurt Gödel—in a round table discussion during the Conference on Epistemology held jointly with the Society meetings—tentatively announced the first expression of his incompleteness theorem. Gödel's incompleteness theorems show that even elementary axiomatic systems such as Peano arithmetic are either self-contradicting or contain logical propositions that are impossible to prove or disprove. Contributions to mathematics and physics Hilbert solves Gordan's Problem Hilbert's first work on invariant functions led him to the demonstration in 1888 of his famous finiteness theorem. Twenty years earlier, Paul Gordan had demonstrated the theorem of the finiteness of generators for binary forms using a complex computational approach. Attempts to generalize his method to functions with more than two variables failed because of the enormous difficulty of the calculations involved. To solve what had become known in some circles as Gordan's Problem, Hilbert realized that it was necessary to take a completely different path. As a result, he demonstrated Hilbert's basis theorem, showing the existence of a finite set of generators, for the invariants of quantics in any number of variables, but in an abstract form. That is, while demonstrating the existence of such a set, it was not a constructive proof — it did not display "an object" — but rather, it was an existence proof and relied on use of the law of excluded middle in an infinite extension. Hilbert sent his results to the Mathematische Annalen. Gordan, the house expert on the theory of invariants for the Mathematische Annalen, could not appreciate the revolutionary nature of Hilbert's theorem and rejected the article, criticizing the exposition because it was insufficiently comprehensive. His comment was: Klein, on the other hand, recognized the importance of the work, and guaranteed that it would be published without any alterations. Encouraged by Klein, Hilbert extended his method in a second article, providing estimations on the maximum degree of the minimum set of generators, and he sent it once more to the Annalen. After having read the manuscript, Klein wrote to him, saying: Later, after the usefulness of Hilbert's method was universally recognized, Gordan himself would say: For all his successes, the nature of his proof created more trouble than Hilbert could have imagined. Although Kronecker had conceded, Hilbert would later respond to others' similar criticisms that "many different constructions are subsumed under one fundamental idea" — in other words (to quote Reid): "Through a proof of existence, Hilbert had been able to obtain a construction"; "the proof" (i.e. the symbols on the page) was "the object". Not all were convinced. While Kronecker would die soon afterwards, his constructivist philosophy would continue with the young Brouwer and his developing intuitionist "school", much to Hilbert's torment in his later years. Indeed, Hilbert would lose his "gifted pupil" Weyl to intuitionism — "Hilbert was disturbed by his former student's fascination with the ideas of Brouwer, which aroused in Hilbert the memory of Kronecker". Brouwer the intuitionist in particular opposed the use of the Law of Excluded Middle over infinite sets (as Hilbert had used it). Hilbert responded: Axiomatization of geometry The text Grundlagen der Geometrie (tr.: Foundations of Geometry) published by Hilbert in 1899 proposes a formal set, called Hilbert's axioms, substituting for the traditional axioms of Euclid. They avoid weaknesses identified in those of Euclid, whose works at the time were still used textbook-fashion. It is difficult to specify the axioms used by Hilbert without referring to the publication history of the Grundlagen since Hilbert changed and modified them several times. The original monograph was quickly followed by a French translation, in which Hilbert added V.2, the Completeness Axiom. An English translation, authorized by Hilbert, was made by E.J. Townsend and copyrighted in 1902. This translation incorporated the changes made in the French translation and so is considered to be a translation of the 2nd edition. Hilbert continued to make changes in the text and several editions appeared in German. The 7th edition was the last to appear in Hilbert's lifetime. New editions followed the 7th, but the main text was essentially not revised. Hilbert's approach signaled the shift to the modern axiomatic method. In this, Hilbert was anticipated by Moritz Pasch's work from 1882. Axioms are not taken as self-evident truths. Geometry may treat things, about which we have powerful intuitions, but it is not necessary to assign any explicit meaning to the undefined concepts. The elements, such as point, line, plane, and others, could be substituted, as Hilbert is reported to have said to Schoenflies and Kötter, by tables, chairs, glasses of beer and other such objects. It is their defined relationships that are discussed. Hilbert first enumerates the undefined concepts: point, line, plane, lying on (a relation between points and lines, points and planes, and lines and planes), betweenness, congruence of pairs of points (line segments), and congruence of angles. The axioms unify both the plane geometry and solid geometry |
if they would have a termination if their fetus tested positive, 23–33% said yes, when high-risk pregnant women were asked, 46–86% said yes, and when women who screened positive are asked, 89–97% say yes. After birth The diagnosis can often be suspected based on the child's physical appearance at birth. An analysis of the child's chromosomes is needed to confirm the diagnosis, and to determine if a translocation is present, as this may help determine the chances of the child's parents having further children with Down syndrome. Parents generally wish to know the possible diagnosis once it is suspected and do not wish pity. Screening Guidelines recommend screening for Down syndrome to be offered to all pregnant women, regardless of age. A number of tests are used, with varying levels of accuracy. They are typically used in combination to increase the detection rate. None can be definitive, thus if screening is positive, either amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling is required to confirm the diagnosis. Screening in both the first and second trimesters is better than just screening in the first trimester. The different screening techniques in use are able to pick up 90–95% of cases, with a false-positive rate of 2–5%. If Down syndrome occurs in one in 500 pregnancies with a 90% detection rate and the test used has a 5% false-positive rate, this means, of 26 women who test positive on screening, only one will have Down syndrome confirmed. If the screening test has a 2% false-positive rate, this means one of eleven who test positive on screening have a fetus with Down syndrome. Ultrasound Ultrasound imaging can be used to screen for Down syndrome. Findings that indicate increased chances when seen at 14 to 24 weeks of gestation include a small or no nasal bone, large ventricles, nuchal fold thickness, and an abnormal right subclavian artery, among others. The presence or absence of many markers is more accurate. Increased fetal nuchal translucency (NT) indicates an increased possibility of Down syndrome picking up 75–80% of cases and being falsely positive in 6%. Blood tests Several blood markers can be measured to predict the chances of Down syndrome during the first or second trimester. Testing in both trimesters is sometimes recommended and test results are often combined with ultrasound results. In the second trimester, often two or three tests are used in combination with two or three of: α-fetoprotein, unconjugated estriol, total hCG, and free βhCG detecting about 60–70% of cases. Testing of the mother's blood for fetal DNA is being studied and appears promising in the first trimester. The International Society for Prenatal Diagnosis considers it a reasonable screening option for those women whose pregnancies are at a high likelihood of trisomy 21. Accuracy has been reported at 98.6% in the first trimester of pregnancy. Confirmatory testing by invasive techniques (amniocentesis, CVS) is still required to confirm the screening result. Management Efforts such as early childhood intervention, screening for common problems, medical treatment where indicated, a good family environment, and work-related training can improve the development of children with Down syndrome. Education and proper care can improve quality of life. Raising a child with Down syndrome is more work for parents than raising an unaffected child. Typical childhood vaccinations are recommended. Health screening A number of health organizations have issued recommendations for screening those with Down syndrome for particular diseases. This is recommended to be done systematically. At birth, all children should get an electrocardiogram and ultrasound of the heart. Surgical repair of heart problems may be required as early as three months of age. Heart valve problems may occur in young adults, and further ultrasound evaluation may be needed in adolescents and in early adulthood. Due to the elevated risk of testicular cancer, some recommend checking the person's testicles yearly. Cognitive development Hearing aids or other amplification devices can be useful for language learning in those with hearing loss. Speech therapy may be useful and is recommended to be started around nine months of age. As those with Down syndrome typically have good hand-eye coordination, learning sign language may be possible. Augmentative and alternative communication methods, such as pointing, body language, objects, or pictures, are often used to help with communication. Behavioral issues and mental illness are typically managed with counseling or medications. Education programs before reaching school age may be useful. School-age children with Down syndrome may benefit from inclusive education (whereby students of differing abilities are placed in classes with their peers of the same age), provided some adjustments are made to the curriculum. Evidence to support this, however, is not very strong. In the United States, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1975 requires public schools generally to allow attendance by students with Down syndrome. Individuals with Down syndrome may learn better visually. Drawing may help with language, speech, and reading skills. Children with Down syndrome still often have difficulty with sentence structure and grammar, as well as developing the ability to speak clearly. Several types of early intervention can help with cognitive development. Efforts to develop motor skills include physical therapy, speech and language therapy, and occupational therapy. Physical therapy focuses specifically on motor development and teaching children to interact with their environment. Speech and language therapy can help prepare for later language. Lastly, occupational therapy can help with skills needed for later independence. Other Tympanostomy tubes are often needed and often more than one set during the person's childhood. Tonsillectomy is also often done to help with sleep apnea and throat infections. Surgery, however, does not always address the sleep apnea and a continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) machine may be useful. Physical therapy and participation in physical education may improve motor skills. Evidence to support this in adults, however, is not very good. Efforts to prevent respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection with human monoclonal antibodies should be considered, especially in those with heart problems. In those who develop dementia there is no evidence for memantine, donepezil, rivastigmine, or galantamine. Plastic surgery has been suggested as a method of improving the appearance and thus the acceptance of people with Down syndrome. It has also been proposed as a way to improve speech. Evidence, however, does not support a meaningful difference in either of these outcomes. Plastic surgery on children with Down syndrome is uncommon, and continues to be controversial. The U.S. National Down Syndrome Society views the goal as one of mutual respect and acceptance, not appearance. Many alternative medical techniques are used in Down syndrome; however, they are poorly supported by evidence. These include: dietary changes, massage, animal therapy, chiropractic and naturopathy, among others. Some proposed treatments may also be harmful. Prognosis Between 5 and 15% of children with Down syndrome in Sweden attend regular school. Some graduate from high school; however, most do not. Of those with intellectual disability in the United States who attended high school about 40% graduated. Many learn to read and write and some are able to do paid work. In adulthood about 20% in the United States do paid work in some capacity. In Sweden, however, less than 1% have regular jobs. Many are able to live semi-independently, but they often require help with financial, medical, and legal matters. Those with mosaic Down syndrome usually have better outcomes. Individuals with Down syndrome have a higher risk of early death than the general population. This is most often from heart problems or infections. Following improved medical care, particularly for heart and gastrointestinal problems, the life expectancy has increased. This increase has been from 12 years in 1912, to 25 years in the 1980s, to 50 to 60 years in the developed world in the 2000s. Currently between 4 and 12% die in the first year of life. The probability of long-term survival is partly determined by the presence of heart problems. In those with congenital heart problems, 60% survive to 10 years and 50% survive to 30 years of age. In those without heart problems, 85% survive to 10 years and 80% survive to 30 years of age. About 10% live to 70 years of age. The National Down Syndrome Society provide information regarding raising a child with Down syndrome. Epidemiology Down syndrome is the most common chromosomal abnormality in humans. Globally, , Down syndrome occurs in about 1 per 1,000 births and results in about 17,000 deaths. More children are born with Down syndrome in countries where abortion is not allowed and in countries where pregnancy more commonly occurs at a later age. About 1.4 per 1,000 live births in the United States and 1.1 per 1,000 live births in Norway are affected. In the 1950s, in the United States, it occurred in 2 per 1000 live births with the decrease since then due to prenatal screening and abortions. The number of pregnancies with Down syndrome is more than two times greater with many spontaneously aborting. It is the cause of 8% of all congenital disorders. Maternal age affects the chances of having a pregnancy with Down syndrome. At age 20, the chance is 1 in 1,441; at age 30, it is 1 in 959; at age 40, it is 1 in 84; and at age 50 it is 1 in 44. Although the probability increases with maternal age, 70% of children with Down syndrome are born to women 35 years of age and younger, because younger people have more children. The father's older age is also a risk factor in women older than 35, but not in women younger than 35, and may partly explain the increase in risk as women age. History English physician John Langdon Down first described Down syndrome in 1862, recognizing it as a distinct type of mental disability, and again in a more widely published report in 1866. Édouard Séguin described it as separate from cretinism in 1844. By the 20th century, Down syndrome had become the most recognizable form of mental disability. In antiquity, many infants with disabilities were either killed or abandoned. In June 2020, the earliest incidence of Down syndrome was found in genomic evidence from an infant that was buried before 3200 BC at Poulnabrone dolmen in Ireland. Researchers believe that a number of historical pieces of art portray Down syndrome, including pottery from the pre-Columbian Tumaco-La Tolita culture in present-day Colombia and Ecuador, and the 16th-century painting The Adoration of the Christ Child. In the 20th century, many individuals with Down syndrome were institutionalized, few of the associated medical problems were treated, and most people died in infancy or early adulthood. With the rise of the eugenics movement, 33 of the then 48 U.S. states and several countries began programs of forced sterilization of individuals with Down syndrome and comparable degrees of disability. Action T4 in Nazi Germany made public policy of a program of systematic involuntary euthanization. With the discovery of karyotype techniques in the 1950s it became possible to identify abnormalities of chromosomal number or shape. In 1959 Jérôme Lejeune reported the discovery that Down syndrome resulted from an extra chromosome. However, Lejeune's claim to the discovery has been disputed, and in 2014 the Scientific Council of the French Federation of Human Genetics unanimously awarded its Grand Prize to his colleague Marthe Gautier for her role in this discovery. The discovery took place in the laboratory of Raymond Turpin at the Hôpital Trousseau in Paris, France. Jérôme Lejeune and Marthe Gautier were both his students. As a result of this discovery, the condition became known as trisomy 21. Even before the discovery of its cause, the presence of the syndrome in all races, its association with older maternal age, and its rarity of recurrence had been noticed. Medical texts had assumed it was caused by a combination of inheritable factors that had not been identified. Other theories had focused on injuries sustained during birth. Society and culture Name Due to his perception that children with Down syndrome shared facial similarities with those of Blumenbach's Mongolian race, John Langdon Down used the term "mongoloid". He felt that the existence of Down syndrome confirmed that all peoples were genetically related. In the 1950s with discovery of the underlying cause as being related to chromosomes, concerns about the race-based nature of the name increased. In 1961, a group of nineteen scientists suggested that "mongolism" had "misleading connotations" and had become "an embarrassing term". The World Health Organization (WHO) dropped the term in 1965 after a request by the delegation from the Mongolian People's Republic. While the term mongoloid (also mongolism, Mongolian imbecility or idiocy) continued to be used until the early 1980s, it is now considered unacceptable and is no longer in common use. In 1975, the United States National Institutes of Health (NIH) convened a conference to standardize the naming and recommended replacing the possessive form, "Down's syndrome" with "Down syndrome". However, both the possessive and nonpossessive forms remain in use by the general population. The term "trisomy 21" is also commonly used. Ethics Most obstetricians argue that not offering screening for Down syndrome is unethical. As it is a medically reasonable procedure, per informed consent, people should at least be given information about it. It will then be the woman's choice, based on her personal beliefs, how much or how little screening she wishes. When results from testing become available, it is also considered unethical not to give the results to the person in question. Some bioethicists deem it reasonable for parents to select a child who would have the highest well-being. One criticism of this reasoning is that it often values those with disabilities less. Some parents argue that Down syndrome should not be prevented or cured and that eliminating Down syndrome amounts to genocide. The disability rights movement does not have a position on screening, although some members consider testing and abortion discriminatory. Some in the United States who are anti-abortion support abortion if the fetus is disabled, while others do not. Of a group of 40 mothers in the United States who have had one child with Down syndrome, half agreed to screening in the next pregnancy. Within the US, some Protestant denominations see abortion as acceptable when a fetus has Down syndrome while Orthodox Christianity and Roman Catholicism do not. Some of those against screening refer to it as a form of "eugenics". Disagreement exists within Islam regarding the acceptability of abortion in those carrying a fetus with Down syndrome. Some Islamic countries allow abortion, while others do not. Parents may be stigmatized whichever decision they make. Advocacy groups Advocacy groups for individuals | 10 weeks gestational age. Abortion rates About 92% of pregnancies in Europe with a diagnosis of Down syndrome are terminated. As a result, there is almost no one with Down's in Iceland and Denmark, where screening is commonplace. In the United States, the termination rate after diagnosis is around 75%, but varies from 61% to 93% depending on the population surveyed. Rates are lower among women who are younger and have decreased over time. When asked if they would have a termination if their fetus tested positive, 23–33% said yes, when high-risk pregnant women were asked, 46–86% said yes, and when women who screened positive are asked, 89–97% say yes. After birth The diagnosis can often be suspected based on the child's physical appearance at birth. An analysis of the child's chromosomes is needed to confirm the diagnosis, and to determine if a translocation is present, as this may help determine the chances of the child's parents having further children with Down syndrome. Parents generally wish to know the possible diagnosis once it is suspected and do not wish pity. Screening Guidelines recommend screening for Down syndrome to be offered to all pregnant women, regardless of age. A number of tests are used, with varying levels of accuracy. They are typically used in combination to increase the detection rate. None can be definitive, thus if screening is positive, either amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling is required to confirm the diagnosis. Screening in both the first and second trimesters is better than just screening in the first trimester. The different screening techniques in use are able to pick up 90–95% of cases, with a false-positive rate of 2–5%. If Down syndrome occurs in one in 500 pregnancies with a 90% detection rate and the test used has a 5% false-positive rate, this means, of 26 women who test positive on screening, only one will have Down syndrome confirmed. If the screening test has a 2% false-positive rate, this means one of eleven who test positive on screening have a fetus with Down syndrome. Ultrasound Ultrasound imaging can be used to screen for Down syndrome. Findings that indicate increased chances when seen at 14 to 24 weeks of gestation include a small or no nasal bone, large ventricles, nuchal fold thickness, and an abnormal right subclavian artery, among others. The presence or absence of many markers is more accurate. Increased fetal nuchal translucency (NT) indicates an increased possibility of Down syndrome picking up 75–80% of cases and being falsely positive in 6%. Blood tests Several blood markers can be measured to predict the chances of Down syndrome during the first or second trimester. Testing in both trimesters is sometimes recommended and test results are often combined with ultrasound results. In the second trimester, often two or three tests are used in combination with two or three of: α-fetoprotein, unconjugated estriol, total hCG, and free βhCG detecting about 60–70% of cases. Testing of the mother's blood for fetal DNA is being studied and appears promising in the first trimester. The International Society for Prenatal Diagnosis considers it a reasonable screening option for those women whose pregnancies are at a high likelihood of trisomy 21. Accuracy has been reported at 98.6% in the first trimester of pregnancy. Confirmatory testing by invasive techniques (amniocentesis, CVS) is still required to confirm the screening result. Management Efforts such as early childhood intervention, screening for common problems, medical treatment where indicated, a good family environment, and work-related training can improve the development of children with Down syndrome. Education and proper care can improve quality of life. Raising a child with Down syndrome is more work for parents than raising an unaffected child. Typical childhood vaccinations are recommended. Health screening A number of health organizations have issued recommendations for screening those with Down syndrome for particular diseases. This is recommended to be done systematically. At birth, all children should get an electrocardiogram and ultrasound of the heart. Surgical repair of heart problems may be required as early as three months of age. Heart valve problems may occur in young adults, and further ultrasound evaluation may be needed in adolescents and in early adulthood. Due to the elevated risk of testicular cancer, some recommend checking the person's testicles yearly. Cognitive development Hearing aids or other amplification devices can be useful for language learning in those with hearing loss. Speech therapy may be useful and is recommended to be started around nine months of age. As those with Down syndrome typically have good hand-eye coordination, learning sign language may be possible. Augmentative and alternative communication methods, such as pointing, body language, objects, or pictures, are often used to help with communication. Behavioral issues and mental illness are typically managed with counseling or medications. Education programs before reaching school age may be useful. School-age children with Down syndrome may benefit from inclusive education (whereby students of differing abilities are placed in classes with their peers of the same age), provided some adjustments are made to the curriculum. Evidence to support this, however, is not very strong. In the United States, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1975 requires public schools generally to allow attendance by students with Down syndrome. Individuals with Down syndrome may learn better visually. Drawing may help with language, speech, and reading skills. Children with Down syndrome still often have difficulty with sentence structure and grammar, as well as developing the ability to speak clearly. Several types of early intervention can help with cognitive development. Efforts to develop motor skills include physical therapy, speech and language therapy, and occupational therapy. Physical therapy focuses specifically on motor development and teaching children to interact with their environment. Speech and language therapy can help prepare for later language. Lastly, occupational therapy can help with skills needed for later independence. Other Tympanostomy tubes are often needed and often more than one set during the person's childhood. Tonsillectomy is also often done to help with sleep apnea and throat infections. Surgery, however, does not always address the sleep apnea and a continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) machine may be useful. Physical therapy and participation in physical education may improve motor skills. Evidence to support this in adults, however, is not very good. Efforts to prevent respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection with human monoclonal antibodies should be considered, especially in those with heart problems. In those who develop dementia there is no evidence for memantine, donepezil, rivastigmine, or galantamine. Plastic surgery has been suggested as a method of improving the appearance and thus the acceptance of people with Down syndrome. It has also been proposed as a way to improve speech. Evidence, however, does not support a meaningful difference in either of these outcomes. Plastic surgery on children with Down syndrome is uncommon, and continues to be controversial. The U.S. National Down Syndrome Society views the goal as one of mutual respect and acceptance, not appearance. Many alternative medical techniques are used in Down syndrome; however, they are poorly supported by evidence. These include: dietary changes, massage, animal therapy, chiropractic and naturopathy, among others. Some proposed treatments may also be harmful. Prognosis Between 5 and 15% of children with Down syndrome in Sweden attend regular school. Some graduate from high school; however, most do not. Of those with intellectual disability in the United States who attended high school about 40% graduated. Many learn to read and write and some are able to do paid work. In adulthood about 20% in the United States do paid work in some capacity. In Sweden, however, less than 1% have regular jobs. Many are able to live semi-independently, but they often require help with financial, medical, and legal matters. Those with mosaic Down syndrome usually have better outcomes. Individuals with Down syndrome have a higher risk of early death than the general population. This is most often from heart problems or infections. Following improved medical care, particularly for heart and gastrointestinal problems, the life expectancy has increased. This increase has been from 12 years in 1912, to 25 years in the 1980s, to 50 to 60 years in the developed world in the 2000s. Currently between 4 and 12% die in the first year of life. The probability of long-term survival is partly determined by the presence of heart problems. In those with congenital heart problems, 60% survive to 10 years and 50% survive to 30 years of age. In those without heart problems, 85% survive to 10 years and 80% survive to 30 years of age. About 10% live to 70 years of age. The National Down Syndrome Society provide information regarding raising a child with Down syndrome. Epidemiology Down syndrome is the most common chromosomal abnormality in humans. Globally, , Down syndrome occurs in about 1 per 1,000 births and results in about 17,000 deaths. More children are born with Down syndrome in countries where abortion is not allowed and in countries where pregnancy more commonly occurs at a later age. About 1.4 per 1,000 live births in the United States and 1.1 per 1,000 live births in Norway are affected. In the 1950s, in the United States, it occurred in 2 per 1000 live births with the decrease since then due to prenatal screening and abortions. The number of pregnancies with Down syndrome is more than two times greater with many spontaneously aborting. It is the cause of 8% of all congenital disorders. Maternal age affects the chances of having a pregnancy with Down syndrome. At age 20, the chance is 1 in 1,441; at age 30, it is 1 in 959; at age 40, it is 1 in 84; and at age 50 it is 1 in 44. Although the probability increases with maternal age, 70% of children with Down syndrome are born to women 35 years of age and younger, because younger people have more children. The father's older age is also a risk factor in women older than 35, but not in women younger than 35, and may partly explain the increase in risk as women age. History English physician John Langdon Down first described Down syndrome in 1862, recognizing it as a distinct type of mental disability, and again in a more widely published report in 1866. Édouard Séguin described it as separate from cretinism in 1844. By the 20th century, Down syndrome had become the most recognizable form of mental disability. In antiquity, many infants with disabilities were either killed or abandoned. In June 2020, the earliest incidence of Down syndrome was found in genomic evidence from an infant that was buried before 3200 BC at Poulnabrone dolmen in Ireland. Researchers believe that a number of historical pieces of art portray Down syndrome, including pottery from the pre-Columbian Tumaco-La Tolita culture in present-day Colombia and Ecuador, and the 16th-century painting The Adoration of the Christ Child. In the 20th century, many individuals with Down syndrome were institutionalized, few of the associated medical problems were treated, and most people died in infancy or early adulthood. With the rise of the eugenics movement, 33 of the then 48 U.S. states and several countries began programs of forced sterilization of individuals with Down syndrome and comparable degrees of disability. Action T4 in Nazi Germany made public policy of a program of systematic involuntary euthanization. With the discovery of karyotype techniques in the 1950s it became possible to identify abnormalities of chromosomal number or shape. In 1959 Jérôme Lejeune reported the discovery that Down syndrome resulted from an extra chromosome. However, Lejeune's claim to the discovery has been disputed, and in 2014 the Scientific Council of the French Federation of Human Genetics unanimously awarded its Grand Prize to his colleague Marthe Gautier for her role in this discovery. The discovery took place in the laboratory of Raymond Turpin at the Hôpital Trousseau in Paris, France. Jérôme Lejeune and Marthe Gautier were both his students. As a result of this discovery, the condition became known as trisomy 21. Even before the discovery of its cause, the presence of the syndrome in all races, its association with older maternal age, and its rarity of recurrence had been noticed. Medical texts had assumed it was caused by a combination of inheritable factors that had not been identified. Other theories had focused on injuries sustained during birth. Society and culture Name Due to his perception that children with Down syndrome shared facial similarities with those of Blumenbach's Mongolian race, John Langdon Down used the term "mongoloid". He felt that the existence of Down syndrome confirmed that all peoples were genetically related. In the 1950s with discovery of the underlying cause as being related to chromosomes, concerns about the race-based nature of the name increased. In 1961, a group of nineteen scientists suggested that "mongolism" had "misleading connotations" and had become "an embarrassing term". The World Health Organization (WHO) dropped the term in 1965 after a request by the delegation from the Mongolian People's Republic. While the term mongoloid (also mongolism, Mongolian imbecility or idiocy) continued to be used until the early 1980s, it is now considered unacceptable and is no longer in common use. In 1975, the United States National Institutes of Health (NIH) convened a conference to standardize the naming and recommended replacing the possessive form, "Down's syndrome" with "Down syndrome". However, both the possessive and nonpossessive forms remain in use by the general population. The term "trisomy 21" is also commonly used. Ethics Most obstetricians argue that not offering screening for Down syndrome is unethical. As it is |
a full diagnostic assessment to determine the extent and nature of the disorder. Some tests can be administered by a teacher or computer; others require specialized training and are given by psychologists. Some test results indicate how to carry out teaching strategies. Because a variety of different cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and environmental factors all could contribute to difficultly learning to read, a comprehensive evaluation should consider these different possibilities. These tests and observations can include: General measures of cognitive ability, such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities, or Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales. Low general cognitive ability would make reading more difficult. Cognitive ability measures also often try to measure different cognitive processes, such as verbal ability, nonverbal and spatial reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. There are different versions of these tests for different age groups. Almost all of these require additional training to give and score correctly, and are done by psychologists. According to Mather and Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile and/or pattern of scores on cognitive tests confirming or ruling-out reading disorder has not yet been identified. Screening or evaluation for mental health conditions: Parents and teachers can complete rating scales or behavior checklists to gather information about emotional and behavioral functioning for younger people. Many checklists have similar versions for parents, teachers, and younger people old enough to read reasonably well (often 11 years and older) to complete. Examples include the Behavioral Assessment System for Children, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. All of these have nationally representative norms, making it possible to compare the level of symptoms to what would be typical for the younger person's age and biological sex. Other checklists link more specifically to psychiatric diagnoses, such as the Vanderbilt ADHD Rating Scales or the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED). Screening uses brief tools that are designed to catch cases with a disorder, but they often get false positive scores for people who do not have the disorder. Screeners should be followed up by a more accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive disorders and anxiety disorders are two-three times higher in people with dyslexia, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is more common, as well. Review of academic achievement and skills: Average spelling/reading ability for a dyslexic is a percentage ranking <16, well below normal. In addition to reviewing grades and teacher notes, standardized test results are helpful in evaluating progress. These include group administered tests, such as the Iowa Tests of Educational Development, that a teacher may give to a group or whole classroom of younger people at the same time. They also could include individually administered tests of achievement, such as the Wide Range Achievement Test, or the Woodcock-Johnson (which also includes a set of achievement tests). The individually administered tests again require more specialized training. Screening Screening procedures seek to identify children who show signs of possible dyslexia. In the preschool years, a family history of dyslexia, particularly in biological parents and siblings, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better than any test. In primary school (ages 5–7), the ideal screening procedure consist of training primary school teachers to carefully observe and record their pupils' progress through the phonics curriculum, and thereby identify children progressing slowly. When teachers identify such students they can supplement their observations with screening tests such as the Phonics screening check used by United Kingdom schools during Year one. In the medical setting, child and adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasizes that "[g]iven the high prevalence of developmental disorders in school-aged children, all children seen in clinics should be systematically screened for developmental disorders irrespective of the presenting problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screening for developmental disorders, including dyslexia, by conducting a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, and obtaining a school report regarding academic and social functioning. Management Through the use of compensation strategies, therapy and educational support, individuals with dyslexia can learn to read and write. There are techniques and technical aids that help to manage or conceal symptoms of the disorder. Reducing stress and anxiety can sometimes improve written comprehension. For dyslexia intervention with alphabet-writing systems, the fundamental aim is to increase a child's awareness of correspondences between graphemes (letters) and phonemes (sounds), and to relate these to reading and spelling by teaching how sounds blend into words. Reinforced collateral training focused on reading and spelling may yield longer-lasting gains than oral phonological training alone. Early intervention can be successful in reducing reading failure. Research does not suggest that specially-tailored fonts (such as Dyslexie and OpenDyslexic) help with reading. Children with dyslexia read text set in a regular font such as Times New Roman and Arial just as quickly, and they show a preference for regular fonts over specially-tailored fonts. Some research has pointed to increased letter-spacing being beneficial. There is currently no evidence showing that music education significantly improves the reading skills of adolescents with dyslexia. Prognosis Dyslexic children require special instruction for word analysis and spelling from an early age. The prognosis, generally speaking, is positive for individuals who are identified in childhood and receive support from friends and family. The New York educational system (NYED) indicates "a daily uninterrupted 90-minute block of instruction in reading", furthermore "instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, reading fluency" so as to improve the individual's reading ability. Epidemiology The percentage of people with dyslexia is unknown, but it has been estimated to be as low as 5% and as high as 17% of the population. While it is diagnosed more often in males, some believe that it affects males and females equally. There are different definitions of dyslexia used throughout the world, but despite significant differences in writing systems, dyslexia occurs in different populations. Dyslexia is not limited to difficulty in converting letters to sounds, and Chinese people with dyslexia may have difficulty converting Chinese characters into their meanings. The Chinese vocabulary uses logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writing where one character can represent an individual phoneme. The phonological-processing hypothesis attempts to explain why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety of languages. Furthermore, the relationship between phonological capacity and reading appears to be influenced by orthography. History Dyslexia was clinically described by Oswald Berkhan in 1881, but the term dyslexia was coined in 1883 by Rudolf Berlin, an ophthalmologist in Stuttgart. He used the term to refer to the case of a young boy who had severe difficulty learning to read and write, despite showing typical intelligence and physical abilities in all other respects. In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a British physician from Seaford, East Sussex, published a description of a reading-specific learning disorder in a report to the British Medical Journal titled "Congenital Word Blindness". The distinction between phonological versus surface types of dyslexia is only descriptive, and without any etiological assumption as to the underlying brain mechanisms. However, studies have alluded to potential differences due to variation in performance. Society and culture As is the case with any disorder, society often makes an assessment based on incomplete information. Before the 1980s, dyslexia was thought to be | word retrieval or naming things is also associated with dyslexia. People with dyslexia are commonly poor spellers, a feature sometimes called dysorthographia or dysgraphia, which depends on the skill of orthographic coding. Problems persist into adolescence and adulthood and may include difficulties with summarizing stories, memorization, reading aloud, or learning foreign languages. Adults with dyslexia can often read with good comprehension, though they tend to read more slowly than others without a learning difficulty and perform worse in spelling tests or when reading nonsense words–a measure of phonological awareness. Associated conditions Dyslexia often co-occurs with other learning disorders, but the reasons for this comorbidity have not been clearly identified. These associated disabilities include: Dysgraphia A disorder involving difficulties with writing or typing, sometimes due to problems with eye–hand coordination; it also can impede direction- or sequence-oriented processes, such as tying knots or carrying out repetitive tasks. In dyslexia, dysgraphia is often multifactorial, due to impaired letter-writing automaticity, organizational and elaborative difficulties, and impaired visual word forming, which makes it more difficult to retrieve the visual picture of words required for spelling. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) A disorder characterized by problems sustaining attention, hyperactivity, or acting impulsively. Dyslexia and ADHD commonly occur together. Approximately 15% or 12–24% of people with dyslexia have ADHD; and up to 35% of people with ADHD have dyslexia. Auditory processing disorder A listening disorder that affects the ability to process auditory information. This can lead to problems with auditory memory and auditory sequencing. Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems, and may develop their own logographic cues to compensate for this type of deficit. Some research suggests that auditory processing skills could be the primary shortfall in dyslexia. Developmental coordination disorder A neurological condition characterized by difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-motor control, kinesthetic coordination, difficulty in the use of speech sounds, problems with short-term memory, and organization. Causes Researchers have been trying to find the neurobiological basis of dyslexia since the condition was first identified in 1881. For example, some have tried to associate the common problem among people with dyslexia of not being able to see letters clearly to abnormal development of their visual nerve cells. Neuroanatomy Neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET), have shown a correlation between both functional and structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties. Some people with dyslexia show less electrical activation in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved with reading, such as the inferior frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and the middle and ventral temporal cortex. Over the past decade, brain activation studies using PET to study language have produced a breakthrough in the understanding of the neural basis of language. Neural bases for the visual lexicon and for auditory verbal short-term memory components have been proposed, with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task-specific (i.e., functional rather than structural). fMRIs of people with dyslexia indicate an interactive role of the cerebellum and cerebral cortex as well as other brain structures in reading. The cerebellar theory of dyslexia proposes that impairment of cerebellum-controlled muscle movement affects the formation of words by the tongue and facial muscles, resulting in the fluency problems that some people with dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is also involved in the automatization of some tasks, such as reading. The fact that some children with dyslexia have motor task and balance impairments could be consistent with a cerebellar role in their reading difficulties. However, the cerebellar theory has not been supported by controlled research studies. Genetics Research into potential genetic causes of dyslexia has its roots in post-autopsy examination of the brains of people with dyslexia. Observed anatomical differences in the language centers of such brains include microscopic cortical malformations known as ectopias, and more rarely, vascular micro-malformations, and microgyrus—a smaller than usual size for the gyrus. The previously cited studies and others suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed to occur before or during the sixth month of fetal brain development, may have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in people with dyslexia have also been reported in non-language cerebral and subcortical brain structures. Several genes have been associated with dyslexia, including DCDC2 and KIAA0319 on chromosome 6, and DYX1C1 on chromosome 15. Gene–environment interaction The contribution of gene–environment interaction to reading disability has been intensely studied using twin studies, which estimate the proportion of variance associated with a person's environment and the proportion associated with their genes. Both environmental and genetic factors appear to contribute to reading development. Studies examining the influence of environmental factors such as parental education and teaching quality have determined that genetics have greater influence in supportive, rather than less optimal, environments. However, more optimal conditions may just allow those genetic risk factors to account for more of the variance in outcome because the environmental risk factors have been minimized. As environment plays a large role in learning and memory, it is likely that epigenetic modifications play an important role in reading ability. Measures of gene expression, histone modifications, and methylation in the human periphery are used to study epigenetic processes; however, all of these have limitations in the extrapolation of results for application to the human brain. Language The orthographic complexity of a language directly affects how difficult it is to learn to read it. English and French have comparatively "deep" phonemic orthographies within the Latin alphabet writing system, with complex structures employing spelling patterns on several levels: letter-sound correspondence, syllables, and morphemes. Languages such as Spanish, Italian and Finnish primarily employ letter-sound correspondence—so-called "shallow" orthographies—which makes them easier to learn for people with dyslexia. Logographic writing systems, such as Chinese characters, have extensive symbol use; and these also pose problems for dyslexic learners. Pathophysiology For most people who are right-hand dominant, the left hemisphere of their brain is more specialized for language processing. With regard to the mechanism of dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialization is less pronounced or absent in people with dyslexia. In other studies, dyslexia is correlated with anatomical differences in the corpus callosum, the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres. Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate changes in connectivity or in gray matter density in areas related to reading and language. Finally, the left inferior frontal gyrus has shown differences in phonological processing in people with dyslexia. Neurophysiological and imaging procedures are being used to ascertain phenotypic characteristics in people with dyslexia, thus identifying the effects of dyslexia-related genes. Dual route theory The dual-route theory of reading aloud was first described in the early 1970s. This theory suggests that two separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involved in reading aloud. One mechanism is the lexical route, which is the process whereby skilled readers can recognize known words by sight alone, through a "dictionary" lookup procedure. The other mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, which is the process whereby the reader can "sound out" a written word. This is done by identifying the word's constituent parts (letters, phonemes, graphemes) and applying knowledge of how these parts are associated with each other, for example, how a string of neighboring letters sound together. The dual-route system could explain the different rates of dyslexia occurrence between different languages (e.g., the consistency of phonological rules in the Spanish language could account for the fact that Spanish-speaking children show a higher level of performance in non-word reading, when compared to English-speakers). Diagnosis Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learning disorder that impairs accurate and fluent word reading and spelling. Typical—but not universal—features include difficulties with phonological awareness; inefficient and often inaccurate processing of sounds in oral language (phonological processing); and verbal working memory deficits. Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder, subcategorized in diagnostic guides as a learning disorder with impairment in reading (ICD-11 prefixes "developmental" to "learning disorder"; DSM-5 uses "specific"). Dyslexia is not a problem with intelligence. Emotional problems often arise secondary to learning difficulties. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke describes dyslexia as "difficulty with phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), spelling, and/or rapid visual-verbal responding". The British Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as "a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling" and is characterized by "difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed". Phonological awareness enables one to identify, discriminate, remember (working memory), and mentally manipulate the sound structures of language—phonemes, onsite-rime segments, syllables, and words. Assessment Strive for a multidisciplinary team approach involving the child's parent(s) and teacher(s); school psychologist; pediatrician; and, as appropriate, speech and language pathologist (speech therapist); and occupational therapist. Possess a thorough familiarity with typical ages children reach various general developmental milestones (write first name; draw a square), and domain-specific milestones, such as phonological awareness (recognize rhyming words; identify the initial sounds in words). Tests should not be relied on exclusively. Careful observation of the child in the school and home environments, and sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are just as important as tests. Take advantage of the empirically supported response to intervention (RTI) approach, which "... involves monitoring the progress of a group of children through a programme of intervention rather than undertaking a static assessment of their current skills. Children with the most need are those who fail to respond to effective teaching, and they are readily identified using this approach." Assessment tests There is a wide range of tests that are used in clinical and educational settings to evaluate the possibility that a person might have dyslexia. If initial testing suggests that a person might have |
theologian and jurist who laid the foundations for international law Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange (1584–1647), sovereign prince of Orange and stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders & Overijssel from 1625 to 1647 Philippus Baldaeus (1632–1671), minister in Jaffna Diederik Durven (1676–1740), Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1729 to 1732 Abraham van der Weijden (1743–1773), ship's captain, initiated of Freemasonry in South Africa Gerrit Paape (1752–1803), painter of earthenware and stoneware, poet, journalist, novelist, judge, columnist and finally a ministerial civil servant Aegidius van Braam (1758–1822), naval vice-admiral Agneta Matthes (1847–1909), entrepreneur, manufactured yeast using the cooperative movement and housed workers at Agnetapark Henk Zeevalking (1922–2005), politician and jurist Piet Bukman (born 1934), politician and diplomat Klaas de Vries (born 1943), politician and jurist Atzo Nicolaï (born 1960), politician Marja van Bijsterveldt (born 1961), politician, Mayor of Delft since 2016 Alexander Pechtold (born 1965, politician and art historian Science and business Adolphus Vorstius (1597–1663), physician and botanist Martin van den Hove (1605–1639), astronomer and mathematician Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), father of microbiology and developer of the microscope Nicolaas Kruik (1678–1754), land surveyor, cartographer, astronomer, weatherman and eponym of the Museum De Cruquius Martin van Marum (1750–1837), physician, inventor, scientist and teacher Jacob Gijsbertus Samuël van Breda (1788–1867), biologist and geologist Philippe-Charles Schmerling (1791–1836), prehistorian, geologist and pioneer in paleontology Martinus Beijerinck (1851–1931), microbiologist, discovered viruses, lived and worked in Delft Guillaume Daniel Delprat CBE (1856–1937), metallurgist, mining engineer and businessman Frederik H. Kreuger (1928–2015), high-voltage scientist, academic and inventor Marjo van der Knaap (born 1958), professor of pediatric neurology, white matter researcher Peter Schrijver (born 1963), historical linguist Ionica Smeets (born 1979), mathematician, science journalist, TV presenter and academic Boyan Slat (born 1994), inventor and entrepreneur, CEO of The Ocean Cleanup Art Suzanne Manet (1829–1906), pianist, wife and model of painter Édouard Manet Betsy Perk (1833–1906), author of novels and plays, pioneer of the Dutch women's movement Ton Lutz (1919–2009) and Pieter Lutz (1927–2009), brothers and actors Bram Bogart (1921–2012), expressionist painter of the COBRA group Cor Dam (born 1935), sculptor, painter, illustrator and ceramist Kader Abdolah (born 1954), poet and columnist Michèle Van de Roer (born 1956), artist, designer, photographer and engraver Mariska Hulscher (born 1964), TV presenter Wessel van Diepen (born 1966), radio host, music producer and former TV presenter Rob Das (born 1969), film and TV actor, director and writer Jan-Willem van Ewijk (born 1970), film director, actor and screenwriter Ricky Koole (born 1972) a Dutch singer and film actress Vincent de Moor (born 1973), trance musician and remixer Roel van Velzen (born 1978), singer Marly van der Velden (born 1988), actress and fashion designer Sport Jan Thomée (1886–1954), footballer, team bronze medallist at the 1908 Summer Olympics Henri van Schaik (1899–1991), horse rider, team silver medallist in the 1936 Summer Olympics Tinus Osendarp (1916–2002), sprint runner, twice bronze medallist at the 1936 Summer Olympics Stien Kaiser (born 1938), speed skater, twice bronze medallist at the 1968 Winter Olympics and gold and silver medallist in the 1972 Winter Olympics Pieter van der Kruk (born 1941), heavyweight weightlifter and shot putter, competed at the 1968 Summer Olympics Jan Timman (born 1951), chess grandmaster, raised in Delft Ria Stalman (born 1951), discus thrower and shot putter, gold medallist in the discus at the 1984 Summer Olympics Frank Leistra (born 1960), field hockey goalkeeper, team bronze medallist at the 1988 Summer Olympics Ken Monkou (born 1964), football player with 356 club caps Eeke van Nes (born 1969), rower, team bronze medallist at the 1996 Summer Olympics and team silver medallist at the 2000 Summer Olympics Thamar Henneken (born 1979), freestyle swimmer, team silver medallist at the 2000 Summer Olympics Ard van Peppen (born 1985), footballer with over 350 club caps Sytske de Groot (born 1986), rower, team bronze medallist at the 2012 Summer Olympics Aaron Meijers (born 1987), footballer with almost 400 club caps Michaëlla Krajicek (born 1989), tennis player Arantxa Rus (born 1990), tennis player Miscellaneous Nuna is a series of manned solar-powered vehicles, built by students at the Delft University of Technology, that won the World solar challenge in Australia seven times in the last nine competitions (in 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2013, 2015 and 2017). The so-called "Superbus" project aims to develop high-speed coaches capable of speeds of up to together with the supporting infrastructure including special highway lanes constructed separately next to the nation's highways; this project was led by Dutch astronaut professor Wubbo Ockels of the Delft University of Technology. Members of both Delft Student Rowing Clubs Proteus-Eretes and Laga have won many international trophies, including Olympic medals, in the past. The Human Power Team Delft & Amsterdam, a team consisting mainly of students from the Delft University of Technology, has won The World Human Powered Speed Challenge (WHPSC) four times. This is an international contest for recumbents in the US state of Nevada, the aim of which is to break speed records. They set | opened the store to check a sample of the powder and a huge explosion followed. Luckily, many citizens were away, visiting a market in Schiedam or a fair in The Hague. Today, the explosion is primarily remembered for killing Rembrandt's most promising pupil, Carel Fabritius, and destroying almost all of his works. Delft artist Egbert van der Poel painted several pictures of Delft showing the devastation. The gunpowder store (Dutch: Kruithuis) was subsequently re-housed, a 'cannonball's distance away', outside the city, in a new building designed by architect Pieter Post. Sights The city centre retains a large number of monumental buildings, while in many streets there are canals of which the banks are connected by typical bridges, altogether making this city a notable tourist destination. Historical buildings and other sights of interest include: Oude Kerk (Old Church). Buried here: Piet Hein, Johannes Vermeer, Anthony van Leeuwenhoek. Nieuwe Kerk (New Church), constructed between 1381 and 1496. It contains the Dutch royal family's burial vault which, between funerals, is sealed with a cover stone. A statue of Hugo Grotius created by Franciscus Leonardus Stracké in 1886, located on the Markt near the Nieuwe Kerk. The Prinsenhof (Princes' Court), now a museum. City Hall on the Markt. The Oostpoort (Eastern gate), built around 1400. This is the only remaining gate of the old city walls. The Gemeenlandshuis Delfland, or Huyterhuis, built in 1505, which has housed the Delfland regional water authority since 1645. The Vermeer Centre in the re-built Guild house of St. Luke. The historical "Waag" building (Weigh house). Windmill De Roos, a tower mill built c.1760. Restored to working order in 2013. Another windmill that formerly stood in Delft, Het Fortuyn, was dismantled in 1917 and re-erected at the Netherlands Open Air Museum, Arnhem, Gelderland in 1920. Royal Delft also known as De Porceleyne Fles, is a great place which showcases Delft ware. Science Center attracts kids as well as adults. Culture Delft is well known for the Delft pottery ceramic products which were styled on the imported Chinese porcelain of the 17th century. The city had an early start in this area since it was a home port of the Dutch East India Company. It can still be seen at the pottery factories De Koninklijke Porceleyne Fles (or Royal Delft) and De Delftse Pauw, while new ceramics and ceramic art can be found at the Gallery Terra Delft. The painter Johannes Vermeer (1632–1675) was born in Delft. Vermeer used Delft streets and home interiors as the subject or background in his paintings. Several other famous painters lived and worked in Delft at that time, such as Pieter de Hoogh, Carel Fabritius, Nicolaes Maes, Gerard Houckgeest and Hendrick Cornelisz. van Vliet. They were all members of the Delft School. The Delft School is known for its images of domestic life and views of households, church interiors, courtyards, squares and the streets of Delft. The painters also produced pictures showing historic events, flowers, portraits for patrons and the court as well as decorative pieces of art. Delft supports creative arts companies. From 2001 the , a building that had been disused since 1951, began to house small companies in the creative arts sector. Its demolition started in December 2009, making way for the new railway tunnel in Delft. The occupants of the building, as well as the name 'Bacinol', moved to another building in the city. The name Bacinol relates to Dutch penicillin research during WWII. Education Delft University of Technology (TU Delft) is one of four universities of technology in the Netherlands. It was founded as an academy for civil engineering in 1842 by King William II. Today, well over 21,000 students are enrolled. The UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, providing postgraduate education for people from developing countries, draws on the strong tradition in water management and hydraulic engineering of the Delft university. Economy In the local economic field, essential elements are: education; (amongst others Delft University of Technology) ( 21.651 students and 4.939 full-time employees), scientific research; (amongst others "TNO" Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research), Stichting Deltares, Nederlands Normalisatie-Instituut, UNESCO-IHE Institute for water education, Technopolis Innovation Park; tourism; (about one million registered visitors a year), industry; (DSM Gist Services BV, (Delftware) earthenware production by De Koninklijke Porceleyne Fles, Exact Software Nederland BV, TOPdesk, Ampelmann) retail; (IKEA (Inter IKEA Systems B.V., owner and worldwide franchisor of the IKEA Concept, is based in Delft), Makro, Eneco Energy NV). Nature and recreation East of Delft lies a relatively large nature and recreation area called the "Delftse Hout" ("Delft Wood"). Through the forest lie bike, horse-riding and footpaths. It also includes a vast lake (suitable for swimming and windsurfing), narrow beaches, a restaurant, and community gardens, plus camping ground and other recreational and sports facilities. (There is also a facility for renting bikes from the station.) Inside the city, apart from a central park, there are several smaller town parks, including "Nieuwe Plantage", "Agnetapark", "Kalverbos". There is also the Botanical Garden of the TU and an arboretum in Delftse Hout. Notable people Delft is the birthplace of: Dutch Golden Age Jacob Willemsz Delff the Elder, (ca. 1550–1601), portrait painter Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt (1567–1641), painter Willem van der Vliet (c. 1584–1642), painter Adriaen van de Venne (1589–1662), painter Adriaen Cornelisz van Linschoten (1590–1677), painter Daniël Mijtens (ca. 1590–1647/48), portrait painter Leonaert Bramer (1596–1674), painter of genre, religious, and history paintings Anthonie Palamedes (1601–1673), portrait painter Pieter Jansz van Asch (1603–ca. 1678), painter Evert van Aelst (1602–1657), still life painter Hendrick Cornelisz. van Vliet (ca. 1611–1675), painter of church interiors Harmen Steenwijck (ca. 1612–ca. 1656), painter of still lifes and fruit Jacob Willemsz Delff the Younger (1619–1661), portrait painter David Beck (1621–1656), portrait painter Egbert van der Poel (1621–1664), genre and landscape painter Daniel Vosmaer (1622–1666), painter Willem van Aelst (1627–1683), artist of still-lifes Hendrick van der Burgh (1627–after 1664), genre painter Johannes Vermeer (1632–1675), painter of domestic interior scenes Ary de Milde (1634–1708), ceramist Public thinking and service Christian van Adrichem (1533—1585), Catholic priest and theological writer Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn (1556–1623), one of the first Dutchmen in Japan Hugo Grotius (1583–1645), humanist, diplomat, lawyer, theologian and jurist who laid the foundations for international law Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange (1584–1647), sovereign prince of Orange and stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders & Overijssel from 1625 to 1647 Philippus Baldaeus (1632–1671), minister in Jaffna Diederik Durven (1676–1740), Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1729 to 1732 Abraham van der Weijden (1743–1773), ship's captain, initiated of Freemasonry in South Africa Gerrit Paape (1752–1803), painter of earthenware and stoneware, poet, journalist, novelist, judge, columnist and finally a ministerial civil servant Aegidius van Braam (1758–1822), naval vice-admiral Agneta Matthes (1847–1909), entrepreneur, manufactured yeast using the cooperative movement and housed workers at Agnetapark Henk Zeevalking (1922–2005), politician and jurist Piet Bukman (born 1934), politician and diplomat Klaas de Vries (born 1943), politician and jurist Atzo Nicolaï (born 1960), politician Marja van Bijsterveldt (born 1961), politician, Mayor of Delft since 2016 Alexander Pechtold (born 1965, politician and art historian Science and business Adolphus Vorstius (1597–1663), physician and botanist Martin van den Hove (1605–1639), astronomer and mathematician Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), father of microbiology and developer of the microscope Nicolaas Kruik (1678–1754), land surveyor, cartographer, astronomer, weatherman and eponym of the Museum De Cruquius Martin van Marum (1750–1837), physician, inventor, scientist and teacher Jacob Gijsbertus Samuël van Breda (1788–1867), biologist and geologist Philippe-Charles Schmerling (1791–1836), prehistorian, geologist and pioneer in paleontology Martinus Beijerinck (1851–1931), microbiologist, discovered viruses, lived and worked in Delft Guillaume Daniel Delprat CBE (1856–1937), metallurgist, mining |
argues that there is a statistical correlation between trends in recreational drug use and trends in AIDS cases. He argues that the epidemic of AIDS cases in the 1980s corresponds to a supposed epidemic of recreational drug use in the United States and Europe during the same time frame. These claims are not supported by epidemiologic data. The average yearly increase in opioid-related deaths from 1990 to 2002 was nearly three times the yearly increase from 1979–90, with the greatest increase in 2000–02, yet AIDS cases and deaths fell dramatically during the mid-to-late-1990s. Duesberg's claim that recreational drug use, rather than HIV, was the cause of AIDS has been specifically examined and found to be false. Cohort studies have found that only HIV-positive drug users develop opportunistic infections; HIV-negative drug users do not develop such infections, indicating that HIV rather than drug use is the cause of AIDS. Duesberg has also argued that nitrite inhalants were the cause of the epidemic of Kaposi sarcoma (KS) in gay men. However, this argument has been described as an example of the fallacy of a statistical confounding effect; it is now known that a herpesvirus, potentiated by HIV, is responsible for AIDS-associated KS. Moreover, in addition to recreational drugs, Duesberg argues that anti-HIV drugs such as zidovudine (AZT) can cause AIDS. Duesberg's claim that antiviral medication causes AIDS is regarded as disproven by the scientific community. Placebo-controlled studies have found that AZT as a single agent produces modest and short-lived improvements in survival and delays the development of opportunistic infections; it certainly did not cause AIDS, which develops in both treated and untreated study patients. With the subsequent development of protease inhibitors and highly active antiretroviral therapy, numerous studies have documented the fact that anti-HIV drugs prevent the development of AIDS and substantially prolong survival, further disproving the claim that these drugs "cause" AIDS. Scientific study and rejection of Duesberg's risk-AIDS hypothesis Several studies have specifically addressed Duesberg's claim that recreational drug abuse or sexual promiscuity were responsible for the manifestations of AIDS. An early study of his claims, published in Nature in 1993, found Duesberg's drug abuse-AIDS hypothesis to have "no basis in fact." A large prospective study followed a group of 715 homosexual men in the Vancouver, Canada, area; approximately half were HIV-seropositive or became so during the follow-up period, and the remainder were HIV-seronegative. After more than 8 years of follow-up, despite similar rates of drug use, sexual contact, and other supposed risk factors in both groups, only the HIV-positive group suffered from opportunistic infections. Similarly, CD4 counts dropped in the patients who were HIV-infected, but remained stable in the HIV-negative patients, despite similar rates of risk behavior. The authors concluded that "the risk-AIDS hypothesis ... is clearly rejected by our data," and that "the evidence supports the hypothesis that HIV-1 has an integral role in the CD4 depletion and progressive immune dysfunction that characterise AIDS." Similarly, the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) and the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS)—which between them observed more than 8,000 Americans—demonstrated that "the presence of HIV infection is the only factor that is strongly and consistently associated with the conditions that define AIDS." A 2008 study found that recreational drug use (including cannabis, cocaine, poppers, and amphetamines) had no effect on CD4 or CD8 T-cell counts, providing further evidence against a role of recreational drugs as a cause of AIDS. Current AIDS definitions Duesberg argued in 1989 that a significant number of AIDS victims had died without proof of HIV infection. However, with the use of modern culture techniques and polymerase chain reaction testing, HIV can be demonstrated in virtually all patients with AIDS. Since AIDS is now defined partially by the presence of HIV, Duesberg claims it is impossible by definition to offer evidence that AIDS doesn't require HIV. However, the first definitions of AIDS mentioned no cause and the first AIDS diagnoses were made before HIV was discovered. The addition of HIV positivity to surveillance criteria as an absolutely necessary condition for case reporting occurred only in 1993, after a scientific consensus was established that HIV caused AIDS. AIDS in Africa According to | AIDS. Duesberg has also argued that nitrite inhalants were the cause of the epidemic of Kaposi sarcoma (KS) in gay men. However, this argument has been described as an example of the fallacy of a statistical confounding effect; it is now known that a herpesvirus, potentiated by HIV, is responsible for AIDS-associated KS. Moreover, in addition to recreational drugs, Duesberg argues that anti-HIV drugs such as zidovudine (AZT) can cause AIDS. Duesberg's claim that antiviral medication causes AIDS is regarded as disproven by the scientific community. Placebo-controlled studies have found that AZT as a single agent produces modest and short-lived improvements in survival and delays the development of opportunistic infections; it certainly did not cause AIDS, which develops in both treated and untreated study patients. With the subsequent development of protease inhibitors and highly active antiretroviral therapy, numerous studies have documented the fact that anti-HIV drugs prevent the development of AIDS and substantially prolong survival, further disproving the claim that these drugs "cause" AIDS. Scientific study and rejection of Duesberg's risk-AIDS hypothesis Several studies have specifically addressed Duesberg's claim that recreational drug abuse or sexual promiscuity were responsible for the manifestations of AIDS. An early study of his claims, published in Nature in 1993, found Duesberg's drug abuse-AIDS hypothesis to have "no basis in fact." A large prospective study followed a group of 715 homosexual men in the Vancouver, Canada, area; approximately half were HIV-seropositive or became so during the follow-up period, and the remainder were HIV-seronegative. After more than 8 years of follow-up, despite similar rates of drug use, sexual contact, and other supposed risk factors in both groups, only the HIV-positive group suffered from opportunistic infections. Similarly, CD4 counts dropped in the patients who were HIV-infected, but remained stable in the HIV-negative patients, despite similar rates of risk behavior. The authors concluded that "the risk-AIDS hypothesis ... is clearly rejected by our data," and that "the evidence supports the hypothesis that HIV-1 has an integral role in the CD4 depletion and progressive immune dysfunction that characterise AIDS." Similarly, the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) and the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS)—which between them observed more than 8,000 Americans—demonstrated that "the presence of HIV infection is the only factor that is strongly and consistently associated with the conditions that define AIDS." A 2008 study found that recreational drug use (including cannabis, cocaine, poppers, and amphetamines) had no effect on CD4 or CD8 T-cell counts, providing further evidence against a role of recreational drugs as a cause of AIDS. Current AIDS definitions Duesberg argued in 1989 that a significant number of AIDS victims had died without proof of HIV infection. However, with the use of modern culture techniques and polymerase chain reaction testing, HIV can be demonstrated in virtually all patients with AIDS. Since AIDS is now defined partially by the presence of HIV, Duesberg claims it is impossible by definition to offer evidence that AIDS doesn't require HIV. However, the first definitions of AIDS mentioned no cause and the first AIDS diagnoses were made before HIV was discovered. The addition of HIV positivity to surveillance criteria as an absolutely necessary condition for case reporting occurred only in 1993, after a scientific consensus was established that HIV caused AIDS. AIDS in Africa According to the Duesberg hypothesis, AIDS is not found in Africa. What Duesberg calls "the myth of an African AIDS epidemic," among people" exists for several reasons, including: The need, according to Duesberg, of the CDC, the WHO, and other health organizations to justify their existences, resulting in their "manufacturing contagious plagues out of noninfectious medical conditions." Media sensationalism, with stories that "helped shape the Western impression of an AIDS problem out of control," resulting in high levels of funding. Willing participation in deception by local doctors who wish to take advantage of this aid money: "African doctors themselves participate in building the myth of the AIDS pandemic." Confusion or incompetence on the part of African doctors: "Many common Third World diseases are confused with AIDS even if they are not part of its official definition." Duesberg states that African AIDS cases are "a collection of long-established, indigenous diseases, such as chronic fevers, weight loss, alias "slim disease," diarrhea, and tuberculosis" that result from malnutrition and poor sanitation. African AIDS cases, though, have increased in the last three decades as HIV's prevalence has increased but as malnutrition percentages and poor sanitation have declined in many African regions. In addition, while HIV and AIDS are more prevalent in urban than in rural settings in Africa, malnutrition and poor sanitation are found more commonly in rural than in urban settings. According to Duesberg, common diseases are easily misdiagnosed as AIDS in Africa because "the diagnosis of African AIDS is arbitrary" and does not include HIV testing. A definition of AIDS agreed upon in 1985 by the World Health Organization in Bangui did not require a positive HIV test, but since 1985, many African countries have added positive HIV tests to the Bangui criteria for AIDS or changed their definitions to match those of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control. One of the reasons for using more HIV tests despite their expense is that, rather than overestimating AIDS as Duesberg suggests, the Bangui definition alone |
Damn Small Linux, a very small Linux distribution Danish Sign Language Data Security Law of the People's Republic of China Definitive software library Design Science License, a copyleft license for intellectual property Diagnostic Systems Laboratories, a company now part of Beckman-Coulter Dictionary of the Scots Language Domain-specific language, a specialized computer language Digital subscriber line, | the People's Republic of China Definitive software library Design Science License, a copyleft license for intellectual property Diagnostic Systems Laboratories, a company now part of Beckman-Coulter Dictionary of the Scots Language Domain-specific language, a specialized computer language Digital subscriber line, a device used to connect a computer or router to a telephone line Dominican Summer League |
after they fell into a deep, flooded sinkhole and drowned. Other mass-death sites have been discovered subsequently. Those, along with multiple trackways, suggest that gregarious behavior was common in many early dinosaur species. Trackways of hundreds or even thousands of herbivores indicate that duck-billed (hadrosaurids) may have moved in great herds, like the American bison or the African Springbok. Sauropod tracks document that these animals traveled in groups composed of several different species, at least in Oxfordshire, England, although there is no evidence for specific herd structures. Congregating into herds may have evolved for defense, for migratory purposes, or to provide protection for young. There is evidence that many types of slow-growing dinosaurs, including various theropods, sauropods, ankylosaurians, ornithopods, and ceratopsians, formed aggregations of immature individuals. One example is a site in Inner Mongolia that has yielded remains of over 20 Sinornithomimus, from one to seven years old. This assemblage is interpreted as a social group that was trapped in mud. The interpretation of dinosaurs as gregarious has also extended to depicting carnivorous theropods as pack hunters working together to bring down large prey. However, this lifestyle is uncommon among modern birds, crocodiles, and other reptiles, and the taphonomic evidence suggesting mammal-like pack hunting in such theropods as Deinonychus and Allosaurus can also be interpreted as the results of fatal disputes between feeding animals, as is seen in many modern diapsid predators. The crests and frills of some dinosaurs, like the marginocephalians, theropods and lambeosaurines, may have been too fragile to be used for active defense, and so they were likely used for sexual or aggressive displays, though little is known about dinosaur mating and territorialism. Head wounds from bites suggest that theropods, at least, engaged in active aggressive confrontations. From a behavioral standpoint, one of the most valuable dinosaur fossils was discovered in the Gobi Desert in 1971. It included a Velociraptor attacking a Protoceratops, providing evidence that dinosaurs did indeed attack each other. Additional evidence for attacking live prey is the partially healed tail of an Edmontosaurus, a hadrosaurid dinosaur; the tail is damaged in such a way that shows the animal was bitten by a tyrannosaur but survived. Cannibalism amongst some species of dinosaurs was confirmed by tooth marks found in Madagascar in 2003, involving the theropod Majungasaurus. Comparisons between the scleral rings of dinosaurs and modern birds and reptiles have been used to infer daily activity patterns of dinosaurs. Although it has been suggested that most dinosaurs were active during the day, these comparisons have shown that small predatory dinosaurs such as dromaeosaurids, Juravenator, and Megapnosaurus were likely nocturnal. Large and medium-sized herbivorous and omnivorous dinosaurs such as ceratopsians, sauropodomorphs, hadrosaurids, ornithomimosaurs may have been cathemeral, active during short intervals throughout the day, although the small ornithischian Agilisaurus was inferred to be diurnal. Based on fossil evidence from dinosaurs such as Oryctodromeus, some ornithischian species seem to have led a partially fossorial (burrowing) lifestyle. Many modern birds are arboreal (tree climbing), and this was also true of many Mesozoic birds, especially the enantiornithines. While some early bird-like species may have already been arboreal as well (including dromaeosaurids) such as Microraptor) most non-avialan dinosaurs seem to have relied on land-based locomotion. A good understanding of how dinosaurs moved on the ground is key to models of dinosaur behavior; the science of biomechanics, pioneered by Robert McNeill Alexander, has provided significant insight in this area. For example, studies of the forces exerted by muscles and gravity on dinosaurs' skeletal structure have investigated how fast dinosaurs could run, whether diplodocids could create sonic booms via whip-like tail snapping, and whether sauropods could float. Communication Modern birds are known to communicate using visual and auditory signals, and the wide diversity of visual display structures among fossil dinosaur groups, such as horns, frills, crests, sails, and feathers, suggests that visual communication has always been important in dinosaur biology. Reconstruction of the plumage color of Anchiornis, suggest the importance of color in visual communication in non-avian dinosaurs. The evolution of dinosaur vocalization is less certain. Paleontologist Phil Senter has suggested that non-avian dinosaurs relied mostly on visual displays and possibly non-vocal acoustic sounds like hissing, jaw grinding or clapping, splashing and wing beating (possible in winged maniraptoran dinosaurs). He states they were unlikely to have been capable of vocalizing since their closest relatives, crocodilians and birds, use different means to vocalize, the former via the larynx and the latter through the unique syrinx, suggesting they evolved independently and their common ancestor was mute. The earliest remains of a syrinx, which has enough mineral content for fossilization, was found in a specimen of the duck-like Vegavis iaai dated 69 –66 million years ago, and this organ is unlikely to have existed in non-avian dinosaurs. However, in contrast to Senter, other researchers have suggested that dinosaurs could vocalize and that the syrinx-based vocal system of birds evolved from a larynx-based one, rather than the two systems evolving independently. A 2016 study suggests that some dinosaurs produced closed mouth vocalizations like cooing, hooting and booming. These occur in both reptiles and birds and involve inflating the esophagus or tracheal pouches. Such vocalizations evolved independently in extant archosaurs numerous times, following increases in body size. The crests of the Lambeosaurini and nasal chambers of ankylosaurids have been suggested to have functioned in vocal resonance, though Senter stated that the presence of resonance chambers in some dinosaurs is not necessarily evidence of vocalization as modern snakes have such chambers which intensify their hisses. Reproductive biology All dinosaurs laid amniotic eggs. Dinosaur eggs were usually laid in a nest. Most species create somewhat elaborate nests which can be cups, domes, plates, beds scrapes, mounds, or burrows. Some species of modern bird have no nests; the cliff-nesting common guillemot lays its eggs on bare rock, and male emperor penguins keep eggs between their body and feet. Primitive birds and many non-avialan dinosaurs often lay eggs in communal nests, with males primarily incubating the eggs. While modern birds have only one functional oviduct and lay one egg at a time, more primitive birds and dinosaurs had two oviducts, like crocodiles. Some non-avialan dinosaurs, such as Troodon, exhibited iterative laying, where the adult might lay a pair of eggs every one or two days, and then ensured simultaneous hatching by delaying brooding until all eggs were laid. When laying eggs, females grow a special type of bone between the hard outer bone and the marrow of their limbs. This medullary bone, which is rich in calcium, is used to make eggshells. A discovery of features in a Tyrannosaurus skeleton provided evidence of medullary bone in extinct dinosaurs and, for the first time, allowed paleontologists to establish the sex of a fossil dinosaur specimen. Further research has found medullary bone in the carnosaur Allosaurus and the ornithopod Tenontosaurus. Because the line of dinosaurs that includes Allosaurus and Tyrannosaurus diverged from the line that led to Tenontosaurus very early in the evolution of dinosaurs, this suggests that the production of medullary tissue is a general characteristic of all dinosaurs. Another widespread trait among modern birds (but see below in regards to fossil groups and extant megapodes) is parental care for young after hatching. Jack Horner's 1978 discovery of a Maiasaura ("good mother lizard") nesting ground in Montana demonstrated that parental care continued long after birth among ornithopods. A specimen of the oviraptorid Citipati osmolskae was discovered in a chicken-like brooding position in 1993, which may indicate that they had begun using an insulating layer of feathers to keep the eggs warm. An embryo of the basal sauropodomorph Massospondylus was found without teeth, indicating that some parental care was required to feed the young dinosaurs. Trackways have also confirmed parental behavior among ornithopods from the Isle of Skye in northwestern Scotland. However, there is ample evidence of precociality or superprecociality among many dinosaur species, particularly theropods. For instance, non-ornithuromorph birds have been abundantly demonstrated to have had slow growth rates, megapode-like egg burying behavior and the ability to fly soon after birth. Both Tyrannosaurus and Troodon had juveniles with clear superprecociality and likely occupying different ecological niches than the adults. Superprecociality has been inferred for sauropods. Genital structures are unlikely to fossilize as they lack scales that may allow preservation via pigmentation or residual calcium phosphate salts. In 2021, the best preserved specimen of a dinosaur's cloacal vent exterior was described for Psittacosaurus, demonstrating lateral swellings similar to crocodylian musk glands used in social displays by both sexes and pigmented regions which could also reflect a signalling function. However, this specimen on its own does not offer enough information to determine whether this dinosaur had sexual signalling functions; it only supports the possibility. Cloacal visual signalling can occur in either males or females in living birds, making it unlikely to be useful to determine sex for extinct dinosaurs. Physiology Because both modern crocodilians and birds have four-chambered hearts (albeit modified in crocodilians), it is likely that this is a trait shared by all archosaurs, including all dinosaurs. While all modern birds have high metabolisms and are endothermic ("warm-blooded"), a vigorous debate has been ongoing since the 1960s regarding how far back in the dinosaur lineage this trait extended. Various researchers have supported dinosaurs as being endothermic, ectothermic ("cold-blooded"), or somewhere in between. An emerging consensus among researchers is that, while different lineages of dinosaurs would have had different metabolisms, most of them had higher metabolic rates than other reptiles but lower than living birds and mammals, which is termed mesothermy by some. Evidence from crocodiles and their extinct relatives suggests that such elevated metabolisms could have developed in the earliest archosaurs, which were the common ancestors of dinosaurs and crocodiles. After non-avian dinosaurs were discovered, paleontologists first posited that they were ectothermic. This was used to imply that the ancient dinosaurs were relatively slow, sluggish organisms, even though many modern reptiles are fast and light-footed despite relying on external sources of heat to regulate their body temperature. The idea of dinosaurs as ectothermic remained a prevalent view until Robert T. Bakker, an early proponent of dinosaur endothermy, published an influential paper on the topic in 1968. Bakker specifically used anatomical and ecological evidence to argue that sauropods, which had hitherto been depicted as sprawling aquatic animals with their tails dragging on the ground, were endotherms that lived vigorous, terrestrial lives. In 1972, Bakker expanded on his arguments based on energy requirements and predator-prey ratios. This was one of the seminal results that led to the Dinosaur renaissance. One of the greatest contributions to the modern understanding of dinosaur physiology has been paleohistology, the study of microscopic tissue structure in dinosaurs. From the 1960s forward, Armand de Ricqlès suggested that the presence of fibrolamellar bone—bony tissue with an irregular, fibrous texture and filled with blood vessels—was indicative of consistently fast growth and therefore endothermy. Fibrolamellar bone was common in both dinosaurs and pterosaurs, though not universally present. This has led to a significant body of work in reconstructing growth curves and modeling the evolution of growth rates across various dinosaur lineages, which has suggested overall that dinosaurs grew faster than living reptiles. Other lines of evidence suggesting endothermy include the presence of feathers and other types of body coverings in many lineages (see ); more consistent ratios of the isotope oxygen-18 in bony tissue compared to ectotherms, particularly as latitude and thus air temperature varied, which suggests stable internal temperatures (although these ratios can be altered during fossilization); and the discovery of polar dinosaurs, which lived in Australia, Antarctica, and Alaska when these places would have had cool, temperate climates. In saurischian dinosaurs, higher metabolisms were supported by the evolution of the avian respiratory system, characterized by an extensive system of air sacs that extended the lungs and invaded many of the bones in the skeleton, making them hollow. Such respiratory systems, which may have appeared in the earliest saurischians, would have provided them with more oxygen compared to a mammal of similar size, while also having a larger resting tidal volume and requiring a lower breathing frequency, which would have allowed them to sustain higher activity levels. The rapid airflow would also have been an effective cooling mechanism, which in conjunction with a lower metabolic rate would have prevented large sauropods from overheating. These traits may have enabled sauropods to grow quickly to gigantic sizes. Sauropods may also have benefitted from their size—their small surface area to volume ratio meant that they would have been able to thermoregulate more easily, a phenomenon termed gigantothermy. Like other reptiles, dinosaurs are primarily uricotelic, that is, their kidneys extract nitrogenous wastes from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia via the ureters into the intestine. This would have helped them to conserve water. In most living species, uric acid is excreted along with feces as a semisolid waste. However, at least some modern birds (such as hummingbirds) can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the cloaca. In addition, many species regurgitate pellets, and fossil pellets are known as early as the Jurassic from Anchiornis. The size and shape of the brain can be partly reconstructed based on the surrounding bones. In 1896, Marsh calculated ratios between brain weight and body weight of seven species of dinosaurs, showing that the brain of dinosaurs was proportionally smaller than in today's crocodiles, and that the brain of Stegosaurus was smaller than in any living land vertebrate. This contributed to the widespread public notion of dinosaurs as being sluggish and extraordinarily stupid. Harry Jerison, in 1973, showed that proportionally smaller brains are expected at larger body sizes, and that brain size in dinosaurs was not smaller than expected when compared to living reptiles. Later research showed that relative brain size progressively increased during the evolution of theropods, with the highest intelligence – comparable to that of modern birds – calculated for the troodontid Troodon. Origin of birds The possibility that dinosaurs were the ancestors of birds was first suggested in 1868 by Thomas Henry Huxley. After the work of Gerhard Heilmann in the early 20th century, the theory of birds as dinosaur descendants was abandoned in favor of the idea of them being descendants of generalized thecodonts, with the key piece of evidence being the supposed lack of clavicles in dinosaurs. However, as later discoveries showed, clavicles (or a single fused wishbone, which derived from separate clavicles) were not actually absent; they had been found as early as 1924 in Oviraptor, but misidentified as an interclavicle. In the 1970s, Ostrom revived the dinosaur–bird theory, which gained momentum in the coming decades with the advent of cladistic analysis, and a great increase in the discovery of small theropods and early birds. Of particular note have been the fossils of the Yixian Formation, where a variety of theropods and early birds have been found, often with feathers of some type. Birds share over a hundred distinct anatomical features with theropod dinosaurs, which are now generally accepted to have been their closest ancient relatives. They are most closely allied with maniraptoran coelurosaurs. A minority of scientists, most notably Alan Feduccia and Larry Martin, have proposed other evolutionary paths, including revised versions of Heilmann's basal archosaur proposal, or that maniraptoran theropods are the ancestors of birds but themselves are not dinosaurs, only convergent with dinosaurs. Feathers Feathers are one of the most recognizable characteristics of modern birds, and a trait that was also shared by several non-avian dinosaurs. Based on the current distribution of fossil evidence, it appears that feathers were an ancestral dinosaurian trait, though one that may have been selectively lost in some species. Direct fossil evidence of feathers or feather-like structures has been discovered in a diverse array of species in many non-avian dinosaur groups, both among saurischians and ornithischians. Simple, branched, feather-like structures are known from heterodontosaurids, primitive neornithischians, and theropods, and primitive ceratopsians. Evidence for true, vaned feathers similar to the flight feathers of modern birds has been found only in the theropod subgroup Maniraptora, which includes oviraptorosaurs, troodontids, dromaeosaurids, and birds. Feather-like structures known as pycnofibres have also been found in pterosaurs, suggesting the possibility that feather-like filaments may have been common in the bird lineage and evolved before the appearance of dinosaurs themselves. Research into the genetics of American alligators has also revealed that crocodylian scutes do possess feather-keratins during embryonic development, but these keratins are not expressed by the animals before hatching. Archaeopteryx was the first fossil found that revealed a potential connection between dinosaurs and birds. It is considered a transitional fossil, in that it displays features of both groups. Brought to light just two years after Charles Darwin's seminal On the Origin of Species (1859), its discovery spurred the nascent debate between proponents of evolutionary biology and creationism. This early bird is so dinosaur-like that, without a clear impression of feathers in the surrounding rock, at least one specimen was mistaken for the small theropod Compsognathus. Since the 1990s, a number of additional feathered dinosaurs have been found, providing even stronger evidence of the close relationship between dinosaurs and modern birds. Most of these specimens were unearthed in the lagerstätte of the Yixian Formation, Liaoning, northeastern China, which was part of an island continent during the Cretaceous. Though feathers have been found in only a few locations, it is possible that non-avian dinosaurs elsewhere in the world were also feathered. The lack of widespread fossil evidence for feathered non-avian dinosaurs may be because delicate features like skin and feathers are seldom preserved by fossilization and thus often absent from the fossil record. The description of feathered dinosaurs has not been without controversy; perhaps the most vocal critics have been Alan Feduccia and Theagarten Lingham-Soliar, who have proposed that some purported feather-like fossils are the result of the decomposition of collagenous fiber that underlaid the dinosaurs' skin, and that maniraptoran dinosaurs with vaned feathers were not actually dinosaurs, but convergent with dinosaurs. However, their views have for the most part not been accepted by other researchers, to the point that the scientific nature of Feduccia's proposals has been questioned. Skeleton Because feathers are often associated with birds, feathered dinosaurs are often touted as the missing link between birds and dinosaurs. However, the multiple skeletal features also shared by the two groups represent another important line of evidence for paleontologists. Areas of the skeleton with important similarities include the neck, pubis, wrist (semi-lunate carpal), arm and pectoral girdle, furcula (wishbone), and breast bone. Comparison of bird and dinosaur skeletons through cladistic analysis strengthens the case for the link. Soft anatomy Large meat-eating dinosaurs had a complex system of air sacs similar to those found in modern birds, according to a 2005 investigation led by Patrick M. O'Connor. The lungs of theropod dinosaurs (carnivores that walked on two legs and had bird-like feet) likely pumped air into hollow sacs in their skeletons, as is the case in birds. "What was once formally considered unique to birds was present in some form in the ancestors of birds", O'Connor said. In 2008, scientists described Aerosteon riocoloradensis, the skeleton of which supplies the strongest evidence to date of a dinosaur with a bird-like breathing system. CT scanning of Aerosteon'''s fossil bones revealed evidence for the existence of air sacs within the animal's body cavity. Behavioral evidence Fossils of the troodonts Mei and Sinornithoides demonstrate that some dinosaurs slept with their heads tucked under their arms. This behavior, which may have helped to keep the head warm, is also characteristic of modern birds. Several deinonychosaur and oviraptorosaur specimens have also been found preserved on top of their nests, likely brooding in a bird-like manner. The ratio between egg volume and body mass of adults among these dinosaurs suggest that the eggs were primarily brooded by the male, and that the young were highly precocial, similar to many modern ground-dwelling birds. Some dinosaurs are known to have used gizzard stones like modern birds. These stones are swallowed by animals to aid digestion and break down food and hard fibers once they enter the stomach. When found in association with fossils, gizzard stones are called gastroliths. Extinction of major groups All non-avian dinosaurs and most lineages of birds became extinct in a mass extinction event, called the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction event, at the end of the Cretaceous period. Above the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, which has been dated to 66.038 ± 0.025 million years ago, fossils of non-avian dinosaurs disappear abruptly; the absence of dinosaur fossils was historically used to assign rocks to the ensuing Cenozoic. The nature of the event that caused this mass extinction has been extensively studied since the 1970s, leading to the development of two mechanisms that are thought to have played major roles: an extraterrestrial impact event in the Yucatán Peninsula, along with flood basalt volcanism in India. However, the specific mechanisms of the extinction event and the extent of its effects on dinosaurs are still areas of ongoing research. Alongside dinosaurs, many other groups of animals became extinct: pterosaurs, marine reptiles such as mosasaurs and plesiosaurs, several groups of mammals, ammonites (nautilus-like mollusks), rudists (reef-building bivalves), and various groups of marine plankton. In all, approximately 47% of genera and 76% of species on Earth became extinct during the K-Pg extinction event. The relatively large size of most dinosaurs and the low diversity of small-bodied dinosaur species at the end of the Cretaceous may have contributed to their extinction; the extinction of the bird lineages that did not survive may also have been caused by a dependence on forest habitats or a lack of adaptations to eating seeds for survival. Pre-extinction diversity Just before the K-Pg extinction event, the number of non-avian dinosaur species that existed globally has been estimated at between 628 and 1078. It remains uncertain whether the diversity of dinosaurs was in gradual decline before the K-Pg extinction event, or whether dinosaurs were actually thriving prior to the extinction. Rock formations from the Maastrichtian epoch, which directly preceded the extinction, have been found to have lower diversity than the preceding Campanian epoch, which led to the prevailing view of a long-term decline in diversity. However, these comparisons did not account either for varying preservation potential between rock units or for different extents of exploration and excavation. In 1984, Dale Russell carried out an analysis to account for these biases, and found no evidence of a decline; another analysis by David Fastovsky and colleagues in 2004 even showed that dinosaur diversity continually increased until the extinction, but this analysis has been rebutted. Since then, different approaches based on statistics and | birds, especially the enantiornithines. While some early bird-like species may have already been arboreal as well (including dromaeosaurids) such as Microraptor) most non-avialan dinosaurs seem to have relied on land-based locomotion. A good understanding of how dinosaurs moved on the ground is key to models of dinosaur behavior; the science of biomechanics, pioneered by Robert McNeill Alexander, has provided significant insight in this area. For example, studies of the forces exerted by muscles and gravity on dinosaurs' skeletal structure have investigated how fast dinosaurs could run, whether diplodocids could create sonic booms via whip-like tail snapping, and whether sauropods could float. Communication Modern birds are known to communicate using visual and auditory signals, and the wide diversity of visual display structures among fossil dinosaur groups, such as horns, frills, crests, sails, and feathers, suggests that visual communication has always been important in dinosaur biology. Reconstruction of the plumage color of Anchiornis, suggest the importance of color in visual communication in non-avian dinosaurs. The evolution of dinosaur vocalization is less certain. Paleontologist Phil Senter has suggested that non-avian dinosaurs relied mostly on visual displays and possibly non-vocal acoustic sounds like hissing, jaw grinding or clapping, splashing and wing beating (possible in winged maniraptoran dinosaurs). He states they were unlikely to have been capable of vocalizing since their closest relatives, crocodilians and birds, use different means to vocalize, the former via the larynx and the latter through the unique syrinx, suggesting they evolved independently and their common ancestor was mute. The earliest remains of a syrinx, which has enough mineral content for fossilization, was found in a specimen of the duck-like Vegavis iaai dated 69 –66 million years ago, and this organ is unlikely to have existed in non-avian dinosaurs. However, in contrast to Senter, other researchers have suggested that dinosaurs could vocalize and that the syrinx-based vocal system of birds evolved from a larynx-based one, rather than the two systems evolving independently. A 2016 study suggests that some dinosaurs produced closed mouth vocalizations like cooing, hooting and booming. These occur in both reptiles and birds and involve inflating the esophagus or tracheal pouches. Such vocalizations evolved independently in extant archosaurs numerous times, following increases in body size. The crests of the Lambeosaurini and nasal chambers of ankylosaurids have been suggested to have functioned in vocal resonance, though Senter stated that the presence of resonance chambers in some dinosaurs is not necessarily evidence of vocalization as modern snakes have such chambers which intensify their hisses. Reproductive biology All dinosaurs laid amniotic eggs. Dinosaur eggs were usually laid in a nest. Most species create somewhat elaborate nests which can be cups, domes, plates, beds scrapes, mounds, or burrows. Some species of modern bird have no nests; the cliff-nesting common guillemot lays its eggs on bare rock, and male emperor penguins keep eggs between their body and feet. Primitive birds and many non-avialan dinosaurs often lay eggs in communal nests, with males primarily incubating the eggs. While modern birds have only one functional oviduct and lay one egg at a time, more primitive birds and dinosaurs had two oviducts, like crocodiles. Some non-avialan dinosaurs, such as Troodon, exhibited iterative laying, where the adult might lay a pair of eggs every one or two days, and then ensured simultaneous hatching by delaying brooding until all eggs were laid. When laying eggs, females grow a special type of bone between the hard outer bone and the marrow of their limbs. This medullary bone, which is rich in calcium, is used to make eggshells. A discovery of features in a Tyrannosaurus skeleton provided evidence of medullary bone in extinct dinosaurs and, for the first time, allowed paleontologists to establish the sex of a fossil dinosaur specimen. Further research has found medullary bone in the carnosaur Allosaurus and the ornithopod Tenontosaurus. Because the line of dinosaurs that includes Allosaurus and Tyrannosaurus diverged from the line that led to Tenontosaurus very early in the evolution of dinosaurs, this suggests that the production of medullary tissue is a general characteristic of all dinosaurs. Another widespread trait among modern birds (but see below in regards to fossil groups and extant megapodes) is parental care for young after hatching. Jack Horner's 1978 discovery of a Maiasaura ("good mother lizard") nesting ground in Montana demonstrated that parental care continued long after birth among ornithopods. A specimen of the oviraptorid Citipati osmolskae was discovered in a chicken-like brooding position in 1993, which may indicate that they had begun using an insulating layer of feathers to keep the eggs warm. An embryo of the basal sauropodomorph Massospondylus was found without teeth, indicating that some parental care was required to feed the young dinosaurs. Trackways have also confirmed parental behavior among ornithopods from the Isle of Skye in northwestern Scotland. However, there is ample evidence of precociality or superprecociality among many dinosaur species, particularly theropods. For instance, non-ornithuromorph birds have been abundantly demonstrated to have had slow growth rates, megapode-like egg burying behavior and the ability to fly soon after birth. Both Tyrannosaurus and Troodon had juveniles with clear superprecociality and likely occupying different ecological niches than the adults. Superprecociality has been inferred for sauropods. Genital structures are unlikely to fossilize as they lack scales that may allow preservation via pigmentation or residual calcium phosphate salts. In 2021, the best preserved specimen of a dinosaur's cloacal vent exterior was described for Psittacosaurus, demonstrating lateral swellings similar to crocodylian musk glands used in social displays by both sexes and pigmented regions which could also reflect a signalling function. However, this specimen on its own does not offer enough information to determine whether this dinosaur had sexual signalling functions; it only supports the possibility. Cloacal visual signalling can occur in either males or females in living birds, making it unlikely to be useful to determine sex for extinct dinosaurs. Physiology Because both modern crocodilians and birds have four-chambered hearts (albeit modified in crocodilians), it is likely that this is a trait shared by all archosaurs, including all dinosaurs. While all modern birds have high metabolisms and are endothermic ("warm-blooded"), a vigorous debate has been ongoing since the 1960s regarding how far back in the dinosaur lineage this trait extended. Various researchers have supported dinosaurs as being endothermic, ectothermic ("cold-blooded"), or somewhere in between. An emerging consensus among researchers is that, while different lineages of dinosaurs would have had different metabolisms, most of them had higher metabolic rates than other reptiles but lower than living birds and mammals, which is termed mesothermy by some. Evidence from crocodiles and their extinct relatives suggests that such elevated metabolisms could have developed in the earliest archosaurs, which were the common ancestors of dinosaurs and crocodiles. After non-avian dinosaurs were discovered, paleontologists first posited that they were ectothermic. This was used to imply that the ancient dinosaurs were relatively slow, sluggish organisms, even though many modern reptiles are fast and light-footed despite relying on external sources of heat to regulate their body temperature. The idea of dinosaurs as ectothermic remained a prevalent view until Robert T. Bakker, an early proponent of dinosaur endothermy, published an influential paper on the topic in 1968. Bakker specifically used anatomical and ecological evidence to argue that sauropods, which had hitherto been depicted as sprawling aquatic animals with their tails dragging on the ground, were endotherms that lived vigorous, terrestrial lives. In 1972, Bakker expanded on his arguments based on energy requirements and predator-prey ratios. This was one of the seminal results that led to the Dinosaur renaissance. One of the greatest contributions to the modern understanding of dinosaur physiology has been paleohistology, the study of microscopic tissue structure in dinosaurs. From the 1960s forward, Armand de Ricqlès suggested that the presence of fibrolamellar bone—bony tissue with an irregular, fibrous texture and filled with blood vessels—was indicative of consistently fast growth and therefore endothermy. Fibrolamellar bone was common in both dinosaurs and pterosaurs, though not universally present. This has led to a significant body of work in reconstructing growth curves and modeling the evolution of growth rates across various dinosaur lineages, which has suggested overall that dinosaurs grew faster than living reptiles. Other lines of evidence suggesting endothermy include the presence of feathers and other types of body coverings in many lineages (see ); more consistent ratios of the isotope oxygen-18 in bony tissue compared to ectotherms, particularly as latitude and thus air temperature varied, which suggests stable internal temperatures (although these ratios can be altered during fossilization); and the discovery of polar dinosaurs, which lived in Australia, Antarctica, and Alaska when these places would have had cool, temperate climates. In saurischian dinosaurs, higher metabolisms were supported by the evolution of the avian respiratory system, characterized by an extensive system of air sacs that extended the lungs and invaded many of the bones in the skeleton, making them hollow. Such respiratory systems, which may have appeared in the earliest saurischians, would have provided them with more oxygen compared to a mammal of similar size, while also having a larger resting tidal volume and requiring a lower breathing frequency, which would have allowed them to sustain higher activity levels. The rapid airflow would also have been an effective cooling mechanism, which in conjunction with a lower metabolic rate would have prevented large sauropods from overheating. These traits may have enabled sauropods to grow quickly to gigantic sizes. Sauropods may also have benefitted from their size—their small surface area to volume ratio meant that they would have been able to thermoregulate more easily, a phenomenon termed gigantothermy. Like other reptiles, dinosaurs are primarily uricotelic, that is, their kidneys extract nitrogenous wastes from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia via the ureters into the intestine. This would have helped them to conserve water. In most living species, uric acid is excreted along with feces as a semisolid waste. However, at least some modern birds (such as hummingbirds) can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the cloaca. In addition, many species regurgitate pellets, and fossil pellets are known as early as the Jurassic from Anchiornis. The size and shape of the brain can be partly reconstructed based on the surrounding bones. In 1896, Marsh calculated ratios between brain weight and body weight of seven species of dinosaurs, showing that the brain of dinosaurs was proportionally smaller than in today's crocodiles, and that the brain of Stegosaurus was smaller than in any living land vertebrate. This contributed to the widespread public notion of dinosaurs as being sluggish and extraordinarily stupid. Harry Jerison, in 1973, showed that proportionally smaller brains are expected at larger body sizes, and that brain size in dinosaurs was not smaller than expected when compared to living reptiles. Later research showed that relative brain size progressively increased during the evolution of theropods, with the highest intelligence – comparable to that of modern birds – calculated for the troodontid Troodon. Origin of birds The possibility that dinosaurs were the ancestors of birds was first suggested in 1868 by Thomas Henry Huxley. After the work of Gerhard Heilmann in the early 20th century, the theory of birds as dinosaur descendants was abandoned in favor of the idea of them being descendants of generalized thecodonts, with the key piece of evidence being the supposed lack of clavicles in dinosaurs. However, as later discoveries showed, clavicles (or a single fused wishbone, which derived from separate clavicles) were not actually absent; they had been found as early as 1924 in Oviraptor, but misidentified as an interclavicle. In the 1970s, Ostrom revived the dinosaur–bird theory, which gained momentum in the coming decades with the advent of cladistic analysis, and a great increase in the discovery of small theropods and early birds. Of particular note have been the fossils of the Yixian Formation, where a variety of theropods and early birds have been found, often with feathers of some type. Birds share over a hundred distinct anatomical features with theropod dinosaurs, which are now generally accepted to have been their closest ancient relatives. They are most closely allied with maniraptoran coelurosaurs. A minority of scientists, most notably Alan Feduccia and Larry Martin, have proposed other evolutionary paths, including revised versions of Heilmann's basal archosaur proposal, or that maniraptoran theropods are the ancestors of birds but themselves are not dinosaurs, only convergent with dinosaurs. Feathers Feathers are one of the most recognizable characteristics of modern birds, and a trait that was also shared by several non-avian dinosaurs. Based on the current distribution of fossil evidence, it appears that feathers were an ancestral dinosaurian trait, though one that may have been selectively lost in some species. Direct fossil evidence of feathers or feather-like structures has been discovered in a diverse array of species in many non-avian dinosaur groups, both among saurischians and ornithischians. Simple, branched, feather-like structures are known from heterodontosaurids, primitive neornithischians, and theropods, and primitive ceratopsians. Evidence for true, vaned feathers similar to the flight feathers of modern birds has been found only in the theropod subgroup Maniraptora, which includes oviraptorosaurs, troodontids, dromaeosaurids, and birds. Feather-like structures known as pycnofibres have also been found in pterosaurs, suggesting the possibility that feather-like filaments may have been common in the bird lineage and evolved before the appearance of dinosaurs themselves. Research into the genetics of American alligators has also revealed that crocodylian scutes do possess feather-keratins during embryonic development, but these keratins are not expressed by the animals before hatching. Archaeopteryx was the first fossil found that revealed a potential connection between dinosaurs and birds. It is considered a transitional fossil, in that it displays features of both groups. Brought to light just two years after Charles Darwin's seminal On the Origin of Species (1859), its discovery spurred the nascent debate between proponents of evolutionary biology and creationism. This early bird is so dinosaur-like that, without a clear impression of feathers in the surrounding rock, at least one specimen was mistaken for the small theropod Compsognathus. Since the 1990s, a number of additional feathered dinosaurs have been found, providing even stronger evidence of the close relationship between dinosaurs and modern birds. Most of these specimens were unearthed in the lagerstätte of the Yixian Formation, Liaoning, northeastern China, which was part of an island continent during the Cretaceous. Though feathers have been found in only a few locations, it is possible that non-avian dinosaurs elsewhere in the world were also feathered. The lack of widespread fossil evidence for feathered non-avian dinosaurs may be because delicate features like skin and feathers are seldom preserved by fossilization and thus often absent from the fossil record. The description of feathered dinosaurs has not been without controversy; perhaps the most vocal critics have been Alan Feduccia and Theagarten Lingham-Soliar, who have proposed that some purported feather-like fossils are the result of the decomposition of collagenous fiber that underlaid the dinosaurs' skin, and that maniraptoran dinosaurs with vaned feathers were not actually dinosaurs, but convergent with dinosaurs. However, their views have for the most part not been accepted by other researchers, to the point that the scientific nature of Feduccia's proposals has been questioned. Skeleton Because feathers are often associated with birds, feathered dinosaurs are often touted as the missing link between birds and dinosaurs. However, the multiple skeletal features also shared by the two groups represent another important line of evidence for paleontologists. Areas of the skeleton with important similarities include the neck, pubis, wrist (semi-lunate carpal), arm and pectoral girdle, furcula (wishbone), and breast bone. Comparison of bird and dinosaur skeletons through cladistic analysis strengthens the case for the link. Soft anatomy Large meat-eating dinosaurs had a complex system of air sacs similar to those found in modern birds, according to a 2005 investigation led by Patrick M. O'Connor. The lungs of theropod dinosaurs (carnivores that walked on two legs and had bird-like feet) likely pumped air into hollow sacs in their skeletons, as is the case in birds. "What was once formally considered unique to birds was present in some form in the ancestors of birds", O'Connor said. In 2008, scientists described Aerosteon riocoloradensis, the skeleton of which supplies the strongest evidence to date of a dinosaur with a bird-like breathing system. CT scanning of Aerosteon'''s fossil bones revealed evidence for the existence of air sacs within the animal's body cavity. Behavioral evidence Fossils of the troodonts Mei and Sinornithoides demonstrate that some dinosaurs slept with their heads tucked under their arms. This behavior, which may have helped to keep the head warm, is also characteristic of modern birds. Several deinonychosaur and oviraptorosaur specimens have also been found preserved on top of their nests, likely brooding in a bird-like manner. The ratio between egg volume and body mass of adults among these dinosaurs suggest that the eggs were primarily brooded by the male, and that the young were highly precocial, similar to many modern ground-dwelling birds. Some dinosaurs are known to have used gizzard stones like modern birds. These stones are swallowed by animals to aid digestion and break down food and hard fibers once they enter the stomach. When found in association with fossils, gizzard stones are called gastroliths. Extinction of major groups All non-avian dinosaurs and most lineages of birds became extinct in a mass extinction event, called the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction event, at the end of the Cretaceous period. Above the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, which has been dated to 66.038 ± 0.025 million years ago, fossils of non-avian dinosaurs disappear abruptly; the absence of dinosaur fossils was historically used to assign rocks to the ensuing Cenozoic. The nature of the event that caused this mass extinction has been extensively studied since the 1970s, leading to the development of two mechanisms that are thought to have played major roles: an extraterrestrial impact event in the Yucatán Peninsula, along with flood basalt volcanism in India. However, the specific mechanisms of the extinction event and the extent of its effects on dinosaurs are still areas of ongoing research. Alongside dinosaurs, many other groups of animals became extinct: pterosaurs, marine reptiles such as mosasaurs and plesiosaurs, several groups of mammals, ammonites (nautilus-like mollusks), rudists (reef-building bivalves), and various groups of marine plankton. In all, approximately 47% of genera and 76% of species on Earth became extinct during the K-Pg extinction event. The relatively large size of most dinosaurs and the low diversity of small-bodied dinosaur species at the end of the Cretaceous may have contributed to their extinction; the extinction of the bird lineages that did not survive may also have been caused by a dependence on forest habitats or a lack of adaptations to eating seeds for survival. Pre-extinction diversity Just before the K-Pg extinction event, the number of non-avian dinosaur species that existed globally has been estimated at between 628 and 1078. It remains uncertain whether the diversity of dinosaurs was in gradual decline before the K-Pg extinction event, or whether dinosaurs were actually thriving prior to the extinction. Rock formations from the Maastrichtian epoch, which directly preceded the extinction, have been found to have lower diversity than the preceding Campanian epoch, which led to the prevailing view of a long-term decline in diversity. However, these comparisons did not account either for varying preservation potential between rock units or for different extents of exploration and excavation. In 1984, Dale Russell carried out an analysis to account for these biases, and found no evidence of a decline; another analysis by David Fastovsky and colleagues in 2004 even showed that dinosaur diversity continually increased until the extinction, but this analysis has been rebutted. Since then, different approaches based on statistics and mathematical models have variously supported either a sudden extinction or a gradual decline. End-Cretaceous trends in diversity may have varied between dinosaur lineages: it has been suggested that sauropods were not in decline, while ornithischians and theropods were in decline. Impact event The bolide impact hypothesis, first brought to wide attention in 1980 by Walter Alvarez, Luis Alvarez, and colleagues, attributes the K-Pg extinction event to a bolide (extraterrestrial projectile) impact. Alvarez and colleagues proposed that a sudden increase in iridium levels, recorded around the world in rock deposits at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, was direct evidence of the impact. Shocked quartz, indicative of a strong shockwave emanating from an impact, was also found worldwide. The actual impact site remained elusive until a crater measuring wide was discovered in the Yucatán Peninsula of southeastern Mexico, and was publicized in a 1991 paper by Alan Hildebrand and colleagues. Now, the bulk of the evidence suggests that a bolide wide impacted the Yucatán Peninsula 66 million years ago, forming this crater and creating a "kill mechanism" that triggered the extinction event. Within hours, the Chicxulub impact would have created immediate effects such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and a global firestorm that likely killed unsheltered animals and started wildfires. However, it would also have had longer-term consequences for the environment. Within days, sulphate aerosols released from rocks at the impact site would have contributed to acid rain and ocean acidification. Soot aerosols are thought to have spread around the world over the ensuing months and years; they would have cooled the surface of the Earth by reflecting thermal radiation, and greatly slowed photosynthesis by blocking out sunlight, thus creating an impact winter. (This role was ascribed to sulphate aerosols until experiments demonstrated otherwise.) The cessation of photosynthesis would have led to the collapse of food webs depending on leafy plants, which included all dinosaurs save for grain-eating birds. Deccan Traps At the time of the K-Pg extinction, the Deccan Traps flood basalts of India were actively erupting. The eruptions can be separated into three phases around the K-Pg boundary, two prior to the boundary and one after. The second phase, which occurred very close to the boundary, would have extruded 70 to 80% of the volume of these eruptions in intermittent pulses that occurred around 100,000 years apart. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide would have been released by this volcanic activity, resulting in climate change through temperature perturbations of roughly but possibly as high as . Like the Chicxulub impact, the eruptions may also have released sulphate aerosols, which would have caused acid rain and global cooling. However, due to large error margins in the dating of the eruptions, the role of the Deccan Traps in the K-Pg extinction remains unclear. Before 2000, arguments that the Deccan Traps eruptions—as opposed to the Chicxulub impact—caused the extinction were usually linked to the view that the extinction was gradual. Prior to the discovery of the Chicxulub crater, the Deccan Traps were used to explain the global iridium layer; even after the crater's discovery, the impact was still thought to only have had a regional, not global, effect on the extinction event. In response, Luis Alvarez rejected volcanic activity as an explanation for the iridium layer and the extinction as a whole. Since then, however, most researchers have adopted a more moderate position, which identifies the Chicxulub impact as the primary progenitor of the extinction while also recognizing that the Deccan Traps may also have played a role. Walter Alvarez himself has acknowledged that the Deccan Traps and other ecological factors may have contributed to the extinctions in addition to the Chicxulub impact. Some estimates have placed the start of the second phase in the Deccan Traps eruptions within 50,000 years after the Chicxulub impact. Combined with mathematical modelling of the seismic waves that would have been generated by the impact, this has led to the suggestion that the Chicxulub impact may have triggered these eruptions by increasing the permeability of the mantle plume underlying the Deccan Traps. Whether the Deccan Traps were a major cause of the extinction, on par with the Chicxulub impact, remains uncertain. Proponents consider the climatic impact of the sulphur dioxide released to have been on par with the Chicxulub impact, and also note the role of flood basalt volcanism in other mass extinctions like the Permian-Triassic extinction event. They consider the Chicxulub impact to have worsened the ongoing climate change caused by the eruptions. Meanwhile, detractors point out the sudden nature of the extinction and that other pulses in Deccan Traps activity of comparable magnitude did not appear to have caused extinctions. They also contend that the causes of different mass extinctions should be assessed separately. In 2020, Alfio Chiarenza and colleagues suggested that the Deccan Traps may even have had the opposite effect: they suggested that the long-term warming caused by its carbon dioxide emissions may have dampened the impact winter from the Chicxulub impact. Possible Paleocene survivors Non-avian dinosaur remains have occasionally been found above the K-Pg boundary. In 2000, Spencer Lucas and colleagues reported the discovery of a single hadrosaur right femur in the San Juan Basin of New Mexico, and described it as evidence of Paleocene dinosaurs. The rock unit in which the bone was discovered has been dated to the early Paleocene epoch, approximately 64.8 million years ago. If the bone was not re-deposited by weathering action, it would provide evidence that some dinosaur populations may have survived at least half a million years into the Cenozoic. Other evidence includes the presence of dinosaur remains in the Hell Creek Formation up to above the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, representing 40,000 years of elapsed time. This has been used to support the view that the K-Pg extinction was |
which can be detected only by sensitive laboratory instruments, but a superconductor acts as a strong diamagnet because it repels a magnetic field entirely from its interior. Diamagnetism was first discovered when Anton Brugmans observed in 1778 that bismuth was repelled by magnetic fields. In 1845, Michael Faraday demonstrated that it was a property of matter and concluded that every material responded (in either a diamagnetic or paramagnetic way) to an applied magnetic field. On a suggestion by William Whewell, Faraday first referred to the phenomenon as diamagnetic (the prefix dia- meaning through or across), then later changed it to diamagnetism. A simple rule of thumb is used in chemistry to determine whether a particle (atom, ion, or molecule) is paramagnetic or diamagnetic: If all electrons in the particle are paired, then the substance made of this particle is diamagnetic; If it has unpaired electrons, then the substance is paramagnetic. Materials Diamagnetism is a property of all materials, and always makes a weak contribution to the material's response to a magnetic field. However, other forms of magnetism (such as ferromagnetism or paramagnetism) are so much stronger that, when multiple different forms of magnetism are present in a material, the diamagnetic contribution is usually negligible. Substances where the diamagnetic behaviour is the strongest effect are termed diamagnetic materials, or diamagnets. Diamagnetic materials are those that some people generally think of as non-magnetic, and include water, wood, most organic compounds such as petroleum and some plastics, and many metals including copper, particularly the heavy ones with many core electrons, such as mercury, gold and bismuth. The magnetic susceptibility values of various molecular fragments are called Pascal's constants. Diamagnetic materials, like water, or water-based materials, have a relative magnetic permeability that is less than or equal to 1, and therefore a magnetic susceptibility less than or equal to 0, since susceptibility is defined as . This means that diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields. However, since diamagnetism is such a weak property, its effects are not observable in everyday life. For example, the magnetic susceptibility of diamagnets such as water is . The most strongly diamagnetic material is bismuth, , although pyrolytic carbon may have a susceptibility of in one plane. Nevertheless, these values are orders of magnitude smaller than the magnetism exhibited by paramagnets and ferromagnets. Because χv is derived from the ratio of the internal magnetic field to the applied field, it is a dimensionless value. In rare cases, the diamagnetic contribution can be stronger than paramagnetic contribution. This is the case for gold, which has a magnetic susceptibility less than 0 (and is thus by definition a diamagnetic material), but when measured carefully with X-ray magnetic circular dichroism, has an extremely weak paramagnetic contribution that is overcome by a stronger diamagnetic contribution. Superconductors Superconductors may be considered perfect diamagnets (), because they expel all magnetic fields (except in a thin surface layer) due to the Meissner effect. Demonstrations Curving water surfaces If a powerful magnet (such as a supermagnet) is covered with a layer of water (that is thin compared to the diameter of the magnet) then the field of the magnet significantly repels the water. This causes a slight dimple in the water's surface that may be seen by a reflection in its surface. Levitation Diamagnets may be levitated in stable equilibrium in a magnetic field, with no power consumption. Earnshaw's theorem seems to preclude the possibility of static magnetic levitation. However, Earnshaw's theorem applies only to objects with positive susceptibilities, such as ferromagnets (which have a permanent positive moment) and paramagnets (which induce a positive moment). | and always makes a weak contribution to the material's response to a magnetic field. However, other forms of magnetism (such as ferromagnetism or paramagnetism) are so much stronger that, when multiple different forms of magnetism are present in a material, the diamagnetic contribution is usually negligible. Substances where the diamagnetic behaviour is the strongest effect are termed diamagnetic materials, or diamagnets. Diamagnetic materials are those that some people generally think of as non-magnetic, and include water, wood, most organic compounds such as petroleum and some plastics, and many metals including copper, particularly the heavy ones with many core electrons, such as mercury, gold and bismuth. The magnetic susceptibility values of various molecular fragments are called Pascal's constants. Diamagnetic materials, like water, or water-based materials, have a relative magnetic permeability that is less than or equal to 1, and therefore a magnetic susceptibility less than or equal to 0, since susceptibility is defined as . This means that diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields. However, since diamagnetism is such a weak property, its effects are not observable in everyday life. For example, the magnetic susceptibility of diamagnets such as water is . The most strongly diamagnetic material is bismuth, , although pyrolytic carbon may have a susceptibility of in one plane. Nevertheless, these values are orders of magnitude smaller than the magnetism exhibited by paramagnets and ferromagnets. Because χv is derived from the ratio of the internal magnetic field to the applied field, it is a dimensionless value. In rare cases, the diamagnetic contribution can be stronger than paramagnetic contribution. This is the case for gold, which has a magnetic susceptibility less than 0 (and is thus by definition a diamagnetic material), but when measured carefully with X-ray magnetic circular dichroism, has an extremely weak paramagnetic contribution that is overcome by a stronger diamagnetic contribution. Superconductors Superconductors may be considered perfect diamagnets (), because they expel all magnetic fields (except in a thin surface layer) due to the Meissner effect. Demonstrations Curving water surfaces If a powerful magnet (such as a supermagnet) is covered with a layer of water (that is thin compared to the diameter of the magnet) then the field of the magnet significantly repels the water. This causes a slight dimple in the water's surface that may be seen by a reflection in its surface. Levitation Diamagnets may be levitated in stable equilibrium in a magnetic field, with no power consumption. Earnshaw's theorem seems to preclude the possibility of static magnetic levitation. However, Earnshaw's theorem applies |
lordship of the noted soldier Georg von Frundsberg). He was obliged to surrender Mindelheim in 1714 by the Treaty of Utrecht, which returned it to Bavaria. He tried to obtain Nellenburg in Austria in exchange, which at that time was only a county ('Landgrafschaft'), but this failed, partially because Austrian law did not allow for Nellenburg to be converted into a sovereign principality. The 1st Duke's princely title of Mindelheim became extinct either on the return of the land to Bavaria or on his death, as the Empire operated Salic Law, which prevented female succession. Coats of arms Original arms of the Churchill family The original arms of Sir Winston Churchill (1620–1688), father of the 1st Duke of Marlborough, were simple and in use by his own father in 1619. The shield was Sable a lion rampant Argent, debruised by a bendlet Gules. The addition of a canton of Saint George (see below) rendered the distinguishing mark of the bendlet unnecessary. The Churchill crest is blazoned as a lion couchant guardant Argent, supporting with its dexter forepaw a banner Gules, charged with a dexter hand appaumée of the first, staff Or. In recognition of Sir Winston's services to King Charles I as Captain of the Horse, and his loyalty to King Charles II as a Member of Parliament, he was awarded an augmentation of honour to his arms around 1662. This rare mark of royal favour took the form of a canton of Saint George. At the same time, he was authorised to omit the bendlet, which had served the purpose of distinguishing this branch of the Churchill family from others which bore an undifferenced lion. Arms of the 1st Duke of Marlborough Sir Winston's shield and crest were inherited by his son John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. Minor modifications reflected the bearer's social rise: the helm was now shown in profile and had a closed grille to signify the bearer's rank as a peer, and there were now supporters placed on either side of the shield. They were the mythical Griffin (part lion, part eagle) and Wyvern (a dragon without hind legs). The supporters were derived from the arms of the family of the 1st Duke's mother, Drake of Ash (Argent, a wyvern gules; these arms can be seen on the monument in Musbury Church to Sir Bernard Drake, d.1586). The motto was Fiel pero desdichado (Spanish for "Faithful but unfortunate"). The 1st Duke was also entitled to a coronet indicating his rank. When the 1st Duke was made a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire in 1705, two unusual features were added: the Imperial Eagle and a Princely Coronet. His estates in Germany, such as Mindelheim, were represented in his arms by additional quarterings. Arms of the Spencer-Churchill family In 1817, the 5th Duke received Royal Licence to place the quarter of Churchill ahead of his paternal arms of Spencer. The shield of the Spencer family arms is: quarterly Argent and Gules, in the second and third quarters a fret Or, over all on a bend Sable three escallops of the first. The Spencer crest is: out of a ducal coronet Or, a griffin's head between two wings expanded Argent, gorged with a collar gemel and armed Gules. Paul Courtenay observes that "It would be normal in these circumstances for the paternal arms (Spencer) to take precedence over the maternal (Churchill), but because the Marlborough dukedom was senior to the Sunderland earldom, the procedure was reversed in this case." Also in 1817, a further augmentation of honour was added to his armorial achievement. This incorporated the bearings from the standard of the Manor of Woodstock and was borne on an escutcheon, displayed over all in the centre chief point, as follows: Argent a cross of Saint George surmounted by an inescutcheon Azure, charged with three fleurs-de-lys Or, two over one. This inescutcheon represents the royal arms of France. These quartered arms, incorporating the two augmentations of honour, have been the arms of all subsequent Dukes of Marlborough. Motto The motto Fiel pero desdichado is Spanish for "Faithful though Joyless". "Desdichado" means without happiness or without joy, alluding to the first Duke's father, Winston, who was a royalist and faithful supporter of the king during the English Civil War but was not compensated for his losses after the restoration. Charles II knighted Winston Churchill and other Civil War royalists but did not compensate them for their wartime losses, thereby inducing Winston to adopt the motto. It is unusual for the motto of an Englishman of the era to be in Spanish rather than Latin, and it is not known why this is the case. Gallery of coats of arms of the Churchills Achievement List of title holders Earls of Marlborough, first creation (1626–1679) The earldom of Marlborough was held by the family of Ley from 1626 to 1679. James Ley, the 1st Earl (c. 1550 – 1629), was lord chief justice of the King’s Bench in Ireland and then in England; he was an English member of parliament and was lord high treasurer from 1624 to 1628. In 1624 he was created Baron Ley and in 1626 Earl of Marlborough. The 3rd earl was his grandson James (1618–1665), a naval officer who was killed in action with the Dutch. James was succeeded by his uncle William, a younger son of the 1st earl, on whose death in 1679 the earldom became extinct. Earls of Marlborough, second creation (1689)Other titles: Lord Churchill of Eyemouth, in the county of Berwick (Scotland 1682) and Baron Churchill of Sandridge, in the county of Hertford (England 1685) John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough (1650–1722), became Duke of Marlborough in 1702 Dukes of Marlborough (1702)Other titles: Marquess of Blandford (England 1702), Earl of Marlborough, in the county of Wiltshire (En 1689) and Baron Churchill of Sandridge, in the county of Hertford (England 1685)Other titles (1st Duke): Lord Churchill of Eyemouth, in the county of Berwick (Scotland 1682) John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough (1650–1722), soldier and statesman John Churchill, Marquess of Blandford (1686–1703), elder son of the 1st Duke, died unmarried Henrietta Godolphin, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough (1681–1733), eldest daughter of the 1st Duke, succeeded her father by Act of Parliament (1706) William Godolphin, Marquess of Blandford (1700–1731), elder son of the 2nd Duchess, predeceased his mother without issue Anne Spencer, Countess of Sunderland (née Lady Anne Churchill; 1683–1716), second daughter of the 1st Duke, married Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland, predeceased her elder sister, leaving male issueOther titles (3rd Duke onwards): Earl of Sunderland (England 1643) and Baron Spencer of Wormleighton (England 1729)'' Charles Spencer, 3rd Duke of Marlborough (1706–1758), 5th Earl of Sunderland, second son of Anne Spencer, Countess of Sunderland George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough (1739–1817), elder son of the 3rd Duke George Spencer-Churchill, 5th Duke of Marlborough (1766–1840), elder son of the 4th Duke George Spencer-Churchill, 6th Duke of Marlborough (1793–1857), eldest son of the 5th Duke John Winston Spencer-Churchill, 7th | the duke's eldest son's eldest son's eldest son (not necessarily the eldest great-grandson) the title Lord Spencer of Wormleighton (not to be confused with Earl Spencer). The title of Earl of Marlborough, created for John Churchill in 1689, had previously been created for James Ley, in 1626, becoming extinct in 1679. Foreign titles The 1st Duke was honoured with land and titles in the Holy Roman Empire: Emperor Leopold I created him a Prince in 1704, and in 1705, his successor Emperor Joseph I gave him the principality of Mindelheim (once the lordship of the noted soldier Georg von Frundsberg). He was obliged to surrender Mindelheim in 1714 by the Treaty of Utrecht, which returned it to Bavaria. He tried to obtain Nellenburg in Austria in exchange, which at that time was only a county ('Landgrafschaft'), but this failed, partially because Austrian law did not allow for Nellenburg to be converted into a sovereign principality. The 1st Duke's princely title of Mindelheim became extinct either on the return of the land to Bavaria or on his death, as the Empire operated Salic Law, which prevented female succession. Coats of arms Original arms of the Churchill family The original arms of Sir Winston Churchill (1620–1688), father of the 1st Duke of Marlborough, were simple and in use by his own father in 1619. The shield was Sable a lion rampant Argent, debruised by a bendlet Gules. The addition of a canton of Saint George (see below) rendered the distinguishing mark of the bendlet unnecessary. The Churchill crest is blazoned as a lion couchant guardant Argent, supporting with its dexter forepaw a banner Gules, charged with a dexter hand appaumée of the first, staff Or. In recognition of Sir Winston's services to King Charles I as Captain of the Horse, and his loyalty to King Charles II as a Member of Parliament, he was awarded an augmentation of honour to his arms around 1662. This rare mark of royal favour took the form of a canton of Saint George. At the same time, he was authorised to omit the bendlet, which had served the purpose of distinguishing this branch of the Churchill family from others which bore an undifferenced lion. Arms of the 1st Duke of Marlborough Sir Winston's shield and crest were inherited by his son John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. Minor modifications reflected the bearer's social rise: the helm was now shown in profile and had a closed grille to signify the bearer's rank as a peer, and there were now supporters placed on either side of the shield. They were the mythical Griffin (part lion, part eagle) and Wyvern (a dragon without hind legs). The supporters were derived from the arms of the family of the 1st Duke's mother, Drake of Ash (Argent, a wyvern gules; these arms can be seen on the monument in Musbury Church to Sir Bernard Drake, d.1586). The motto was Fiel pero desdichado (Spanish for "Faithful but unfortunate"). The 1st Duke was also entitled to a coronet indicating his rank. When the 1st Duke was made a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire in 1705, two unusual features were added: the Imperial Eagle and a Princely Coronet. His estates in Germany, such as Mindelheim, were represented in his arms by additional quarterings. Arms of the Spencer-Churchill family In 1817, the 5th Duke received Royal Licence to place the quarter of Churchill ahead of his paternal arms of Spencer. The shield of the Spencer family arms is: quarterly Argent and Gules, in the second and third quarters a fret Or, over all on a bend Sable three escallops of the first. The Spencer crest is: out of a ducal coronet Or, a griffin's head between two wings expanded Argent, gorged with a collar gemel and armed Gules. Paul Courtenay observes that "It would be normal in these circumstances for the paternal arms (Spencer) to take precedence over the maternal (Churchill), but because the Marlborough dukedom was senior to the Sunderland earldom, the procedure was reversed in this case." Also in 1817, a further augmentation of honour was added to his armorial achievement. This incorporated the bearings from the standard of the Manor of Woodstock and was borne on an escutcheon, displayed over all in the centre chief point, as follows: Argent a cross of Saint George surmounted by an inescutcheon Azure, charged with three fleurs-de-lys Or, two over one. This inescutcheon represents the royal arms of France. These quartered arms, incorporating the two augmentations of honour, have been the arms of all subsequent Dukes of Marlborough. Motto The motto Fiel pero desdichado is Spanish for "Faithful though Joyless". "Desdichado" means without happiness or without joy, alluding to the first Duke's father, Winston, who was a royalist and faithful supporter of the king during the English Civil War but was not compensated for his losses after the restoration. Charles II knighted Winston Churchill and other Civil War royalists but did not compensate them for their wartime losses, thereby inducing Winston to adopt the motto. It is unusual for the motto of an Englishman of the era to be in Spanish rather than Latin, and it is not known why this is the case. Gallery of coats of arms of the Churchills Achievement List of title holders Earls of Marlborough, first creation (1626–1679) The earldom of Marlborough was held by the family of Ley from 1626 to 1679. James Ley, the 1st Earl (c. 1550 – 1629), was lord chief justice of the King’s Bench in Ireland and then in England; he was an English member of parliament and was lord high treasurer from 1624 to 1628. In 1624 he was created Baron Ley and in 1626 Earl of Marlborough. The 3rd earl was his grandson James (1618–1665), a naval officer who was killed in action with the Dutch. James was succeeded by his uncle William, a younger son of the 1st earl, on whose death in 1679 the earldom became extinct. Earls of Marlborough, second creation (1689)Other titles: Lord Churchill of Eyemouth, in the county of Berwick (Scotland 1682) and Baron Churchill of Sandridge, in the county of Hertford (England 1685) John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough (1650–1722), became Duke of Marlborough in 1702 Dukes of Marlborough (1702)Other titles: Marquess of Blandford (England 1702), Earl of Marlborough, in the county of Wiltshire (En 1689) and Baron Churchill of Sandridge, in the county of Hertford (England 1685)Other titles (1st Duke): Lord Churchill of Eyemouth, in the county of Berwick (Scotland 1682) John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough (1650–1722), soldier and statesman John Churchill, Marquess of Blandford (1686–1703), elder son of the 1st Duke, died unmarried Henrietta Godolphin, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough (1681–1733), eldest daughter of the 1st Duke, succeeded her father by Act of Parliament (1706) William Godolphin, Marquess of Blandford (1700–1731), elder son of the 2nd Duchess, predeceased his mother without issue Anne Spencer, Countess of Sunderland (née Lady Anne Churchill; 1683–1716), second daughter of the 1st Duke, married Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland, predeceased her elder sister, leaving male issueOther titles (3rd Duke onwards): Earl of Sunderland (England 1643) and Baron Spencer of Wormleighton (England 1729)'' Charles Spencer, 3rd Duke of Marlborough (1706–1758), 5th Earl of Sunderland, second son of Anne Spencer, Countess of Sunderland George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough (1739–1817), elder son of the 3rd Duke George Spencer-Churchill, 5th Duke of Marlborough (1766–1840), elder son of the 4th Duke George Spencer-Churchill, 6th Duke of Marlborough (1793–1857), eldest son of the 5th Duke John Winston Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough (1822–1883), eldest son of the 6th Duke and paternal grandfather of Winston Churchill George Charles Spencer-Churchill, 8th Duke of Marlborough (1844–1892), eldest son of the 7th Duke Charles Richard John Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough (1871–1934), only son of the 8th Duke John Albert William Spencer-Churchill, 10th Duke of Marlborough (1897–1972), elder son of the 9th Duke John George Vanderbilt Henry Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough (1926–2014), elder son of the 10th Duke Charles James Spencer-Churchill, 12th Duke of Marlborough (b. 1955), eldest surviving son of the 11th Duke The heir apparent to the dukedom is George John Godolphin Spencer-Churchill, Marquess of Blandford (b. 1992), eldest son of the 12th Duke. Family tree References External links Blenheim Palace - official website Cracroft's Peerage page European Heraldry website - Churchill European Heraldry website - Spencer Dukedoms in the Peerage of England Duke Peerages created with |
the independence of Gran Colombia in Angostura (now Ciudad Bolívar in Venezuela). 1835 – The second Great Fire of New York destroys of New York City's Financial District. 1837 – A fire in the Winter Palace of Saint Petersburg kills 30 guards. 1862 – American Civil War: General Ulysses S. Grant issues General Order No. 11, expelling Jews from parts of Tennessee, Mississippi, and Kentucky. 1865 – First performance of the Unfinished Symphony by Franz Schubert. 1892 – First issue of Vogue is published. 1896 – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania's Schenley Park Casino, which was the first multi-purpose arena with the technology to create an artificial ice surface in North America, is destroyed in a fire. 1901–present 1903 – The Wright brothers make the first controlled powered, heavier-than-air flight in the Wright Flyer at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. 1907 – Ugyen Wangchuck is crowned first King of Bhutan. 1918 – Darwin Rebellion: Up to 1,000 demonstrators march on Government House in Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia. 1919 – Uruguay becomes a signatory to the Buenos Aires copyright treaty. 1926 – Antanas Smetona assumes power in Lithuania as the 1926 coup d'état is successful. 1927 – Indian revolutionary Rajendra Lahiri is hanged in Gonda jail, Uttar Pradesh, India, two days before the scheduled date. 1928 – Indian revolutionaries Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev Thapar and Shivaram Rajguru assassinate British police officer James Saunders in Lahore, Punjab, to avenge the death of Lala Lajpat Rai at the hands of the police. The three were executed in 1931. 1933 – The first NFL Championship Game is played at Wrigley Field in Chicago between the New York Giants and Chicago Bears. The Bears won 23–21. 1935 – First flight of the Douglas DC-3. 1938 – Otto Hahn discovers the nuclear fission of the heavy element uranium, the scientific and technological basis of nuclear energy. 1939 – World War II: Battle of the River Plate: The Admiral Graf Spee is scuttled by Captain Hans Langsdorff outside Montevideo. 1943 – All Chinese are again permitted to become citizens of the United States upon the repeal of the Act of 1882 and the introduction of the Magnuson Act. 1944 – World War II: Battle of the Bulge: Malmedy massacre: American 285th Field Artillery Observation Battalion POWs are shot by Waffen-SS Kampfgruppe Joachim Peiper. 1946 – Kurdistan flag day, the flag of Kurdistan was raised for the first time in Mahabad in eastern Kurdistan (Iran). 1947 – First flight of the Boeing B-47 Stratojet strategic bomber. 1948 – The Finnish Security Police is established to remove communist leadership from its predecessor, the State Police. 1950 – The F-86 Sabre's first mission over Korea. 1951 – The American Civil Rights Congress delivers "We Charge Genocide" to the United Nations. 1957 – The United States successfully launches the first Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile at Cape Canaveral, Florida. 1960 – Troops loyal to Emperor Haile Selassie in Ethiopia crush the coup that began December 13, returning power to their leader upon his return from Brazil. Haile Selassie absolves his son of any guilt. 1960 – Munich C-131 crash: Twenty passengers and crew on board as well as 32 people on the ground are killed. 1961 – Niterói circus fire: Fire breaks out during a performance by the Gran Circus Norte-Americano in the city of Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, killing more than 500. 1967 – Harold Holt, Prime Minister of Australia, disappears while swimming near Portsea, Victoria, and is presumed drowned. 1969 – Project Blue Book: The United States Air Force closes its study of UFOs. 1970 – Polish protests: In Gdynia, soldiers fire at workers emerging from trains, killing dozens. 1973 – Thirty passengers are killed in an attack by Palestinian terrorists on Rome's Leonardo da Vinci–Fiumicino Airport. 1981 – American Brigadier General James L. Dozier is abducted by the Red Brigades in Verona, Italy. 1983 – Provisional IRA members detonate a car bomb at Harrods Department Store in London. Three police officers and three civilians are killed. 1989 – Romanian Revolution: Protests continue in Timișoara, Romania, with rioters breaking into the Romanian Communist Party's District Committee building and attempting to set it on fire. 1989 – Fernando Collor de Mello defeats Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in the second round of the Brazilian presidential election, becoming the first democratically elected President in almost 30 years. 1989 – The Simpsons premieres on television with the episode "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire". 1997 – Aerosvit Flight 241: A Yakovlev Yak-42 crashes into the Pierian Mountains near Thessaloniki Airport in Thessaloniki, Greece, killing all 70 people on board. 2002 – Second Congo War: The Congolese parties of the Inter Congolese Dialogue sign a peace accord which makes provision for transitional governance and legislative and presidential elections within two years. 2003 – The Soham murder trial ends at the Old Bailey in London, with Ian Huntley found guilty of two counts of murder. His girlfriend, Maxine Carr, is found guilty of perverting the course of justice. 2003 – SpaceShipOne, piloted by Brian Binnie, makes its first powered and first supersonic flight. 2003 – Sex work rights activists establish December 17 (or "D17") as International Day to End Violence Against Sex Workers to memorialize victims of a serial killer who targeted prostitutes, and highlight State violence against sex workers by police and others. 2005 – Anti-World Trade Organization protesters riot in Wan Chai, Hong Kong. 2005 – Jigme Singye Wangchuck abdicates the throne as King of Bhutan. 2009 – sinks off the coast of Lebanon, resulting in the deaths of 44 people and over 28,000 animals. 2010 – Mohamed Bouazizi sets himself on fire. This act became the catalyst for the Tunisian Revolution and the wider Arab Spring. 2014 – The United States and Cuba re-establish diplomatic relations after severing them in 1961. Births Pre-1600 1239 – Kujō Yoritsugu, Japanese shōgun (d. 1256) 1267 – Emperor Go-Uda of Japan (d. 1324) 1554 – Ernest of Bavaria, Roman Catholic bishop (d. 1612) 1556 – Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, poet in Mughal Empire(d. 1627) 1601–1900 1616 – Roger L'Estrange, English pamphleteer and author (d. 1704) 1619 – Prince Rupert of the Rhine (d. 1682) 1632 – Anthony Wood, English historian and author (d. 1695) 1685 – Thomas Tickell, English poet (d. 1740) 1699 – Charles-Louis Mion, French composer and educator (d. 1775) 1706 – Émilie du Châtelet, French mathematician and physicist (d. 1749) 1734 – Maria I of Portugal (d. 1816) 1749 – Domenico Cimarosa, Italian composer and educator (d. 1801) 1778 – Humphry Davy, English chemist and physicist (d. 1829) 1796 – Thomas Chandler Haliburton, Canadian judge and politician (d. 1865) 1797 – Joseph Henry, American physicist and engineer (d. 1878) 1807 – John Greenleaf Whittier, American poet and activist (d. 1892) 1812 – Vilhelm Petersen, Danish painter (d. 1880) 1827 – Alexander Wassilko von Serecki, Austrian lawyer and politician (d. 1893) 1830 – Jules de Goncourt, French author and critic (d. 1870) 1835 – Alexander Emanuel Agassiz, Swiss-American ichthyologist and engineer (d. 1910) 1840 – Nozu Michitsura, Japanese field marshal (d. 1908) 1842 – Sophus Lie, Norwegian mathematician and academic (d. 1899) 1847 – Émile Faguet, French author and critic (d. 1916) 1853 – Pierre Paul Émile Roux, French physician and immunologist, co-founded the Pasteur Institute (d. 1933) 1859 – Paul César Helleu, French painter and illustrator (d. 1927) 1866 – Kazys Grinius, Lithuanian physician and politician, third President of Lithuania (d. 1950) 1873 – Ford Madox Ford, English novelist, poet, and critic (d. 1939) 1874 – William Lyon Mackenzie King, Canadian economist and politician, tenth Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1950) 1881 – Aubrey Faulkner, South African-English cricketer and coach (d. 1930) 1884 – Alison Uttley, English children's book writer (d. 1976) 1887 – Josef Lada, Czech painter and illustrator (d. 1957) 1890 – Prince Joachim of Prussia (d. 1920) 1892 – Sam Barry, American basketball player and coach (d. 1950) 1893 – Charles C. Banks, English captain and pilot (d. 1971) 1893 – Erwin Piscator, German director and producer (d. 1966) 1894 – Arthur Fiedler, American conductor (d. 1979) 1894 – Patrick Flynn, Irish-American runner and soldier (d. 1969) 1894 – Wim Schermerhorn, Dutch cartographer, engineer, and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1977) 1895 – Gerald Patterson, Australian tennis player (d. 1967) 1898 – Loren Murchison, American sprinter (d. 1979) 1900 – Mary Cartwright, English mathematician and academic, one of the first people to analyze a dynamical system with chaos (d. 1998) 1901–present 1903 – Erskine Caldwell, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1987) 1903 – Ray Noble, English bandleader, composer, and actor (d. 1978) 1904 – Paul Cadmus, American painter and illustrator (d. 1999) 1905 – Simo Häyhä, Finnish soldier and sniper (d. 2002) 1905 – Mohammad Hidayatullah, 11th Chief Justice of India, and politician, sixth Vice President of India (d. 1992) 1905 – Erico Verissimo, Brazilian author and translator (d. 1975) 1906 – Fernando Lopes-Graça, Portuguese composer and conductor (d. 1994) 1906 – Russell C. Newhouse, American pilot and engineer (d. 1998) 1908 – Willard Libby, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1980) 1910 – Eknath Easwaran, Indian-American educator and author (d. 1999) 1910 – Sy Oliver, American singer-songwriter and trumpet player (d. 1988) 1912 – Edward Short, Baron Glenamara, English captain and politician, Lord President of the Council (d. 2012) 1913 – Burt Baskin, American businessman, co-founded Baskin-Robbins (d. 1967) 1914 – Mushtaq Ali, Indian cricketer (d. 2005) 1914 – Fernando Alonso, Cuban ballet dancer, co-founded the Cuban National Ballet (d. 2013) 1916 – Penelope Fitzgerald, English author and poet (d. 2000) 1917 – Kenneth Dike, Nigerian historian, author, and academic (d. 1983) 1920 – Kenneth E. Iverson, Canadian computer scientist, developed the APL programming language (d. 2004) 1921 – Lore Berger, German-Swiss author and translator (d. 1943) 1922 – Alan Voorhees, American engineer and academic (d. 2005) 1923 – Jaroslav Pelikan, American historian and scholar (d. 2006) 1926 – Ray Jablonski, American baseball player (d. 1985) 1926 – John Hans Krebs, American lawyer and politician (d. 2014) 1926 – Stephen Lewis, English actor, director, screenwriter, and playwright (d. 2015) 1927 – Richard Long, American actor and director (d. 1974) 1927 – Edward Meneeley, American painter and sculptor (d. 2012) 1928 – Marilyn Beck, American journalist (d. 2014) 1928 – Eli Beeding, American captain and pilot (d. 2013) 1928 – Doyle Conner, American farmer and politician, seventh Florida Commissioner of Agriculture (d. 2012) 1929 – William Safire, American journalist and author (d. 2009) 1930 – Bob Guccione, American photographer and publisher, founded Penthouse (d. 2010) 1930 – Armin Mueller-Stahl, German actor and painter | coach 1973 – Eddie Fisher, American drummer 1973 – Konstadinos Gatsioudis, Greek javelin thrower 1973 – Rian Johnson, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1973 – Paula Radcliffe, English runner 1973 – Hasan Vural, German-Turkish footballer 1974 – Charl Langeveldt, South African cricketer 1974 – Sarah Paulson, American actress 1974 – Giovanni Ribisi, American actor 1975 – Nick Dinsmore, American wrestler and trainer 1975 – Susanthika Jayasinghe, Sri Lankan sprinter 1975 – Milla Jovovich, Ukrainian-American actress 1976 – Éric Bédard, Canadian speed skater and coach 1976 – Nir Davidovich, Israeli footballer and manager 1976 – Patrick Müller, Swiss footballer 1976 – Andrew Simpson, English sailor (d. 2013) 1976 – Takeo Spikes, American football player and sportscaster 1977 – Arnaud Clément, French tennis player 1977 – Samuel Påhlsson, Swedish ice hockey player 1977 – Katheryn Winnick, Canadian actress 1977 – Maria Brink, American singer and songwriter 1978 – Alex Cintrón, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and sportscaster 1978 – Manny Pacquiao, Filipino boxer and politician 1978 – Neil Sanderson, Canadian drummer and songwriter 1978 – Chase Utley, American baseball player 1978 – Riteish Deshmukh, Indian film actor, producer and architect 1979 – Matt Murley, American ice hockey player 1979 – Paul Smith, English footballer 1980 – Ryan Hunter-Reay, American race car driver 1980 – Alexandra Papageorgiou, Greek hammer thrower 1980 – Eli Pariser, American activist and author 1981 – Jerry Hsu, American skateboarder and photographer 1981 – Tim Wiese, German footballer 1982 – Josh Barfield, American baseball player 1982 – Lorenzo Cittadini, Italian rugby player 1982 – Craig Kielburger, Canadian activist and author 1982 – Stéphane Lasme, Gabonese basketball player 1982 – Ryan Moats, American football player 1983 – Erik Christensen, Canadian ice hockey player 1983 – Haron Keitany, Kenyan runner 1983 – Sébastien Ogier, French race car driver 1984 – Luis Maria Alfageme, Argentinian footballer 1984 – Julian Bennett, English footballer 1984 – Andrew Davies, English footballer 1984 – Mikky Ekko, American singer-songwriter and producer 1984 – Shannon Woodward, American actress 1985 – Łukasz Broź, Polish footballer 1985 – Craig Reid, English footballer 1985 – Greg James, English radio presenter and comedian 1986 – Emma Bell, American actress 1986 – Frank Winterstein, Australian-Samoan rugby league player 1987 – Maryna Arzamasova, Belorussian middle-distance runner 1987 – Bo Guagua, Chinese businessman 1987 – Chelsea Manning, American soldier and intelligence analyst 1988 – Liisa Ehrberg, Estonian cyclist 1988 – Grethe Grünberg, Estonian ice dancer 1988 – Kris Joseph, Canadian basketball player 1988 – David Rudisha, Kenyan runner 1988 – Craig Sutherland, Scottish footballer 1991 – James Hurst, American football player 1991 – Jordan Rankin, Australian rugby league player 1991 – Atsedu Tsegay, Ethiopian runner 1992 – Joshua Ingram, Canadian drummer and percussionist 1992 – Quinton de Kock, South African cricketer 1993 – Patricia Kú Flores, Peruvian tennis player 1994 – Lloyd Perrett, New Zealand rugby league player 1994 – Nat Wolff, American singer-songwriter, keyboard player and actor 1996 – Elizaveta Tuktamysheva, Russian figure skater 1997 – Naiktha Bains, British-Australian tennis player 1997 – Shoma Uno, Japanese figure skater 1998 – Jasmine Armfield, English actress 1998 – Martin Ødegaard, Norwegian footballer 1999 – Mirei Sasaki, Japanese idol Deaths Pre-1600 779 – Sturm, abbot of Fulda 908 – al-Abbas ibn al-Hasan al-Jarjara'i, Abbasid vizier 908 – Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz, Abbasid prince and poet, anti-caliph for one day 942 – William I, duke of Normandy 1187 – Pope Gregory VIII (b. 1100) 1195 – Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut (b. 1150) 1273 – Rumi, Persian jurist, theologian, and poet (b. 1207) 1419 – William Gascoigne, Chief Justice of England 1471 – Infanta Isabel, Duchess of Burgundy (b. 1397) 1559 – Irene di Spilimbergo, Italian Renaissance poet and painter (b. 1538) 1562 – Eleonora di Toledo, Grand Duchess of Tuscany (b. 1522) 1601–1900 1663 – Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba (b. 1583) 1721 – Richard Lumley, 1st Earl of Scarbrough, English soldier and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b. 1640) 1830 – Simón Bolívar, Venezuelan general and politician, second President of Venezuela (b. 1783) 1833 – Kaspar Hauser, German feral child (b. 1812?) 1847 – Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma (b. 1791) 1857 – Francis Beaufort, Irish hydrographer and officer in the Royal Navy (b. 1774) 1891 – José María Iglesias, Mexican politician and interim President (1876-1877) (b. 1823) 1901–present 1904 – William Shiels, Irish-Australian politician, 16th Premier of Victoria (b. 1848) 1907 – William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, Irish-Scottish physicist and engineer (b. 1824) 1909 – Leopold II of Belgium (b. 1835) 1917 – Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, English physician and activist (b. 1836) 1927 – Rajendra Lahiri, Indian activist (b. 1892) 1928 – Frank Rinehart, American photographer (b. 1861) 1929 – Manuel de Oliveira Gomes da Costa, Portuguese general and politician, tenth President of Portugal (b. 1863) 1930 – Peter Warlock, Welsh composer and critic (b. 1894) 1932 – Charles Winckler, Danish discus thrower, shot putter, and tug of war competitor (b. 1867) 1933 – 13th Dalai Lama (b. 1876) 1935 – Lizette Woodworth Reese, American poet (b. 1856) 1940 – Alicia Boole Stott, Anglo-Irish mathematician and academic (b. 1860) 1942 – Allen Bathurst, Lord Apsley, English lieutenant and politician (b. 1895) 1947 – Christos Tsigiridis, Greek engineer (b. 1877) 1956 – Eddie Acuff, American actor (b. 1903) 1957 – Dorothy L. Sayers, English author, poet, and playwright (b. 1893) 1962 – Thomas Mitchell, American actor (b. 1892) 1964 – Victor Francis Hess, Austrian-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1883) 1967 – Harold Holt, Australian lawyer and politician, 17th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1908) 1970 – Oliver Waterman Larkin, American historian, author, and educator (b. 1896) 1978 – Don Ellis, American trumpet player, composer, and bandleader (b. 1934) 1981 – Antiochos Evangelatos, Greek composer and conductor (b. 1903) 1982 – Homer S. Ferguson, American lawyer, judge, and politician (b. 1889) 1986 – Guillermo Cano Isaza, Colombian journalist (b. 1925) 1987 – Bernardus Johannes Alfrink, Dutch cardinal (b. 1900) 1987 – Linda Wong, American porn actress (b. 1951) 1987 – Marguerite Yourcenar, Belgian-American author and poet (b. 1903) 1992 – Günther Anders, German journalist and philosopher (b. 1902) 1992 – Dana Andrews, American actor (b. 1909) 1999 – Rex Allen, American singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1920) 1999 – Grover Washington Jr., American singer-songwriter and saxophonist (b. 1943) 1999 – C. Vann Woodward, American historian and academic (b. 1908) 2002 – K. W. Devanayagam, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, tenth Sri Lankan Minister of Justice (b. 1910) 2003 – Otto Graham, American football player and coach (b. 1921) 2004 – Tom Wesselmann, American painter and sculptor (b. 1931) 2005 – Jack Anderson, American journalist and author (b. 1922) 2005 – Marc Favreau, Canadian actor and poet (b. 1929) 2005 – Haljand Udam, Estonian orientalist and academic (d. 1936) 2006 – Larry Sherry, American baseball player and coach (b. 1935) 2008 – Sammy Baugh, American football player and coach (b. 1914) 2008 – Freddy Breck, German singer-songwriter, producer, and journalist (b. 1942) 2008 – Dave Smith, American baseball player and coach (b. 1955) 2009 – Chris Henry, American football player (b. 1983) 2009 – Jennifer Jones, American actress (b. 1919) 2009 – Alaina Reed Hall, American actress (b. 1946) 2010 – Captain Beefheart, American singer-songwriter (b. 1941) 2010 – Walt Dropo, American basketball and baseball player (b. 1923) 2010 – Ralph Coates, English footballer (b. 1946) 2011 – Eva Ekvall, Venezuelan journalist and author, Miss Venezuela 2000 (b. 1983) 2011 – Kim Jong-il, North Korean commander and politician, second Supreme Leader of North Korea (b. 1941) 2012 – Richard Adams, Filipino-American activist (b. 1947) 2012 – |
more quickly while using fewer parts. Scheutzian calculation engine Inspired by Babbage's difference engine in 1834, Per Georg Scheutz built several experimental models. In 1837 his son Edward proposed to construct a working model in metal, and in 1840 finished the calculating part, capable of calculating series with 5-digit numbers and first-order differences, which was later extended to third-order (1842). In 1843, after adding the printing part, the model was completed. In 1851, funded by the government, construction of the larger and improved (15-digit numbers and fourth-order differences) machine began, and finished in 1853. The machine was demonstrated at the World's Fair in Paris, 1855 and then sold in 1856 to the Dudley Observatory in Albany, New York. Delivered in 1857, it was the first printing calculator sold. In 1857 the British government ordered the next Scheutz's difference machine, which was built in 1859. It had the same basic construction as the previous one, weighing about . Others Martin Wiberg improved Scheutz's construction (c. 1859, his machine has the same capacity as Scheutz's - 15-digit and fourth-order) but used his device only for producing and publishing printed tables (interest tables in 1860, and logarithmic tables in 1875). Alfred Deacon of London in c. 1862 produced a small difference engine (20-digit numbers and third-order differences). American George B. Grant started working on his calculating machine in 1869, unaware of the works of Babbage and Scheutz (Schentz). One year later (1870) he learned about difference engines and proceed to design one himself, describing his construction in 1871. In 1874 the Boston Thursday Club raised a subscription for the construction of a large-scale model, which was built in 1876. It could be expanded to enhance precision and weighed about . Christel Hamann built one machine (16-digit numbers and second-order differences) in 1909 for the "Tables of Bauschinger and Peters" ("Logarithmic-Trigonometrical Tables with eight decimal places"), which was first published in Leipzig in 1910. It weighed about . Burroughs Corporation in about 1912 built a machine for the Nautical Almanac Office which was used as a difference engine of second-order. It was later replaced in 1929 by a Burroughs Class 11 (13-digit numbers and second-order differences, or 11-digit numbers and [at least up to] fifth-order differences). Alexander John Thompson about 1927 built integrating and differencing machine (13-digit numbers and fifth-order differences) for his table of logarithms "Logarithmetica britannica". This machine was composed of four modified Triumphator calculators. Leslie Comrie in 1928 described how to use the Brunsviga-Dupla calculating machine as a difference engine of second-order (15-digit numbers). He also noted in 1931 that National Accounting Machine Class 3000 could be used as a difference engine of sixth-order. Construction of two working No. 2 difference engines During the 1980s, Allan G. Bromley, an associate professor at the University of Sydney, Australia, studied Babbage's original drawings for the Difference and Analytical Engines at the Science Museum library in London. This work led the Science Museum to construct a working calculating section of difference engine No. 2 from 1985 to 1991, under Doron Swade, the then Curator of Computing. This was to celebrate the 200th anniversary of Babbage's birth in 1991. In 2002, the printer which Babbage originally designed for the difference engine was also completed. The conversion of the original design drawings into drawings suitable for engineering manufacturers' use revealed some minor errors in Babbage's design (possibly introduced as a protection in case the plans were stolen), which had to be corrected. Once completed, both the engine and its printer worked flawlessly, and still do. The difference engine and printer were constructed to tolerances achievable with 19th-century technology, resolving a long-standing debate as to whether Babbage's design would have worked. (One of the reasons formerly advanced for the non-completion of Babbage's engines had been that engineering methods were insufficiently developed in the late Georgian era.) The printer's primary purpose is to produce stereotype plates for use in printing presses, which it does by pressing type into soft plaster to create a flong. Babbage intended that the Engine's results be conveyed directly to mass printing, having recognized that many errors in previous tables were not the result of human calculating mistakes but from error in the manual typesetting process. The printer's paper output is mainly a means of checking the engine's performance. In addition to funding the construction of the output mechanism for the Science Museum's difference engine, Nathan Myhrvold commissioned the construction of a second complete Difference Engine No. 2, which was on exhibit at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California from 10 May 2008 until 31 January 2016. It has since been transferred to Intellectual Ventures in Seattle where it is on display just outside the main lobby. Operation The difference engine consists of a number of columns, numbered from 1 to N. The machine is able to store one decimal number in each column. The machine can only add the value of a column n + 1 to column n to produce the new value of n. Column N can only store a constant, column 1 displays (and possibly prints) the value of the calculation on the current iteration. The engine is programmed by setting initial values to the columns. Column 1 is set to the value of the polynomial at the start of computation. Column 2 is set to a value derived from the first and higher derivatives of the polynomial at the same value of X. Each of the columns from 3 to N is set to a value derived from the first and higher derivatives of the polynomial. Timing In the Babbage design, one iteration (i.e., one full set of addition and carry operations) happens for each rotation of the main shaft. Odd and even columns alternately perform an addition in one cycle. The sequence of operations for column is thus: Count up, receiving the value from column (Addition step) Perform carry propagation on the counted up value Count down to zero, adding to column Reset the counted-down value to its original value Steps 1,2,3,4 occur for every odd column, while steps 3,4,1,2 occur for every even column. While Babbage's original design placed the crank directly on the main shaft, it was later realized that the force required to crank the machine would have been too great for a human to handle comfortably. Therefore, the two models that were built incorporate a 4:1 reduction gear at the crank, and four revolutions of the crank are required to perform one full cycle. Steps Each iteration creates a new result, and is accomplished in four steps corresponding to four complete turns of the handle shown at the far right in the picture below. The four steps are: Step 1. All even numbered columns (2,4,6,8) are added to all odd numbered columns (1,3,5,7) simultaneously. An interior sweep arm turns each even column to cause whatever number is on each wheel to count down to zero. As a wheel turns to zero, it transfers its value to a sector gear located between the odd/even columns. These values are transferred to the odd column causing them to count up. Any odd column value that passes from "9" to "0" activates a carry lever. Step 2. Carry propagation is accomplished by a set of spiral arms in the back that poll the carry levers in a helical manner so that a carry at any level can increment the wheel above by one. That can create a carry, which is why the arms move in a spiral. At the same time, the sector gears are returned to their original position, which causes them to increment the even column wheels back to their original values. The sector gears are double-high on one side so they can be lifted to disengage from the odd column wheels while they still remain in contact with the even column wheels. Step 3. This is like Step 1, except it is odd columns (3,5,7) added to even columns (2,4,6), and column one has its values transferred by a sector gear to the print mechanism on the left end of the engine. Any even column value that passes from "9" to "0" activates a carry lever. The column 1 value, the result for the polynomial, is sent to the attached printer mechanism. Step 4. This is like Step 2, but for doing carries on even columns, and returning odd columns to their original values. Subtraction The engine represents negative numbers as ten's complements. Subtraction amounts to addition of a negative number. This works in the same manner that modern computers perform subtraction, known as two's complement. Method of differences The principle of a difference engine is Newton's | machine is able to store one decimal number in each column. The machine can only add the value of a column n + 1 to column n to produce the new value of n. Column N can only store a constant, column 1 displays (and possibly prints) the value of the calculation on the current iteration. The engine is programmed by setting initial values to the columns. Column 1 is set to the value of the polynomial at the start of computation. Column 2 is set to a value derived from the first and higher derivatives of the polynomial at the same value of X. Each of the columns from 3 to N is set to a value derived from the first and higher derivatives of the polynomial. Timing In the Babbage design, one iteration (i.e., one full set of addition and carry operations) happens for each rotation of the main shaft. Odd and even columns alternately perform an addition in one cycle. The sequence of operations for column is thus: Count up, receiving the value from column (Addition step) Perform carry propagation on the counted up value Count down to zero, adding to column Reset the counted-down value to its original value Steps 1,2,3,4 occur for every odd column, while steps 3,4,1,2 occur for every even column. While Babbage's original design placed the crank directly on the main shaft, it was later realized that the force required to crank the machine would have been too great for a human to handle comfortably. Therefore, the two models that were built incorporate a 4:1 reduction gear at the crank, and four revolutions of the crank are required to perform one full cycle. Steps Each iteration creates a new result, and is accomplished in four steps corresponding to four complete turns of the handle shown at the far right in the picture below. The four steps are: Step 1. All even numbered columns (2,4,6,8) are added to all odd numbered columns (1,3,5,7) simultaneously. An interior sweep arm turns each even column to cause whatever number is on each wheel to count down to zero. As a wheel turns to zero, it transfers its value to a sector gear located between the odd/even columns. These values are transferred to the odd column causing them to count up. Any odd column value that passes from "9" to "0" activates a carry lever. Step 2. Carry propagation is accomplished by a set of spiral arms in the back that poll the carry levers in a helical manner so that a carry at any level can increment the wheel above by one. That can create a carry, which is why the arms move in a spiral. At the same time, the sector gears are returned to their original position, which causes them to increment the even column wheels back to their original values. The sector gears are double-high on one side so they can be lifted to disengage from the odd column wheels while they still remain in contact with the even column wheels. Step 3. This is like Step 1, except it is odd columns (3,5,7) added to even columns (2,4,6), and column one has its values transferred by a sector gear to the print mechanism on the left end of the engine. Any even column value that passes from "9" to "0" activates a carry lever. The column 1 value, the result for the polynomial, is sent to the attached printer mechanism. Step 4. This is like Step 2, but for doing carries on even columns, and returning odd columns to their original values. Subtraction The engine represents negative numbers as ten's complements. Subtraction amounts to addition of a negative number. This works in the same manner that modern computers perform subtraction, known as two's complement. Method of differences The principle of a difference engine is Newton's method of divided differences. If the initial value of a polynomial (and of its finite differences) is calculated by some means for some value of X, the difference engine can calculate any number of nearby values, using the method generally known as the method of finite differences. For example, consider the quadratic polynomial with the goal of tabulating the values p(0), p(1), p(2), p(3), p(4), and so forth. The table below is constructed as follows: the second column contains the values of the polynomial, the third column contains the differences of the two left neighbors in the second column, and the fourth column contains the differences of the two neighbors in the third column: The numbers in the third values-column are constant. In fact, by starting with any polynomial of degree n, the column number n + 1 will always be constant. This is the crucial fact behind the success of the method. This table was built from left to right, but it is possible to continue building it from right to left down a diagonal in order to compute more values. To calculate p(4) use the values from the lowest diagonal. Start with the fourth column constant value of 4 and copy it down the column. Then continue the third column by adding 4 to 11 to get 15. Next continue the second column by taking its previous value, 22 and adding the 15 from the third column. Thus p(5) is 22 + 15 = 37. In order to compute p(6), we iterate the same algorithm on the p(5) values: take 4 from the fourth column, add that to the third column's value 15 to get 19, then add that to the second column's value 37 to get 56, which is p(6). This process may be continued ad infinitum. The values of the polynomial are produced without ever having to multiply. A difference engine only needs to be able to add. From one loop to the next, it needs to store 2 numbers—in this example (the last elements in the first and second columns). To tabulate polynomials of degree n, one needs sufficient storage to hold n numbers. Babbage's difference engine No. 2, finally built in 1991, can hold 8 numbers of 31 decimal digits each and can thus tabulate 7th degree polynomials to that precision. The best machines from Scheutz could store 4 numbers with 15 digits each. Initial values The initial values of columns can be calculated by first manually calculating N consecutive values of the function and by backtracking, i.e. calculating the required differences. Col gets the value of the function at the start of computation . Col is the difference between and ... If the function to be calculated is a polynomial function, expressed as the initial values can be calculated directly from the constant coefficients a0, a1,a2, ..., an without calculating any data points. The initial values are thus: Col = a0 Col = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + ... + an Col = 2a2 + 6a3 + 14a4 + 30a5 + ... Col = 6a3 + 36a4 + 150a5 + ... Col = 24a4 + 240a5 + ... Col = 120a5 + ... Use of derivatives Many commonly used functions are analytic functions, which can be expressed as power series, for example as a Taylor series. The initial values can be calculated to any degree of accuracy; if done correctly the engine will give exact results for first N steps. After that, the engine will only give an approximation of the function. The Taylor series expresses the function as a sum obtained from its derivatives at one point. For many functions the higher derivatives are trivial to obtain; for instance, the sine function at 0 has values of 0 or for all derivatives. Setting 0 as the start of computation we get the simplified Maclaurin series The same method of |
a gift by Freyr's servant Skírnir in the wooing of Gerðr, which is described in the poem Skírnismál. In popular culture Draupnir is represented as a card in the Yu-Gi-Oh Trading Card Game. It has an effect that mimics the multiplication ability of the mythological version. If it is destroyed by another card's effect, you can add another "Nordic Relic" card to your hand. Draupnir also has a representation in the Magic: The Gathering set Kaldheim, which is based on Nordic mythology. The card Replicating Ring adds a night counter to itself each turn, and once eight counters are put on it, it makes eight Replicated Rings. DRAUPNIR was revealed as the key to a website that Neal Caffrey and Mozzie used to view their stolen Nazi U-boat treasure in "Taking Account", the seventh episode | sealing his lips shut with wire. The ring was placed by Odin on the funeral pyre of his son Baldr: Odin laid upon the pyre the gold ring called Draupnir; this quality attended it: that every ninth night there fell from it eight gold rings of equal weight. (from the Gylfaginning). The ring was subsequently retrieved by Hermóðr. It was offered as a gift by Freyr's servant Skírnir in the wooing of Gerðr, which is described in the poem Skírnismál. In popular culture Draupnir is represented as a card in the Yu-Gi-Oh Trading Card Game. It has an effect that mimics the multiplication ability of the mythological version. If it is destroyed by another card's effect, you can add another "Nordic Relic" card to your hand. Draupnir also has a |
ball with . For regions in more topologically complicated than this, the latter statement might be false (see Poincaré lemma). The degree of failure of the truth of the statement, measured by the homology of the chain complex serves as a nice quantification of the complicatedness of the underlying region . These are the beginnings and main motivations of de Rham cohomology. Decomposition theorem It can be shown that any stationary flux that is twice continuously differentiable in and vanishes sufficiently fast for can be decomposed uniquely into an irrotational part and a source-free part . Moreover, these parts are explicitly determined by the respective source densities (see above) and circulation densities (see the article Curl): For the irrotational part one has with The source-free part, , can be similarly written: one only has to replace the scalar potential by a vector potential and the terms by , and the source density by the circulation density . This "decomposition theorem" is a by-product of the stationary case of electrodynamics. It is a special case of the more general Helmholtz decomposition, which works in dimensions greater than three as well. In arbitrary dimensions The divergence of a vector field can be defined in any number of dimensions. If in a Euclidean coordinate system with coordinates , define In the case of one dimension, reduces to a regular function, and the divergence reduces to the derivative. For any , the divergence is a linear operator, and it satisfies the "product rule" for any scalar-valued function . Relation to the exterior derivative One can express the divergence as a particular case of the exterior derivative, which takes a 2-form to a 3-form in . Define the current two-form as It measures the amount of "stuff" flowing through a surface per unit time in a "stuff fluid" of density moving with local velocity . Its exterior derivative is then given by where is the wedge product. Thus, the divergence of the vector field can be expressed as: Here the superscript is one of the two musical isomorphisms, and is the Hodge star operator. When the divergence is written in this way, the operator is referred to as the codifferential. Working with the current two-form and the exterior derivative is usually easier than working with the vector field and divergence, because unlike the divergence, the exterior derivative commutes with a change of (curvilinear) coordinate system. In curvilinear coordinates The appropriate expression is more complicated in curvilinear coordinates. The divergence of a vector field extends naturally to any differentiable manifold of dimension that has a volume form (or density) , e.g. a Riemannian or Lorentzian manifold. Generalising the construction of a two-form for a vector field on , on such a manifold a vector field defines an -form obtained by contracting with . The divergence is then the function defined by The divergence can be defined in terms of the Lie derivative as This means that the divergence measures the rate of expansion of a unit of volume (a volume element)) as it flows with the vector field. On a pseudo-Riemannian manifold, the divergence with respect to the volume can be expressed in terms of the Levi-Civita connection : where the second expression is the contraction of the vector field valued 1-form with itself and the last expression is the traditional coordinate expression from Ricci calculus. An equivalent expression without using a connection is where is the metric and denotes the partial derivative with respect to coordinate . The square-root of the (absolute value of the determinant of the) metric appears because the divergence must be written with the correct conception of the volume. In curvilinear coordinates, the basis vectors are no longer orthonormal; the determinant encodes the correct idea of volume in this case. It appears twice, here, once, so that the can be transformed into "flat space" (where coordinates are actually orthonormal), and once again so that is also transformed into "flat space", so that finally, the "ordinary" divergence can be written with the "ordinary" concept of volume in flat space (i.e. unit volume, i.e. one, i.e. not written down). The square-root appears in the denominator, because the derivative transforms in the opposite way (contravariantly) to | vector potential and the terms by , and the source density by the circulation density . This "decomposition theorem" is a by-product of the stationary case of electrodynamics. It is a special case of the more general Helmholtz decomposition, which works in dimensions greater than three as well. In arbitrary dimensions The divergence of a vector field can be defined in any number of dimensions. If in a Euclidean coordinate system with coordinates , define In the case of one dimension, reduces to a regular function, and the divergence reduces to the derivative. For any , the divergence is a linear operator, and it satisfies the "product rule" for any scalar-valued function . Relation to the exterior derivative One can express the divergence as a particular case of the exterior derivative, which takes a 2-form to a 3-form in . Define the current two-form as It measures the amount of "stuff" flowing through a surface per unit time in a "stuff fluid" of density moving with local velocity . Its exterior derivative is then given by where is the wedge product. Thus, the divergence of the vector field can be expressed as: Here the superscript is one of the two musical isomorphisms, and is the Hodge star operator. When the divergence is written in this way, the operator is referred to as the codifferential. Working with the current two-form and the exterior derivative is usually easier than working with the vector field and divergence, because unlike the divergence, the exterior derivative commutes with a change of (curvilinear) coordinate system. In curvilinear coordinates The appropriate expression is more complicated in curvilinear coordinates. The divergence of a vector field extends naturally to any differentiable manifold of dimension that has a volume form (or density) , e.g. a Riemannian or Lorentzian manifold. Generalising the construction of a two-form for a vector field on , on such a manifold a vector field defines an -form obtained by contracting with . The divergence is then the function defined by The divergence can be defined in terms of the Lie derivative as This means that the divergence measures the rate of expansion of a unit of volume (a volume element)) as it flows with the vector field. On a pseudo-Riemannian manifold, the divergence with respect to the volume can be expressed in terms of the Levi-Civita connection : where the second expression is the contraction of the vector field valued 1-form with itself and the last expression is the traditional coordinate expression from Ricci calculus. An equivalent expression without using a connection is where is the metric and denotes the partial derivative with respect to coordinate . The square-root of the (absolute value of the determinant of the) metric appears because the divergence must be written with the correct conception of the volume. In curvilinear coordinates, the basis vectors are no longer orthonormal; the determinant encodes the correct idea of volume in this case. It appears twice, here, once, so that the can be transformed into "flat space" (where coordinates are actually orthonormal), and once again so that is also transformed into "flat space", so that finally, the "ordinary" divergence can be written with the "ordinary" concept of volume in flat space (i.e. unit volume, i.e. one, i.e. not written down). The square-root appears in the denominator, because the derivative transforms in the opposite way (contravariantly) to the vector (which is covariant). This idea of getting to a "flat coordinate system" where local computations can be done in a conventional way is called a vielbein. A different way to see this is to note that the divergence is the codifferential in disguise. That is, the divergence corresponds to the expression with the differential and the Hodge star. The Hodge star, by its construction, causes the volume form to appear in all of the right places. The divergence of tensors Divergence can also be generalised to tensors. In Einstein notation, the divergence of a contravariant vector is given by where denotes the covariant derivative. In this general setting, the correct formulation of the divergence is to recognize that it is a codifferential; the appropriate properties follow from there. Equivalently, some authors define the divergence of a mixed tensor by using the musical isomorphism : if is a -tensor ( for the contravariant vector and for the covariant one), then we define the divergence of |
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and guitarist 1975 – Trish Stratus, Canadian wrestler and actress 1977 – José Acevedo, Dominican baseball player 1977 – Claudia Gesell, German runner 1978 – Daniel Cleary, Canadian ice hockey player 1978 – Ali Curtis, American soccer player 1978 – Josh Dallas, American actor 1978 – Katie Holmes, American actress 1980 – Christina Aguilera, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1980 – Neil Fingleton, English actor and basketball player, one of the tallest 25 men in the world (d. 2017) 1980 – Benjamin Watson, American football player 1983 – Andy Fantuz, Canadian football player 1984 – Brian Boyle, American ice hockey player 1984 – Paul Harrison, English footballer 1984 – Giuliano Razzoli, Italian skier 1984 – Derrick Tribbett, American bass player and singer 1986 – François Hamelin, Canadian speed skater 1986 – Usman Khawaja, Pakistani-Australian cricketer 1987 – Miki Ando, Japanese figure skater 1988 – Lizzie Deignan, English cyclist 1988 – Seth Doege, American football player 1988 – Brianne Theisen-Eaton, Canadian heptathlete 1988 – Imad Wasim, Pakistani cricketer 1990 – Sierra Kay, American singer-songwriter 1990 – Victor Hedman, Swedish ice hockey defenceman 1991 – Marcus Butler, English internet celebrity 1992 – Bridgit Mendler, American singer, songwriter and actress 1992 – Ryan Crouser, American shot putter 1993 – Byron Buxton, American baseball player 1993 – Thomas Lam, Finnish professional football defender 1994 – Natália Kelly, American-Austrian singer 1994 – Gerard Gumbau, Spanish professional footballer 1995 – Barbora Krejčíková, Czech tennis player 2000 – Korapat Kirdpan, Thai actor and singer 2001 – Billie Eilish, American singer Deaths Pre-1600 919 – Lady Wu, wife of Qian Liu (b. 858) 933 – Yaonian Yanmujin, Chinese empress dowager 1075 – Edith of Wessex (b. 1025) 1133 – Hildebert, French poet and scholar (b. 1055) 1290 – Magnus III, king of Sweden (b. 1240) 1442 – Pierre Cauchon, French Catholic bishop (b. 1371) 1495 – Alfonso II of Naples (b. 1448) 1577 – Anna of Saxony, Princess consort of Orange (b. 1544) 1601–1900 1645 – Nur Jahan, empress consort of the Mughal Empire (b. 1577) 1651 – William Brabazon, 1st Earl of Meath, English lawyer and politician (b. 1580) 1692 – Veit Ludwig von Seckendorff, German scholar and politician (b. 1626) 1737 – Antonio Stradivari, Italian instrument maker (b. 1644) 1787 – Soame Jenyns, English poet and politician (b. 1704) 1799 – Jean-Étienne Montucla, French mathematician and historian (b. 1725) 1803 – Johann Gottfried Herder, German philosopher, theologian, and poet (b. 1744) 1829 – Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, French soldier, biologist, and academic (b. 1744) 1843 – Thomas Graham, 1st Baron Lynedoch, Scottish-English general and politician (b. 1748) 1848 – Bernard Bolzano, Bohemian priest and mathematician (b. 1781) 1864 – José Justo Corro, Mexican politician and president, (1836-1837) (b. 1794) 1869 – Louis Moreau Gottschalk, American pianist and composer (b. 1829) 1880 – Michel Chasles, French mathematician and academic (b. 1793) 1892 – Richard Owen, English biologist, anatomist, and paleontologist (b. 1804) 1901–present 1919 – John Alcock, English captain and pilot (b. 1892) 1922 – Sir Carl Meyer, 1st Baronet, German-English banker and businessman (b. 1851) 1925 – Hamo Thornycroft, English sculptor and academic (b. 1850) 1932 – Eduard Bernstein, German theorist and politician (b. 1850) 1936 – Andrija Mohorovičić, Croatian meteorologist and seismologist (b. 1857) 1939 – Ernest Lawson, Canadian-American painter (b. 1873) 1961 – Leo Reisman, American violinist and bandleader (b. 1897) 1969 – Charles Dvorak, American pole vaulter and coach (b. 1878) 1971 – Bobby Jones, American golfer and lawyer (b. 1902) 1971 – Diana Lynn, American actress (b. 1926) 1973 – Allamah Rasheed Turabi, Indian-Pakistani religious leader and philosopher (b. 1908) 1974 – Harry Hooper, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1887) 1975 – Theodosius Dobzhansky, Ukrainian geneticist and biologist (b. 1900) 1977 – Michio Nishizawa, Japanese baseball player and manager (b. 1921) 1977 – Louis Untermeyer American poet, anthologist, critic (b. 1885) 1980 – Dobriša Cesarić, Croatian poet and translator (b. 1902) 1980 – Alexei Kosygin, Russian soldier and politician, 8th Premier of the Soviet Union (b. 1904) 1982 – Hans-Ulrich Rudel, German colonel and pilot (b. 1916) 1985 – Xuân Diệu, Vietnamese poet and author (b. 1916) 1987 – Conny Plank, German keyboard player and producer (b. 1940) 1988 – Niyazi Berkes, Turkish Cypriot-English sociologist and academic (b. 1908) 1990 – Anne Revere, American actress (b. 1903) 1990 – Paul Tortelier, French cellist and composer (b. 1914) 1990 – Joseph Zubin, Lithuanian-American psychologist and academic (b. 1900) 1991 – George Abecassis, English race car driver (b. 1913) 1992 – Mark Goodson, American game show producer, created Family Feud and The Price Is Right (b. 1915) 1993 – Helm Glöckler, German race car driver (b. 1909) 1993 – Sam Wanamaker, American-English actor, director, and producer (b. 1919) 1994 – Roger Apéry, Greek-French mathematician and academic (b. 1916) 1994 – Lilia Skala, Austrian-American actress (b. 1896) 1995 – Brian Brockless, English organist, composer, and conductor (b. 1926) 1995 – Ross Thomas, American author (b. 1926) 1995 – Konrad Zuse, German engineer, designed the Z3 computer (b. 1910) 1996 – Yulii Borisovich Khariton, Russian physicist and academic (b. 1904) 1996 – Irving Caesar, American composer (b. 1895) 1997 – Chris Farley, American comedian and actor (b. 1964) 1998 – Lev Dyomin, Russian colonel, pilot, and astronaut (b. 1926) 1999 – Robert Bresson, French director and screenwriter (b. 1901) 2000 – Stan Fox, American race car driver (b. 1952) 2000 – Randolph Apperson Hearst, American businessman (b. 1915) 2000 – Kirsty MacColl, British singer-songwriter (b. 1959) 2001 – Gilbert Bécaud, French singer-songwriter, pianist, and actor (b. 1927) 2001 – Dimitris Dragatakis, Greek violinist and composer (b. 1914) 2001 – Marcel Mule, French saxophonist and educator (b. 1901) 2002 – Necip Hablemitoğlu, Turkish historian and academic (b. 1954) 2002 – Ray Hnatyshyn, Canadian lawyer and politician, 24th Governor General of Canada (b. 1934) 2002 – Wayne Owens, American lawyer and politician (b. 1937) 2002 – Lucy Grealy, Irish-American author (b. 1963) 2004 – Anthony Sampson, English journalist and author (b. 1926) 2005 – Alan Voorhees, American engineer and urban planner (b. 1922) 2006 – Joseph Barbera, American animator, director, and producer, co-founded Hanna-Barbera (b. 1911) 2006 – Ruth Bernhard, German-American photographer (b. 1905) 2006 – Shaukat Siddiqui, Pakistani author and activist (b. 1923) 2007 – Hans Billian, Polish-German actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1918) 2007 – Gerald Le Dain, Canadian lawyer and judge (b. 1924) 2007 – William Strauss, American author and playwright (b. 1947) 2007 – Alan Wagner, American businessman and critic (b. 1931) 2008 – Majel Barrett, American actress and producer (b. 1932) 2008 – Mark Felt, American FBI agent and informant (b. 1913) 2010 – Phil Cavarretta, American baseball player and manager (b. 1916) 2010 – Jacqueline de Romilly, French philologist, author, and scholar (b. 1913) 2010 – Tommaso Padoa-Schioppa, Italian economist and politician, Italian Minister of Economy and Finances (b. 1940) 2010 – James Pickles, English judge and journalist (b. 1925) 2011 – Václav Havel, Czech poet, playwright, and politician, 1st President of the Czech Republic (b. 1936) 2012 – Frank Macchiarola, American lawyer and academic (b. 1941) 2012 – Mustafa Ould Salek, Mauritanian colonel and politician, President of Mauritania (b. 1936) 2012 – Jim Whalen, American football player (b. 1943) 2012 – Anatoliy Zayaev, |
function of the set associated to the decision problem. If this function is computable then the associated decision problem is decidable. However, this reduction is more liberal than the standard reduction used in computational complexity (sometimes called polynomial-time many-one reduction); for example, the complexity of the characteristic functions of an NP-complete problem and its co-NP-complete complement is exactly the same even though the underlying decision problems may not be considered equivalent in some typical models of computation. Optimization problems Unlike decision problems, for which there is only one correct answer for each input, optimization problems are concerned with finding the best answer to a particular input. Optimization problems arise naturally in many applications, such as the traveling salesman problem and many questions in linear programming. There are standard techniques for transforming function and optimization problems into decision problems. For example, in the traveling salesman problem, the optimization problem is to produce a tour with minimal weight. The associated decision problem is: for each N, to decide whether the graph has any tour with weight less than N. By repeatedly answering the decision problem, it is possible to find the minimal weight of a tour. Because the theory of decision problems is very well developed, research in complexity theory has typically focused on decision problems. Optimization problems themselves are still of interest in computability theory, as well as in fields such as operations research. See also ALL (complexity) Computational problem Decidability (logic) – for the problem of deciding whether a formula is a consequence of a logical theory. Search problem Counting problem (complexity) Word problem (mathematics) References Kozen, D.C. (2012), Automata and Computability, Springer. Hartley Rogers, Jr., The Theory of Recursive Functions and Effective Computability, MIT Press, (paperback), Sipser, M. (1996), Introduction to the Theory of Computation, PWS Publishing Co. Robert I. Soare (1987), Recursively Enumerable Sets and Degrees, Springer-Verlag, Daniel Kroening & Ofer Strichman, Decision procedures, Springer, Aaron Bradley & Zohar Manna, The calculus of computation, | x and y, what is x divided by y?". A function problem consists of a partial function f; the informal "problem" is to compute the values of f on the inputs for which it is defined. Every function problem can be turned into a decision problem; the decision problem is just the graph of the associated function. (The graph of a function f is the set of pairs (x,y) such that f(x) = y.) If this decision problem were effectively solvable then the function problem would be as well. This reduction does not respect computational complexity, however. For example, it is possible for the graph of a function to be decidable in polynomial time (in which case running time is computed as a function of the pair (x,y)) when the function is not computable in polynomial time (in which case running time is computed as a function of x alone). The function f(x) = 2x has this property. Every decision problem can be converted into the function problem of computing the characteristic function of the set associated to the decision problem. If this function is computable then the associated decision problem is decidable. However, this reduction is more liberal than the standard reduction used in computational complexity (sometimes called polynomial-time many-one reduction); for example, the complexity of the characteristic functions of an NP-complete problem and its co-NP-complete complement is exactly the same even though the underlying decision problems may not be considered equivalent in some typical models of computation. Optimization problems Unlike decision problems, for which there is only one correct answer for each input, optimization problems are concerned with finding the best answer to a particular input. Optimization problems arise naturally in many applications, such as the traveling salesman problem and many questions in linear programming. There are standard techniques for transforming function and optimization problems into decision problems. For example, in the traveling salesman problem, the optimization problem is to produce a tour with minimal weight. The associated decision problem is: for each N, to decide whether the graph has any tour with weight less than N. By repeatedly answering the decision problem, it is possible to find the minimal weight of a tour. Because the theory of decision problems is very well developed, research in complexity theory has typically focused on decision problems. Optimization problems themselves are still of interest in computability theory, as well as in fields such as operations research. See also ALL |
other forms of information. These are most commonly used to map human-friendly domain names to the numerical IP addresses computers need to locate services and devices using the underlying network protocols, but have been extended over time to perform many other functions as well. The Domain Name System has been an essential component of the functionality of the Internet since 1985. Function An often-used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it serves as the phone book for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses. For example, the domain name www.example.com translates to the addresses (IPv4) and (IPv6). The DNS can be quickly and transparently updated, allowing a service's location on the network to change without affecting the end users, who continue to use the same hostname. Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) and e-mail addresses without having to know how the computer actually locates the services. An important and ubiquitous function of the DNS is its central role in distributed Internet services such as cloud services and content delivery networks. When a user accesses a distributed Internet service using a URL, the domain name of the URL is translated to the IP address of a server that is proximal to the user. The key functionality of the DNS exploited here is that different users can simultaneously receive different translations for the same domain name, a key point of divergence from a traditional phone-book view of the DNS. This process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services. The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility in the Internet. Each subdomain is a zone of administrative autonomy delegated to a manager. For zones operated by a registry, administrative information is often complemented by the registry's RDAP and WHOIS services. That data can be used to gain insight on, and track responsibility for, a given host on the Internet. History Using a simpler, more memorable name in place of a host's numerical address dates back to the ARPANET era. The Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International) maintained a text file named HOSTS.TXT that mapped host names to the numerical addresses of computers on the ARPANET. Elizabeth Feinler developed and maintained the first ARPANET directory. Maintenance of numerical addresses, called the Assigned Numbers List, was handled by Jon Postel at the University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute (ISI), whose team worked closely with SRI. Addresses were assigned manually. Computers, including their hostnames and addresses, were added to the primary file by contacting the SRI Network Information Center (NIC), directed by Feinler, telephone during business hours. Later, Feinler set up a WHOIS directory on a server in the NIC for retrieval of information about resources, contacts, and entities. She and her team developed the concept of domains. Feinler suggested that domains should be based on the location of the physical address of the computer. Computers at educational institutions would have the domain edu, for example. She and her team managed the Host Naming Registry from 1972 to 1989. By the early 1980s, maintaining a single, centralized host table had become slow and unwieldy and the emerging network required an automated naming system to address technical and personnel issues. Postel directed the task of forging a compromise between five competing proposals of solutions to Paul Mockapetris. Mockapetris instead created the Domain Name System in 1983. The Internet Engineering Task Force published the original specifications in RFC 882 and RFC 883 in November 1983. In 1984, four UC Berkeley students, Douglas Terry, Mark Painter, David Riggle, and Songnian Zhou, wrote the first Unix name server implementation for the Berkeley Internet Name Domain, commonly referred to as BIND. In 1985, Kevin Dunlap of DEC substantially revised the DNS implementation. Mike Karels, Phil Almquist, and Paul Vixie have maintained BIND since then. In the early 1990s, BIND was ported to the Windows NT platform. In November 1987, RFC 1034 and RFC 1035 superseded the 1983 DNS specifications. Several additional Request for Comments have proposed extensions to the core DNS protocols. Structure Domain name space The domain name space consists of a tree data structure. Each node or leaf in the tree has a label and zero or more resource records (RR), which hold information associated with the domain name. The domain name itself consists of the label, concatenated with the name of its parent node on the right, separated by a dot. The tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the root zone. A DNS zone may consist of only one domain, or may consist of many domains and sub-domains, depending on the administrative choices of the zone manager. DNS can also be partitioned according to class where the separate classes can be thought of as an array of parallel namespace trees. Administrative responsibility for any zone may be divided by creating additional zones. Authority over the new zone is said to be delegated to a designated name server. The parent zone ceases to be authoritative for the new zone. Domain name syntax, internationalization The definitive descriptions of the rules for forming domain names appear in RFC 1035, RFC 1123, RFC 2181, and RFC 5892. A domain name consists of one or more parts, technically called labels, that are conventionally concatenated, and delimited by dots, such as example.com. The right-most label conveys the top-level domain; for example, the domain name www.example.com belongs to the top-level domain com. The hierarchy of domains descends from right to left; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, or subdomain of the domain to the right. For example, the label example specifies a subdomain of the com domain, and www is a subdomain of example.com. This tree of subdivisions may have up to 127 levels. A label may contain zero to 63 characters. The null label, of length zero, is reserved for the root zone. The full domain name may not exceed the length of 253 characters in its textual representation. In the internal binary representation of the DNS the maximum length requires 255 octets of storage, as it also stores the length of the name. Although no technical limitation exists to prevent domain name labels using any character which is representable by an octet, hostnames use a preferred format and character set. The characters allowed in labels are a subset of the ASCII character set, consisting of characters a through z, A through Z, digits 0 through 9, and hyphen. This rule is known as the LDH rule (letters, digits, hyphen). Domain names are interpreted in case-independent manner. Labels may not start or end with a hyphen. An additional rule requires that top-level domain names should not be all-numeric. The limited set of ASCII characters permitted in the DNS prevented the representation of names and words of many languages in their native alphabets or scripts. To make this possible, ICANN approved the Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications (IDNA) system, by which user applications, such as web browsers, map Unicode strings into the valid DNS character set using Punycode. In 2009 ICANN approved the installation of internationalized domain name country code top-level domains (ccTLDs). In addition, many registries of the existing top-level domain names (TLDs) have adopted the IDNA system, guided by RFC 5890, RFC 5891, RFC 5892, RFC 5893. Name servers The Domain Name System is maintained by a distributed database system, which uses the client–server model. The nodes of this database are the name servers. Each domain has at least one authoritative DNS server that publishes information about that domain and the name servers of any domains subordinate to it. The top of the hierarchy is served by the root name servers, the servers to query when looking up (resolving) a TLD. Authoritative name server An authoritative name server is a name server that only gives answers to DNS queries from data that has been configured by an original source, for example, the domain administrator or by dynamic DNS methods, in contrast to answers obtained via a query to another name server that only maintains a cache of data. An authoritative name server can either be a primary server or a secondary server. Historically the terms master/slave and primary/secondary were sometimes used interchangeably but the current practice is to use the latter form. A primary server is a server that stores the original copies of all zone records. A secondary server uses a special automatic updating mechanism in the DNS protocol in communication with its primary to maintain an identical copy of the primary records. Every DNS zone must be assigned a set of authoritative name servers. This set of servers is stored in the parent domain zone with name server (NS) records. An authoritative server indicates its status of supplying definitive answers, deemed authoritative, by setting a protocol flag, called the "Authoritative Answer" (AA) bit in its responses. This flag is usually reproduced prominently in the output of DNS administration query tools, such as dig, to indicate that the responding name server is an authority for the domain name in question. When a name server is designated as the authoritative server for a domain name for which it does not have authoritative data, it presents a type of error called a "lame delegation" or "lame response". Operation Address resolution mechanism Domain name resolvers determine the domain name servers responsible for the domain name in question by a sequence of queries starting with the right-most (top-level) domain label. For proper operation of its domain name resolver, a network host is configured with an initial cache (hints) of the known addresses of the root name servers. The hints are updated periodically by an administrator by retrieving a dataset from a reliable source. Assuming the resolver has no cached records to accelerate the process, the resolution process starts with a query to one of the root servers. In typical operation, the root servers do not answer directly, but respond with a referral to more authoritative servers, e.g., a query for "www.wikipedia.org" is referred to the org servers. The resolver now queries the servers referred to, and iteratively repeats this process until it receives an authoritative answer. The diagram illustrates this process for the host that is named by the fully qualified domain name "www.wikipedia.org". This mechanism would place a large traffic burden on the root servers, if every resolution on the Internet required starting at the root. In practice caching is used in DNS servers to off-load the root servers, and as a result, root name servers actually are involved in only a relatively small fraction of all requests. Recursive and caching name server In theory, authoritative name servers are sufficient for the operation of the Internet. However, with only authoritative name servers operating, every DNS query must start with recursive queries at the root zone of the Domain Name System and each user system would have to implement resolver software capable of recursive operation. To improve efficiency, reduce DNS traffic across the Internet, and increase performance in end-user applications, the Domain Name System supports DNS cache servers which store DNS query results for a period of time determined in the configuration (time-to-live) of the domain name record in question. Typically, such caching DNS servers also implement the recursive algorithm necessary to resolve a given name starting with the DNS root through to the authoritative name servers of the queried domain. With this function implemented in the name server, user applications gain efficiency in design and operation. The combination of DNS caching and recursive functions in a name server is not mandatory; the functions can be implemented independently in servers for special purposes. Internet service providers typically provide recursive and caching name servers for their customers. In addition, many home networking routers implement DNS caches and recursion to improve efficiency in the local network. DNS resolvers The client side of the DNS is called a DNS resolver. A resolver is responsible for initiating and sequencing the queries that ultimately lead to a full resolution (translation) of the resource sought, e.g., translation of a domain name into an IP address. DNS resolvers are classified by a variety of query methods, such as recursive, non-recursive, and iterative. A resolution process may use a combination of these methods. In a non-recursive query, a DNS resolver queries a DNS server that provides a record either for which the server is authoritative, or it provides a partial result without querying other servers. In case of a caching DNS resolver, the non-recursive query of its local DNS cache delivers a result and reduces the load on upstream DNS servers by caching DNS resource records for a period of time after an initial response from upstream DNS servers. In a recursive query, a DNS resolver queries a single DNS server, which may in turn query other DNS servers on behalf of the requester. For example, a simple stub resolver running on a home router typically makes a recursive query to the DNS server run by the user's ISP. A recursive query is one for which the DNS server answers the query completely by querying other name servers as needed. In typical operation, a client issues a recursive query to a caching recursive DNS server, which subsequently issues non-recursive queries to determine the answer and send a single answer back to the client. The resolver, or another DNS server acting recursively on behalf of the resolver, negotiates use of recursive service using bits in the query headers. DNS servers are not required to support recursive queries. The iterative query procedure is a process in which a DNS resolver queries a chain of one or more DNS servers. Each server refers the client to the next server in the chain, until the current server can fully resolve the request. For example, a possible resolution of www.example.com would query a global root server, then a "com" server, and finally an "example.com" server. Circular dependencies and glue records Name servers in delegations are identified by name, rather than by IP address. This means that a resolving name server must issue another DNS request to find out the IP address of the server to which it has been referred. If the name given in the delegation is a subdomain of the domain for which the delegation is being provided, there is a circular dependency. In this case, the name server providing the delegation must also provide one or more IP addresses for the authoritative name server mentioned in the delegation. This information is called glue. The delegating name server provides this glue in the form of records in the additional section of the DNS response, and provides the delegation in the authority section of the response. A glue record is a combination of the name server and IP address. For example, if the authoritative name server for example.org is ns1.example.org, a computer trying to resolve www.example.org first resolves ns1.example.org. As ns1 is contained in example.org, this requires resolving example.org first, which presents a circular dependency. To break the dependency, the name server for the top level domain org includes glue along with the delegation for example.org. The glue records are address records that provide IP addresses for ns1.example.org. The resolver uses one or more of these IP addresses to query one of the domain's authoritative servers, which allows it to complete the DNS query. Record caching A standard practice in implementing name resolution in applications is to reduce the load on the Domain Name System servers by caching results locally, or in intermediate resolver hosts. Results obtained from a DNS request are always associated with the time to live (TTL), an expiration time after which the results must be discarded or refreshed. The TTL is set by the administrator of the authoritative DNS server. The period of validity may vary from a few seconds to days or even weeks. As a result of this distributed caching architecture, changes to DNS records do not propagate throughout the network immediately, but require all caches to expire and to be refreshed after the TTL. RFC 1912 conveys basic rules for determining appropriate TTL values. Some resolvers may override TTL values, as the protocol supports caching for up to sixty-eight years or no caching at all. Negative caching, i.e. the caching of the fact of non-existence of a record, is determined by name servers authoritative for a zone which must include the Start of Authority (SOA) record when reporting no data of the requested type exists. The value of the minimum field of the SOA record and the TTL of the SOA itself is used to establish the TTL for the negative answer. Reverse lookup A reverse DNS lookup is a query of the DNS for domain names when the IP address is known. Multiple domain names may be associated with an IP address. The DNS stores IP addresses in the form of domain names as specially formatted names in pointer (PTR) records within the infrastructure top-level domain arpa. For IPv4, the domain is in-addr.arpa. For IPv6, the reverse lookup domain is ip6.arpa. The IP address is represented as a name in reverse-ordered octet representation for IPv4, and reverse-ordered nibble representation for IPv6. When performing a reverse lookup, the DNS client converts the address into these formats before querying the name for a PTR record following the delegation chain as for any DNS query. For example, assuming the IPv4 address 208.80.152.2 is assigned to Wikimedia, it is represented as a DNS name in reverse order: 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa. When the DNS resolver gets a pointer (PTR) request, it begins by querying the root servers, which point to the servers of American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) for the 208.in-addr.arpa zone. ARIN's servers delegate 152.80.208.in-addr.arpa to Wikimedia to which the resolver sends another query for 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa, which results in an authoritative response. Client lookup Users generally do not communicate directly with a DNS resolver. Instead DNS resolution takes place transparently in applications such as web browsers, e-mail clients, and other Internet applications. When an application makes a request that requires a domain name lookup, such programs send a resolution request to the DNS resolver in the local operating system, which in turn handles the communications required. The DNS resolver will almost invariably have a cache (see above) containing recent lookups. If the cache can provide the answer to the request, the resolver will return the value in the cache to the program that made the request. If the cache does not contain the answer, the resolver will send the request to one or more designated DNS servers. In the case of most home users, the Internet service provider to which the machine connects will usually supply this DNS server: such a user will either have configured that server's address manually or allowed DHCP to set it; however, where systems administrators have configured systems to use their own DNS | answer, the resolver will send the request to one or more designated DNS servers. In the case of most home users, the Internet service provider to which the machine connects will usually supply this DNS server: such a user will either have configured that server's address manually or allowed DHCP to set it; however, where systems administrators have configured systems to use their own DNS servers, their DNS resolvers point to separately maintained name servers of the organization. In any event, the name server thus queried will follow the process outlined above, until it either successfully finds a result or does not. It then returns its results to the DNS resolver; assuming it has found a result, the resolver duly caches that result for future use, and hands the result back to the software which initiated the request. Broken resolvers Some large ISPs have configured their DNS servers to violate rules, such as by disobeying TTLs, or by indicating that a domain name does not exist just because one of its name servers does not respond. Some applications such as web browsers maintain an internal DNS cache to avoid repeated lookups via the network. This practice can add extra difficulty when debugging DNS issues as it obscures the history of such data. These caches typically use very short caching times on the order of one minute. Internet Explorer represents a notable exception: versions up to IE 3.x cache DNS records for 24 hours by default. Internet Explorer 4.x and later versions (up to IE 8) decrease the default timeout value to half an hour, which may be changed by modifying the default configuration. When Google Chrome detects issues with the DNS server it displays a specific error message. Other applications The Domain Name System includes several other functions and features. Hostnames and IP addresses are not required to match in a one-to-one relationship. Multiple hostnames may correspond to a single IP address, which is useful in virtual hosting, in which many web sites are served from a single host. Alternatively, a single hostname may resolve to many IP addresses to facilitate fault tolerance and load distribution to multiple server instances across an enterprise or the global Internet. DNS serves other purposes in addition to translating names to IP addresses. For instance, mail transfer agents use DNS to find the best mail server to deliver e-mail: An MX record provides a mapping between a domain and a mail exchanger; this can provide an additional layer of fault tolerance and load distribution. The DNS is used for efficient storage and distribution of IP addresses of blacklisted email hosts. A common method is to place the IP address of the subject host into the sub-domain of a higher level domain name, and to resolve that name to a record that indicates a positive or a negative indication. For example: The address 102.3.4.5 is blacklisted. It points to 5.4.3.102.blacklist.example, which resolves to 127.0.0.1. The address 102.3.4.6 is not blacklisted and points to 6.4.3.102.blacklist.example. This hostname is either not configured, or resolves to 127.0.0.2. E-mail servers can query blacklist.example to find out if a specific host connecting to them is in the blacklist. Many of such blacklists, either subscription-based or free of cost, are available for use by email administrators and anti-spam software. To provide resilience in the event of computer or network failure, multiple DNS servers are usually provided for coverage of each domain. At the top level of global DNS, thirteen groups of root name servers exist, with additional "copies" of them distributed worldwide via anycast addressing. Dynamic DNS (DDNS) updates a DNS server with a client IP address on-the-fly, for example, when moving between ISPs or mobile hot spots, or when the IP address changes administratively. DNS message format The DNS protocol uses two types of DNS messages, queries and replies; both have the same format. Each message consists of a header and four sections: question, answer, authority, and an additional space. A header field (flags) controls the content of these four sections. The header section consists of the following fields: Identification, Flags, Number of questions, Number of answers, Number of authority resource records (RRs), and Number of additional RRs. Each field is 16 bits long, and appears in the order given. The identification field is used to match responses with queries. The flag field consists of sub-fields as follows: After the flag, the header ends with four 16-bit integers which contain the number of records in each of the sections that follow, in the same order. Question section The question section has a simpler format than the resource record format used in the other sections. Each question record (there is usually just one in the section) contains the following fields: The domain name is broken into discrete labels which are concatenated; each label is prefixed by the length of that label. DNS transport protocols DNS-over-UDP/53 ("Do53") From the time of its origin in 1983 until quite recently, DNS has primarily answered queries on User Datagram Protocol (UDP) port number 53. Such queries consist of a clear-text request sent in a single UDP packet from the client, responded to with a clear-text reply sent in a single UDP packet from the server. When the length of the answer exceeds 512 bytes and both client and server support Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS), larger UDP packets may be used. Use of DNS-over-UDP is limited by, among other things, its lack of transport-layer encryption, authentication, reliable delivery, and message length. DNS-over-TCP/53 ("Do53/TCP") In 1989, RFC 1123 specified optional Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) transport for DNS queries, replies and, particularly, zone transfers. Via fragmentation of long replies, TCP allows longer responses, reliable delivery, and re-use of long-lived connections between clients and servers. DNSCrypt The DNSCrypt protocol, which was developed in 2011 outside the IETF standards framework, introduced DNS encryption on the downstream side of recursive resolvers, wherein clients encrypt query payloads using servers' public keys, which are published in the DNS (rather than relying upon third-party certificate authorities) and which may in turn be protected by DNSSEC signatures. DNSCrypt uses either TCP or UDP port 443, the same port as HTTPS encrypted web traffic. This introduced not only privacy regarding the content of the query, but also a significant measure of firewall-traversal capability. In 2019, DNSCrypt was further extended to support an "anonymized" mode, similar to the proposed "Oblivious DNS," in which an ingress node receives a query which has been encrypted with the public key of a different server, and relays it to that server, which acts as an egress node, performing the recursive resolution. Privacy of user/query pairs is created, since the ingress node does not know the content of the query, while the egress nodes does not know the identity of the client. DNSCrypt was first implemented in production by OpenDNS in December of 2011. DNS-over-TLS ("DoT") An IETF standard for encrypted DNS emerged in 2016, utilizing standard Transport Layer Security (TLS) to protect the entire connection, rather than just the DNS payload. DoT servers listen on TCP port 853. RFC7858 specifies that opportunistic encryption and authenticated encryption may be supported, but did not make either server or client authentication mandatory. DNS-over-HTTPS ("DoH") A competing standard for DNS query transport was introduced in 2018, tunneling DNS query data over HTTPS (which in turn transports HTTP over TLS). DoH was promoted as a more web-friendly alternative to DNS since, like DNSCrypt, it travels on TCP port 443, and thus looks similar to web traffic, though they are easily differentiable in practice. DoH has been widely criticized for decreasing user anonymity relative to DoT. DNS-over-TOR Like other Internet protocols, DNS may be run over VPNs and tunnels. One use which has become common enough since 2019 to warrant its own frequently used acronym is DNS-over-Tor. The privacy gains of Oblivious DNS can be garnered through the use of the preexisting Tor network of ingress and egress nodes, paired with the transport-layer encryption provided by TLS. Oblivious DNS-over-HTTPS ("ODoH") In 2021, an "oblivious" implementation of DoH was proposed and has been implemented in draft form, combining ingress/egress separation with HTTPS tunneling and TLS transport-layer encryption in a single defined protocol. Resource records The Domain Name System specifies a database of information elements for network resources. The types of information elements are categorized and organized with a list of DNS record types, the resource records (RRs). Each record has a type (name and number), an expiration time (time to live), a class, and type-specific data. Resource records of the same type are described as a resource record set (RRset), having no special ordering. DNS resolvers return the entire set upon query, but servers may implement round-robin ordering to achieve load balancing. In contrast, the Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC) work on the complete set of resource record in canonical order. When sent over an Internet Protocol network, all records use the common format specified in RFC 1035: NAME is the fully qualified domain name of the node in the tree . On the wire, the name may be shortened using label compression where ends of domain names mentioned earlier in the packet can be substituted for the end of the current domain name. TYPE is the record type. It indicates the format of the data and it gives a hint of its intended use. For example, the A record is used to translate from a domain name to an IPv4 address, the NS record lists which name servers can answer lookups on a DNS zone, and the MX record specifies the mail server used to handle mail for a domain specified in an e-mail address. RDATA is data of type-specific relevance, such as the IP address for address records, or the priority and hostname for MX records. Well known record types may use label compression in the RDATA field, but "unknown" record types must not (RFC 3597). The CLASS of a record is set to IN (for Internet) for common DNS records involving Internet hostnames, servers, or IP addresses. In addition, the classes Chaos (CH) and Hesiod (HS) exist. Each class is an independent name space with potentially different delegations of DNS zones. In addition to resource records defined in a zone file, the domain name system also defines several request types that are used only in communication with other DNS nodes (on the wire), such as when performing zone transfers (AXFR/IXFR) or for EDNS (OPT). Wildcard DNS records The domain name system supports wildcard DNS records which specify names that start with the asterisk label, '*', e.g., *.example. DNS records belonging to wildcard domain names specify rules for generating resource records within a single DNS zone by substituting whole labels with matching components of the query name, including any specified descendants. For example, in the following configuration, the DNS zone x.example specifies that all subdomains, including subdomains of subdomains, of x.example use the mail exchanger (MX) a.x.example. The A record for a.x.example is needed to specify the mail exchanger IP address. As this has the result of excluding this domain name and its subdomains from the wildcard matches, an additional MX record for the subdomain a.x.example, as well as a wildcarded MX record for all of its subdomains, must also be defined in the DNS zone. x.example. MX 10 a.x.example. *.x.example. MX 10 a.x.example. *.a.x.example. MX 10 a.x.example. a.x.example. MX 10 a.x.example. a.x.example. AAAA 2001:db8::1 The role of wildcard records was refined in , because the original definition in was incomplete and resulted in misinterpretations by implementers. Protocol extensions The original DNS protocol had limited provisions for extension with new features. In 1999, Paul Vixie published in RFC 2671 (superseded by RFC 6891) an extension mechanism, called Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS) that introduced optional protocol elements without increasing overhead when not in use. This was accomplished through the OPT pseudo-resource record that only exists in wire transmissions of the protocol, but not in any zone files. Initial extensions were also suggested (EDNS0), such as increasing the DNS message size in UDP datagrams. Dynamic zone updates Dynamic DNS updates use the UPDATE DNS opcode to add or remove resource records dynamically from a zone database maintained on an authoritative DNS server. The feature is described in RFC 2136. This facility is useful to register network clients into the DNS when they boot or become otherwise available on |
Leno was higher than Letterman on that poll three times during the same period, in 1998, 2007, and 2008. Hosting the Academy Awards On March 27, 1995, Letterman hosted the 67th Academy Awards ceremony. Critics blasted what they deemed his poor performance, noting that his irreverent style undermined the traditional importance and glamor of the event. In a joke about their unusual names (inspired by a celebrated comic essay in The New Yorker, "Yma Dream" by Thomas Meehan), he started off by introducing Uma Thurman to Oprah Winfrey, and then both of them to Keanu Reeves: "Oprah...Uma. Uma...Oprah," "Have you kids met Keanu?" This and many of his other jokes fell flat. Although Letterman attracted the highest ratings to the annual telecast since 1983, many felt that the bad publicity he generated caused a decline in the Late Shows ratings. Letterman recycled the apparent debacle into a long-running gag. On his first show after the Oscars, he joked, "Looking back, I had no idea that thing was being televised." He lampooned his stint two years later, during Billy Crystal's opening Oscar skit, which also parodied the plane-crashing scenes from that year's chief nominated film, The English Patient. For years afterward, Letterman recounted his hosting the Oscars, although the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences continued to hold Letterman in high regard and invited him to host the Oscars again. On September 7, 2010, he made an appearance on the premiere of the 14th season of The View, and confirmed that he had been considered for hosting again. Heart surgery hiatus On January 14, 2000, a routine check-up revealed that an artery in Letterman's heart was severely obstructed. He was rushed to emergency surgery for a quintuple bypass at New York Presbyterian Hospital. During the initial weeks of his recovery, reruns of the Late Show were shown and introduced by friends of Letterman including Norm Macdonald, Drew Barrymore, Ray Romano, Robin Williams, Bonnie Hunt, Megan Mullally, Bill Murray, Regis Philbin, Charles Grodin, Nathan Lane, Julia Roberts, Bruce Willis, Jerry Seinfeld, Martin Short, Steven Seagal, Hillary Clinton, Danny DeVito, Steve Martin, and Sarah Jessica Parker. Subsequently, while still recovering from surgery, Letterman revived the late-night talk show tradition of "guest hosts" that had virtually disappeared on network television during the 1990s, allowing Bill Cosby, Kathie Lee Gifford, Dana Carvey, Janeane Garofalo, and others to host new episodes of the Late Show. Upon his return to the show on February 21, 2000, Letterman brought all but one of the doctors and nurses on stage who had participated in his surgery and recovery (with extra teasing of a nurse who had given him bed baths—"This woman gave me a bath!"), including Dr. O. Wayne Isom and physician Louis Aronne, who frequently appeared on the show. In a show of emotion, Letterman was nearly in tears as he thanked the health care team with the words "These are the people who saved my life!" The episode earned an Emmy nomination. For a number of episodes, Letterman continued to crack jokes about his bypass, including saying, "Bypass surgery: it's when doctors surgically create new blood flow to your heart. A bypass is what happened to me when I didn't get The Tonight Show! It's a whole different thing." In a later running gag, he lobbied Indiana to rename the freeway circling Indianapolis (I-465) "The David Letterman Bypass". He also featured a montage of faux news coverage of his bypass surgery, which included a clip of Letterman's heart for sale on the Home Shopping Network. Letterman became friends with his doctors and nurses. In 2008, a Rolling Stone interview stated he hosted a doctor and nurse who'd helped perform the emergency quintuple-bypass heart surgery that saved his life in 2000. 'These are people who were complete strangers when they opened my chest,' he says. 'And now, eight years later, they're among my best friends.' Additionally, Letterman invited the band Foo Fighters to play "Everlong", introducing them as "my favorite band, playing my favorite song." During Letterman's last show, on which Foo Fighters appeared, Letterman said that Foo Fighters had been in the middle of a South American tour which they canceled to come play on his comeback episode. Letterman again handed over the reins of the show to several guest hosts (including Bill Cosby, Brad Garrett, Whoopi Goldberg, Elvis Costello, John McEnroe, Vince Vaughn, Will Ferrell, Bonnie Hunt, Luke Wilson, and bandleader Paul Shaffer) in February 2003, when he was diagnosed with a severe case of shingles. Later that year, Letterman made regular use of guest hosts—including Tom Arnold and Kelsey Grammer—for new shows broadcast on Fridays. In March 2007, Adam Sandler, who had been scheduled to be the lead guest, served as a guest host while Letterman was ill with a stomach virus. Re-signing with CBS In March 2002, as Letterman's contract with CBS neared expiration, ABC offered him the time slot for long-running news program Nightline with Ted Koppel. Letterman was interested, as he believed he could never match Leno's ratings at CBS due to Letterman's complaint of weaker lead-ins from the network's late local news programs, but was reluctant to replace Koppel. He addressed his decision to re-sign on the air, stating that he was content at CBS and that he had great respect for Koppel. On December 4, 2006, CBS revealed that Letterman signed a new contract to host Late Show with David Letterman through the fall of 2010. "I'm thrilled to be continuing on at CBS," said Letterman. "At my age you really don't want to have to learn a new commute." Letterman further joked about the subject by pulling up his right pants leg, revealing a tattoo, presumably temporary, of the ABC logo. "Thirteen years ago, David Letterman put CBS late night on the map and in the process became one of the defining icons of our network," said Leslie Moonves, president and CEO of CBS Corporation. "His presence on our air is an ongoing source of pride, and the creativity and imagination that the Late Show puts forth every night is an ongoing display of the highest quality entertainment. We are truly honored that one of the most revered and talented entertainers of our time will continue to call CBS 'home.'" According to a 2007 article in Forbes magazine, Letterman earned $40 million a year. A 2009 article in The New York Times, however, said his salary was estimated at $32 million. In June 2009, Letterman's Worldwide Pants and CBS reached an agreement to continue the Late Show until at least August 2012. The previous contract had been set to expire in 2010, and the two-year extension was shorter than the typical three-year contract period negotiated in the past. Worldwide Pants agreed to lower its fee for the show, though it had remained a "solid moneymaker for CBS" under the previous contract. On the February 3, 2011, edition of the Late Show, during an interview with Howard Stern, Letterman said he would continue to do his talk show for "maybe two years, I think." In April 2012, CBS announced it had extended its contract with Letterman through 2014. His contract was subsequently extended to 2015. Retirement from Late Show During the taping of his show on April 3, 2014, Letterman announced that he had informed CBS president Leslie Moonves that he would retire from hosting Late Show by May 20, 2015. Later in his retirement Letterman occasionally stated, in jest, that he had been fired. It was announced soon after that comedian and political satirist Stephen Colbert would succeed Letterman. Letterman's last episode aired on May 20, 2015, and opened with a presidential sendoff featuring four of the five living American presidents, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama, each mimicking the late president Gerald Ford's statement "Our long national nightmare is over." It also featured cameos from The Simpsons and Wheel of Fortune (the latter with a puzzle saying "Good riddance to David Letterman"), a Top Ten List of "things I wish I could have said to David Letterman" performed by regular guests including Alec Baldwin, Barbara Walters, Steve Martin, Jerry Seinfeld, Jim Carrey, Chris Rock, Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Peyton Manning, Tina Fey, and Bill Murray, and closed with a montage of scenes from both his CBS and NBC series set to a live performance of "Everlong" by Foo Fighters. The final episode of Late Show with David Letterman was watched by 13.76 million viewers in the United States with an audience share of 9.3/24, earning the show its highest ratings since following the 1994 Winter Olympics on February 25, 1994, and the show's highest demo numbers (4.1 in adults 25–54 and 3.1 in adults 18–49) since Oprah Winfrey's first Late Show appearance following the ending of her feud with Letterman on December 1, 2005. Bill Murray, who had been his first guest on Late Night, was his final guest on Late Show. In a rarity for a late-night show, it was also the highest-rated program on network television that night, beating out all prime-time shows. In total, Letterman hosted 6,080 episodes of Late Night and Late Show, surpassing friend and mentor Johnny Carson as the longest-serving late-night talk show host in U.S. television history. Post-Late Show In the months following the end of Late Show, Letterman was seen occasionally at sports events such as the Indianapolis 500, during which he submitted to an interview with a local publication. He made a surprise appearance on stage in San Antonio, Texas, when he was invited up for an extended segment during Steve Martin's and Martin Short's A Very Stupid Conversation show, saying "I retired, and...I have no regrets," Letterman told the crowd after walking on stage. "I was happy. I'll make actual friends. I was complacent. I was satisfied. I was content, and then a couple of days ago Donald Trump said he was running for president. I have made the biggest mistake of my life, ladies and gentlemen" and then delivering a Top Ten List roasting Trump's presidential campaign followed by an onstage conversation with Martin and Short. Cellphone recordings of the appearance were posted on YouTube by audience members and widely reported in the media. In 2016, Letterman joined the climate change documentary show Years of Living Dangerously as one of its celebrity correspondents. In season two's premiere episode, Letterman traveled to India to investigate the country's efforts to expand its inadequate energy grid, power its booming economy, and bring electricity to 300 million citizens for the first time. He also interviewed Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and traveled to rural villages where power is a scarce luxury and explored the United States' role in India's energy future. On April 7, 2017, Letterman gave the induction speech for the band Pearl Jam into the Rock & Roll Hall Of Fame at a ceremony held at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn, New York City. Also in 2017, Letterman and Alec Baldwin co-hosted The Essentials on Turner Classic Movies. Letterman and Baldwin introduced seven films for the series. Netflix In 2018, Letterman began hosting a six-episode monthly series of hour-long programs on Netflix consisting of long-form interviews and field segments. The show, My Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman, premiered January 12, 2018, with Barack Obama as its first guest. The second season premiered on May 31, 2019. Season 3 premiered on October 21, 2020, and includes Kim Kardashian West, Robert Downey Jr., Dave Chappelle and Lizzo as guests. Notable exchanges and incidents NBC and Johnny Carson In spite of Johnny Carson's clear intention to pass his title to Letterman, NBC selected Jay Leno to host The Tonight Show after Carson's departure. Letterman maintained a close relationship with Carson through his break with NBC. Three years after he left for CBS, HBO produced a made-for-television movie called The Late Shift, based on a book by The New York Times reporter Bill Carter, chronicling the battle between Letterman and Leno for the Tonight Show hosting spot. Carson later made a few cameo appearances as a guest on Letterman's show. Carson's final television appearance was on May 13, 1994, on a Late Show episode taped in Los Angeles, when he made a surprise appearance during a Top 10 list segment. In early 2005, it was revealed that Carson occasionally sent jokes to Letterman, who used them in his monologue; according to CBS senior vice president Peter Lassally (a onetime producer for both men), Carson got "a big kick out of it." Letterman would do a characteristic Carson golf swing after delivering one of his jokes. In a tribute to Carson, all the opening monologue jokes during the first show after Carson's death were by Carson. Lassally also claimed that Carson had always believed Letterman, not Leno, to be his "rightful successor". During the early years of the Late Shows run, Letterman occasionally used some of Carson's trademark bits, including "Carnac the Magnificent" (with Paul Shaffer as Carnac), "Stump the Band", and the "Week in Review". Oprah Winfrey Oprah Winfrey appeared on Letterman's show when he was hosting NBC's Late Night on May 2, 1989. After that appearance, the two had a 16-year feud that arose, as Winfrey explained to Letterman after it had been resolved, as a result of the acerbic tone of their 1989 interview, of which she said that it "felt so uncomfortable to me that I didn't want to have that experience again". The feud apparently ended on December 2, 2005, when Winfrey appeared on CBS's Late Show with David Letterman in an event Letterman jokingly called "the Super Bowl of Love". Winfrey and Letterman also appeared together in a Late Show promo aired during CBS's coverage of Super Bowl XLI in February 2007, with the two sitting next to each other on a couch watching the game. Since the game was played between the Indianapolis Colts and Chicago Bears, the Indianapolis-born Letterman wore a Peyton Manning jersey, while Winfrey, whose show was taped in Chicago, wore a Brian Urlacher jersey. On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show at Madison Square Garden in New York City. Three years later, during CBS's coverage of Super Bowl XLIV between the Colts and the New Orleans Saints, the two appeared again in a Late Show promo, this time with Winfrey sitting on a couch between Letterman and Leno. Letterman wore the retired 70 jersey of Art Donovan, a member of the Colts' Hall of Fame and a regular Letterman guest. The appearance was Letterman's idea: Leno flew to New York City on an NBC corporate jet, sneaking into the Ed Sullivan Theater during the Late Shows February 4 taping wearing a disguise and meeting Winfrey and Letterman at a living room set created in the theater's balcony, where they taped their promo. Winfrey interviewed Letterman in January 2013 on Oprah's Next Chapter. They discussed their feud and Winfrey revealed that she had had a "terrible experience" while appearing on Letterman's show years earlier. Letterman could not recall the incident but apologized. 2007–2008 writers' strike Late Show went off air for eight weeks in 2007 during November and December because of the Writers Guild of America strike. Letterman's production company, Worldwide Pants, was the first company to make an individual agreement with the WGA, allowing his show to come back on the air on January 2, 2008. In his first episode back, he surprised the audience with a newly grown beard, which signified solidarity with | decline in the Late Shows ratings. Letterman recycled the apparent debacle into a long-running gag. On his first show after the Oscars, he joked, "Looking back, I had no idea that thing was being televised." He lampooned his stint two years later, during Billy Crystal's opening Oscar skit, which also parodied the plane-crashing scenes from that year's chief nominated film, The English Patient. For years afterward, Letterman recounted his hosting the Oscars, although the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences continued to hold Letterman in high regard and invited him to host the Oscars again. On September 7, 2010, he made an appearance on the premiere of the 14th season of The View, and confirmed that he had been considered for hosting again. Heart surgery hiatus On January 14, 2000, a routine check-up revealed that an artery in Letterman's heart was severely obstructed. He was rushed to emergency surgery for a quintuple bypass at New York Presbyterian Hospital. During the initial weeks of his recovery, reruns of the Late Show were shown and introduced by friends of Letterman including Norm Macdonald, Drew Barrymore, Ray Romano, Robin Williams, Bonnie Hunt, Megan Mullally, Bill Murray, Regis Philbin, Charles Grodin, Nathan Lane, Julia Roberts, Bruce Willis, Jerry Seinfeld, Martin Short, Steven Seagal, Hillary Clinton, Danny DeVito, Steve Martin, and Sarah Jessica Parker. Subsequently, while still recovering from surgery, Letterman revived the late-night talk show tradition of "guest hosts" that had virtually disappeared on network television during the 1990s, allowing Bill Cosby, Kathie Lee Gifford, Dana Carvey, Janeane Garofalo, and others to host new episodes of the Late Show. Upon his return to the show on February 21, 2000, Letterman brought all but one of the doctors and nurses on stage who had participated in his surgery and recovery (with extra teasing of a nurse who had given him bed baths—"This woman gave me a bath!"), including Dr. O. Wayne Isom and physician Louis Aronne, who frequently appeared on the show. In a show of emotion, Letterman was nearly in tears as he thanked the health care team with the words "These are the people who saved my life!" The episode earned an Emmy nomination. For a number of episodes, Letterman continued to crack jokes about his bypass, including saying, "Bypass surgery: it's when doctors surgically create new blood flow to your heart. A bypass is what happened to me when I didn't get The Tonight Show! It's a whole different thing." In a later running gag, he lobbied Indiana to rename the freeway circling Indianapolis (I-465) "The David Letterman Bypass". He also featured a montage of faux news coverage of his bypass surgery, which included a clip of Letterman's heart for sale on the Home Shopping Network. Letterman became friends with his doctors and nurses. In 2008, a Rolling Stone interview stated he hosted a doctor and nurse who'd helped perform the emergency quintuple-bypass heart surgery that saved his life in 2000. 'These are people who were complete strangers when they opened my chest,' he says. 'And now, eight years later, they're among my best friends.' Additionally, Letterman invited the band Foo Fighters to play "Everlong", introducing them as "my favorite band, playing my favorite song." During Letterman's last show, on which Foo Fighters appeared, Letterman said that Foo Fighters had been in the middle of a South American tour which they canceled to come play on his comeback episode. Letterman again handed over the reins of the show to several guest hosts (including Bill Cosby, Brad Garrett, Whoopi Goldberg, Elvis Costello, John McEnroe, Vince Vaughn, Will Ferrell, Bonnie Hunt, Luke Wilson, and bandleader Paul Shaffer) in February 2003, when he was diagnosed with a severe case of shingles. Later that year, Letterman made regular use of guest hosts—including Tom Arnold and Kelsey Grammer—for new shows broadcast on Fridays. In March 2007, Adam Sandler, who had been scheduled to be the lead guest, served as a guest host while Letterman was ill with a stomach virus. Re-signing with CBS In March 2002, as Letterman's contract with CBS neared expiration, ABC offered him the time slot for long-running news program Nightline with Ted Koppel. Letterman was interested, as he believed he could never match Leno's ratings at CBS due to Letterman's complaint of weaker lead-ins from the network's late local news programs, but was reluctant to replace Koppel. He addressed his decision to re-sign on the air, stating that he was content at CBS and that he had great respect for Koppel. On December 4, 2006, CBS revealed that Letterman signed a new contract to host Late Show with David Letterman through the fall of 2010. "I'm thrilled to be continuing on at CBS," said Letterman. "At my age you really don't want to have to learn a new commute." Letterman further joked about the subject by pulling up his right pants leg, revealing a tattoo, presumably temporary, of the ABC logo. "Thirteen years ago, David Letterman put CBS late night on the map and in the process became one of the defining icons of our network," said Leslie Moonves, president and CEO of CBS Corporation. "His presence on our air is an ongoing source of pride, and the creativity and imagination that the Late Show puts forth every night is an ongoing display of the highest quality entertainment. We are truly honored that one of the most revered and talented entertainers of our time will continue to call CBS 'home.'" According to a 2007 article in Forbes magazine, Letterman earned $40 million a year. A 2009 article in The New York Times, however, said his salary was estimated at $32 million. In June 2009, Letterman's Worldwide Pants and CBS reached an agreement to continue the Late Show until at least August 2012. The previous contract had been set to expire in 2010, and the two-year extension was shorter than the typical three-year contract period negotiated in the past. Worldwide Pants agreed to lower its fee for the show, though it had remained a "solid moneymaker for CBS" under the previous contract. On the February 3, 2011, edition of the Late Show, during an interview with Howard Stern, Letterman said he would continue to do his talk show for "maybe two years, I think." In April 2012, CBS announced it had extended its contract with Letterman through 2014. His contract was subsequently extended to 2015. Retirement from Late Show During the taping of his show on April 3, 2014, Letterman announced that he had informed CBS president Leslie Moonves that he would retire from hosting Late Show by May 20, 2015. Later in his retirement Letterman occasionally stated, in jest, that he had been fired. It was announced soon after that comedian and political satirist Stephen Colbert would succeed Letterman. Letterman's last episode aired on May 20, 2015, and opened with a presidential sendoff featuring four of the five living American presidents, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama, each mimicking the late president Gerald Ford's statement "Our long national nightmare is over." It also featured cameos from The Simpsons and Wheel of Fortune (the latter with a puzzle saying "Good riddance to David Letterman"), a Top Ten List of "things I wish I could have said to David Letterman" performed by regular guests including Alec Baldwin, Barbara Walters, Steve Martin, Jerry Seinfeld, Jim Carrey, Chris Rock, Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Peyton Manning, Tina Fey, and Bill Murray, and closed with a montage of scenes from both his CBS and NBC series set to a live performance of "Everlong" by Foo Fighters. The final episode of Late Show with David Letterman was watched by 13.76 million viewers in the United States with an audience share of 9.3/24, earning the show its highest ratings since following the 1994 Winter Olympics on February 25, 1994, and the show's highest demo numbers (4.1 in adults 25–54 and 3.1 in adults 18–49) since Oprah Winfrey's first Late Show appearance following the ending of her feud with Letterman on December 1, 2005. Bill Murray, who had been his first guest on Late Night, was his final guest on Late Show. In a rarity for a late-night show, it was also the highest-rated program on network television that night, beating out all prime-time shows. In total, Letterman hosted 6,080 episodes of Late Night and Late Show, surpassing friend and mentor Johnny Carson as the longest-serving late-night talk show host in U.S. television history. Post-Late Show In the months following the end of Late Show, Letterman was seen occasionally at sports events such as the Indianapolis 500, during which he submitted to an interview with a local publication. He made a surprise appearance on stage in San Antonio, Texas, when he was invited up for an extended segment during Steve Martin's and Martin Short's A Very Stupid Conversation show, saying "I retired, and...I have no regrets," Letterman told the crowd after walking on stage. "I was happy. I'll make actual friends. I was complacent. I was satisfied. I was content, and then a couple of days ago Donald Trump said he was running for president. I have made the biggest mistake of my life, ladies and gentlemen" and then delivering a Top Ten List roasting Trump's presidential campaign followed by an onstage conversation with Martin and Short. Cellphone recordings of the appearance were posted on YouTube by audience members and widely reported in the media. In 2016, Letterman joined the climate change documentary show Years of Living Dangerously as one of its celebrity correspondents. In season two's premiere episode, Letterman traveled to India to investigate the country's efforts to expand its inadequate energy grid, power its booming economy, and bring electricity to 300 million citizens for the first time. He also interviewed Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and traveled to rural villages where power is a scarce luxury and explored the United States' role in India's energy future. On April 7, 2017, Letterman gave the induction speech for the band Pearl Jam into the Rock & Roll Hall Of Fame at a ceremony held at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn, New York City. Also in 2017, Letterman and Alec Baldwin co-hosted The Essentials on Turner Classic Movies. Letterman and Baldwin introduced seven films for the series. Netflix In 2018, Letterman began hosting a six-episode monthly series of hour-long programs on Netflix consisting of long-form interviews and field segments. The show, My Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman, premiered January 12, 2018, with Barack Obama as its first guest. The second season premiered on May 31, 2019. Season 3 premiered on October 21, 2020, and includes Kim Kardashian West, Robert Downey Jr., Dave Chappelle and Lizzo as guests. Notable exchanges and incidents NBC and Johnny Carson In spite of Johnny Carson's clear intention to pass his title to Letterman, NBC selected Jay Leno to host The Tonight Show after Carson's departure. Letterman maintained a close relationship with Carson through his break with NBC. Three years after he left for CBS, HBO produced a made-for-television movie called The Late Shift, based on a book by The New York Times reporter Bill Carter, chronicling the battle between Letterman and Leno for the Tonight Show hosting spot. Carson later made a few cameo appearances as a guest on Letterman's show. Carson's final television appearance was on May 13, 1994, on a Late Show episode taped in Los Angeles, when he made a surprise appearance during a Top 10 list segment. In early 2005, it was revealed that Carson occasionally sent jokes to Letterman, who used them in his monologue; according to CBS senior vice president Peter Lassally (a onetime producer for both men), Carson got "a big kick out of it." Letterman would do a characteristic Carson golf swing after delivering one of his jokes. In a tribute to Carson, all the opening monologue jokes during the first show after Carson's death were by Carson. Lassally also claimed that Carson had always believed Letterman, not Leno, to be his "rightful successor". During the early years of the Late Shows run, Letterman occasionally used some of Carson's trademark bits, including "Carnac the Magnificent" (with Paul Shaffer as Carnac), "Stump the Band", and the "Week in Review". Oprah Winfrey Oprah Winfrey appeared on Letterman's show when he was hosting NBC's Late Night on May 2, 1989. After that appearance, the two had a 16-year feud that arose, as Winfrey explained to Letterman after it had been resolved, as a result of the acerbic tone of their 1989 interview, of which she said that it "felt so uncomfortable to me that I didn't want to have that experience again". The feud apparently ended on December 2, 2005, when Winfrey appeared on CBS's Late Show with David Letterman in an event Letterman jokingly called "the Super Bowl of Love". Winfrey and Letterman also appeared together in a Late Show promo aired during CBS's coverage of Super Bowl XLI in February 2007, with the two sitting next to each other on a couch watching the game. Since the game was played between the Indianapolis Colts and Chicago Bears, the Indianapolis-born Letterman wore a Peyton Manning jersey, while Winfrey, whose show was taped in Chicago, wore a Brian Urlacher jersey. On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show at Madison Square Garden in New York City. Three years later, during CBS's coverage of Super Bowl XLIV between the Colts and the New Orleans Saints, the two appeared again in a Late Show promo, this time with Winfrey sitting on a couch between Letterman and Leno. Letterman wore the retired 70 jersey of Art Donovan, a member of the Colts' Hall of Fame and a regular Letterman guest. The appearance was Letterman's idea: Leno flew to New York City on an NBC corporate jet, sneaking into the Ed Sullivan Theater during the Late Shows February 4 taping wearing a disguise and meeting Winfrey and Letterman at a living room set created in the theater's balcony, where they taped their promo. Winfrey interviewed Letterman in January 2013 on Oprah's Next Chapter. They discussed their feud and Winfrey revealed that she had had a "terrible experience" while appearing on Letterman's show years earlier. Letterman could not recall the incident but apologized. 2007–2008 writers' strike Late Show went off air for eight weeks in 2007 during November and December because of the Writers Guild of America strike. Letterman's production company, Worldwide Pants, was the first company to make an individual agreement with the WGA, allowing his show to come back on the air on January 2, 2008. In his first episode back, he surprised the audience with a newly grown beard, which signified solidarity with the strike. His beard was shaved off during the show on January 7, 2008. Palin joke On June 8 and 9, 2009, Letterman told two sexually themed jokes about a daughter (never named) of Sarah Palin on his TV show. These included a statutory rape joke about Palin's then 14-year-old daughter, Willow, and MLB player Alexander |
Soul of the Game (1996), as the baseball player Satchel Paige. In 1998 Lindo co-starred as African-American explorer Matthew Henson, in the TV film Glory & Honor, directed by Kevin Hooks. It portrayed Henson's nearly 20-year partnership with Commander Robert Peary in Arctic exploration and their effort to find the Geographic North Pole in 1909. Lindo received a Satellite Award for best actor for his portrayal of Henson. Lindo has continued to work in television, and in 2006 was seen on the short-lived NBC drama Kidnapped. Lindo had a small role in the 1995 film Congo, playing the corrupt Captain Wanta. Lindo was not credited for the role. He played an angel in the comedy film A Life Less Ordinary (1997). He guest-starred on The Simpsons in the episode "Brawl in the Family", playing a character named Gabriel. In the British film Wondrous Oblivion (2003), directed by Paul Morrison, Lindo starred as Dennis Samuels, the father of a Jamaican immigrant family in London in the 1950s. Lindo said he made the film in honor of his parents, who had similarly moved to London in those years. In 2007, Lindo began an association with Berkeley Repertory Theatre in Berkeley, California, when he directed Tanya Barfield's play The Blue Door. In the autumn of 2008, Lindo revisited August Wilson's play Joe Turner's Come and Gone, directing a production at the Berkeley Rep. In 2010, he played the role of elderly seer Bynum in David Lan's production of Joe Turner at the Young Vic Theatre in London. Lindo was in the main cast of the Fox crime drama The Chicago Code (2011), the NBC fantasy series Believe, and the ABC soap Blood & Oil (2015). In 2017, Lindo began playing Adrian Boseman in the CBS legal drama The Good Fight, a role he would star in for the series' first four seasons and reprise as a guest star in its fifth season. Lindo appeared in the action film Point Break (2015), the horror film Malicious (2018), the drama Battlecreek, Da 5 Bloods (2020), another collaboration with Spike Lee, and The Harder They Fall (2021) as Bass Reeves. For his role in Da 5 Bloods, Lindo received critical acclaim and a number of accolades. In development In 2015, Lindo was expected to play Marcus Garvey in a biopic of the black nationalist historical figure that had been in pre-production for several years. Lindo was cast as the lead in an ABC drama pilot Harlem's Kitchen in March 2020. It was announced in July 2021 that Lindo would star as Mr Nancy in the British Amazon Prime miniseries adaptation of Neil Gaiman's Anansi Boys alongside Malachi Kirby. In November, Lindo officially joined the cast of the upcoming Marvel film Blade in an undisclosed role. Personal life Lindo married his wife Nashormeh Lindo in 1990. They settled down in Oakland, California, in 1996, having moved from New York City and preferring the San Francisco Bay Area to Los Angeles. Their son Damiri was born in 2001. In 2014, Lindo graduated with a master's degree in fine arts from New York | TV series The Chicago Code (2011), as Winter on the series Believe (2014), and as Adrian Boseman in The Good Fight (2017–2021). Early life Delroy Lindo was born in 1952 in Lewisham, south-east London, the son of Jamaican parents. His mother had immigrated to the UK in 1951 from Jamaica to work as a nurse, and his father worked in various jobs. Lindo grew up in nearby Eltham. He became interested in acting as a child when he appeared in a nativity play at school. As a teenager, Lindo and his mother moved to Toronto, Ontario. When he was 16, they moved to San Francisco. At the age of 24, Lindo began his studies in acting at the American Conservatory Theater, graduating in 1979. Career Lindo's film debut came in 1976 with the Canadian John Candy comedy Find the Lady, followed by two other roles in films, including an army sergeant in More American Graffiti (1979). For a decade from the early 1980s Lindo's career was more focused on theatre acting than film, although he has said this was not a conscious decision. In 1982 he debuted on Broadway in "Master Harold"...and the Boys, directed by the play's South African author Athol Fugard. By 1988, Lindo had earned a Tony nomination for his portrayal of Herald Loomis in August Wilson's Joe Turner's Come and Gone. Lindo returned to film in the science fiction film Salute of the Jugger (1990), which has become a cult classic. Although he had turned down Spike Lee for a role in Do the Right Thing, Lee cast him as Woody Carmichael in the drama Crooklyn (1994), which brought Lindo notice. His other roles with Lee include the West Indian Archie, a psychotic gangster, in Malcolm X and a starring role as a neighborhood drug dealer in Clockers. Other films in which he has starring roles are Barry Sonnenfeld's Get Shorty (1995), Ron Howard's Ransom (1996) and Soul of the Game (1996), as the baseball player Satchel Paige. In 1998 Lindo co-starred as African-American explorer Matthew Henson, in the TV film Glory & Honor, directed by Kevin Hooks. It portrayed Henson's nearly 20-year partnership with Commander Robert Peary in Arctic exploration and their effort to find the Geographic North Pole in 1909. Lindo received a Satellite Award for best actor for his portrayal of Henson. Lindo has continued to work in television, and in 2006 was seen on the short-lived NBC drama Kidnapped. Lindo had a small role in the 1995 film Congo, playing the corrupt Captain Wanta. Lindo was |
a Place", with series co-stars Wendell Corey and Jack Ging. He joined friend Martin Milner in a 1962 episode of Route 66 as the character Kamo in the episode "One Tiger to a Hill." Janssen starred in four television series of his own: Richard Diamond, Private Detective (1957–1960), a CBS/Four Star hit series that also introduced Mary Tyler Moore, showing only her legs, and Barbara Bain as Diamond's girlfriend. The Fugitive (1963–1967), the hit Quinn Martin-produced series, about a Midwest doctor wrongly convicted of murdering his wife; O'Hara, U.S. Treasury (1971–1972), one of Jack Webb's Mark VII Limited productions for Universal Studios, as a government agent investigating counterfeiters and other federal crimes; Harry O (1974–1976), as a disabled San Diego-based private eye. At the time, the final episode of The Fugitive held the record for the greatest number of American homes with television sets to watch a series finale, at 72 percent in August 1967. His films include To Hell and Back, the biography of Audie Murphy, who was the most decorated American soldier of World War II; Hell to Eternity, a 1960 American World War II biopic starring Jeffrey Hunter, a Hispanic boy who fought in the Battle of Saipan and was raised by Japanese American foster parents; John Wayne's Vietnam war film The Green Berets; opposite Gregory Peck in the space story Marooned, in which Janssen played an astronaut sent to rescue three stranded men in space, and The Shoes of the Fisherman, as a television journalist in Rome reporting on the election of a new Pope (Anthony Quinn). He also played pilot Harry Walker in the 1973 action movie Birds of Prey. He starred as a Los Angeles police detective trying to clear himself in the killing of an apparently innocent doctor in the 1967 film Warning Shot. The film was shot during a break in the spring and summer of 1966 between the third and fourth seasons of The Fugitive. Janssen played an alcoholic in the 1977 TV movie A Sensitive, Passionate Man, which co-starred Angie Dickinson, as an engineer who devises an unbeatable system for blackjack in the 1978 made-for-TV movie Nowhere to Run, co-starring Stefanie Powers and Linda Evans. Janssen's impressively husky voice was used to good effect as the narrator for the TV mini-series Centennial (1978–79); he also appeared in the final episode. He starred in the made-for-TV mini series S.O.S. Titanic as John Jacob Astor, playing opposite Beverly Ross as his wife, Madeleine, in 1979. Though Janssen's scenes were cut from the final release, he also appeared as a journalist in the film Inchon, which he accepted to work with Laurence Olivier who played General Douglas MacArthur. At the time of his death, Janssen had just begun filming a television movie playing the part of Father Damien, the priest who dedicated himself to the leper colony on the island of Molokai, Hawaii. The part was eventually reassigned to actor Ken Howard of the CBS series The White Shadow. In 1996 TV Guide ranked The Fugitive number 36 on its '50 Greatest | Fame located on the 7700 block of Hollywood Boulevard. Selected filmography It's a Pleasure (1945) as Davey / boy referee (uncredited) Swamp Fire (1946) as Emile's Eldest Son (uncredited) No Room for the Groom (1952) as Soldier (scenes deleted) Francis Goes to West Point (1952) as Cpl. Thomas Untamed Frontier (1952) as Lottie's Dance Partner (uncredited) Bonzo Goes to College (1952) as Jack (uncredited) Yankee Buccaneer (1952) as Beckett Back at the Front (1952) as Soldier (uncredited) Leave It to Harry (1954) as Quiz Show Host (short subject) Chief Crazy Horse (1955) as Lt. Colin Cartwright Cult of the Cobra (1955) as Rico Nardi Francis in the Navy (1955) as Lt. Anders The Private War of Major Benson (1955) as Young Lieutenant To Hell and Back (1955) as Lieutenant Lee All That Heaven Allows (1955) as Freddie Norton (uncredited) The Square Jungle (1955) as Jack Lindsay Never Say Goodbye (1956) as Dave Heller The Toy Tiger (1956) as Larry Tripps Francis in the Haunted House (1956) as Police Lieutenant Hopkins Away All Boats (1956) as Talker (uncredited) Mr. Black Magic (1956) as Master of Ceremonies (short subject) Showdown at Abilene (1956) as Verne Ward The Girl He Left Behind (1956) as Capt. Genaro Lafayette Escadrille (1958) as Duke Sinclair Hell to Eternity (1960) as Sgt. Bill Hazen Dondi (1961) as Dealey King of the Roaring 20s - The Story of Arnold Rothstein (1961) as Arnold Rothstein Ring of Fire (1961) as Sergeant Steve Walsh Twenty Plus Two (1961) as Tom Alder Man-Trap (1961) as Vince Biskay My Six Loves (1963) as Marty Bliss Warning Shot (1967) as Sgt. Tom Valens The Green Berets (1968) as George Beckworth The Shoes of the Fisherman (1968) as George Faber Where It's At (1969) as A.C. Marooned (1969) as Ted Dougherty Generation (1969) as Jim Bolton Macho Callahan (1970) as Diego Callahan Once Is Not Enough (1975) as Tom Colt The Swiss Conspiracy (1976) as David Christopher Two-Minute Warning (1976) as Steve Warhead (1977) as Tony Stevens Golden Rendezvous (1977) as Charles Conway Covert Action (1978) as Lester Horton Inchon (1981) as David Feld (scenes deleted after premiere; final film role; filmed in 1979; released posthumously) Television films Belle Sommers (1962) as Danny Castle Night Chase (1970) as Adrian Vico The Longest Night (1972) as Alan Chambers Moon of the Wolf (1972) as Sheriff Aaron Whitaker Hijack (1973) as Jake Wilkenson Birds of Prey (1973) as Harry Walker Harry O – Such Dust As Dreams Are Made On (1973) as Harry Orwell Pioneer Woman (1973) as Robert Douglas Harry O – Smile Jenny, You're Dead (1974) as Harry Orwell Don't Call the Police (1974) as Harry Orwell Fer-de-Lance (1974) as Russ Bogan Stalk the Wild Child (1976) as Dr. James Hazard Mayday at 40,000 Feet! (1976) as Captain Pete Douglass A Sensitive, Passionate Man (1977) as Michael Delaney Superdome (1978) as Mike Shelley Nowhere to Run (1978) as Harry Adams S.O.S. Titanic (1979) as John Jacob Astor The Golden Gate Murders (1979) as Det. Sgt. Paul Silver High Ice (1980) as Glencoe MacDonald City in Fear (1980) as Vince Perrino (released posthumously) Father Damien: The Leper Priest – 1980 (Incomplete – Replaced by Ken Howard) Television Boston Blackie (1 episode, 1951) as Armored Car Driver (uncredited) Lux Video Theatre (3 episodes, 1955–1956) as Johnny Reynolds Jr. / Joe Davies / Ralph Matinee Theatre (1 episode, 1956) as Paul Merrick Sheriff of Cochise (1 episode, 1956) as Arnie Hix Conflict (1 episode, 1957) as Sid Lukes You Are There (1 episode, 1957) as Great Dalton U.S. Marshal (1 episode, ????) Alcoa Theatre (2 episodes, 1957–1958) as Jim McCandless / Mike Harper The Millionaire (2 episodes, 1957–1958) as David Barrett / Peter Miller Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theater (4 episodes, 1957–1959) as Dix Porter / Seth Larker / Tod Owen / Danny Ensign Richard Diamond, Private Detective (77 episodes, 1957–1960) as Richard Diamond / Chuck Garrett Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse (1 episode, 1959) as Ross Ingraham Death Valley Days (1 episode, 1961) as Dr. Bill Breckenridge Adventures in Paradise (1 episode, 1961) as Scotty Bell Thriller (1 episode, 1962) Target: The Corruptors (1x19 The Middle Man, 1962) as Robbie Wilson General Electric Theater (1 episode, 1962) as Pat Howard Follow the Sun (2 episodes, 1962) as Johnny Sadowsky Checkmate (1 episode, 1962) as Len Kobalsky Cain's Hundred (1 episode, 1962) as Dan Mullin Kraft Mystery Theatre (1 episode, 1962) Route 66 (1 episode, 1962) as Karno Starling The Eleventh Hour (1 episode, 1962) as Hal Kincaid The Dick Powell Show (1 episode, 1963) as Kenneth 'Ken' Morgan Naked City (2 |
seem", dókēsis "apparition, phantom") is the heterodox doctrine that the phenomenon of Jesus, his historical and bodily existence, and above all the human form of Jesus, was mere semblance without any true reality. Broadly it is taken as the belief that Jesus only seemed to be human, and that his human form was an illusion. The word Dokētaí ("Illusionists") referring to early groups who denied Jesus's humanity, first occurred in a letter by Bishop Serapion of Antioch (197–203), who discovered the doctrine in the Gospel of Peter, during a pastoral visit to a Christian community using it in Rhosus, and later condemned it as a forgery. It appears to have arisen over theological contentions concerning the meaning, figurative or literal, of a sentence from the Gospel of John: "the Word was made Flesh". Docetism was unequivocally rejected at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and is regarded as heretical by the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Armenian Apostolic Church, Orthodox Tewahedo, and many Protestant denominations that accept and hold to the statements of these early church councils, such as Reformed Baptists, Reformed Christians, and all Trinitarian Christians. Definitions Docetism is broadly defined as any teaching that claims that Jesus' body was either absent or illusory. The term 'docetic' is rather nebulous. Two varieties were widely known. In one version, as in Marcionism, Christ was so divine that he could not have been human, since God lacked a material body, which therefore could not physically suffer. Jesus only appeared to be a flesh-and-blood man; his body was a phantasm. Other groups who were accused of docetism held that Jesus was a man in the flesh, but Christ was a separate entity who entered Jesus' body in the form of a dove at his baptism, empowered him to perform miracles, and abandoned him upon his death on the cross. Christology and theological implications Docetism's origin within Christianity is obscure. Ernst Käsemann controversially defined the Christology of the Gospel of John as "naïve docetism" in 1968. The ensuing debate reached an impasse as awareness grew that the very term "docetism", like "gnosticism", was difficult to define within the | was a separate entity who entered Jesus' body in the form of a dove at his baptism, empowered him to perform miracles, and abandoned him upon his death on the cross. Christology and theological implications Docetism's origin within Christianity is obscure. Ernst Käsemann controversially defined the Christology of the Gospel of John as "naïve docetism" in 1968. The ensuing debate reached an impasse as awareness grew that the very term "docetism", like "gnosticism", was difficult to define within the religio-historical framework of the debate. It has occasionally been argued that its origins were in heterodox Judaism or Oriental and Grecian philosophies. The alleged connection with Jewish Christianity would have reflected Jewish Christian concerns with the inviolability of (Jewish) monotheism. Docetic opinions seem to have circulated from very early times, 1 John 4:2 appearing explicitly to reject them. Some 1stcentury Christian groups developed docetic interpretations partly as a way to make Christian teachings more acceptable to pagan ways of thinking about divinity. In his critique of the theology of Clement of Alexandria, Photius in his Myriobiblon held that Clement's views reflected a quasi-docetic view of the nature of Christ, writing that "[Clement] hallucinates that the Word was not incarnate but only seems to be." (ὀνειροπολεῖ καὶ μὴ σαρκωθῆναι τὸν λόγον ἀλλὰ δόξαι.) In Clement's time, some disputes contended over whether Christ assumed the "psychic" flesh of mankind as heirs to Adam, or the "spiritual" flesh of the resurrection. Docetism largely died out during the first millennium AD. The opponents against whom Ignatius of Antioch inveighs are often taken to be Monophysite docetists. In his letter to the Smyrnaeans, 7:1, written around 110AD, he writes: While these characteristics fit a Monophysite framework, a slight majority of scholars consider that Ignatius was waging a polemic on two distinct fronts, one Jewish, the other docetic; a minority holds that he was concerned with a group that commingled Judaism and docetism. Others, however, doubt that there was actual docetism threatening the churches, arguing that he was merely criticizing Christians who lived Jewishly or that his critical remarks were directed at an Ebionite or Cerinthian possessionist Christology, according to which Christ was a heavenly spirit that temporarily possessed Jesus. Islam and docetism Some commentators have attempted to make a connection between Islam and docetism using the following Quranic verse: Some scholars accept that Islam was influenced by Manichaeism (Docetism) in this view. However the general consensus is that Manichaeism was not prevalent in Mecca in the 6th and 7th centuries, when Islam developed. Docetism and Christ myth theory Since Arthur Drews published his The Christ Myth (Die Christusmythe) in 1909, occasional connections have been drawn between docetist theories and the modern idea that Christ was a myth. Shailer |
minted: they represented weight measures used for commodities (e.g. grain) as well as metals like silver or gold. The New Testament mentions both didrachma and, by implication, tetradrachma in context of the Temple tax. Luke's Gospel includes a parable told by Jesus of a woman with 10 drachmae, who lost one and searched her home until she found it. Modern drachma First modern drachma The drachma was reintroduced in May 1832, shortly before the establishment of the modern state of Greece (with the exception of the subdivision Taurus). It replaced the phoenix at par. The drachma was subdivided into 100 lepta. Coins The first coinage consisted of copper denominations of 1λ, 2λ, 5λ and 10λ, silver denominations of ₯, ₯, ₯1 and ₯5 and a gold coin of ₯20. The drachma coin weighed 4.5 g and contained 90% silver, with the ₯20 coin containing 5.8 g of gold. In 1868, Greece joined the Latin Monetary Union and the drachma became equal in weight and value to the French franc. The new coinage issued consisted of copper coins of 1λ, 2λ, 5λ and 10λ, with the 5λ and 10λ coins bearing the names obolos () and diobolon (), respectively; silver coins of 20λ and 50λ, ₯1, ₯2 and ₯5 and gold coins of ₯5, ₯10 and ₯20. (Very small numbers of ₯50 and ₯100 coins in gold were also issued.) In 1894, cupro-nickel 5λ, 10λ and 20λ coins were introduced. No 1λ or 2λ coin had been issued since the late 1870s. Silver coins of ₯1 and ₯2 were last issued in 1911, and no coins were issued between 1912 and 1922, during which time the Latin Monetary Union collapsed due to World War I. Between 1926 and 1930, a new coinage was introduced for the new Hellenic Republic, consisting of cupro-nickel coins in denominations of 20λ, 50λ, ₯1, and ₯2; nickel coins of ₯5; and silver coins of ₯10 and ₯20. These were the last coins issued for the first modern drachma, none were issued for the second. Notes Notes were issued by the National Bank of Greece from 1841 until 1928. The Bank of Greece issued notes from 1928 until 2001, when Greece joined the Euro. Early denominations ranged from ₯10 to ₯500. Smaller denominations (₯1, ₯2, ₯3 and ₯5) were issued from 1885, with the first ₯5 notes being made by cutting ₯10 notes in half. When Greece finally achieved its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1828, the phoenix was introduced as the monetary unit; its use was short-lived, however, and in 1832 the phoenix was replaced by the drachma, adorned with the image of King Otto of Greece, who reigned as modern Greece's first king from 1832 to 1862. The drachma was divided into 100 lepta. In 2002 the drachma ceased to be legal tender after the euro, the monetary unit of the European Union, became Greece's sole currency. From 1917 to 1920, the Greek government took control of issuing small change notes under Law 991/1917. During that time, the government issued denominations of 10 & 50 lepta, and ₯1, ₯2 & ₯5. The National Bank of Greece introduced ₯1,000 notes in 1901, and the Bank of Greece introduced ₯5,000 notes in 1928. The economic depression of the 1920s affected many nations around the globe, including Greece. In 1922, the Greek government issued a forced loan in order to finance their growing budget deficit. On 1 April 1922, the government decreed that half of all bank notes had to be surrendered and exchanged for 6.5% bonds. The notes were then cut in half, with the portion bearing the Greek crown standing in for the bonds while the other half was exchanged for a new issue of central bank notes at half the original value. The Greek government again issued notes between 1940 and 1944, in denominations ranging from 50 lepta to 20. During the German–Italian occupation of Greece from 1941 to 1944, catastrophic hyperinflation caused much higher denominations to be issued, culminating in ₯100,000,000,000 notes in 1944. The Italian occupation authorities in the Ionian Islands printed their own currency, the Ionian drachma. Second modern drachma On 11 November 1944, following the liberation of Greece from Nazi Germany, old drachma were exchanged for new ones at the rate of ₯50,000,000,000 to ₯1. Only paper money was issued for the second drachma. The government issued notes of ₯1, ₯5, ₯10 and ₯20, with the Bank of Greece issuing ₯50, ₯100, ₯500, ₯1,000, ₯5,000, and ₯10,000 notes. This drachma also suffered from high inflation. The government later issued ₯100, ₯500, and ₯1,000-drachma notes, and the Bank of Greece issued ₯20,000 and ₯50,000 notes. Third modern drachma On 9 April 1953, in an effort to halt inflation, Greece joined the Bretton Woods system. On 1 May 1954, the drachma was revalued at a rate of ₯1,000 to ₯1, and small change notes were abolished for the last time. The third drachma assumed a fixed exchange rate of ₯30 per dollar until 20 October 1973: over the next 25 years, the official exchange rate gradually declined, reaching 400 drachmae per dollar. On 1 January 2002, the Greek drachma was officially replaced as the circulating currency by the euro, and it has not been legal tender since 1 March 2002. Third modern drachma coins The first issue of coins minted in 1954 consisted of holed aluminium 5-, | in 2001 (at the rate of 340.75 drachmae to the euro). The euro did not begin circulating until 2001 but the exchange rate was fixed on 19 June 2000, with legal introduction of the euro taking place in January 2002. It was also a small unit of weight. Ancient drachma The name drachma is derived from the verb (, "(I) grasp"). It is believed that the same word with the meaning of "handful" or "handle" is found in Linear B tablets of the Mycenean Pylos. Initially a drachma was a fistful (a "grasp") of six oboloí or obeloí (metal sticks, literally "spits") used as a form of currency as early as 1100 BC and being a form of "bullion": bronze, copper, or iron ingots denominated by weight. A hoard of over 150 rod-shaped obeloi was uncovered at Heraion of Argos in Peloponnese. Six of them are displayed at the Numismatic Museum of Athens. It was the standard unit of silver coinage at most ancient Greek mints, and the name obol was used to describe a coin that was one-sixth of a drachma. The notion that drachma derived from the word for fistful was recorded by Herakleides of Pontos (387–312 BC) who was informed by the priests of Heraion that Pheidon, king of Argos, dedicated rod-shaped obeloi to Heraion. Similar information about Pheidon's obeloi was also recorded at the Parian Chronicle. Ancient Greek coins normally had distinctive names in daily use. The Athenian tetradrachm was called owl, the Aeginetic stater was called chelone, the Corinthian stater was called hippos (horse) and so on. Each city would mint its own and have them stamped with recognizable symbols of the city, known as badge in numismatics, along with suitable inscriptions, and they would often be referred to either by the name of the city or of the image depicted. The exact exchange value of each was determined by the quantity and quality of the metal, which reflected on the reputation of each mint. Among the Greek cities that used the drachma were: Abdera, Abydos, Alexandria, Aetna, Antioch, Athens, Chios, Cyzicus, Corinth, Ephesus, Eretria, Gela, Catana, Kos, Maronia, Naxos, Pella, Pergamum, Rhegion, Salamis, Smyrni, Sparta, Syracuse, Tarsus, Thasos, Tenedos, Troy and more. The 5th century BC Athenian tetradrachm ("four drachmae") coin was perhaps the most widely used coin in the Greek world prior to the time of Alexander the Great (along with the Corinthian stater). It featured the helmeted profile bust of Athena on the obverse (front) and an owl on the reverse (back). In daily use they were called glaukes (owls), hence the proverb , 'an owl to Athens', referring to something that was in plentiful supply, like 'coals to Newcastle'. The reverse is featured on the national side of the modern Greek 1 euro coin. Drachmae were minted on different weight standards at different Greek mints. The standard that came to be most commonly used was the Athenian or Attic one, which weighed a little over 4.3 grams. After Alexander's conquests, the name drachma was used in many of the Hellenistic kingdoms in the Middle East, including the Ptolemaic kingdom in Alexandria and the Parthian Empire based in what is modern-day Iran. The Arabic unit of currency known as dirham (), known from pre-Islamic times and afterwards, inherited its name from the drachma or didrachm (, 2 drachmae); the dirham is still the name of the official currencies of Morocco and the United Arab Emirates. The Armenian dram () also derives its name from the drachma. Value It is difficult to estimate comparative exchange rates with modern currency because the range of products produced by economies of centuries gone by were different from today, which makes purchasing power parity (PPP) calculations very difficult; however, some historians and economists have estimated that in the 5th century BC a drachma had a rough value of 25 U.S. dollars (in the year 1990 – equivalent to US$46.50 in 2015), whereas classical historians regularly say that in the heyday of ancient Greece (the fifth and fourth centuries) the daily wage for a skilled worker or a hoplite was one drachma, and for a heliast (juror) half a drachma since 425 BC. Modern commentators derived from Xenophon that half a drachma per day (360 days per year) would provide "a comfortable subsistence" for "the poor citizens" (for the head of a household in 355 BC). Earlier in 422 BC, we also see in Aristophanes (Wasps, line 300–302) that the daily half-drachma of a juror is just enough for the daily subsistence of a family of three. A modern person might think of one drachma as the rough equivalent of a skilled worker's daily pay in the place where they live, which could be as low as US$1, or as high as $100, depending on the country. Fractions and multiples of the drachma were minted by many states, most notably in Ptolemaic Egypt, which minted large coins in gold, silver and bronze. Notable Ptolemaic coins included the gold pentadrachm and octadrachm, and silver tetradrachm, decadrachm and pentakaidecadrachm. This was especially noteworthy as it would not be until the introduction of the Guldengroschen in 1486 that coins of substantial size (particularly in silver) would be minted in significant quantities. For the Roman successors of the drachma, see Roman provincial coins. Denominations of ancient Greek drachma The weight of the silver drachma was approximately 4.3 grams or 0.15 ounces, although weights varied significantly from one city-state to another. It was divided into six obols of 0.72 grams, which were subdivided into four tetartemoria of 0.18 grams, one of the smallest coins ever struck, approximately 5–7 mm in diameter. Historic currency divisions 12 chalkoi = 1 obolus 6 oboloi = 1 drachma 70 drachmae = 1 mina (or mna), later 100 drachmae = 1 mina 60 minae = 1 Athenian Talent (Athenian standard) Minae and talents were never actually minted: they represented weight measures used for commodities (e.g. grain) as well as metals like silver or gold. The New Testament mentions both didrachma and, by implication, tetradrachma in context of the Temple tax. Luke's Gospel includes a parable told by Jesus of a woman with 10 drachmae, who lost one and searched her home until she found it. Modern drachma First modern drachma The drachma was reintroduced in May 1832, shortly before the establishment of the modern state of Greece (with the exception of the subdivision Taurus). It replaced the phoenix at par. The drachma was subdivided into 100 lepta. Coins The first coinage consisted of copper denominations of 1λ, 2λ, 5λ and 10λ, silver denominations of ₯, ₯, ₯1 and ₯5 and a gold coin of ₯20. The drachma coin weighed 4.5 g and contained 90% silver, with the ₯20 coin containing 5.8 g of gold. In 1868, Greece joined the Latin Monetary Union and the drachma became equal in weight and value to the French franc. The new coinage issued consisted of copper coins of 1λ, 2λ, 5λ and 10λ, with the 5λ and 10λ coins bearing the names obolos () and diobolon (), respectively; silver coins of 20λ and 50λ, ₯1, ₯2 and ₯5 and gold coins of ₯5, ₯10 and ₯20. (Very small numbers of ₯50 and ₯100 coins in gold were also issued.) In 1894, cupro-nickel 5λ, 10λ and 20λ coins were introduced. No 1λ or 2λ coin had been issued since the late 1870s. Silver coins of ₯1 and ₯2 were last issued in 1911, and no coins were issued between 1912 and 1922, during which time the Latin Monetary Union collapsed due to World War I. Between 1926 and 1930, a new coinage was introduced for the new Hellenic Republic, consisting of cupro-nickel coins in denominations of 20λ, 50λ, ₯1, and ₯2; nickel coins of ₯5; and silver coins of ₯10 and ₯20. These were the last coins issued for the first modern drachma, none were issued for the second. |
as a unit of account, and the name was applied to later Roman coins in a way that is not understood. The Arabs who conquered large parts of the land that once belonged to the Eastern Roman Empire issued their own gold dinar. The lasting legacy of the denarius can be seen in the use of "d" as the abbreviation for the British penny until 1971. It also survived in France as the name of a coin, the denier. The denarius also survives in the common Arabic name for a currency unit, the dinar used from pre-Islamic times, and still used in several modern Arab nations. The major currency unit in former Principality of Serbia, Kingdom of Serbia and former Yugoslavia was dinar, and it is still used in present-day Serbia. The Macedonian currency denar is also derived from the Roman denarius. The Italian word denaro, the Spanish word dinero, the Portuguese word dinheiro, and the Slovene word , all meaning money, are also derived from Latin denarius. The pre-decimal currency of the United Kingdom until 1970 of pounds, shillings and pence was abbreviated as lsd, with "d" referring to denarius and standing for penny. Use in the Bible In the New Testament, the gospels refer to the denarius as a day's wage for a common laborer (Matthew 20:2, John 12:5). In the Book of Revelation, during the Third Seal: Black Horse, a choinix ("quart") of wheat and three quarts of barley were each valued at one denarius. Bible scholar Robert H. Mounce says the price of the wheat and barley as described in the vision appears to be ten to twelve times their normal cost in ancient times. Revelation thus describes a condition where basic goods are sold at greatly inflated prices. Thus, the black horse rider depicts times of deep scarcity or famine, but not of starvation. Apparently, a choinix of wheat was the daily ration of one adult. Thus, in the conditions pictured by Revelation 6, the normal income for a working-class family would buy enough food for only one person. The less costly barley would feed three people for one day's wages. The denarius is also mentioned in the Parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37). The Render unto Caesar passage in Matthew 22:15–22 and Mark 12:13–17 uses the word (δηνάριον) to describe the coin held up by Jesus, translated in the King James Bible as "tribute penny". It is commonly thought to be a denarius with the head of Tiberius. See also Denarius of L. Censorinus, for the detailed description of a specific Roman | quadriga, or four-horse chariot, on the reverse,. This, with a two-horse chariot or biga which was used as a reverse type for some early denarii, was the prototype for the most common designs used on Roman silver coins for a number of years. Rome overhauled its coinage shortly before 211 BC, and introduced the denarius alongside a short-lived denomination called the victoriatus. The denarius contained an average 4.5 grams, or of a Roman pound, of silver, and was at first tariffed at ten asses, hence its name, which means 'tenner'. It formed the backbone of Roman currency throughout the Roman republic and the early empire. The denarius began to undergo slow debasement toward the end of the republican period. Under the rule of Augustus (27 BC to AD 14) its weight fell to 3.9 grams (a theoretical weight of of a Roman pound). It remained at nearly this weight until the time of Nero (AD 37–68), when it was reduced to of a pound, or 3.4 grams. Debasement of the coin's silver content continued after Nero. Later Roman emperors also reduced its weight to 3 grams around the late 3rd century. The value at its introduction was 10 asses, giving the denarius its name, which translates as "containing ten". In about 141 BC, it was re-tariffed at 16 asses, to reflect the decrease in weight of the as. The denarius continued to be the main coin of the Roman Empire until it was replaced by the so-called antoninianus in the early 3rd century AD. The coin was last issued, in bronze, under Aurelian between AD 270 and 275, and in the first years of the reign of Diocletian. ('Denarius', in A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins, by John R. Melville-Jones (1990)). Debasement and evolution Value, comparisons and silver content 1 gold aureus = 2 gold quinarii = 25 silver denarii = 50 silver quinarii = 100 bronze sestertii = 200 bronze dupondii = 400 copper asses = 800 copper semisses = 1,600 copper quadrantes It is difficult to give even rough comparative values for money from before the 20th century, as the range of products and services available for purchase was so different. During the republic (509 BC–27 BC), a legionary earned 112.5 denarii per year (0.3 denarii per day). Under Julius Caesar, this was doubled to 225 denarii/yr, with soldiers having to pay for their own food and arms, while in the reign of Augustus a Centurion received at least 3,750 denarii per year, and for the highest rank, 15,000 denarii.. By the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire (), a common soldier or unskilled laborer would be paid 1 denarius/day (with no tax deductions), around 300% inflation compared to the early period. Using the cost of bread as a baseline, this pay equates to around US$20 in 2013 terms. Expressed in terms of the price of silver, and assuming 0.999 purity, a troy ounce denarius had a precious metal value of around US$2.60 in 2021. At the height of the Roman Empire a sextarius (546ml or about 2 1/4 cups) of ordinary wine cost roughly one Dupondius (⅛ of a Denarius), after Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices were issued in AD 301, the same item cost 8 debased common denarii – 6,400% inflation. Silver content plummeted across the lifespan of the denarius. Under the Roman Empire (after Nero) the denarius contained approximately 50 grains, 3.24 grams, or (0.105ozt) troy ounce. The fineness of the |
his nephews of the Della Rovere and Riario families. Within months of his election, he had made Giuliano della Rovere (the future pope Julius II) and Pietro Riario both cardinals and bishops; four other nephews were also made cardinals. He made Giovanni Della Rovere, who was not a priest, prefect of Rome, and arranged for him to marry into the da Montefeltro family, dukes of Urbino. Sixtus claimed descent from a noble Della Rovere family, the counts of Vinovo in Piemonte, and adopted their coat-of-arms. Guidobaldo da Montefeltro adopted Francesco Maria I della Rovere, his sister's child and nephew of Pope Julius II. Guidobaldo I, who was heirless, called Francesco Maria at his court, and named him as heir of the Duchy of Urbino in 1504, this through the intercession of Julius II. In 1508, Francesco Maria inherited the duchy thereby starting the line of Rovere Dukes of Urbino. That dynasty ended in 1626 when Pope Urban VIII incorporated Urbino into the papal dominions. As compensation to the last sovereign duke, the title only could be continued by Francesco Maria II, and after his death by his heir, Federico Ubaldo. Vittoria, last descendant of the della Rovere family (she | dukes of Urbino. Sixtus claimed descent from a noble Della Rovere family, the counts of Vinovo in Piemonte, and adopted their coat-of-arms. Guidobaldo da Montefeltro adopted Francesco Maria I della Rovere, his sister's child and nephew of Pope Julius II. Guidobaldo I, who was heirless, called Francesco Maria at his court, and named him as heir of the Duchy of Urbino in 1504, this through the intercession of Julius II. In 1508, Francesco Maria inherited the duchy thereby starting the line of Rovere Dukes of Urbino. That dynasty ended in 1626 when Pope Urban VIII incorporated Urbino into the papal dominions. As compensation to the last sovereign duke, the title only could be continued by Francesco Maria II, and after his death by his heir, Federico Ubaldo. Vittoria, last descendant of the della Rovere family (she was the only child of Federico Ubaldo), married Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. They had two children: Cosimo III, Tuscany's longest reigning monarch, and Francesco Maria de' Medici, a prince of the Church. Rovere Dukes of Urbino (1508) Francesco Maria I della Rovere (1490–1538) Guidobaldo II della Rovere (1514–1574) Francesco Maria II della Rovere (1549–1631) - duchy abolished, title continued Federico Ubaldo della Rovere (1605–1623) - title became extinct with his death. Other people with the same surname Among the many people who did not belong to this family, but bore the same name, are: the Della Rovere family, counts of Vinovo, among them: Domenico della Rovere of Vinovo, cardinal, who built the there his brother Cristoforo della Rovere of Vinovo and various artists, including: the brothers Giovan Battista Della Rovere and Giovan Mauro Della Rovere, both known as "il |
protagonist, or adding visually beautiful or intriguing shots. Films should create order from disorder in search of the objective. Books In 1986, Mamet published “Writing in Restaurants” a collection of essays. In 1990, Mamet published The Hero Pony, a 55-page collection of poetry. He has also published a series of short plays, monologues and four novels, The Village (1994), The Old Religion (1997), Wilson: A Consideration of the Sources (2000), and Chicago (2018). He has written several non-fiction texts, and children's stories, including "True and False: Heresy and Common Sense for the Actor"(1997). In 2004 he published a lauded version of the classical Faust story, Faustus, however, when the play was staged in San Francisco during the spring of 2004, it was not well received by critics. On May 1, 2010, Mamet released a graphic novel The Trials of Roderick Spode (The Human Ant). On June 2, 2011, The Secret Knowledge: On the Dismantling of American Culture, Mamet's book detailing his conversion from modern liberalism to "a reformed liberal" was released. Mamet published Three War Stories, a collection of novellas, on November 11, 2013. On December 3, 2019, Mamet was set to publish a novel, The Diary of a Porn Star by Priscilla Wriston-Ranger: As Told to David Mamet With an Afterword by Mr. Mamet. Television and radio Mamet wrote one episode of Hill Street Blues, "A Wasted Weekend", that aired in 1987. His then-wife, Lindsay Crouse, appeared in numerous episodes (including that one) as Officer McBride. Mamet is also the creator, producer and frequent writer of the television series The Unit, where he wrote a well-circulated memo to the writing staff. He directed a third-season episode of The Shield with Shawn Ryan. In 2007, Mamet directed two television commercials for Ford Motor Company. The two 30-second ads featured the Ford Edge and were filmed in Mamet's signature style of fast-paced dialogue and clear, simple imagery. Mamet's sister, Lynn, is a producer and writer for television shows, such as The Unit and Law & Order. Mamet has contributed several dramas to BBC Radio through Jarvis & Ayres Productions, including an adaptation of Glengarry Glen Ross for BBC Radio 3 and new dramas for BBC Radio 4. The comedy Keep Your Pantheon (or On the Whole I'd Rather Be in Mesopotamia) was aired in 2007. The Christopher Boy's Communion was another Jarvis & Ayres production, first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on March 8, 2021. Other media and political views Since May 2005 he has been a contributing blogger at The Huffington Post, drawing satirical cartoons with themes including political strife in Israel. In a 2008 essay at The Village Voice titled "Why I Am No Longer a 'Brain-Dead Liberal'" he revealed that he had gradually rejected so-called political correctness and progressivism and embraced conservatism. Mamet has spoken in interviews of changes in his views, highlighting his agreement with free market theorists such as Friedrich Hayek the historian Paul Johnson, and economist Thomas Sowell, whom Mamet called "one of our greatest minds". During promotion of a book, Mamet said British people had "a taint of anti-semitism," claiming they "want to give [Israel] away to some people whose claim is rather dubious." In the same interview, Mamet went on to say that "there are famous dramatists and novelists [in the UK] whose works are full of anti-Semitic filth." He refused to give examples because of British libel laws (the interview was conducted in New York City for the Financial Times). He is known for his pro-Israel positions; in his book The Secret Knowledge he claimed that "Israelis would like to live in peace within their borders; the Arabs would like to kill them all." Mamet wrote an article for the November 2012 issue of The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles imploring fellow Jewish Americans to vote for Republican nominee Mitt Romney. In an essay for Newsweek, published on January 29, 2013, Mamet argued against gun control laws: "It was intended to guard us against this inevitable decay of government that the Constitution was written. Its purpose was and is not to enthrone a Government superior to an imperfect and confused electorate, but to protect us from such a government." Mamet has described the NFL anthem protests as "absolutely fucking despicable". In a 2020 interview, | been a contributing blogger at The Huffington Post, drawing satirical cartoons with themes including political strife in Israel. In a 2008 essay at The Village Voice titled "Why I Am No Longer a 'Brain-Dead Liberal'" he revealed that he had gradually rejected so-called political correctness and progressivism and embraced conservatism. Mamet has spoken in interviews of changes in his views, highlighting his agreement with free market theorists such as Friedrich Hayek the historian Paul Johnson, and economist Thomas Sowell, whom Mamet called "one of our greatest minds". During promotion of a book, Mamet said British people had "a taint of anti-semitism," claiming they "want to give [Israel] away to some people whose claim is rather dubious." In the same interview, Mamet went on to say that "there are famous dramatists and novelists [in the UK] whose works are full of anti-Semitic filth." He refused to give examples because of British libel laws (the interview was conducted in New York City for the Financial Times). He is known for his pro-Israel positions; in his book The Secret Knowledge he claimed that "Israelis would like to live in peace within their borders; the Arabs would like to kill them all." Mamet wrote an article for the November 2012 issue of The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles imploring fellow Jewish Americans to vote for Republican nominee Mitt Romney. In an essay for Newsweek, published on January 29, 2013, Mamet argued against gun control laws: "It was intended to guard us against this inevitable decay of government that the Constitution was written. Its purpose was and is not to enthrone a Government superior to an imperfect and confused electorate, but to protect us from such a government." Mamet has described the NFL anthem protests as "absolutely fucking despicable". In a 2020 interview, he described Donald Trump as a "great president" and supported his re-election. Mamet is a contributing editor to Flying magazine. Critical reception to Mamet "Mamet speak" Mamet's style of writing dialogue, marked by a cynical, street-smart edge, precisely crafted for effect, is so distinctive that it has come to be called Mamet speak. Mamet himself has criticized his (and other writers') tendency to write "pretty" at the expense of sound, logical plots. When asked how he developed his style for writing dialogue, Mamet said, "In my family, in the days prior to television, we liked to while away the evenings by making ourselves miserable, based solely on our ability to speak the language viciously. That's probably where my ability was honed." One instance of Mamet's dialogue style can be found in Glengarry Glen Ross, in which two down-on-their-luck real estate salesmen are considering stealing from their employer's office. George Aaronow and Dave Moss equivocate on the meaning of "talk" and "speak", turning language and meaning to deceptive purposes: Moss No. What do you mean? Have I talked to him about this [Pause] Aaronow Yes. I mean are you actually talking about this, or are we just... Moss No, we're just... Aaronow We're just "talking" about it. Moss We're just speaking about it. [Pause] As an idea. Aaronow As an idea. Moss Yes. Aaronow We're not actually talking about it. Moss No. Aaronow Talking about it as a... Moss No. Aaronow As a robbery. Moss As a "robbery?" No. Mamet dedicated Glengarry Glen Ross to Harold Pinter, who was instrumental in its being first staged at the Royal National Theatre, (London) in 1983, and whom Mamet has acknowledged as an influence on its success, and on his other work. Mamet and gender issues Mamet's plays have frequently sparked debate and controversy. Following a 1992 staging of Oleanna, a play in which a college student accuses her professor of trying to rape her, a critic reported that the play divided the audience by gender and recounted that "couples emerged screaming at each other". In his 2014 book David Mamet and Male Friendship, Arthur Holmberg examined Mamet's portrayal of male friendships, especially focusing on the contradictions and ambiguities of male bonding as dramatized in Mamet's plays and films. Awards and nominations Theatre Film Television Personal life Mamet and actress Lindsay Crouse married in 1977 and divorced in 1990. The couple have two children, Willa and Zosia. Willa was a professional photographer and is now a singer/songwriter; Zosia is an actress. Mamet has been married to actress and singer-songwriter Rebecca Pidgeon since 1991. They live together in Santa Monica, California. They have two children, Clara and Noah. Mamet is a Reform Jew and strongly pro-Israel. Archive The papers of David Mamet were sold to the Harry Ransom Center at |
Gabriel Duvall, American jurist and politician (d. 1844) 1778 – Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, French physicist and chemist (d. 1850) 1792 – William II of the Netherlands (d. 1849) 1803 – Maria Josepha Amalia of Saxony (d. 1829) 1805 – Richard Hanson, English-Australian politician, 4th Premier of South Australia (d. 1876) 1812 – Robert Spear Hudson, English businessman and philanthropist (d. 1884) 1823 – Max Müller, German-English philologist and orientalist (d. 1900) 1827 – William Arnott, Australian biscuit manufacturer and founder of Arnott's Biscuits (d. 1901) 1833 – John S. Mosby, American colonel (d. 1916) 1835 – Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig, German chemist (d. 1910) 1841 – Frédéric Bazille, French painter and soldier (d. 1870) 1848 – Johann Palisa, Austrian astronomer (d. 1925) 1849 – August von Mackensen, German field marshal (d. 1945) 1853 – Hans Molisch, Czech-Austrian botanist and academic (d. 1937) 1853 – Haraprasad Shastri, Indian historian and scholar (d. 1931) 1863 – Charles Martin Hall, American chemist and engineer (d. 1914) 1864 – William S. Hart, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1946) 1872 – Arthur Henry Adams, Australian journalist and author (d. 1936) 1875 – Albert Bond Lambert, American golfer and pilot (d. 1946) 1875 – Evelyn Underhill, English mystic and author (d. 1941) 1876 – Fred Duesenberg, German-American businessman, co-founded the Duesenberg Automobile & Motors Company (d. 1932) 1878 – Elvia Carrillo Puerto, Mexican politician (d. 1968) 1882 – Warren Bardsley, Australian cricketer (d. 1954) 1884 – Cornelia Meigs, American author, playwright, and academic (d. 1973) 1886 – Joyce Kilmer, American soldier, author, and poet (d. 1918) 1887 – Lynn Fontanne, British actress (d. 1983) 1887 – Joseph Lamb, American pianist and composer (d. 1960) 1888 – Will Hay, English actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1949) 1890 – Dion Fortune, Welsh occultist, psychologist, and author (d. 1946) 1890 – Yoshio Nishina, Japanese physicist and academic (d. 1951) 1890 – Rudolf Schlichter, German painter and illustrator (d. 1955) 1892 – Osbert Sitwell, English-Italian captain, poet, and author (d. 1969) 1893 – Homer N. Wallin, American admiral (d. 1984) 1893 – Sylvia Townsend Warner, English author and poet (d. 1978) 1896 – Ira Gershwin, American songwriter (d. 1983) 1898 – Alfred Eisenstaedt, German-American photographer and journalist (d. 1995) 1898 – John McDonald, Scottish-Australian politician, 37th Premier of Victoria (d. 1977) 1898 – Gunnar Myrdal, Swedish sociologist and economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987) 1898 – Winifred Lenihan, American actress, writer, and director (d. 1964) 1900 – Agnes Moorehead, American actress (d. 1974) 1901–present 1901 – Eliot Porter, American photographer and academic (d. 1990) 1903 – Tony Lazzeri, American baseball player and manager (d. 1946) 1904 – Ève Curie, French-American journalist and pianist (d. 2007) 1905 – Elizabeth Yates, American journalist and author (d. 2001) 1907 – John Barkley Rosser Sr., American logician (d. 1989) 1908 – Pierre Graber, Swiss lawyer and politician, 69th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 2003) 1908 – Baby Face Nelson, American gangster (d. 1934) 1908 – Miklós Szabó, Hungarian runner (d. 2000) 1908 – Herta Freitag, Austrian-American mathematician (d. 2000) 1909 – Rulon Jeffs, American religious leader (d. 2002) 1909 – Alan McGilvray, Australian cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1996) 1910 – David M. Potter, American historian, author, and academic (d. 1971) 1913 – Karl Haas, German-American pianist, conductor, and radio host (d. 2005) 1913 – Eleanor Holm, American swimmer and actress (d. 2004) 1914 – Cyril Washbrook, English cricketer (d. 1999) 1916 – Yekaterina Budanova, Russian captain and pilot (d. 1943) 1916 – Kristján Eldjárn, Icelandic educator and politician, 3rd President of Iceland (d. 1982) 1916 – Hugo Peretti, American songwriter and producer (d. 1986) 1917 – Dean Hess, American minister and colonel (d. 2015) 1917 – Kamal Jumblatt, Lebanese lawyer and politician (d. 1977) 1917 – Irv Robbins, Canadian-American businessman, co-founded Baskin-Robbins (d. 2008) 1918 – Tauba Biterman, Polish Holocaust survivor (d. 2019) 1919 – Skippy Baxter, Canadian-American figure skater and coach (d. 2012) 1919 – Paul de Man, Belgian-born philosopher, literary critic and theorist (d. 1983) 1920 – Dave Brubeck, American pianist and composer (d. 2012) 1920 – Peter Dimmock, English sportscaster and producer (d. 2015) 1920 – George Porter, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002) 1921 – Otto Graham, American football player and coach (d. 2003) 1921 – Piero Piccioni, Italian lawyer, pianist, and composer (d. 2004) 1922 – John Brunt, English captain, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1944) 1922 – Benjamin A. Gilman, American soldier and politician (d. 2016) 1924 – Wally Cox, American actor (d. 1973) 1927 – Jim Fuchs, American shot putter and discus thrower (d. 2010) 1928 – Bobby Van, American actor, dancer, and singer (d. 1980) 1929 – Philippe Bouvard, French journalist and radio host 1929 – Nikolaus Harnoncourt, German-Austrian cellist and conductor (d. 2016) 1929 – Frank Springer, American comic book illustrator (d. 2009) 1929 – Alain Tanner, Swiss director, producer, and screenwriter 1930 – Daniel Lisulo, Zambian banker and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Zambia (d. 2000) 1931 – Zeki Müren, Turkish singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1996) 1932 – Kamleshwar, Indian author, screenwriter, and critic (d. 2007) 1933 – Henryk Górecki, Polish composer and academic (d. 2010) 1933 – Donald J. Kutyna, American general 1934 – Nick Bockwinkel, American wrestler, sportscaster, and actor (d. 2015) 1935 – Jean Lapointe, Canadian actor, singer, and politician 1936 – Bill Ashton, English saxophonist and composer 1936 – David Ossman, American writer and comedian 1936 – Kenneth Copeland, American evangelist and author 1937 – Alberto Spencer, Ecuadorian-American soccer player (d. 2006) 1938 – Patrick Bauchau, Belgian-American actor 1939 – Franco Carraro, Italian politician and sports administrator 1940 – Lawrence Bergman, Canadian lawyer and politician 1940 – Richard Edlund, American visual effects designer and cinematographer 1941 – Helen Cornelius, American country singer-songwriter and actress 1941 – Richard Speck, American murderer (d. 1991) 1941 – Bruce Nauman, American sculptor and illustrator 1941 – Bill Thomas, American academic and politician 1942 – Peter Handke, Austrian author and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate 1942 – Robb Royer, American guitarist, keyboard player, and songwriter 1943 – Mike Smith, English singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer (d. 2008) 1943 – Keith West, English rock singer-songwriter and music producer 1944 – Jonathan King, English singer-songwriter, record producer, music entrepreneur, television/radio presenter, and convicted sex offender 1945 – Shekhar Kapur, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter 1946 – Frankie Beverly, American soul/funk singer-songwriter, musician, and producer 1946 – Willy van der Kuijlen, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2021) 1947 – Lawrence Cannon, Canadian businessman and politician, 9th Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1947 – Henk van Woerden, Dutch-South African painter and author (d. 2005) 1947 – Miroslav Vitouš, Czech-American bassist and songwriter 1948 – Jean-Paul Ngoupandé, Central African politician, Prime Minister of the Central African Republic (d. 2014) 1948 – Don Nickles, American businessman and politician 1948 – Keke Rosberg, Finnish racing driver 1948 – JoBeth Williams, American actress 1949 – Linda Barnes, American author, playwright, and educator 1949 – Linda Creed, American singer-songwriter (d. 1986) 1949 – Doug Marlette, American author and cartoonist (d. 2007) 1949 – Peter Willey, English cricketer and umpire 1950 – Guy Drut, French hurdler and politician 1950 – Joe Hisaishi, Japanese pianist, composer, and conductor 1950 – Helen Liddell, Baroness Liddell of Coatdyke, Scottish journalist and politician, Secretary of State for Scotland 1951 – Wendy Ellis Somes, English ballerina and producer 1951 – Maurice Hope, Caribbean-English boxer 1952 – Nicolas Bréhal, French author and critic (d. 1999) 1952 – Craig Newmark, American computer programmer and entrepreneur; founded Craigslist 1952 – Shio Satō, Japanese illustrator (d. 2010) 1953 – Sue Carroll, English journalist (d. 2011) 1953 – Gary Goodman, Australian cricketer and coach 1953 – Geoff Hoon, English academic and politician, Minister of State for Europe 1953 – Tom Hulce, American actor 1953 – Masami Kurumada, Japanese author and illustrator 1954 – Nicola De Maria, Italian painter 1954 – Chris Stamey, American singer-songwriter, musician, and music producer 1955 – Anne Begg, Scottish educator and politician 1955 – Rick Buckler, English drummer, songwriter, and producer 1955 – Graeme Hughes, Australian cricketer, rugby league player, and sportscaster 1955 – Tony Woodcock, English footballer 1955 – Steven Wright, American actor, comedian, and screenwriter 1956 – Peter Buck, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1956 – Hans Kammerlander, Italian mountaineer and guide 1956 – Randy Rhoads, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 1982) 1957 – Adrian Borland, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 1999) 1958 – Nick Park, English animator, director, producer, and screenwriter 1959 – Stephen Hepburn, English politician 1959 – Satoru Iwata, Japanese game programmer and businessman (d. 2015) 1959 – Stephen Muggleton, English computer scientist and engineer 1959 – Deborah Estrin, American computer scientist and academic 1960 – Masahiko Katsuya, Japanese journalist and photographer (d. 2018) 1961 – David Lovering, American drummer 1961 – Jonathan Melvoin, American musician (d. 1996) 1961 – Manuel Reuter, German race car driver 1962 – Ben Watt, English singer-songwriter, musician, author, DJ, and radio presenter 1963 – Ulrich Thomsen, Danish actor and producer 1964 – Mall Nukke, Estonian painter 1965 – Gordon Durie, Scottish footballer and manager 1966 – Natascha Badmann, Swiss triathlete 1966 – Per-Ulrik Johansson, Swedish golfer 1967 – Judd Apatow, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1967 – Arnaldo Mesa, Cuban boxer (d. 2012) 1967 – Helen Greiner, American businesswoman and engineer 1968 – Akihiro Yano, Japanese baseball player 1969 – Torri Higginson, Canadian actress 1970 – Ulf Ekberg, Swedish singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer 1970 – Adrian Fenty, American lawyer and politician, 6th Mayor of the District of Columbia 1970 – Mark Reckless, English politician 1970 – Jeff Rouse, American swimmer 1971 – Craig Brewer, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1971 – Richard Krajicek, Dutch tennis player 1971 – Naozumi Takahashi, Japanese singer and voice actor 1971 – Carole Thate, Dutch field hockey player 1972 – Heather Mizeur, American lawyer and politician 1972 – Rick Short, American baseball player 1974 – Jens Pulver, American mixed martial artist and boxer 1974 – Nick Stajduhar, Canadian ice hockey player 1975 – Noel Clarke, English actor, director, and screenwriter 1975 – Adrian García Arias, Mexican footballer 1977 – Kevin Cash, American baseball player and coach 1977 – Andrew Flintoff, English cricketer, coach, and sportscaster 1977 – Paul McVeigh, Irish footballer 1978 – Chris Başak, American baseball player 1978 – Darrell Jackson, American football player 1978 – Ramiro Pez, Argentine rugby player 1979 – Tim Cahill, Australian footballer 1980 – Danielle Downey, American golfer and coach (d. 2014) 1980 – Steve Lovell, English footballer 1980 – Carlos Takam, Cameroonian-French boxer 1981 – Federico Balzaretti, Italian footballer 1982 – Robbie Gould, American football player 1982 – Ryan Carnes, American actor and producer 1982 – Alberto Contador, Spanish cyclist 1982 – Sean Ervine, Zimbabwean cricketer 1982 – Aaron Sandilands, Australian footballer 1982 – Susie Wolff, Scottish race car driver 1984 – Syndric Steptoe, American football player 1984 – Nora Kirkpatrick, American actress and musician 1984 – Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland 1985 – Shannon Bobbitt, American basketball player 1985 – Aristeidis Grigoriadis, Greek swimmer 1985 – Rudra Pratap Singh, Indian cricketer 1986 – Sean Edwards, English race car driver (d. 2013) 1986 – Matt Niskanen, American ice hockey player 1988 – Adam Eaton, American baseball player 1988 – Sandra Nurmsalu, Estonian singer and violinist 1988 – Nils Petersen, German footballer 1988 – Nobunaga Shimazaki, Japanese voice actor 1988 – Ravindra Jadeja, Indian cricketer 1989 – Felix Schiller, German footballer 1990 – Tamira Paszek, Austrian tennis player 1991 – Milica Mandić, Serbian taekwondo athlete, two-time Olympic champion 1991 – Coco Vandeweghe, American tennis player 1992 – Britt Assombalonga, Congolese footballer 1992 – Johnny Manziel, American football player 1993 – Jasprit Bumrah, Indian cricketer 1993 – Pedro Rafael Amado Mendes, Portuguese footballer | (d. 1604) 1586 – Niccolò Zucchi, Italian astronomer and physicist (d. 1670) 1592 – William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle (d. 1676) 1601–1900 1608 – George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1670) 1637 – Edmund Andros, English courtier and politician, 4th Colonial Governor of New York (d. 1714) 1640 – Claude Fleury, French historian and author (d. 1723) 1645 – Maria de Dominici, Maltese sculptor and painter (d. 1703) 1685 – Marie Adélaïde of Savoy (d. 1712) 1721 – Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes, French minister and politician (d. 1794) 1721 – James Elphinston, Scottish philologist and linguist (d. 1809) 1752 – Gabriel Duvall, American jurist and politician (d. 1844) 1778 – Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, French physicist and chemist (d. 1850) 1792 – William II of the Netherlands (d. 1849) 1803 – Maria Josepha Amalia of Saxony (d. 1829) 1805 – Richard Hanson, English-Australian politician, 4th Premier of South Australia (d. 1876) 1812 – Robert Spear Hudson, English businessman and philanthropist (d. 1884) 1823 – Max Müller, German-English philologist and orientalist (d. 1900) 1827 – William Arnott, Australian biscuit manufacturer and founder of Arnott's Biscuits (d. 1901) 1833 – John S. Mosby, American colonel (d. 1916) 1835 – Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig, German chemist (d. 1910) 1841 – Frédéric Bazille, French painter and soldier (d. 1870) 1848 – Johann Palisa, Austrian astronomer (d. 1925) 1849 – August von Mackensen, German field marshal (d. 1945) 1853 – Hans Molisch, Czech-Austrian botanist and academic (d. 1937) 1853 – Haraprasad Shastri, Indian historian and scholar (d. 1931) 1863 – Charles Martin Hall, American chemist and engineer (d. 1914) 1864 – William S. Hart, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1946) 1872 – Arthur Henry Adams, Australian journalist and author (d. 1936) 1875 – Albert Bond Lambert, American golfer and pilot (d. 1946) 1875 – Evelyn Underhill, English mystic and author (d. 1941) 1876 – Fred Duesenberg, German-American businessman, co-founded the Duesenberg Automobile & Motors Company (d. 1932) 1878 – Elvia Carrillo Puerto, Mexican politician (d. 1968) 1882 – Warren Bardsley, Australian cricketer (d. 1954) 1884 – Cornelia Meigs, American author, playwright, and academic (d. 1973) 1886 – Joyce Kilmer, American soldier, author, and poet (d. 1918) 1887 – Lynn Fontanne, British actress (d. 1983) 1887 – Joseph Lamb, American pianist and composer (d. 1960) 1888 – Will Hay, English actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1949) 1890 – Dion Fortune, Welsh occultist, psychologist, and author (d. 1946) 1890 – Yoshio Nishina, Japanese physicist and academic (d. 1951) 1890 – Rudolf Schlichter, German painter and illustrator (d. 1955) 1892 – Osbert Sitwell, English-Italian captain, poet, and author (d. 1969) 1893 – Homer N. Wallin, American admiral (d. 1984) 1893 – Sylvia Townsend Warner, English author and poet (d. 1978) 1896 – Ira Gershwin, American songwriter (d. 1983) 1898 – Alfred Eisenstaedt, German-American photographer and journalist (d. 1995) 1898 – John McDonald, Scottish-Australian politician, 37th Premier of Victoria (d. 1977) 1898 – Gunnar Myrdal, Swedish sociologist and economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987) 1898 – Winifred Lenihan, American actress, writer, and director (d. 1964) 1900 – Agnes Moorehead, American actress (d. 1974) 1901–present 1901 – Eliot Porter, American photographer and academic (d. 1990) 1903 – Tony Lazzeri, American baseball player and manager (d. 1946) 1904 – Ève Curie, French-American journalist and pianist (d. 2007) 1905 – Elizabeth Yates, American journalist and author (d. 2001) 1907 – John Barkley Rosser Sr., American logician (d. 1989) 1908 – Pierre Graber, Swiss lawyer and politician, 69th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 2003) 1908 – Baby Face Nelson, American gangster (d. 1934) 1908 – Miklós Szabó, Hungarian runner (d. 2000) 1908 – Herta Freitag, Austrian-American mathematician (d. 2000) 1909 – Rulon Jeffs, American religious leader (d. 2002) 1909 – Alan McGilvray, Australian cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1996) 1910 – David M. Potter, American historian, author, and academic (d. 1971) 1913 – Karl Haas, German-American pianist, conductor, and radio host (d. 2005) 1913 – Eleanor Holm, American swimmer and actress (d. 2004) 1914 – Cyril Washbrook, English cricketer (d. 1999) 1916 – Yekaterina Budanova, Russian captain and pilot (d. 1943) 1916 – Kristján Eldjárn, Icelandic educator and politician, 3rd President of Iceland (d. 1982) 1916 – Hugo Peretti, American songwriter and producer (d. 1986) 1917 – Dean Hess, American minister and colonel (d. 2015) 1917 – Kamal Jumblatt, Lebanese lawyer and politician (d. 1977) 1917 – Irv Robbins, Canadian-American businessman, co-founded Baskin-Robbins (d. 2008) 1918 – Tauba Biterman, Polish Holocaust survivor (d. 2019) 1919 – Skippy Baxter, Canadian-American figure skater and coach (d. 2012) 1919 – Paul de Man, Belgian-born philosopher, literary critic and theorist (d. 1983) 1920 – Dave Brubeck, American pianist and composer (d. 2012) 1920 – Peter Dimmock, English sportscaster and producer (d. 2015) 1920 – George Porter, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002) 1921 – Otto Graham, American football player and coach (d. 2003) 1921 – Piero Piccioni, Italian lawyer, pianist, and composer (d. 2004) 1922 – John Brunt, English captain, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1944) 1922 – Benjamin A. Gilman, American soldier and politician (d. 2016) 1924 – Wally Cox, American actor (d. 1973) 1927 – Jim Fuchs, American shot putter and discus thrower (d. 2010) 1928 – Bobby Van, American actor, dancer, and singer (d. 1980) 1929 – Philippe Bouvard, French journalist and radio host 1929 – Nikolaus Harnoncourt, German-Austrian cellist and conductor (d. 2016) 1929 – Frank Springer, American comic book illustrator (d. 2009) 1929 – Alain Tanner, Swiss director, producer, and screenwriter 1930 – Daniel Lisulo, Zambian banker and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Zambia (d. 2000) 1931 – Zeki Müren, Turkish singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1996) 1932 – Kamleshwar, Indian author, screenwriter, and critic (d. 2007) 1933 – Henryk Górecki, Polish composer and academic (d. 2010) 1933 – Donald J. Kutyna, American general 1934 – Nick Bockwinkel, American wrestler, sportscaster, and actor (d. 2015) 1935 – Jean Lapointe, Canadian actor, singer, and politician 1936 – Bill Ashton, English saxophonist and composer 1936 – David Ossman, American writer and comedian 1936 – Kenneth Copeland, American evangelist and author 1937 – Alberto Spencer, Ecuadorian-American soccer player (d. 2006) 1938 – Patrick Bauchau, Belgian-American actor 1939 – Franco Carraro, Italian politician and sports administrator 1940 – Lawrence Bergman, Canadian lawyer and politician 1940 – Richard Edlund, American visual effects designer and cinematographer 1941 – Helen Cornelius, American country singer-songwriter and actress 1941 – Richard Speck, American murderer (d. 1991) 1941 – Bruce Nauman, American sculptor and illustrator 1941 – Bill Thomas, American academic and politician 1942 – Peter Handke, Austrian author and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate 1942 – Robb Royer, American guitarist, keyboard player, and songwriter 1943 – Mike Smith, English singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer (d. 2008) 1943 – Keith West, English rock singer-songwriter and music producer 1944 – Jonathan King, English singer-songwriter, record producer, music entrepreneur, television/radio presenter, and convicted sex offender 1945 – Shekhar Kapur, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter 1946 – Frankie Beverly, American soul/funk singer-songwriter, musician, and producer 1946 – Willy van der Kuijlen, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2021) 1947 – Lawrence Cannon, Canadian businessman and politician, 9th Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1947 – Henk van Woerden, Dutch-South African painter and author (d. 2005) 1947 – Miroslav Vitouš, Czech-American bassist and songwriter 1948 – Jean-Paul Ngoupandé, Central African politician, Prime Minister of the Central African Republic (d. 2014) 1948 – Don Nickles, American businessman and politician 1948 – Keke Rosberg, Finnish racing driver 1948 – JoBeth Williams, American actress 1949 – Linda Barnes, American author, playwright, and educator 1949 – Linda Creed, American singer-songwriter (d. 1986) 1949 – Doug Marlette, American author and cartoonist (d. 2007) 1949 – Peter Willey, English cricketer and umpire 1950 – Guy Drut, French hurdler and politician 1950 – Joe Hisaishi, Japanese pianist, composer, and conductor 1950 – Helen Liddell, Baroness Liddell of Coatdyke, Scottish journalist and politician, Secretary of State for Scotland 1951 – Wendy Ellis Somes, English ballerina and producer 1951 – Maurice Hope, Caribbean-English boxer 1952 – Nicolas Bréhal, French author and critic (d. 1999) 1952 – Craig Newmark, American computer programmer and entrepreneur; founded Craigslist 1952 – Shio Satō, Japanese illustrator (d. 2010) 1953 – Sue Carroll, English journalist (d. 2011) 1953 – Gary Goodman, Australian cricketer and coach 1953 – Geoff Hoon, English academic and politician, Minister of State for Europe 1953 – Tom Hulce, American actor 1953 – Masami Kurumada, Japanese author and illustrator 1954 – Nicola De Maria, Italian painter 1954 – Chris Stamey, American singer-songwriter, musician, and music producer 1955 – Anne Begg, Scottish educator and politician 1955 – Rick Buckler, English drummer, songwriter, and producer 1955 – Graeme Hughes, Australian cricketer, rugby league player, and sportscaster 1955 – Tony Woodcock, English footballer 1955 – Steven Wright, American actor, comedian, and screenwriter 1956 – Peter Buck, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1956 – Hans Kammerlander, Italian mountaineer and guide 1956 – Randy Rhoads, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 1982) 1957 – Adrian Borland, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 1999) 1958 – Nick Park, English animator, director, producer, and screenwriter 1959 – Stephen Hepburn, English politician 1959 – Satoru Iwata, Japanese game programmer and businessman (d. 2015) 1959 – Stephen Muggleton, English computer scientist and engineer 1959 – Deborah Estrin, American computer scientist and academic 1960 – Masahiko Katsuya, Japanese journalist and photographer (d. 2018) 1961 – David Lovering, American drummer 1961 – Jonathan Melvoin, American musician (d. 1996) 1961 – Manuel Reuter, German race car driver 1962 – Ben Watt, English singer-songwriter, musician, author, DJ, and radio presenter 1963 – Ulrich Thomsen, Danish actor and producer 1964 – Mall Nukke, Estonian painter 1965 – Gordon Durie, Scottish footballer and manager 1966 – Natascha Badmann, Swiss triathlete 1966 – Per-Ulrik Johansson, Swedish golfer 1967 – Judd Apatow, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1967 – Arnaldo Mesa, Cuban boxer (d. 2012) 1967 – Helen Greiner, American businesswoman and engineer 1968 – Akihiro Yano, Japanese baseball player 1969 – Torri Higginson, Canadian actress 1970 – Ulf Ekberg, Swedish singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer 1970 – Adrian Fenty, American lawyer and politician, 6th Mayor of the District of Columbia 1970 – Mark Reckless, English politician 1970 – Jeff Rouse, American swimmer 1971 – Craig Brewer, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1971 – Richard Krajicek, Dutch tennis player 1971 – Naozumi Takahashi, Japanese singer and voice actor 1971 – Carole Thate, Dutch field hockey player 1972 – Heather Mizeur, American lawyer and politician 1972 – Rick Short, American baseball player 1974 – Jens Pulver, American mixed martial artist and boxer 1974 – Nick Stajduhar, Canadian ice hockey player 1975 – Noel Clarke, English actor, director, and screenwriter 1975 – Adrian García Arias, Mexican footballer 1977 – Kevin Cash, American baseball player and coach 1977 – Andrew Flintoff, English cricketer, coach, and sportscaster 1977 – Paul McVeigh, Irish footballer 1978 – Chris Başak, American baseball player 1978 – Darrell Jackson, American |
Eva Joly, Norwegian-French judge and politician 1943 – Andrew Yeom Soo-jung, South Korean cardinal 1944 – Jeroen Krabbé, Dutch actor, director, and producer 1945 – Serge Chapleau, Canadian cartoonist 1945 – Moshe Katsav, Iranian-Israeli educator and politician, 8th President of Israel 1946 – José Carreras, Spanish tenor and actor 1946 – Andy Kim, Canadian pop singer-songwriter 1946 – Sarel van der Merwe, South African race car driver 1947 – Rudy Fernandez, Filipino triathlete 1947 – Bruce Golding, Jamaican lawyer and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Jamaica 1947 – Tony Gregory, Irish activist and politician (d. 2009) 1947 – Jim Messina, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1947 – Jim Plunkett, American football player and radio host 1947 – Kim Simmonds, Welsh blues-rock singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1947 – Don Touhig, Welsh journalist and politician 1948 – Denise Drysdale, Australian television host and actress 1949 – John Altman, English composer and conductor 1949 – David Manning, English civil servant and diplomat, British Ambassador to the United States 1951 – Link Byfield, Canadian journalist and author (d. 2015) 1951 – Anne-Mie van Kerckhoven, Belgian painter and illustrator 1952 – Eva Dillner, Swedish author 1953 – Gwen Lister, South African-Namibian journalist, publisher, and activist 1954 – Hanif Kureishi, English author and playwright 1954 – Gary Roenicke, American baseball player and scout 1955 – Miyuki Kawanaka, Japanese singer 1955 – Juha Tiainen, Finnish hammer thrower (d. 2003) 1956 – Klaus Allofs, German footballer and manager 1956 – Adam Thorpe, French-English author, poet, and playwright 1956 – Krystian Zimerman, Polish virtuoso pianist 1957 – Raquel Argandoña, Chilean model, actress, and politician 1958 – Dynamite Kid, English wrestler (d. 2018) 1959 – Lee Chapman, English footballer 1959 – Oleksandr Yaroslavsky, Ukrainian businessman 1960 – Frans Adelaar, Dutch footballer and manager 1960 – Osvaldo Golijov, Argentinian-American composer and educator 1960 – Jack Russell, American singer-songwriter and producer 1960 – Matthew Taylor, English businessman and politician 1961 – Ralf Dujmovits, German mountaineer 1961 – Laura Flanders, British journalist 1962 – José Cura, Argentinian tenor, conductor, and director 1962 – Pablo Morales, American swimmer and coach 1962 – Nivek Ogre, Canadian singer-songwriter 1962 – Fred Rutten, Dutch footballer and manager 1963 – Doctor Dré, American television and radio host 1963 – Carrie Hamilton, American actress and playwright (d. 2002) 1963 – Alberto Nisman, Argentinian lawyer (d. 2015) 1963 – Michael “Eddie the Eagle” Edwards, British Olympic ski jumper 1964 – Martin Vinnicombe, Australian cyclist 1965 – Manish Malhotra, Indian fashion designer 1965 – John Rzeznik, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1965 – Wayne Smith, Jamaican rapper (d. 2014) 1965 – Valeriy Spitsyn, Russian race walker 1967 – Gary Allan, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1968 – Margaret Cho, American comedian, actress, producer, and screenwriter 1968 – Lisa Marie, American model and actress 1968 – Lydia Millet, American novelist 1968 – Falilat Ogunkoya, Nigerian sprinter 1969 – Eric Etebari, American actor, director, and producer 1969 – Morgan J. Freeman, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1969 – Sajid Javid, British Pakistani banker and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer 1969 – Lewis Pugh, English swimmer and lawyer 1969 – Ramón Ramírez, Mexican footballer 1970 – Kevin Haller, Canadian ice hockey player 1970 – Michel'le, American singer-songwriter 1971 – Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg, German businessman and politician, German Federal Minister of Defence 1971 – Ashia Hansen, American-English triple jumper 1971 – Gabriel Hjertstedt, Swedish golfer 1972 – Cliff Floyd, American baseball player and sportscaster 1972 – Mike Mahoney, American baseball player 1972 – Duane Ross, American hurdler and coach 1973 – Argo Arbeiter, Estonian footballer 1973 – Arik Benado, Israeli footballer 1973 – Andrei Krasnopjorov, Estonian footballer 1973 – Mikelangelo Loconte, Italian singer-songwriter, producer, and actor 1973 – Luboš Motl, Czech physicist and academic 1973 – Shalom Harlow, Canadian model 1974 – Charlie Batch, American football player and sportscaster 1974 – Ravish Kumar, Indian journalist and author 1974 – Brian Lewis, American sprinter 1975 – Ronnie O'Sullivan, English snooker player and radio host 1975 – Paula Patton, American actress 1976 – Amy Acker, American actress 1976 – Xavier Garbajosa, French rugby player 1976 – Sachiko Kokubu, Japanese actress and model 1976 – Rachel Komisarz, American swimmer and coach 1977 – Peter van der Vlag, Dutch footballer 1978 – Neil Druckmann, American video game designer and author 1978 – Olli Jokinen, Finnish ice hockey player 1978 – Marcelo Zalayeta, Uruguayan footballer 1979 – Matteo Ferrari, Italian footballer 1979 – Niklas Hagman, Finnish ice hockey player 1979 – Gareth McAuley, Northern Irish footballer 1979 – Nick Stahl, American actor and producer 1980 – Ibrahim Maalouf, Lebanese-French trumpet player and composer 1980 – Jessica Paré, Canadian actress 1982 – Eddy Curry, American basketball player 1982 – Trai Essex, American football player 1982 – Keri Hilson, American singer-songwriter and actress 1983 – Cooper Cronk, Australian rugby league player 1985 – Shikhar Dhawan, Indian cricketer 1985 – Frankie Muniz, American actor, drummer, and race car driver 1985 – Nico Verdonck, Belgian race car driver 1985 – Danny Wicks, Australian rugby league player 1986 – LeGarrette Blount, American football player 1986 – James Hinchcliffe, Canadian race car driver 1986 – Justin Smoak, American baseball player 1987 – Tommy Fraser, English footballer 1988 – Joanna Rowsell, English cyclist 1989 – Jurrell Casey, American football player 1990 – Montee Ball, American football player 1991 – Jacopo Sala, Italian footballer 1992 – Ilja Antonov, Estonian footballer 1992 – Natalie Sourisseau, Canadian field hockey player 1993 – Ross Barkley, English footballer 1994 – Ondrej Duda, Slovak footballer 1994 – Grant Ward, English footballer 1995 – Danny Levi, New Zealand rugby league player 1995 – Anthony Martial, French footballer 1995 – Kaetlyn Osmond, Canadian figure skater 1997 – Maddie Poppe, American singer-songwriter and musician Deaths Pre-1600 63 BC – Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, Roman politician (b. 114 BC) 334 – Li Ban, emperor of Cheng Han (b. 288) 902 – Ealhswith, queen consort and wife of Alfred the Great, King of Wessex 1082 – Ramon Berenguer II, Count of Barcelona (b. 1053) 1212 – Dirk van Are, bishop and lord of Utrecht 1244 – Joan, Countess of Flanders and Hainault(b. 1199 or 1200) 1355 – John III, Duke of Brabant (b. 1300) 1560 – Francis II of France (b. 1544) 1570 – Johan Friis, Danish politician (b. 1494) 1601–1900 1624 – Gaspard Bauhin, Swiss botanist and physician (b. 1560) 1654 – Jean François Sarrazin, French author and poet (b. 1611) 1663 – Severo Bonini, Italian organist and composer (b. 1582) 1749 – Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye, Canadian commander and explorer (b. 1685) 1758 – Johann Friedrich Fasch, German violinist and composer (b. 1688) 1770 – James Stirling, Scottish mathematician and surveyor (b. 1692) 1784 – Phillis Wheatley, Senegal-born slave, later American poet (b. 1753) 1791 – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Austrian composer and musician (b. 1756) 1819 – Friedrich Leopold zu Stolberg-Stolberg, German poet and lawyer (b. 1750) 1870 – Alexandre Dumas, French novelist and playwright (b. 1802) 1887 – Eliza R. Snow, American poet and songwriter (b. 1804) 1891 – Pedro II of Brazil (b. 1825) 1901–present 1918 – Schalk Willem Burger, South African commander, lawyer, and politician, 6th President of the South African Republic (b. 1852) 1925 – Władysław Reymont, Polish novelist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1867) 1926 – Claude Monet, French painter (b. 1840) 1931 – Vachel Lindsay, American poet (b. 1879) 1940 – Jan Kubelík, Czech violinist and composer (b. 1880) 1941 – Amrita Sher-Gil, Hungarian-Pakistani painter (b. 1913) 1942 – Jock Delves Broughton, English captain (b. 1883) 1946 – Louis Dewis, Belgian-French painter and educator (b. 1872) 1951 – Shoeless Joe Jackson, American baseball player and manager (b. 1887) 1951 – Abanindranath Tagore, Indian painter, author, and academic (b. 1871) 1953 – William Sterling Parsons, American admiral (b. 1901) 1955 – Glenn L. Martin, American pilot and businessman, founded the Glenn L. Martin Company (b. 1886) 1961 – Emil Fuchs, German-American lawyer and businessman (b. 1878) 1963 – Karl Amadeus Hartmann, German composer and educator (b. 1905) 1963 – Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, Indian-Pakistani lawyer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Pakistan (b. 1892) 1964 – V. Veerasingam, Sri Lankan educator and politician (b. 1892) 1965 – Joseph Erlanger, American physiologist, neuroscientist, and academic Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1874) 1968 – Fred Clark, American actor (b. 1914) 1969 – Claude Dornier, German engineer and businessman, founded Dornier Flugzeugwerke (b. 1884) 1969 – Princess Alice of Battenberg (b. 1885) 1973 – Robert Watson-Watt, Scottish engineer, invented the radar (b. 1892) 1975 – Constance McLaughlin Green, American historian and author (b. 1897) 1977 – Katherine Milhous, American author and illustrator (b. 1894) 1977 – Aleksandr Vasilevsky, Russian marshal and politician, Minister of Defence for the Soviet Union (b. 1895) 1979 – Jesse Pearson, American actor, singer, and screenwriter (b. 1930) 1983 – Robert Aldrich, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1918) 1984 – Cecil M. Harden, American politician (b. 1894) 1986 – Edward Youde, Welsh-Chinese sinologist and diplomat, 26th Governor of Hong Kong (b. 1924) 1989 – John Pritchard, English conductor and director (b. 1921) 1990 – Alfonso A. Ossorio, Filipino-American painter and sculptor (b. 1916) 1994 – Harry Horner, Czech-American director, producer, and production designer (b. 1910) 1995 – L. B. Cole, American illustrator and publisher (b. 1918) 1995 – Charles Evans, English mountaineer, surgeon, and educator (b. 1918) 1995 – Gwen Harwood, Australian poet and playwright (b. 1920) 1995 – Clair Cameron Patterson, American scientist (b. 1922) 1997 – Eugen Cicero, Romanian-German jazz pianist (b. 1940) 1998 – Albert Gore, Sr., American lawyer and politician (b. 1907) 2001 – Franco Rasetti, Italian-American physicist and academic (b. 1901) 2002 – Roone Arledge, American sportscaster and producer (b. 1931) 2002 – Ne Win, Burmese general and politician, 4th President of Burma (b. 1911) 2005 – Edward L. Masry, American lawyer and politician (b. 1932) 2006 – David Bronstein, Ukrainian-Belarusian chess player and theoretician (b. 1924) 2007 – Andrew Imbrie, American composer and academic (b. 1921) 2007 – George Paraskevaides, Greek-Cypriot businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Joannou & Paraskevaides (b. 1916) 2007 – Karlheinz Stockhausen, German composer and academic (b. 1928) 2008 – Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow (b. 1929) 2008 – George Brecht, American chemist and composer (b. 1926) 2008 – Nina Foch, Dutch-American actress | four days. Later, a Ministry of Health report estimates 4,000 fatalities as a result of it. 1955 – The American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations merge and form the AFL–CIO. 1955 – E. D. Nixon and Rosa Parks lead the Montgomery bus boycott. 1958 – Subscriber Trunk Dialling (STD) is inaugurated in the United Kingdom by Queen Elizabeth II when she speaks to the Lord Provost in a call from Bristol to Edinburgh. 1958 – The Preston By-pass, the UK's first stretch of motorway, opens to traffic for the first time. (It is now part of the M6 and M55 motorways.) 1964 – Vietnam War: For his heroism in battle earlier in the year, Captain Roger Donlon is awarded the first Medal of Honor of the war. 1964 – Lloyd J. Old discovers the first linkage between the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and disease—mouse leukemia—opening the way for the recognition of the importance of the MHC in the immune response. 1971 – Battle of Gazipur: Pakistani forces stand defeated as India cedes Gazipur to Bangladesh. 1977 – Egypt breaks diplomatic relations with Syria, Libya, Algeria, Iraq and South Yemen. The move is in retaliation for the Declaration of Tripoli against Egypt. 1983 – Dissolution of the Military Junta in Argentina. 1991 – Leonid Kravchuk is elected the first president of Ukraine. 1995 – Sri Lankan Civil War: Sri Lanka's government announces the conquest of the Tamil stronghold of Jaffna. 1995 – Azerbaijan Airlines Flight 56 crashes near Nakhchivan International Airport in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic located in Azerbaijan, killing 52 people. 2004 – The Civil Partnership Act comes into effect in the United Kingdom, and the first civil partnership is registered there. 2005 – The 6.8 Lake Tanganyika earthquake shakes the eastern provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme), killing six people. 2006 – Commodore Frank Bainimarama overthrows the government in Fiji. 2007 – Westroads Mall shooting: Nineteen-year-old Robert A. Hawkins kills nine people, including himself, with a WASR-10 at a Von Maur department store in Omaha, Nebraska. 2013 – Militants attack a Defense Ministry compound in Sana'a, Yemen, killing at least 56 people and injuring 200 others. 2014 – Exploration Flight Test 1, the first flight test of Orion, is launched. 2017 – The International Olympic Committee bans Russia from competing at the 2018 Winter Olympics for doping at the 2014 Winter Olympics. Births Pre-1600 852 – Zhu Wen, Chinese emperor (d. 912) 1377 – Jianwen Emperor of China (d. 1402) 1389 – Zbigniew Oleśnicki, Polish cardinal and statesman (d. 1455) 1443 – Pope Julius II (d. 1513) 1470 – Willibald Pirckheimer, German lawyer and author (d. 1530) 1495 – Nicolas Cleynaerts, Flemish philologist and lexicographer (d. 1542) 1537 – Ashikaga Yoshiaki, Japanese shōgun (d. 1597) 1539 – Fausto Sozzini, Italian theologian and author (d. 1604) 1547 – Ubbo Emmius, Dutch historian and geographer (d. 1625) 1556 – Anne Cecil, Countess of Oxford, English countess (d. 1588) 1596 – Henry Lawes, English composer (d. 1662) 1601–1900 1661 – Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for the Northern Department (d. 1724) 1666 – Francesco Scarlatti, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1741) 1687 – Francesco Geminiani, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1762) 1697 – Giuseppe de Majo, Italian organist and composer (d. 1771) 1782 – Martin Van Buren, American lawyer and politician, 8th President of the United States (d. 1862) 1784 – George Shepherd, English illustrator and painter (d. 1862) 1803 – Fyodor Tyutchev, Russian poet and diplomat (d. 1873) 1820 – Afanasy Fet, Russian poet and author (d. 1892) 1822 – Elizabeth Cabot Agassiz, American philosopher and academic, co-founded Radcliffe College (d. 1907) 1829 – Henri-Gustave Joly de Lotbinière, French-Canadian lawyer and politician, 4th Premier of Quebec (d. 1908) 1830 – Christina Rossetti, English poet and author (d. 1894) 1839 – George Armstrong Custer, American general (d. 1876) 1841 – Marcus Daly, Irish-American businessman (d. 1900) 1849 – Eduard Seler, German anthropologist, ethnohistorian, linguist, and academic (d. 1922) 1855 – Clinton Hart Merriam, American zoologist, ornithologist, entomologist, and ethnographer (d. 1942) 1859 – John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe, English admiral and politician, 2nd Governor-General of New Zealand (d. 1935) 1861 – Konstantin Korovin, Russian-French painter and set designer (d. 1939) 1862 – John Henry Leech, English entomologist (d. 1900) 1863 – Paul Painlevé, French mathematician and politician, 84th Prime Minister of France (d. 1933) 1866 – John Beresford, Irish polo player (d. 1944) 1866 – Traian Demetrescu, Romanian poet and author (d. 1896) 1867 – Antti Aarne, Finnish author and academic (d. 1925) 1867 – Józef Piłsudski, Polish field marshal and politician, 15th Prime Minister of Poland (d. 1935) 1868 – Arnold Sommerfeld, German physicist and academic (d. 1951) 1869 – Ellis Parker Butler, American author and poet (d. 1937) 1870 – Vítězslav Novák, Czech composer and educator (d. 1949) 1872 – Harry Nelson Pillsbury, American chess player (d. 1906) 1875 – Arthur Currie, Canadian general (d. 1933) 1879 – Clyde Vernon Cessna, American pilot and businessman, founded the Cessna Aircraft Corporation (d. 1954) 1881 – René Cresté, French actor and director (d. 1922) 1886 – Rose Wilder Lane, American journalist and author (d. 1968) 1886 – Pieter Oud, Dutch historian, academic, and politician, Minister of Finance of the Netherlands (d. 1968) 1886 – Nikolai Uglanov, Soviet politician (d. 1937) 1890 – David Bomberg, English painter, illustrator, and academic (d. 1957) 1890 – Fritz Lang, Austrian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1976) 1891 – Paul Kogerman, Estonian chemist and academic (d. 1951) 1894 – Charles Robberts Swart, South African lawyer and politician, 1st State President of South Africa (d. 1982) 1895 – Elbert Frank Cox, American mathematician and academic (d. 1969) 1896 – Ann Nolan Clark, American historian, author, and educator (d. 1995) 1896 – Carl Ferdinand Cori, Czech-American biochemist and pharmacologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1984) 1897 – Nunnally Johnson, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1977) 1897 – Gershom Scholem, German-Israeli philosopher and historian (d. 1982) 1898 – Josh Malihabadi, Indian-Pakistani poet and translator (d. 1982) 1898 – Grace Moore, American soprano and actress (d. 1947) 1900 – Jimmy Dimmock, English footballer (d. 1972) 1901–present 1901 – Walt Disney, American animator, director, producer, and screenwriter, co-founded The Walt Disney Company (d. 1966) 1901 – Milton H. Erickson, American psychiatrist and author (d. 1980) 1901 – Werner Heisenberg, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1976) 1902 – Emeric Pressburger, Hungarian-English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1988) 1902 – Strom Thurmond, American educator, general, and politician, 103rd Governor of South Carolina (d. 2003) 1903 – Johannes Heesters, Dutch-German actor and singer (d. 2011) 1903 – C. F. Powell, English-Italian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1969) 1905 – Gus Mancuso, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 1984) 1905 – Otto Preminger, Austrian-American actor, director, and producer (d. 1986) 1905 – Francisco Javier Arana, Guatemalan Army colonel and briefly Guatemalan head of state (d.1949) 1907 – Lin Biao, Chinese general and politician, 2nd Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China (d. 1971) 1907 – Giuseppe Occhialini, Italian-French physicist and academic (d. 1993) 1910 – Abraham Polonsky, American director and screenwriter (d. 1999) 1911 – Władysław Szpilman, Polish pianist and composer (d. 2000) 1912 – Sonny Boy Williamson II, American singer-songwriter and harmonica player (d. 1965) 1912 – Kate Simon, American travel writer (d. 1990) 1913 – Esther Borja, Cuban soprano and actress (d. 2013) 1914 – Hans Hellmut Kirst, German lieutenant and author (d. 1989) 1916 – Hilary Koprowski, Polish-American virologist and immunologist, created the world's first effective live polio vaccine (d. 2013) 1916 – Walt McPherson, American basketball player and coach (d. 2013) 1917 – Ken Downing, English race car driver (d. 2004) 1918 – Charity Adams Earley, Black American Army officer (d. 2002) 1919 – Alun Gwynne Jones, Baron Chalfont, English historian and politician (d. 2020) 1921 – Alvy Moore, American actor and producer (d. 1997) 1922 – Casey Ribicoff, American philanthropist (d. 2011) 1922 – Don Robertson, American songwriter and pianist (d. 2015) 1924 – Robert Sobukwe, South African banker and politician (d. 1978) 1925 – Anastasio Somoza Debayle, Nicaraguan politician, 73rd President of Nicaragua (d. 1980) 1926 – Adetowun Ogunsheye, first female Nigerian professor and university dean 1927 – Bhumibol Adulyadej, Thai king (d. 2016) 1927 – W.D. Amaradeva, Sri Lankan musician and composer (d. 2016) 1929 – Madis Kõiv, Estonian physicist, philosopher, and author (d. 2014) 1930 – Yi-Fu Tuan, Chinese-American geographer 1931 – Ladislav Novák, Czech footballer and manager (d. 2011) 1932 – Alf Dubs, Baron Dubs, British politician 1932 – Sheldon Glashow, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1932 – Jim Hurtubise, American race car driver (d. 1989) 1932 – Little Richard, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and actor (d. 2020) 1932 – Nadira, Indian actress (d. 2006) 1933 – Gennadiy Agapov, Russian race walker (d. 1999) 1933 – Harry Holgate, Australian politician, 36th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1997) 1934 – Joan Didion, American novelist and screenwriter (d. 2021) 1935 – Calvin Trillin, American novelist, humorist, and journalist 1935 – Yury Vlasov, Ukrainian-Russian weightlifter and politician (d. 2021) 1936 – James Lee Burke, American journalist, author, and academic 1938 – J. J. Cale, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013) 1940 – Tony Crafter, Australian cricket umpire 1940 – Boris Ignatyev, Russian footballer and manager 1940 – Peter Pohl, Swedish author, director, and screenwriter 1940 – Frank Wilson, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2012) 1942 – Bryan Murray, Canadian ice hockey coach (d. 2017) 1943 – Eva Joly, Norwegian-French judge and politician 1943 – Andrew Yeom Soo-jung, South Korean cardinal 1944 – Jeroen Krabbé, Dutch actor, director, and producer 1945 – Serge Chapleau, Canadian cartoonist 1945 – Moshe Katsav, Iranian-Israeli educator and politician, 8th President of Israel 1946 – José Carreras, Spanish tenor and actor 1946 – Andy Kim, Canadian pop singer-songwriter 1946 – Sarel van der Merwe, South African race car driver 1947 – Rudy Fernandez, Filipino triathlete 1947 – Bruce Golding, Jamaican lawyer and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Jamaica 1947 – Tony Gregory, Irish activist and politician (d. 2009) 1947 – Jim Messina, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1947 – Jim Plunkett, American football player and radio host 1947 – Kim Simmonds, Welsh blues-rock singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1947 – Don Touhig, Welsh journalist and politician 1948 – Denise Drysdale, Australian television host and actress 1949 – John Altman, English composer and conductor 1949 – David Manning, English civil servant and diplomat, British Ambassador to the United States 1951 – Link Byfield, Canadian journalist and author (d. 2015) 1951 – Anne-Mie van Kerckhoven, Belgian painter and illustrator 1952 – Eva Dillner, Swedish author 1953 – Gwen Lister, South African-Namibian journalist, publisher, and activist 1954 – Hanif Kureishi, English author and playwright 1954 – Gary Roenicke, American baseball player and scout 1955 – Miyuki Kawanaka, Japanese singer 1955 – Juha Tiainen, Finnish hammer thrower (d. 2003) 1956 – Klaus Allofs, German footballer and manager 1956 – Adam Thorpe, French-English author, poet, and playwright 1956 – Krystian Zimerman, Polish virtuoso pianist 1957 – Raquel Argandoña, Chilean model, actress, and politician 1958 – Dynamite Kid, English wrestler (d. 2018) 1959 – Lee Chapman, English footballer 1959 – Oleksandr Yaroslavsky, Ukrainian businessman 1960 – Frans Adelaar, Dutch footballer and manager 1960 – Osvaldo Golijov, Argentinian-American composer and educator 1960 – Jack Russell, American singer-songwriter and producer 1960 – Matthew Taylor, English businessman and politician 1961 – Ralf Dujmovits, German mountaineer 1961 – Laura Flanders, British journalist 1962 – José Cura, Argentinian tenor, conductor, and director 1962 – Pablo Morales, American swimmer and coach 1962 – Nivek Ogre, Canadian singer-songwriter 1962 – Fred Rutten, Dutch footballer and manager |
of the Confederate States of America unanimously elect Jefferson Davis as President and Alexander H. Stephens as Vice President. 1864 – American Civil War: Sherman's March to the Sea: At Waynesboro, Georgia, forces under Union General Judson Kilpatrick prevent troops led by Confederate General Joseph Wheeler from interfering with Union General William T. Sherman's campaign destroying a wide swath of the South on his march to the Atlantic Ocean from Atlanta. 1865 – North Carolina ratifies 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, followed soon by Georgia, and U.S. slaves were legally free within two weeks. 1867 – Former Minnesota farmer Oliver Hudson Kelley founds the Order of the Patrons of Husbandry (better known today as the Grange). 1872 – The crewless American brigantine , drifting in the Atlantic, is discovered by the Canadian brig Dei Gratia. The ship has been abandoned for nine days but is only slightly damaged. Her master Benjamin Briggs and all nine others known to have been on board are never accounted for. 1875 – Notorious New York City politician Boss Tweed escapes from prison; he is later recaptured in Spain. 1881 – The first edition of the Los Angeles Times is published. 1893 – First Matabele War: A patrol of 34 British South Africa Company soldiers is ambushed and annihilated by more than 3,000 Matabele warriors on the Shangani River in Matabeleland. 1901–present 1906 – Alpha Phi Alpha the first black intercollegiate Greek lettered fraternity was founded at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. 1909 – In Canadian football, the First Grey Cup game is played. The University of Toronto Varsity Blues defeat the Toronto Parkdale Canoe Club, 26–6. 1909 – The Montreal Canadiens ice hockey club, the oldest surviving professional hockey franchise in the world, is founded as a charter member of the National Hockey Association. 1917 – After drafting the Declaration of Independence, the Finnish Senate headed by P. E. Svinhufvud submitted to the Parliament of Finland a proposal for the form of government of the Republic of Finland and issued a communication to Parliament declaring independence of Finland. 1918 – U.S. President Woodrow Wilson sails for the World War I peace talks in Versailles, becoming the first US president to travel to Europe while in office. 1939 – World War II: is struck by a mine (laid by ) off the Scottish coast and is laid up for repairs until August 1940. 1942 – World War II: Carlson's patrol during the Guadalcanal Campaign ends. 1943 – World War II: In Yugoslavia, resistance leader Marshal Josip Broz Tito proclaims a provisional democratic Yugoslav government in-exile. 1943 – World War II: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt closes down the Works Progress Administration, because of the high levels of wartime employment in the United States. 1945 – By a vote of 65–7, the United States Senate approves United States participation in the United Nations. (The UN had been established on October 24, 1945.) 1948 – Chinese Civil War: The SS Kiangya, carrying Nationalist refugees from Shanghai, explodes in the Huangpu River. 1949 – Sir Duncan George Stewart was fatally stabbed by Rosli Dhobi, a member leader of the Rukun 13, in Sibu, Sarawak, Malaysia during the British crown colony era in that state. 1956 – The Million Dollar Quartet (Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins, and Johnny Cash) get together at Sun Studio for the first and last time. 1964 – Free Speech Movement: Police arrest over 800 students at the University of California, Berkeley, following their takeover and sit-in at the administration building in protest of the UC Regents' decision to forbid protests on UC property. 1965 – Launch of Gemini 7 with crew members Frank Borman and Jim Lovell. The Gemini 7 spacecraft was the passive target for the first crewed space rendezvous performed by the crew of Gemini 6A. 1967 – Vietnam War: U.S. and South Vietnamese forces engage Viet Cong troops in the Mekong Delta. 1969 – Black Panther Party members Fred Hampton and Mark Clark are shot and killed during a raid by 14 Chicago police officers. 1971 – Indo-Pakistani War of 1971: The Indian Navy attacks the Pakistan Navy and Karachi. 1971 – The PNS Ghazi, a Pakistan Navy submarine, sinks during the course of the Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971. 1971 – During a concert of Frank Zappa and The Mothers of Invention at the Montreux Casino, an audience member fires a flare gun into the venue's ceiling, causing a fire that destroys the venue. Rock band Deep Purple, who were to use the Casino as the site for the recording of their next album, witnesses the fire from their hotel; the incident would be immortalized in their best known song, "Smoke on the Water". 1977 – Jean-Bédel Bokassa, president of the Central African Republic, crowns himself Emperor Bokassa I of the Central African Empire. 1977 – Malaysian Airline System Flight 653 is hijacked and crashes in Tanjong Kupang, Johor, killing 100. 1978 – Following the murder of Mayor George Moscone, Dianne Feinstein becomes San Francisco's first female mayor. 1979 – The Hastie fire in Hull kills three schoolboys and eventually leads police to arrest Bruce George Peter Lee. 1981 – South Africa grants independence to the Ciskei "homeland" (not recognized by any government outside South Africa). 1982 – The People's Republic of China adopts its current constitution. 1983 – US Navy aircraft from USS John F. Kennedy and USS Independence attack Syrian missile sites in Lebanon in response to an F-14 being fired on by an SA-7. One A-6 Intruder and A-7 Corsair are shot down. One American pilot is killed, one is rescued, and one is captured. 1984 – Sri Lankan Civil War: Sri Lankan Army soldiers kill 107–150 civilians in Mannar. 1986 – The MV Amazon Venture oil tanker begins leaking oil while at the port of Savannah in the United States, resulting in an oil spill of approximately . 1991 – Terry A. Anderson is released after seven years in captivity as a hostage in Beirut; he is the last and longest-held American hostage in Lebanon. 1991 – Pan American World Airways ceases its operations after 64 years. 1992 – Somali Civil War: President George H. W. Bush orders 28,000 U.S. troops to Somalia in Northeast Africa. 1998 – The Unity Module, the second module of the International Space Station, is launched. 2005 – Tens of thousands of people in Hong Kong protest for democracy and call on the government to allow universal and equal suffrage. 2006 – Six black youths assault a white teenager in Jena, Louisiana. 2014 – Islamic insurgents kill three state police at a traffic circle before taking an empty school and a "press house" in Grozny. Ten state forces die with 28 injured in gun battles ending with ten insurgents killed. 2015 – A firebomb is thrown into a restaurant in the Egyptian capital of Cairo, killing 17 people. 2017 – The Thomas Fire starts near Santa Paula in California. It eventually became the largest wildfire in modern California history to date after burning in Ventura and Santa Barbara Counties. 2021 – Semeru on the Indonesian island of Java erupts, killing at least 43 people. Births Pre-1600 AD 34 – Persius, Roman poet (d. 62) 846 – Hasan al-Askari 11th Imam of Twelver Shia Islam (d. 874) 1428 – Bernard VII, Lord of Lippe (d. 1511) 1506 – Thomas Darcy, 1st Baron Darcy of Chiche (d. 1558) 1555 – Heinrich Meibom, German poet and historian (d. 1625) 1575 – Sister Virginia Maria, Italian nun (d. 1650) 1580 – Samuel Argall, English adventurer and naval officer (d. 1626) 1585 – John Cotton, English-American minister and theologian (d. 1652) 1595 – Jean Chapelain, French poet and critic (d. 1674) 1601–1900 1647 – Daniel Eberlin, German composer (d. 1715) 1660 – André Campra, French composer and conductor (d. 1744) 1667 – Michel Pignolet de Montéclair, French composer and educator (d. 1737) 1670 – John Aislabie, English politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1742) 1713 – Gasparo Gozzi, Italian playwright and critic (d. 1786) 1777 – Juliette Récamier, French businesswoman (d. 1849) 1795 – Thomas Carlyle, Scottish-English historian, philosopher, and academic (d. 1881) 1798 – Jules Armand Dufaure, French lawyer and politician, 33rd Prime Minister of France (d. 1881) 1817 – Nikoloz Baratashvili, Georgian poet and author (d. 1845) 1835 – Samuel Butler, English author and critic (d. 1902) 1844 – Franz Xavier Wernz, German religious leader, 25th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (d. 1914) 1861 – Hannes Hafstein, Icelandic poet and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Iceland (d. 1922) 1865 – Edith Cavell, English nurse, humanitarian, and saint (Anglicanism) (d. 1915) 1867 – Stanley Argyle, Australian politician, 32nd Premier of Victoria (d. 1940) 1868 – Jesse Burkett, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1953) 1875 – Agnes Forbes Blackadder, Scottish medical doctor (d. 1964) 1875 – Joe Corbett, American baseball player and coach (d. 1945) 1875 – Rainer Maria Rilke, Austrian-Swiss poet and author (d. 1926) 1881 – Erwin von Witzleben, Polish-German field marshal (d. 1944) 1882 – Constance Davey, Australian psychologist (d. 1963) 1883 – Katharine Susannah Prichard, Australian author and playwright (d. 1969) 1884 – R. C. Majumdar, Indian historian (d. 1980) 1887 – Winifred Carney, Irish suffragist, trade unionist, and Irish republican (d. 1943) 1892 – Francisco Franco, Spanish general and dictator, Prime Minister of Spain (d. 1975) 1892 – Liu Bocheng, Chinese commander and politician (d. 1986) 1893 – Herbert Read, English poet and critic (d. 1968) 1895 – Feng Youlan, Chinese philosopher and academic (d. 1990) 1897 – Robert Redfield, American anthropologist of Mexico (d. 1958) 1899 – Karl-Günther Heimsoth, German physician and politician (d. 1934) 1899 – Charlie Spencer, English footballer and manager (d. 1953) 1901–present 1903 – Cornell Woolrich, American author (d. 1968) 1904 – Albert Norden, German journalist and politician (d. | are shot and killed during a raid by 14 Chicago police officers. 1971 – Indo-Pakistani War of 1971: The Indian Navy attacks the Pakistan Navy and Karachi. 1971 – The PNS Ghazi, a Pakistan Navy submarine, sinks during the course of the Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971. 1971 – During a concert of Frank Zappa and The Mothers of Invention at the Montreux Casino, an audience member fires a flare gun into the venue's ceiling, causing a fire that destroys the venue. Rock band Deep Purple, who were to use the Casino as the site for the recording of their next album, witnesses the fire from their hotel; the incident would be immortalized in their best known song, "Smoke on the Water". 1977 – Jean-Bédel Bokassa, president of the Central African Republic, crowns himself Emperor Bokassa I of the Central African Empire. 1977 – Malaysian Airline System Flight 653 is hijacked and crashes in Tanjong Kupang, Johor, killing 100. 1978 – Following the murder of Mayor George Moscone, Dianne Feinstein becomes San Francisco's first female mayor. 1979 – The Hastie fire in Hull kills three schoolboys and eventually leads police to arrest Bruce George Peter Lee. 1981 – South Africa grants independence to the Ciskei "homeland" (not recognized by any government outside South Africa). 1982 – The People's Republic of China adopts its current constitution. 1983 – US Navy aircraft from USS John F. Kennedy and USS Independence attack Syrian missile sites in Lebanon in response to an F-14 being fired on by an SA-7. One A-6 Intruder and A-7 Corsair are shot down. One American pilot is killed, one is rescued, and one is captured. 1984 – Sri Lankan Civil War: Sri Lankan Army soldiers kill 107–150 civilians in Mannar. 1986 – The MV Amazon Venture oil tanker begins leaking oil while at the port of Savannah in the United States, resulting in an oil spill of approximately . 1991 – Terry A. Anderson is released after seven years in captivity as a hostage in Beirut; he is the last and longest-held American hostage in Lebanon. 1991 – Pan American World Airways ceases its operations after 64 years. 1992 – Somali Civil War: President George H. W. Bush orders 28,000 U.S. troops to Somalia in Northeast Africa. 1998 – The Unity Module, the second module of the International Space Station, is launched. 2005 – Tens of thousands of people in Hong Kong protest for democracy and call on the government to allow universal and equal suffrage. 2006 – Six black youths assault a white teenager in Jena, Louisiana. 2014 – Islamic insurgents kill three state police at a traffic circle before taking an empty school and a "press house" in Grozny. Ten state forces die with 28 injured in gun battles ending with ten insurgents killed. 2015 – A firebomb is thrown into a restaurant in the Egyptian capital of Cairo, killing 17 people. 2017 – The Thomas Fire starts near Santa Paula in California. It eventually became the largest wildfire in modern California history to date after burning in Ventura and Santa Barbara Counties. 2021 – Semeru on the Indonesian island of Java erupts, killing at least 43 people. Births Pre-1600 AD 34 – Persius, Roman poet (d. 62) 846 – Hasan al-Askari 11th Imam of Twelver Shia Islam (d. 874) 1428 – Bernard VII, Lord of Lippe (d. 1511) 1506 – Thomas Darcy, 1st Baron Darcy of Chiche (d. 1558) 1555 – Heinrich Meibom, German poet and historian (d. 1625) 1575 – Sister Virginia Maria, Italian nun (d. 1650) 1580 – Samuel Argall, English adventurer and naval officer (d. 1626) 1585 – John Cotton, English-American minister and theologian (d. 1652) 1595 – Jean Chapelain, French poet and critic (d. 1674) 1601–1900 1647 – Daniel Eberlin, German composer (d. 1715) 1660 – André Campra, French composer and conductor (d. 1744) 1667 – Michel Pignolet de Montéclair, French composer and educator (d. 1737) 1670 – John Aislabie, English politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1742) 1713 – Gasparo Gozzi, Italian playwright and critic (d. 1786) 1777 – Juliette Récamier, French businesswoman (d. 1849) 1795 – Thomas Carlyle, Scottish-English historian, philosopher, and academic (d. 1881) 1798 – Jules Armand Dufaure, French lawyer and politician, 33rd Prime Minister of France (d. 1881) 1817 – Nikoloz Baratashvili, Georgian poet and author (d. 1845) 1835 – Samuel Butler, English author and critic (d. 1902) 1844 – Franz Xavier Wernz, German religious leader, 25th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (d. 1914) 1861 – Hannes Hafstein, Icelandic poet and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Iceland (d. 1922) 1865 – Edith Cavell, English nurse, humanitarian, and saint (Anglicanism) (d. 1915) 1867 – Stanley Argyle, Australian politician, 32nd Premier of Victoria (d. 1940) 1868 – Jesse Burkett, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1953) 1875 – Agnes Forbes Blackadder, Scottish medical doctor (d. 1964) 1875 – Joe Corbett, American baseball player and coach (d. 1945) 1875 – Rainer Maria Rilke, Austrian-Swiss poet and author (d. 1926) 1881 – Erwin von Witzleben, Polish-German field marshal (d. 1944) 1882 – Constance Davey, Australian psychologist (d. 1963) 1883 – Katharine Susannah Prichard, Australian author and playwright (d. 1969) 1884 – R. C. Majumdar, Indian historian (d. 1980) 1887 – Winifred Carney, Irish suffragist, trade unionist, and Irish republican (d. 1943) 1892 – Francisco Franco, Spanish general and dictator, Prime Minister of Spain (d. 1975) 1892 – Liu Bocheng, Chinese commander and politician (d. 1986) 1893 – Herbert Read, English poet and critic (d. 1968) 1895 – Feng Youlan, Chinese philosopher and academic (d. 1990) 1897 – Robert Redfield, American anthropologist of Mexico (d. 1958) 1899 – Karl-Günther Heimsoth, German physician and politician (d. 1934) 1899 – Charlie Spencer, English footballer and manager (d. 1953) 1901–present 1903 – Cornell Woolrich, American author (d. 1968) 1904 – Albert Norden, German journalist and politician (d. 1982) 1908 – Alfred Hershey, American bacteriologist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997) 1910 – Alex North, American composer and conductor (d. 1991) 1910 – R. Venkataraman, Indian lawyer and politician, 6th President of India (d. 2009) 1912 – Pappy Boyington, American colonel and pilot, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1988) 1913 – Mark Robson, Canadian-American director and producer (d. 1978) 1914 – Rudolf Hausner, Austrian painter and sculptor (d. 1995) 1914 – Claude Renoir, French cinematographer (d. 1993) 1915 – Eddie Heywood, American pianist and composer (d. 1989) 1916 – Ely Jacques Kahn, Jr., American journalist and author (d. 1994) 1919 – I. K. Gujral, Indian poet and politician, 12th Prime Minister of India (d. 2012) 1920 – Nadir Afonso, Portuguese painter and architect (d. 2013) 1920 – Michael Bates, English actor (d. 1978) 1920 – Jeanne Manford, American educator and activist, co-founded PFLAG (d. 2013) 1921 – Deanna Durbin, Canadian actress and singer (d. 2013) 1923 – Charles Keating, American lawyer and financier (d. 2014) 1923 – Eagle Keys, American-Canadian football player and coach (d. 2012) 1923 – John Krish, English director and screenwriter (d. 2016) 1924 – John C. Portman, Jr., American architect, designed the Renaissance Center and Tomorrow Square (d. 2017) 1925 – Albert Bandura, Canadian-American psychologist and academic (d. 2021) 1929 – Şakir Eczacıbaşı, Turkish pharmacist, photographer, and businessman (d. 2010) 1930 – Ronnie Corbett, Scottish actor and screenwriter (d. 2016) 1930 – Jim Hall, American guitarist and composer (d. 2013) 1931 – Alex Delvecchio, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager 1931 – Wally George, American radio and television host (d. 2003) 1932 – Roh Tae-woo, South Korean general and politician, 6th President of South Korea (d. 2021) 1933 – Wink Martindale, American game show host and producer 1933 – Horst Buchholz, German actor (d. 2003) 1934 – Bill Collins, Australian film critic and author (d. 2019) 1934 – Victor French, American actor and director (d. 1989) 1935 – Paul O'Neill, American businessman and politician, 72nd United States Secretary of the Treasury 1936 – John Giorno, American poet and performance artist (d. 2019) 1937 – Max Baer, Jr., American actor, director, and producer 1938 – Andre Marrou, American lawyer and politician 1938 – Yvonne Minton, |
1st President of India (d. 1963) 1884 – Walther Stampfli, Swiss lawyer and politician, 50th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1965) 1886 – Manne Siegbahn, Swedish physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1978) 1887 – Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni, Japanese general and politician, 43rd Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1990) 1891 – Thomas Farrell, American general (d. 1967) 1894 – Deiva Zivarattinam, Indian lawyer and politician (d. 1975) 1895 – Anna Freud, Austrian-English psychologist and psychoanalyst (d. 1982) 1895 – Sheng Shicai, Chinese warlord (d. 1970) 1897 – William Gropper, American cartoonist and painter (d. 1977) 1899 – Hayato Ikeda, Japanese politician, 58th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1965) 1899 – Howard Kinsey, American tennis player (d. 1966) 1900 – Albert Hawke, Australian politician, 18th Premier of Western Australia (d. 1986) 1900 – Ulrich Inderbinen, Swiss mountaineer (d. 2004) 1900 – Richard Kuhn, Austrian-German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967) 1901–present 1901 – Glenn Hartranft, American shot putter and discus thrower (d. 1970) 1901 – Mildred Wiley, American high jumper (d. 2000) 1902 – Mitsuo Fuchida, Japanese captain and pilot (d. 1976) 1902 – Feliks Kibbermann, Estonian chess player and philologist (d. 1993) 1904 – Edgar Moon, Australian tennis player (d. 1976) 1905 – Les Ames, English cricketer (d. 1990) 1907 – Connee Boswell, American jazz singer (d. 1976) 1911 – Nino Rota, Italian pianist, composer, conductor, and academic (d. 1979) 1914 – Irving Fine, American composer and academic (d. 1962) 1918 – Abdul Haris Nasution, Indonesian general and politician, 12th Indonesian Minister of Defence (d. 2000) 1919 – Charles Lynch, Canadian journalist and author (d. 1994) 1921 – Phyllis Curtin, American soprano and academic (d. 2016) 1921 – John Doar, American lawyer and activist (d. 2014) 1922 – Len Lesser, American actor (d. 2011) 1922 – Eli Mandel, Canadian poet, critic, and academic (d. 1992) 1922 – Sven Nykvist, Swedish director and cinematographer (d. 2006) 1923 – Trevor Bailey, English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2011) 1923 – Stjepan Bobek, Croatian-Serbian footballer and manager (d. 2010) 1923 – Moyra Fraser, Australian-English actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2009) 1924 – Wiel Coerver, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2011) 1924 – F. Sionil José, Filipino journalist, writer and author (d. 2022) 1924 – Roberto Mieres, Argentinian race car driver and sailor (d. 2012) 1925 – Ferlin Husky, American country music singer (d. 2011) 1927 – Andy Williams, American singer (d. 2012) 1928 – Thomas M. Foglietta, American politician and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Italy (d. 2004) 1928 – Muhammad Habibur Rahman, Indian-Bangladeshi jurist and politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2014) 1929 – John S. Dunne, American priest and theologian (d. 2013) 1930 – Jean-Luc Godard, French-Swiss director and screenwriter 1930 – Raul M. Gonzalez, Filipino lawyer and politician, 42nd Filipino Secretary of Justice (d. 2014) 1930 – Yves Trudeau, Canadian sculptor (d. 2017) 1931 – Franz Josef Degenhardt, German author and poet (d. 2011) 1931 – Jaye P. Morgan, American singer and actress 1932 – Takao Fujinami, Japanese lawyer and politician (d. 2007) 1933 – Paul J. Crutzen, Dutch chemist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2021) 1934 – Nicolas Coster, British-American actor 1934 – Viktor Gorbatko, Russian general, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2017) 1934 – Abimael Guzmán, Peruvian philosopher and academic (d. 2021) 1935 – Eddie Bernice Johnson, American nurse and politician 1937 – Bobby Allison, American race car driver and businessman 1937 – Morgan Llywelyn, American-Irish model and author 1937 – Binod Bihari Verma, Indian physician and author (d. 2003) 1938 – Jean-Claude Malépart, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 1989) 1938 – Sally Shlaer, American mathematician and engineer (d. 1998) 1939 – John Paul, Sr., Dutch-American race car driver 1939 – David Phillips, English chemist and academic 1940 – Jeffrey R. Holland, American academic and religious leader 1942 – Mike Gibson, Northern Irish-Irish rugby player 1942 – Pedro Rocha, Uruguayan footballer and manager (d. 2013) 1942 – Alice Schwarzer, German journalist and publisher, founded EMMA Magazine 1942 – David K. Shipler, American journalist and author 1943 – J. Philippe Rushton, English-Canadian psychologist and academic (d. 2012) 1943 – Joseph Franklin Ada, Guamanian lawyer and politician, 5th Governor of Guam 1944 – Ralph McTell, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1944 – Craig Raine, English poet, author, and playwright 1944 – António Variações, Portuguese musician (d. 1984) 1948 – Jan Hrubý, Czech violinist and songwriter 1948 – Maxwell Hutchinson, English architect and television host 1948 – Ozzy Osbourne, English singer-songwriter 1949 – Heather Menzies, Canadian-American actress (d. 2017) 1949 – Mickey Thomas, American singer-songwriter 1950 – Alberto Juantorena, Cuban runner 1951 – Mike Bantom, American basketball player and manager 1951 – Ray Candy, American wrestler and trainer (d. 1994) 1951 – Rick Mears, American race car driver 1951 – Mike Stock, English songwriter, record producer, and musician 1952 – Don Barnes, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1952 – Benny Hinn, Israeli-American evangelist and author 1952 – Duane Roland, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2006) 1953 – Franz Klammer, Austrian skier and race car driver 1953 – Rob Waring, American-Norwegian vibraphonist and contemporary composer 1954 – Grace Andreacchi, American-English author, poet, and playwright 1956 – Ewa Kopacz, Polish physician and politician, 15th Prime Minister of Poland 1957 – Maxim Korobov, Russian businessman and politician 1959 – Eamonn Holmes, Irish journalist and game show host 1960 – Daryl Hannah, American actress and producer 1960 – Igor Larionov, Russian ice hockey player 1960 – Julianne Moore, American actress and author 1960 – Mike Ramsey, American ice hockey player and coach 1962 – Richard Bacon, English banker, journalist, and politician 1962 – Nataliya Grygoryeva, Ukrainian hurdler 1963 – Joe Lally, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1963 – Terri Schiavo, American medical patient (d. 2005) 1964 – Darryl Hamilton, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2015) 1965 – Andrew Stanton, American voice actor, director, producer, screenwriter 1965 – Katarina Witt, German figure skater and actress 1966 – Flemming Povlsen, Danish footballer and manager 1966 – Irina Zhuk, Russian figure skater and coach 1967 – Marie Françoise Ouedraogo, Burkinabé mathematician 1968 – Brendan Fraser, American actor and producer 1968 – Montell Jordan, American singer-songwriter and producer 1969 – Bill Steer, English guitarist and songwriter 1969 – Hal Steinbrenner, American businessman 1970 – Paul Byrd, American baseball player 1970 – Lindsey Hunter, American basketball player and coach 1970 – Christian Karembeu, French footballer 1970 – Laura Schuler, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1971 – Heiko Herrlich, German footballer and manager 1971 – Frank Sinclair, English-Jamaican footballer and manager 1971 – Henk Timmer, Dutch footballer and manager 1971 – Vernon White, American mixed martial artist and wrestler 1972 – Danilo Goffi, Italian runner 1973 – Holly Marie Combs, American actress and producer 1973 – MC Frontalot, American rapper 1973 – Charl Willoughby, South African cricketer 1974 – Lucette Rådström, Swedish journalist 1976 – Mark Boucher, South African cricketer 1976 – Gary Glover, American baseball player 1976 – Cornelius Griffin, American football player 1976 – Byron Kelleher, New Zealand rugby player 1976 – Tomotaka Okamoto, Japanese soprano 1977 – Chad Durbin, American baseball player 1977 – Troy Evans, American football player 1977 – Adam Małysz, Polish ski jumper and race car driver 1977 – Yelena Zadorozhnaya, Russian runner 1978 – Trina, American rapper and producer 1978 – Daniel Alexandersson, Swedish footballer 1978 – Jiří Bicek, Slovak ice hockey player 1978 – Bram Tankink, Dutch cyclist 1979 – Daniel Bedingfield, New Zealand-English singer-songwriter 1979 – Rock Cartwright, American football player 1980 – Anna Chlumsky, American actress 1980 – Jenna Dewan, American actress and dancer 1981 – Ioannis Amanatidis, Greek footballer 1981 – Tyjuan Hagler, American football player 1981 – Edwin Valero, Venezuelan boxer (d. 2010) 1981 – David Villa, Spanish footballer 1982 – Manny Corpas, Panamanian baseball player 1982 – Michael Essien, Ghanaian footballer 1982 – Dascha Polanco, Dominican-American actress 1982 – Franco Sbaraglini, Argentinian-Italian rugby player 1983 – Stephen Donald, New Zealand rugby player 1983 – Sherri DuPree, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1983 – Andy Grammer, American singer, songwriter, and record producer 1983 – James Ihedigbo, American football player 1983 – Aleksey Drozdov, Russian decathlete 1984 – Avraam Papadopoulos, Greek footballer 1984 – Manuel Arana, Spanish footballer 1985 – Nina Ansaroff, American martial artist 1985 – László Cseh, Hungarian swimmer 1985 – Mike Randolph, American soccer player 1985 – Amanda Seyfried, American actress 1985 – Robert Swift, American basketball player 1985 – Marcus Williams, American basketball player 1987 – Michael Angarano, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1987 – Erik Grönwall, Swedish singer-songwriter 1987 – Brian Robiskie, American football player 1987 – Alicia Sacramone, American gymnast 1988 – Melissa Aldana, Chilean saxophonist 1989 – Alex McCarthy, English footballer 1989 – Selçuk Alibaz, Turkish footballer 1989 – Tomasz Narkun, Polish mixed martial artist 1990 – | Shipler, American journalist and author 1943 – J. Philippe Rushton, English-Canadian psychologist and academic (d. 2012) 1943 – Joseph Franklin Ada, Guamanian lawyer and politician, 5th Governor of Guam 1944 – Ralph McTell, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1944 – Craig Raine, English poet, author, and playwright 1944 – António Variações, Portuguese musician (d. 1984) 1948 – Jan Hrubý, Czech violinist and songwriter 1948 – Maxwell Hutchinson, English architect and television host 1948 – Ozzy Osbourne, English singer-songwriter 1949 – Heather Menzies, Canadian-American actress (d. 2017) 1949 – Mickey Thomas, American singer-songwriter 1950 – Alberto Juantorena, Cuban runner 1951 – Mike Bantom, American basketball player and manager 1951 – Ray Candy, American wrestler and trainer (d. 1994) 1951 – Rick Mears, American race car driver 1951 – Mike Stock, English songwriter, record producer, and musician 1952 – Don Barnes, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1952 – Benny Hinn, Israeli-American evangelist and author 1952 – Duane Roland, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2006) 1953 – Franz Klammer, Austrian skier and race car driver 1953 – Rob Waring, American-Norwegian vibraphonist and contemporary composer 1954 – Grace Andreacchi, American-English author, poet, and playwright 1956 – Ewa Kopacz, Polish physician and politician, 15th Prime Minister of Poland 1957 – Maxim Korobov, Russian businessman and politician 1959 – Eamonn Holmes, Irish journalist and game show host 1960 – Daryl Hannah, American actress and producer 1960 – Igor Larionov, Russian ice hockey player 1960 – Julianne Moore, American actress and author 1960 – Mike Ramsey, American ice hockey player and coach 1962 – Richard Bacon, English banker, journalist, and politician 1962 – Nataliya Grygoryeva, Ukrainian hurdler 1963 – Joe Lally, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1963 – Terri Schiavo, American medical patient (d. 2005) 1964 – Darryl Hamilton, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2015) 1965 – Andrew Stanton, American voice actor, director, producer, screenwriter 1965 – Katarina Witt, German figure skater and actress 1966 – Flemming Povlsen, Danish footballer and manager 1966 – Irina Zhuk, Russian figure skater and coach 1967 – Marie Françoise Ouedraogo, Burkinabé mathematician 1968 – Brendan Fraser, American actor and producer 1968 – Montell Jordan, American singer-songwriter and producer 1969 – Bill Steer, English guitarist and songwriter 1969 – Hal Steinbrenner, American businessman 1970 – Paul Byrd, American baseball player 1970 – Lindsey Hunter, American basketball player and coach 1970 – Christian Karembeu, French footballer 1970 – Laura Schuler, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1971 – Heiko Herrlich, German footballer and manager 1971 – Frank Sinclair, English-Jamaican footballer and manager 1971 – Henk Timmer, Dutch footballer and manager 1971 – Vernon White, American mixed martial artist and wrestler 1972 – Danilo Goffi, Italian runner 1973 – Holly Marie Combs, American actress and producer 1973 – MC Frontalot, American rapper 1973 – Charl Willoughby, South African cricketer 1974 – Lucette Rådström, Swedish journalist 1976 – Mark Boucher, South African cricketer 1976 – Gary Glover, American baseball player 1976 – Cornelius Griffin, American football player 1976 – Byron Kelleher, New Zealand rugby player 1976 – Tomotaka Okamoto, Japanese soprano 1977 – Chad Durbin, American baseball player 1977 – Troy Evans, American football player 1977 – Adam Małysz, Polish ski jumper and race car driver 1977 – Yelena Zadorozhnaya, Russian runner 1978 – Trina, American rapper and producer 1978 – Daniel Alexandersson, Swedish footballer 1978 – Jiří Bicek, Slovak ice hockey player 1978 – Bram Tankink, Dutch cyclist 1979 – Daniel Bedingfield, New Zealand-English singer-songwriter 1979 – Rock Cartwright, American football player 1980 – Anna Chlumsky, American actress 1980 – Jenna Dewan, American actress and dancer 1981 – Ioannis Amanatidis, Greek footballer 1981 – Tyjuan Hagler, American football player 1981 – Edwin Valero, Venezuelan boxer (d. 2010) 1981 – David Villa, Spanish footballer 1982 – Manny Corpas, Panamanian baseball player 1982 – Michael Essien, Ghanaian footballer 1982 – Dascha Polanco, Dominican-American actress 1982 – Franco Sbaraglini, Argentinian-Italian rugby player 1983 – Stephen Donald, New Zealand rugby player 1983 – Sherri DuPree, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1983 – Andy Grammer, American singer, songwriter, and record producer 1983 – James Ihedigbo, American football player 1983 – Aleksey Drozdov, Russian decathlete 1984 – Avraam Papadopoulos, Greek footballer 1984 – Manuel Arana, Spanish footballer 1985 – Nina Ansaroff, American martial artist 1985 – László Cseh, Hungarian swimmer 1985 – Mike Randolph, American soccer player 1985 – Amanda Seyfried, American actress 1985 – Robert Swift, American basketball player 1985 – Marcus Williams, American basketball player 1987 – Michael Angarano, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1987 – Erik Grönwall, Swedish singer-songwriter 1987 – Brian Robiskie, American football player 1987 – Alicia Sacramone, American gymnast 1988 – Melissa Aldana, Chilean saxophonist 1989 – Alex McCarthy, English footballer 1989 – Selçuk Alibaz, Turkish footballer 1989 – Tomasz Narkun, Polish mixed martial artist 1990 – Christian Benteke, Belgian footballer 1990 – Sharon Fichman, Canadian-Israeli tennis player 1991 – Ekaterine Gorgodze, Georgian tennis player 1992 – Cristian Ceballos, Spanish footballer 1994 – Solomone Kata, New Zealand rugby league player Deaths Pre-1600 311 – Diocletian, Roman emperor (b. 244) 649 – Birinus, French-English bishop and saint (b. 600) 860 – Abbo, bishop of Auxerre 937 – Siegfried, Frankish nobleman 978 – Abraham, Coptic pope of Alexandria 1038 – Emma of Lesum, Saxon countess and Saint 1099 – Saint Osmund (b. 1065) 1154 – Pope Anastasius IV (b. 1073) 1265 – Odofredus, Italian lawyer and jurist 1266 – Henry III the White, Duke of Wroclaw 1309 – Henry III, Duke of Głogów (b. 1251/60) 1322 – Maud Chaworth, Countess of Leicester (b. 1282) 1532 – Louis II, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken (b. 1502) 1533 – Vasili III of Russia (b. 1479) 1542 – Jean Tixier de Ravisi, French scholar and academic (b. 1470) 1552 – Francis Xavier, Spanish missionary and saint (b. 1506) 1592 – Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma (b. 1545) 1601–1900 1610 – Honda Tadakatsu, Japanese general and daimyō (b. 1548) 1668 – William Cecil, 2nd Earl of Salisbury (b. 1591) 1691 – Katherine Jones, Viscountess Ranelagh, British scientist (b. 1615) 1706 – Countess Emilie Juliane of Barby-Mühlingen (b. 1637) 1752 – Henri-Guillaume Hamal, Walloon musician and composer (b. 1685) 1765 – Lord John Sackville, English cricketer and politician (b. 1713) 1789 – Claude Joseph Vernet, French painter (b. 1714) 1815 – John Carroll, American archbishop (b. 1735) 1876 – Samuel Cooper, American general (b. 1798) 1882 – Archibald Tait, Scottish-English archbishop (b. 1811) 1888 – Carl Zeiss, German physicist and lens maker, created the optical instrument (b. 1816) 1890 – Billy Midwinter, English-Australian cricketer (b. 1851) 1892 – Afanasy Fet, Russian author and poet (b. 1820) 1894 – Robert Louis Stevenson, Scottish novelist, poet, and essayist (b. 1850) 1901–present 1902 – Robert Lawson, New Zealand architect, designed the Otago Boys' High School and Knox Church (b. 1833) 1904 – David Bratton, American water polo player (b. 1869) 1910 – Mary Baker Eddy, American religious leader and author, founded Christian Science (b. 1821) 1912 – Prudente de Morais, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Brazil (b. 1841) 1917 – Harold Garnett, English-French cricketer (b. 1879) 1919 – Pierre-Auguste Renoir, French painter and sculptor (b. 1841) 1928 – Ezra Meeker, American farmer and politician (b. 1830) 1934 – Charles James O'Donnell, Irish lawyer and politician (b. 1849) 1935 – Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom (b. 1868) 1937 – William Propsting, Australian politician, 20th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1861) 1941 – Pavel Filonov, Russian painter and poet (b. 1883) 1949 – Maria Ouspenskaya, Russian-American actress and educator (b. 1876) 1952 – Rudolf Margolius, Czech lawyer and politician (b. 1913) |
Guy Bourdin, French photographer (d. 1991) 1929 – Dan Jenkins, American journalist and author (d. 2019) 1929 – Leon Litwack, American historian and author (d. 2021) 1930 – Gary Becker, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2014) 1930 – David Piper, English race car driver 1931 – Nigel Calder, English journalist, author, and screenwriter (d. 2014) 1931 – Masaaki Hatsumi, Japanese martial artist and educator, founded Bujinkan 1931 – Wynton Kelly, American pianist and composer (d. 1971) 1931 – Edwin Meese, American lawyer, 75th United States Attorney General 1931 – Gareth Wigan, British film studio executive (Star Wars, Chariots of Fire) (d. 2010) 1933 – Peter Robin Harding, English marshal and pilot 1933 – Mike Larrabee, American sprinter and educator (d. 2003) 1934 – Tarcisio Bertone, Italian cardinal 1934 – Andre Rodgers, Bahamian baseball player (d. 2004) 1935 – David Hackett Fischer, American historian, author, and academic 1937 – Manohar Joshi, Indian lawyer and politician, 15th Chief Minister of Maharashtra 1939 – Yael Dayan, Israeli journalist, author, and politician 1939 – Francis Fox, Canadian lawyer and politician, 48th Secretary of State for Canada 1939 – Harry Reid, American lawyer and politician, 25th Lieutenant Governor of Nevada (d. 2021) 1940 – Willie Brown, American football player, coach, and manager (d. 2019) 1941 – Mike England, Welsh footballer and manager 1941 – Tom McGuinness, English guitarist, songwriter, author, and producer 1942 – Anna G. Jónasdóttir, Icelandic political scientist and academic 1943 – Wayne Allard, American veterinarian and politician 1944 – Ibrahim Rugova, Kosovan journalist and politician, 1st President of Kosovo (d. 2006) 1944 – Dionysis Savvopoulos, Greek singer-songwriter 1944 – Botho Strauß, German author and playwright 1945 – Penelope Spheeris, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1945 – Alan Thomson, Australian cricketer 1946 – John Banks, New Zealand businessman and politician, 38th Mayor of Auckland City 1946 – Pedro Borbón, Dominican-American baseball player (d. 2012) 1946 – David Macaulay, English-American author and illustrator 1946 – Gianni Versace, Italian fashion designer, founded Versace (d. 1997) 1947 – Isaac Bitton, Moroccan-French drummer and songwriter 1947 – Tommy Jenkins, English footballer and manager 1947 – Ivan Atanassov Petrov, Bulgarian neurologist and author 1948 – Elizabeth Berg, American nurse and author 1948 – T. Coraghessan Boyle, American novelist and short story writer 1948 – Patricia Hewitt, Australian-English educator and politician, English Secretary of State for Health 1948 – Toninho Horta, Brazilian guitarist and composer 1948 – Antonín Panenka, Czech footballer 1950 – John Wesley Ryles, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist 1950 – Amin Saikal, Afghan-Australian political scientist and academic 1950 – Benjamin Stora, Algerian-French historian and author 1950 – Paul Watson, Canadian activist, founded the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society 1952 – Carol Shea-Porter, American social worker, academic, and politician 1954 – Dan Butler, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1956 – Steven Bauer, Cuban-American actor and producer 1957 – Dagfinn Høybråten, Norwegian political scientist and politician, Norwegian Minister of Health 1958 – Andrew George, English politician 1958 – Vladimir Parfenovich, Belarusian canoe racer and politician 1958 – George Saunders, American short story writer and essayist 1959 – Kelefa Diallo, Guinean general (d. 2013) 1960 – Peter Blakeley, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1960 – Razzle, English rock drummer (d. 1984) 1960 – Rick Savage, English singer-songwriter and bass player 1960 – Silk Smitha, Indian film actress 1962 – John Dyegh, Nigerian businessman and politician 1963 – Brendan Coyle, English actor 1963 – Ann Patchett, American author 1963 – Rich Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player and scout 1963 – Ron Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1965 – Shane Flanagan, Australian rugby league player and coach 1966 – Philippe Etchebest, French chef and television host 1966 – Jinsei Shinzaki, Japanese wrestler and promoter, co-founded Sendai Girls' Pro Wrestling 1967 – Mary Creagh, English scholar and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Transport 1968 – David Batty, English footballer 1968 – Darryl Kile, American baseball player (d. 2002) 1968 – Lucy Liu, American actress and producer 1968 – Nate Mendel, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1968 – Rena Sofer, American actress 1969 – Ulrika Bergquist, Swedish journalist 1969 – Chris Kiwomya, English footballer 1969 – Pavel Loskutov, Estonian runner 1969 – Tanya Plibersek, Australian journalist and politician, 45th Australian Minister of Health 1970 – Maksim Tarasov, Russian pole vaulter 1970 – Treach, American rapper and actor 1971 – Wilson Jermaine Heredia, American actor and singer 1971 – Rachel McQuillan, Australian tennis player 1971 – Jüri Reinvere, Estonian-German composer and poet 1971 – Francesco Toldo, Italian footballer 1971 – Mine Yoshizaki, Japanese illustrator 1972 – Sergejs Žoltoks, Latvian ice hockey player (d. 2004) 1973 – Graham Kavanagh, Irish footballer and manager 1973 – Monica Seles, Serbian-American tennis player 1973 – Lee Steele, English footballer 1973 – Jan Ullrich, German cyclist 1975 – Mark Kotsay, American baseball player 1976 – Eddy Garabito, Dominican baseball player 1976 – Masafumi Gotoh, Japanese singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1977 – Siyabonga Nomvethe, South African footballer 1978 – Jarron Collins, American basketball player and coach 1978 – Jason Collins, American basketball player 1978 – Nelly Furtado, Canadian singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1978 – Luigi Malafronte, Italian footballer 1978 – Peter Moylan, Australian baseball player 1978 – Maëlle Ricker, Canadian snowboarder 1978 – David Rivas, Spanish footballer 1978 – Andrew Ryan, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster 1978 – Christopher Wolstenholme, English singer-songwriter and bass player 1979 – Yvonne Catterfeld, German singer-songwriter and actress 1979 – Michael McIndoe, Scottish footballer 1979 – Abdul Razzaq, Pakistani cricketer 1980 – Adam Kreek, Canadian rower 1980 – Darryn Randall, South African cricketer (d. 2013) 1981 – Maria Ferekidi, Greek canoe racer 1981 – Eric Jungmann, American actor 1981 – Danijel Pranjić, Croatian footballer 1981 – Britney Spears, American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress 1982 – Christos Karipidis, Greek footballer 1982 – Matt Ware, American football player 1983 – Chris Burke, Scottish footballer 1983 – Bibiana Candelas, Mexican volleyball player 1983 – Jaime Durán, Mexican footballer 1983 – Jana Kramer, American actress and singer 1983 – Aaron Rodgers, American football player 1983 – Daniela Ruah, Portuguese-American actress 1984 – Péter Máté, Hungarian footballer 1985 – Amaury Leveaux, French swimmer 1985 – Dorell Wright, American basketball player 1986 – Song Ha-yoon, South Korean actress 1986 – Claudiu Keșerü, Romanian footballer 1986 – Tal Wilkenfeld, Australian bass player and composer 1988 – Alfred Enoch, English actor 1988 – Stephen McGinn, Scottish footballer 1989 – Etta Bond, English singer-songwriter 1989 – Matteo Darmian, Italian footballer 1989 – Cassie Steele, Canadian singer-songwriter and actress 1990 – Emmanuel Agyemang-Badu, Ghanaian footballer 1990 – Gastón Ramírez, Uruguayan footballer 1991 – Chloé Dufour-Lapointe, Canadian skier 1991 – Charlie Puth, American singer-songwriter and pianist 1993 – Haruka Ishida, Japanese singer and actress 1993 – Kostas Stafylidis, Greek footballer 1994 – Fumika Shimizu, Japanese actress and model 1994 – Tomokaze Yūta, Japanese sumo wrestler 1995 – Uladzislau Hancharou, Belarusian trampolinist 1995 – Inori Minase, Japanese actress, voice actress and singer 1998 – JuiceWRLD, American rapper, singer and songwriter (d. 2019) Deaths Pre-1600 537 – Pope Silverius 930 – Ma Yin, Chinese warlord, king of Chu (Ten Kingdoms) (b. 853) 949 – Odo of Wetterau, German nobleman 1022 – Elvira Menéndez, queen of Alfonso V of Castile (b. 996) 1255 – Muhammad III of Alamut, Nizari Ismaili Imam 1340 – Geoffrey le Scrope, Chief Justice of King Edward III of England 1348 – Emperor Hanazono of Japan (b. 1297) 1381 – John of Ruusbroec, Flemish priest and mystic (b. 1293) 1455 – Isabel of Coimbra, queen of Portugal (b. 1432) 1463 – Albert VI, Archduke of Austria (b. 1418) 1469 – Piero di Cosimo de' Medici, Italian banker and politician (b. 1416) 1510 – Muhammad Shaybani, Khan of Bukhara (b. 1451) 1515 – Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Spanish general (b. 1453) 1547 – Hernán Cortés, Spanish general and explorer (b. 1485) 1594 – Gerardus Mercator, Flemish mathematician, cartographer, and philosopher (b. 1512) 1601–1900 1615 – Louis des Balbes de Berton de Crillon, French general (b. 1541) 1665 – Catherine de Vivonne, marquise de Rambouillet, French author (b. 1588) 1694 – Pierre Puget, French painter, sculptor, and architect (b. 1622) 1719 – Pasquier Quesnel, French theologian and author (b. 1634) 1723 – Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (b. 1674) 1726 – Samuel Penhallow, English-American historian and author (b. 1665) 1747 – Vincent Bourne, English poet and scholar (b. 1695) 1748 – Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset, English politician, Lord President of the Council (b. 1662) 1774 – Johann Friedrich Agricola, German organist and composer (b. 1720) 1814 – Marquis de Sade, French philosopher, author, and politician (b. 1740) 1844 – Eustachy Erazm Sanguszko, Polish general and politician (b. 1768) 1849 – Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen (b. 1792) 1859 – John Brown, American abolitionist (b. 1800) 1881 – Jenny von Westphalen, German author (b. 1814) 1885 – Allen Wright, Principal chief of the Choctaw Nation (1866-1870); proposed the name "Oklahoma", from Choctaw words okra and umma, meaning "Territory of the Red People." (b. 1826) 1888 – Namık Kemal, Turkish journalist, poet, and playwright (b. 1840) 1892 – Jay Gould, American businessman and financier (b. 1836) 1899 – Gregorio del Pilar, Filipino general and politician, 1st Governor of Bulacan (b. 1875) 1901–present 1918 – Edmond Rostand, French poet and playwright (b. 1868) 1924 – Kazimieras Būga, Lithuanian linguist and philologist (b. 1879) 1927 – Paul Heinrich von Groth, German scientist who systematically classified minerals and founded the journal Zeitschrift für Krystallographie und Mineralogie (b. 1843) 1931 – Vincent d'Indy, French composer and educator (b. 1851) 1936 – John Ringling, American businessman, co-founded Ringling Brothers Circus (b. 1866) 1943 – Nordahl Grieg, Norwegian journalist and author (b. 1902) 1944 – Josef Lhévinne, Russian pianist and educator (b. 1874) 1944 – Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Egyptian-Italian poet and composer (b. 1876) 1944 – Eiji Sawamura, Japanese baseball player and soldier (b. 1917) 1950 – Dinu Lipatti, Romanian pianist and composer (b. 1917) 1953 – Reginald Baker, Australian rugby player (b. 1884) 1953 – Trần Trọng Kim, Vietnamese historian, scholar, and politician, Prime Minister of Vietnam (b. 1883) 1957 – Harrison Ford, American actor (b. 1884) 1957 – Manfred Sakel, Ukrainian-American neurophysiologist and psychiatrist (b. 1902) 1966 – L. E. J. Brouwer, Dutch mathematician and philosopher (b. 1881) 1966 – Giles Cooper, Irish author, playwright, and screenwriter (b. 1918) 1967 – Francis Spellman, American cardinal (b. 1889). 1969 – José María Arguedas, Peruvian anthropologist, author, and poet (b. 1911) 1969 – Kliment Voroshilov, Ukrainian-Russian marshal and politician, 3rd Head of State of The Soviet Union (b. 1881) 1974 – Sylvi Kekkonen, Finnish writer and wife of President of Finland Urho Kekkonen (b. 1900) 1974 – Max Weber, Swiss lawyer and politician (b. 1897) 1976 – Danny Murtaugh, American baseball player and manager (b. 1917) 1980 – Chaudhry Muhammad Ali, Indian-Pakistani lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Pakistan (b. 1905) 1980 – Romain Gary, Lithuanian-French author, director, and screenwriter (b. 1914) 1981 – Wallace Harrison, American architect, co-founded Harrison & Abramovitz (b. 1895) 1982 – Marty Feldman, English actor and comedian (b. 1933) 1982 – Giovanni Ferrari, Italian footballer and manager (b. 1907) | academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1950) 1891 – Otto Dix, German painter and illustrator (d. 1969) 1891 – Charles H. Wesley, American historian and author (d. 1987) 1894 – Warren William, American actor (d. 1948) 1895 – Harriet Cohen, English pianist (d. 1967) 1897 – Ivan Bagramyan, Russian general (d. 1982) 1897 – Rewi Alley, New Zealand writer and political activist (d. 1987) 1898 – Indra Lal Roy, Indian lieutenant and first Indian fighter aircraft pilot (d. 1918) 1899 – John Barbirolli, English cellist and conductor (d. 1970) 1899 – John Cobb, English race car driver and pilot (d. 1952) 1899 – Ray Morehart, American baseball player (d. 1989) 1900 – Elisa Godínez Gómez de Batista, former First Lady of Cuba (d. 1993) 1900 – Herta Hammerbacher, German landscape architect and professor (d. 1985) 1901–present 1901 – Raimundo Orsi, Argentinian-Italian footballer (d. 1986) 1906 – Peter Carl Goldmark, Hungarian-American engineer (d. 1977) 1909 – Arvo Askola, Finnish runner (d. 1975) 1909 – Walenty Kłyszejko, Estonian–Polish basketball player and coach (d. 1987) 1909 – Joseph P. Lash, American activist and author (d. 1987) 1910 – Russell Lynes, American photographer, historian, and author (d. 1991) 1910 – Taisto Mäki, Finnish runner (d. 1979) 1912 – George Emmett, English cricketer and coach (d. 1976) 1913 – Marc Platt, American actor, singer, and dancer (d. 2014) 1914 – Bill Erwin, American actor (d. 2010) 1914 – Adolph Green, American playwright and composer (d. 2002) 1915 – Takahito, Prince Mikasa of Japan (d. 2016) 1916 – Howard Finster, American minister and painter (d. 2001) 1917 – Sylvia Syms, American singer (d. 1992) 1921 – Carlo Furno, Italian cardinal (d. 2015) 1922 – Iakovos Kambanelis, Greek author, poet, and screenwriter (d. 2011) 1923 – Maria Callas, American-Greek soprano and actress (d. 1977) 1924 – Jonathan Frid, Canadian actor (d. 2012) 1924 – Alexander Haig, American general and politician, 59th United States Secretary of State (d. 2010) 1924 – Else Marie Pade, Danish composer (d. 2016) 1924 – Vilgot Sjöman, Swedish actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2006) 1925 – Julie Harris, American actress (d. 2013) 1928 – Guy Bourdin, French photographer (d. 1991) 1929 – Dan Jenkins, American journalist and author (d. 2019) 1929 – Leon Litwack, American historian and author (d. 2021) 1930 – Gary Becker, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2014) 1930 – David Piper, English race car driver 1931 – Nigel Calder, English journalist, author, and screenwriter (d. 2014) 1931 – Masaaki Hatsumi, Japanese martial artist and educator, founded Bujinkan 1931 – Wynton Kelly, American pianist and composer (d. 1971) 1931 – Edwin Meese, American lawyer, 75th United States Attorney General 1931 – Gareth Wigan, British film studio executive (Star Wars, Chariots of Fire) (d. 2010) 1933 – Peter Robin Harding, English marshal and pilot 1933 – Mike Larrabee, American sprinter and educator (d. 2003) 1934 – Tarcisio Bertone, Italian cardinal 1934 – Andre Rodgers, Bahamian baseball player (d. 2004) 1935 – David Hackett Fischer, American historian, author, and academic 1937 – Manohar Joshi, Indian lawyer and politician, 15th Chief Minister of Maharashtra 1939 – Yael Dayan, Israeli journalist, author, and politician 1939 – Francis Fox, Canadian lawyer and politician, 48th Secretary of State for Canada 1939 – Harry Reid, American lawyer and politician, 25th Lieutenant Governor of Nevada (d. 2021) 1940 – Willie Brown, American football player, coach, and manager (d. 2019) 1941 – Mike England, Welsh footballer and manager 1941 – Tom McGuinness, English guitarist, songwriter, author, and producer 1942 – Anna G. Jónasdóttir, Icelandic political scientist and academic 1943 – Wayne Allard, American veterinarian and politician 1944 – Ibrahim Rugova, Kosovan journalist and politician, 1st President of Kosovo (d. 2006) 1944 – Dionysis Savvopoulos, Greek singer-songwriter 1944 – Botho Strauß, German author and playwright 1945 – Penelope Spheeris, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1945 – Alan Thomson, Australian cricketer 1946 – John Banks, New Zealand businessman and politician, 38th Mayor of Auckland City 1946 – Pedro Borbón, Dominican-American baseball player (d. 2012) 1946 – David Macaulay, English-American author and illustrator 1946 – Gianni Versace, Italian fashion designer, founded Versace (d. 1997) 1947 – Isaac Bitton, Moroccan-French drummer and songwriter 1947 – Tommy Jenkins, English footballer and manager 1947 – Ivan Atanassov Petrov, Bulgarian neurologist and author 1948 – Elizabeth Berg, American nurse and author 1948 – T. Coraghessan Boyle, American novelist and short story writer 1948 – Patricia Hewitt, Australian-English educator and politician, English Secretary of State for Health 1948 – Toninho Horta, Brazilian guitarist and composer 1948 – Antonín Panenka, Czech footballer 1950 – John Wesley Ryles, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist 1950 – Amin Saikal, Afghan-Australian political scientist and academic 1950 – Benjamin Stora, Algerian-French historian and author 1950 – Paul Watson, Canadian activist, founded the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society 1952 – Carol Shea-Porter, American social worker, academic, and politician 1954 – Dan Butler, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1956 – Steven Bauer, Cuban-American actor and producer 1957 – Dagfinn Høybråten, Norwegian political scientist and politician, Norwegian Minister of Health 1958 – Andrew George, English politician 1958 – Vladimir Parfenovich, Belarusian canoe racer and politician 1958 – George Saunders, American short story writer and essayist 1959 – Kelefa Diallo, Guinean general (d. 2013) 1960 – Peter Blakeley, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1960 – Razzle, English rock drummer (d. 1984) 1960 – Rick Savage, English singer-songwriter and bass player 1960 – Silk Smitha, Indian film actress 1962 – John Dyegh, Nigerian businessman and politician 1963 – Brendan Coyle, English actor 1963 – Ann Patchett, American author 1963 – Rich Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player and scout 1963 – Ron Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1965 – Shane Flanagan, Australian rugby league player and coach 1966 – Philippe Etchebest, French chef and television host 1966 – Jinsei Shinzaki, Japanese wrestler and promoter, co-founded Sendai Girls' Pro Wrestling 1967 – Mary Creagh, English scholar and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Transport 1968 – David Batty, English footballer 1968 – Darryl Kile, American baseball player (d. 2002) 1968 – Lucy Liu, American actress and producer 1968 – Nate Mendel, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1968 – Rena Sofer, American actress 1969 – Ulrika Bergquist, Swedish journalist 1969 – Chris Kiwomya, English footballer 1969 – Pavel Loskutov, Estonian runner 1969 – Tanya Plibersek, Australian journalist and politician, 45th Australian Minister of Health 1970 – Maksim Tarasov, Russian pole vaulter 1970 – Treach, American rapper and actor 1971 – Wilson Jermaine Heredia, American actor and singer 1971 – Rachel McQuillan, Australian tennis player 1971 – Jüri Reinvere, Estonian-German composer and poet 1971 – Francesco Toldo, Italian footballer 1971 – Mine Yoshizaki, Japanese illustrator 1972 – Sergejs Žoltoks, Latvian ice hockey player (d. 2004) 1973 – Graham Kavanagh, Irish footballer and manager 1973 – Monica Seles, Serbian-American tennis player 1973 – Lee Steele, English footballer 1973 – Jan Ullrich, German cyclist 1975 – Mark Kotsay, American baseball player 1976 – Eddy Garabito, Dominican baseball player 1976 – Masafumi Gotoh, Japanese singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1977 – Siyabonga Nomvethe, South African footballer 1978 – Jarron Collins, American basketball player and coach 1978 – Jason Collins, American basketball player 1978 – Nelly Furtado, Canadian singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1978 – Luigi Malafronte, Italian footballer 1978 – Peter Moylan, Australian baseball player 1978 – Maëlle Ricker, Canadian snowboarder 1978 – David Rivas, Spanish footballer 1978 – Andrew Ryan, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster 1978 – Christopher Wolstenholme, English singer-songwriter and bass player 1979 – Yvonne Catterfeld, German singer-songwriter and actress 1979 – Michael McIndoe, Scottish footballer 1979 – Abdul Razzaq, Pakistani cricketer 1980 – Adam Kreek, Canadian rower 1980 – Darryn Randall, South African cricketer (d. 2013) 1981 – Maria Ferekidi, Greek canoe racer 1981 – Eric Jungmann, American actor 1981 – Danijel Pranjić, Croatian footballer 1981 – Britney Spears, American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress 1982 – Christos Karipidis, Greek footballer 1982 – Matt Ware, American football player 1983 – Chris Burke, Scottish footballer 1983 – Bibiana Candelas, Mexican volleyball player 1983 – Jaime Durán, Mexican footballer 1983 – Jana Kramer, American actress and singer 1983 – Aaron Rodgers, American football player 1983 – Daniela Ruah, Portuguese-American actress 1984 – Péter Máté, Hungarian footballer 1985 – Amaury Leveaux, French swimmer 1985 – Dorell Wright, American basketball player 1986 – Song Ha-yoon, South Korean actress 1986 – Claudiu Keșerü, Romanian footballer 1986 – Tal Wilkenfeld, Australian bass player and composer 1988 – Alfred Enoch, English actor 1988 – Stephen McGinn, Scottish footballer 1989 – Etta Bond, English singer-songwriter 1989 – Matteo Darmian, Italian footballer 1989 – Cassie Steele, Canadian singer-songwriter and actress 1990 – Emmanuel Agyemang-Badu, Ghanaian footballer 1990 – Gastón Ramírez, Uruguayan footballer 1991 – Chloé Dufour-Lapointe, Canadian skier 1991 – Charlie Puth, American singer-songwriter and pianist 1993 – Haruka Ishida, Japanese singer and actress 1993 – Kostas Stafylidis, Greek footballer 1994 – Fumika Shimizu, Japanese actress and model 1994 – Tomokaze Yūta, Japanese sumo wrestler 1995 – Uladzislau Hancharou, Belarusian trampolinist 1995 – Inori Minase, Japanese actress, voice actress and singer 1998 – JuiceWRLD, American rapper, singer and songwriter (d. 2019) Deaths Pre-1600 537 – Pope Silverius 930 – Ma Yin, Chinese warlord, king of Chu (Ten Kingdoms) (b. 853) 949 – Odo of Wetterau, German nobleman 1022 – Elvira Menéndez, queen of Alfonso V of Castile (b. 996) 1255 – Muhammad III of Alamut, Nizari Ismaili Imam 1340 – Geoffrey le Scrope, Chief Justice of King Edward III of England 1348 – Emperor Hanazono of Japan (b. 1297) 1381 – John of Ruusbroec, Flemish priest and mystic (b. 1293) 1455 – Isabel of Coimbra, queen of Portugal (b. |
Alabama, seamstress Rosa Parks refuses to give up her bus seat to a white man and is arrested for violating the city's racial segregation laws, an incident which leads to that city's bus boycott. 1958 – The Central African Republic attains self-rule within the French Union. 1958 – The Our Lady of the Angels School fire in Chicago kills 92 children and three nuns. 1959 – Cold War: Opening date for signature of the Antarctic Treaty, which sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve and bans military activity on the continent. 1964 – Vietnam War: U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson and his top-ranking advisers meet to discuss plans to bomb North Vietnam. 1969 – Vietnam War: The first draft lottery in the United States is held since World War II. 1971 – Cambodian Civil War: Khmer Rouge rebels intensify assaults on Cambodian government positions, forcing their retreat from Kompong Thmar and nearby Ba Ray. 1971 – Purge of Croatian Spring leaders starts in Yugoslavia at the meeting of the League of Communists at the Karađorđevo estate 1973 – Papua New Guinea gains self-governance from Australia. 1974 – TWA Flight 514, a Boeing 727, crashes northwest of Dulles International Airport, killing all 92 people on board. 1974 – Northwest Airlines Flight 6231, another Boeing 727, crashes northwest of John F. Kennedy International Airport. 1981 – Inex-Adria Aviopromet Flight 1308, a McDonnell Douglas MD-80, crashes in Corsica, killing all 180 people on board. 1984 – NASA conducts the Controlled Impact Demonstration, wherein an airliner is deliberately crashed in order to test technologies and gather data to help improve survivability of crashes. 1988 – World AIDS Day is proclaimed worldwide by the UN member states. 1989 – Philippine coup attempt: The right-wing military rebel Reform the Armed Forces Movement attempts to oust Philippine President Corazon Aquino in a failed bloody coup d'état. 1989 – Cold War: East Germany's parliament abolishes the constitutional provision granting the Communist Party the leading role in the state. 1990 – Channel Tunnel sections started from the United Kingdom and France meet beneath the seabed. 1991 – Cold War: Ukrainian voters overwhelmingly approve a referendum for independence from the Soviet Union. 1997 – In the Indian state of Bihar, Ranvir Sena attacks the CPI (ML) Party Unity stronghold Lakshmanpur-Bathe, killing 63 lower caste people. 1997 – Heath High School shooting in West Paducah, Kentucky. 2000 – Vicente Fox Quesada is inaugurated as the president of Mexico, marking the first peaceful transfer of executive federal power to an opposing political party following a free and democratic election in Mexico's history. 2018 – The Oulu Police informed the public about the first offence of the much larger child sexual exploitation in Oulu, Finland. 2019 – Arsenal Women 11–1 Bristol City Women breaks the record for most goals scored in a FA Women's Super League match, with Vivianne Miedema involved in ten of the eleven Arsenal goals. 2020 – The Arecibo Telescope collapsed. Births Pre-1600 624 – Hasan ibn Ali, the second Shia Imam (d. 670) 1081 – Louis VI, French king (d. 1137) 1083 – Anna Komnene, Byzantine physician and scholar (d. 1153) 1415 – Jan Długosz, Polish historian (d. 1480) 1438 – Peter II, Duke of Bourbon, son of Charles I (d. 1503) 1443 – Magdalena of France, French princess (d. 1495) 1488 – Elisabeth of Nassau-Dillenburg, Countess of Wied, German noblewoman (d. 1559) 1521 – Takeda Shingen, Japanese daimyō (d. 1573) 1525 – Tadeáš Hájek, Czech physician and astronomer (d. 1600) 1530 – Bernardino Realino, Italian Jesuit (d. 1616) 1561 – Sophie Hedwig of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Duchess consort of Pomerania-Wolgast (d. 1631) 1580 – Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc, French astronomer and historian (d. 1637) 1601–1900 1690 – Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke, English lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of the United Kingdom (d. 1764) 1709 – Franz Xaver Richter, Czech composer, violinist, and conductor (d. 1789) 1716 – Étienne Maurice Falconet, French sculptor (d. 1791) 1743 – Martin Heinrich Klaproth, German chemist and academic (d. 1817) 1761 – Marie Tussaud, French-English sculptor, founded Madame Tussauds Wax Museum (d. 1850) 1792 – Nikolai Lobachevsky, Russian mathematician and geometer (d. 1856) 1800 – Mihály Vörösmarty, Hungarian poet (d. 1855) 1805 – 9th Dalai Lama, Tibetan Buddhist spiritual leader (d. 1815) 1844 – Alexandra of Denmark (d. 1925) 1846 – Ledi Sayadaw, Burmese monk and philosopher (d. 1923) 1847 – Julia A. Moore, American poet (d. 1920) 1855 – John Evans, English-Australian politician, 21st Premier of Tasmania (d. 1943) 1869 – Eligiusz Niewiadomski, Polish painter and critic (d. 1923) 1871 – Archie MacLaren, English cricketer (d. 1944) 1883 – Henry Cadbury, American historian, scholar, and academic (d. 1974) 1884 – Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, German painter and etcher (d. 1976) 1886 – Rex Stout, American detective novelist (d. 1975) 1886 – Zhu De, Chinese general and politician, 1st Vice Chairman of the People's Republic of China (d. 1976) 1894 – Afrânio Pompílio Gastos do Amaral, Brazilian herpetologist (d. 1982) 1895 – Henry Williamson, English farmer, soldier, and author (d. 1977) 1896 – Georgy Zhukov, Russian general and politician, 2nd Minister of Defence for the Soviet Union (d. 1974) 1898 – Stuart Garson, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Premier of Manitoba (d. 1977) 1898 – Cyril Ritchard, Australian-American actor and singer (d. 1977) 1900 – Karna Maria Birmingham, Australian artist, illustrator and print maker (d. 1987) 1901–present 1901 – Ilona Fehér, Hungarian-Israeli violinist and educator (d. 1988) 1903 – Nikolai Voznesensky, Soviet economic planner, member of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (d. 1950) 1905 – Alex Wilson, Canadian sprinter and coach (d. 1994) 1910 – Alicia Markova, English ballerina and choreographer (d. 2004) 1911 – Calvin Griffith, Canadian-American businessman (d. 1999) 1912 – Billy Raimondi, American baseball player (d. 2010) 1912 – Minoru Yamasaki, American architect, designed the World Trade Center (d. 1986) 1913 – Mary Martin, American actress and singer (d. 1990) 1916 – Wan Li, Chinese educator and politician, 4th Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China (d. 2015) 1917 – Thomas Hayward, American tenor and actor (d. 1995) 1920 – Peter Baptist Tadamaro Ishigami, Japanese priest, 1st Bishop of Naha (d. 2014) 1921 – Vernon McGarity, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2013) 1922 – Vsevolod Bobrov, Russian ice hockey player, footballer, and manager (d. 1979) 1923 – Dick Shawn, American actor (d. 1987) 1923 – Stansfield Turner, American admiral and academic, 12th Director of Central Intelligence (d. 2018) 1924 – Masao Horiba, Japanese businessman, founded Horiba (d. 2015) 1925 – Martin Rodbell, American biochemist and endocrinologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998) 1926 – Mother Antonia, American-Mexican nun and activist (d. 2013) 1926 – Allyn Ann McLerie, Canadian-American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2018) 1926 – Keith Michell, Australian actor (d. 2015) 1926 – Robert Symonds, American actor (d. 2007) 1926 – Colin Tennant, 3rd Baron Glenconner, Scottish businessman (d. 2010) 1927 – Micheline Bernardini, French dancer and model 1928 – Emily McLaughlin, American actress (d. 1991) 1928 – Malachi Throne, American actor (d. 2013) 1929 – David Doyle, American actor (d. 1997) 1930 – Marie Bashir, Australian psychiatrist, academic, and politician, 37th Governor of New South Wales 1930 – Joachim Hoffmann, German historian and author (d. 2002) 1931 – Jimmy Lyons, American saxophonist (d. 1986) 1931 – Jim Nesbitt, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2007) 1931 – George Maxwell Richards, Trinidadian politician, 4th President of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2018) 1933 – Lou Rawls, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor (d. 2006) 1933 – Violette Verdy, French ballerina (d. 2016) 1934 – Billy Paul, American soul singer (d. 2016) 1935 – Woody Allen, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1935 – Sola Sierra, Chilean human rights activist (d. 1999) 1936 – Igor Rodionov, Russian general and politician, 3rd Russian Minister of Defence (d. 2014) 1937 – Muriel Costa-Greenspon, American soprano and actress (d. 2005) 1937 – Gordon Crosse, English composer and academic 1937 – Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, Latvian psychologist and politician, President of Latvia 1938 – Sandy Nelson, American rock and roll drummer 1939 – Lee Trevino, American golfer and sportscaster 1940 – Mike Denness, Scottish cricketer and referee (d. 2013) 1940 – Richard Pryor, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2005) 1940 – Tasso Wild, German footballer 1940 – Jerry Lawson, American electronic engineer and inventor (d. 2011) 1942 – Mohamed Kamel Amr, Egyptian politician, Egyptian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1942 – John Crowley, American author and academic 1942 – Ross Edwards, Australian cricketer 1943 – Kenny Moore, American runner and journalist 1944 – Eric Bloom, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1944 – John Densmore, American drummer and songwriter 1944 – Michael Hagee, American general 1944 – Tahar Ben Jelloun, Moroccan author and poet 1945 – Bette Midler, American singer-songwriter, actress and producer 1946 – Jonathan Katz, American comedian and actor 1946 – Kemal Kurspahić, Bosnian journalist and author 1946 – Gilbert O'Sullivan, Irish singer-songwriter and pianist 1947 – Alain Bashung, French singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2009) 1947 – Bob Fulton, English-Australian rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2021) 1948 – George Foster, American baseball player and radio host 1948 – Sarfraz Nawaz, Pakistani cricketer and politician 1948 – John Roskelley, American mountaineer and author 1948 – Neil Warnock, English footballer and manager 1948 – N. T. Wright, English bishop and scholar 1948 – Patrick Ibrahim Yakowa, Nigerian civil servant and politician, Governor of Kaduna State (d. 2012) 1949 – Jan Brett, American author and illustrator 1949 – Pablo Escobar, Colombian drug lord and narcoterrorist (d. 1993) 1949 – Sebastián Piñera, Chilean businessman and politician, 35th President of Chile 1950 – Manju Bansal, Indian biologist and academic 1950 – Ross Hannaford, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016) 1950 – Gary Panter, American illustrator and painter 1950 – Filippos Petsalnikos, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Justice (d. 2020) 1950 – Richard Keith, American actor and drummer 1951 – Obba Babatundé, American actor, director, and producer 1951 – Doug Mulray, Australian radio and television host 1951 – Jaco Pastorius, American bass player, songwriter, and producer (d. 1987) 1951 – Nozipho Schroeder, South African lawn bowler 1951 – Treat Williams, American actor 1952 – Stephen Poliakoff, English director, producer, and playwright 1954 – Alan Dedicoat, English journalist 1954 – Judith Hackitt, English chemist and engineer 1954 – François Van der Elst, Belgian footballer (d. 2017) 1955 – Veikko Aaltonen, Finnish actor, director, and screenwriter 1955 – Verónica Forqué, Spanish actress 1955 – Pat Spillane, Irish footballer and sportscaster 1955 – Karen Tumulty, American journalist 1955 – Udit Narayan, Indian playback singer 1956 – Julee Cruise, American singer-songwriter, musician, and actress 1957 – Chris Poland, American guitarist and songwriter 1957 – Vesta Williams, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2011) 1958 – Javier Aguirre, Mexican footballer and manager 1958 – Candace Bushnell, American journalist and author 1958 – Alberto Cova, Italian runner 1958 – Gary Peters, American politician 1959 – Billy Childish, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and painter 1959 – Wally Lewis, Australian rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster 1960 – Carol Alt, American model and actress 1960 – Shirin M. Rai, Indian-English political scientist and academic 1960 – Jane Turner, Australian actress and producer 1961 – Safra Catz, Israeli-American businesswoman 1961 – Raymond E. Goldstein, American biophysicist and academic 1961 – Jeremy Northam, English actor 1962 – Sylvie Daigle, Canadian speed skater 1962 – Pamela McGee, American basketball player and coach 1963 – Marco Greco, Brazilian race car driver 1963 – Nathalie Lambert, Canadian speed skater 1963 – Arjuna Ranatunga, Sri Lankan cricketer and politician 1964 – Salvatore Schillaci, Italian footballer 1964 – Jo Walton, Welsh-Canadian author and poet 1965 – Henry Honiball, South African rugby player | Baptist Tadamaro Ishigami, Japanese priest, 1st Bishop of Naha (d. 2014) 1921 – Vernon McGarity, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2013) 1922 – Vsevolod Bobrov, Russian ice hockey player, footballer, and manager (d. 1979) 1923 – Dick Shawn, American actor (d. 1987) 1923 – Stansfield Turner, American admiral and academic, 12th Director of Central Intelligence (d. 2018) 1924 – Masao Horiba, Japanese businessman, founded Horiba (d. 2015) 1925 – Martin Rodbell, American biochemist and endocrinologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998) 1926 – Mother Antonia, American-Mexican nun and activist (d. 2013) 1926 – Allyn Ann McLerie, Canadian-American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2018) 1926 – Keith Michell, Australian actor (d. 2015) 1926 – Robert Symonds, American actor (d. 2007) 1926 – Colin Tennant, 3rd Baron Glenconner, Scottish businessman (d. 2010) 1927 – Micheline Bernardini, French dancer and model 1928 – Emily McLaughlin, American actress (d. 1991) 1928 – Malachi Throne, American actor (d. 2013) 1929 – David Doyle, American actor (d. 1997) 1930 – Marie Bashir, Australian psychiatrist, academic, and politician, 37th Governor of New South Wales 1930 – Joachim Hoffmann, German historian and author (d. 2002) 1931 – Jimmy Lyons, American saxophonist (d. 1986) 1931 – Jim Nesbitt, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2007) 1931 – George Maxwell Richards, Trinidadian politician, 4th President of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2018) 1933 – Lou Rawls, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor (d. 2006) 1933 – Violette Verdy, French ballerina (d. 2016) 1934 – Billy Paul, American soul singer (d. 2016) 1935 – Woody Allen, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1935 – Sola Sierra, Chilean human rights activist (d. 1999) 1936 – Igor Rodionov, Russian general and politician, 3rd Russian Minister of Defence (d. 2014) 1937 – Muriel Costa-Greenspon, American soprano and actress (d. 2005) 1937 – Gordon Crosse, English composer and academic 1937 – Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, Latvian psychologist and politician, President of Latvia 1938 – Sandy Nelson, American rock and roll drummer 1939 – Lee Trevino, American golfer and sportscaster 1940 – Mike Denness, Scottish cricketer and referee (d. 2013) 1940 – Richard Pryor, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2005) 1940 – Tasso Wild, German footballer 1940 – Jerry Lawson, American electronic engineer and inventor (d. 2011) 1942 – Mohamed Kamel Amr, Egyptian politician, Egyptian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1942 – John Crowley, American author and academic 1942 – Ross Edwards, Australian cricketer 1943 – Kenny Moore, American runner and journalist 1944 – Eric Bloom, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1944 – John Densmore, American drummer and songwriter 1944 – Michael Hagee, American general 1944 – Tahar Ben Jelloun, Moroccan author and poet 1945 – Bette Midler, American singer-songwriter, actress and producer 1946 – Jonathan Katz, American comedian and actor 1946 – Kemal Kurspahić, Bosnian journalist and author 1946 – Gilbert O'Sullivan, Irish singer-songwriter and pianist 1947 – Alain Bashung, French singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2009) 1947 – Bob Fulton, English-Australian rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2021) 1948 – George Foster, American baseball player and radio host 1948 – Sarfraz Nawaz, Pakistani cricketer and politician 1948 – John Roskelley, American mountaineer and author 1948 – Neil Warnock, English footballer and manager 1948 – N. T. Wright, English bishop and scholar 1948 – Patrick Ibrahim Yakowa, Nigerian civil servant and politician, Governor of Kaduna State (d. 2012) 1949 – Jan Brett, American author and illustrator 1949 – Pablo Escobar, Colombian drug lord and narcoterrorist (d. 1993) 1949 – Sebastián Piñera, Chilean businessman and politician, 35th President of Chile 1950 – Manju Bansal, Indian biologist and academic 1950 – Ross Hannaford, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016) 1950 – Gary Panter, American illustrator and painter 1950 – Filippos Petsalnikos, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Justice (d. 2020) 1950 – Richard Keith, American actor and drummer 1951 – Obba Babatundé, American actor, director, and producer 1951 – Doug Mulray, Australian radio and television host 1951 – Jaco Pastorius, American bass player, songwriter, and producer (d. 1987) 1951 – Nozipho Schroeder, South African lawn bowler 1951 – Treat Williams, American actor 1952 – Stephen Poliakoff, English director, producer, and playwright 1954 – Alan Dedicoat, English journalist 1954 – Judith Hackitt, English chemist and engineer 1954 – François Van der Elst, Belgian footballer (d. 2017) 1955 – Veikko Aaltonen, Finnish actor, director, and screenwriter 1955 – Verónica Forqué, Spanish actress 1955 – Pat Spillane, Irish footballer and sportscaster 1955 – Karen Tumulty, American journalist 1955 – Udit Narayan, Indian playback singer 1956 – Julee Cruise, American singer-songwriter, musician, and actress 1957 – Chris Poland, American guitarist and songwriter 1957 – Vesta Williams, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2011) 1958 – Javier Aguirre, Mexican footballer and manager 1958 – Candace Bushnell, American journalist and author 1958 – Alberto Cova, Italian runner 1958 – Gary Peters, American politician 1959 – Billy Childish, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and painter 1959 – Wally Lewis, Australian rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster 1960 – Carol Alt, American model and actress 1960 – Shirin M. Rai, Indian-English political scientist and academic 1960 – Jane Turner, Australian actress and producer 1961 – Safra Catz, Israeli-American businesswoman 1961 – Raymond E. Goldstein, American biophysicist and academic 1961 – Jeremy Northam, English actor 1962 – Sylvie Daigle, Canadian speed skater 1962 – Pamela McGee, American basketball player and coach 1963 – Marco Greco, Brazilian race car driver 1963 – Nathalie Lambert, Canadian speed skater 1963 – Arjuna Ranatunga, Sri Lankan cricketer and politician 1964 – Salvatore Schillaci, Italian footballer 1964 – Jo Walton, Welsh-Canadian author and poet 1965 – Henry Honiball, South African rugby player 1965 – Magnifico, Slovenian singer 1966 – Andrew Adamson, New Zealand director, producer, and screenwriter 1966 – Katherine LaNasa, American actress, ballet dancer, and choreographer 1966 – Larry Walker, Canadian baseball player and coach 1967 – Nestor Carbonell, American actor 1967 – Reggie Sanders, American baseball player 1968 – Justin Chadwick, English actor and director 1968 – Sarah Fitzgerald, Australian squash player 1968 – Anders Holmertz, Swedish swimmer 1969 – Richard Carrier, American author and blogger 1970 – Jonathan Coulton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1970 – Kirk Rueter, American baseball player 1970 – Sarah Silverman, American comedian, actress, and singer 1970 – Tisha Waller, American high jumper and educator 1971 – Emily Mortimer, English actress 1971 – Christian Pescatori, Italian race car driver 1971 – Mika Pohjola, Finnish-American pianist and composer 1971 – John Schlimm, American author and educator 1972 – Stanton Barrett, American race car driver and stuntman 1972 – Bart Millard, American singer-songwriter 1973 – Steve Gibb, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1974 – Costinha, Portuguese footballer and manager 1975 – Matt Fraction, American author 1975 – Isaiah "Ikey" Owens, American keyboard player and producer (d. 2014) 1975 – Farah Shah, Pakistani actress and host 1975 – Thomas Schie, Norwegian racing driver and sportscaster 1975 – Sophia Skou, Danish swimmer 1976 – Tomasz Adamek, Polish boxer 1976 – Laura Ling, American journalist and |
of Cephalonia. 1601–1900 1737 – The Marathas defeat the combined forces of the Mughal Empire, Rajputs of Jaipur, Nizam of Hyderabad, Nawab of Awadh and Nawab of Bengal in the Battle of Bhopal. 1777 – Kiritimati, also called Christmas Island, is discovered by James Cook. 1800 – The Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise fails to kill Napoleon Bonaparte. 1814 – Representatives of the United Kingdom and the United States sign the Treaty of Ghent, ending the War of 1812. 1818 – The first performance of "Silent Night" takes place in the church of St. Nikolaus in Oberndorf, Austria. 1826 – The Eggnog Riot at the United States Military Academy begins that night, wrapping up the following morning. 1846 – British acquired Labuan from the Sultanate of Brunei for Great Britain. 1865 – Jonathan Shank and Barry Ownby form The Ku Klux Klan. 1868 – The Greek Presidential Guard is established as the royal escort by King George I. 1871 – The opera Aida premieres in Cairo, Egypt. 1901–present 1906 – Reginald Fessenden transmits the first radio broadcast; consisting of a poetry reading, a violin solo, and a speech. 1913 – The Italian Hall disaster in Calumet, Michigan results in the deaths of 73 Christmas party participants (including 59 children) when someone falsely yells "fire". 1914 – World War I: The "Christmas truce" begins. 1918 – Region of Međimurje is captured by the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes from Hungary. 1920 – Gabriele D'Annunzio surrendered the Italian Regency of Carnaro in the city of Fiume to Italian armed forces. 1924 – Albania becomes a republic. 1929 – Assassination attempt on Argentine President Hipólito Yrigoyen. 1929 – A four alarm fire breaks out in the West Wing of the White House in Washington, D.C. 1939 – World War II: Pope Pius XII makes a Christmas Eve appeal for peace. 1941 – World War II: Kuching is conquered by Japanese forces. 1941 – World War II: Benghazi is conquered by the British Eighth Army. 1942 – World War II: French monarchist, Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle, assassinates Vichy French Admiral François Darlan in Algiers, Algeria. 1943 – World War II: U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower is named Supreme Allied Commander for the Invasion of Normandy. 1944 – World War II: The Belgian Troopship Leopoldville was torpedoed and sank with the loss of 763 soldiers and 56 crew. 1945 – Five of nine children become missing after their home in Fayetteville, West Virginia, is burned down. 1951 – Libya becomes independent. Idris I is proclaimed King of Libya. 1952 – First flight of Britain's Handley Page Victor strategic bomber. 1953 – Tangiwai disaster: In New Zealand's North Island, at Tangiwai, a railway bridge is damaged by a lahar and collapses beneath a passenger train, killing 151 people. 1964 – Vietnam War: Viet Cong operatives bomb the Brinks Hotel in Saigon, South Vietnam to demonstrate they can strike an American installation in the heavily guarded capital. 1964 – Flying Tiger Line Flight 282 crashes after takeoff from San Francisco International Airport, killing three. 1966 – A Canadair CL-44 chartered by the United States military crashes into a small village in South Vietnam, killing 111. 1968 – Apollo program: The crew of Apollo 8 enters into orbit around the Moon, becoming the first humans to do so. They performed ten lunar orbits and broadcast live TV pictures. 1969 – Nigerian troops capture Umuahia, the Biafran capital. 1971 – LANSA Flight 508 is struck by lighting and crashes in the Puerto Inca District in the Department of Huánuco in Peru, killing 91. 1973 – District of Columbia Home Rule Act is passed, allowing residents of Washington, D.C. to elect their own local government. 1974 – Cyclone Tracy devastates Darwin, Australia. 1994 – Air France Flight 8969 is hijacked on the ground at Houari Boumediene Airport, Algiers, Algeria. Over the course of three days three passengers are killed, as are all four terrorists. 1996 – A Learjet 35 crashes into Smarts Mountain near Dorchester, New Hampshire, killing both pilots on board. 1997 – The Sid El-Antri massacre in Algeria kills between 50 and 100 people. 1999 – Indian Airlines Flight 814 is hijacked in Indian airspace between Kathmandu, Nepal, and Delhi, India. The aircraft landed at Kandahar in Afghanistan. The incident ended on December 31 with the release of 190 survivors (one passenger is killed). 2003 – The Spanish police thwart an attempt by ETA to detonate 50 kg of explosives at 3:55 p.m. inside Madrid's busy Chamartín Station. 2005 – Chad–Sudan relations: Chad declares a state of belligerence against Sudan following a December 18 attack on Adré, which left about 100 people dead. 2008 – The Lord's Resistance Army, a Ugandan rebel group, begins a series of attacks against civilians in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, massacring more than 400. 2018 – A helicopter crash kills Martha Érika Alonso, first female Governor of Puebla, Mexico, and her husband Rafael Moreno Valle Rosas, former governor. Births Pre-1600 3 BC – Galba, Roman emperor (died 69) 1166 – John, King of England (died 1216) 1389 – John V, Duke of Brittany (died 1442) 1474 – Bartolomeo degli Organi, Italian musician (died 1539) 1475 – Thomas Murner, German poet and translator (died 1537) 1508 – Pietro Carnesecchi, Italian scholar (died 1567) 1520 – Martha Leijonhufvud, Swedish noble (died 1584) 1537 – Willem IV van den Bergh, Stadtholder of Guelders and Zutphen (died 1586) 1549 – Kaspar Ulenberg, German theologian (died 1617) 1588 – Constance of Austria (died 1631) 1596 – Leonaert Bramer, Dutch painter (died 1674) 1597 – Honoré II, Prince of Monaco (died 1662) 1601–1900 1625 – Johann Rudolph Ahle, German organist, composer, and theorist (died 1673) 1635 – Mariana of Austria (died 1696) 1679 – Domenico Sarro, Italian composer and educator (died 1744) 1698 – William Warburton, English bishop (died 1779) 1726 – Johann Hartmann, Danish composer (died 1793) 1731 – Julie Bondeli, Swiss salonist and lady of letters (died 1778) 1754 – George Crabbe, English priest, surgeon, and poet (died 1832) 1761 – Selim III, Ottoman sultan (died 1808) 1761 – Jean-Louis Pons, French astronomer (died 1831) 1798 – Adam Mickiewicz, Polish poet and playwright (died 1855) 1809 – Kit Carson, American general (died 1868) 1810 – Wilhelm Marstrand, Danish painter and illustrator (died 1873) 1812 – Karl Eduard Zachariae von Lingenthal, German lawyer and jurist (died 1894) 1818 – James Prescott Joule, English physicist and brewer (died 1889) 1822 – Matthew Arnold, English poet and critic (died 1888) 1827 – Alexander von Oettingen, German theologian and statistician (died 1905) 1837 – Empress Elisabeth of Austria (died 1898) 1843 – Lydia Koidula, Estonian poet and playwright (died 1886) 1845 – George I of Greece (died 1913) 1865 – Szymon Askenazy, Polish historian, educator, and diplomat, founded the Askenazy school (died 1935) 1867 – Tevfik Fikret, Turkish poet and educator (died 1915) 1868 – Charles Harvey Bollman, American naturalist (died 1889) 1868 – Emanuel Lasker, German chess player, mathematician, and philosopher (died 1941) 1869 – Henriette Roland Holst, Dutch poet, playwright, and politician (died 1952) 1872 – Frederick Semple, American golfer and tennis player (died 1927) 1875 – Émile Wegelin, French rower (died 1962) 1877 – Sigrid Schauman, Finnish painter and critic (died 1979) 1879 – Émile Nelligan, Canadian poet (died 1941) 1879 – Alexandrine of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (died 1952) 1880 – Johnny Gruelle, American author and illustrator (died 1939) 1881 – Charles Wakefield Cadman, American composer and critic (died 1946) 1882 – Hans Rebane, Estonian journalist and politician, 8th Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs (died 1961) 1882 – Georges Legagneux, French aviator (died 1914) 1883 – Stefan Jaracz, Polish actor and producer (died 1945) 1885 – Paul Manship, American sculptor (died 1966) 1886 – Michael Curtiz, Hungarian-American actor, director, and producer (died 1962) 1887 – Louis Jouvet, French actor and producer (died 1951) 1891 – Feodor Stepanovich Rojankovsky, Russian illustrator and painter (died 1970) 1892 – Ruth Chatterton, American actress (died 1961) 1893 – Harry Warren, American pianist and composer (died 1981) 1894 – Georges Guynemer, French captain and pilot (died 1917) 1894 – Jack Thayer, American businessman (died 1945) 1895 – E. Roland Harriman, American financier and philanthropist (died 1978) 1895 – Noel Streatfeild, English author (died 1986) 1895 – Marguerite Williams, American geologist (died 1991) 1897 – Ville Pörhölä, Finnish shot putter and discus thrower (died 1964) 1897 – Väinö Sipilä, Finnish runner (died 1987) 1898 – Baby Dodds, American drummer (died 1959) 1900 – Joey Smallwood, Canadian journalist and politician, 1st Premier of Newfoundland (died 1991) 1900 – Hawayo Takata, Japanese-American teacher and master practitioner of Reiki (died 1980) 1901–present 1903 – Joseph Cornell, American sculptor and director (died 1972) 1903 – Ernst Krenkel, Polish-Russian geographer and explorer (died 1971) 1903 – Ava Helen Pauling, American humanitarian and activist (died 1981) 1904 – Joseph M. Juran, Romanian-American engineer and businessman (died 2008) 1905 – Howard Hughes, American businessman, engineer, and pilot (died 1976) 1906 – Franz Waxman, German-American composer and conductor (died 1967) 1907 – I. F. Stone, American journalist and author (died 1989) 1910 – Ellen Braumüller, German javelin thrower and triathlete (died 1991) 1910 – Fritz Leiber, American author and poet (died 1992) 1910 – Max Miedinger, Swiss typeface designer, created Helvetica (died 1980) 1913 – Ad Reinhardt, American painter and academic (died 1967) 1914 – Ralph Marterie, Italian-American trumpet player and bandleader (died 1978) 1914 – Herbert Reinecker, German author and screenwriter (died 2007) 1918 – Dave Bartholomew, American bandleader, composer and arranger (died 2019) 1919 – Qateel Shifai, Pakistani poet and songwriter (died 2001) 1919 – Pierre Soulages, French artist 1920 – Franco Lucentini, Italian author and screenwriter (died 2002) 1920 – Yevgeniya Rudneva, Ukrainian-Russian lieutenant and navigator (died 1944) 1921 – Bill Dudley, American football player (died 2010) 1922 – Ava Gardner, American actress (died 1990) 1923 – George Patton IV, American | I. 1871 – The opera Aida premieres in Cairo, Egypt. 1901–present 1906 – Reginald Fessenden transmits the first radio broadcast; consisting of a poetry reading, a violin solo, and a speech. 1913 – The Italian Hall disaster in Calumet, Michigan results in the deaths of 73 Christmas party participants (including 59 children) when someone falsely yells "fire". 1914 – World War I: The "Christmas truce" begins. 1918 – Region of Međimurje is captured by the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes from Hungary. 1920 – Gabriele D'Annunzio surrendered the Italian Regency of Carnaro in the city of Fiume to Italian armed forces. 1924 – Albania becomes a republic. 1929 – Assassination attempt on Argentine President Hipólito Yrigoyen. 1929 – A four alarm fire breaks out in the West Wing of the White House in Washington, D.C. 1939 – World War II: Pope Pius XII makes a Christmas Eve appeal for peace. 1941 – World War II: Kuching is conquered by Japanese forces. 1941 – World War II: Benghazi is conquered by the British Eighth Army. 1942 – World War II: French monarchist, Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle, assassinates Vichy French Admiral François Darlan in Algiers, Algeria. 1943 – World War II: U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower is named Supreme Allied Commander for the Invasion of Normandy. 1944 – World War II: The Belgian Troopship Leopoldville was torpedoed and sank with the loss of 763 soldiers and 56 crew. 1945 – Five of nine children become missing after their home in Fayetteville, West Virginia, is burned down. 1951 – Libya becomes independent. Idris I is proclaimed King of Libya. 1952 – First flight of Britain's Handley Page Victor strategic bomber. 1953 – Tangiwai disaster: In New Zealand's North Island, at Tangiwai, a railway bridge is damaged by a lahar and collapses beneath a passenger train, killing 151 people. 1964 – Vietnam War: Viet Cong operatives bomb the Brinks Hotel in Saigon, South Vietnam to demonstrate they can strike an American installation in the heavily guarded capital. 1964 – Flying Tiger Line Flight 282 crashes after takeoff from San Francisco International Airport, killing three. 1966 – A Canadair CL-44 chartered by the United States military crashes into a small village in South Vietnam, killing 111. 1968 – Apollo program: The crew of Apollo 8 enters into orbit around the Moon, becoming the first humans to do so. They performed ten lunar orbits and broadcast live TV pictures. 1969 – Nigerian troops capture Umuahia, the Biafran capital. 1971 – LANSA Flight 508 is struck by lighting and crashes in the Puerto Inca District in the Department of Huánuco in Peru, killing 91. 1973 – District of Columbia Home Rule Act is passed, allowing residents of Washington, D.C. to elect their own local government. 1974 – Cyclone Tracy devastates Darwin, Australia. 1994 – Air France Flight 8969 is hijacked on the ground at Houari Boumediene Airport, Algiers, Algeria. Over the course of three days three passengers are killed, as are all four terrorists. 1996 – A Learjet 35 crashes into Smarts Mountain near Dorchester, New Hampshire, killing both pilots on board. 1997 – The Sid El-Antri massacre in Algeria kills between 50 and 100 people. 1999 – Indian Airlines Flight 814 is hijacked in Indian airspace between Kathmandu, Nepal, and Delhi, India. The aircraft landed at Kandahar in Afghanistan. The incident ended on December 31 with the release of 190 survivors (one passenger is killed). 2003 – The Spanish police thwart an attempt by ETA to detonate 50 kg of explosives at 3:55 p.m. inside Madrid's busy Chamartín Station. 2005 – Chad–Sudan relations: Chad declares a state of belligerence against Sudan following a December 18 attack on Adré, which left about 100 people dead. 2008 – The Lord's Resistance Army, a Ugandan rebel group, begins a series of attacks against civilians in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, massacring more than 400. 2018 – A helicopter crash kills Martha Érika Alonso, first female Governor of Puebla, Mexico, and her husband Rafael Moreno Valle Rosas, former governor. Births Pre-1600 3 BC – Galba, Roman emperor (died 69) 1166 – John, King of England (died 1216) 1389 – John V, Duke of Brittany (died 1442) 1474 – Bartolomeo degli Organi, Italian musician (died 1539) 1475 – Thomas Murner, German poet and translator (died 1537) 1508 – Pietro Carnesecchi, Italian scholar (died 1567) 1520 – Martha Leijonhufvud, Swedish noble (died 1584) 1537 – Willem IV van den Bergh, Stadtholder of Guelders and Zutphen (died 1586) 1549 – Kaspar Ulenberg, German theologian (died 1617) 1588 – Constance of Austria (died 1631) 1596 – Leonaert Bramer, Dutch painter (died 1674) 1597 – Honoré II, Prince of Monaco (died 1662) 1601–1900 1625 – Johann Rudolph Ahle, German organist, composer, and theorist (died 1673) 1635 – Mariana of Austria (died 1696) 1679 – Domenico Sarro, Italian composer and educator (died 1744) 1698 – William Warburton, English bishop (died 1779) 1726 – Johann Hartmann, Danish composer (died 1793) 1731 – Julie Bondeli, Swiss salonist and lady of letters (died 1778) 1754 – George Crabbe, English priest, surgeon, and poet (died 1832) 1761 – Selim III, Ottoman sultan (died 1808) 1761 – Jean-Louis Pons, French astronomer (died 1831) 1798 – Adam Mickiewicz, Polish poet and playwright (died 1855) 1809 – Kit Carson, American general (died 1868) 1810 – Wilhelm Marstrand, Danish painter and illustrator (died 1873) 1812 – Karl Eduard Zachariae von Lingenthal, German lawyer and jurist (died 1894) 1818 – James Prescott Joule, English physicist and brewer (died 1889) 1822 – Matthew Arnold, English poet and critic (died 1888) 1827 – Alexander von Oettingen, German theologian and statistician (died 1905) 1837 – Empress Elisabeth of Austria (died 1898) 1843 – Lydia Koidula, Estonian poet and playwright (died 1886) 1845 – George I of Greece (died 1913) 1865 – Szymon Askenazy, Polish historian, educator, and diplomat, founded the Askenazy school (died 1935) 1867 – Tevfik Fikret, Turkish poet and educator (died 1915) 1868 – Charles Harvey Bollman, American naturalist (died 1889) 1868 – Emanuel Lasker, German chess player, mathematician, and philosopher (died 1941) 1869 – Henriette Roland Holst, Dutch poet, playwright, and politician (died 1952) 1872 – Frederick Semple, American golfer and tennis player (died 1927) 1875 – Émile Wegelin, French rower (died 1962) 1877 – Sigrid Schauman, Finnish painter and critic (died 1979) 1879 – Émile Nelligan, Canadian poet (died 1941) 1879 – Alexandrine of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (died 1952) 1880 – Johnny Gruelle, American author and illustrator (died 1939) 1881 – Charles Wakefield Cadman, American composer and critic (died 1946) 1882 – Hans Rebane, Estonian journalist and politician, 8th Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs (died 1961) 1882 – Georges Legagneux, French aviator (died 1914) 1883 – Stefan Jaracz, Polish actor and producer (died 1945) 1885 – Paul Manship, American sculptor (died 1966) 1886 – Michael Curtiz, Hungarian-American actor, director, and producer (died 1962) 1887 – Louis Jouvet, French actor and producer (died 1951) 1891 – Feodor Stepanovich Rojankovsky, Russian illustrator and painter (died 1970) 1892 – Ruth Chatterton, American actress (died 1961) 1893 – Harry Warren, American pianist and composer (died 1981) 1894 – Georges Guynemer, French captain and pilot (died 1917) 1894 – Jack Thayer, American businessman (died 1945) 1895 – E. Roland Harriman, American financier and philanthropist (died 1978) 1895 – Noel Streatfeild, English author (died 1986) 1895 – Marguerite Williams, American geologist (died 1991) 1897 – Ville Pörhölä, Finnish shot putter and discus thrower (died 1964) 1897 – Väinö Sipilä, Finnish runner (died 1987) 1898 – Baby Dodds, American drummer (died 1959) 1900 – Joey Smallwood, Canadian journalist and politician, 1st Premier of Newfoundland (died 1991) 1900 – Hawayo Takata, Japanese-American teacher and master practitioner of Reiki (died 1980) 1901–present 1903 – Joseph Cornell, American sculptor and director (died 1972) 1903 – Ernst Krenkel, Polish-Russian geographer and explorer (died 1971) 1903 – Ava Helen Pauling, American humanitarian and activist (died 1981) 1904 – Joseph M. Juran, Romanian-American engineer and businessman (died 2008) 1905 – Howard Hughes, American businessman, engineer, and pilot (died 1976) 1906 – Franz Waxman, German-American composer and conductor (died 1967) 1907 – I. F. Stone, American journalist and author (died 1989) 1910 – Ellen Braumüller, German javelin thrower and triathlete (died 1991) 1910 – Fritz Leiber, American author and poet (died 1992) 1910 – Max Miedinger, Swiss typeface designer, created Helvetica (died 1980) 1913 – Ad Reinhardt, American painter and academic (died 1967) 1914 – Ralph Marterie, Italian-American trumpet player and bandleader (died 1978) 1914 – Herbert Reinecker, German author and screenwriter (died 2007) 1918 – Dave Bartholomew, American bandleader, composer and arranger (died 2019) 1919 – Qateel Shifai, Pakistani poet and songwriter (died 2001) 1919 – Pierre Soulages, French artist 1920 – Franco Lucentini, Italian author and screenwriter (died 2002) 1920 – Yevgeniya Rudneva, Ukrainian-Russian lieutenant and navigator (died 1944) 1921 – |
heavy international scrutiny. 2006 – 2006 Hengchun earthquakes. 2012 – China opens the world's longest high-speed rail route, which links Beijing and Guangzhou. 2015 – During the December 2015 North American storm complex, a Tornado Outbreak occurs in the DFW Metroplex, with the most notable tornadoes being an EF2, EF3, and an EF4. About a dozen people died due to various reasons, 10 of which due to the EF4, which did substantial damage to the suburb of Rowlett. Births Pre-1600 1194 – Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1250) 1446 – Charles de Valois, Duke de Berry, French noble (d. 1472) 1526 – Rose Lok, businesswoman and Protestant exile (d.1613) 1532 – Wilhelm Xylander, German scholar and academic (d. 1576) 1536 – Yi I, Korean philosopher and scholar (d. 1584) 1537 – Albert, Count of Nassau-Weilburg (d. 1593) 1581 – Philip III, Landgrave of Hesse-Butzbach (d. 1643) 1601–1900 1618 – Elisabeth of the Palatinate, German princess, philosopher, and Calvinist (d. 1680) 1628 – John Page, English Colonial politician (d. 1692) 1646 – Robert Bolling, English/English Colonial merchant and planter (d. 1709) 1687 – Johann Georg Pisendel, German violinist and composer (d. 1755) 1716 – Thomas Gray, English poet and scholar (d. 1771) 1716 – Jean François de Saint-Lambert, French soldier and philosopher (d. 1803) 1723 – Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm, German-French author and playwright (d. 1807) 1737 – Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (d. 1815) 1751 – Lord George Gordon, English lieutenant and politician (d. 1793) 1751 – Clemens Maria Hofbauer, Austrian priest, missionary, and saint (d. 1820) 1769 – Ernst Moritz Arndt, German writer and poet (d. 1860) 1780 – Mary Somerville, Scottish mathematician, astronomer, and author (d. 1872) 1785 – Étienne Constantin de Gerlache, Belgian lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 1871) 1782 – Philaret Drozdov, Russian metropolitan and saint (d. 1867) 1791 – Charles Babbage, English mathematician and engineer, invented the Difference engine (d. 1871) 1803 – Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald, Estonian physician and author (d. 1882) 1819 – E. D. E. N. Southworth, American author and educator (d. 1899) 1820 – Dion Boucicault, Irish actor and playwright (d. 1890) 1837 – Morgan Bulkeley, American soldier and politician, 54th Governor of Connecticut (d. 1922) 1837 – George Dewey, American admiral (d. 1917) 1852 – Johannes François Snelleman, Dutch zoologist, orientalist, and ethnographer (d. 1938) 1853 – René Bazin, French author and academic (d. 1932) 1854 – José Yves Limantour, Mexican financier and politician, Mexican Secretary of Finance (d. 1935) 1859 – William Stephens, American lawyer and politician, 24th Governor of California (d. 1944) 1863 – Charles Pathé, French record producer, co-founded Pathé Records (d. 1957) 1864 – Yun Chi-ho, Korean activist and politician (d. 1945) 1867 – Phan Bội Châu, Vietnamese activist (d. 1940) 1869 – Mathieu Cordang, Dutch cyclist (d. 1942) 1872 – Norman Angell, English journalist, academic, and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967) 1873 – Thomas Wass, English cricketer (d. 1953) 1874 – Khan Bahadur Ahsanullah, Bangladeshi theologian and academic (d. 1965) 1883 – Maurice Utrillo, French painter (d. 1955) 1885 – Bazoline Estelle Usher, African-American educator (d. 1992) 1887 – Arthur Percival, English general (d. 1966) 1888 – Marius Canard, French orientalist and historian (d. 1982) 1890 – Konstantinos Georgakopoulos, Greek lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1973) 1890 – Percy Hodge, English runner (d. 1967) 1891 – Henry Miller, American author and painter (d. 1980) 1892 – Don Barclay, American actor and illustrator (d. 1975) 1893 – Mao Zedong, Chinese politician, Chairman of the Communist Party of China (d. 1976) 1894 – Jean Toomer, American author and poet (d. 1967) 1900 – Evelyn Bark, leading member of the British Red Cross, first female recipient of the CMG (d. 1993) 1901–present 1901 – Elmar Muuk, Estonian linguist and author (d. 1941) 1902 – Anatoli Lvovich Kaplan, Russian painter and sculptor (d. 1980) 1903 – Elisha Cook, Jr., American actor (d. 1995) 1904 – Alejo Carpentier, Swiss-Cuban musicologist and author (d. 1980) 1905 – William Loeb III, American publisher (d. 1981) 1907 – Albert Gore, Sr., American lawyer and politician (d. 1998) 1908 – Ralph Hill, American runner (d. 1994) 1909 – Matt Gordy, American pole vaulter (d. 1989) 1910 – Imperio Argentina, Argentine-Spanish actress and singer (d. 2003) 1910 – Marguerite Churchill, American actress (d. 2000) 1912 – Arsenio Lacson, Filipino journalist and politician, Mayor of Manila (d. 1962) 1913 – Frank Swift, English footballer and journalist (d. 1958) 1914 – Richard Widmark, American actor (d. 2008) 1915 – Rolf Botvid, Swedish actor and screenwriter (d. 1998) 1918 – Olga Lopes-Seale, Guyanese-Barbadian singer and radio host (d. 2011) 1918 – Georgios Rallis, Greek lieutenant and politician, 173rd Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2006) 1921 – Steve Allen, American actor, singer, talk show host, and screenwriter (d. 2000) 1921 – John Severin, American illustrator (d. 2012) 1922 – Richard Mayes, English actor (d. 2006) 1923 – Richard Artschwager, American painter, illustrator, and sculptor (d. 2013) 1924 – Frank Broyles, American football player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2017) 1926 – Earle Brown, American composer (d. 2002) 1927 – Denis Gifford, English journalist and historian (d. 2000) 1927 – Alan King, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2004) 1927 – Stu Miller, American baseball player (d. 2015) 1927 – Denis Quilley, English actor (d. 2003) 1929 – Kathleen Crowley, American actress (d. 2017) 1929 – Régine Zylberberg, Belgian-French singer and actress 1930 – Jean Ferrat, French singer-songwriter and poet (d. 2010) 1930 – Harry Gamble, American football player, coach, and manager (d. 2014) 1930 – Donald Moffat, English-American actor (d. 2018) 1933 – Caroll Spinney, American puppeteer and voice actor (d. 2019) 1935 – Abdul "Duke" Fakir, American singer 1935 – Rohan Kanhai, Guyanese cricketer 1935 – Norm Ullman, Canadian ice hockey player 1936 – Peep Jänes, Estonian architect 1936 – Trevor Taylor, English race car driver (d. 2010) 1937 – John Horton Conway, English mathematician, known for Conway's Game of Life (d. 2020) 1938 – Bahram Beyzai, Iranian director, producer, and screenwriter 1938 – Robert Hamerton-Kelly, South African-American pastor, scholar, and author (d. 2013) 1938 – Alamgir Kabir, Bangladeshi director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1989) 1938 – Mirko Kovač, Yugoslav-Croatian author, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 2013) 1939 – Fred Schepisi, Australian director and screenwriter 1939 – Phil Spector, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2021) 1940 – Edward C. Prescott, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1940 – Ray Sadecki, American baseball player (d. 2014) 1941 – Daniel Schmid, Swiss actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2006) 1942 – Vinicio Cerezo, Guatemalan politician, 28th President of Guatemala 1942 – Catherine Coulter, American author 1942 – Gray Davis, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 37th Governor of California 1944 – William Ayers, American academic and activist 1945 – John Walsh, American television host, producer, and activist, created America's Most Wanted 1946 – Alan Frumin, American lawyer and politician 1946 – Tiit Rosenberg, Estonian historian and academic 1947 – James T. Conway, American general 1947 – Jean Echenoz, French author 1947 – Carlton Fisk, American baseball player 1947 – Josef Janíček, Czech singer-songwriter, guitarist, and keyboard player 1947 – Liz Lochhead, Scottish poet and playwright 1947 – Richard Levis McCormick, American historian and academic 1948 – Candy Crowley, American journalist 1949 – José Ramos-Horta, East Timorese lawyer and politician, 2nd President of East Timor, Nobel Prize laureate 1950 – Raja Pervaiz Ashraf, Pakistani businessman and politician, 17th Prime Minister of Pakistan 1950 – Mario Mendoza, Mexican baseball player and manager 1953 – Leonel Fernández, Dominican lawyer and politician, 51st President of the Dominican Republic 1953 – Makis Katsavakis, Greek footballer and manager 1953 – Toomas Hendrik Ilves, Swedish-Estonian journalist and politician, 4th President of Estonia 1953 – Henning Schmitz, German drummer 1954 – Peter Hillary, New Zealand mountaineer and philanthropist 1954 – Ozzie Smith, American baseball player and sportscaster 1955 – Evan Bayh, American lawyer and politician, 46th Governor of Indiana 1956 – David Sedaris, American comedian, author, and radio host 1957 – Dermot Murnaghan, English-Northern Irish journalist and game show host 1958 – Adrian Newey, English aerodynamicist and engineer 1959 – Kōji Morimoto, Japanese animator and director 1959 – Hans Nielsen, Danish motorcycle racer 1959 – Wang Lijun, Chinese police officer and politician 1960 – Keith Martin Ball, American mathematician and academic 1960 – Ruud Kaiser, Dutch footballer and manager 1960 – Jim Toomey, American cartoonist 1960 – Cem Uzan, Turkish businessman and politician 1961 – Andrew Lock, Australian mountaineer 1961 – John Lynch, Northern Irish actor 1962 – Mark Starr, English wrestler (d. 2013) 1963 – Craig Teitzel, Australian rugby league player 1963 – Lars Ulrich, Danish-American drummer, songwriter, and producer 1964 – Elizabeth Kostova, American author 1966 – Jay Farrar, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1966 – Tim Legler, American basketball player and sportscaster 1966 – Jay Yuenger, American guitarist and producer 1968 – Matt Zoller Seitz, American film critic and author 1969 – Isaac Viciosa, Spanish runner 1970 – James Mercer, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1971 – Jared Leto, American actor and musician | – Gray Davis, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 37th Governor of California 1944 – William Ayers, American academic and activist 1945 – John Walsh, American television host, producer, and activist, created America's Most Wanted 1946 – Alan Frumin, American lawyer and politician 1946 – Tiit Rosenberg, Estonian historian and academic 1947 – James T. Conway, American general 1947 – Jean Echenoz, French author 1947 – Carlton Fisk, American baseball player 1947 – Josef Janíček, Czech singer-songwriter, guitarist, and keyboard player 1947 – Liz Lochhead, Scottish poet and playwright 1947 – Richard Levis McCormick, American historian and academic 1948 – Candy Crowley, American journalist 1949 – José Ramos-Horta, East Timorese lawyer and politician, 2nd President of East Timor, Nobel Prize laureate 1950 – Raja Pervaiz Ashraf, Pakistani businessman and politician, 17th Prime Minister of Pakistan 1950 – Mario Mendoza, Mexican baseball player and manager 1953 – Leonel Fernández, Dominican lawyer and politician, 51st President of the Dominican Republic 1953 – Makis Katsavakis, Greek footballer and manager 1953 – Toomas Hendrik Ilves, Swedish-Estonian journalist and politician, 4th President of Estonia 1953 – Henning Schmitz, German drummer 1954 – Peter Hillary, New Zealand mountaineer and philanthropist 1954 – Ozzie Smith, American baseball player and sportscaster 1955 – Evan Bayh, American lawyer and politician, 46th Governor of Indiana 1956 – David Sedaris, American comedian, author, and radio host 1957 – Dermot Murnaghan, English-Northern Irish journalist and game show host 1958 – Adrian Newey, English aerodynamicist and engineer 1959 – Kōji Morimoto, Japanese animator and director 1959 – Hans Nielsen, Danish motorcycle racer 1959 – Wang Lijun, Chinese police officer and politician 1960 – Keith Martin Ball, American mathematician and academic 1960 – Ruud Kaiser, Dutch footballer and manager 1960 – Jim Toomey, American cartoonist 1960 – Cem Uzan, Turkish businessman and politician 1961 – Andrew Lock, Australian mountaineer 1961 – John Lynch, Northern Irish actor 1962 – Mark Starr, English wrestler (d. 2013) 1963 – Craig Teitzel, Australian rugby league player 1963 – Lars Ulrich, Danish-American drummer, songwriter, and producer 1964 – Elizabeth Kostova, American author 1966 – Jay Farrar, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1966 – Tim Legler, American basketball player and sportscaster 1966 – Jay Yuenger, American guitarist and producer 1968 – Matt Zoller Seitz, American film critic and author 1969 – Isaac Viciosa, Spanish runner 1970 – James Mercer, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1971 – Jared Leto, American actor and musician 1971 – Mika Nurmela, Finnish footballer 1971 – Tatiana Sorokko, Russian-American model and journalist 1972 – Esteban Fuertes, Argentinian footballer 1972 – Robert Muchamore, English author 1973 – Paulo Frederico Benevenute, Brazilian footballer 1973 – Gianluca Faliva, Italian rugby player 1973 – Nobuhiko Matsunaka, Japanese baseball player 1973 – Steve Prescott, English rugby player (d. 2013) 1974 – Joshua John Miller, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1975 – Chris Calaguio, Filipino basketball player 1975 – Marcelo Ríos, Chilean tennis player 1975 – María Vasco, Spanish race walker 1976 – Simon Goodwin, Australian footballer and coach 1977 – Fatih Akyel, Turkish footballer and manager 1977 – Adrienn Hegedűs, Hungarian tennis player 1978 – Karel Rüütli, Estonian lawyer and politician 1978 – Kaoru Sugayama, Japanese volleyball player 1979 – Fabián Carini, Uruguayan footballer 1979 – Chris Daughtry, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1979 – Dimitry Vassiliev, Russian ski jumper 1979 – Craig Wing, Australian rugby player 1980 – Todd Dunivant, American soccer player 1980 – Ceylan Ertem, Turkish singer 1981 – Pablo Canavosio, Argentinian-Italian rugby player 1981 – Nikolai Nikolaeff, Australian actor 1982 – Kenneth Darby, American football player 1982 – Noel Hunt, Irish footballer 1982 – Aksel Lund Svindal, Norwegian skier 1983 – Yu Takahashi, Japanese singer-songwriter 1983 – Alexander Wang, American fashion designer 1984 – Ahmed Barusso, Ghanaian footballer 1984 – Leonardo Ghiraldini, Italian rugby player 1984 – Alex Schwazer, Italian race walker 1985 – Beth Behrs, American actress 1986 – Joe Alexander, American-Israeli basketball player 1986 – Kit Harington, English actor 1986 – Hugo Lloris, French footballer 1986 – Selen Soyder, Turkish actress and beauty queen 1989 – Yohan Blake, Jamaican sprinter 1990 – Jon Bellion, American rapper, singer, songwriter and record producer 1990 – Andy Biersack, American singer-songwriter 1990 – Denis Cheryshev, Russian footballer 1990 – Aaron Ramsey, Welsh footballer 1991 – Eden Sher, American actress 1992 – Cecilia Costa Melgar, Chilean tennis player 1992 – Jade Thirlwall, English singer 1994 – Souleymane Coulibaly, Ivorian footballer 1997 – Tamara Zidanšek, Slovenian tennis player Deaths Pre-1600 268 – Dionysius, pope of the Catholic Church 418 – Zosimus, pope of the Catholic Church 831 – Euthymius of Sardis, Byzantine bishop and saint (b. 754) 865 – Zheng, empress of the Tang Dynasty 893 – Masrur al-Balkhi, Abbasid general 1006 – Gao Qiong, Chinese general (b. 935) 1191 – Reginald Fitz Jocelin, archbishop-elect of Canterbury 1302 – Valdemar, king of Sweden (b. 1239) 1331 – Philip I, Prince of Taranto, titular Latin Emperor (b. 1278) 1350 – Jean de Marigny, French archbishop 1352 – John, 3rd Earl of Kent, English politician (b. 1330) 1360 – Thomas Holland, 1st Earl of Kent, English commander (b. 1314) 1413 – Michele Steno, doge of Venice (b. 1331) 1441 – Niccolò III d'Este, marquess of Ferrara 1458 – Arthur III, duke of Brittany (b. 1393) 1476 – Galeazzo Maria Sforza, duke of Milan (b. 1444) 1530 – Babur, Mughal emperor (b. 1483) 1574 – Charles de Lorraine, French cardinal (b. 1524) 1601–1900 1646 – Henri de Bourbon, prince of Condé (b. 1588) 1731 – Antoine Houdar de la Motte, French author (b. 1672) 1771 – Claude Adrien Helvétius, French philosopher and activist (b. 1715) 1780 – John Fothergill, English physician and botanist (b. 1712) 1784 – Seth Warner, American colonel (b. 1743) 1786 – Gasparo Gozzi, Italian playwright and critic (b. 1713) 1863 – Francis Caulfeild, 2nd Earl of Charlemont, Irish politician, Lord Lieutenant of Tyrone (b. 1775) 1869 – Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille, French physician and physiologist (b. 1797) 1890 – Heinrich Schliemann, German-Italian archaeologist and author (b. 1822) 1901–present 1902 – Mary Hartwell Catherwood, American author and poet (b. 1849) 1909 – Frederic Remington, American painter and illustrator (b. 1861) 1923 – Dietrich Eckart, German journalist, poet, and politician (b. 1868) 1925 – Jan Letzel, Czech architect, designed the Hiroshima Peace Memorial (b. 1880) 1929 – Albert Giraud, Belgian poet (b. 1860) 1931 – Melvil Dewey, American librarian and educator, created the Dewey Decimal Classification (b. 1851) 1933 – Anatoly Lunacharsky, Russian journalist and politician (b. 1875) 1933 – Henry Watson Fowler, English lexicographer and educator (b. 1858) 1959 – Jack Tresadern, English footballer and manager (b. 1890) 1960 – Tetsuro Watsuji, Japanese historian and philosopher (b. 1889) 1963 – Gorgeous George, American wrestler (b. 1915) 1966 – Ina Boudier-Bakker, Dutch author (b. 1875) 1966 – Herbert Otto Gille, German general (b. 1897) 1966 – Guillermo Stábile, Argentinian footballer and manager (b. 1905) 1968 – Weegee, Ukrainian-American photographer and journalist (b. 1898) 1970 – Lillian Board, South African-English runner (b. 1948) 1972 – Harry S. Truman, American colonel and politician, 33rd President |
that 0 and 1 are algebraic numbers and, moreover, if and are algebraic numbers, then so are , , and, if is nonzero, . The real algebraic numbers also have the property, which goes beyond being a subfield of the reals, that for each positive integer and each real algebraic number , all of the th roots of that are real numbers are also algebraic. There are only countably many algebraic numbers, but there are uncountably many real numbers, so in the sense of cardinality most real numbers are not algebraic. This nonconstructive proof that not all real numbers are algebraic was first published by Georg Cantor in his 1874 paper "On a Property of the Collection of All Real Algebraic Numbers". Non-algebraic numbers are called transcendental numbers. The best known transcendental numbers are and . Computable real numbers A real number is a computable number if there is an algorithm that, given a natural number , produces a decimal expansion for the number accurate to decimal places. This notion was introduced by Alan Turing in 1936. The computable numbers include the algebraic numbers along with many transcendental numbers including Like the algebraic numbers, the computable numbers also form a subfield of the real numbers, and the positive computable numbers are closed under taking th roots for each Not all real numbers are computable. Specific examples of noncomputable real numbers include the limits of Specker sequences, and algorithmically random real numbers such as Chaitin's Ω numbers. Definability in arithmetic Another notion of definability comes from the formal theories of arithmetic, such as Peano arithmetic. The language of arithmetic has symbols for 0, 1, the successor operation, addition, and multiplication, intended to be interpreted in the usual way over the natural numbers. Because no variables of this language range over the real numbers, a different sort of definability is needed to refer to real numbers. A real number is definable in the language of arithmetic (or arithmetical) if its Dedekind cut can be defined as a predicate in that language; that is, if there is a first-order formula in the language of arithmetic, with three free variables, such that Here m, n, and p range over nonnegative integers. The second-order language of arithmetic is the same as the first-order language, except that variables and quantifiers are allowed to range over sets of naturals. A real that is second-order definable in the language of arithmetic is called analytical. Every computable real number is arithmetical, and the arithmetical numbers form a subfield of the reals, as do the analytical numbers. Every arithmetical | number that can be uniquely specified by its description. The description may be expressed as a construction or as a formula of a formal language. For example, the positive square root of 2, , can be defined as the unique positive solution to the equation , and it can be constructed with a compass and straightedge. Different choices of a formal language or its interpretation give rise to different notions of definability. Specific varieties of definable numbers include the constructible numbers of geometry, the algebraic numbers, and the computable numbers. Because formal languages can have only countably many formulas, every notion of definable numbers has at most countably many definable real numbers. However, by Cantor's diagonal argument, there are uncountably many real numbers, so almost every real number is undefinable. Constructible numbers One way of specifying a real number uses geometric techniques. A real number is a constructible number if there is a method to construct a line segment of length using a compass and straightedge, beginning with a fixed line segment of length 1. Each positive integer, and each positive rational number, is constructible. The positive square root of 2 is constructible. However, the cube root of 2 is not constructible; this is related to the impossibility of doubling the cube. Real algebraic numbers A real number is called a real algebraic number if there is a polynomial , with only integer coefficients, so that is a root of , that is, . Each real algebraic number can be defined individually using the order relation on the reals. For example, if a polynomial has 5 real roots, the third one can be defined as the unique such that and such that there are two distinct numbers less than at which is zero. All rational numbers are algebraic, and all constructible numbers are algebraic. There are numbers such as the cube root of 2 which are algebraic but not constructible. The real algebraic numbers form a subfield of the real numbers. This means that 0 and 1 are algebraic numbers and, moreover, if and are algebraic numbers, then so are , , and, if is nonzero, . The real algebraic numbers also have the property, which goes beyond being a subfield of the reals, that for each positive integer and each real algebraic number , all of the th roots of that are real numbers are also algebraic. There are only countably many algebraic numbers, but there are uncountably many real numbers, so in the sense of cardinality most real numbers are not algebraic. This nonconstructive proof that not all real numbers are algebraic was first published by Georg Cantor in his 1874 paper "On a Property of the Collection of All Real Algebraic Numbers". Non-algebraic numbers are called transcendental numbers. The best known transcendental numbers are and . Computable real numbers A real number is a computable number if there is an algorithm that, given a natural number , produces a decimal expansion for the number accurate to decimal places. This notion was introduced by Alan Turing in 1936. The computable numbers include the algebraic numbers along with many transcendental numbers including Like the algebraic numbers, the computable numbers also form a subfield of the real numbers, and the positive computable numbers are closed under taking th roots for each Not all real numbers are computable. Specific examples of |
secured his stay in Peru with the Capitulation on 6 July 1529. During Pizarro's continued exploration of Incan territory, he and his men succeeded in defeating the Inca army under Emperor Atahualpa during the Battle of Cajamarca in 1532. De Almagro joined Pizarro soon afterward, bringing more men and arms. After Peru fell to the Spanish, both Pizarro and De Almagro initially worked together in the founding of new cities to consolidate their dominions. As such, Pizarro dispatched De Almagro to pursue Quizquiz, fleeing to the Inca Empire's northern city of Quito. Their fellow conquistador Sebastián de Belalcázar, who had gone forth without Pizarro's approval, had already reached Quito and witnessed the destruction of the city by Inca general Rumiñawi. The Inca warrior had ordered the city to be burned and its gold to be buried at an undisclosed location where the Spanish could never find it. The arrival of Pedro de Alvarado from Guatemala, in search of Inca gold further complicated the situation for Almagro and Belalcázar. Alvarado's presence, however, did not last long as he left South America in exchange for monetary compensation from Pizarro. In an attempt to claim Quito ahead of Belalcázar, in August 1534 De Almagro founded a city on the shores of Laguna de Colta (Colta Lake) in the foothills of Chimborazo, some south of present-day Quito, and named it "Santiago de Quito." Four months later would come the foundation of the Peruvian city of Trujillo, which Almagro named as "Villa Trujillo de Nueva Castilla" (the Village of Trujillo in New Castille) in honor of Francisco Pizarro's birthplace, Trujillo in Extremadura, Spain. These events were the height of the Pizarro-Almagro friendship, which historians describe as one of the last events in which their friendship soon faded and entered a period of turmoil for the control of the Incan capital of Cuzco. Conflict with Pizarro After splitting the treasure of Inca emperor Atahualpa, both Pizarro and Almagro left towards Cuzco and took the city in 1533. However, De Almagro's friendship with Pizarro showed signs of deterioration in 1526 when Pizarro, in the name of the rest of the conquistadors, called forth the "Capitulacion de Toledo" law in which King Charles I of Spain had laid out his authorization for the conquest of Peru and the awards every conquistador would receive from it. Long before, however, each conquistador had promised to equally split the benefits. Pizarro managed to have a larger stake and awards for himself. Despite this, De Almagro still obtained an important fortune for his services, and the King awarded him in November 1532 the noble title of "Don" and he was assigned a personal coat of arms. Although by this time Diego de Almagro had already acquired sufficient wealth in the conquest of Peru and was living a luxurious life in Cuzco, the prospect of conquering the lands further south was very attractive to him. Given that the dispute with Pizarro over Cuzco had kept intensifying, Almagro spent a great deal of time and money equipping a company of 500 men for a new exploration south of Peru. By 1534 the Spanish crown had determined to split the region in two parallel lines, forming the governorship of "Nueva Castilla" (from the 1° to the 14° latitude, close to Pisco), and that of "Nueva Toledo" (from the 14° to the 25° latitude, in Taltal, Chile), assigning the first to Francisco Pizarro and the second to Diego de Almagro. The crown had previously assigned Almagro the governorship of Cuzco, and as such De Almagro was heading there when Charles V divided the territory between Nueva Castilla and Nuevo Toledo. This might have been the reason why Almagro did not immediately confront Pizarro for Cuzco, and promptly decided to embark on his new quest for the discovery of the riches of Chile. Discovery of Chile The preparations Charles V had given Diego a grant extending two hundred leagues south of Francisco Pizarro's. Francisco and Diego concluded a new contract on 12 June 1535, in which they agreed to share future discoveries equally. Diego raised an expedition for Chile, expecting it "would lead to even greater riches than they had found in Peru." Almagro prepared the way by sending ahead three of his Spanish soldiers, the religious chief of the Inca empire, Willaq Umu, and Paullo Topa, brother of Manco Inca Yupanqui. De Almagro sent Juan de Saavedra forward with one hundred and fifty men, and soon followed them with additional forces. Saavedra established on January 23, 1535 the first Spanish settlement in Bolivia near the Inca regional capital of Paria. Following the Inca Trail and crossing the Andes Almagro left Cuzco on July 3, 1535 with his supporters and stopped at Moina until the 20th of that month. Meanwhile, Francisco Pizarro's brother, Juan Pizarro, had arrested Inca Manco Inca Yupanqui, further complicating De Almagro's plans as it heavily increased the dissatisfaction of the Indians submitted to Spanish rule. Not having formally been appointed governor of any territories in the Capitulation of Toledo in 1528, however, forcing him to declare himself adelantado (governor) of Nueva Toledo, or southern Peru and present-day Chile. Some sources suggest Almagro received such a requirement in 1534 by the Spanish king and was officially declared governor of New Toledo. Once he left Moina, De Almagro followed the Inca trail followed by 750 Spaniards deciding to join him in quest for the gold lost in the ransom of Atahualpa, which had mainly benefited the Pizarro brothers and their supporters. After crossing the Bolivian mountain range and traveling past Lake Titicaca, Almagro arrived on the shores of the Desaguadero River and finally set up camp in Tupiza. From there, the expedition stopped at Chicoana and then turned to the southeast to cross the Andes mountains. The expedition turned out to be a difficult and exhausting endeavor. The hardest phase was the crossing of the Andean cordilleras: the cold, hunger and tiredness meant the death of various Spanish and natives, but mainly slaves who were not accustomed to such rigorous climate. Upon this point, De Almagro determined everything was a failure. He ordered a small group under Rodrigo Orgóñez on a reconnaissance of the country to the south. By luck, these men found the Valley of Copiapó, where Gonzalo Calvo Barrientos, | of Pizarro. He took Ana Martínez, an indigenous woman, as a common-law wife. In this period, his first son, El Mozo, was born to them. Conquest of Peru By 1524 an association of conquest regarding South America was formalized among Almagro, Pizarro and Luque. By the beginning of August 1524, they had received the requisite permission to discover and conquer lands further south. De Almagro would remain in Panama to recruit men and gather supplies for the expeditions led by Pizarro. After several expeditions to South America, Pizarro secured his stay in Peru with the Capitulation on 6 July 1529. During Pizarro's continued exploration of Incan territory, he and his men succeeded in defeating the Inca army under Emperor Atahualpa during the Battle of Cajamarca in 1532. De Almagro joined Pizarro soon afterward, bringing more men and arms. After Peru fell to the Spanish, both Pizarro and De Almagro initially worked together in the founding of new cities to consolidate their dominions. As such, Pizarro dispatched De Almagro to pursue Quizquiz, fleeing to the Inca Empire's northern city of Quito. Their fellow conquistador Sebastián de Belalcázar, who had gone forth without Pizarro's approval, had already reached Quito and witnessed the destruction of the city by Inca general Rumiñawi. The Inca warrior had ordered the city to be burned and its gold to be buried at an undisclosed location where the Spanish could never find it. The arrival of Pedro de Alvarado from Guatemala, in search of Inca gold further complicated the situation for Almagro and Belalcázar. Alvarado's presence, however, did not last long as he left South America in exchange for monetary compensation from Pizarro. In an attempt to claim Quito ahead of Belalcázar, in August 1534 De Almagro founded a city on the shores of Laguna de Colta (Colta Lake) in the foothills of Chimborazo, some south of present-day Quito, and named it "Santiago de Quito." Four months later would come the foundation of the Peruvian city of Trujillo, which Almagro named as "Villa Trujillo de Nueva Castilla" (the Village of Trujillo in New Castille) in honor of Francisco Pizarro's birthplace, Trujillo in Extremadura, Spain. These events were the height of the Pizarro-Almagro friendship, which historians describe as one of the last events in which their friendship soon faded and entered a period of turmoil for the control of the Incan capital of Cuzco. Conflict with Pizarro After splitting the treasure of Inca emperor Atahualpa, both Pizarro and Almagro left towards Cuzco and took the city in 1533. However, De Almagro's friendship with Pizarro showed signs of deterioration in 1526 when Pizarro, in the name of the rest of the conquistadors, called forth the "Capitulacion de Toledo" law in which King Charles I of Spain had laid out his authorization for the conquest of Peru and the awards every conquistador would receive from it. Long before, however, each conquistador had promised to equally split the benefits. Pizarro managed to have a larger stake and awards for himself. Despite this, De Almagro still obtained an important fortune for his services, and the King awarded him in November 1532 the noble title of "Don" and he was assigned a personal coat of arms. Although by this time Diego de Almagro had already acquired sufficient wealth in the conquest of Peru and was living a luxurious life in Cuzco, the prospect of conquering the lands further south was very attractive to him. Given that the dispute with Pizarro over Cuzco had kept intensifying, Almagro spent a great deal of time and money equipping a company of 500 men for a new exploration south of Peru. By 1534 the Spanish crown had determined to split the region in two parallel lines, forming the governorship of "Nueva Castilla" (from the 1° to the 14° latitude, close to Pisco), and that of "Nueva Toledo" (from the 14° to the 25° latitude, in Taltal, Chile), assigning the first to Francisco Pizarro and the second to Diego de Almagro. The crown had previously assigned Almagro the governorship of Cuzco, and as such De Almagro was heading there when Charles V divided the territory between Nueva Castilla and Nuevo Toledo. This might have been the reason why Almagro did not immediately confront Pizarro for Cuzco, and promptly decided to embark on his new quest for the discovery of the riches of Chile. Discovery of Chile The preparations Charles V had given Diego a grant extending two hundred leagues south of Francisco Pizarro's. Francisco and Diego concluded a new contract on 12 June 1535, in which they agreed to share future discoveries equally. Diego raised an expedition for Chile, expecting it "would lead to even greater riches than they had found in Peru." Almagro prepared the way by sending ahead three of his Spanish soldiers, the religious chief of the Inca empire, Willaq Umu, and Paullo Topa, brother of Manco Inca Yupanqui. De Almagro sent Juan de Saavedra forward with one hundred and fifty men, and soon followed them with additional forces. Saavedra established on January 23, 1535 the first Spanish settlement in Bolivia near the Inca regional capital of Paria. Following the Inca Trail and crossing the Andes Almagro left Cuzco on July 3, 1535 with his supporters and stopped at Moina until the 20th of that month. Meanwhile, Francisco Pizarro's brother, Juan Pizarro, had arrested Inca Manco Inca Yupanqui, further complicating De Almagro's plans as it heavily increased the dissatisfaction of the Indians submitted to Spanish rule. Not having formally been appointed governor of any territories in the Capitulation of Toledo in 1528, however, forcing him to declare himself adelantado (governor) of Nueva Toledo, or southern Peru and present-day Chile. Some sources suggest Almagro received such a requirement in 1534 by the Spanish king and was officially declared governor of New Toledo. Once he left Moina, De Almagro followed the Inca trail followed by 750 Spaniards deciding to join him in quest for the gold lost in the ransom of Atahualpa, which had mainly benefited the Pizarro brothers and their supporters. After crossing the Bolivian mountain range and traveling past Lake Titicaca, Almagro arrived on the shores of the Desaguadero River and finally set up camp in Tupiza. From there, the expedition stopped at Chicoana and then turned to the southeast to cross the Andes mountains. The expedition turned out to be a difficult and exhausting endeavor. The hardest phase was the crossing of the Andean cordilleras: the cold, hunger and tiredness meant the death of various Spanish and natives, but mainly slaves who were not accustomed to such rigorous climate. Upon this point, De Almagro determined everything was a failure. He ordered a small group under Rodrigo Orgóñez on a reconnaissance of the country to the south. By luck, these men found the Valley of Copiapó, where Gonzalo Calvo Barrientos, a Spanish soldier whom Pizarro had expelled from Peru for stealing objects the Inca had offered for his ransom, had already established a friendship with the local natives. There, in the valley of the river Copiapó, Almagro took official possession of Chile and claimed it in the name of King Charles V. Dismayed in Chile De Almagro promptly initiated the exploration of the new territory, starting up the valley the Aconcagua River, where he was well received by the natives. However, the intrigues of his interpreter, Felipillo, who had previously helped Pizarro in dealing with Atahualpa, almost thwarted De Almagro's efforts. Felipillo had secretly urged the local natives to attack the Spanish, but they desisted, not understanding the dangers that they posed. De Almagro directed Gómez de Alvarado along with 100 horsemen and 100 foot to continue the exploration, which ended in the confluence of the Ñuble and Itata rivers. The Battle of Reinohuelén between the Spanish and Mapuche indigenous peoples forced the explorers to return to the north. De Almagro's own reconnaissance of the land and the bad news of Gómez de Alvarado's encounter with the fierce Mapuche, along with the bitter cold winter that settled ferociously upon them, only served to confirm that everything had failed. He never found gold or the cities which Incan scouts had told him lay ahead, only communities of the indigenous population who lived from subsistence agriculture. Local tribes put up fierce resistance to the Spanish forces. The exploration of the territories of Nueva Toledo, which lasted 2 years, was marked by a complete failure for De Almagro. Despite this, at first he thought staying and founding a city would serve well for his honor. The initial optimism that led Almagro to bring his son he had with the indigenous Panamanian Ana Martínez to Chile had faded. Some historians have suggested that, but for the |
academic terms, see Divinity (academic discipline), or Divine (Anglican). Usages Divinity as a quality has two distinct usages: Divine force or power - powers or forces that are universal, or transcend human capacities Divinity applied to mortals - qualities of individuals who are considered to have some special access or relationship to the divine. Overlap occurs between these usages because deities or godly entities are often identical with or identified by the powers and forces that are credited to them — in many cases a deity is merely a power or force personified — and these powers and forces may then be extended or granted to mortal individuals. For instance, Jehovah is closely associated with storms and thunder throughout much of the Old Testament. He is said to speak in thunder, and thunder is seen as a token of his anger. This power was then extended to prophets like Moses and Samuel, who caused thunderous storms to rain down on their enemies. Divinity always carries connotations of goodness, beauty, beneficence, justice, and other positive, pro-social attributes. In monotheistic faiths there is an equivalent cohort of malefic supernatural beings and powers, such as demons, devils, afreet, etc., which are not conventionally referred to as divine; demonic is often used instead. Pantheistic and polytheistic faiths make no such distinction; gods and other beings of transcendent power often have complex, ignoble, or even irrational motivations for their acts. Note that while the terms demon and demonic are used in monotheistic faiths as antonyms to divine, they are in fact derived from the Greek word daimón (δαίμων), which itself translates as divinity. There are three distinct usages of divinity and divine in religious discourse: Entity In monotheistic faiths, the word divinity is often used to refer to the singular God central to that faith. Often the word takes the definite article and is capitalized — "the Divinity" — as though it were a proper name or definitive honorific. Divine — capitalized — may be used as an adjective to refer to the manifestations of such a Divinity or its powers: e.g. "basking in the Divine presence..." The terms divinity and divine — uncapitalized, and lacking the definite article — are sometimes used as to denote 'god(s) or certain other beings and entities which fall short of absolute Godhood but lie outside the human realm. These include (by no means an exhaustive list): Divine force or power As previously noted, divinities are closely related to the transcendent force(s) or power(s) credited to them, so much so that in some cases the powers or forces may themselves be invoked independently. This leads to the second usage of the word divine (and a less common usage of divinity): to refer to the operation of transcendent power in the world. In its most direct form, the operation of transcendent power implies some form of divine intervention. For pan- and polytheistic faiths this usually implies the direct action of one god or another on the course of human events. In Greek legend, for instance, it was Poseidon (god of the sea) who raised the storms that blew Odysseus's craft off course on his return journey, and Japanese tradition holds that a god-sent wind saved them from Mongol invasion. Prayers or propitiations are often offered to specific gods of pantheisms to garner favorable interventions in particular enterprises: e.g. safe journeys, success in war, or a season of bountiful crops. Many faiths around the world — from Japanese Shinto and Chinese traditional religion, to certain African practices and the faiths derived from those in the Caribbean, to Native American beliefs — hold that ancestral or household deities offer daily protection and blessings. In monotheistic religions, divine intervention may take very direct forms: miracles, visions, or intercessions by blessed figures. Transcendent force or power may also operate through more subtle and indirect paths. Monotheistic faiths generally support some version of divine providence, which acknowledges that the divinity of the faith has a profound but unknowable plan always unfolding in the world. Unforeseeable, overwhelming, or seemingly unjust events are often thrown on 'the will of the Divine', in deferences like the Muslim inshallah ('as God wills it') and Christian 'God works in mysterious ways'. Often such faiths hold out the possibility of divine retribution as well, where the divinity will unexpectedly bring evil-doers to justice through the conventional workings of the world; from the subtle redressing of minor personal wrongs, to such large-scale havoc as the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah or the biblical Great Flood. Other faiths are even more subtle: the doctrine of karma shared by Buddhism and Hinduism is a divine law similar to divine retribution but without the connotation of punishment: our acts, good or bad, intentional or unintentional, reflect back on us as part of the natural working of the universe. Philosophical Taoism also proposes a transcendent operant principle — transliterated in English as tao or dao, meaning 'the way' — which is neither an entity or a being per se, but reflects the natural ongoing process of the world. Modern western mysticism and new age philosophy often use the term 'the Divine' as a noun in this latter sense: a non-specific principle or being that gives rise to the world, and acts as the source or wellspring of life. In these latter cases the faiths do not | such distinction; gods and other beings of transcendent power often have complex, ignoble, or even irrational motivations for their acts. Note that while the terms demon and demonic are used in monotheistic faiths as antonyms to divine, they are in fact derived from the Greek word daimón (δαίμων), which itself translates as divinity. There are three distinct usages of divinity and divine in religious discourse: Entity In monotheistic faiths, the word divinity is often used to refer to the singular God central to that faith. Often the word takes the definite article and is capitalized — "the Divinity" — as though it were a proper name or definitive honorific. Divine — capitalized — may be used as an adjective to refer to the manifestations of such a Divinity or its powers: e.g. "basking in the Divine presence..." The terms divinity and divine — uncapitalized, and lacking the definite article — are sometimes used as to denote 'god(s) or certain other beings and entities which fall short of absolute Godhood but lie outside the human realm. These include (by no means an exhaustive list): Divine force or power As previously noted, divinities are closely related to the transcendent force(s) or power(s) credited to them, so much so that in some cases the powers or forces may themselves be invoked independently. This leads to the second usage of the word divine (and a less common usage of divinity): to refer to the operation of transcendent power in the world. In its most direct form, the operation of transcendent power implies some form of divine intervention. For pan- and polytheistic faiths this usually implies the direct action of one god or another on the course of human events. In Greek legend, for instance, it was Poseidon (god of the sea) who raised the storms that blew Odysseus's craft off course on his return journey, and Japanese tradition holds that a god-sent wind saved them from Mongol invasion. Prayers or propitiations are often offered to specific gods of pantheisms to garner favorable interventions in particular enterprises: e.g. safe journeys, success in war, or a season of bountiful crops. Many faiths around the world — from Japanese Shinto and Chinese traditional religion, to certain African practices and the faiths derived from those in the Caribbean, to Native American beliefs — hold that ancestral or household deities offer daily protection and blessings. In monotheistic religions, divine intervention may take very direct forms: miracles, visions, or intercessions by blessed figures. Transcendent force or power may also operate through more subtle and indirect paths. Monotheistic faiths generally support some version of divine providence, which acknowledges that the divinity of the faith has a profound but unknowable plan always unfolding in the world. Unforeseeable, overwhelming, or seemingly unjust events are often thrown on 'the will of the Divine', in deferences like the Muslim inshallah ('as God wills it') and Christian 'God works in mysterious ways'. Often such faiths hold out the possibility of divine retribution as well, where the divinity will unexpectedly bring evil-doers to justice through the conventional workings of the world; from the subtle redressing of minor personal wrongs, to such large-scale havoc as the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah or the biblical Great Flood. Other faiths are even more subtle: the doctrine of karma shared by Buddhism and Hinduism is a divine law similar to divine retribution but without the connotation of punishment: our acts, good or bad, intentional or unintentional, reflect back on us as part of the natural working of the universe. Philosophical Taoism also proposes a transcendent operant principle — transliterated in English as tao or dao, meaning 'the way' — which is neither an entity or a being per se, but reflects the natural ongoing process of the world. Modern western mysticism and new age philosophy often use the term 'the Divine' as a noun in this latter sense: a non-specific principle or being that gives rise to the world, and acts as the |
image in the focal plane, the same f-number on any focal length lens will give the same depth of field. This is evident from the DOF equation by noting that the ratio u/f is constant for constant image size. For example, if the focal length is doubled, the subject distance is also doubled to keep the subject image size the same. This observation contrasts with the common notion that "focal length is twice as important to defocus as f/stop", which applies to a constant subject distance, as opposed to constant image size. Motion pictures make only limited use of aperture control; to produce a consistent image quality from shot to shot, cinematographers usually choose a single aperture setting for interiors and another for exteriors, and adjust exposure through the use of camera filters or light levels. Aperture settings are adjusted more frequently in still photography, where variations in depth of field are used to produce a variety of special effects. Effect of circle of confusion Precise focus is only possible at an exact distance from the lens; at that distance, a point object will produce a point image. Otherwise, a point object will produce a blur spot shaped like the aperture, typically and approximately a circle. When this circular spot is sufficiently small, it is visually indistinguishable from a point, and appears to be in focus. The diameter of the largest circle that is indistinguishable from a point is known as the acceptable circle of confusion, or informally, simply as the circle of confusion. Points that produce a blur spot smaller than this acceptable circle of confusion are considered acceptably sharp. The acceptable circle of confusion depends on how the final image will be used. It is generally accepted to be 0.25 mm for an image viewed from 25 cm away. For 35 mm motion pictures, the image area on the film is roughly 22 mm by 16 mm. The limit of tolerable error was traditionally set at 0.05 mm (0.002 in) diameter, while for 16 mm film, where the size is about half as large, the tolerance is stricter, 0.025 mm (0.001 in). More modern practice for 35 mm productions set the circle of confusion limit at 0.025 mm (0.001 in). Camera movements The term "camera movements" refers to swivel (swing and tilt, in modern terminology) and shift adjustments of the lens holder and the film holder. These features have been in use since the 1800s and are still in use today on view cameras, technical cameras, cameras with tilt/shift or perspective control lenses, etc. Swiveling the lens or sensor causes the plane of focus (POF) to swivel, and also causes the field of acceptable focus to swivel with the POF; and depending on the DOF criteria, to also change the shape of the field of acceptable focus. While calculations for DOF of cameras with swivel set to zero have been discussed, formulated, and documented since before the 1940s, documenting calculations for cameras with non-zero swivel seem to have begun in 1990. More so than in the case of the zero swivel camera, there are various methods to form criteria and set up calculations for DOF when swivel is non-zero. There is a gradual reduction of clarity in objects as they move away from the POF, and at some virtual flat or curved surface the reduced clarity becomes unacceptable. Some photographers do calculations or use tables, some use markings on their equipment, some judge by previewing the image. When the POF is rotated, the near and far limits of DOF may be thought of as wedge-shaped, with the apex of the wedge nearest the camera; or they may be thought of as parallel to the POF. Object-field calculation methods Traditional depth-of-field formulas can be hard to use in practice. As an alternative, the same effective calculation can be done without regard to the focal length and f-number. Moritz von Rohr and later Merklinger observe that the effective absolute aperture diameter can be used for similar formula in certain circumstances. Moreover, traditional depth-of-field formulas assume equal acceptable circles of confusion for near and far objects. Merklinger suggested that distant objects often need to be much sharper to be clearly recognizable, whereas closer objects, being larger on the film, do not need to be so sharp. The loss of detail in distant objects may be particularly noticeable with extreme enlargements. Achieving this additional sharpness in distant objects usually requires focusing beyond the hyperfocal distance, sometimes almost at infinity. For example, if photographing a cityscape with a traffic bollard in the foreground, this approach, termed the object field method by Merklinger, would recommend focusing very close to infinity, and stopping down to make the bollard sharp enough. With this approach, foreground objects cannot always be made perfectly sharp, but the loss of sharpness in near objects may be acceptable if recognizability of distant objects is paramount. Other authors such as Ansel Adams have taken the opposite position, maintaining that slight unsharpness in foreground objects is usually more disturbing than slight unsharpness in distant parts of a scene. Overcoming DOF limitations Some methods and equipment allow altering the apparent DOF, and some even allow the DOF to be determined after the image is made. For example, focus stacking combines multiple images focused on different planes, resulting in an image with a greater (or less, if so desired) apparent depth of field than any of the individual source images. Similarly, in order to reconstruct the 3-dimensional shape of an object, a depth map can be generated from multiple photographs with different depths of field. Xiong and Shafer concluded, in part, "...the improvements on precisions of focus ranging and defocus ranging can lead to efficient shape recovery methods." Another approach is focus sweep. The focal plane is swept across the entire relevant range during a single exposure. This creates a blurred image, but with a convolution kernel that is nearly independent of object depth, so that the blur is almost entirely removed after computational deconvolution. This has the added benefit of dramatically reducing motion blur. Other technologies use a combination of lens design and post-processing: Wavefront coding is a method by which controlled aberrations are added to the optical system so that the focus and depth of field can be improved later in the process. The lens design can be changed even more: in colour apodization the lens is modified such that each colour channel has a different lens aperture. For | to maintain the field of view, the change in focal length will counter the decrease of DOF from the smaller sensor and increase the depth of field (also by the crop factor). Effect of lens aperture For a given subject framing and camera position, the DOF is controlled by the lens aperture diameter, which is usually specified as the f-number (the ratio of lens focal length to aperture diameter). Reducing the aperture diameter (increasing the f-number) increases the DOF because only the light travelling at shallower angles passes through the aperture. Because the angles are shallow, the light rays are within the acceptable circle of confusion for a greater distance. For a given size of the subject's image in the focal plane, the same f-number on any focal length lens will give the same depth of field. This is evident from the DOF equation by noting that the ratio u/f is constant for constant image size. For example, if the focal length is doubled, the subject distance is also doubled to keep the subject image size the same. This observation contrasts with the common notion that "focal length is twice as important to defocus as f/stop", which applies to a constant subject distance, as opposed to constant image size. Motion pictures make only limited use of aperture control; to produce a consistent image quality from shot to shot, cinematographers usually choose a single aperture setting for interiors and another for exteriors, and adjust exposure through the use of camera filters or light levels. Aperture settings are adjusted more frequently in still photography, where variations in depth of field are used to produce a variety of special effects. Effect of circle of confusion Precise focus is only possible at an exact distance from the lens; at that distance, a point object will produce a point image. Otherwise, a point object will produce a blur spot shaped like the aperture, typically and approximately a circle. When this circular spot is sufficiently small, it is visually indistinguishable from a point, and appears to be in focus. The diameter of the largest circle that is indistinguishable from a point is known as the acceptable circle of confusion, or informally, simply as the circle of confusion. Points that produce a blur spot smaller than this acceptable circle of confusion are considered acceptably sharp. The acceptable circle of confusion depends on how the final image will be used. It is generally accepted to be 0.25 mm for an image viewed from 25 cm away. For 35 mm motion pictures, the image area on the film is roughly 22 mm by 16 mm. The limit of tolerable error was traditionally set at 0.05 mm (0.002 in) diameter, while for 16 mm film, where the size is about half as large, the tolerance is stricter, 0.025 mm (0.001 in). More modern practice for 35 mm productions set the circle of confusion limit at 0.025 mm (0.001 in). Camera movements The term "camera movements" refers to swivel (swing and tilt, in modern terminology) and shift adjustments of the lens holder and the film holder. These features have been in use since the 1800s and are still in use today on view cameras, technical cameras, cameras with tilt/shift or perspective control lenses, etc. Swiveling the lens or sensor causes the plane of focus (POF) to swivel, and also causes the field of acceptable focus to swivel with the POF; and depending on the DOF criteria, to also change the shape of the field of acceptable focus. While calculations for DOF of cameras with swivel set to zero have been discussed, formulated, and documented since before the 1940s, documenting calculations for cameras |
that he is the origin of the interpretation of Dumnonii as "deep valley dwellers" from his understanding of the Welsh of his time. John Rhys later theorized that the tribal name was derived from the name of a goddess, Domnu, probably meaning "the goddess of the deep". The proto-Celtic root *dubno- or *dumno- meaning "the deep" or "the earth" (or alternatively meaning "dark" or "gloomy") appears in personal names such as Dumnorix and Dubnovellaunus. Another group with a similar name but with no known links were the Fir Domnann of Connacht. The Roman name of the town of Exeter, Isca Dumnoniorum ("Isca of the Dumnonii"), contains the root *iska- "water" for "Water of the Dumnonii". The Latin name suggests that the city was already an oppidum, or walled town, on the banks on the River Exe before the foundation of the Roman city, in about AD 50. The Dumnonii gave their name to the English county of Devon, and their name is represented in Britain's two extant Brythonic languages as Dewnans in Cornish and Dyfnaint in Welsh. Amédée Thierry (Histoire des Gaulois, 1828), one of the inventors of the "historic race" of Gauls, could confidently equate them with the Cornish ("les Cornouailles"). Victorian historians often referred to the tribe as the Damnonii, which is also the name of another people from lowland Scotland, although there are no known links between the two populations. Language The people of Dumnonia spoke a Southwestern Brythonic dialect similar to the forerunner of more recent Cornish and Breton. Irish immigrants, the Déisi, are evidenced by the Ogham-inscribed stones they have left behind, confirmed and supplemented by toponymical studies. The stones are sometimes inscribed in Latin, sometimes in both scripts. Tristram Risdon suggested the continuance of a Brythonic dialect in the South Hams, Devon, as late as the 14th century, in addition to its use in Cornwall. Territory Ptolemy's 2nd century Geography places the Dumnonii to the west of the Durotriges. The name purocoronavium that appears in the Ravenna Cosmography implies the existence of a sub-tribe called the Cornavii or Cornovii, perhaps the ancestors of the Cornish people. Gaius Iulius Solinus, probably in the 3rd century, remarks: "This turbid strait also divides the island Silura from the shore which is held by the Dumnonii, a British tribe. The men of this island even now preserve an old custom: they do not use coins. They give and accept, obtaining the necessities of life by exchange rather than by money. They reverence gods, and the men and women equally declare knowledge of the future." In the sub-Roman period a Brythonic kingdom called Dumnonia emerged, covering the entire peninsula, although it is believed by some to have effectively been a collection of sub-kingdoms. A kingdom of Domnonée (and of Cornouaille alongside) was established in the province of Armorica directly across the English Channel, and has apparent links with the British population, suggesting an ancient connection of peoples along the western Atlantic seaboard. Settlements Isca Dumnoniorum The Latin name for Exeter is Isca Dumnoniorum ("Water of the Dumnonii"). This oppidum (a Latin term meaning an important town) on the banks of I River Exe certainly existed prior to the foundation of the Roman city in about AD 50. Isca is derived from the Brythonic word for flowing water, which was given to the River Exe. This is reflected in the Welsh name for Exeter: Caerwysg meaning "fortified settlement on the river Uisc". Isca Dumnoniorum originated with a settlement that developed around the Roman fortress of the Legio II Augusta and is one of the four poleis (cities) attributed to the tribe by Ptolemy. It is also listed in two routes of the late 2nd century Antonine Itinerary. A legionary bath-house was built inside the fortress sometime between 55 and 60 and underwent renovation shortly afterwards (c. 60-65) but by c. 68 (perhaps even 66) the legion had transferred to a newer fortress at Gloucester. This saw the dismantling of the Isca fortress, and the site was then abandoned. Around AD 75, work on the civitas forum and basilica had commenced on the site of the former principia and by the late 2nd century the civitas walls had been completed. They were 3 metres thick and 6 metres high and enclosed exactly the same area as the earlier fortress. However, by the late 4th century the civitas was in decline. Other settlements As well as Isca Dumnoniorum, Ptolemy's 2nd century Geography names three other towns: Voliba, which remains unidentified, Uxella, possibly on the River Axe, or at Launceston, and Tamara, generally considered to be somewhere on the River Tamar. The Ravenna Cosmography includes the last two names (in slightly different forms, as "Tamaris" and "Uxelis"), and adds several more names which may be settlements in the territory. These include: Nemetostatio, a name relating to nemeton, signifying "sanctuary' or "sacred grove". Probably to be identified with North Tawton in Devon where there is a Roman earthwork that may be military, or possibly a tax collection station. Purocoronavis, which may refer to an important native hill fort, such as Carn Brea or Tintagel. The name has led to speculation about the Cornish Cornovii. Other Romano-British sites in Dumnonia include: Topsham, Devon - a settlement and harbour that served Isca Dumnoniorum to which it was connected by road and river. Nanstallon (Cornwall) - a square military enclosure, seemingly associated with tin workings at nearby Boscarne. Mount Batten (Devon) - an Iron Age tin port that continued into Roman times. Plymouth (Devon) - evidence of a Roman settlement has been found on the north side of the harbour. Ictis - an ancient port trading in tin. New settlements continued to be built throughout the Roman period, including sites at Chysauster and Trevelgue Head. The style is native in form with no Romanised features. Near Padstow, a site of some importance that was inhabited from the late Bronze/early Iron Age to the mid 6th century now lies buried under the sands on the opposite side of the Camel estuary near St. Enodoc's Church, and may have been a western coastal equivalent of | along the western Atlantic seaboard. Settlements Isca Dumnoniorum The Latin name for Exeter is Isca Dumnoniorum ("Water of the Dumnonii"). This oppidum (a Latin term meaning an important town) on the banks of I River Exe certainly existed prior to the foundation of the Roman city in about AD 50. Isca is derived from the Brythonic word for flowing water, which was given to the River Exe. This is reflected in the Welsh name for Exeter: Caerwysg meaning "fortified settlement on the river Uisc". Isca Dumnoniorum originated with a settlement that developed around the Roman fortress of the Legio II Augusta and is one of the four poleis (cities) attributed to the tribe by Ptolemy. It is also listed in two routes of the late 2nd century Antonine Itinerary. A legionary bath-house was built inside the fortress sometime between 55 and 60 and underwent renovation shortly afterwards (c. 60-65) but by c. 68 (perhaps even 66) the legion had transferred to a newer fortress at Gloucester. This saw the dismantling of the Isca fortress, and the site was then abandoned. Around AD 75, work on the civitas forum and basilica had commenced on the site of the former principia and by the late 2nd century the civitas walls had been completed. They were 3 metres thick and 6 metres high and enclosed exactly the same area as the earlier fortress. However, by the late 4th century the civitas was in decline. Other settlements As well as Isca Dumnoniorum, Ptolemy's 2nd century Geography names three other towns: Voliba, which remains unidentified, Uxella, possibly on the River Axe, or at Launceston, and Tamara, generally considered to be somewhere on the River Tamar. The Ravenna Cosmography includes the last two names (in slightly different forms, as "Tamaris" and "Uxelis"), and adds several more names which may be settlements in the territory. These include: Nemetostatio, a name relating to nemeton, signifying "sanctuary' or "sacred grove". Probably to be identified with North Tawton in Devon where there is a Roman earthwork that may be military, or possibly a tax collection station. Purocoronavis, which may refer to an important native hill fort, such as Carn Brea or Tintagel. The name has led to speculation about the Cornish Cornovii. Other Romano-British sites in Dumnonia include: Topsham, Devon - a settlement and harbour that served Isca Dumnoniorum to which it was connected by road and river. Nanstallon (Cornwall) - a square military enclosure, seemingly associated with tin workings at nearby Boscarne. Mount Batten (Devon) - an Iron Age tin port that continued into Roman times. Plymouth (Devon) - evidence of a Roman settlement has been found on the north side of the harbour. Ictis - an ancient port trading in tin. New settlements continued to be built throughout the Roman period, including sites at Chysauster and Trevelgue Head. The style is native in form with no Romanised features. Near Padstow, a site of some importance that was inhabited from the late Bronze/early Iron Age to the mid 6th century now lies buried under the sands on the opposite side of the Camel estuary near St. Enodoc's Church, and may have been a western coastal equivalent of a Saxon Shore Fort. Byzantine and African pottery has been discovered at the site. At Magor Farm in Illogan, near Camborne, an archaeological site has been identified as being a villa. Archaeology The Dumnonii are thought to have occupied relatively isolated territory in Cornwall, Devon, Somerset and possibly part of Dorset. Their cultural connections, as expressed in their ceramics, were with the peninsula of Armorica across the Channel, rather than with the southeast of Britain. They do not seem to have been politically centralised: coins are relatively rare, none of them locally minted, and the structure, distribution and construction of Bronze Age and Iron Age hill forts, "rounds" and defensible farmsteads in the south west point to a number of smaller tribal groups living alongside each other. Dumnonia is noteworthy for its many settlements that have survived from the Romano-British period, but |
UN's International Court of Justice ruled in an advisory opinion in Kosovo that "International law contains no prohibition on declarations of independence", though the state from which the territory wishes to secede may regard the declaration as rebellion, which may lead to a war of independence or a constitutional settlement to resolve the crisis. List of declarations of independence See also Independence referendum List of national independence days List of | larger state. In 2010, the UN's International Court of Justice ruled in an advisory opinion in Kosovo that "International law contains no prohibition on declarations of independence", though the state from which the territory wishes to secede may regard the declaration as rebellion, which may lead to a war of independence or a constitutional |
with a fully established European Drag Racing Championship, in cooperation (and rules compliance) with NHRA. The major European drag strips include Santa Pod Raceway in Podington, England; Alastaro Circuit, Finland; Mantorp Park, Sweden; Gardermoen Raceway, Norway and the Hockenheimring in Germany. There is a somewhat arbitrary definition of what constitutes a "professional" class. The NHRA includes 5 pro classes; Top Fuel, Funny Car, Pro Stock, Pro Modified and Pro Stock Motorcycle. The FIA features a different set of 5 pro classes; Top Fuel, Top Methanol Dragster, Top Methanol Funny Car, Pro Modified and Pro Stock. Other sanctioning bodies have similarly different definitions. A partial list of classes includes: Top Fuel Dragster (TF/D). The dragsters, or "diggers", are the fastest class. Among the fastest-accelerating machines in the world, these cars can cover the dragstrip in less than 3.7 seconds and record trap speeds over . Under current rules, Modern Top Fuel dragsters are long and weigh in race-ready trim. Methanol mixed with up to 90% nitromethane is used as fuel. Top Fuel Funny Car (TF/FC) Similar to their dragster counterparts but with a shorter wheelbase and a carbon-fiber body that loosely resembles a production-based automobile, Funny Cars, or "floppers," routinely run in the 4.0s and can exceed 315 mph. In 2017 NHRA driver Robert Hight ran a career best ET. 3.793 and speed of 339.87 mph. Pro Stock (NHRA, IHRA/MMPSA) Often called "factory hot rods" because of their resemblance to production-based cars (and because they must maintain a relatively stock appearance), and commonly known as "doorslammers", Pro Stockers can record quarter-mile times in the 6.4 second range, and speeds over . They can rev to more than 10,500 rpm and make in excess of . NHRA engines can be no more than displacement while MMPSA cars can run a maximum of (called "Mountain Motors"). IHRA engines can be no more than . Both classes require the motors to be naturally aspirated. Pro Stock Motorcycle (NHRA and IHRA) These highly modified vehicles, which can run under 6.8 seconds at more than 195 mph, feature a purpose-built tube chassis and a lightweight, aerodynamically enhanced replica of original bodywork. Pro Modified (Pro Mod). Known as Top Doorslammer in Australia. Some engine restrictions, very high power. Cars can run superchargers, turbochargers, or nitrous oxide. Cars running blowers are limited to while cars with nitrous can run up to . This class is globally recognised, although the name differs between North America and Australia. Top Alcohol Dragster (TA/D). Known as Top Methanol Dragster in FIA competition. Top Alcohol Dragsters resemble Top Fuelers, but have significant differences. They may use a supercharged methanol-burning engine or an injected nitromethane combination. They can run in the 5.1s at more than 280 mph. Top Alcohol Funny Car (TA/FC). Known as Top Methanol Funny Car in FIA competition. Similar in physical appearance to their nitro-burning Funny Car counterparts, Top Alcohol Funny Cars are restricted to the use of methanol fuel and have three-speed transmissions. They can run in the 5.4s at more than 265 mph. In the IHRA, Alcohol Funny Car is the fifth pro category, replacing NHRA's Pro Stock Bike. Competition Eliminator This is the NHRA class with the most variety. Each of its 88 sections is assigned an index based on what a well-built car should run, and races are handicapped according to those indexes. Outlaw Series Pro FWD Sport Front-Wheel-Drive (SFWD) This is a class that is dedicated to solely front wheel drive vehicles. One of the motivations behind the creation of this class was to keep cars as original looking as they could possibly be. SFWD is one of the most common and popular import drag racing classes. The two most common vehicles in this class are the Honda Civic and the Acura Integra. In this class, the number one restriction is that each vehicle must retain its original chassis. No modification to the OEM floorboard or Firewall is permitted. In addition, at least one headlight and both brake lights must be fully functional. Suspension and brake modifications are allowed to a certain extent. Aftermarket components are permitted as long as the original mounting points are not modified. All four brakes must be retained and parachutes are permitted. The stock dashboard and windshield must be retained along with the car's original interior from the front seats forward, while rear seats as well as passenger-side seat may be removed. Racing gas or E85 may be used; methanol may not. Internal engine modifications of all types, aftermarket engine blocks, and engine swaps are permitted. Engines may use nitrous oxide or be turbocharged. Tires may be a maximum of tall and in tread width. All cars must meet a minimum weight requirement of , plus any weight penalties teams may incur for having certain equipment installed that would have given them too much of an advantage over the competition. Stick Shift Reserved for vehicles with a Manual transmission. The rising popularity of automatic transmissions in drag racing created the demand for these classes. Popular sanctioning bodies include United Manual Transmission Racers, Pro Stick Racing, Rocky Mountain Stick Shifters, and Ozark Mountain Super Shifters. Super Comp/Quick Rod The quickest of the heads-up Super classes (8.90 index) is composed primarily of dragsters. Most cars are capable of running well under the index but use electronic aids to run close to it without breaking out. Super Gas/Super Rod Super Gas entries, which run on a 9.90 index, are primarily full-bodied cars and street roadsters. No dragsters or altereds are permitted. As in Super Comp, competitors use electronic aids to run as close to the class standard without going under. Super Street/Hot Rod Racers compete on a fixed 10.90 index. All vehicles must be full-bodied cars and weigh no less than 2,800 pounds except for six-cylinder cars (2,000) and four-cylinder and rotary-powered cars (1,200). Engine and chassis modifications are virtually unlimited. Super Stock Super Stock vehicles resemble ordinary passenger cars, but are actually heavily modified. Entries are classified using factory shipping weight and horsepower and compete on indexes. The breakout rule is enforced. Stock Stock cars are similar to Super Stockers, but rules regarding everything from engine modifications to body alterations are much stricter. Virtually any car is eligible to compete, and entries are classified using factory shipping weight and horsepower. Sport Compact Top Sportsman (NHRA, IHRA, ANDRA) Competitors in these full-bodied entries may choose their own dial-in for eliminations, generally from 6.00 to 7.99 seconds. Full Tree starts are used, and the breakout rule is enforced. Cars can run in the sixes at more than . Top Dragster (T/D) (NHRA, IHRA, ANDRA) Competitors in these open-wheel entries may choose their own dial-in for eliminations, generally from 6.00 to 7.70 seconds. Full tree starts are used, and the breakout rule is enforced. Cars can run in the sixes at more than . Cars can run any combination of motor: blown, turbo, nitrous or just all motor. Top Fuel Funny Bike (high performance 5 second bikes) Nostalgia Super Stock NHRA and ANDRA Summit Racing series Super Pro, Pro, and bike. Junior Dragster (racers between the ages of 8 and 18 may race a half scale version of the sport's fastest car, Top Fuel Dragster. Juniors run as follows: 12.90-slower for 8-9 year olds, 10-12 year olds at 8.90, and 13-18 year olds 7.90 and slower at a top speed of 85 mph). These cars race at 1/8 mile or 1/16 mile. NHRA new class for Juniors is JR COMP running 6.90s at a top speed of (1/8 mile or 1/16 mile). A complete listing of all classes can be found on the respective NHRA and IHRA official websites. The UEM also has a different structure of professional categories with Top Fuel Bike, Super Twin Top Fuel Bike, and Pro Stock Bike contested, leaving the entire European series with a total of 8 professional categories. To allow different cars to compete against each other, some competitions are raced on a handicap basis, with faster cars delayed on the starting line enough to theoretically even things up with the slower car. This may be based on rule differences between the cars in stock, super stock, and modified classes, or on a competitor's chosen "dial-in" in bracket racing. For a list of drag racing world records in each class, see Dragstrip#Quarter mile times. Dial-in A 'dial-in' is a time the driver estimates it will take his or her car to cross the finish line, and is generally displayed on one or more windows so the starter can adjust the starting lights on the tree accordingly. The slower car will then get a head start equal to the difference in the two dial-ins, so if both cars perform perfectly, they would cross the finish line dead even. If either car goes faster than its dial-in (called breaking out), it is disqualified regardless of who has the lower elapsed time; if both cars break out, the one who breaks out by the smallest amount wins. However, if a driver had jump-started (red light) or crossed a boundary line, both violations override any break out (except in some classes with an absolute break out rule such as Junior classes). The effect of the bracket racing rules is to place a premium on consistency of performance of the driver and car rather than on raw speed, in that victory goes to the driver able to precisely predict elapsed time, whether it is fast or slow. This in turn makes victory much less dependent on budget, and more dependent on skill, making it popular with casual weekend racers. Historic cars 1954 — first slingshot, built by Mickey Thompson; Smokin' White Owl built by "Ollie" Morris, first purpose-built rear-engined dragster and first to use a Chevrolet V8 engine. 1962 — the Greer–Black–Prudhomme dragster, with the best win record in NHRA history. 1966 — Don Nicholson's Eliminator I, the first true Funny Car, built by Logghe Brothers. 1971 — Swamp Rat XIV (or Swamp Rat 1-R), first successful rear-engined dragster, built by Don Garlits; Ed Donovan introduces the 417 Donovan hemi, an aluminum copy of the Chrysler. 1974 — first tube chassis Pro Stock car, Bill Jenkins' 1972 Chevrolet Vega. 1979 — Vanishing Point, rocket-powered funny car built by Sammy Miller, set current standing world record for fastest quarter-mile time (3.58 seconds) in 1984. Glossary Back half – the second half of a track, e.g. from the 1/8 mile to mark to the 1,000 foot or 1/4 mile mark for a standard track Beam – electronic device (e.g. an optical beam) at the starting line to detect a car's staging position Big tire – Car with a set of rear tires taller than 28.5 inches tall and or wider than 12.5 inches of tread. Car may have modifications to the rear frame rails and suspension system to allow the large tires to fit under the car. Compare Small tire. Bottle – nitrous system; also known as the jug. Blanket – a ballistic cover, typically over the supercharged intake manifold assembly to contain shrapnel, in the case of an explosion. Blow – see Blown. Blower – supercharger (occasionally turbocharger); in '90s, generally grouped as "power adder" with turbocharger and nitrous Blown – supercharged, when describing a functioning engine; wrecked, when describing an engine failure. Blowover – flipping of a car, due to air under car lifting front wheels Breakout – in bracket racing, running quicker than dial-in; also "breaking out". Bulb(ed) – synonym for "redlight" Bump – (also called on the bump or in the bubble) a driver is ranked by qualifying order if they are ranked 15 or 16 in most skill classes they are placed "on the bump" if the next driver improves and gets a better score that driver is eliminated and has to do another run to requalify. If they mess up on all qualification days, don't make it to elimination, or lose the first or second round that driver is eliminated and "placed on the trailer" and sent home. Burnout – intentionally spinning and smoking the tires to build heat for better traction Christmas tree (or "tree") – device at the starting line containing signal lights, used to start a race in addition to showing starting violations DA – density altitude; a reference to qualities in the air. Dial-in (bracket racing) – a car's pre-estimated ET for a pass, used for handicapping the start Diaper – an absorbent containment blanket under the engine to prevent/reduce oil contact with the track, in the event of parts breakage Dope (Southern U.S.) – nitrous or propane injection in a diesel engine Digger – dragster (as distinct from a bodied car or flopper) ET – Elapsed time. Time from a car leaving the starting line to crossing the finish line. First or worst – if both drivers commit a foul, the driver who commits the foul first loses, unless it is two separate fouls, where the loser is the driver who committed the worse foul (lane violation is worse than foul start, and failure to participate in a post-run inspection is worst). Flopper commonly, Funny Car any flip-top car Coined by dragster crews in the late 1960s to separate Funny Cars, which had fiberglass bodies with fenders, from dragsters. Fuel – shorthand for "top fuel", a mix of methanol and nitromethane ("pop", nitro) Fueler – any car running top fuel or in a top fuel class (most often, TFD or TF/FC) Grenade – an engine destroyed (the engine "grenaded") due to internal failure. Distinct from "popping a blower". Heads-up racing – a non-handicapped racing style where both drivers are started at the same time. Used in all professional ("pro") classes. Holeshot – gaining an advantage by a faster reaction time at the start. The other driver gets "holeshotted" or "left at the tree". Holeshot win – a race won by a driver with a slower elapsed time but a faster reaction time. Hook[ed] up – good traction between tires and track resulting in increased acceleration and reduced slipping or smoking of tires. James Bond – when a driver's reaction time is seven thousandths of a second after the green light (.007). A "James Bond Red" is a reaction time of -.007 seconds (red light), which is disqualification unless the opponent commits a more serious violation. Kit – turbo or nitrous kit Lit the tires – lost traction, causing burning rubber Meth – methanol injection used in conjunction with gasoline (non-leaded pump) (Not to be confused with Methamphetamine) Mill – any internal combustion engine used in a drag car, or hot rod Nitro – nitromethane Nitrous – nitrous oxide system; the gas used in such a system No prep – a style of racing where the track has not been pre-treated to improve traction Overdrive – ratio between the revolutions of the supercharger drive to the revolutions of the engine, controlling amount of boost; see underdrive Oildown – when a car's engine or lubrication breaks during a run, leaving a streak of oil and other fluids on the track. This is punishable by fines, point penalties, and/or suspension. Pedalfest – race won by pedalling; or poor track conditions that necessitate pedalling Pedalling – working the throttle to maintain traction, or as a way to sandbag; "pedalled" it, had to "pedal" it Pro tree – style of starting a race where the timing lights flash all three yellow lights simultaneously, and after four tenths of a second, turn green. Compare to "Standard tree". Put on the trailer – lost (got "put on the trailer") or won (put the other driver on the trailer) Quick 8 (Q8) – quickest eight cars in a defined race Rail – dragster (as distinct from bodied car or flopper). From the exposed frame rails of early cars. Redlight(ed) – jump(ed) the start, left before tree turned green. This is a loss unless the opponent commits a more serious foul (boundary lines or failed inspection). Red Cherry – red light Sandbagging – releasing the throttle or using the brakes at the end of the track during a bracket race after dialing a purposely slow time. Considered a dirty trick or tantamount to cheating in amateur classes. Scattershield – metal sheet protecting driver in case of transmission failure Slapper bar – traction bar Slicks – rear tires with no tread pattern and softer rubber compound, for increased traction Slingshot – early front-engined dragster, named for the driving position behind the rear wheels (erroneously attributed to launch speed). Small Tire – Class of car where rear tires are shorter than or equal to 28.5 in and or equal 12.5 in of tread. This type of racing usually assumes that the rear frame rails and suspension | for aspiring youngsters, Junior Dragster, which typically uses an eighth-mile track, also favored by VW racers. In 1997, the FIA (cars) and UEM (bikes) began sanctioning drag racing in Europe with a fully established European Drag Racing Championship, in cooperation (and rules compliance) with NHRA. The major European drag strips include Santa Pod Raceway in Podington, England; Alastaro Circuit, Finland; Mantorp Park, Sweden; Gardermoen Raceway, Norway and the Hockenheimring in Germany. There is a somewhat arbitrary definition of what constitutes a "professional" class. The NHRA includes 5 pro classes; Top Fuel, Funny Car, Pro Stock, Pro Modified and Pro Stock Motorcycle. The FIA features a different set of 5 pro classes; Top Fuel, Top Methanol Dragster, Top Methanol Funny Car, Pro Modified and Pro Stock. Other sanctioning bodies have similarly different definitions. A partial list of classes includes: Top Fuel Dragster (TF/D). The dragsters, or "diggers", are the fastest class. Among the fastest-accelerating machines in the world, these cars can cover the dragstrip in less than 3.7 seconds and record trap speeds over . Under current rules, Modern Top Fuel dragsters are long and weigh in race-ready trim. Methanol mixed with up to 90% nitromethane is used as fuel. Top Fuel Funny Car (TF/FC) Similar to their dragster counterparts but with a shorter wheelbase and a carbon-fiber body that loosely resembles a production-based automobile, Funny Cars, or "floppers," routinely run in the 4.0s and can exceed 315 mph. In 2017 NHRA driver Robert Hight ran a career best ET. 3.793 and speed of 339.87 mph. Pro Stock (NHRA, IHRA/MMPSA) Often called "factory hot rods" because of their resemblance to production-based cars (and because they must maintain a relatively stock appearance), and commonly known as "doorslammers", Pro Stockers can record quarter-mile times in the 6.4 second range, and speeds over . They can rev to more than 10,500 rpm and make in excess of . NHRA engines can be no more than displacement while MMPSA cars can run a maximum of (called "Mountain Motors"). IHRA engines can be no more than . Both classes require the motors to be naturally aspirated. Pro Stock Motorcycle (NHRA and IHRA) These highly modified vehicles, which can run under 6.8 seconds at more than 195 mph, feature a purpose-built tube chassis and a lightweight, aerodynamically enhanced replica of original bodywork. Pro Modified (Pro Mod). Known as Top Doorslammer in Australia. Some engine restrictions, very high power. Cars can run superchargers, turbochargers, or nitrous oxide. Cars running blowers are limited to while cars with nitrous can run up to . This class is globally recognised, although the name differs between North America and Australia. Top Alcohol Dragster (TA/D). Known as Top Methanol Dragster in FIA competition. Top Alcohol Dragsters resemble Top Fuelers, but have significant differences. They may use a supercharged methanol-burning engine or an injected nitromethane combination. They can run in the 5.1s at more than 280 mph. Top Alcohol Funny Car (TA/FC). Known as Top Methanol Funny Car in FIA competition. Similar in physical appearance to their nitro-burning Funny Car counterparts, Top Alcohol Funny Cars are restricted to the use of methanol fuel and have three-speed transmissions. They can run in the 5.4s at more than 265 mph. In the IHRA, Alcohol Funny Car is the fifth pro category, replacing NHRA's Pro Stock Bike. Competition Eliminator This is the NHRA class with the most variety. Each of its 88 sections is assigned an index based on what a well-built car should run, and races are handicapped according to those indexes. Outlaw Series Pro FWD Sport Front-Wheel-Drive (SFWD) This is a class that is dedicated to solely front wheel drive vehicles. One of the motivations behind the creation of this class was to keep cars as original looking as they could possibly be. SFWD is one of the most common and popular import drag racing classes. The two most common vehicles in this class are the Honda Civic and the Acura Integra. In this class, the number one restriction is that each vehicle must retain its original chassis. No modification to the OEM floorboard or Firewall is permitted. In addition, at least one headlight and both brake lights must be fully functional. Suspension and brake modifications are allowed to a certain extent. Aftermarket components are permitted as long as the original mounting points are not modified. All four brakes must be retained and parachutes are permitted. The stock dashboard and windshield must be retained along with the car's original interior from the front seats forward, while rear seats as well as passenger-side seat may be removed. Racing gas or E85 may be used; methanol may not. Internal engine modifications of all types, aftermarket engine blocks, and engine swaps are permitted. Engines may use nitrous oxide or be turbocharged. Tires may be a maximum of tall and in tread width. All cars must meet a minimum weight requirement of , plus any weight penalties teams may incur for having certain equipment installed that would have given them too much of an advantage over the competition. Stick Shift Reserved for vehicles with a Manual transmission. The rising popularity of automatic transmissions in drag racing created the demand for these classes. Popular sanctioning bodies include United Manual Transmission Racers, Pro Stick Racing, Rocky Mountain Stick Shifters, and Ozark Mountain Super Shifters. Super Comp/Quick Rod The quickest of the heads-up Super classes (8.90 index) is composed primarily of dragsters. Most cars are capable of running well under the index but use electronic aids to run close to it without breaking out. Super Gas/Super Rod Super Gas entries, which run on a 9.90 index, are primarily full-bodied cars and street roadsters. No dragsters or altereds are permitted. As in Super Comp, competitors use electronic aids to run as close to the class standard without going under. Super Street/Hot Rod Racers compete on a fixed 10.90 index. All vehicles must be full-bodied cars and weigh no less than 2,800 pounds except for six-cylinder cars (2,000) and four-cylinder and rotary-powered cars (1,200). Engine and chassis modifications are virtually unlimited. Super Stock Super Stock vehicles resemble ordinary passenger cars, but are actually heavily modified. Entries are classified using factory shipping weight and horsepower and compete on indexes. The breakout rule is enforced. Stock Stock cars are similar to Super Stockers, but rules regarding everything from engine modifications to body alterations are much stricter. Virtually any car is eligible to compete, and entries are classified using factory shipping weight and horsepower. Sport Compact Top Sportsman (NHRA, IHRA, ANDRA) Competitors in these full-bodied entries may choose their own dial-in for eliminations, generally from 6.00 to 7.99 seconds. Full Tree starts are used, and the breakout rule is enforced. Cars can run in the sixes at more than . Top Dragster (T/D) (NHRA, IHRA, ANDRA) Competitors in these open-wheel entries may choose their own dial-in for eliminations, generally from 6.00 to 7.70 seconds. Full tree starts are used, and the breakout rule is enforced. Cars can run in the sixes at more than . Cars can run any combination of motor: blown, turbo, nitrous or just all motor. Top Fuel Funny Bike (high performance 5 second bikes) Nostalgia Super Stock NHRA and ANDRA Summit Racing series Super Pro, Pro, and bike. Junior Dragster (racers between the ages of 8 and 18 may race a half scale version of the sport's fastest car, Top Fuel Dragster. Juniors run as follows: 12.90-slower for 8-9 year olds, 10-12 year olds at 8.90, and 13-18 year olds 7.90 and slower at a top speed of 85 mph). These cars race at 1/8 mile or 1/16 mile. NHRA new class for Juniors is JR COMP running 6.90s at a top speed of (1/8 mile or 1/16 mile). A complete listing of all classes can be found on the respective NHRA and IHRA official websites. The UEM also has a different structure of professional categories with Top Fuel Bike, Super Twin Top Fuel Bike, and Pro Stock Bike contested, leaving the entire European series with a total of 8 professional categories. To allow different cars to compete against each other, some competitions are raced on a handicap basis, with faster cars delayed on the starting line enough to theoretically even things up with the slower car. This may be based on rule differences between the cars in stock, super stock, and modified classes, or on a competitor's chosen "dial-in" in bracket racing. For a list of drag racing world records in each class, see Dragstrip#Quarter mile times. Dial-in A 'dial-in' is a time the driver estimates it will take his or her car to cross the finish line, and is generally displayed on one or more windows so the starter can adjust the starting lights on the tree accordingly. The slower car will then get a head start equal to the difference in the two dial-ins, so if both cars perform perfectly, they would cross the finish line dead even. If either car goes faster than its dial-in (called breaking out), it is disqualified regardless of who has the lower elapsed time; if both cars break out, the one who breaks out by the smallest amount wins. However, if a driver had jump-started (red light) or crossed a boundary line, both violations override any break out (except in some classes with an absolute break out rule such as Junior classes). The effect of the bracket racing rules is to place a premium on consistency of performance of the driver and car rather than on raw speed, in that victory goes to the driver able to precisely predict elapsed time, whether it is fast or slow. This in turn makes victory much less dependent on budget, and more dependent on skill, making it popular with casual weekend racers. Historic cars 1954 — first slingshot, built by Mickey Thompson; Smokin' White Owl built by "Ollie" Morris, first purpose-built rear-engined dragster and first to use a Chevrolet V8 engine. 1962 — the Greer–Black–Prudhomme dragster, with the best win record in NHRA history. 1966 — Don Nicholson's Eliminator I, the first true Funny Car, built by Logghe Brothers. 1971 — Swamp Rat XIV (or Swamp Rat 1-R), first successful rear-engined dragster, built by Don Garlits; Ed Donovan introduces the 417 Donovan hemi, an aluminum copy of the Chrysler. 1974 — first tube chassis Pro Stock car, Bill Jenkins' 1972 Chevrolet Vega. 1979 — Vanishing Point, rocket-powered funny car built by Sammy Miller, set current standing world record for fastest quarter-mile time (3.58 seconds) in 1984. Glossary Back half – the second half of a track, e.g. from the 1/8 mile to mark to the 1,000 foot or 1/4 mile mark for a standard track Beam – electronic device (e.g. an optical beam) at the starting line to detect a car's staging position Big tire – Car with a set of rear tires taller than 28.5 inches tall and or wider than 12.5 inches of tread. Car may have modifications to the rear frame rails and suspension system to allow the large tires to fit under the car. Compare Small tire. Bottle – nitrous system; also known as the jug. Blanket – a ballistic cover, typically over the supercharged intake manifold assembly to contain shrapnel, in the case of an explosion. Blow – see Blown. Blower – supercharger (occasionally turbocharger); in '90s, generally grouped as "power adder" with turbocharger and nitrous Blown – supercharged, when describing a functioning engine; wrecked, when describing an engine failure. Blowover – flipping of a car, due to air under car lifting front wheels Breakout – in bracket racing, running quicker than dial-in; also "breaking out". Bulb(ed) – synonym for "redlight" Bump – (also called on the bump or in the bubble) a driver is ranked by qualifying order if they are ranked 15 or 16 in most skill classes they are placed "on the bump" if the next driver improves and gets a better score that driver is eliminated and has to do another run to requalify. If they mess up on all qualification days, don't make it to elimination, or lose the first or second round that driver is eliminated and "placed on the trailer" and sent home. Burnout – intentionally spinning and smoking the tires to build heat for better traction Christmas tree (or "tree") – device at the starting line containing signal lights, used to start a race in addition to showing starting violations DA – density altitude; a reference to qualities in the air. Dial-in (bracket racing) – a car's pre-estimated ET for a pass, used for handicapping the start Diaper – an absorbent containment blanket under the engine to prevent/reduce oil contact with the track, in the event of parts breakage Dope (Southern U.S.) – nitrous or propane injection in a diesel engine Digger – dragster (as distinct from a bodied car or flopper) ET – Elapsed time. Time from a car leaving the starting line to crossing the finish line. First or worst – if both drivers commit a foul, the driver who commits the foul first loses, unless it is two separate fouls, where the loser is the driver who committed the worse foul (lane violation is worse than foul start, and failure to participate in a post-run inspection is worst). Flopper commonly, Funny Car any flip-top car Coined by dragster crews in the late 1960s to separate Funny Cars, which had fiberglass bodies with fenders, from dragsters. Fuel – shorthand for "top fuel", a mix of methanol and nitromethane ("pop", nitro) Fueler – any car running top fuel or in a top fuel class (most often, TFD or TF/FC) Grenade – an engine destroyed (the engine "grenaded") due to internal failure. Distinct from "popping a blower". Heads-up racing – a non-handicapped racing style where both drivers are started at the same time. Used in all professional ("pro") classes. Holeshot – gaining an advantage by a faster reaction time at the start. The other driver gets "holeshotted" or "left at the tree". Holeshot win – a race won by a driver with a slower elapsed time but a faster reaction time. Hook[ed] up – good traction between tires and track resulting in increased acceleration and reduced slipping or smoking of tires. James Bond – when a driver's reaction time is seven thousandths of a second after the green light (.007). A "James Bond Red" is a reaction time of -.007 seconds (red light), which is disqualification unless the opponent commits a more serious violation. Kit – turbo or nitrous kit Lit the tires – lost traction, causing burning rubber Meth – methanol injection used in conjunction with gasoline (non-leaded pump) (Not to be confused with Methamphetamine) Mill – any internal combustion engine used in a drag car, or hot rod Nitro – nitromethane Nitrous – nitrous oxide system; the gas used in such a system No prep – a style of racing where the track has not been pre-treated to improve traction Overdrive – ratio between the revolutions of the supercharger drive to the revolutions of the engine, controlling amount of boost; see underdrive Oildown – when a car's engine or lubrication breaks during a run, leaving a streak of oil and other fluids on the track. This is punishable by fines, point penalties, and/or suspension. Pedalfest – race won by pedalling; or poor track conditions that necessitate pedalling Pedalling – working the throttle to maintain traction, or as a way to sandbag; "pedalled" it, had to "pedal" it Pro tree – style of starting a race where the timing lights flash all three yellow lights simultaneously, and after four tenths of a second, turn green. Compare to "Standard tree". Put on the trailer – lost (got "put on the trailer") or won (put the other driver on the trailer) Quick 8 (Q8) – quickest eight cars in a defined race Rail – dragster (as distinct from bodied car or flopper). From the exposed frame rails of early cars. Redlight(ed) – jump(ed) the start, left before tree turned green. This is a loss unless the opponent commits a more serious foul (boundary lines or failed inspection). Red Cherry – red light Sandbagging – releasing the throttle or using the brakes at the end of the track during a bracket race after dialing a purposely slow time. Considered a dirty trick or tantamount to cheating in amateur classes. Scattershield – metal sheet protecting driver in case of transmission failure Slapper bar – traction bar Slicks – rear tires with no tread pattern and softer rubber compound, for increased traction Slingshot – early front-engined dragster, named for the driving position behind the rear wheels (erroneously attributed to launch speed). Small Tire – Class of car where rear tires are shorter than or equal to 28.5 in and or equal 12.5 in of tread. This type of racing usually assumes that the rear frame rails and suspension are not radically modified. Standard tree – style of starting a race where the timing lights flash in sequence five tenths of a second between each yellow light before turning green. Original starting method before introduction of pro tree. Struck the tires – (also called hazing the tires, smoking the tires, or smoking out) loss of traction, causing them to smoke Throw a belt – losing the drive belt connecting the engine's crankshaft to the supercharger Top end – finish line of strip; high part of engine's rev band. Traction bars – rear struts fixed to rear axle to keep rear axle from twisting, causing wheel hop and loss of traction; slapper bars. Trap(s) – the speed trap near the finish line to measure speed & E.T. Trap speed – the speed measured by the 60 foot speed trap near the finish line, indicating maximum speed reached in a run. Tire shake – violent shaking of the car as the tires lose and regain traction in quick succession. Wheelie bars – rear struts fixed |
exhibit an immense and nearly insatiable appetite, as shown in the encounter of Aran and Asmund, sword brothers who made an oath that, if one should die, the other would sit vigil with him for three days inside the burial mound. When Aran died, Asmund brought his own possessions into the barrow—banners, armor, hawk, hound, and horse—then set himself to wait the three days: Bloodthirst The draugr's victims were not limited to trespassers in its home. The roaming undead devastated livestock by running the animals to death either by riding them or pursuing them in some hideous, half-flayed form. Shepherds' duties kept them outdoors at night, and they were particular targets for the hunger and hatred of the undead: Animals feeding near the grave of a draugr might be driven mad by the creature's influence. They may also die from being driven mad. Thorolf, for example, caused birds to drop dead when they flew over his bowl barrow. Sitting posture and evil eye The main indication that a deceased person will become a draugr is that the corpse is not in a horizontal position but is found standing upright (Víga-Hrappr), or in a sitting position (Þórólfr), indicating that the dead might return. Ármann Jakobsson suggests further that breaking the draugr's posture is a necessary or helpful step in destroying the draugr, but this is fraught with the risk of being inflicted with the evil eye, whether this is explictly told in the case of Grettir who receives the curse from Glámr, or only implied in the case of Þórólfr, whose son warns the others to beware while they unbend Þórólfr's seated posture. Annihilating The revenant draugr needing to be decapitated in order to incapacitate them from further hauntings is a common theme in the family sagas. Means of prevention Traditionally, a pair of open iron scissors was placed on the chest of the recently deceased, and straws or twigs might be hidden among their clothes. The big toes were tied together or needles were driven through the soles of the feet in order to keep the dead from being able to walk. Tradition also held that the coffin should be lifted and lowered in three different directions as it was carried from the house to confuse a possible draugr's sense of direction. The most effective means of preventing the return of the dead was believed to be a corpse door, a special door through which the corpse was carried feet-first with people surrounding it so that the corpse couldn't see where it was going. The door was then bricked up to prevent a return. It is speculated that this belief began in Denmark and spread throughout the Norse culture, founded on the idea that the dead could only leave through the way they entered. In Eyrbyggja saga, draugar are driven off by holding a "door-doom". One by one, they are summoned to the door-doom and given judgment and forced out of the home by this legal method. The home was then purified with holy water to ensure that they never came back. Similar beings A variation of the draugr is the haugbui (from Old Norse haugr "howe, barrow, tumulus") which was a mound-dweller, the dead body living on within its tomb. The notable difference between the two was that the haugbui is unable to leave its grave site and only attacks those who trespass upon their territory. The haugbui was rarely found far from its burial place and is a type of undead commonly found in Norse sagas. The creature is said to either swim alongside boats or sail around them in a partially submerged vessel, always on their own. In some accounts, witnesses portray them as shapeshifters who take on the appearance of seaweed or moss-covered stones on the shoreline. Folklore Icelandic Sagas One of the best-known draugar is Glámr''', who is defeated by the hero in Grettis saga. After Glámr dies on Christmas Eve, "people became aware that Glámr was not resting in peace. He wrought such havoc that some people fainted at the sight of him, while others went out of their minds". After a battle, Grettir eventually gets Glámr on his back. Just before Grettir kills him, Glámr curses Grettir because "Glámr was endowed with more evil force than most other ghosts", and thus he was able to speak and leave Grettir with his curse after his death. A somewhat ambivalent, alternative view of the draugr is presented by the example of Gunnar Hámundarson in Njáls saga: "It seemed as though the howe was agape, and that Gunnar had turned within the howe to look upwards at the moon. They thought that they saw four lights within the howe, but not a shadow to be seen. Then they saw that Gunnar was merry, with a joyful face." In the Eyrbyggja saga, a shepherd is assaulted by a blue-black draugr. The shepherd's neck is broken during the ensuing scuffle. The shepherd rises the next night as a draugr. Recent In more recent Scandinavian folklore, the draug (the modern spelling used in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) is a supernatural being that occurs in legends along the coast of Norway. Draugen was originally a dead person who either lived in the mound (in Norse called haugbúi) or went out to haunt the living. In later folklore, it became common to limit the figure to a ghost of a dead fisherman who had drifted at sea, and who was not buried in Christian soil. It was said that he wore a leather jacket or was dressed in oilskin, but had a seaweed vase for his head. He sailed in a half-boat with blocked sails (the Norwegian municipality of Bø, Nordland has the half-boat in its coat-of-arms) and announced death for those who saw him or even wanted to pull them down. This trait is common in the northernmost part of Norway, where life and culture was based on fishing more than anywhere else. The reason for this may be that the fishermen often drowned in great numbers, and the stories of restless dead coming in from sea were more common in the north than any other region of the country. A recorded legend from Trøndelag tells how a cadaver lying on a beach became the object of a quarrel between the two types of draug (headless and seaweed-headed). A similar source even tells of a third type, the gleip, known to hitch themselves to sailors walking ashore and make them slip on the wet rocks. But, though the draug usually presages death, there is an amusing account in Northern Norway of a northerner who managed to outwit him: Use in popular culture The modern and popular connection between the draug and the sea can be traced back to authors like Jonas Lie and Regine Nordmann, whose works include several books of fairy tales, as well as the drawings of Theodor Kittelsen, who spent some years living in Svolvær. Up north, the tradition of sea-draugs is especially vivid. Arne Garborg describes land-draugs coming fresh from the graveyards, and the term draug is even used of vampires. The notion of draugs who live in the mountains is present in the poetic works of Henrik Ibsen (Peer Gynt), and Aasmund Olavsson Vinje. The Nynorsk translation of The Lord of the Rings used the term for both Nazgûl and the dead men of Dunharrow. Tolkien's Barrow-Wights bear obvious similarity to, and were inspired by the haugbúi. In the video game The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim, draugr are the undead skeletal remains of fallen warriors that inhabit the ancient burial sites of a Nordic-inspired race of man. These draugr behave more like haugbúi, than traditional draugr. Draugr are a common enemy, the first encountered by the player, in the 2018 video game God of War, with a variety of different powers and abilities. In 2019, a spaceship named "Draugur" was added to the game Eve Online, as the command destroyer of the Triglavian faction. Draugr appear as an enemies in the 2021 early access game Valheim'', where they take the more recent, seaweed version of the Draug. Season 2 Episode 2 of Hilda, entitled "The Draugen," involved draugen as the ghosts of sailors who died at sea. While their form was ghostly, the captain was able to wear a coat, and had a shock of seaweed for hair. The exoplanet PSR B1257+12 A has been named "Draugr". See also Gjenganger Norse funeral Selkolla Spriggan Wiedergänger Explanatory notes References Citations Bibliography (primary sources) (secondary sources) External links Creatures in Norse mythology | nearly insatiable appetite, as shown in the encounter of Aran and Asmund, sword brothers who made an oath that, if one should die, the other would sit vigil with him for three days inside the burial mound. When Aran died, Asmund brought his own possessions into the barrow—banners, armor, hawk, hound, and horse—then set himself to wait the three days: Bloodthirst The draugr's victims were not limited to trespassers in its home. The roaming undead devastated livestock by running the animals to death either by riding them or pursuing them in some hideous, half-flayed form. Shepherds' duties kept them outdoors at night, and they were particular targets for the hunger and hatred of the undead: Animals feeding near the grave of a draugr might be driven mad by the creature's influence. They may also die from being driven mad. Thorolf, for example, caused birds to drop dead when they flew over his bowl barrow. Sitting posture and evil eye The main indication that a deceased person will become a draugr is that the corpse is not in a horizontal position but is found standing upright (Víga-Hrappr), or in a sitting position (Þórólfr), indicating that the dead might return. Ármann Jakobsson suggests further that breaking the draugr's posture is a necessary or helpful step in destroying the draugr, but this is fraught with the risk of being inflicted with the evil eye, whether this is explictly told in the case of Grettir who receives the curse from Glámr, or only implied in the case of Þórólfr, whose son warns the others to beware while they unbend Þórólfr's seated posture. Annihilating The revenant draugr needing to be decapitated in order to incapacitate them from further hauntings is a common theme in the family sagas. Means of prevention Traditionally, a pair of open iron scissors was placed on the chest of the recently deceased, and straws or twigs might be hidden among their clothes. The big toes were tied together or needles were driven through the soles of the feet in order to keep the dead from being able to walk. Tradition also held that the coffin should be lifted and lowered in three different directions as it was carried from the house to confuse a possible draugr's sense of direction. The most effective means of preventing the return of the dead was believed to be a corpse door, a special door through which the corpse was carried feet-first with people surrounding it so that the corpse couldn't see where it was going. The door was then bricked up to prevent a return. It is speculated that this belief began in Denmark and spread throughout the Norse culture, founded on the idea that the dead could only leave through the way they entered. In Eyrbyggja saga, draugar are driven off by holding a "door-doom". One by one, they are summoned to the door-doom and given judgment and forced out of the home by this legal method. The home was then purified with holy water to ensure that they never came back. Similar beings A variation of the draugr is the haugbui (from Old Norse haugr "howe, barrow, tumulus") which was a mound-dweller, the dead body living on within its tomb. The notable difference between the two was that the haugbui is unable to leave its grave site and only attacks those who trespass upon their territory. The haugbui was rarely found far from its burial place and is a type of undead commonly found in Norse sagas. The creature is said to either swim alongside boats or sail around them in a partially submerged vessel, always on their own. In some accounts, witnesses portray them as shapeshifters who take on the appearance of seaweed or moss-covered stones on the shoreline. Folklore Icelandic Sagas One of the best-known draugar is Glámr''', who is defeated by the hero in Grettis saga. After Glámr dies on Christmas Eve, "people became aware that Glámr was not resting in peace. He wrought such havoc that some people fainted at the sight of him, while others went out of their minds". After a battle, Grettir eventually gets Glámr on his back. Just before Grettir kills him, Glámr curses Grettir because "Glámr was endowed with more evil force than most other ghosts", and thus he was able to speak and leave Grettir with his curse after his death. A somewhat ambivalent, alternative view of the draugr is presented by the example of Gunnar Hámundarson in Njáls saga: "It seemed as though the howe was agape, and that Gunnar had turned within the howe to look upwards at the moon. They thought that they saw four lights within the howe, but not a shadow to be seen. Then they saw that Gunnar was merry, with a joyful face." In the Eyrbyggja saga, a shepherd is assaulted by a blue-black draugr. The shepherd's neck is broken during the ensuing scuffle. The shepherd rises the next night as a draugr. Recent In more recent Scandinavian folklore, the draug (the modern spelling used in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) is a supernatural being that occurs in legends along the coast of Norway. Draugen was originally a dead person who either lived in the mound (in Norse called haugbúi) or went out to haunt the living. In later folklore, it became common to limit the figure to a ghost of a dead fisherman who had drifted at sea, and who was not buried in Christian soil. It was |
plus or minus a possible leap second in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), and occasionally plus or minus an hour in those locations that change from or to daylight saving time. Day can be defined as each of the twenty-four-hour periods, reckoned from one midnight to the next, into which a week, month, or year is divided, and corresponding to a rotation of the earth on its axis. However, its use depends on its context; for example, when people say 'day and night', 'day' will have a different meaning: the interval of light between two successive nights, the time between sunrise and sunset; the time of light between one night and the next. For clarity when meaning 'day' in that sense, the word "daytime" may be used instead, though context and phrasing often makes the meaning clear. The word day may also refer to a day of the week or to a calendar date, as in answer to the question, "On which day?" The biologically determined living patterns (circadian rhythms) of humans and many other species relate to Earth's solar day and the day-night cycle. Introduction Apparent and mean solar day Several definitions of this universal human concept are used according to context, need and convenience. Besides the day of 24 hours (86,400 seconds), the word day is used for several different spans of time based on the rotation of the Earth around its axis. An important one is the solar day, defined as the time it takes for the Sun to return to its culmination point (its highest point in the sky). Because celestial orbits are not perfectly circular, and thus objects travel at different speeds at various positions in their orbit, a solar day is not the same length of time throughout the orbital year. Because the Earth moves along an eccentric orbit around the Sun while the Earth spins on an inclined axis, this period can be up to 7.9 seconds more than (or less than) 24 hours. In recent decades, the average length of a solar day on Earth has been about 86,400.002 seconds (24.000 000 6 hours) and there are currently about 365.2421875 solar days in one mean tropical year. Ancient custom has a new day start at either the rising or setting of the Sun on the local horizon (Italian reckoning, for example, being 24 hours from sunset, oldstyle). The exact moment of, and the interval between, two sunrises or sunsets depends on the geographical position (longitude and latitude, as well as altitude), and the time of year (as indicated by ancient hemispherical sundials). A more constant day can be defined by the Sun passing through the local meridian, which happens at local noon (upper culmination) or midnight (lower culmination). The exact moment is dependent on the geographical longitude, and to a lesser extent on the time of the year. The length of such a day is nearly constant (24 hours ± 30 seconds). This is the time as indicated by modern sundials. A further improvement defines a fictitious mean Sun that moves with constant speed along the celestial equator; the speed is the same as the average speed of the real Sun, but this removes the variation over a year as the Earth moves along its orbit around the Sun (due to both its velocity and its axial tilt). Stellar day A day, understood as the span of time it takes for the Earth to make one entire rotation with respect to the celestial background or a distant star (assumed to be fixed), is called a stellar day. This period of rotation is about 4 minutes less than 24 hours (23 hours 56 minutes and 4.09 seconds) and there are about 366.2422 stellar days in one mean tropical year (one stellar day more than the number of solar days). Other planets and moons have stellar and solar days of different lengths from Earth's. Besides a stellar day on Earth, other bodies in the Solar System have day times, the durations of these being: name: daylength in hours Pluto: 153.3 Neptune:16.1 Uranus: 17.2 Saturn: 10.7 Jupiter: 9.9 Ceres: 9 - | 2,700 years). The length of a day circa 620 million years ago has been estimated from rhythmites (alternating layers in sandstone) as having been about 21.9 hours. In order to keep the civil day aligned with the apparent movement of the Sun, a day according to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) can include a negative or positive leap second. Therefore, although typically 86,400 SI seconds in duration, a civil day can be either 86,401 or 86,399 SI seconds long on such a day. Leap seconds are announced in advance by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), which measures the Earth's rotation and determines whether a leap second is necessary. Civil day For civil purposes, a common clock time is typically defined for an entire region based on the local mean solar time at a central meridian. Such time zones began to be adopted about the middle of the 19th century when railroads with regularly occurring schedules came into use, with most major countries having adopted them by 1929. As of 2015, throughout the world, 40 such zones are now in use: the central zone, from which all others are defined as offsets, is known as UTC±00, which uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The most common convention starts the civil day at midnight: this is near the time of the lower culmination of the Sun on the central meridian of the time zone. Such a day may be referred to as a calendar day. A day is commonly divided into 24 hours of 60 minutes, with each minute composed of 60 seconds. Decimal and metric time In the 19th century, an idea circulated to make a decimal fraction ( or ) of an astronomical day the base unit of time. This was an afterglow of the short-lived movement toward a decimalisation of timekeeping and the calendar, which had been given up already due to its difficulty in transitioning from traditional, more familiar units. The most successful alternative is the centiday, equal to 14.4 minutes (864 seconds), being not only a shorter multiple of an hour (0.24 vs 2.4) but also closer to the SI multiple kilosecond (1,000 seconds) and equal to the traditional Chinese unit, kè. Longitudinal change Colloquial The word refers to various similarly defined ideas, such as: Full day 24 hours (exactly) (a nychthemeron) A day counting approximation, for example "See you in three days." or "the following day" The full day covering both the dark and light periods, beginning from the start of the dark period or from a point near the middle of the dark period A full dark and light period, sometimes called a nychthemeron in English, from the Greek for night-day; or more colloquially the term . In other languages, is also often used. Other languages also have a separate word for a full day. Part of a date: the day of the year (doy) in ordinal dates, day of the month (dom) in calendar dates or day of the week (dow) in week dates. Time regularly spend at paid work on a single work day, cf. man-day and workweek. Daytime The period of light when the Sun is above the local horizon (that is, the time period from sunrise to sunset) The time period from 06:00–18:00 (6:00 am – 6:00 pm) or 21:00 (9:00 pm) or another fixed clock period overlapping or offset from other time periods such as "morning", "evening", or "night". The time period from first-light "dawn" to last-light "dusk". Other A specific period of the day, which may vary by context, such as "the school day" or "the work day". Boundaries For most diurnal animals, the day naturally begins at dawn and ends at sunset. Humans, with their cultural norms and scientific knowledge, have employed several different conceptions of the day's boundaries. In the Hebrew Bible, Genesis 1:5 defines a day in terms of "evening" and "morning" before recounting the creation of a sun to illuminate it: "And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day." Common convention among the ancient Romans, ancient Chinese and in modern times is for the civil day to begin at midnight, i.e. 00:00, and to last a full 24 hours until 24:00 (i.e. 00:00 of the next day). In ancient Egypt the day was reckoned from sunrise to sunrise. The Jewish day begins at either sunset or nightfall (when three second-magnitude stars appear). Medieval Europe also followed this tradition, known as Florentine reckoning: in this system, a reference like "two hours into the day" meant two hours after sunset and thus times during the evening need to be shifted back one calendar day in modern reckoning. Days such as Christmas Eve, Halloween, and the Eve of Saint Agnes are remnants of the older pattern when holidays began during the prior evening. Prior to 1926, Turkey had two time systems: Turkish (counting the hours from sunset) and French (counting the hours from midnight). Validity of tickets, passes, etc., for a day or a number of days may end at midnight, or closing time, whichever occurs earlier. However, if a service (e.g., public transport) operates from for example, 06:00 to 01:00 the next day (which may be noted as 25:00), the last hour may well count as being part of the previous day. For services depending on the day ("closed on Sundays", "does not run on Fridays", and so on) there is a risk of ambiguity. For example, a day ticket on the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (Dutch Railways) is valid for 28 hours, from 00:00 to 28:00 (that is, 4:00 the next day); the validity of a pass on Transport for London (TfL) services runs until the end of the "transport day" – that is to say, until 4:30 am on the day after the "expires" date stamped on the pass. Midnight sun In places which experience the midnight sun (polar day), daytime may extend beyond one 24-hour period and could even extend to months. See also 24-hour |
refer to both a database and the DBMS used to manipulate it. Outside the world of professional information technology, the term database is often used to refer to any collection of related data (such as a spreadsheet or a card index) as size and usage requirements typically necessitate use of a database management system. Existing DBMSs provide various functions that allow management of a database and its data which can be classified into four main functional groups: Data definition – Creation, modification and removal of definitions that define the organization of the data. Update – Insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data. Retrieval – Providing information in a form directly usable or for further processing by other applications. The retrieved data may be made available in a form basically the same as it is stored in the database or in a new form obtained by altering or combining existing data from the database. Administration – Registering and monitoring users, enforcing data security, monitoring performance, maintaining data integrity, dealing with concurrency control, and recovering information that has been corrupted by some event such as an unexpected system failure. Both a database and its DBMS conform to the principles of a particular database model. "Database system" refers collectively to the database model, database management system, and database. Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. Hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers via a high-speed channel, are also used in large volume transaction processing environments. DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications. DBMSs may be built around a custom multitasking kernel with built-in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide these functions. Since DBMSs comprise a significant market, computer and storage vendors often take into account DBMS requirements in their own development plans. Databases and DBMSs can be categorized according to the database model(s) that they support (such as relational or XML), the type(s) of computer they run on (from a server cluster to a mobile phone), the query language(s) used to access the database (such as SQL or XQuery), and their internal engineering, which affects performance, scalability, resilience, and security. History The sizes, capabilities, and performance of databases and their respective DBMSs have grown in orders of magnitude. These performance increases were enabled by the technology progress in the areas of processors, computer memory, computer storage, and computer networks. The concept of a database was made possible by the emergence of direct access storage media such as magnetic disks, which became widely available in the mid 1960s; earlier systems relied on sequential storage of data on magnetic tape. The subsequent development of database technology can be divided into three eras based on data model or structure: navigational, SQL/relational, and post-relational. The two main early navigational data models were the hierarchical model and the CODASYL model (network model). These were characterized by the use of pointers (often physical disk addresses) to follow relationships from one record to another. The relational model, first proposed in 1970 by Edgar F. Codd, departed from this tradition by insisting that applications should search for data by content, rather than by following links. The relational model employs sets of ledger-style tables, each used for a different type of entity. Only in the mid-1980s did computing hardware become powerful enough to allow the wide deployment of relational systems (DBMSs plus applications). By the early 1990s, however, relational systems dominated in all large-scale data processing applications, and they remain dominant: IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft SQL Server are the most searched DBMS. The dominant database language, standardised SQL for the relational model, has influenced database languages for other data models. Object databases were developed in the 1980s to overcome the inconvenience of object–relational impedance mismatch, which led to the coining of the term "post-relational" and also the development of hybrid object–relational databases. The next generation of post-relational databases in the late 2000s became known as NoSQL databases, introducing fast key–value stores and document-oriented databases. A competing "next generation" known as NewSQL databases attempted new implementations that retained the relational/SQL model while aiming to match the high performance of NoSQL compared to commercially available relational DBMSs. 1960s, navigational DBMS The introduction of the term database coincided with the availability of direct-access storage (disks and drums) from the mid-1960s onwards. The term represented a contrast with the tape-based systems of the past, allowing shared interactive use rather than daily batch processing. The Oxford English Dictionary cites a 1962 report by the System Development Corporation of California as the first to use the term "data-base" in a specific technical sense. As computers grew in speed and capability, a number of general-purpose database systems emerged; by the mid-1960s a number of such systems had come into commercial use. Interest in a standard began to grow, and Charles Bachman, author of one such product, the Integrated Data Store (IDS), founded the Database Task Group within CODASYL, the group responsible for the creation and standardization of COBOL. In 1971, the Database Task Group delivered their standard, which generally became known as the CODASYL approach, and soon a number of commercial products based on this approach entered the market. The CODASYL approach offered applications the ability to navigate around a linked data set which was formed into a large network. Applications could find records by one of three methods: Use of a primary key (known as a CALC key, typically implemented by hashing) Navigating relationships (called sets) from one record to another Scanning all the records in a sequential order Later systems added B-trees to provide alternate access paths. Many CODASYL databases also added a declarative query language for end users (as distinct from the navigational API). However CODASYL databases were complex and required significant training and effort to produce useful applications. IBM also had their own DBMS in 1966, known as Information Management System (IMS). IMS was a development of software written for the Apollo program on the System/360. IMS was generally similar in concept to CODASYL, but used a strict hierarchy for its model of data navigation instead of CODASYL's network model. Both concepts later became known as navigational databases due to the way data was accessed: the term was popularized by Bachman's 1973 Turing Award presentation The Programmer as Navigator. IMS is classified by IBM as a hierarchical database. IDMS and Cincom Systems' TOTAL database are classified as network databases. IMS remains in use . 1970s, relational DBMS Edgar F. Codd worked at IBM in San Jose, California, in one of their offshoot offices that was primarily involved in the development of hard disk systems. He was unhappy with the navigational model of the CODASYL approach, notably the lack of a "search" facility. In 1970, he wrote a number of papers that outlined a new approach to database construction that eventually culminated in the groundbreaking A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks. In this paper, he described a new system for storing and working with large databases. Instead of records being stored in some sort of linked list of free-form records as in CODASYL, Codd's idea was to organize the data as a number of "tables", each table being used for a different type of entity. Each table would contain a fixed number of columns containing the attributes of the entity. One or more columns of each table were designated as a primary key by which the rows of the table could be uniquely identified; cross-references between tables always used these primary keys, rather than disk addresses, and queries would join tables based on these key relationships, using a set of operations based on the mathematical system of relational calculus (from which the model takes its name). Splitting the data into a set of normalized tables (or relations) aimed to ensure that each "fact" was only stored once, thus simplifying update operations. Virtual tables called views could present the data in different ways for different users, but views could not be directly updated. Codd used mathematical terms to define the model: relations, tuples, and domains rather than tables, rows, and columns. The terminology that is now familiar came from early implementations. Codd would later criticize the tendency for practical implementations to depart from the mathematical foundations on which the model was based. The use of primary keys (user-oriented identifiers) to represent cross-table relationships, rather than disk addresses, had two primary motivations. From an engineering perspective, it enabled tables to be relocated and resized without expensive database reorganization. But Codd was more interested in the difference in semantics: the use of explicit identifiers made it easier to define update operations with clean mathematical definitions, and it also enabled query operations to be defined in terms of the established discipline of first-order predicate calculus; because these operations have clean mathematical properties, it becomes possible to rewrite queries in provably correct ways, which is the basis of query optimization. There is no loss of expressiveness compared with the hierarchic or network models, though the connections between tables are no longer so explicit. In the hierarchic and network models, records were allowed to have a complex internal structure. For example, the salary history of an employee might be represented as a "repeating group" within the employee record. In the relational model, the process of normalization led to such internal structures being replaced by data held in multiple tables, connected only by logical keys. For instance, a common use of a database system is to track information about users, their name, login information, various addresses and phone numbers. In the navigational approach, all of this data would be placed in a single variable-length record. In the relational approach, the data would be normalized into a user table, an address table and a phone number table (for instance). Records would be created in these optional tables only if the address or phone numbers were actually provided. As well as identifying rows/records using logical identifiers rather than disk addresses, Codd changed the way in which applications assembled data from multiple records. Rather than requiring applications to gather data one record at a time by navigating the links, they would use a declarative query language that expressed what data was required, rather than the access path by which it should be found. Finding an efficient access path to the data became the responsibility of the database management system, rather than the application programmer. This process, called query optimization, depended on the fact that queries were expressed in terms of mathematical logic. Codd's paper was picked up by two people at Berkeley, Eugene Wong and Michael Stonebraker. They started a project known as INGRES using funding that had already been allocated for a geographical database project and student programmers to produce code. Beginning in 1973, INGRES delivered its first test products which were generally ready for widespread use in 1979. INGRES was similar to System R in a number of ways, including the use of a "language" for data access, known as QUEL. Over time, INGRES moved to the emerging SQL standard. IBM itself did one test implementation of the relational model, PRTV, and a production one, Business System 12, both now discontinued. Honeywell wrote MRDS for Multics, and now there are two new implementations: Alphora Dataphor and Rel. Most other DBMS implementations usually called relational are actually SQL DBMSs. In 1970, the University of Michigan began development of the MICRO Information Management System based on D.L. Childs' Set-Theoretic Data model. MICRO was used to manage very large data sets by the US Department of Labor, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and researchers from the University of Alberta, the University of Michigan, and Wayne State University. It ran on IBM mainframe computers using the Michigan Terminal System. The system remained in production until 1998. Integrated approach In the 1970s and 1980s, attempts were made to build database systems with integrated hardware and software. The underlying philosophy was that such integration would provide higher performance at a lower cost. Examples were IBM System/38, the early offering of Teradata, and the Britton Lee, Inc. database machine. Another approach to hardware support for database management was ICL's CAFS accelerator, a hardware disk controller with programmable search capabilities. In the long term, these efforts were generally unsuccessful because specialized database machines could not keep pace with the rapid development and progress of general-purpose computers. Thus most database systems nowadays are software systems running on general-purpose hardware, using general-purpose computer data storage. However, this idea is still pursued for certain applications by some companies like Netezza and Oracle (Exadata). Late 1970s, SQL DBMS IBM started working on a prototype system loosely based on Codd's concepts as System R in the early 1970s. The first version was ready in 1974/5, and work then started on multi-table systems in which the data could be split so that all of the data for a record (some of which is optional) did not have to be stored in a single large "chunk". Subsequent multi-user versions were tested by customers in 1978 and 1979, by which time a standardized query language – SQL – had been added. Codd's ideas were establishing themselves as both workable and superior to CODASYL, pushing IBM to develop a true production version of System R, known as SQL/DS, and, later, Database 2 (DB2). Larry Ellison's Oracle Database (or more simply, Oracle) started from a different chain, based on IBM's papers on System R. Though Oracle V1 implementations were completed in 1978, it wasn't until Oracle Version 2 when Ellison beat IBM to market in 1979. Stonebraker went on to apply the lessons from INGRES to develop a new database, Postgres, which is now known as PostgreSQL. PostgreSQL is often used for global mission-critical applications (the .org and .info domain name registries use it as their primary data store, as do many large companies and financial institutions). In Sweden, Codd's paper was also read and Mimer SQL was developed from the mid-1970s at Uppsala University. In 1984, this project was consolidated into an independent enterprise. Another data model, the entity–relationship model, emerged in 1976 and gained popularity for database design as it emphasized a more familiar description than the earlier relational model. Later on, entity–relationship constructs were retrofitted as a data modeling construct for the relational model, and the difference between the two have become irrelevant. 1980s, on the desktop The 1980s ushered in the age of desktop computing. The new computers empowered their users with spreadsheets like Lotus 1-2-3 and database software like dBASE. The dBASE product was lightweight and easy for any computer user to understand out of the box. C. Wayne Ratliff, the creator of dBASE, stated: "dBASE was different from programs like BASIC, C, FORTRAN, and COBOL in that a lot of the dirty work had already been done. The data manipulation is done by dBASE instead of by the user, so the user can concentrate on what he is doing, rather than having to mess with the dirty details of opening, reading, and closing files, and managing space allocation." dBASE was one of the top selling software titles in the 1980s and early 1990s. 1990s, object-oriented The 1990s, along with a rise in object-oriented programming, saw a growth in how data in various databases were handled. Programmers and designers began to treat the data in their databases as objects. That is to say that if a person's data were in a database, that person's attributes, such as their address, phone number, and age, were now considered to belong to that person instead of being extraneous data. This allows for relations between data to be relations to objects and their attributes and not to individual fields. The term "object–relational impedance mismatch" described the inconvenience of translating between programmed objects and database tables. Object databases and object–relational databases attempt to solve this problem by providing an object-oriented language (sometimes as extensions to SQL) that programmers can use as alternative to purely relational SQL. On the programming side, libraries known as object–relational mappings (ORMs) attempt to solve the same problem. 2000s, NoSQL and NewSQL XML databases are a type of structured document-oriented database that allows querying based on XML document attributes. XML databases are mostly used in applications where the data is conveniently viewed as a collection of documents, with a structure that can vary from the very flexible to the highly rigid: examples include scientific articles, patents, tax filings, and personnel records. NoSQL databases are often very fast, do not require fixed table schemas, avoid join operations by storing denormalized data, and are designed to scale horizontally. In recent years, there has been a strong demand for massively distributed databases with high partition tolerance, but according to the CAP theorem it is impossible for a distributed system to simultaneously provide consistency, availability, and partition tolerance guarantees. A distributed system can satisfy any two of these guarantees at the same time, but not all three. For that reason, many NoSQL databases are using what is called eventual consistency to provide both availability and partition tolerance guarantees with a reduced level of data consistency. NewSQL is a class of modern relational databases that aims to provide the same scalable performance of NoSQL systems for online transaction processing (read-write) workloads while still using SQL and maintaining the ACID guarantees of a traditional database system. Use cases Databases are used to support internal operations of organizations and to underpin online interactions with customers and suppliers (see Enterprise software). Databases are used to hold administrative information and more specialized data, such as engineering data or economic models. Examples include computerized library systems, flight reservation systems, computerized parts inventory systems, and many content management systems that store websites as collections of webpages in a database. Classification One way to classify databases involves the type of their contents, for example: bibliographic, document-text, statistical, or multimedia objects. Another way is by their application area, for example: accounting, music compositions, movies, banking, manufacturing, or insurance. A third way is by some technical aspect, such as the database structure or interface type. This section lists a few of the adjectives used to characterize different kinds of databases. An in-memory database is a database that primarily resides in main memory, but is typically backed-up by non-volatile computer data storage. Main memory databases are faster than disk databases, and so are often used where response time is critical, such as in telecommunications network equipment. An active database includes an event-driven architecture which can respond to conditions both inside and outside the database. Possible uses include security monitoring, alerting, statistics gathering and authorization. Many databases provide active database features in the form of database triggers. A cloud database relies on cloud technology. Both the database and most of its DBMS reside remotely, "in the cloud", while its applications are both developed by programmers and later maintained and used by end-users through a web browser and Open APIs. Data warehouses archive data from operational databases and often from external sources such as market research firms. The warehouse becomes the central source of data for use by managers and other end-users who may not have access to operational data. For example, sales data might be aggregated to weekly totals and converted from internal product codes to use UPCs so that they can be compared with ACNielsen data. Some basic and essential components of data warehousing include extracting, analyzing, and mining data, transforming, loading, and managing data so as to make them available for further use. A deductive database combines logic programming with a relational database. A distributed database is one in which both the data and the DBMS span multiple computers. A document-oriented database is designed for storing, retrieving, and managing document-oriented, or semi structured, information. Document-oriented databases are one of the main categories of NoSQL databases. An embedded database system is a DBMS which is tightly integrated with an application software that requires access to stored data in such a way that the DBMS is hidden from the application's end-users and requires little or no ongoing maintenance. End-user databases consist of data developed by individual end-users. Examples of these are collections of documents, spreadsheets, presentations, multimedia, and other files. Several products exist to support such databases. Some of them are much simpler than full-fledged DBMSs, with more elementary DBMS functionality. A federated database system comprises several distinct databases, each with its own DBMS. It is handled as a single database by a federated database management system (FDBMS), which transparently integrates multiple autonomous DBMSs, possibly of different types (in which case it would also be a heterogeneous database system), and provides them with an integrated conceptual view. Sometimes the term multi-database is used as a synonym to federated database, though it may refer to a less integrated (e.g., without an FDBMS and a managed integrated schema) group of databases that cooperate in a single application. In this case, typically middleware is used for distribution, which typically includes an atomic commit protocol (ACP), e.g., the two-phase commit protocol, to allow distributed (global) transactions across the participating databases. A graph database is a kind of NoSQL database that uses graph structures with nodes, edges, and properties to represent and store information. General graph databases that can store any graph are distinct from specialized graph databases such as triplestores and network databases. An array DBMS is a kind of NoSQL DBMS that allows modeling, storage, and retrieval of (usually large) multi-dimensional arrays such as satellite images and climate simulation output. In a hypertext or hypermedia database, any word or a piece of text representing an object, e.g., another piece of text, an article, a picture, or a film, can be hyperlinked to that object. Hypertext databases are particularly useful for organizing large amounts of disparate information. For example, they are useful for organizing online encyclopedias, where users can conveniently jump around the text. The World Wide Web is thus a large distributed hypertext database. A knowledge base (abbreviated KB, kb or Δ) is a special kind of database for knowledge management, providing the means for the computerized collection, organization, and retrieval of knowledge. Also a collection of data representing problems with their solutions and related experiences. A mobile database can be carried on or synchronized from a mobile computing device. Operational databases store detailed data about the operations of an organization. They typically process relatively high volumes of updates using transactions. Examples include customer databases that record contact, credit, and demographic information about a business's customers, personnel databases that hold information such as salary, benefits, skills data about employees, enterprise resource planning systems that record details about product components, parts inventory, and financial databases that keep track of the organization's money, accounting and financial dealings. A parallel database seeks to improve performance through parallelization for tasks such as loading data, building indexes and evaluating queries. The major parallel DBMS architectures which are induced by the underlying hardware architecture are: Shared memory architecture, where multiple processors share the main memory space, as well as other data storage. Shared disk architecture, where each processing unit (typically consisting of multiple | and functionality and can have involved thousands of human years of development effort through their lifetime. Early multi-user DBMS typically only allowed for the application to reside on the same computer with access via terminals or terminal emulation software. The client–server architecture was a development where the application resided on a client desktop and the database on a server allowing the processing to be distributed. This evolved into a multitier architecture incorporating application servers and web servers with the end user interface via a web browser with the database only directly connected to the adjacent tier. A general-purpose DBMS will provide public application programming interfaces (API) and optionally a processor for database languages such as SQL to allow applications to be written to interact with the database. A special purpose DBMS may use a private API and be specifically customized and linked to a single application. For example, an email system performing many of the functions of a general-purpose DBMS such as message insertion, message deletion, attachment handling, blocklist lookup, associating messages an email address and so forth however these functions are limited to what is required to handle email. Application External interaction with the database will be via an application program that interfaces with the DBMS. This can range from a database tool that allows users to execute SQL queries textually or graphically, to a web site that happens to use a database to store and search information. Application program interface A programmer will code interactions to the database (sometimes referred to as a datasource) via an application program interface (API) or via a database language. The particular API or language chosen will need to be supported by DBMS, possible indirectly via a preprocessor or a bridging API. Some API's aim to be database independent, ODBC being a commonly known example. Other common API's include JDBC and ADO.NET. Database languages Database languages are special-purpose languages, which allow one or more of the following tasks, sometimes distinguished as sublanguages: Data control language (DCL) – controls access to data; Data definition language (DDL) – defines data types such as creating, altering, or dropping tables and the relationships among them; Data manipulation language (DML) – performs tasks such as inserting, updating, or deleting data occurrences; Data query language (DQL) – allows searching for information and computing derived information. Database languages are specific to a particular data model. Notable examples include: SQL combines the roles of data definition, data manipulation, and query in a single language. It was one of the first commercial languages for the relational model, although it departs in some respects from the relational model as described by Codd (for example, the rows and columns of a table can be ordered). SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987. The standards have been regularly enhanced since and is supported (with varying degrees of conformance) by all mainstream commercial relational DBMSs. OQL is an object model language standard (from the Object Data Management Group). It has influenced the design of some of the newer query languages like JDOQL and EJB QL. XQuery is a standard XML query language implemented by XML database systems such as MarkLogic and eXist, by relational databases with XML capability such as Oracle and DB2, and also by in-memory XML processors such as Saxon. SQL/XML combines XQuery with SQL. A database language may also incorporate features like: DBMS-specific configuration and storage engine management Computations to modify query results, like counting, summing, averaging, sorting, grouping, and cross-referencing Constraint enforcement (e.g. in an automotive database, only allowing one engine type per car) Application programming interface version of the query language, for programmer convenience Storage Database storage is the container of the physical materialization of a database. It comprises the internal (physical) level in the database architecture. It also contains all the information needed (e.g., metadata, "data about the data", and internal data structures) to reconstruct the conceptual level and external level from the internal level when needed. Databases as digital objects contain three layers of information which must be stored: the data, the structure, and the semantics. Proper storage of all three layers is needed for future preservation and longevity of the database. Putting data into permanent storage is generally the responsibility of the database engine a.k.a. "storage engine". Though typically accessed by a DBMS through the underlying operating system (and often using the operating systems' file systems as intermediates for storage layout), storage properties and configuration setting are extremely important for the efficient operation of the DBMS, and thus are closely maintained by database administrators. A DBMS, while in operation, always has its database residing in several types of storage (e.g., memory and external storage). The database data and the additional needed information, possibly in very large amounts, are coded into bits. Data typically reside in the storage in structures that look completely different from the way the data look in the conceptual and external levels, but in ways that attempt to optimize (the best possible) these levels' reconstruction when needed by users and programs, as well as for computing additional types of needed information from the data (e.g., when querying the database). Some DBMSs support specifying which character encoding was used to store data, so multiple encodings can be used in the same database. Various low-level database storage structures are used by the storage engine to serialize the data model so it can be written to the medium of choice. Techniques such as indexing may be used to improve performance. Conventional storage is row-oriented, but there are also column-oriented and correlation databases. Materialized views Often storage redundancy is employed to increase performance. A common example is storing materialized views, which consist of frequently needed external views or query results. Storing such views saves the expensive computing of them each time they are needed. The downsides of materialized views are the overhead incurred when updating them to keep them synchronized with their original updated database data, and the cost of storage redundancy. Replication Occasionally a database employs storage redundancy by database objects replication (with one or more copies) to increase data availability (both to improve performance of simultaneous multiple end-user accesses to a same database object, and to provide resiliency in a case of partial failure of a distributed database). Updates of a replicated object need to be synchronized across the object copies. In many cases, the entire database is replicated. Security Database security deals with all various aspects of protecting the database content, its owners, and its users. It ranges from protection from intentional unauthorized database uses to unintentional database accesses by unauthorized entities (e.g., a person or a computer program). Database access control deals with controlling who (a person or a certain computer program) is allowed to access what information in the database. The information may comprise specific database objects (e.g., record types, specific records, data structures), certain computations over certain objects (e.g., query types, or specific queries), or using specific access paths to the former (e.g., using specific indexes or other data structures to access information). Database access controls are set by special authorized (by the database owner) personnel that uses dedicated protected security DBMS interfaces. This may be managed directly on an individual basis, or by the assignment of individuals and privileges to groups, or (in the most elaborate models) through the assignment of individuals and groups to roles which are then granted entitlements. Data security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database or subsets of it called "subschemas". For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data. If the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database, as well as interrogate it, this capability allows for managing personal databases. Data security in general deals with protecting specific chunks of data, both physically (i.e., from corruption, or destruction, or removal; e.g., see physical security), or the interpretation of them, or parts of them to meaningful information (e.g., by looking at the strings of bits that they comprise, concluding specific valid credit-card numbers; e.g., see data encryption). Change and access logging records who accessed which attributes, what was changed, and when it was changed. Logging services allow for a forensic database audit later by keeping a record of access occurrences and changes. Sometimes application-level code is used to record changes rather than leaving this to the database. Monitoring can be set up to attempt to detect security breaches. Transactions and concurrency Database transactions can be used to introduce some level of fault tolerance and data integrity after recovery from a crash. A database transaction is a unit of work, typically encapsulating a number of operations over a database (e.g., reading a database object, writing, acquiring or releasing a lock, etc.), an abstraction supported in database and also other systems. Each transaction has well defined boundaries in terms of which program/code executions are included in that transaction (determined by the transaction's programmer via special transaction commands). The acronym ACID describes some ideal properties of a database transaction: atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability. Migration A database built with one DBMS is not portable to another DBMS (i.e., the other DBMS cannot run it). However, in some situations, it is desirable to migrate a database from one DBMS to another. The reasons are primarily economical (different DBMSs may have different total costs of ownership or TCOs), functional, and operational (different DBMSs may have different capabilities). The migration involves the database's transformation from one DBMS type to another. The transformation should maintain (if possible) the database related application (i.e., all related application programs) intact. Thus, the database's conceptual and external architectural levels should be maintained in the transformation. It may be desired that also some aspects of the architecture internal level are maintained. A complex or large database migration may be a complicated and costly (one-time) project by itself, which should be factored into the decision to migrate. This in spite of the fact that tools may exist to help migration between specific DBMSs. Typically, a DBMS vendor provides tools to help importing databases from other popular DBMSs. Building, maintaining, and tuning After designing a database for an application, the next stage is building the database. Typically, an appropriate general-purpose DBMS can be selected to be used for this purpose. A DBMS provides the needed user interfaces to be used by database administrators to define the needed application's data structures within the DBMS's respective data model. Other user interfaces are used to select needed DBMS parameters (like security related, storage allocation parameters, etc.). When the database is ready (all its data structures and other needed components are defined), it is typically populated with initial application's data (database initialization, which is typically a distinct project; in many cases using specialized DBMS interfaces that support bulk insertion) before making it operational. In some cases, the database becomes operational while empty of application data, and data are accumulated during its operation. After the database is created, initialized and populated it needs to be maintained. Various database parameters may need changing and the database may need to be tuned (tuning) for better performance; application's data structures may be changed or added, new related application programs may be written to add to the application's functionality, etc. Backup and restore Sometimes it is desired to bring a database back to a previous state (for many reasons, e.g., cases when the database is found corrupted due to a software error, or if it has been updated with erroneous data). To achieve this, a backup operation is done occasionally or continuously, where each desired database state (i.e., the values of its data and their embedding in database's data structures) is kept within dedicated backup files (many techniques exist to do this effectively). When it is decided by a database administrator to bring the database back to this state (e.g., by specifying this state by a desired point in time when the database was in this state), these files are used to restore that state. Static analysis Static analysis techniques for software verification can be applied also in the scenario of query languages. In particular, the *Abstract interpretation framework has been extended to the field of query languages for relational databases as a way to support sound approximation techniques. The semantics of query languages can be tuned according to suitable abstractions of the concrete domain of data. The abstraction of relational database system has many interesting applications, in particular, for security purposes, such as fine grained access control, watermarking, etc. Miscellaneous features Other DBMS features might include: Database logs – This helps in keeping a history of the executed functions. Graphics component for producing graphs and charts, especially in a data warehouse system. Query optimizer – Performs query optimization on every query to choose an efficient query plan (a partial order (tree) of operations) to be executed to compute the query result. May be specific to a particular storage engine. Tools or hooks for database design, application programming, application program maintenance, database performance analysis and monitoring, database configuration monitoring, DBMS hardware configuration (a DBMS and related database may span computers, networks, and storage units) and related database mapping (especially for a distributed DBMS), storage allocation and database layout monitoring, storage migration, etc. Increasingly, there are calls for a single system that incorporates all of these core functionalities into the same build, test, and deployment framework for database management and source control. Borrowing from other developments in the software industry, some market such offerings as "DevOps for database". Design and modeling The first task of a database designer is to produce a conceptual data model that reflects the structure of the information to be held in the database. A common approach to this is to develop an entity–relationship model, often with the aid of drawing tools. Another popular approach is the Unified Modeling Language. A successful data model will accurately reflect the possible state of the external world being modeled: for example, if people can have more than one phone number, it will allow this information to be captured. Designing a good conceptual data model requires a good understanding of the application domain; it typically involves asking deep questions about the things of interest to an organization, like "can a customer also be a supplier?", or "if a product is sold with two different forms of packaging, are those the same product or different products?", or "if a plane flies from New York to Dubai via Frankfurt, is that one flight or two (or maybe even three)?". The answers to these questions establish definitions of the terminology used for entities (customers, products, flights, flight segments) and their relationships and attributes. Producing the conceptual data model sometimes involves input from business processes, or the analysis of workflow in the organization. This can help to establish what information is needed in the database, and what can be left out. For example, it can help when deciding whether the database needs to hold historic data as well as current data. Having produced a conceptual data model that users are happy with, the next stage is to translate this into a schema that implements the relevant data structures within the database. This process is often called logical database design, and the output is a logical data model expressed in the form of a schema. Whereas the conceptual data model is (in theory at least) independent of the choice of database technology, the logical data model will be expressed in terms of a particular database model supported by the chosen DBMS. (The terms data model and database model are often used interchangeably, but in this article we use data model for the design of a specific database, and database model for the modeling notation used to express that design). The most popular database model for general-purpose databases is the relational model, or more precisely, the relational model as represented by the SQL language. The process of creating a logical database design using this model uses a methodical approach known as normalization. The goal of normalization is to ensure that each elementary "fact" is only recorded in one place, so that insertions, updates, and deletions automatically maintain consistency. The final stage of database design is to make the decisions that affect performance, scalability, recovery, security, and the like, which depend on the particular DBMS. This is often called physical database design, and the output is the physical data |
zero dipole of CO2 implies that the two C=O bond dipole moments cancel so that the molecule must be linear. For H2O the O−H bond moments do not cancel because the molecule is bent. For ozone (O3) which is also a bent molecule, the bond dipole moments are not zero even though the O−O bonds are between similar atoms. This agrees with the Lewis structures for the resonance forms of ozone which show a positive charge on the central oxygen atom. An example in organic chemistry of the role of geometry in determining dipole moment is the cis and trans isomers of 1,2-dichloroethene. In the cis isomer the two polar C−Cl bonds are on the same side of the C=C double bond and the molecular dipole moment is 1.90 D. In the trans isomer, the dipole moment is zero because the two C−Cl bonds are on opposite sides of the C=C and cancel (and the two bond moments for the much less polar C−H bonds also cancel). Another example of the role of molecular geometry is boron trifluoride, which has three polar bonds with a difference in electronegativity greater than the traditionally cited threshold of 1.7 for ionic bonding. However, due to the equilateral triangular distribution of the fluoride ions about the boron cation center, the molecule as a whole does not exhibit any identifiable pole: one cannot construct a plane that divides the molecule into a net negative part and a net positive part. Quantum mechanical dipole operator Consider a collection of N particles with charges qi and position vectors ri. For instance, this collection may be a molecule consisting of electrons, all with charge −e, and nuclei with charge eZi, where Zi is the atomic number of the i th nucleus. The dipole observable (physical quantity) has the quantum mechanical dipole operator: Notice that this definition is valid only for neutral atoms or molecules, i.e. total charge equal to zero. In the ionized case, we have where is the center of mass of the molecule/group of particles. Atomic dipoles A non-degenerate (S-state) atom can have only a zero permanent dipole. This fact follows quantum mechanically from the inversion symmetry of atoms. All 3 components of the dipole operator are antisymmetric under inversion with respect to the nucleus, where is the dipole operator and is the inversion operator. The permanent dipole moment of an atom in a non-degenerate state (see degenerate energy level) is given as the expectation (average) value of the dipole operator, where is an S-state, non-degenerate, wavefunction, which is symmetric or antisymmetric under inversion: . Since the product of the wavefunction (in the ket) and its complex conjugate (in the bra) is always symmetric under inversion and its inverse, it follows that the expectation value changes sign under inversion. We used here the fact that , being a symmetry operator, is unitary: and by definition the Hermitian adjoint may be moved from bra to ket and then becomes . Since the only quantity that is equal to minus itself is the zero, the expectation value vanishes, In the case of open-shell atoms with degenerate energy levels, one could define a dipole moment by the aid of the first-order Stark effect. This gives a non-vanishing dipole (by definition proportional to a non-vanishing first-order Stark shift) only if some of the wavefunctions belonging to the degenerate energies have opposite parity; i.e., have different behavior under inversion. This is a rare occurrence, but happens for the excited H-atom, where 2s and 2p states are "accidentally" degenerate (see article Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector for the origin of this degeneracy) and have opposite parity (2s is even and 2p is odd). Field of a static magnetic dipole Magnitude The far-field strength, B, of a dipole magnetic field is given by where B is the strength of the field, measured in teslas r is the distance from the center, measured in metres λ is the magnetic latitude (equal to 90° − θ) where θ is the magnetic colatitude, measured in radians or degrees from the | on the dipole moment as defined above. A point (electric) dipole is the limit obtained by letting the separation tend to 0 while keeping the dipole moment fixed. The field of a point dipole has a particularly simple form, and the order-1 term in the multipole expansion is precisely the point dipole field. Although there are no known magnetic monopoles in nature, there are magnetic dipoles in the form of the quantum-mechanical spin associated with particles such as electrons (although the accurate description of such effects falls outside of classical electromagnetism). A theoretical magnetic point dipole has a magnetic field of exactly the same form as the electric field of an electric point dipole. A very small current-carrying loop is approximately a magnetic point dipole; the magnetic dipole moment of such a loop is the product of the current flowing in the loop and the (vector) area of the loop. Any configuration of charges or currents has a 'dipole moment', which describes the dipole whose field is the best approximation, at large distances, to that of the given configuration. This is simply one term in the multipole expansion when the total charge ("monopole moment") is 0—as it always is for the magnetic case, since there are no magnetic monopoles. The dipole term is the dominant one at large distances: Its field falls off in proportion to , as compared to for the next (quadrupole) term and higher powers of for higher terms, or for the monopole term. Molecular dipoles Many molecules have such dipole moments due to non-uniform distributions of positive and negative charges on the various atoms. Such is the case with polar compounds like hydrogen fluoride (HF), where electron density is shared unequally between atoms. Therefore, a molecule's dipole is an electric dipole with an inherent electric field that should not be confused with a magnetic dipole which generates a magnetic field. The physical chemist Peter J. W. Debye was the first scientist to study molecular dipoles extensively, and, as a consequence, dipole moments are measured in units named debye in his honor. For molecules there are three types of dipoles: Permanent dipoles These occur when two atoms in a molecule have substantially different electronegativity: One atom attracts electrons more than another, becoming more negative, while the other atom becomes more positive. A molecule with a permanent dipole moment is called a polar molecule. See dipole–dipole attractions. Instantaneous dipolesThese occur due to chance when electrons happen to be more concentrated in one place than another in a molecule, creating a temporary dipole. These dipoles are smaller in magnitude than permanent dipoles, but still play a large role in chemistry and biochemistry due to their prevalence. See instantaneous dipole. Induced dipoles These can occur when one molecule with a permanent dipole repels another molecule's electrons, inducing a dipole moment in that molecule. A molecule is polarized when it carries an induced dipole. See induced-dipole attraction. More generally, an induced dipole of any polarizable charge distribution ρ (remember that a molecule has a charge distribution) is caused by an electric field external to ρ. This field may, for instance, originate from an ion or polar molecule in the vicinity of ρ or may be macroscopic (e.g., a molecule between the plates of a charged capacitor). The size of the induced dipole moment is equal to the product of the strength of the external field and the dipole polarizability of ρ. Dipole moment values can be obtained from measurement of the dielectric constant. Some typical gas phase values in debye units are: carbon dioxide: 0 carbon monoxide: 0.112 D ozone: 0.53 D phosgene: 1.17 D water vapor: 1.85 D hydrogen cyanide: 2.98 D cyanamide: 4.27 D potassium bromide: 10.41 D Potassium bromide (KBr) has one of the highest dipole moments because it is an ionic compound that exists as a molecule in the gas phase. The overall dipole moment of a molecule may be approximated as a vector sum of bond dipole moments. As a vector sum it depends on the relative orientation of the bonds, so that from the dipole moment information can be deduced about the molecular geometry. For example, the zero dipole of CO2 implies that the two C=O bond dipole moments cancel so that the molecule must be linear. For H2O the O−H bond moments do not cancel because the molecule is bent. For ozone (O3) which is also a bent molecule, the bond dipole moments are not zero even though the O−O bonds are between similar atoms. This agrees with the Lewis structures for the resonance forms of ozone which show a positive charge on the central oxygen atom. An example in organic chemistry of the role of geometry in determining dipole moment is the cis and trans isomers of 1,2-dichloroethene. In the cis isomer the two polar C−Cl bonds are on the same side of the C=C double bond and the molecular dipole moment is 1.90 D. In the trans isomer, the dipole moment is zero because the two C−Cl bonds are on opposite sides of the C=C and cancel (and the two bond moments for the much less polar C−H bonds also cancel). Another example of the role of molecular geometry is boron trifluoride, which has three polar bonds with a difference in electronegativity greater than the traditionally cited threshold of 1.7 for ionic bonding. However, due to the equilateral triangular distribution of the fluoride ions about the boron cation center, the molecule as a whole does not exhibit any identifiable pole: one cannot construct a plane that divides the molecule into a net negative part and a net positive part. Quantum mechanical dipole operator Consider a collection of N particles with charges qi and position vectors ri. For instance, this collection may be a molecule consisting of electrons, all with charge −e, and nuclei with charge eZi, where Zi is the atomic number of the i th nucleus. The dipole observable (physical quantity) has the quantum mechanical dipole operator: Notice that this definition is valid only for neutral atoms or molecules, i.e. total charge equal to zero. In the ionized case, we have where is the center of mass of the molecule/group of particles. Atomic dipoles A non-degenerate (S-state) atom can have only a zero permanent dipole. This fact follows quantum mechanically from the inversion symmetry of atoms. All 3 components of the dipole operator are antisymmetric under inversion with respect to the nucleus, where is the dipole operator and is the inversion operator. The permanent dipole moment of an atom in a non-degenerate state (see degenerate energy level) is given as the expectation (average) value of the dipole operator, where is an S-state, non-degenerate, wavefunction, which is symmetric or antisymmetric under inversion: . Since the product of the wavefunction (in the ket) and its complex conjugate (in the bra) is always symmetric under inversion and its inverse, it follows that the expectation value changes sign under inversion. We used here the fact that , being a symmetry operator, is unitary: and by definition the Hermitian adjoint may be moved from bra to |
collective motion of stars System dynamics, the study of the behavior of complex systems Thermodynamics, the study of the relationships between heat and mechanical energy Vehicle dynamics Brands and enterprises Dynamic (record label), an Italian record label in Genoa Arrow Dynamics, roller coaster designer Boston Dynamics, robot designer Crystal Dynamics, video game developer General Dynamics, defence contractor Microsoft Dynamics, a line of business software Computer science and mathematics Dynamical energy analysis, a numerical method modelling structure borne sound and vibration in complex structures Dynamic HTML, technologies for creating interactive and animated web sites Dynamic IP, an IP address that changes every time the computer is turned on Dynamic program analysis, a set of methods for analyzing computer software Dynamic programming, a mathematical optimization method, and a computer programming paradigm Dynamic web page, a web page with content that varies Dynamical system, a concept describing a point's time dependency Symbolic dynamics, a method to model dynamical systems Social science Group dynamics, the study of social group processes especially Population dynamics, in life sciences, the changes in the composition of a population Psychodynamics, the study of psychological forces driving human behavior Social dynamics, the ability of a society to react to changes Spiral Dynamics, a social development theory Other uses Dynamics (music), the softness or loudness of a sound or | on the molecular level Langevin dynamics, a mathematical model for stochastic dynamics Orbital dynamics, the study of the motion of rockets and spacecraft Quantum chromodynamics, a theory of the strong interaction (color force) Quantum electrodynamics, a description of how matter and light interact Relativistic dynamics, a combination of relativistic and quantum concepts Stellar dynamics, a description of the collective motion of stars System dynamics, the study of the behavior of complex systems Thermodynamics, the study of the relationships between heat and mechanical energy Vehicle dynamics Brands and enterprises Dynamic (record label), an Italian record label in Genoa Arrow Dynamics, roller coaster designer Boston Dynamics, robot designer Crystal Dynamics, video game developer General Dynamics, defence contractor Microsoft Dynamics, a line of business software Computer science and mathematics Dynamical energy analysis, a numerical method modelling structure borne sound and vibration in complex structures Dynamic HTML, technologies for creating interactive and animated web sites Dynamic IP, an IP address that changes every time the computer is turned on Dynamic program analysis, a set of methods for analyzing computer software Dynamic |
brewing parlance, a keg is different from a cask. A cask has a tap hole near the edge of the top, and a spile hole on the side used for conditioning the unfiltered and unpasteurised beer. A keg has a single opening in the centre of the top to which a flow pipe is attached. Kegs are artificially pressurised after fermentation with carbon dioxide or a mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas or especially in Czech Republic solely compressed air. Keg has become a term of contempt used by some, particularly in the UK, since the 1960s when pasteurised draught beers started replacing traditional cask beers. Keg beer was replacing traditional cask ale in all parts of the UK, primarily because it requires less care to handle. Since 1971, CAMRA has conducted a consumer campaign on behalf of those who prefer traditional cask beer. CAMRA has lobbied the British Parliament to ensure support for cask ale and microbreweries have sprung up to serve those consumers who prefer traditional cask beer. Pressurised CO2 in the keg's headspace maintains carbonation in the beer. The CO2 pressure varies depending on the amount of CO2 already in the beer and the keg storage temperature. Occasionally the CO2 gas is blended with nitrogen gas. CO2 / nitrogen blends are used to allow a higher operating pressure in complex dispensing systems. Nitrogen is used under high pressure when dispensing dry stouts (such as Guinness) and other creamy beers because it displaces CO2 to (artificially) form a rich tight head and a less carbonated taste. This makes the beer feel smooth on the palate and gives a foamy appearance. Premixed bottled gas for creamy beers is usually 75% nitrogen and 25% CO2. This premixed gas which only works well with creamy beers is often referred to as Guinness Gas, Beer Gas, or Aligal (an Air Liquide brand name). Using "Beer Gas" with other beer styles can cause the last 5% to 10% of the beer in each keg to taste very flat and lifeless. In the UK, the term keg beer would imply the beer is pasteurised, in contrast to unpasteurised cask ale. Some of the newer microbreweries may offer a nitro keg stout which is filtered but not pasteurised. Storage and serving temperature Cask beer should be stored and served at a cellar temperature of . Once a cask is opened, it should be consumed within three days. Keg beer is given additional cooling just prior to being served either by flash coolers or a remote cooler in the cellar. This chills the beer to temperatures between . Canned and bottled "draught" The words "draft" and "draught" have been used as marketing terms to describe canned or bottled beers, implying that they taste and appear like beers from a cask or keg. Commercial brewers use this as a marketing tool although it is incorrect to call any beer not drawn from a cask or keg "draught". Two examples are Miller Genuine Draft, a pale lager which is produced using a cold filtering system, and Guinness stout in patented "Draught-flow" cans and bottles. Guinness is an example of beers that use a nitrogen widget to create a smooth beer with a dense head. Guinness has recently replaced the widget system from their bottled "draught" beer with a coating | Kingdom in 1936, with Watney's experimental pasteurised beer Red Barrel. Though this method of serving beer did not take hold in the UK until the late 1950s, it did become the favored method in the rest of Europe, where it is known by such terms as en pression. The carbonation method of serving beer subsequently spread to the rest of the world; by the early 1970s the term "draught beer" almost exclusively referred to beer served under pressure as opposed to the traditional cask or barrel beer. In Britain, the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) was founded in 1971 to protect traditional—unpressurised—beer and brewing methods. The group devised the term real ale to differentiate between beer served from the cask and beer served under pressure. The term real ale has since been expanded to include bottle-conditioned beer. Keg beer Keg beer is often filtered and/or pasteurised, both of which are processes that render the yeast inactive. In brewing parlance, a keg is different from a cask. A cask has a tap hole near the edge of the top, and a spile hole on the side used for conditioning the unfiltered and unpasteurised beer. A keg has a single opening in the centre of the top to which a flow pipe is attached. Kegs are artificially pressurised after fermentation with carbon dioxide or a mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas or especially in Czech Republic solely compressed air. Keg has become a term of contempt used by some, particularly in the UK, since the 1960s when pasteurised draught beers started replacing traditional cask beers. Keg beer was replacing traditional cask ale in all parts of the UK, primarily because it requires less care to handle. Since 1971, CAMRA has conducted a consumer campaign on behalf of those who prefer traditional cask beer. CAMRA has lobbied the British Parliament to ensure support for cask ale and microbreweries have sprung up to serve those consumers who prefer traditional cask beer. Pressurised CO2 in the keg's headspace maintains carbonation in the beer. The CO2 pressure varies depending on the amount of CO2 already in the beer and the keg storage temperature. Occasionally the CO2 gas is blended with nitrogen gas. CO2 / nitrogen blends are used to allow a higher operating pressure in complex dispensing systems. Nitrogen is used under high pressure when dispensing dry stouts (such as Guinness) and other creamy beers because it displaces CO2 to (artificially) |
Music Director (band), an Irish rock band Director (Avant album) (2006) Director (Yonatan Gat album) Occupations and positions Arts and design Animation director Artistic director Creative director Design director Film director Music director Music video director Sports director Television director Theatre director Positions in other fields Director (business), a senior level management position Director (colonial), head of chartered company's colonial administration in a territory Director (education), head of a university or other educational body Company director Cruise director Executive director Finance director or chief financial officer Funeral director Managing director Non-executive director Technical director Tournament director Science and technology Director (military), a device that continuously calculates firing data Adobe Director, multimedia authoring | director Positions in other fields Director (business), a senior level management position Director (colonial), head of chartered company's colonial administration in a territory Director (education), head of a university or other educational body Company director Cruise director Executive director Finance director or chief financial officer Funeral director Managing director Non-executive director Technical director Tournament director Science and technology Director (military), a device that continuously calculates firing data Adobe Director, multimedia authoring software Fibre Channel director, a large switch for computer storage networks Director telephone system, or Director exchange GCR Class 11E or Directors, a class of locomotive Director, the spatial and temporal average of the orientation of the long molecular axis within a small volume element of liquid crystal Other uses Director (1969 film), a Soviet film directed by Alexey Saltykov Director (2009 film), an American |
classes of antidepressants can be tried. Response rates to the first antidepressant administered range from 50 to 75%, and it can take at least six to eight weeks from the start of medication to improvement. Antidepressant medication treatment is usually continued for 16 to 20 weeks after remission, to minimize the chance of recurrence, and even up to one year of continuation is recommended. People with chronic depression may need to take medication indefinitely to avoid relapse. SSRIs are the primary medications prescribed, owing to their relatively mild side-effects, and because they are less toxic in overdose than other antidepressants. People who do not respond to one SSRI can be switched to another antidepressant, and this results in improvement in almost 50% of cases. Another option is to switch to the atypical antidepressant bupropion. Venlafaxine, an antidepressant with a different mechanism of action, may be modestly more effective than SSRIs. However, venlafaxine is not recommended in the UK as a first-line treatment because of evidence suggesting its risks may outweigh benefits, and it is specifically discouraged in children and adolescents. For children, some research has supported the use of the SSRI antidepressant fluoxetine. The benefit however appears to be slight in children, while other antidepressants have not been shown to be effective. Medications are not recommended in children with mild disease. There is also insufficient evidence to determine effectiveness in those with depression complicated by dementia. Any antidepressant can cause low blood sodium levels; nevertheless, it has been reported more often with SSRIs. It is not uncommon for SSRIs to cause or worsen insomnia; the sedating atypical antidepressant mirtazapine can be used in such cases. Irreversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors, an older class of antidepressants, have been plagued by potentially life-threatening dietary and drug interactions. They are still used only rarely, although newer and better-tolerated agents of this class have been developed. The safety profile is different with reversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors, such as moclobemide, where the risk of serious dietary interactions is negligible and dietary restrictions are less strict. It is unclear whether antidepressants affect a person's risk of suicide. For children, adolescents, and probably young adults between 18 and 24 years old, there is a higher risk of both suicidal ideations and suicidal behavior in those treated with SSRIs. For adults, it is unclear whether SSRIs affect the risk of suicidality. One review found no connection; another an increased risk; and a third no risk in those 25–65 years old and a decreased risk in those more than 65. A black box warning was introduced in the United States in 2007 on SSRIs and other antidepressant medications due to the increased risk of suicide in people younger than 24 years old. Similar precautionary notice revisions were implemented by the Japanese Ministry of Health. Other medications and supplements The combined use of antidepressants plus benzodiazepines demonstrates improved effectiveness when compared to antidepressants alone, but these effects may not endure. The addition of a benzodiazepine is balanced against possible harms and other alternative treatment strategies when antidepressant mono-therapy is considered inadequate. There is insufficient high quality evidence to suggest omega-3 fatty acids are effective in depression. There is limited evidence that vitamin D supplementation is of value in alleviating the symptoms of depression in individuals who are vitamin D-deficient. There is some preliminary evidence that COX-2 inhibitors, such as celecoxib, have a beneficial effect on major depression. Lithium appears effective at lowering the risk of suicide in those with bipolar disorder and unipolar depression to nearly the same levels as the general population. There is a narrow range of effective and safe dosages of lithium thus close monitoring may be needed. Low-dose thyroid hormone may be added to existing antidepressants to treat persistent depression symptoms in people who have tried multiple courses of medication. Limited evidence suggests stimulants, such as amphetamine and modafinil, may be effective in the short term, or as adjuvant therapy. Also, it is suggested that folate supplements may have a role in depression management. There is tentative evidence for benefit from testosterone in males. Electroconvulsive therapy Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a standard psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in a person with depression to provide relief from psychiatric illnesses. ECT is used with informed consent as a last line of intervention for major depressive disorder. A round of ECT is effective for about 50% of people with treatment-resistant major depressive disorder, whether it is unipolar or bipolar. Follow-up treatment is still poorly studied, but about half of people who respond relapse within twelve months. Aside from effects in the brain, the general physical risks of ECT are similar to those of brief general anesthesia. Immediately following treatment, the most common adverse effects are confusion and memory loss. ECT is considered one of the least harmful treatment options available for severely depressed pregnant women. A usual course of ECT involves multiple administrations, typically given two or three times per week, until the person no longer has symptoms. ECT is administered under anesthesia with a muscle relaxant. Electroconvulsive therapy can differ in its application in three ways: electrode placement, frequency of treatments, and the electrical waveform of the stimulus. These three forms of application have significant differences in both adverse side effects and symptom remission. After treatment, drug therapy is usually continued, and some people receive maintenance ECT. ECT appears to work in the short term via an anticonvulsant effect mostly in the frontal lobes, and longer term via neurotrophic effects primarily in the medial temporal lobe. Other Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) or deep transcranial magnetic stimulation is a noninvasive method used to stimulate small regions of the brain. TMS was approved by the FDA for treatment-resistant major depressive disorder (trMDD) in 2008 and as of 2014 evidence supports that it is probably effective. The American Psychiatric Association the Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Disorders, and the Royal Australia and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists have endorsed TMS for trMDD. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is another noninvasive method used to stimulate small regions of the brain with a weak electric current. Several meta-analyses have concluded that active tDCS was useful for treating depression. Bright light therapy reduces depression symptom severity, with benefit for both seasonal affective disorder and for nonseasonal depression, and an effect similar to those for conventional antidepressants. For nonseasonal depression, adding light therapy to the standard antidepressant treatment was not effective. For nonseasonal depression, where light was used mostly in combination with antidepressants or wake therapy, a moderate effect was found, with response better than control treatment in high-quality studies, in studies that applied morning light treatment, and with people who respond to total or partial sleep deprivation. Both analyses noted poor quality, short duration, and small size of most of the reviewed studies. There is a small amount of evidence that sleep deprivation may improve depressive symptoms in some individuals, with the effects usually showing up within a day. This effect is usually temporary. Besides sleepiness, this method can cause a side effect of mania or hypomania. There is insufficient evidence for Reiki and dance movement therapy in depression. As of 2019 cannabis is specifically not recommended as a treatment. Prognosis Studies have shown that 80% of those with a first major depressive episode will have at least one more depression during their life, with a lifetime average of four episodes. Other general population studies indicate that around half those who have an episode recover (whether treated or not) and remain well, while the other half will have at least one more, and around 15% of those experience chronic recurrence. Studies recruiting from selective inpatient sources suggest lower recovery and higher chronicity, while studies of mostly outpatients show that nearly all recover, with a median episode duration of 11 months. Around 90% of those with severe or psychotic depression, most of whom also meet criteria for other mental disorders, experience recurrence. Cases when outcome is poor are associated with inappropriate treatment, severe initial symptoms including psychosis, early age of onset, previous episodes, incomplete recovery after one year of treatment, pre-existing severe mental or medical disorder, and family dysfunction. A high proportion of people who experience full symptomatic remission still have at least one not fully resolved symptom after treatment. Recurrence or chronicity is more likely if symptoms have not fully resolved with treatment. Current guidelines recommend continuing antidepressants for four to six months after remission to prevent relapse. Evidence from many randomized controlled trials indicates continuing antidepressant medications after recovery can reduce the chance of relapse by 70% (41% on placebo vs. 18% on antidepressant). The preventive effect probably lasts for at least the first 36 months of use. Major depressive episodes often resolve over time whether or not they are treated. Outpatients on a waiting list show a 10–15% reduction in symptoms within a few months, with approximately 20% no longer meeting the full criteria for a depressive disorder. The median duration of an episode has been estimated to be 23 weeks, with the highest rate of recovery in the first three months. According to a 2013 review, 23% of untreated adults with mild to moderate depression will remit within 3 months, 32% within 6 months and 53% within 12 months. Ability to work Depression may affect people's ability to work. The combination of usual clinical care and support with return to work (like working less hours or changing tasks) probably reduces sick leave by 15%, and leads to fewer depressive symptoms and improved work capacity, reducing sick leave by an annual average of 25 days per year. Helping depressed people return to work without a connection to clinical care has not been shown to have an effect on sick leave days. Additional psychological interventions (such as online cognitive behavioral therapy) lead to fewer sick days compared to standard management only. Streamlining care or adding specific providers for depression care may help to reduce sick leave. Life expectancy and the risk of suicide Depressed individuals have a shorter life expectancy than those without depression, in part because people who are depressed are at risk of dying of suicide. Up to 60% of people who die of suicide have a mood disorder such as major depression, and the risk is especially high if a person has a marked sense of hopelessness or has both depression and borderline personality disorder. About 2–8% of adults with major depression die by suicide, and about 50% of people who die by suicide had depression or another mood disorder. The lifetime risk of suicide associated with a diagnosis of major depression in the US is estimated at 3.4%, which averages two highly disparate figures of almost 7% for men and 1% for women (although suicide attempts are more frequent in women). The estimate is substantially lower than a previously accepted figure of 15%, which had been derived from older studies of people who were hospitalized. Depressed people have a higher rate of dying from other causes. There is a 1.5- to 2-fold increased risk of cardiovascular disease, independent of other known risk factors, and is itself linked directly or indirectly to risk factors such as smoking and obesity. People with major depression are less likely to follow medical recommendations for treating and preventing cardiovascular disorders, further increasing their risk of medical complications. Cardiologists may not recognize underlying depression that complicates a cardiovascular problem under their care. Epidemiology Major depressive disorder affected approximately 163 million people in 2017 (2% of the global population). The percentage of people who are affected at one point in their life varies from 7% in Japan to 21% in France. In most countries the number of people who have depression during their lives falls within an 8–18% range. In North America, the probability of having a major depressive episode within a year-long period is 3–5% for males and 8–10% for females. Major depression is about twice as common in women as in men, although it is unclear why this is so, and whether factors unaccounted for are contributing to this. The relative increase in occurrence is related to pubertal development rather than chronological age, reaches adult ratios between the ages of 15 and 18, and appears associated with psychosocial more than hormonal factors. As of 2017, depression is the third most common worldwide cause of disability among both sexes, following low back pain and headache. People are most likely to develop their first depressive episode between the ages of 30 and 40, and there is a second, smaller peak of incidence between ages 50 and 60. The risk of major depression is increased with neurological conditions such as stroke, Parkinson's disease, or multiple sclerosis, and during the first year after childbirth. It is also more common after cardiovascular illnesses, and is related more to those with a poor cardiac disease outcome than to a better one. Depressive disorders are more common in urban populations than in rural ones and the prevalence is increased in groups with poorer socioeconomic factors, e.g., homelessness. Major depression is currently the leading cause of disease burden in North America and other high-income countries, and the fourth-leading cause worldwide. In the year 2030, it is predicted to be the second-leading cause of disease burden worldwide after HIV, according to the WHO. Delay or failure in seeking treatment after relapse and the failure of health professionals to provide treatment are two barriers to reducing disability. Comorbidity Major depression frequently co-occurs with other psychiatric problems. The 1990–92 National Comorbidity Survey (US) reports that half of those with major depression also have lifetime anxiety and its associated disorders, such as generalized anxiety disorder. Anxiety symptoms can have a major impact on the course of a depressive illness, with delayed recovery, increased risk of relapse, greater disability and increased suicidal behavior. Depressed people have increased rates of alcohol and substance use, particularly dependence, and around a third of individuals diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) develop comorbid depression. Post-traumatic stress disorder and depression often co-occur. Depression may also coexist with ADHD, complicating the diagnosis and treatment of both. Depression is also frequently comorbid with alcohol use disorder and personality disorders. Depression can also be exacerbated during particular months (usually winter) in those with seasonal affective disorder. While overuse of digital media has been associated with depressive symptoms, using digital media may also improve mood in some situations. Depression and pain often co-occur. One or more pain symptoms are present in 65% of people who have depression, and anywhere from 5 to 85% of people who are experiencing pain will also have depression, depending on the setting—a lower prevalence in general practice, and higher in specialty clinics. Depression is often underrecognized, and therefore undertreated, in patients presenting with pain. Depression often coexists with physical disorders common among the elderly, such as stroke, other cardiovascular diseases, Parkinson's disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. History The Ancient Greek physician Hippocrates described a syndrome of melancholia as a distinct disease with particular mental and physical symptoms; he characterized all "fears and despondencies, if they last a long time" as being symptomatic of the ailment. It was a similar but far broader concept than today's depression; prominence was given to a clustering of the symptoms of sadness, dejection, and despondency, and often fear, anger, delusions and obsessions were included. The term depression itself was derived from the Latin verb deprimere, "to press down". From the 14th century, "to depress" meant to subjugate or to bring down in spirits. It was used in 1665 in English author Richard Baker's Chronicle to refer to someone having "a great depression of spirit", and by English author Samuel Johnson in a similar sense in 1753. The term also came into use in physiology and economics. An early usage referring to a psychiatric symptom was by French psychiatrist Louis Delasiauve in 1856, and by the 1860s it was appearing in medical dictionaries to refer to a physiological and metaphorical lowering of emotional function. Since Aristotle, melancholia had been associated with men of learning and intellectual brilliance, a hazard of contemplation and creativity. The newer concept abandoned these associations and through the 19th century, became more associated with women. Although melancholia remained the dominant diagnostic term, depression gained increasing currency in medical treatises and was a synonym by the end of the century; German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin may have been the first to use it as the overarching term, referring to different kinds of melancholia as depressive states. Freud likened the state of melancholia to mourning in his 1917 paper Mourning and Melancholia. He theorized that objective loss, such as the loss of a valued relationship through death or a romantic break-up, results in subjective loss as well; the depressed individual has identified with the object of affection through an unconscious, narcissistic process called the libidinal cathexis of the ego. Such loss results in severe melancholic symptoms more profound than mourning; not only is the outside world viewed negatively but the ego itself is compromised. The person's decline of self-perception is revealed in his belief of his own blame, inferiority, and unworthiness. He also emphasized early life experiences as a predisposing factor. Adolf Meyer put forward a mixed social and biological framework emphasizing reactions in the context of an individual's life, and argued that the term depression should be used instead of melancholia. The first version of the DSM (DSM-I, 1952) contained depressive reaction and the DSM-II (1968) depressive neurosis, defined as an excessive reaction to internal conflict or an identifiable event, and also included a depressive type of manic-depressive psychosis within Major affective disorders. In the mid-20th century, researchers theorized that depression was caused by a chemical imbalance in neurotransmitters in the brain, a theory based on observations made in the 1950s of the effects of reserpine and isoniazid in altering monoamine neurotransmitter levels and affecting depressive symptoms. The chemical imbalance theory has never been proven. The term unipolar (along with the related term bipolar) was coined by the neurologist and psychiatrist Karl Kleist, and subsequently used by his disciples Edda Neele and Karl Leonhard. The term Major depressive disorder was introduced by a group of US clinicians in the mid-1970s as part of proposals for diagnostic criteria based on patterns of symptoms (called the "Research Diagnostic Criteria", building on earlier Feighner Criteria), and was incorporated into the DSM-III in 1980. The American Psychiatric Association added "major depressive disorder" to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III), as a split of the previous depressive neurosis in the DSM-II, which also encompassed the conditions now known as dysthymia and adjustment disorder with depressed mood. To maintain consistency the ICD-10 used the same criteria, with only minor alterations, but using the DSM diagnostic threshold to mark a mild depressive episode, adding higher threshold categories for moderate and severe episodes. The ancient idea of melancholia still survives in the notion of a melancholic subtype. The new definitions of depression were widely accepted, albeit with some conflicting findings and views. There have been some continued empirically based arguments for a return to the diagnosis of melancholia. There has been some criticism of the expansion of coverage of the diagnosis, related to the development and promotion of antidepressants and the biological model since the late 1950s. Society and culture Terminology The term "depression" is used in a number of different ways. It is often used to mean this syndrome but may refer to other mood disorders or simply to a low mood. People's conceptualizations of depression vary widely, both within and among cultures. "Because of the lack of scientific certainty," one commentator has observed, "the debate over depression turns on questions of language. What we call it—'disease,' 'disorder,' 'state of mind'—affects how we view, diagnose, and treat it." There are cultural differences in the extent to which serious depression is considered an illness requiring personal professional treatment, or an indicator of something else, such as the need to address social or moral problems, the result of biological imbalances, or a reflection of individual differences in the understanding of distress that may reinforce feelings of powerlessness, and emotional struggle. The diagnosis is less common in some countries, such as China. It has been argued that the Chinese traditionally deny or somatize emotional depression (although since the early 1980s, the Chinese denial of depression may have modified). Alternatively, it may be that Western cultures reframe and elevate some expressions of human distress to disorder status. Australian professor Gordon Parker and others have argued that the Western concept of | continued for at least six months to reduce the risk of relapse, and that SSRIs are better tolerated than tricyclic antidepressants. American Psychiatric Association treatment guidelines recommend that initial treatment should be individually tailored based on factors including severity of symptoms, co-existing disorders, prior treatment experience, and personal preference. Options may include pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy, exercise, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) or light therapy. Antidepressant medication is recommended as an initial treatment choice in people with mild, moderate, or severe major depression, and should be given to all people with severe depression unless ECT is planned. There is evidence that collaborative care by a team of health care practitioners produces better results than routine single-practitioner care. Treatment options are much more limited in developing countries, where access to mental health staff, medication, and psychotherapy is often difficult. Development of mental health services is minimal in many countries; depression is viewed as a phenomenon of the developed world despite evidence to the contrary, and not as an inherently life-threatening condition. There is insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness of psychological versus medical therapy in children. Lifestyle Physical exercise has been found to be effective for major depression, and may be recommended to people who are willing, motivated, and healthy enough to participate in an exercise program as treatment. It is equivalent to the use of medications or psychological therapies in most people. In older people it does appear to decrease depression. Sleep and diet may also play a role in depression, and interventions in these areas may be an effective add-on to conventional methods. In observational studies, smoking cessation has benefits in depression as large as or larger than those of medications. Talking therapies Talking therapy (psychotherapy) can be delivered to individuals, groups, or families by mental health professionals, including psychotherapists, psychiatrists, psychologists, clinical social workers, counselors, and psychiatric nurses. A 2012 review found psychotherapy to be better than no treatment but not other treatments. With more complex and chronic forms of depression, a combination of medication and psychotherapy may be used. There is moderate-quality evidence that psychological therapies are a useful addition to standard antidepressant treatment of treatment-resistant depression in the short term. Psychotherapy has been shown to be effective in older people. Successful psychotherapy appears to reduce the recurrence of depression even after it has been stopped or replaced by occasional booster sessions. The most-studied form of psychotherapy for depression is CBT, which teaches clients to challenge self-defeating, but enduring ways of thinking (cognitions) and change counter-productive behaviors. CBT can perform as well as than antidepressants in people with major depression. CBT has the most research evidence for the treatment of depression in children and adolescents, and CBT and interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) are preferred therapies for adolescent depression. In people under 18, according to the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, medication should be offered only in conjunction with a psychological therapy, such as CBT, interpersonal therapy, or family therapy. Several variables predict success for cognitive behavioral therapy in adolescents: higher levels of rational thoughts, less hopelessness, fewer negative thoughts, and fewer cognitive distortions. CBT is particularly beneficial in preventing relapse. Cognitive behavioral therapy and occupational programs (including modification of work activities and assistance) have been shown to be effective in reducing sick days taken by workers with depression. Several variants of cognitive behavior therapy have been used in those with depression, the most notable being rational emotive behavior therapy, and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Mindfulness-based stress reduction programs may reduce depression symptoms. Mindfulness programs also appear to be a promising intervention in youth. Psychoanalysis is a school of thought, founded by Sigmund Freud, which emphasizes the resolution of unconscious mental conflicts. Psychoanalytic techniques are used by some practitioners to treat clients presenting with major depression. A more widely practiced therapy, called psychodynamic psychotherapy, is in the tradition of psychoanalysis but less intensive, meeting once or twice a week. It also tends to focus more on the person's immediate problems, and has an additional social and interpersonal focus. In a meta-analysis of three controlled trials of Short Psychodynamic Supportive Psychotherapy, this modification was found to be as effective as medication for mild to moderate depression. Antidepressants Conflicting results have arisen from studies that look at the effectiveness of antidepressants in people with acute, mild to moderate depression. A review commissioned by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (UK) concluded that there is strong evidence that SSRIs, such as escitalopram, paroxetine, and sertraline, have greater efficacy than placebo on achieving a 50% reduction in depression scores in moderate and severe major depression, and that there is some evidence for a similar effect in mild depression. Similarly, a Cochrane systematic review of clinical trials of the generic tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline concluded that there is strong evidence that its efficacy is superior to placebo. In 2014 the US Food and Drug Administration published a systematic review of all antidepressant maintenance trials submitted to the agency between 1985 and 2012. The authors concluded that maintenance treatment reduced the risk of relapse by 52% compared to placebo, and that this effect was primarily due to recurrent depression in the placebo group rather than a drug withdrawal effect. To find the most effective antidepressant medication with minimal side-effects, the dosages can be adjusted, and if necessary, combinations of different classes of antidepressants can be tried. Response rates to the first antidepressant administered range from 50 to 75%, and it can take at least six to eight weeks from the start of medication to improvement. Antidepressant medication treatment is usually continued for 16 to 20 weeks after remission, to minimize the chance of recurrence, and even up to one year of continuation is recommended. People with chronic depression may need to take medication indefinitely to avoid relapse. SSRIs are the primary medications prescribed, owing to their relatively mild side-effects, and because they are less toxic in overdose than other antidepressants. People who do not respond to one SSRI can be switched to another antidepressant, and this results in improvement in almost 50% of cases. Another option is to switch to the atypical antidepressant bupropion. Venlafaxine, an antidepressant with a different mechanism of action, may be modestly more effective than SSRIs. However, venlafaxine is not recommended in the UK as a first-line treatment because of evidence suggesting its risks may outweigh benefits, and it is specifically discouraged in children and adolescents. For children, some research has supported the use of the SSRI antidepressant fluoxetine. The benefit however appears to be slight in children, while other antidepressants have not been shown to be effective. Medications are not recommended in children with mild disease. There is also insufficient evidence to determine effectiveness in those with depression complicated by dementia. Any antidepressant can cause low blood sodium levels; nevertheless, it has been reported more often with SSRIs. It is not uncommon for SSRIs to cause or worsen insomnia; the sedating atypical antidepressant mirtazapine can be used in such cases. Irreversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors, an older class of antidepressants, have been plagued by potentially life-threatening dietary and drug interactions. They are still used only rarely, although newer and better-tolerated agents of this class have been developed. The safety profile is different with reversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors, such as moclobemide, where the risk of serious dietary interactions is negligible and dietary restrictions are less strict. It is unclear whether antidepressants affect a person's risk of suicide. For children, adolescents, and probably young adults between 18 and 24 years old, there is a higher risk of both suicidal ideations and suicidal behavior in those treated with SSRIs. For adults, it is unclear whether SSRIs affect the risk of suicidality. One review found no connection; another an increased risk; and a third no risk in those 25–65 years old and a decreased risk in those more than 65. A black box warning was introduced in the United States in 2007 on SSRIs and other antidepressant medications due to the increased risk of suicide in people younger than 24 years old. Similar precautionary notice revisions were implemented by the Japanese Ministry of Health. Other medications and supplements The combined use of antidepressants plus benzodiazepines demonstrates improved effectiveness when compared to antidepressants alone, but these effects may not endure. The addition of a benzodiazepine is balanced against possible harms and other alternative treatment strategies when antidepressant mono-therapy is considered inadequate. There is insufficient high quality evidence to suggest omega-3 fatty acids are effective in depression. There is limited evidence that vitamin D supplementation is of value in alleviating the symptoms of depression in individuals who are vitamin D-deficient. There is some preliminary evidence that COX-2 inhibitors, such as celecoxib, have a beneficial effect on major depression. Lithium appears effective at lowering the risk of suicide in those with bipolar disorder and unipolar depression to nearly the same levels as the general population. There is a narrow range of effective and safe dosages of lithium thus close monitoring may be needed. Low-dose thyroid hormone may be added to existing antidepressants to treat persistent depression symptoms in people who have tried multiple courses of medication. Limited evidence suggests stimulants, such as amphetamine and modafinil, may be effective in the short term, or as adjuvant therapy. Also, it is suggested that folate supplements may have a role in depression management. There is tentative evidence for benefit from testosterone in males. Electroconvulsive therapy Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a standard psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in a person with depression to provide relief from psychiatric illnesses. ECT is used with informed consent as a last line of intervention for major depressive disorder. A round of ECT is effective for about 50% of people with treatment-resistant major depressive disorder, whether it is unipolar or bipolar. Follow-up treatment is still poorly studied, but about half of people who respond relapse within twelve months. Aside from effects in the brain, the general physical risks of ECT are similar to those of brief general anesthesia. Immediately following treatment, the most common adverse effects are confusion and memory loss. ECT is considered one of the least harmful treatment options available for severely depressed pregnant women. A usual course of ECT involves multiple administrations, typically given two or three times per week, until the person no longer has symptoms. ECT is administered under anesthesia with a muscle relaxant. Electroconvulsive therapy can differ in its application in three ways: electrode placement, frequency of treatments, and the electrical waveform of the stimulus. These three forms of application have significant differences in both adverse side effects and symptom remission. After treatment, drug therapy is usually continued, and some people receive maintenance ECT. ECT appears to work in the short term via an anticonvulsant effect mostly in the frontal lobes, and longer term via neurotrophic effects primarily in the medial temporal lobe. Other Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) or deep transcranial magnetic stimulation is a noninvasive method used to stimulate small regions of the brain. TMS was approved by the FDA for treatment-resistant major depressive disorder (trMDD) in 2008 and as of 2014 evidence supports that it is probably effective. The American Psychiatric Association the Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Disorders, and the Royal Australia and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists have endorsed TMS for trMDD. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is another noninvasive method used to stimulate small regions of the brain with a weak electric current. Several meta-analyses have concluded that active tDCS was useful for treating depression. Bright light therapy reduces depression symptom severity, with benefit for both seasonal affective disorder and for nonseasonal depression, and an effect similar to those for conventional antidepressants. For nonseasonal depression, adding light therapy to the standard antidepressant treatment was not effective. For nonseasonal depression, where light was used mostly in combination with antidepressants or wake therapy, a moderate effect was found, with response better than control treatment in high-quality studies, in studies that applied morning light treatment, and with people who respond to total or partial sleep deprivation. Both analyses noted poor quality, short duration, and small size of most of the reviewed studies. There is a small amount of evidence that sleep deprivation may improve depressive symptoms in some individuals, with the effects usually showing up within a day. This effect is usually temporary. Besides sleepiness, this method can cause a side effect of mania or hypomania. There is insufficient evidence for Reiki and dance movement therapy in depression. As of 2019 cannabis is specifically not recommended as a treatment. Prognosis Studies have shown that 80% of those with a first major depressive episode will have at least one more depression during their life, with a lifetime average of four episodes. Other general population studies indicate that around half those who have an episode recover (whether treated or not) and remain well, while the other half will have at least one more, and around 15% of those experience chronic recurrence. Studies recruiting from selective inpatient sources suggest lower recovery and higher chronicity, while studies of mostly outpatients show that nearly all recover, with a median episode duration of 11 months. Around 90% of those with severe or psychotic depression, most of whom also meet criteria for other mental disorders, experience recurrence. Cases when outcome is poor are associated with inappropriate treatment, severe initial symptoms including psychosis, early age of onset, previous episodes, incomplete recovery after one year of treatment, pre-existing severe mental or medical disorder, and family dysfunction. A high proportion of people who experience full symptomatic remission still have at least one not fully resolved symptom after treatment. Recurrence or chronicity is more likely if symptoms have not fully resolved with treatment. Current guidelines recommend continuing antidepressants for four to six months after remission to prevent relapse. Evidence from many randomized controlled trials indicates continuing antidepressant medications after recovery can reduce the chance of relapse by 70% (41% on placebo vs. 18% on antidepressant). The preventive effect probably lasts for at least the first 36 months of use. Major depressive episodes often resolve over time whether or not they are treated. Outpatients on a waiting list show a 10–15% reduction in symptoms within a few months, with approximately 20% no longer meeting the full criteria for a depressive disorder. The median duration of an episode has been estimated to be 23 weeks, with the highest rate of recovery in the first three months. According to a 2013 review, 23% of untreated adults with mild to moderate depression will remit within 3 months, 32% within 6 months and 53% within 12 months. Ability to work Depression may affect people's ability to work. The combination of usual clinical care and support with return to work (like working less hours or changing tasks) probably reduces sick leave by 15%, and leads to fewer depressive symptoms and improved work capacity, reducing sick leave by an annual average of 25 days per year. Helping depressed people return to work without a connection to clinical care has not been shown to have an effect on sick leave days. Additional psychological interventions (such as online cognitive behavioral therapy) lead to fewer sick days compared to standard management only. Streamlining care or adding specific providers for depression care may help to reduce sick leave. Life expectancy and the risk of suicide Depressed individuals have a shorter life expectancy than those without depression, in part because people who are depressed are at risk of dying of suicide. Up to 60% of people who die of suicide have a mood disorder such as major depression, and the risk is especially high if a person has a marked sense of hopelessness or has both depression and borderline personality disorder. About 2–8% of adults with major depression die by suicide, and about 50% of people who die by suicide had depression or another mood disorder. The lifetime risk of suicide associated with a diagnosis of major depression in the US is estimated at 3.4%, which averages two highly disparate figures of almost 7% for men and 1% for women (although suicide attempts are more frequent in women). The estimate is substantially lower than a previously accepted figure of 15%, which had been derived from older studies of people who were hospitalized. Depressed people have a higher rate of dying from other causes. There is a 1.5- to 2-fold increased risk of cardiovascular disease, independent of other known risk factors, and is itself linked directly or indirectly to risk factors such as smoking and obesity. People with major depression are less likely to follow medical recommendations for treating and preventing cardiovascular disorders, further increasing their risk of medical complications. Cardiologists may not recognize underlying depression that complicates a cardiovascular problem under their care. Epidemiology Major depressive disorder affected approximately 163 million people in 2017 (2% of the global population). The percentage of people who are affected at one point in their life varies from 7% in Japan to 21% in France. In most countries the number of people who have depression during their lives falls within an 8–18% range. In North America, the probability of having a major depressive episode within a year-long period is 3–5% for males and 8–10% for females. Major depression is about twice as common in women as in men, although it is unclear why this is so, and whether factors unaccounted for are contributing to this. The relative increase in occurrence is related to pubertal development rather than chronological age, reaches adult ratios between the ages of 15 and 18, and appears associated with psychosocial more than hormonal factors. As of 2017, depression is the third most common worldwide cause of disability among both sexes, following low back pain and headache. People are most likely to develop their first depressive episode between the ages of 30 and 40, and there is a second, smaller peak of incidence between ages 50 and 60. The risk of major depression is increased with neurological conditions such as stroke, Parkinson's disease, or multiple sclerosis, and during the first year after childbirth. It is also more common after cardiovascular illnesses, and is related more to those with a poor cardiac disease outcome than to a better one. Depressive disorders are more common in urban populations than in rural ones and the prevalence is increased in groups with poorer socioeconomic factors, e.g., homelessness. Major depression is currently the leading cause of disease burden in North America and other high-income countries, and the fourth-leading cause worldwide. In the year 2030, it is predicted to be the second-leading cause of disease burden worldwide after HIV, according to the WHO. Delay or failure in seeking treatment after relapse and the failure of health professionals to provide treatment are two barriers to reducing disability. Comorbidity Major depression frequently co-occurs with other psychiatric problems. The 1990–92 National Comorbidity Survey (US) reports that half of those with major depression also have lifetime anxiety and its associated disorders, such as generalized anxiety disorder. Anxiety symptoms can have a major impact on the course of a depressive illness, with delayed recovery, increased risk of relapse, greater disability and increased suicidal behavior. Depressed people have increased rates of alcohol and substance use, particularly dependence, and around a third of individuals diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) develop comorbid depression. Post-traumatic stress disorder and depression often co-occur. Depression may also coexist with ADHD, complicating the diagnosis and treatment of both. Depression is also frequently comorbid with alcohol use disorder and personality disorders. Depression can also be exacerbated during particular months (usually winter) in those with seasonal affective disorder. While overuse of digital media has been associated with depressive symptoms, using digital media may also improve mood in some situations. Depression and pain often co-occur. One or more pain symptoms are present in 65% of people who have depression, and anywhere from 5 to 85% of people who are experiencing pain will also have depression, depending on the setting—a lower prevalence in general practice, and higher in specialty clinics. Depression is often underrecognized, and therefore undertreated, in patients presenting with pain. Depression often coexists with physical disorders common among the elderly, such as stroke, other cardiovascular diseases, Parkinson's disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. History The Ancient Greek physician Hippocrates described a syndrome of melancholia as a distinct disease with particular mental and physical symptoms; he characterized all "fears and despondencies, if they last a long time" as being symptomatic of the ailment. It was a similar but far broader concept than today's depression; prominence was given to a clustering of the symptoms of sadness, dejection, and despondency, and often fear, anger, delusions and obsessions were included. The term depression itself was derived from the Latin verb deprimere, "to press down". From the 14th century, "to depress" meant to subjugate or to bring down in spirits. It was used in 1665 in English author Richard Baker's Chronicle to refer to someone having "a great depression of spirit", and by English author Samuel Johnson in a similar sense in 1753. The term also came into use in physiology and economics. An early usage referring to a psychiatric symptom was by French psychiatrist Louis Delasiauve in 1856, and by the 1860s it was appearing in medical dictionaries to refer to a physiological and metaphorical lowering of emotional function. Since Aristotle, melancholia had been associated with men of learning and intellectual brilliance, a hazard of contemplation and creativity. The newer concept abandoned these associations and through the 19th century, became more associated with women. Although melancholia remained the dominant diagnostic term, depression gained increasing currency in medical treatises and was a synonym by the end of the century; German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin may have been the first to use it as the overarching term, referring to different kinds of melancholia as depressive states. Freud likened the state of melancholia to mourning in his 1917 paper Mourning and Melancholia. He theorized that objective loss, such as the loss of a valued relationship through death or a romantic break-up, results in subjective loss as well; the depressed individual has identified with the object of affection through an unconscious, narcissistic process called the libidinal cathexis of the ego. Such loss results in severe melancholic symptoms more profound than mourning; not only is the outside world viewed negatively but the ego itself is compromised. The person's decline of self-perception is revealed in his belief of his own blame, inferiority, and unworthiness. He also emphasized early life experiences as a predisposing factor. Adolf Meyer put forward a mixed social and biological framework emphasizing reactions in the context of an individual's life, and argued that the term depression should be used instead of melancholia. The first version of the DSM (DSM-I, 1952) contained depressive reaction and the DSM-II (1968) depressive neurosis, defined as an excessive reaction to internal conflict or an identifiable event, and also included a depressive type of manic-depressive psychosis within Major affective disorders. In the mid-20th century, researchers theorized that depression was caused by a chemical imbalance in neurotransmitters in the brain, a theory based on observations made in the 1950s of the effects of reserpine and isoniazid in altering monoamine neurotransmitter levels and affecting depressive symptoms. The chemical imbalance theory has never been proven. The term unipolar (along with the related term bipolar) was coined by the neurologist and psychiatrist Karl Kleist, and subsequently used by his disciples Edda Neele and Karl Leonhard. The term Major depressive disorder was introduced by a group of US clinicians in the mid-1970s as part of proposals for diagnostic criteria based on patterns of symptoms (called the "Research Diagnostic Criteria", building on earlier Feighner Criteria), and was incorporated into the DSM-III in 1980. The American Psychiatric Association added "major depressive disorder" to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III), as a split of the previous depressive neurosis in the DSM-II, which also encompassed the conditions now known as dysthymia and adjustment disorder with depressed mood. To maintain consistency the ICD-10 used the same criteria, with only minor alterations, but using the DSM diagnostic threshold to mark a mild depressive episode, adding higher threshold categories for moderate and severe episodes. The ancient idea of melancholia still survives in the notion of a melancholic subtype. The new definitions of depression were widely accepted, albeit with some conflicting findings and views. There have been some continued empirically based arguments for a return to the diagnosis of melancholia. There has been some criticism of the expansion of coverage of the diagnosis, related to the development and promotion of antidepressants and the biological model since the late 1950s. Society and culture Terminology The term "depression" is used in a number of different ways. It is often used to mean this syndrome but may refer to other mood disorders or simply to a low mood. People's conceptualizations of depression vary widely, both within and among cultures. "Because of the lack of scientific certainty," one commentator has observed, "the debate over depression turns on questions of language. What we call it—'disease,' 'disorder,' 'state of mind'—affects how we view, diagnose, and treat it." There are cultural differences in the extent to which serious depression is considered an illness requiring personal professional treatment, or an indicator of something else, such as the need to address social or moral problems, the result of biological imbalances, or a reflection of individual differences in the understanding of distress that may reinforce feelings of powerlessness, and emotional struggle. The diagnosis is less common in some countries, such as China. It has been argued that the Chinese traditionally deny or somatize emotional depression (although since the early 1980s, the Chinese denial of depression may have modified). |
appearance of Diana beside Apollo [the brother of Artemis] in the first lectisternium at Rome" in 399 BCE. The process of identification between the two goddesses probably began when artists who were commissioned to create new cult statues for Diana's temples outside Nemi were struck by the similar attributes between Diana and the more familiar Artemis, and sculpted Diana in a manner inspired by previous depictions of Artemis. Sibyllene influence and trade with Massilia, where similar cult statues of Artemis existed, would have completed the process. According to Françoise Hélène Pairault's study, historical and archaeological evidence point to the fact that the characteristics given to both Diana of the Aventine Hill and Diana Nemorensis were the product of the direct or indirect influence of the cult of Artemis, which was spread by the Phoceans among the Greek towns of Campania Cuma and Capua, who in turn had passed it over to the Etruscans and the Latins by the 6th and 5th centuries BCE. Evidence suggests that a confrontation occurred between two groups of Etruscans who fought for supremacy, those from Tarquinia, Vulci and Caere (allied with the Greeks of Capua) and those of Clusium. This is reflected in the legend of the coming of Orestes to Nemi and of the inhumation of his bones in the Roman Forum near the temple of Saturn. The cult introduced by Orestes at Nemi is apparently that of the Artemis Tauropolos. The literary amplification reveals a confused religious background: different versions of Artemis were conflated under the epithet. As far as Nemi's Diana is concerned there are two different versions, by Strabo and Servius Honoratus. Strabo's version looks to be the most authoritative as he had access to first-hand primary sources on the sanctuaries of Artemis, i.e. the priest of Artemis Artemidoros of Ephesus. The meaning of Tauropolos denotes an Asiatic goddess with lunar attributes, lady of the herds. The only possible interpretatio graeca of high antiquity concerning Diana Nemorensis could have been the one based on this ancient aspect of a deity of light, master of wildlife. Tauropolos is an ancient epithet attached to Artemis, Hecate, and even Athena. According to the legend Orestes founded Nemi together with Iphigenia. At Cuma the Sybil is the priestess of both Phoibos and Trivia. Hesiod and Stesichorus tell the story according to which after her death Iphigenia was divinised under the name of Hecate, a fact which would support the assumption that Artemis Tauropolos had a real ancient alliance with the heroine, who was her priestess in Taurid and her human paragon. This religious complex is in turn supported by the triple statue of Artemis-Hecate. In Rome, Diana was regarded with great reverence and was a patroness of lower-class citizens, called plebeians, as well as slaves, who could receive asylum in her temples. Georg Wissowa proposed that this might be because the first slaves of the Romans were Latins of the neighboring tribes. However, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus had the same custom of the asylum. In Rome Worship of Diana probably spread into the city of Rome beginning around 550 BCE, during her Hellenization and combination with the Greek goddess Artemis. Diana was first worshiped along with her brother and mother, Apollo and Latona, in their temple in the Campus Martius, and later in the Temple of Apollo Palatinus. The first major temple dedicated primarily to Diana in the vicinity of Rome was the Temple of Diana Aventina (Diana of the Aventine Hill). According to the Roman historian Livy, the construction of this temple began in the 6th century BCE and was inspired by stories of the massive Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, which was said to have been built through the combined efforts of all the cities of Asia Minor. Legend has it that Servius Tullius was impressed with this act of massive political and economic cooperation, and convinced the cities of the Latin League to work with the Romans to build their own temple to the goddess. However, there is no compelling evidence for such an early construction of the temple, and it is more likely that it was built in the 3rd century BCE, following the influence of the temple at Nemi, and probably about the same time the first temples to Vertumnus (who was associated with Diana) were built in Rome (264 BCE). The misconception that the Aventine Temple was inspired by the Ephesian Temple might originate in the fact that the cult images and statues used at the former were based heavily on those found in the latter. Whatever its initial construction date, records show that the Avantine Temple was rebuilt by Lucius Cornificius in 32 BCE. If it was still in use by the 4th century CE, the Aventine temple would have been permanently closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire. Today, a short street named the Via del Tempio di Diana and an associated plaza, Piazza del Tempio di Diana, commemorates the site of the temple. Part of its wall is located within one of the halls of the Apuleius restaurant. Later temple dedications often were based on the model for ritual formulas and regulations of the Temple of Diana. Roman politicians built several minor temples to Diana elsewhere in Rome to secure public support. One of these was built in the Campus Martius in 187 BCE; no Imperial period records of this temple have been found, and it is possible it was one of the temples demolished around 55 BCE in order to build a theater. Diana also had a public temple on the Quirinal Hill, the sanctuary of Diana Planciana. It was dedicated by Plancius in 55 BCE, though it is unclear which Plancius. In their worship of Artemis, Greeks filled their temples with sculptures of the goddess created by well-known sculptors, and many were adapted for use in the worship of Diana by the Romans, beginning around the 2nd century BCE (the beginning of a period of strong Hellenistic influence on Roman religion). The earliest depictions of the Artemis of Ephesus are found on Ephesian coins from this period. By the Imperial period, small marble statues of the Ephesian Artemis were being produced in the Western region of the Mediterranean and were often bought by Roman patrons. The Romans obtained a large copy of an Ephesian Artemis statue for their temple on the Aventine Hill. Diana was usually depicted for educated Romans in her Greek guise. If she was shown accompanied by a deer, as in the Diana of Versailles, this is because Diana was the patroness of hunting. The deer may also offer a covert reference to the myth of Acteon (or Actaeon), who saw her bathing naked. Diana transformed Acteon into a stag and set his own hunting dogs to kill him. At Mount Tifata In Campania, Diana had a major temple at Mount Tifata, near Capua. She was worshiped there as Diana Tifatina. This was one of the oldest sanctuaries in Campania. As a rural sanctuary, it included lands and estates that would have been worked by slaves following the Roman conquest of Campania, and records show that expansion and renovation projects at her temple were funded in part by other conquests by Roman military campaigns. The modern Christian church of Sant'Angelo in Formis was built on the ruins of the Tifata temple. Roman provinces In the Roman provinces, Diana was widely worshiped alongside local deities. Over 100 inscriptions to Diana have been cataloged in the provinces, mainly from Gaul, Upper Germania, and Britannia. Diana was commonly invoked alongside another forest god, Silvanus, as well as other "mountain gods". In the provinces, she was occasionally conflated with local goddesses such as Abnoba, and was given high status, with Augusta and regina ("queen") being common epithets. Household worship Diana was not only regarded as a goddess of the wilderness and the hunt, but was often worshiped as a patroness of families. She served a similar function to the hearth goddess Vesta, and was sometimes considered to be a member of the Penates, the deities most often invoked in household rituals. In this role, she was often given a name reflecting the tribe of family who worshiped her and asked for her protection. For example, in what is now Wiesbaden, Diana was worshiped as Diana Mattiaca by the Mattiaci tribe. Other family-derived named attested in the ancient literature include Diana Cariciana, Diana Valeriana, and Diana Plancia. As a house goddess, Diana often became reduced in stature compared to her official worship by the Roman state religion. In personal or family worship, Diana was brought to the level of other household spirits, and was believed to have a vested interest in the prosperity of the household and the continuation of the family. The Roman poet Horace regarded Diana as a household goddess in his Odes, and had an altar dedicated to her in his villa where household worship could be conducted. In his poetry, Horace deliberately contrasted the kinds of grand, elevated hymns to Diana on behalf of the entire Roman state, the kind of worship that would have been typical at her Aventine temple, with a more personal form of devotion. Images of Diana and her associated myths have been found on sarcophagi of wealthy Romans. They often included scenes depicting sacrifices to the goddess, and on at least one example, the deceased man is shown joining Diana's hunt. Theology Since ancient times, philosophers and theologians have examined the nature of Diana in light of her worship traditions, attributes, mythology, and identification with other gods. Conflation with other goddesses Diana was initially a hunting goddess and goddess of the local woodland at Nemi, but as her worship spread, she acquired attributes of other similar goddesses. As she became conflated with Artemis, she became a moon goddess, identified with the other lunar goddesses goddess Luna and Hekate. She also became the goddess of childbirth and ruled over the countryside. Catullus wrote a poem to Diana in which she has more than one alias: Latonia, Lucina, Juno, Trivia, Luna. Along with Mars, Diana was often venerated at games held in Roman amphitheaters, and some inscriptions from the Danubian provinces show that she was conflated with Nemesis in this role, as Diana Nemesis. Outside of Italy, Diana had important centers of worship where she was syncretised with similar local deities in Gaul, Upper Germania, and Britannia. Diana was particularly important in the region in and around the Black Forest, where she was conflated with the local goddess Abnoba and worshiped as Diana Abnoba. Some late antique sources went even further, syncretizing many local "great goddesses" into a single "Queen of Heaven". The Platonist philosopher Apuleius, writing in the late 2nd century, depicted the goddess declaring: "I come, Lucius, moved by your entreaties: I, mother of the universe, mistress of all the elements, first-born of the ages, highest of the gods, queen of the shades, first of those who dwell in heaven, representing in one shape all gods and goddesses. My will controls the shining heights of heaven, the health-giving sea-winds, and the mournful silences of hell; the entire world worships my single godhead in a thousand shapes, with divers rites, and under many a different name. The Phrygians, first-born of mankind, call me the Pessinuntian Mother of the gods; the native Athenians the Cecropian Minerva; the island-dwelling Cypriots Paphian Venus; the archer Cretans Dictynnan Diana; the triple-tongued Sicilians Stygian Proserpine; the ancient Eleusinians Actaean Ceres; some call me Juno, some Bellona, others Hecate, others Rhamnusia; but both races of Ethiopians, those on whom the rising and those on whom the setting sun shines, and the Egyptians who excel in ancient learning, honour me with the worship which is truly mine and call me by my true name: Queen Isis." --Apuleius, translated by E. J. Kenny. The Golden Ass Later poets and historians looked to Diana's identity as a triple goddess to merge her with triads heavenly, earthly, and underworld (cthonic) goddesses. Maurus Servius Honoratus said that the same goddess was called Luna in heaven, Diana on earth, and Proserpina in hell. Michael Drayton praises the Triple Diana in poem The Man in the Moone (1606): "So these great three most powerful of the rest, Phoebe, Diana, Hecate, do tell. Her sovereignty in Heaven, in Earth and Hell". In Platonism Based on the earlier writings of Plato, the Neoplatonist philosophers of late antiquity united the various major gods of Hellenic tradition into a series of monads containing within them triads, with some creating the world, some animating it or bringing it to life, and others harmonizing it. Within this system, Proclus considered Diana to be one of the primary animating, or life-giving, deities. Proclus, citing Orphic tradition, concludes that Diana "presides over all the generation in nature, and is the midwife of physical productive principles" and that she "extends these genitals, distributing as far as to subterranean natures the prolific power of [Bacchus]." Specifically, Proclus considered the life-generating principle of the highest order, within the Intellectual realm, to be Rhea, whom he identified with Ceres. Within her divinity was produced the cause of the basic principle of life. Projecting this principle into the lower, Hypercosmic realm of reality generated a lower monad, Kore, who could therefore be understood as Ceres' "daughter". Kore embodied the "maidenly" principle of generation that, more importantly, included a principle of division - where Demeter generates life indiscriminately, Kore distributes it individually. This division results in another triad or trinity, known as the Maidenly trinity, within the monad of Kore: namely, Diana, Proserpine, and Minerva, through whom individual living beings are given life and perfected. Specifically, according to a commentary by scholar Spyridon Rangos, Diana (equated with Hecate) gives existence, Proserpine (equated with "Soul") gives form, and Minerva (equated with "Virtue") gives intellect. In his commentary on Proclus, the 19th century Platonist scholar Thomas Taylor expanded upon the theology of the classical philosophers, further interpreting the nature and roles of the gods in light of the whole body of Neoplatonist philosophy. He cites Plato in giving a three-form aspect to her central characteristic of virginity: the undefiled, the mundane, and the anagogic. Through the first form, Diana is regarded as a "lover of virginity". Through the second, she is the guardian of virtue. Through the third, she is considered to "hate the impulses arising from generation." Through the principle of the undefiled, Taylor suggests that she is given supremacy in Proclus' triad of life-giving or animating deities, and in this role the theurgists called her Hekate. In this role, Diana is granted undefiled power (Amilieti) from the other gods. This generative power does not proceed forth from the goddess (according to a statement by the Oracle of Delphi) but rather resides with her, giving her unparalleled virtue, and in this way she can be said to embody virginity. Later commentators on Proclus have clarified that the virginity of Diana is not an absence of sexual drive, but a renunciation of sexuality. Diana embodies virginity because she generates but precedes active fertility (within Neoplatonism, an important maxim is that "every productive cause is superior to the nature of the produced effect"). Using the ancient Neoplatonists as a basis, Taylor also commented on the triadic nature of Diana and related goddesses, and the ways in which they subsist within one another, partaking unevenly in each other's powers and attributes. For example, Kore is said to embody both Diana/Hecate and Minerva, who create the virtuous or virgin power within her, but also Proserpine (her sole traditional identification), through whom the generative power of the Kore as a whole is able to proceed forth into the world, where it joins with the demiurge to produce further deities, including Bacchus and "nine azure-eyed, flower-producing daughters". Proclus also included Artemis/Diana in a second triad of deities, along with Ceres and Juno. According to Proclus: "The life-generating triad begins with Demeter who engenders the entire encosmic life, namely intellectual life, psychic life and the life that is inseparable from body; Hera who brings forth the birth of soul occupies the cohering middle position (for the intellectual goddess outpours from herself all the processions of the psychic kinds); finally, Artemis has been assigned to the end of the trinity because she activates all the natural formative principles and perfects the self-completeness of matter; it is for this reason, namely because she supervises natural development and natural birth, that the theologians and Socrates in the Theaetetus call her Lochia." Proclus pointed to the conflict between Hera and Artemis in the Illiad as a representation of the two kinds of human souls. Where Hera creates the higher, more cultured, or "worthy" souls, Artemis brings light to and perfects the "less worthy" or less rational. As explained by Ragnos (2000), "The aspect of reality which Artemis and Hera share, and because of which they engage in a symbolic conflict, is the engendering of life." Hera elevates rational living beings up to intellectual rational existence, whereas Artemis's power pertains to human life as far as its physical existence as a living thing. "Artemis deals with the most elementary forms of life or the most elementary part of all life, whereas Hera operates in the most elevated forms of life or the most elevated part of all life. Worship in Post Roman Europe Sermons and other religious documents have provided evidence for the worship of Diana during the Middle Ages. Though few details have been recorded, enough references to Diana worship during the early Christian period exist to give some indication that it may have been relatively widespread among remote and rural communities throughout Europe, and that such beliefs persisted into the Merovingian period. References to contemporary Diana worship exist from the 6th century on the Iberian peninsula and what is now southern France, though more detailed accounts of Dianic cults were given for the Low Countries, and southern Belgium in particular. Many of these were probably local goddesses, and wood nymphs or dryads, which had been conflated with Diana by Christian writers Latinizing local names and traditions. In the Low Countries The 6th century bishop Gregory of Tours reported meeting with a deacon named Vulfilaic (also known as Saint Wulflaicus or Walfroy the Stylite), who founded a hermitage on a hill in what is now Margut, France. On the same hill, he found "an image of Diana which the unbelieving people worshiped as a god." According to Gregory's report, worshipers would also sing chants in Diana's honor as they drank and feasted. Vulfilaic destroyed a number of smaller pagan statues in the area, but the statue of Diana was too large. After converting some of the local population to Christianity, Vulfilaic and a group of local residents attempted to pull the large statue down the mountain in order to destroy it, but failed, as it was too large to be moved. In Vulfilaic's account, after praying for a miracle, he was then able to single-handedly pull down the statue, at which point he and his group smashed it to dust with their hammers. According to Vulfilaic, this incident was quickly followed by an outbreak of pimples or sores that covered his entire body, which he attributed to demonic activity and similarly cured via what he described as a miracle. Vulfilaic would later found a church on the site, which is today known as Mont Saint-Walfroy. Additional evidence for surviving pagan practices in the Low Countries region comes from the Vita Eligii, or "Life of Saint Eligius", written by Audoin in the 7th century. Audoin drew together the familiar admonitions of Eligius to the people of Flanders. In his sermons, he denounced "pagan customs" that the people continued to follow. In particular, he denounced several Roman gods and goddesses alongside Druidic mythological beliefs and objects: "I denounce and contest, that you shall observe no sacrilegious pagan customs. For no cause or infirmity should you consult magicians, diviners, sorcerers or incantators. ..Do not observe auguries ... No influence attaches to the first work of the day or the [phase of the] moon. ... [Do not] make vetulas, little deer or iotticos or set tables at night or exchange New Year gifts or supply superfluous drinks... No Christian... performs solestitia or dancing or leaping or diabolical chants. No Christian should presume to invoke the name of a demon, not Neptune or Orcus or Diana or Minerva or Geniscus... No one should observe Jove's day in idleness. ... No Christian should make or render any devotion to the gods of the trivium, where three roads meet, to the fanes or the rocks, or springs or groves or corners. None should presume to hang any phylacteries from the neck of man nor beast. ..None should presume to make lustrations or incantations with herbs, or to pass cattle through a hollow tree or ditch ... No woman should presume to hang amber from her neck or call upon Minerva or other ill-starred beings in their weaving or dyeing. .. None should call the sun or moon lord or swear by them. .. No one should tell fate or fortune or horoscopes by them as those do who believe that a person must be what he was born to be." Legends from medieval Belgium concern a natural spring which came to be known as the "Fons Remacli", a location which may have been home to late-surviving worship of Diana. Remacle was a monk appointed by Eligius to head a monastery at Solignac, and he is reported to have encountered Diana worship in the area around the river Warche. The population in this region was said to have been involved in the worship of "Diana of the Ardennes" (a syncretism of Diana and the Celtic goddess Arduinna), with effigies and "stones of Diana" used as evidence of pagan practices. Remacle believed that demonic entities were present in the spring, and had caused it to run dry. He performed and exorcism of the water source, and installed a lead pipe, which allowed the water to flow again. The "Society of Diana" Diana is the only pagan goddess mentioned by name in the New Testament (only in some Bible versions of Acts 19; many other Bibles refer to her as Artemis instead). As a result, she became associated with many folk beliefs involving goddess-like supernatural figures that Catholic clergy wished to demonize. In the Middle Ages, legends of night-time processions of spirits led by a female figure are recorded in the church records of Northern Italy, western Germany, and southern France. The spirits were said to enter houses and consume food which then miraculously re-appeared. They would sing and dance, and dispense advise regarding healing herbs and the whereabouts of lost objects. If the house was in good order, they would bring fertility and plenty. If not, they would bring curses to the family. Some women reported participating in these processions while their bodies still lay in bed. Historian Carlo Ginzburg has referred to these legendary spirit gatherings as "The Society of Diana". Local clergy complained that women believed they were following Diana or Herodias, riding out on appointed nights to join the processions or carry out instructions from the goddess. The earliest reports of these legends appear in the writings of Regino of Prüm in the year 899, followed by many additional reports and variants of the legend in documents by Ratherius and others. By 1310, the names of the goddess figures attached to the legend were sometimes combined as Herodiana. It is likely that the clergy of this time used the identification of the procession's leader as Diana or Herodias in order to fit an older folk belief into a Biblical framework, as both are featured and demonized in the New Testament. Herodias was often conflated with her daughter Salome in legend, which also holds that, upon being presented with the severed head of John the Baptist, she was blown into the air by wind from the saint's mouth, through which she continued to wander for eternity. Diana was often conflated with Hecate, a goddess associated with the spirits of the dead and with witchcraft. These associations, and the fact that both figures are attested to in the Bible, made them a natural fit for the leader of the ghostly procession. Clergy used this identification to assert that the spirits were evil, and that the women who followed them were inspired by demons. As was typical of this time period, though pagan beliefs and practices were near totally eliminated from Europe, the clergy and other authorities still treated paganism as a real threat, in part thanks to biblical influence; much of the Bible had been written when various forms of paganism were still active if not dominant, so medieval clergy applied the same kinds of warnings and admonitions for any non-standard folk beliefs and practices they encountered. Based on analysis of church documents and parishioner confessions, it is likely that the spirit identified by the Church as Diana or Herodias was called by names of pre-Christian figures like Holda (a Germanic goddess of the winter solstice), or with names referencing her bringing of prosperity, like the Latin Abundia (meaning "plenty"), Satia (meaning "full" or "plentiful") and the Italian Richella (meaning "rich"). Some of the local titles for her, such as bonae res (meaning "good things"), are similar to late classical titles for Hecate, like bona dea. This might indicate a cultural mixture of medieval folk ideas with holdovers from earlier pagan belief systems. Whatever her true origin, by the 13th century, the leader of the legendary spirit procession had come to be firmly identified with Diana and Herodias through the influence of the Church. Modern development and folklore The Golden Bough In his wide-ranging, comparative study of mythology and religion, The Golden Bough, anthropologist James | Artemis did not involve the bath at all. Worship in the classical period Diana was an ancient goddess common to all Latin tribes. Therefore, many sanctuaries were dedicated to her in the lands inhabited by Latins. Her primary sanctuary was a woodland grove overlooking Lake Nemi, a body of water also known as "Diana's Mirror", where she was worshiped as Diana Nemorensis, or "Diana of the Wood". In Rome, the cult of Diana may have been almost as old as the city itself. Varro mentions her in the list of deities to whom king Titus Tatius promised to build a shrine. His list included Luna and Diana Lucina as separate entities. Another testimony to the antiquity of her cult is to be found in the lex regia of King Tullus Hostilius that condemns those guilty of incest to the sacratio to Diana. She had a temple in Rome on the Aventine Hill, according to tradition dedicated by king Servius Tullius. Its location is remarkable as the Aventine is situated outside the pomerium, i.e. original territory of the city, in order to comply with the tradition that Diana was a goddess common to all Latins and not exclusively of the Romans. Being placed on the Aventine, and thus outside the pomerium, meant that Diana's cult essentially remained a foreign one, like that of Bacchus; she was never officially transferred to Rome as Juno was after the sack of Veii. Other known sanctuaries and temples to Diana include Colle di Corne near Tusculum, where she is referred to with the archaic Latin name of deva Cornisca and where existed a collegium of worshippers; at Évora, Portugal; Mount Algidus, also near Tusculum; at Lavinium; and at Tibur (Tivoli), where she is referred to as Diana Opifera Nemorensis. Diana was also worshiped at a sacred wood mentioned by Livy - ad compitum Anagninum (near Anagni), and on Mount Tifata in Campania. According to Plutarch, men and women alike were worshipers of Diana and were welcomed into all of her temples. The one exception seems to have been a temple on the Vicus Patricius, which men either did not enter due to tradition, or were not allowed to enter. Plutarch related a legend that a man had attempted to assault a woman worshiping in this temple and was killed by a pack of dogs (echoing the myth of Diana and Actaeon), which resulted in a superstition against men entering the temple. A feature common to nearly all of Diana's temples and shrines by the second century AD was the hanging up of stag antlers. Plutarch noted that the only exception to this was the temple on the Aventine Hill, in which bull horns had been hung up instead. Plutarch explains this by way of reference to a legend surrounding the sacrifice of an impressive Sabine bull by King Servius at the founding of the Aventine temple. Sanctuary at Lake Nemi Diana's worship may have originated at an open-air sanctuary overlooking Lake Nemi in the Alban Hills near Aricia, where she was worshiped as Diana Nemorensis, or ("Diana of the Sylvan Glade"). According to legendary accounts, the sanctuary was founded by Orestes and Iphigenia after they fled from the Tauri. In this tradition, the Nemi sanctuary was supposedly built on the pattern of an earlier Temple of Artemis Tauropolos, and the first cult statue at Nemi was said to have been stolen from the Tauri and brought to Nemi by Orestes. Historical evidence suggests that worship of Diana at Nemi flourished from at least the 6th century BCE until the 2nd century CE. Her cult there was first attested in Latin literature by Cato the Elder, in a surviving quote by the late grammarian Priscian. By the 4th century BCE, the simple shrine at Nemi had been joined by a temple complex. The sanctuary served an important political role as it was held in common by the Latin League. A festival to Diana, the Nemoralia, was held yearly at Nemi on the Ides of August (August 13–15). Worshipers traveled to Nemi carrying torches and garlands, and once at the lake, they left pieces of thread tied to fences and tablets inscribed with prayers. Diana's festival eventually became widely celebrated throughout Italy, which was unusual given the provincial nature of Diana's cult. The poet Statius wrote of the festival: "It is the season when the most scorching region of the heavens takes over the land and the keen dog-star Sirius, so often struck by Hyperion's sun, burns the gasping fields. Now is the day when Trivia's Arician grove, convenient for fugitive kings, grows smoky, and the lake, having guilty knowledge of Hippolytus, glitters with the reflection of a multitude of torches; Diana herself garlands the deserving hunting dogs and polishes the arrowheads and allows the wild animals to go in safety, and at virtuous hearths all Italy celebrates the Hecatean Ides." (Statius Silv. 3.I.52-60) Statius describes the triple nature of the goddess by invoking heavenly (the stars), earthly (the grove itself) and underworld (Hecate) imagery. He also suggests by the garlanding of the dogs and polishing of the spears that no hunting was allowed during the festival. Legend has it that Diana's high priest at Nemi, known as the Rex Nemorensis, was always an escaped slave who could only obtain the position by defeating his predecessor in a fight to the death. Sir James George Frazer wrote of this sacred grove in The Golden Bough, basing his interpretation on brief remarks in Strabo (5.3.12), Pausanias (2,27.24) and Servius' commentary on the Aeneid (6.136). The legend tells of a tree that stood in the center of the grove and was heavily guarded. No one was allowed to break off its limbs, with the exception of a runaway slave, who was allowed, if he could, to break off one of the boughs. He was then in turn granted the privilege to engage the Rex Nemorensis, the current king and priest of Diana, in a fight to the death. If the slave prevailed, he became the next king for as long as he could defeat his challengers. However, Joseph Fontenrose criticised Frazer's assumption that a rite of this sort actually occurred at the sanctuary, and no contemporary records exist that support the historical existence of the Rex Nemorensis. Spread and conflation with Artemis Rome hoped to unify into and control the Latin tribes around Nemi, so Diana's worship was imported to Rome as a show of political solidarity. Diana soon afterwards became Hellenized, and combined with the Greek goddess Artemis, "a process which culminated with the appearance of Diana beside Apollo [the brother of Artemis] in the first lectisternium at Rome" in 399 BCE. The process of identification between the two goddesses probably began when artists who were commissioned to create new cult statues for Diana's temples outside Nemi were struck by the similar attributes between Diana and the more familiar Artemis, and sculpted Diana in a manner inspired by previous depictions of Artemis. Sibyllene influence and trade with Massilia, where similar cult statues of Artemis existed, would have completed the process. According to Françoise Hélène Pairault's study, historical and archaeological evidence point to the fact that the characteristics given to both Diana of the Aventine Hill and Diana Nemorensis were the product of the direct or indirect influence of the cult of Artemis, which was spread by the Phoceans among the Greek towns of Campania Cuma and Capua, who in turn had passed it over to the Etruscans and the Latins by the 6th and 5th centuries BCE. Evidence suggests that a confrontation occurred between two groups of Etruscans who fought for supremacy, those from Tarquinia, Vulci and Caere (allied with the Greeks of Capua) and those of Clusium. This is reflected in the legend of the coming of Orestes to Nemi and of the inhumation of his bones in the Roman Forum near the temple of Saturn. The cult introduced by Orestes at Nemi is apparently that of the Artemis Tauropolos. The literary amplification reveals a confused religious background: different versions of Artemis were conflated under the epithet. As far as Nemi's Diana is concerned there are two different versions, by Strabo and Servius Honoratus. Strabo's version looks to be the most authoritative as he had access to first-hand primary sources on the sanctuaries of Artemis, i.e. the priest of Artemis Artemidoros of Ephesus. The meaning of Tauropolos denotes an Asiatic goddess with lunar attributes, lady of the herds. The only possible interpretatio graeca of high antiquity concerning Diana Nemorensis could have been the one based on this ancient aspect of a deity of light, master of wildlife. Tauropolos is an ancient epithet attached to Artemis, Hecate, and even Athena. According to the legend Orestes founded Nemi together with Iphigenia. At Cuma the Sybil is the priestess of both Phoibos and Trivia. Hesiod and Stesichorus tell the story according to which after her death Iphigenia was divinised under the name of Hecate, a fact which would support the assumption that Artemis Tauropolos had a real ancient alliance with the heroine, who was her priestess in Taurid and her human paragon. This religious complex is in turn supported by the triple statue of Artemis-Hecate. In Rome, Diana was regarded with great reverence and was a patroness of lower-class citizens, called plebeians, as well as slaves, who could receive asylum in her temples. Georg Wissowa proposed that this might be because the first slaves of the Romans were Latins of the neighboring tribes. However, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus had the same custom of the asylum. In Rome Worship of Diana probably spread into the city of Rome beginning around 550 BCE, during her Hellenization and combination with the Greek goddess Artemis. Diana was first worshiped along with her brother and mother, Apollo and Latona, in their temple in the Campus Martius, and later in the Temple of Apollo Palatinus. The first major temple dedicated primarily to Diana in the vicinity of Rome was the Temple of Diana Aventina (Diana of the Aventine Hill). According to the Roman historian Livy, the construction of this temple began in the 6th century BCE and was inspired by stories of the massive Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, which was said to have been built through the combined efforts of all the cities of Asia Minor. Legend has it that Servius Tullius was impressed with this act of massive political and economic cooperation, and convinced the cities of the Latin League to work with the Romans to build their own temple to the goddess. However, there is no compelling evidence for such an early construction of the temple, and it is more likely that it was built in the 3rd century BCE, following the influence of the temple at Nemi, and probably about the same time the first temples to Vertumnus (who was associated with Diana) were built in Rome (264 BCE). The misconception that the Aventine Temple was inspired by the Ephesian Temple might originate in the fact that the cult images and statues used at the former were based heavily on those found in the latter. Whatever its initial construction date, records show that the Avantine Temple was rebuilt by Lucius Cornificius in 32 BCE. If it was still in use by the 4th century CE, the Aventine temple would have been permanently closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire. Today, a short street named the Via del Tempio di Diana and an associated plaza, Piazza del Tempio di Diana, commemorates the site of the temple. Part of its wall is located within one of the halls of the Apuleius restaurant. Later temple dedications often were based on the model for ritual formulas and regulations of the Temple of Diana. Roman politicians built several minor temples to Diana elsewhere in Rome to secure public support. One of these was built in the Campus Martius in 187 BCE; no Imperial period records of this temple have been found, and it is possible it was one of the temples demolished around 55 BCE in order to build a theater. Diana also had a public temple on the Quirinal Hill, the sanctuary of Diana Planciana. It was dedicated by Plancius in 55 BCE, though it is unclear which Plancius. In their worship of Artemis, Greeks filled their temples with sculptures of the goddess created by well-known sculptors, and many were adapted for use in the worship of Diana by the Romans, beginning around the 2nd century BCE (the beginning of a period of strong Hellenistic influence on Roman religion). The earliest depictions of the Artemis of Ephesus are found on Ephesian coins from this period. By the Imperial period, small marble statues of the Ephesian Artemis were being produced in the Western region of the Mediterranean and were often bought by Roman patrons. The Romans obtained a large copy of an Ephesian Artemis statue for their temple on the Aventine Hill. Diana was usually depicted for educated Romans in her Greek guise. If she was shown accompanied by a deer, as in the Diana of Versailles, this is because Diana was the patroness of hunting. The deer may also offer a covert reference to the myth of Acteon (or Actaeon), who saw her bathing naked. Diana transformed Acteon into a stag and set his own hunting dogs to kill him. At Mount Tifata In Campania, Diana had a major temple at Mount Tifata, near Capua. She was worshiped there as Diana Tifatina. This was one of the oldest sanctuaries in Campania. As a rural sanctuary, it included lands and estates that would have been worked by slaves following the Roman conquest of Campania, and records show that expansion and renovation projects at her temple were funded in part by other conquests by Roman military campaigns. The modern Christian church of Sant'Angelo in Formis was built on the ruins of the Tifata temple. Roman provinces In the Roman provinces, Diana was widely worshiped alongside local deities. Over 100 inscriptions to Diana have been cataloged in the provinces, mainly from Gaul, Upper Germania, and Britannia. Diana was commonly invoked alongside another forest god, Silvanus, as well as other "mountain gods". In the provinces, she was occasionally conflated with local goddesses such as Abnoba, and was given high status, with Augusta and regina ("queen") being common epithets. Household worship Diana was not only regarded as a goddess of the wilderness and the hunt, but was often worshiped as a patroness of families. She served a similar function to the hearth goddess Vesta, and was sometimes considered to be a member of the Penates, the deities most often invoked in household rituals. In this role, she was often given a name reflecting the tribe of family who worshiped her and asked for her protection. For example, in what is now Wiesbaden, Diana was worshiped as Diana Mattiaca by the Mattiaci tribe. Other family-derived named attested in the ancient literature include Diana Cariciana, Diana Valeriana, and Diana Plancia. As a house goddess, Diana often became reduced in stature compared to her official worship by the Roman state religion. In personal or family worship, Diana was brought to the level of other household spirits, and was believed to have a vested interest in the prosperity of the household and the continuation of the family. The Roman poet Horace regarded Diana as a household goddess in his Odes, and had an altar dedicated to her in his villa where household worship could be conducted. In his poetry, Horace deliberately contrasted the kinds of grand, elevated hymns to Diana on behalf of the entire Roman state, the kind of worship that would have been typical at her Aventine temple, with a more personal form of devotion. Images of Diana and her associated myths have been found on sarcophagi of wealthy Romans. They often included scenes depicting sacrifices to the goddess, and on at least one example, the deceased man is shown joining Diana's hunt. Theology Since ancient times, philosophers and theologians have examined the nature of Diana in light of her worship traditions, attributes, mythology, and identification with other gods. Conflation with other goddesses Diana was initially a hunting goddess and goddess of the local woodland at Nemi, but as her worship spread, she acquired attributes of other similar goddesses. As she became conflated with Artemis, she became a moon goddess, identified with the other lunar goddesses goddess Luna and Hekate. She also became the goddess of childbirth and ruled over the countryside. Catullus wrote a poem to Diana in which she has more than one alias: Latonia, Lucina, Juno, Trivia, Luna. Along with Mars, Diana was often venerated at games held in Roman amphitheaters, and some inscriptions from the Danubian provinces show that she was conflated with Nemesis in this role, as Diana Nemesis. Outside of Italy, Diana had important centers of worship where she was syncretised with similar local deities in Gaul, Upper Germania, and Britannia. Diana was particularly important in the region in and around the Black Forest, where she was conflated with the local goddess Abnoba and worshiped as Diana Abnoba. Some late antique sources went even further, syncretizing many local "great goddesses" into a single "Queen of Heaven". The Platonist philosopher Apuleius, writing in the late 2nd century, depicted the goddess declaring: "I come, Lucius, moved by your entreaties: I, mother of the universe, mistress of all the elements, first-born of the ages, highest of the gods, queen of the shades, first of those who dwell in heaven, representing in one shape all gods and goddesses. My will controls the shining heights of heaven, the health-giving sea-winds, and the mournful silences of hell; the entire world worships my single godhead in a thousand shapes, with divers rites, and under many a different name. The Phrygians, first-born of mankind, call me the Pessinuntian Mother of the gods; the native Athenians the Cecropian Minerva; the island-dwelling Cypriots Paphian Venus; the archer Cretans Dictynnan Diana; the triple-tongued Sicilians Stygian Proserpine; the ancient Eleusinians Actaean Ceres; some call me Juno, some Bellona, others Hecate, others Rhamnusia; but both races of Ethiopians, those on whom the rising and those on whom the setting sun shines, and the Egyptians who excel in ancient learning, honour me with the worship which is truly mine and call me by my true name: Queen Isis." --Apuleius, translated by E. J. Kenny. The Golden Ass Later poets and historians looked to Diana's identity as a triple goddess to merge her with triads heavenly, earthly, and underworld (cthonic) goddesses. Maurus Servius Honoratus said that the same goddess was called Luna in heaven, Diana on earth, and Proserpina in hell. Michael Drayton praises the Triple Diana in poem The Man in the Moone (1606): "So these great three most powerful of the rest, Phoebe, Diana, Hecate, do tell. Her sovereignty in Heaven, in Earth and Hell". In Platonism Based on the earlier writings of Plato, the Neoplatonist philosophers of late antiquity united the various major gods of Hellenic tradition into a series of monads containing within them triads, with some creating the world, some animating it or bringing it to life, and others harmonizing it. Within this system, Proclus considered Diana to be one of the primary animating, or life-giving, deities. Proclus, citing Orphic tradition, concludes that Diana "presides over all the generation in nature, and is the midwife of physical productive principles" and that she "extends these genitals, distributing as far as to subterranean natures the prolific power of [Bacchus]." Specifically, Proclus considered the life-generating principle of the highest order, within the Intellectual realm, to be Rhea, whom he identified with Ceres. Within her divinity was produced the cause of the basic principle of life. Projecting this principle into the lower, Hypercosmic realm of reality generated a lower monad, Kore, who could therefore be understood as Ceres' "daughter". Kore embodied the "maidenly" principle of generation that, more importantly, included a principle of division - where Demeter generates life indiscriminately, Kore distributes it individually. This division results in another triad or trinity, known as the Maidenly trinity, within the monad of Kore: namely, Diana, Proserpine, and Minerva, through whom individual living beings are given life and perfected. Specifically, according to a commentary by scholar Spyridon Rangos, Diana (equated with Hecate) gives existence, Proserpine (equated with "Soul") gives form, and Minerva (equated with "Virtue") gives intellect. In his commentary on Proclus, the 19th century Platonist scholar Thomas Taylor expanded upon the theology of the classical philosophers, further interpreting the nature and roles of the gods in light of the whole body of Neoplatonist philosophy. He cites Plato in giving a three-form aspect to her central characteristic of virginity: the undefiled, the mundane, and the anagogic. Through the first form, Diana is regarded as a "lover of virginity". Through the second, she is the guardian of virtue. Through the third, she is considered to "hate the impulses arising from generation." Through the principle of the undefiled, Taylor suggests that she is given supremacy in Proclus' triad of life-giving or animating deities, and in this role the theurgists called her Hekate. In this role, Diana is granted undefiled power (Amilieti) from the other gods. This generative power does not proceed forth from the goddess (according to a statement by the Oracle of Delphi) but rather resides with her, giving her unparalleled virtue, and in this way she can be said to embody virginity. Later commentators on Proclus have clarified that the virginity of Diana is not an absence of sexual drive, but a renunciation of sexuality. Diana embodies virginity because she generates but precedes active fertility (within Neoplatonism, an important maxim is that "every productive cause is superior to the nature of the produced effect"). Using the ancient Neoplatonists as a basis, Taylor also commented on the triadic nature of Diana and related goddesses, and the ways in which they subsist within one another, partaking unevenly in each other's powers and attributes. For example, Kore is said to embody both Diana/Hecate and Minerva, who create the virtuous or virgin power within her, but also Proserpine (her sole traditional identification), through whom the generative power of the Kore as a whole is able to proceed forth into the world, where it joins with the demiurge to produce further deities, including Bacchus and "nine azure-eyed, flower-producing daughters". Proclus also included Artemis/Diana in a second triad of deities, along with Ceres and Juno. According to Proclus: "The life-generating triad begins with Demeter who engenders the entire encosmic life, namely intellectual life, psychic life and the life that is inseparable from body; Hera who brings forth the birth of soul occupies the cohering middle position (for the intellectual goddess outpours from herself all the processions of the psychic kinds); finally, Artemis has been assigned to the end of the trinity because she activates all the natural formative principles and perfects the self-completeness of matter; it is for this reason, namely because she supervises natural development and natural birth, that the theologians and Socrates in the Theaetetus call her Lochia." Proclus pointed to the conflict between Hera and Artemis in the Illiad as a representation of the two kinds of human souls. Where Hera creates the higher, more cultured, or "worthy" souls, Artemis brings light to and perfects the "less worthy" or less rational. As explained by Ragnos (2000), "The aspect of reality which Artemis and Hera share, and because of which they engage in a symbolic conflict, is the engendering of life." Hera elevates rational living beings up to intellectual rational existence, whereas Artemis's power pertains to human life as far as its physical existence as a living thing. "Artemis deals with the most elementary forms of life or the most elementary part of all life, whereas Hera operates in the most elevated forms of life or the most elevated part of all life. Worship in Post Roman Europe Sermons and other religious documents have provided evidence for the worship of Diana during the Middle Ages. Though few details have been recorded, enough references to Diana worship during the early Christian period exist to give some indication that it may have been relatively widespread among remote and rural communities throughout Europe, and that such beliefs persisted into the Merovingian period. References to contemporary Diana worship exist from the 6th century on the Iberian peninsula and what is now southern France, though more detailed accounts of Dianic cults were given for the Low Countries, and southern Belgium in particular. Many of these were probably local goddesses, and wood nymphs or dryads, which had been conflated with Diana by Christian writers Latinizing local names and traditions. In the Low Countries The 6th century bishop Gregory of Tours reported meeting with a deacon named Vulfilaic (also known as Saint Wulflaicus or Walfroy the Stylite), who founded a hermitage on a hill in what is now Margut, France. On the same hill, he found "an image of Diana which the unbelieving people worshiped as a god." According to Gregory's report, worshipers would also sing chants in Diana's honor as they drank and feasted. Vulfilaic destroyed a number of smaller |
first event in the Mexican Drug War. 2007 – Insurgency in the Maghreb: Two car bombs explode in Algiers, Algeria, one near the Supreme Constitutional Court and the other near the offices of the United Nations. 2008 – Bernard Madoff is arrested and charged with securities fraud in a $50 billion Ponzi scheme. 2009 – Finnish game developer Rovio Entertainment releases the hit mobile game Angry Birds internationally on iOS. 2012 – At least 125 people are killed and up to 200 injured in bombings in the Alawite village of Aqrab, Syria. 2017 – New York City attempted bombing: A pipe bomb partially detonates in the New York City Subway, in the Times Square–42nd Street/Port Authority Bus Terminal. Four people are injured, including the perpetrator. 2019 – The results of the 2019 Bougainvillean independence referendum are announced. The results are overwhelmingly one-sided. Over 98% of voters vote for Bougainville's independence. 2020 – The Food and Drug Administration issues an Emergency Use Authorization on the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, the first COVID-19 vaccine to be approved by the agency. Births Pre-1600 1445 – Eberhard I, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1496) 1465 – Ashikaga Yoshihisa, Japanese shogun (d. 1489) 1475 – Pope Leo X (d. 1521) 1566 – Manuel Cardoso, Portuguese organist and composer (d. 1650) 1595 – Heo Mok, Korean politician, poet and scholar (d. 1682) 1601–1900 1613 – Amar Singh Rathore, Rajput nobleman (d. 1644) 1712 – Francesco Algarotti, Italian poet, philosopher, and critic (d. 1764) 1725 – George Mason, American lawyer and politician (d. 1792) 1758 – Carl Friedrich Zelter, German composer, conductor, and educator (d. 1832) 1761 – Gian Domenico Romagnosi, Italian physicist, economist, and jurist (d. 1835) 1781 – David Brewster, Scottish physicist, mathematician, and astronomer (d. 1868) 1801 – Christian Dietrich Grabbe, German poet and playwright (d. 1836) 1803 – Hector Berlioz, French composer, conductor, and critic (d. 1869) 1810 – Alfred de Musset, French dramatist, poet, and novelist (d. 1857) 1830 – Kamehameha V of Hawaii (d. 1872) 1837 – Webster Paulson, English civil engineer (d. 1887) 1838 – John Labatt, Canadian brewer and businessman (d. 1915) 1843 – Robert Koch, German microbiologist and physician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1910) 1856 – Georgi Plekhanov, Russian philosopher, theorist, and author (d. 1918) 1858 – Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Russian director, producer, and playwright (d. 1943) 1861 – Frederick Eveleigh-de-Moleyns, 5th Baron Ventry, British Army officer and Anglo-Irish peer (d. 1923) 1863 – Annie Jump Cannon, American astronomer and academic (d. 1941) 1872 – René Bull, British illustrator and photographer (d. 1942) 1873 – Josip Plemelj, Slovenian mathematician and academic (d. 1967) 1875 – Yehuda Leib Maimon, Moldovan-Israeli rabbi and politician (d. 1962) 1880 – Frank Tarrant, Australian cricketer and umpire (d. 1951) 1882 – Subramania Bharati, Indian journalist and poet (d. 1921) 1882 – Max Born, German physicist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1970) 1882 – Fiorello H. La Guardia, American lawyer and politician, 99th Mayor of New York City (d. 1947) 1884 – Piet Ooms, Dutch swimmer and water polo player (d. 1961) 1889 – Walter Knott, American farmer and businessman, founded Knott's Berry Farm (d. 1981) 1890 – Carlos Gardel, French-Argentinian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1935) 1890 – Mark Tobey, American-Swiss painter and educator (d. 1976) 1892 – Arnold Majewski, Finnish military hero of Polish descent (d. 1942) 1893 – Leo Ornstein, Russian-American pianist and composer (d. 2002) 1897 – Ronald Skirth, English soldier (d. 1977) 1899 – Julio de Caro, Argentinian violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1980) 1900 – Hermína Týrlová, Czechoslovakian animator, screenwriter, and film director (d. 1993) 1900 – Gerd Arntz, German Modernist artist, co-creator of Isotype (d. 1988) 1901–present 1904 – Marge, American cartoonist (d. 1993) 1905 – Robert Henriques, English farmer, author, and broadcaster (d. 1967) 1905 – Gilbert Roland, Mexican-American actor and singer (d. 1994) 1908 – Elliott Carter, American composer and academic (d. 2012) 1908 – Manoel de Oliveira, Portuguese actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2015) 1908 – Hákun Djurhuus, Faroese educator and politician, fourth Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands (d. 1987) 1908 – Amon Göth, Austrian Nazi war criminal (d. 1946) 1909 – Ronald McKie, Australian soldier, journalist, and author (d. 1991) 1910 – Mildred Cleghorn, Native American chairwoman and educator (d. 1997) 1911 – Val Guest, English-American director, producer, screenwriter, and composer (d. 2006) 1911 – Naguib Mahfouz, Egyptian author, playwright, and screenwriter, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2006) 1911 – Qian Xuesen, Chinese aerodynamicist and academic (d. 2009) 1912 – Carlo Ponti, Italian-Swiss film producer (d. 2007) 1913 – Jean Marais, French actor and director (d. 1998) 1916 – Pérez Prado, Cuban-Mexican singer-songwriter, pianist, and bandleader (d. 1989) 1916 – Elena Garro, Mexican author and playwright (d. 1998) 1918 – Clinton Adams, American painter and historian (d. 2002) 1918 – Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Russian novelist, historian, and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2008) 1919 – Cliff Michelmore, English television host and producer (d. 2016) 1919 – Marie Windsor, American actress (d. 2000) 1920 – Mary Ivy Burks, American environmental activist (d. 2007) 1920 – Denis Jenkinson, English motorcycle racer and journalist (d. 1996) 1921 – Ilmar Laaban, Estonian poet and publicist (d. 2000) 1921 – Liz Smith, English actress (d. 2016) 1922 – Grigoris Bithikotsis, Greek singer-songwriter (d. 2005) 1922 – Dilip Kumar, Pakistani-Indian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2021) 1922 – Maila Nurmi, Finnish-American actress, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2008) 1922 – Grace Paley, American short story writer and poet (d. 2007) 1923 – Betsy Blair, American actress and dancer (d. 2009) 1923 – Lillian Cahn, Hungarian-born American businesswoman, co-founded Coach, Inc. (d. 2013) 1923 – Morrie Turner, American comics creator (d. 2014) 1924 – Doc Blanchard, American football player and colonel (d. 2009) 1925 – Aaron Feuerstein, American businessman and philanthropist 1925 – Paul Greengard, American neuroscientist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2019) 1925 – James Sullivan, American politician (d. 2012) 1926 – Big Mama Thornton, American singer-songwriter (d. 1984) 1927 – John Buscema, American illustrator (d. 2002) 1929 – Axel Anderson, German actor and production manager (d. 2012) 1929 – Subhash Gupte, Indian cricketer (d. 2002) 1930 – Chus Lampreave, Spanish actress (d. 2016) 1930 – Jean-Louis Trintignant, French actor, director, and screenwriter 1931 – Rajneesh, Indian guru, mystic, and educator (d. 1990) 1931 – Ronald Dworkin, American philosopher and scholar (d. 2013) 1931 – Rita Moreno, Puerto Rican-American actress, singer, and dancer 1932 – Enrique Bermúdez, Nicaraguan colonel and engineer (d. 1991) 1932 – Keith Waldrop, American author and poet 1933 – Aquilino Pimentel, Jr., Filipino civil servant and politician, 23rd President of the Senate of the Philippines (d. 2019) 1934 – Salim Durani, Afghan-Indian cricketer 1935 – Pranab Mukherjee, Indian journalist and politician, 13th President of India (d. 2020) 1935 – Elmer Vasko, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1998) 1936 – Taku Yamasaki, Japanese politician 1936 – Hans van den Broek, Dutch lawyer and politician, Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs 1937 – Jim Harrison, American novelist, essayist, and poet (d. 2016) 1938 – Enrico Macias, Algerian-French singer-songwriter and guitarist 1938 – McCoy Tyner, American jazz musician (d. 2020) 1939 – Tom Hayden, American activist and politician (d. 2016) 1939 – Thomas McGuane, American novelist, short story writer, and screenwriter 1940 – David Gates, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1940 – Donna Mills, American actress and producer 1941 – Max Baucus, American lawyer, politician, and diplomat, 11th United States Ambassador to China 1941 – J. P. Parisé, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 2015) 1941 – Rogier van Otterloo, Dutch conductor and composer (d. 1988) 1941 – J. Frank Wilson, American singer-songwriter (d. 1991) 1942 – Anna Carteret, English actress 1943 – John Kerry, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 68th United States Secretary of State 1944 – Jon Garrison, American tenor and educator 1944 – Lynda Day George, American actress 1944 – Michael Lang, American concert promoter and producer (d. 2022) 1944 – Brenda Lee, American singer-songwriter 1946 – Rhoma Irama, Indonesian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1946 – Rick McCosker, Australian cricketer 1946 – Diana Palmer, American journalist and author 1948 – Tanimura Shinji, Japanese singer-songwriter 1948 – Stamatis Spanoudakis, Greek guitarist and composer 1949 – Christina Onassis, American-born Greek/Argentine businesswoman, socialite, and heiress (d. 1988) 1951 – Mazlan Othman, Malaysian astrophysicist and astronomer 1951 – Ria Stalman, Dutch discus thrower and shot putter 1953 – Bess Armstrong, American actress 1954 – Brad Bryant, American golfer 1954 – Sylvester Clarke, Barbadian cricketer (d. 1999) 1954 – Santiago Creel, Mexican lawyer and politician, Mexican Secretary of the Interior 1954 – Jermaine Jackson, American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer 1954 – Guðlaugur Kristinn Óttarsson, Icelandic guitarist, mathematician, and engineer 1955 – Gene Grossman, American economist and academic 1955 – Stu Jackson, American basketball player, coach, and manager 1955 – Ray Kelvin, British fashion designer 1955 – Christian Sackewitz, German footballer and manager 1956 – Lani Brockman, American actress and director 1956 – Andrew Lansley, English politician, Secretary of State for Health 1957 – Peter Bagge, American author and illustrator 1958 – Chris Hughton, English-born Irish footballer and manager 1958 – Tom Shadyac, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1958 – Nikki Sixx, American bass player, songwriter, and producer 1961 – Dave King, Irish-American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1961 – Steve Nicol, Scottish footballer and manager 1961 – Macky Sall, Senegalese engineer and politician, fourth President of Senegal 1961 – Marco Pierre White, English chef and mentor 1963 – Mario Been, Dutch footballer and manager 1963 – Mark Greatbatch, New Zealand cricketer 1963 – Claudia Kohde-Kilsch, German tennis player 1963 – John | in Guangzhou, China, taking over most of the city and announcing the formation of a Guangzhou Soviet. 1931 – Statute of Westminster 1931: The British Parliament establishes legislative equality between the UK and the Dominions of the Commonwealth—Australia, Canada, Newfoundland, New Zealand, South Africa, and Ireland. 1934 – Bill Wilson, co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous, takes his last drink and enters treatment for the final time. 1936 – Abdication Crisis: Edward VIII's abdication as King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, and Emperor of India, becomes effective. 1937 – Second Italo-Ethiopian War: Italy leaves the League of Nations. 1941 – World War II: Germany and Italy declare war on the United States, following the Americans' declaration of war on the Empire of Japan in the wake of the attack on Pearl Harbor. The United States, in turn, declares war on them. 1941 – World War II: Poland declares war on the Empire of Japan. 1941 – World War II: The Imperial Japanese Navy suffers its first loss of surface vessels during the Battle of Wake Island. 1946 – The United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) is established. 1948 – Arab–Israeli War: The United Nations passes General Assembly Resolution 194, creating a Conciliation Commission to mediate the conflict. 1958 – French Upper Volta and French Dahomey gain self-government from France, becoming the Republic of Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) and the Republic of Dahomey (now Benin), respectively, and joining the French Community. 1960 – French forces crack down in a violent clash with protesters in French Algeria during a visit by French President Charles de Gaulle. 1962 – Arthur Lucas, convicted of murder, is the last person to be executed in Canada. 1964 – Che Guevara speaks at the United Nations General Assembly in New York City. 1972 – Apollo 17 becomes the sixth and final Apollo mission to land on the Moon. 1978 – The Lufthansa heist is committed by a group led by Lucchese family associate Jimmy Burke. It was the largest cash robbery ever committed on American soil, at that time. 1980 – The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (Superfund) is enacted by the U.S. Congress. 1981 – El Mozote massacre: Armed forces in El Salvador kill an estimated 900 civilians in an anti-guerrilla campaign during the Salvadoran Civil War. 1990 – Demonstrations by students and workers across Albania begin, which eventually trigger the fall of communism in Albania. 1990 – Several fatal collisions in the 1990 Interstate 75 fog disaster result in a total of 12 deaths and 42 being injured 1993 – A block of the Highland Towers condominium complex collapses following a landslide caused by heavy rain and water flowing from a construction site at Ampang district in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 48 of its residents die, including one who died in hospital after being rescued alive, leaving only two survivors. 1994 – First Chechen War: Russian President Boris Yeltsin orders Russian troops into Chechnya. 1994 – A bomb explodes on Philippine Airlines Flight 434, en route from Manila, Philippines, to Tokyo, Japan, killing one. The captain is able to land the plane safely. 1997 – The Kyoto Protocol opens for signature. 1998 – Thai Airways Flight 261 crashes near Surat Thani Airport, killing 101. The pilot flying the Airbus A310-200 is thought to have suffered spatial disorientation. 1999 – SATA Air Açores Flight 530M crashes into Pico da Esperança on São Jorge Island in the Azores, killing 35. 2001 – China joins the World Trade Organization (WTO). 2005 – The Buncefield Oil Depot catches fire in Hemel Hempstead, England. 2005 – Cronulla riots: Thousands of White Australians demonstrate against ethnic violence resulting in a riot against anyone thought to be Lebanese in Cronulla, New South Wales; these are followed up by retaliatory ethnic attacks on Cronulla. 2006 – The International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust is opened in Tehran, Iran, by then-president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad; nations such as Israel and the United States express concern. 2006 – Felipe Calderón, the President of Mexico, launches a military-led offensive to put down the drug cartel violence in the state of Michoacán. This effort is often regarded as the first event in the Mexican Drug War. 2007 – Insurgency in the Maghreb: Two car bombs explode in Algiers, Algeria, one near the Supreme Constitutional Court and the other near the offices of the United Nations. 2008 – Bernard Madoff is arrested and charged with securities fraud in a $50 billion Ponzi scheme. 2009 – Finnish game developer Rovio Entertainment releases the hit mobile game Angry Birds internationally on iOS. 2012 – At least 125 people are killed and up to 200 injured in bombings in the Alawite village of Aqrab, Syria. 2017 – New York City attempted bombing: A pipe bomb partially detonates in the New York City Subway, in the Times Square–42nd Street/Port Authority Bus Terminal. Four people are injured, including the perpetrator. 2019 – The results of the 2019 Bougainvillean independence referendum are announced. The results are overwhelmingly one-sided. Over 98% of voters vote for Bougainville's independence. 2020 – The Food and Drug Administration issues an Emergency Use Authorization on the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, the first COVID-19 vaccine to be approved by the agency. Births Pre-1600 1445 – Eberhard I, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1496) 1465 – Ashikaga Yoshihisa, Japanese shogun (d. 1489) 1475 – Pope Leo X (d. 1521) 1566 – Manuel Cardoso, Portuguese organist and composer (d. 1650) 1595 – Heo Mok, Korean politician, poet and scholar (d. 1682) 1601–1900 1613 – Amar Singh Rathore, Rajput nobleman (d. 1644) 1712 – Francesco Algarotti, Italian poet, philosopher, and critic (d. 1764) 1725 – George Mason, American lawyer and politician (d. 1792) 1758 – Carl Friedrich Zelter, German composer, conductor, and educator (d. 1832) 1761 – Gian Domenico Romagnosi, Italian physicist, economist, and jurist (d. 1835) 1781 – David Brewster, Scottish physicist, mathematician, and astronomer (d. 1868) 1801 – Christian Dietrich Grabbe, German poet and playwright (d. 1836) 1803 – Hector Berlioz, French composer, conductor, and critic (d. 1869) 1810 – Alfred de Musset, French dramatist, poet, and novelist (d. 1857) 1830 – Kamehameha V of Hawaii (d. 1872) 1837 – Webster Paulson, English civil engineer (d. 1887) 1838 – John Labatt, Canadian brewer and businessman (d. 1915) 1843 – Robert Koch, German microbiologist and physician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1910) 1856 – Georgi Plekhanov, Russian philosopher, theorist, and author (d. 1918) 1858 – Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Russian director, producer, and playwright (d. 1943) 1861 – Frederick Eveleigh-de-Moleyns, 5th Baron Ventry, British Army officer and Anglo-Irish peer (d. 1923) 1863 – Annie Jump Cannon, American astronomer and academic (d. 1941) 1872 – René Bull, British illustrator and photographer (d. 1942) 1873 – Josip Plemelj, Slovenian mathematician and academic (d. 1967) 1875 – Yehuda Leib Maimon, Moldovan-Israeli rabbi and politician (d. 1962) 1880 – Frank Tarrant, Australian cricketer and umpire (d. 1951) 1882 – Subramania Bharati, Indian journalist and poet (d. 1921) 1882 – Max Born, German physicist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1970) 1882 – Fiorello H. La Guardia, American lawyer and politician, 99th Mayor of New York City (d. 1947) 1884 – Piet Ooms, Dutch swimmer and water polo |
Shore's The Silence of the Lambs for Red Dragon, Brad Fiedel's music for the Terminator franchise for Terminator Salvation, Robert Cobert's original television series music for Dark Shadows, and Alan Silvestri's work on The Avengers for the sequel Avengers: Age of Ultron. Notable exceptions are Tim Burton's Batman, Planet of the Apes and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, which do not make musical reference to pre existing material. The songs for The Nightmare Before Christmas and Corpse Bride were influenced by Kurt Weill, Gilbert and Sullivan and early Rodgers and Hammerstein. At the request of Tim Burton, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory songs drew inspiration from Bollywood, the Mamas and the Papas, ABBA, Queen, and Earth, Wind & Fire individually. Elfman's work in pop music and specifically as songwriter for Oingo Boingo was influenced by the Specials, Madness, the Selecter, Devo, Fun Boy Three, and XTC. Process Film music For his film scores, Elfman draws musical inspiration almost exclusively from viewing a cut of the film, and occasionally from visits to the set while the film is in production (he wrote and orchestrated his theme for Batman on an airplane to Los Angeles after visiting the set in London). While he prefers not to work from script, story or concept, notable exceptions are The Nightmare Before Christmas, for which ten songs needed to be written in advance of filmmaking, and Dumbo, for which he composed the main theme before filming began. Once a rough cut of the film is ready, Elfman and the director have a spotting session to decide where to place music in the film, the emotional undercurrents of each scene, and overall tone. Elfman then spends a few weeks of free composition and experimentation to begin working out thematic material and to develop sounds and the harmonic pallette. When he has received approval on initial material from the filmmakers, Elfman begins to compose anywhere from 60 to 120 minutes of music cue-by-cue. He says two of the most important things to capture at this point are the tone of each scene and editorial rhythm. Next to thematic development, action set pieces tend to take Elfman the most time given the complexity of timing music to action. One element where Elfman's compositional process deviates from most film composers is that he will often compose three or more often radically different versions of a single cue to give the director more options for musicalizing a scene. Early in his career, he wrote out his scores using pencil, but has composed largely digitally since the mid-1990s. Before recording the score, he demos each cue by mocking orchestral and choral parts on synthesizer to get approval from the director. Once approved, he provides a detailed, multi-line sketch of his composition to his lead orchestrator Steve Bartek, who ensures the sketches are appropriately broken down for sections of the orchestra (i.e. string, brass woodwind, some percussion), choir (SATB) and individual players. Elfman also typically samples or records his own percussion and guitar playing to overlay with live orchestra. More than half of some scores feature Elfman's performance, including Dead presidents, Mission: Impossible, Planet of the Apes, The Kingdom, The Girl on the Train and The Circle. To produce the score, Elfman rents a recording studio and hires a conductor and orchestra/choir. He oversees the recording from the control booth so that he can troubleshoot with the film's director and recording engineers. The final recording is given to the film's sound department to mix with dialogue and sound effects for the film's complete soundtrack. Elfman will usually do a separate mix of select cues for an album presentation of the score, and has produced nearly 100 to date. On the occasion that there are compressed deadlines or in the event he is not available to rescore or adapt his music if there are major edits to the film after the score's completion, Elfman will hire additional composers to work on small cues or sections of cues, adapting his existing material or themes. Examples include Jonathan Sheffer on Darkman, David Buckley on the Fifty Shades of Grey films, and Pinar Toprak on Justice League. Since the 1990s, Elfman has occasionally co-composed music or shared music writing credit (e.g.When We Rise, Spy Kids, Avengers: Age of Ultron, Men in Black International), or written themes that are then used or adapted by other composers, including Jonathan Sheffer (Pure Luck), Steve Bartek (Novacaine), John Debney (Heartbreakers), Deborah Lurie (9), and the Newton Brothers (Before I Wake). Concert music In the liner notes for the 2006 CD recording of his first concert work Serenada Schizophrana, Elfman wrote: "I began composing several dozen short improvisational compositions, maybe a minute each. Slowly, some of them began to develop themselves until finally I had six separate movements that, in some abstract, absurd way, felt connected." To create the cadenzas for his violin concerto Eleven Eleven, Elfman collaborated with soloist Sandy Cameron, for whom the piece was written. Vocals Elfman often incorporates choral or vocal arrangements into his film scores, notably the use of women's and children's choirs (Scrooged, Nightbreed, Edward Scissorhands, Batman Returns, Sleepy Hollow, Alice in Wonderland, The Grinch), and solo voice or vocal effects (Beetlejuice, Mars Attacks!, Men in Black II, Flubber, Nacho Libre, Iris, Dark Shadows, The Girl on the Train). Evoking the "O Fortuna" from Carl Orff's Carmina Burana, he set made-up, Latin-sounding text for SATB choir in standout cue "Descent into Mystery" from Batman. Elfman also adds his own vocals into compositions in much the same way he mixes his percussion and guitar performances into orchestral arrangements. Prominent use can be heard in the scores for To Die For (sung with director Gus Van Sant, credited to "Little Gus and the Suzettes"), Silver Linings Playbook, and his music for the Hong Kong Disneyland ride Mystic Manor. He provided the singing voice for characters in The Nightmare Before Christmas and Corpse Bride in addition to composing the scores and songs, and can be heard singing the "Day-O" call in the style of Harry Belafonte's "Banana Boat Song" in the first bars of the Beetlejuice main title. For Tim Burton's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, Elfman set Roald Dahl's text for the Oompa-Loompa characters as four stylistically distinct songs: the Bollywood-influenced "Augustus Gloop," the funk-infused "Violet Beauregarde," the psychedelic pop stylings of "Veruca Salt," and the baroque rock of "Mike Teevee." For all songs in the film, Elfman sang, manipulated and mixed several layers of his vocals to create the singing voices and harmonies of the Oompa Loompas, and incorporated his vocals into non-song score tracks that featured the characters, including "Loompa Land," "Chocolate River," "The Boat Arrives," and "The River Cruise." Lyrics Rare among film composers, Elfman typically writes the lyrics to songs he has composed for movies. He employs song structures from Tin Pan Alley and early musical theatre composers (32-bar form), and pop and rock of the 1950s and 1960s (verse-chorus). As his songs serve to advance the plot and develop characters, lyrics reflect storylines and imagery specific to the film and express the inner life of characters. A major achievement was writing the lyrics and music for ten songs featured in the stop-motion musical The Nightmare Before Christmas. Drawing from Tim Burton's parody poem of A Visit from St. Nicholas and concept drawings, Elfman wrote each song in consultation with Burton before the film even had a script. These include the full-cast songs "This Is Halloween," "Town Meeting Song," and "Making Christmas"; four songs for the main character Jack Skellington "Jack's Lament," "What's This," "Jack's Obsession," and "Poor Jack" all sung by Elfman; and the other character songs "Kidnap the Sandy Claws," "Oogie Boogie's Song," and "Sally's Song." An eleventh song, "Finale/Reprise," reworks lyrics from the songs "This Is Halloween," "What's This" and "Sally's Song" for the film's ending. Though uncredited, Burton contributed some lyrics to Nightmare, including the line "Perhaps it's the head that I found in the lake" in "Town Meeting Song." Elfman composed five songs for Burton's Corpse Bride: "According to Plan" with lyrics co-written by screenwriter John August; "Remains of the Day," which he sung as the character Bonejangles, and "Tears To Shed," both with additional lyrics by August, and "The Wedding Song" credited solely to Elfman. The song "Erased" was not used in the final film. He wrote the lyrics to "Lullaby" from Charlotte's Web, the rock track "The Little Things" from Wanted which he also sang in English and Russian, and "Alice's Theme" from Alice in Wonderland. Elfman co-wrote the music and lyrics to Batman Returns's "Face | instruments unique for the group, including an aluminum gamelan, the 'Schlitz celeste' made from tuned beer cans, and a "junkyard orchestra" built from car parts and trash cans. The Mystic Knights performed on the street and in nightclubs throughout Los Angeles until Richard left in 1979 to pursue filmmaking. As a send-off to the group's original concept, Richard created the film Forbidden Zone based on the Mystic Knights' stage performances. Elfman composed the songs and his first score for the film, and appeared as the character Satan, who performs a reworked version of Calloway's "Minnie the Moocher" with ensemble members playing backup as henchmen. Before the release of Forbidden Zone, Elfman had taken over the Mystic Knights as lead singer-songwriter in 1979, paring the group down to eight players, shortening the name to Oingo Boingo, and recording and touring as a ska-influenced new wave band. Their biggest success among eight studio albums penned by Elfman was 1985's Dead Man's Party, featuring the hit song "Weird Science" from the movie of the same name. The band also appeared performing their single "Dead Man's Party" in the 1986 movie Back to School, for which Elfman also composed the score. Elfman shifted the band to a more guitar-oriented rock sound in the late 1980s, which continued through their last album Boingo in 1994. Citing permanent hearing damage from performing live and conflicts with his film-scoring career, Elfman retired Oingo Boingo in 1995 with a series of five sold-out final concerts at the Universal Amphitheatre ending on Halloween night. On October 31, 2015, Elfman and Oingo Boingo guitarist Steve Bartek performed the song "Dead Man's Party" with an orchestra as an encore to a live-to-film concert of The Nightmare Before Christmas score at the Hollywood Bowl. Elfman told the audience the performance was "20 years to the day" of Oingo Boingo's retirement. Film scoring As fans of Oingo Boingo, Tim Burton and Paul Reubens invited Elfman to write the score for their first feature film Pee-wee's Big Adventure in 1985. Elfman was initially apprehensive because of his lack of formal training and having never scored a studio feature, but after Burton accepted his initial demo of the title music and with orchestration assistance from Oingo Boingo guitarist and arranger Steve Bartek, he completed his score to great effect, while paying homage to his love of early film music and influential film composers Nino Rota and Bernard Herrmann. Elfman described the first time he heard his music played by a full orchestra as one of the most thrilling experiences of his life. Following Pee Wee's Big Adventure, Elfman scored mainly quirky comedies in the late 1980s, including Back to School starring Rodney Dangerfield, Burton's Beetlejuice and the Bill Murray vehicle Scrooged. Notable exceptions were the all-synth score to Emilio Estevez's crime drama Wisdom and the big band, blues-infused music for Martin Brest's buddy cop action film Midnight Run. In 1989, Elfman's influential, Grammy-winning score for Burton's Batman marked a major stylistic shift to dark, densely orchestrated music in the romantic idiom, which would carry over to his scores for Warren Beatty's Dick Tracy, Sam Raimi's Darkman and Clive Barker's Nightbreed, all released in 1990. With Batman, Elfman firmly established a career-spanning relationship with Burton, scoring all but three of the director's major studio releases. Highlights include Edward Scissorhands (1990), Batman Returns (1992), Sleepy Hollow (1999), Big Fish (2003) and Alice in Wonderland (2010). In 1993, in addition to writing the score and ten songs for the Burton-produced stop motion animated film The Nightmare Before Christmas, Elfman also provided the singing voice for main character Jack Skellington, as well as the voices for side characters Barrel and the Clown with the Tear-Away Face. In 2005, he wrote the score and songs for Burton's Corpse Bride and provided the voice of the character of Bonejangles, as well as providing the score, songs and Oompa-Loompa vocals for Burton's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory that same year. In addition to frequent collaborations with Burton, Raimi and Gus Van Sant, Elfman has worked with esteemed directors such as Brian De Palma, Peter Jackson, Joss Whedon, Errol Morris, Ang Lee, Richard Donner, Guillermo del Toro, David O. Russell, Taylor Hackford, Jon Amiel, Joe Johnston, and Barry Sonnenfeld. His scores for Sonnenfeld's Men in Black, Van Sant's Good Will Hunting and Milk, and Burton's Big Fish all received Academy Award nominations. Since the mid-1990s, Elfman has expanded his craft to a range of genres, including thrillers (Dolores Claiborne, A Simple Plan, The Kingdom), dramas (Sommersby, A Civil Action, Hitchcock), indies (Freeway, Silver Linings Playbook, Don't Worry, He Won't Get Far on Foot), family (Flubber, Charlotte's Web, Frankenweenie, Goosebumps), documentary (Standard Operating Procedure, The Unknown Known), and straight horror (Red Dragon, The Wolfman), as well as notable entries in his well-established areas of horror comedy (The Frighteners, Mars Attacks!, Dark Shadows) and comic book-inspired action films (Hulk, Wanted, Hellboy II: The Golden Army, Avengers: Age of Ultron). Among his franchise work, Elfman composed the scores for all four Men in Black films (1997–2019) and all three Fifty Shades of Grey films (2015–2018). Elfman scored Raimi's Spider-Man in 2002 and Spider-Man 2 in 2004, themes and selections from which were used for Raimi's Spider-Man 3, though Elfman did not compose the score. Danny Elfman's theme for Spider-Man was incorporated into the MCU film Spider-Man: No Way Home composed by Michael Giacchino. In 1996, he also provided the score for the first film in the Mission: Impossible series, adapting themes for the original television series by Lalo Schifrin as well as composing his own. For several high-profile sequel and reboot projects in the 2010s, Elfman incorporated established musical themes with his own original thematic material, including the DC Extended Universe's Justice League, The Grinch, Dumbo and Men in Black International. Elfman was featured in the 2016 documentary Score, in which he appeared among over 50 film composers to discuss the craft of movie music and influential figures in the business. Concert and stage music Elfman's first piece of original concert music, Serenada Schizophrana, was commissioned by the American Composers Orchestra, who premiered the piece on February 23, 2005, at Carnegie Hall. Subsequent concert works include his first Violin Concerto "Eleven Eleven", co-commissioned by the Czech National Symphony Orchestra, Stanford Live at Stanford University, and the Royal Scottish National Orchestra, which premiered at Smetana Hall in Prague on June 21, 2017, with Sandy Cameron on violin and John Mauceri conducting the Czech National Symphony Orchestra; the Piano Quartet, co-commissioned by the Lied Center for Performing Arts University of Nebraska and the Berlin Philharmonic Piano Quartet, which premiered February 6, 2018, in Lincoln, Nebraska; and the Percussion Quartet, commissioned by Third Coast Percussion and premiered at the Philip Glass Days And Nights Festival in Big Sur on October 10, 2019. In 2008, Elfman accepted his first commission for the stage, composing the music for Twyla Tharp's Rabbit and Rogue ballet, co-commissioned by American Ballet Theatre and Orange County Performing Arts Center and premiering on June 3, 2008, at the Metropolitan Opera House, Lincoln Center. Other works for stage include the music for Cirque Du Soleil's Iris in 2011, and incidental music for the Broadway production of Taylor Mac's Gary: A Sequel to Titus Andronicus in 2019. In October 2013, Elfman returned to the stage for the first time since his band Oingo Boingo disbanded to sing his vocal parts to a handful of The Nightmare Before Christmas songs as part of a concert titled Danny Elfman's Music from the Films of Tim Burton, featuring suites of music from 15 Tim Burton films newly arranged by Elfman. The concert has since toured internationally and has played in Japan, Australia, Mexico and throughout Europe and the United States. Since 2015, Elfman has appeared near annually in a Hollywood Bowl Halloween concert featuring full orchestra performing the Nightmare Before Christmas score live to the film projection. In 2019, it was announced Elfman had been commissioned to write a piece for the National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain originally set to premiere in 2020, and a percussion concerto for Colin Currie the London Philharmonic Orchestra and Soka University of America originally for spring 2021, later rescheduled for spring 2022. Other works in the planning phase are a cello concerto for Gautier Capucon to premiere in Vienna, Paris and San Francisco in 2022, and a project that involves chamber orchestra and Elfman's own voice. It was announced that Elfman would be taking part in Coachella 2020 with a set titled "Past, Present and Future! From Boingo to Batman and Beyond!" Elfman clarified on his Instagram page that this would not be an Oingo Boingo reunion, writing "I’m creating a live mix of my last 40 years— both film music and songs... that includes my Boingo years, my composer years and a few things I’ve been working on for the last year or so, which will be world premieres." Television and other projects In addition to his music for film, Elfman has also penned themes for The Simpsons, Tales from the Crypt, The Flash and Desperate Housewives, which won Elfman his first Emmy. He also adapted his original themes for the animated versions of Batman and Beetlejuice. Occasional forays into serial television include episodes of Alfred Hitchcock Presents, Amazing Stories and Pee-wee's Playhouse, as well as the miniseries When We Rise, co-composed with Chris Bacon. He has composed music for animated shorts, including Sally Cruikshank's Face Like A Frog and Tim Burton's "Stainboy" internet series. Elfman provided background music for Luigi Serafini's solo exhibition il Teatro della Pittura at the Fondazione Mudima di Milano in Milan, Italy in 1998 and for the Tim Burton exhibition at MoMA in 2009. In the 1990s, Elfman composed music for advertising campaigns for Nike, Nissan and Lincoln-Mercury, and in 2002 wrote the music for Honda's "Power of Dreams" advertising campaign, which was the first cinema commercial to be shot in the IMAX format. In 2013 he composed the music and provided the English-language vocals for the Hong Kong Disneyland attraction Mystic Manor. On October 31, 2019, the MasterClass online educational series released "Making Music out of Chaos," presenting 21 compositional and career lessons from Elfman's four decades of experience primarily in the film industry. Elfman scored the 10-minute video "Joe Biden," which introduced Joe Biden's acceptance of the presidential candidacy nomination at the 2020 Democratic National Convention. In October 2020, Elfman released a surprise single, "Happy," on Anti- Records and Epitaph Records. From January |
on V, then the quotient stack [V/G] has dimension m − n. Krull dimension The Krull dimension of a commutative ring is the maximal length of chains of prime ideals in it, a chain of length n being a sequence of prime ideals related by inclusion. It is strongly related to the dimension of an algebraic variety, because of the natural correspondence between sub-varieties and prime ideals of the ring of the polynomials on the variety. For an algebra over a field, the dimension as vector space is finite if and only if its Krull dimension is 0. Topological spaces For any normal topological space , the Lebesgue covering dimension of is defined to be the smallest integer n for which the following holds: any open cover has an open refinement (a second open cover in which each element is a subset of an element in the first cover) such that no point is included in more than elements. In this case dim . For a manifold, this coincides with the dimension mentioned above. If no such integer exists, then the dimension of is said to be infinite, and one writes dim . Moreover, has dimension −1, i.e. dim if and only if is empty. This definition of covering dimension can be extended from the class of normal spaces to all Tychonoff spaces merely by replacing the term "open" in the definition by the term "functionally open". An inductive dimension may be defined inductively as follows. Consider a discrete set of points (such as a finite collection of points) to be 0-dimensional. By dragging a 0-dimensional object in some direction, one obtains a 1-dimensional object. By dragging a 1-dimensional object in a new direction, one obtains a 2-dimensional object. In general one obtains an ()-dimensional object by dragging an -dimensional object in a new direction. The inductive dimension of a topological space may refer to the small inductive dimension or the large inductive dimension, and is based on the analogy that, in the case of metric spaces, balls have -dimensional boundaries, permitting an inductive definition based on the dimension of the boundaries of open sets. Moreover, the boundary of a discrete set of points is the empty set, and therefore the empty set can be taken to have dimension -1. Similarly, for the class of CW complexes, the dimension of an object is the largest for which the -skeleton is nontrivial. Intuitively, this can be described as follows: if the original space can be continuously deformed into a collection of higher-dimensional triangles joined at their faces with a complicated surface, then the dimension of the object is the dimension of those triangles. Hausdorff dimension The Hausdorff dimension is useful for studying structurally complicated sets, especially fractals. The Hausdorff dimension is defined for all metric spaces and, unlike the dimensions considered above, can also have non-integer real values. The box dimension or Minkowski dimension is a variant of the same idea. In general, there exist more definitions of fractal dimensions that work for highly irregular sets and attain non-integer positive real values. Hilbert spaces Every Hilbert space admits an orthonormal basis, and any two such bases for a particular space have the same cardinality. This cardinality is called the dimension of the Hilbert space. This dimension is finite if and only if the space's Hamel dimension is finite, and in this case the two dimensions coincide. In physics Spatial dimensions Classical physics theories describe three physical dimensions: from a particular point in space, the basic directions in which we can move are up/down, left/right, and forward/backward. Movement in any other direction can be expressed in terms of just these three. Moving down is the same as moving up a negative distance. Moving diagonally upward and forward is just as the name of the direction implies; i.e., moving in a linear combination of up and forward. In its simplest form: a line describes one dimension, a plane describes two dimensions, and a cube describes three dimensions. (See Space and Cartesian coordinate system.) Time A temporal dimension, or time dimension, is a dimension of time. Time is often referred to as the "fourth dimension" for this reason, but that is not to imply that it is a spatial dimension. A temporal dimension is one way to measure physical change. It is perceived differently from the three spatial dimensions in that there is only one of it, and that we cannot move freely in time but subjectively move in one direction. The equations used in physics to model reality do not treat time in the same way that humans commonly perceive it. The equations of classical mechanics are symmetric with respect to time, and equations of quantum mechanics are typically symmetric if both time and other quantities (such as charge and parity) are reversed. In these models, the perception of time flowing in one direction is an artifact of the laws of thermodynamics (we perceive time as flowing in the direction of increasing entropy). The best-known treatment of time as a dimension is Poincaré and Einstein's special relativity (and extended to general relativity), which treats perceived space and time as components of a four-dimensional manifold, known as spacetime, and in the special, flat case as Minkowski space. Time is different from other spatial dimensions as time operates in all spatial dimensions. Time operates in the first, second and third as well as theoretical spatial dimensions such as a fourth spatial dimension. Time is not however present in a single point of absolute infinite singularity as defined as a geometric point, as an infinitely small point can have no change and therefore no time. Just as when an object moves through positions in space, it also moves through positions in time. In this sense the force moving any object to change is time. Additional dimensions In physics, three dimensions of space and one of time is the accepted norm. However, there are theories that attempt to unify the four fundamental forces by introducing extra dimensions/hyperspace. Most notably, superstring theory requires 10 spacetime dimensions, and originates from a more fundamental 11-dimensional theory tentatively called M-theory which subsumes five previously distinct superstring theories. Supergravity theory also promotes 11D spacetime = 7D hyperspace + 4 common dimensions. To date, no direct experimental or observational evidence is available to support the existence of these extra dimensions. If hyperspace exists, it must be hidden from us by some physical mechanism. One well-studied possibility is that the extra dimensions may be "curled up" at such tiny scales as to be effectively invisible to current experiments. Limits on the size and other properties of extra dimensions are set by particle experiments such as those at the Large Hadron Collider. In 1921, Kaluza–Klein theory presented 5D including an extra dimension of space. At the level of quantum field theory, Kaluza–Klein theory unifies gravity with gauge interactions, based on the realization that gravity propagating in small, compact extra dimensions is equivalent to gauge interactions at long distances. In particular when the geometry of the extra dimensions is trivial, it reproduces electromagnetism. However at sufficiently high energies or short distances, this setup still suffers from the same pathologies that famously obstruct direct attempts to describe quantum gravity. Therefore, these models still require a UV completion, of the kind that string theory is intended to provide. In particular, superstring theory requires six compact dimensions (6D hyperspace) forming a Calabi–Yau manifold. Thus Kaluza-Klein theory may be considered either as an incomplete description on its own, or as a subset of string theory model building. In addition to small and curled up extra dimensions, there may be extra dimensions that instead aren't apparent because the matter associated with our visible universe is localized on a subspace. Thus the extra dimensions need not be small and compact but may be large extra dimensions. D-branes are dynamical extended objects of various dimensionalities predicted by string theory that could play this role. They have the property that open string excitations, which are associated with gauge interactions, are confined to the brane by their endpoints, whereas the closed strings that mediate the gravitational interaction are | space , the Lebesgue covering dimension of is defined to be the smallest integer n for which the following holds: any open cover has an open refinement (a second open cover in which each element is a subset of an element in the first cover) such that no point is included in more than elements. In this case dim . For a manifold, this coincides with the dimension mentioned above. If no such integer exists, then the dimension of is said to be infinite, and one writes dim . Moreover, has dimension −1, i.e. dim if and only if is empty. This definition of covering dimension can be extended from the class of normal spaces to all Tychonoff spaces merely by replacing the term "open" in the definition by the term "functionally open". An inductive dimension may be defined inductively as follows. Consider a discrete set of points (such as a finite collection of points) to be 0-dimensional. By dragging a 0-dimensional object in some direction, one obtains a 1-dimensional object. By dragging a 1-dimensional object in a new direction, one obtains a 2-dimensional object. In general one obtains an ()-dimensional object by dragging an -dimensional object in a new direction. The inductive dimension of a topological space may refer to the small inductive dimension or the large inductive dimension, and is based on the analogy that, in the case of metric spaces, balls have -dimensional boundaries, permitting an inductive definition based on the dimension of the boundaries of open sets. Moreover, the boundary of a discrete set of points is the empty set, and therefore the empty set can be taken to have dimension -1. Similarly, for the class of CW complexes, the dimension of an object is the largest for which the -skeleton is nontrivial. Intuitively, this can be described as follows: if the original space can be continuously deformed into a collection of higher-dimensional triangles joined at their faces with a complicated surface, then the dimension of the object is the dimension of those triangles. Hausdorff dimension The Hausdorff dimension is useful for studying structurally complicated sets, especially fractals. The Hausdorff dimension is defined for all metric spaces and, unlike the dimensions considered above, can also have non-integer real values. The box dimension or Minkowski dimension is a variant of the same idea. In general, there exist more definitions of fractal dimensions that work for highly irregular sets and attain non-integer positive real values. Hilbert spaces Every Hilbert space admits an orthonormal basis, and any two such bases for a particular space have the same cardinality. This cardinality is called the dimension of the Hilbert space. This dimension is finite if and only if the space's Hamel dimension is finite, and in this case the two dimensions coincide. In physics Spatial dimensions Classical physics theories describe three physical dimensions: from a particular point in space, the basic directions in which we can move are up/down, left/right, and forward/backward. Movement in any other direction can be expressed in terms of just these three. Moving down is the same as moving up a negative distance. Moving diagonally upward and forward is just as the name of the direction implies; i.e., moving in a linear combination of up and forward. In its simplest form: a line describes one dimension, a plane describes two dimensions, and a cube describes three dimensions. (See Space and Cartesian coordinate system.) Time A temporal dimension, or time dimension, is a dimension of time. Time is often referred to as the "fourth dimension" for this reason, but that is not to imply that it is a spatial dimension. A temporal dimension is one way to measure physical change. It is perceived differently from the three spatial dimensions in that there is only one of it, and that we cannot move freely in time but subjectively move in one direction. The equations used in physics to model reality do not treat time in the same way that humans commonly perceive it. The equations of classical mechanics are symmetric with respect to time, and equations of quantum mechanics are typically symmetric if both time and other quantities (such as charge and parity) are reversed. In these models, the perception of time flowing in one direction is an artifact of the laws of thermodynamics (we perceive time as flowing in the direction of increasing entropy). The best-known treatment of time as a dimension is Poincaré and Einstein's special relativity (and extended to general relativity), which treats perceived space and time as components of a four-dimensional manifold, known as spacetime, and in the special, flat case as Minkowski space. Time is different from other spatial dimensions as time operates in all spatial dimensions. Time operates in the first, second and third as well as theoretical spatial dimensions such as a fourth spatial dimension. Time is not however present in a single point of absolute infinite singularity as defined as a geometric point, as an infinitely small point can have no change and therefore no time. Just as when an object moves through positions in space, it also moves through positions in time. In this sense the force moving any object to change is time. Additional dimensions In physics, three dimensions of space and one of time is the accepted norm. However, there are theories that attempt to unify the four fundamental forces by introducing extra dimensions/hyperspace. Most notably, superstring theory requires 10 spacetime dimensions, and originates from a more fundamental 11-dimensional theory tentatively called M-theory which subsumes five previously distinct superstring theories. Supergravity theory also promotes 11D spacetime = 7D hyperspace + 4 common dimensions. To date, no direct experimental or observational evidence is available to support the existence of these extra dimensions. If hyperspace exists, it must be hidden from us by some physical mechanism. One well-studied possibility is that the extra dimensions may be "curled up" at such tiny scales as to be effectively invisible to current experiments. Limits on the size and other properties of extra dimensions are set by particle experiments such as those at the Large Hadron Collider. In 1921, Kaluza–Klein theory presented 5D including an extra dimension of space. At the level of quantum field theory, Kaluza–Klein theory unifies gravity with gauge interactions, based on the realization that gravity propagating in small, compact extra dimensions is equivalent to gauge interactions at long distances. In particular when the geometry of the extra dimensions is trivial, it reproduces electromagnetism. However at sufficiently high energies or short distances, this setup still suffers from the same pathologies that famously obstruct direct attempts to describe quantum gravity. Therefore, these models still require a UV completion, of the kind that string theory is intended to provide. In particular, superstring theory requires six compact dimensions (6D hyperspace) forming a Calabi–Yau manifold. Thus Kaluza-Klein theory may be considered either as an incomplete description on its own, or as a subset of string theory model building. In addition to small and curled up extra dimensions, there may be extra dimensions that instead aren't apparent because the matter associated with our visible universe is localized on a subspace. Thus the extra dimensions need not be small and compact but may be large extra dimensions. D-branes are dynamical extended objects of various dimensionalities predicted by string theory that could play this role. They have the property that open string excitations, which are associated with gauge interactions, are confined to the brane by their endpoints, whereas the closed strings that mediate the gravitational interaction are free to propagate into the whole spacetime, or "the bulk". This could be related to why gravity is exponentially weaker than the other forces, as it effectively dilutes itself as it propagates into a higher-dimensional volume. Some aspects of brane physics have been applied to cosmology. For example, brane gas cosmology attempts to explain why there are three dimensions of space using topological and thermodynamic considerations. According to this idea it would be since three is the largest number of spatial dimensions in which strings can generically intersect. If initially there are many windings of strings around compact dimensions, space could only expand to macroscopic sizes once these windings are eliminated, which requires oppositely wound strings to find each other and annihilate. But strings can only find each other to annihilate at a meaningful rate in three dimensions, so it follows that only three dimensions of space are allowed to grow large given this kind of initial configuration. Extra dimensions are said to be universal if all fields are equally free to propagate within them. In computer graphics and spatial data Several types of digital systems are based on the storage, analysis, and visualization of geometric shapes, including illustration software, Computer-aided design, and Geographic information systems. Different vector systems use a wide variety |
(2019 film), a film by Kim Ki-duk The Dissolve, a web magazine property of Pitchfork, covering movies Dissolve (band), collaborative | collaborative musical project between experimental guitarists Chris Heaphy and Roy Montgomery "Dissolve", a song by Absofacto "Dissolve", a song by Daniel Johns from the album Talk "Dissolve", a song by Hundred |
a more apt word would be "uncial". Uncial is a derivation of the Latin word uncia, meaning "one-twelfth", and also the base-twelve analogue of the Latin word decima, meaning "one-tenth". Mathematician and mental calculator Alexander Craig Aitken was an outspoken advocate of duodecimal: In media In "Little Twelvetoes", American television series Schoolhouse Rock! portrayed an alien being using base-twelve arithmetic, using "dek", "el" and "doh" as names for ten, eleven and twelve, and Andrews' script-X and script-E for the digit symbols. Duodecimal systems of measurements Systems of measurement proposed by dozenalists include: Tom Pendlebury's TGM system Takashi Suga's Universal Unit System John Volan's Primel system Comparison to other number systems The number 12 has six factors, which are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12, of which 2 and 3 are prime. The decimal system has only four factors, which are 1, 2, 5, and 10, of which 2 and 5 are prime. Vigesimal (base 20) adds two factors to those of ten, namely 4 and 20, but no additional prime factor. Octodecimal (base 18) adds two factors to those of six, namely 9 and 18. Although twenty and eighteen has 6 factors, 2 of them prime, similarly to twelve, it is also a much larger base, and so the digit set and the multiplication table are much larger. Binary has only two factors, 1 and 2, the latter being prime. Hexadecimal (base 16) has five factors, adding 4, 8 and 16 to those of 2, but no additional prime. Sixteen has no odd factors, thus divisible only by power of 2, and it is also a much larger base, and so the digit set and the multiplication table are much larger. Trigesimal (base 30) is the smallest system that has three different prime factors (all of the three smallest primes: 2, 3 and 5) and it has eight factors in total (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, and 30). Sexagesimal — which the ancient Sumerians and Babylonians among others actually used—adds the four convenient factors 4, 12, 20, and 60 to this but no new prime factors. The smallest system that has four different prime factors is base 210 and the pattern follows the primorials. In all base systems, there are similarities to the representation of multiples of numbers which are one less than or one more than the base. Conversion tables to and from decimal To convert numbers between bases, one can use the general conversion algorithm (see the relevant section under positional notation). Alternatively, one can use digit-conversion tables. The ones provided below can be used to convert any duodecimal number between 0;01 and ,; to decimal, or any decimal number between 0.01 and 999,999.99 to duodecimal. To use them, the given number must first be decomposed into a sum of numbers with only one significant digit each. For example: 123,456.78 = 100,000 + 20,000 + 3,000 + 400 + 50 + 6 + 0.7 + 0.08 This decomposition works the same no matter what base the number is expressed in. Just isolate each non-zero digit, padding them with as many zeros as necessary to preserve their respective place values. If the digits in the given number include zeroes (for example, 102,304.05), these are, of course, left out in the digit decomposition (102,304.05 = 100,000 + 2,000 + 300 + 4 + 0.05). Then the digit conversion tables can be used to obtain the equivalent value in the target base for each digit. If the given number is in duodecimal and the target base is decimal, we get: (duodecimal) 100,000 + 20,000 + 3,000 + 400 + 50 + 6 + 0;7 + 0;08 = (decimal) 248,832 + 41,472 + 5,184 + 576 + 60 + 6 + 0.58333333333... + 0.05555555555... Now, because the summands are already converted to base ten, the usual decimal arithmetic is used to perform the addition and recompose the number, arriving at the conversion result: Duodecimal -----> Decimal 100,000 = 248,832 20,000 = 41,472 3,000 = 5,184 400 = 576 50 = 60 + 6 = + 6 0;7 = 0.58333333333... 0;08 = 0.05555555555... -------------------------------------------- 123,456;78 = 296,130.63888888888... That is, (duodecimal) 123,456.78 equals (decimal) 296,130.63 ≈ 296,130.64 If the given number is in decimal and the target base is duodecimal, the method is basically same. Using the digit conversion tables: (decimal) 100,000 + 20,000 + 3,000 + 400 + 50 + 6 + 0.7 + 0.08 = (duodecimal) 49,54 + ,68 + 1,80 + 294 + 42 + 6 + 0;84972497249724972497... + 0;062... However, in order to do this sum and recompose the number, now the addition tables for the duodecimal system have to be used, instead of the addition tables for decimal most people are already familiar with, because the summands are now in base twelve and so the arithmetic with them has to be in duodecimal as well. In decimal, 6 + 6 equals 12, but in duodecimal it equals 10; so, if using decimal arithmetic with duodecimal numbers one would arrive at an incorrect result. Doing the arithmetic properly in duodecimal, one gets the result: Decimal -----> Duodecimal 100,000 = 49,54 20,000 = ,68 3,000 = 1,80 400 = 294 50 = 42 + 6 = + 6 0.7 = 0;84972497249724972497... 0.08 = 0;062... -------------------------------------------------------- 123,456.78 = 5,540;943... That is, (decimal) 123,456.78 equals (duodecimal) 5,540;9... ≈ 5,540;94 Duodecimal to decimal digit conversion Decimal to duodecimal digit conversion Divisibility rules (In this section, all numbers are written with duodecimal) This section is about the divisibility rules in duodecimal. 1 Any integer is divisible by 1. 2 If a number is divisible by 2 then the unit digit of that number will be 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 or . 3 If a number is divisible by 3 then the unit digit of that number will be 0, 3, 6 or 9. 4 If a number is divisible by 4 then the unit digit of that number will be 0, 4 or 8. 5 To test for divisibility by 5, double the units digit and subtract the result from the number formed by the rest of the digits. If the result is divisible by 5 then the given number is divisible by 5. This rule comes from 21(5*5) Examples: 13 rule => |1-2*3| = 5 which is divisible by 5. 25 rule => |2-2*5| = 20(5*70) which is divisible by 5(or apply the rule on 20). OR To test for divisibility by 5, subtract the units digit and triple of the result to the number formed by the rest of the digits. If the result is divisible by 5 then the given number is divisible by 5. This rule comes from 13(5*3) Examples: 13 rule => |3-3*1| = 0 which is divisible by 5. 25 rule => |5-3*2| = 81(5*195) which is divisible by 5(or apply the rule on 81). OR Form the alternating sum of blocks of two from right to left. If the result is divisible by 5 then the given number is divisible by 5. This rule comes from 101, since 101 = 5*25, thus this rule can be also tested for the divisibility by 25. Example: 97,374,627 => 27-46+37-97 = -7 which is divisible by 5. 6 If a number is divisible by 6 then the unit digit of that number will be 0 or 6. 7 To test for divisibility by 7, triple the units digit and add the result to the number formed by the rest of the digits. If the result is divisible by 7 then the given number is divisible by 7. This rule comes from 2(7*5) Examples: 12 rule => |3*2+1| = 7 which is divisible by 7. 271 rule => |3*+271| = 29(7*4) which is divisible by 7 (or apply the rule on 29). OR To test for divisibility by 7, subtract the units digit and double the result from the number formed by the rest of the digits. If the result is divisible by 7 then the given number is divisible by 7. This rule comes from 12(7*2) Examples: 12 rule => |2-2*1| = 0 which is divisible by 7. 271 rule => |-2*271| = 513(7*89) which is divisible by 7(or apply the rule on 513). OR To test for divisibility by 7, 4 times the units digit and subtract the result from the number formed by the rest of the digits. If the result is divisible by 7 then the given number is divisible by 7. This rule comes from 41(7*7) Examples: 12 rule => |4*2-1| = 7 which is divisible by 7. 271 rule => |4*-271| = 235(7*3) which is divisible by 7(or apply the rule on 235). OR Form the alternating sum of blocks of three from right to left. If the result is divisible by 7 then the given number is divisible by 7. This rule comes from 1001, since 1001 = 7*11*17, thus this rule can be also tested for the divisibility by 11 and 17. Example: 386,967,443 => 443-967+386 = -168 which is divisible by 7. 8 If the 2-digit number formed by the last 2 digits of the given number is divisible by 8 then the given number is divisible by 8. Example: 148, 4120 rule => since 48(8*7) divisible by 8, then 148 is divisible by 8. rule => since 20(8*3) divisible by 8, then 4120 is divisible by 8. 9 If the 2-digit number formed by the last 2 digits of the given number is divisible by 9 then the given number is divisible by 9. Example: 7423, 8330 rule => since 23(9*3) divisible by 9, then 7423 is divisible by 9. rule => since 30(9*4) divisible by 9, then 8330 is divisible by 9. If the number is divisible by 2 and 5 then the number is divisible by . If the sum of the digits of a number is divisible by then the number is divisible by (the equivalent of casting out nines in decimal). Example: 29, 6113 rule => 2+9 = which is divisible by , then 29 is divisible by . rule => 6+1++1+3 = 1 which is divisible by , then 6113 is divisible by . 10 If a number is divisible by 10 then the unit digit of that number will be 0. 11 Sum the alternate digits and subtract the sums. If the result is divisible by 11 the number is divisible by 11 (the equivalent of divisibility by eleven in decimal). Example: 66, 9427 rule => |6-6| = 0 which is divisible by 11, then 66 is divisible by 11. rule => |(9+2)-(4+7)| = |-| = 0 which is divisible by 11, then 9427 is divisible by 11. 12 If the number is divisible by 2 and 7 then the number is divisible by 12. 13 If the number is divisible by 3 and 5 then the number is divisible by 13. 14 If the 2-digit number formed by the last 2 digits of the given number is divisible by 14 then the given number is divisible by 14. Example: 1468, 7394 rule => since 68(14*5) divisible by 14, then 1468 is divisible by 14. rule => since 94(14*7) divisible by 14, then 7394 is divisible by 14. Fractions and irrational numbers Fractions Duodecimal fractions may be simple: = 0;6 = 0;4 = 0;3 = 0;2 = 0;16 = 0;14 = 0;1 (this is a twelfth, is a tenth) = 0;09 (this is a sixteenth, is a | to 12 with the thumb acting as a pointer, touching each finger bone in turn. A traditional finger counting system still in use in many regions of Asia works in this way and could help to explain the occurrence of numeral systems based on 12 and 60 besides those based on 10, 20, and 5. In this system, the one (usually right) hand counts repeatedly to 12, displaying the number of iterations on the other (usually left), until five dozens, i.e. the 60, are full. Notations and pronunciations Transdecimal symbols In a numbering system the base (twelve for duodecimal) must be written as 10, but there are numerous proposals for how to write duodecimal ten and eleven. To allow entry on typewriters, letters such as A and B (as in hexadecimal), T and E (initials of Ten and Eleven), X and E (X from the Roman numeral for ten), or X and Z are used. Some employ Greek letters such as δ (standing for Greek δέκα 'ten') and ε (for Greek ένδεκα 'eleven'), or τ and ε. Frank Emerson Andrews, an early American advocate for duodecimal, suggested and used in his book New Numbers an X and ℰ (script E, ). Edna Kramer in her 1951 book The Main Stream of Mathematics used a six-pointed asterisk (sextile) ⚹ and a hash (or octothorpe) #. The symbols were chosen because they were available on some typewriters; they are also on push-button telephones. This notation was used in publications of the Dozenal Society of America (DSA) from 1974–2008. From 2008 to 2015, the DSA used and , the symbols devised by William Addison Dwiggins. The Dozenal Society of Great Britain (DSGB) proposed symbols and . This notation, derived from Arabic digits by 180° rotation, was introduced by Isaac Pitman. In March 2013, a proposal was submitted to include the digit forms for ten and eleven propagated by the Dozenal Societies in the Unicode Standard. Of these, the British/Pitman forms were accepted for encoding as characters at code points and . They were included in the Unicode 8.0 release in June 2015 and are available in LaTeX as \textturntwo and \textturnthree. After the Pitman digits were added to Unicode, the DSA took a vote and then began publishing content using the Pitman digits instead. They still use the letters X and E in ASCII text. As the Unicode characters are poorly supported, this page uses and . Other proposals are more creative or aesthetic; for example, many do not use any Arabic numerals under the principle of "separate identity." Base notation There are also varying proposals of how to distinguish a duodecimal number from a decimal one. They include italicizing duodecimal numbers "54 = 64", adding a "Humphrey point" (a semicolon instead of a decimal point) to duodecimal numbers "54;6 = 64.5", or some combination of the two. Others use subscript or affixed labels to indicate the base, allowing for more than decimal and duodecimal to be represented (for single letters 'z' from "dozenal" is used as 'd' would mean decimal) such as "54z = 64d," "5412 = 6410" or "doz 54 = dec 64." Pronunciation The Dozenal Society of America suggested the pronunciation of ten and eleven as "dek" and "el". For the names of powers of twelve there are two prominent systems. Do-gro-mo system In this system, the prefix e- is added for fractions. Multiple digits in this series are pronounced differently: 12 is "do two"; 30 is "three do"; 100 is "gro"; 9 is "el gro dek do nine"; 86 is "el gro eight do six"; 8,15 is "eight gro el do el, one gro five do dek"; and so on. Systematic Dozenal Nomenclature (SDN) This system uses "-qua" ending for the positive powers of 12 and "-cia" ending for the negative powers of 12, and an extension of the IUPAC systematic element names (with syllables dec and lev for the two extra digits needed for duodecimal) to express which power is meant. Advocacy and "dozenalism" William James Sidis used 12 as the base for his constructed language Vendergood in 1906, noting it being the smallest number with four factors and its prevalence in commerce. The case for the duodecimal system was put forth at length in Frank Emerson Andrews' 1935 book New Numbers: How Acceptance of a Duodecimal Base Would Simplify Mathematics. Emerson noted that, due to the prevalence of factors of twelve in many traditional units of weight and measure, many of the computational advantages claimed for the metric system could be realized either by the adoption of ten-based weights and measure or by the adoption of the duodecimal number system. Both the Dozenal Society of America and the Dozenal Society of Great Britain promote widespread adoption of the base-twelve system. They use the word "dozenal" instead of "duodecimal" to avoid the more overtly base-ten terminology. However, the etymology of "dozenal" itself is also an expression based on base-ten terminology since "dozen" is a direct derivation of the French word douzaine which is a derivative of the French word for twelve, douze, descended from Latin duodecim. Since at least as far back as 1945 some members of the Dozenal Society of America and Dozenal Society of Great Britain have suggested that a more apt word would be "uncial". Uncial is a derivation of the Latin word uncia, meaning "one-twelfth", and also the base-twelve analogue of the Latin word decima, meaning "one-tenth". Mathematician and mental calculator Alexander Craig Aitken was an outspoken advocate of duodecimal: In media In "Little Twelvetoes", American television series Schoolhouse Rock! portrayed an alien being using base-twelve arithmetic, using "dek", "el" and "doh" as names for ten, eleven and twelve, and Andrews' script-X and script-E for the digit symbols. Duodecimal systems of measurements Systems of measurement proposed by dozenalists include: Tom Pendlebury's TGM system Takashi Suga's Universal Unit System John Volan's Primel system Comparison to other number systems The number 12 has six factors, which are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12, of which 2 and 3 are prime. The decimal system has only four factors, which are 1, 2, 5, and 10, of which 2 and 5 are prime. Vigesimal (base 20) adds two factors to those of ten, namely 4 and 20, but no additional prime factor. Octodecimal (base 18) adds two factors to those of six, namely 9 and 18. Although twenty and eighteen has 6 factors, 2 of them prime, similarly to twelve, it is also a much larger base, and so the digit set and the multiplication table are much larger. Binary has only two factors, 1 and 2, the latter being prime. Hexadecimal (base 16) has five factors, adding 4, 8 and 16 to those of 2, but no additional prime. Sixteen has no odd factors, thus divisible only by power of 2, and it is also a much larger base, and so the digit set and the multiplication table are much larger. Trigesimal (base 30) is the smallest system that has three different prime factors (all of the three smallest primes: 2, 3 and 5) and it has eight factors in total (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, and 30). Sexagesimal — which the ancient Sumerians and Babylonians among others actually used—adds the four convenient factors 4, 12, 20, and 60 to this but no new prime factors. The smallest system that has four different prime factors is base 210 and the pattern follows the primorials. In all base systems, there are similarities to the representation of multiples of numbers which are one less than or one more than the base. Conversion tables to and from decimal To convert numbers between bases, one can use the general conversion algorithm (see the relevant section under positional notation). Alternatively, one can use digit-conversion tables. The ones provided below can be used to convert any duodecimal number between 0;01 and ,; to decimal, or any decimal number between 0.01 and 999,999.99 to duodecimal. To use them, the given number must first be decomposed into a sum of numbers with only one significant digit each. For example: 123,456.78 = 100,000 + 20,000 + 3,000 + 400 + 50 + 6 + 0.7 + 0.08 This decomposition works the same no matter what base the number is expressed in. Just isolate each non-zero digit, padding them with as many zeros as necessary to preserve their respective place values. If the digits in the given number include zeroes (for example, 102,304.05), these are, of course, left out in the digit decomposition (102,304.05 = 100,000 + 2,000 + 300 + 4 + 0.05). Then the digit conversion tables can be used to obtain the equivalent value in the target base for each digit. If the given number is in duodecimal and the target base is decimal, we get: (duodecimal) 100,000 + 20,000 + 3,000 + 400 + 50 + 6 + 0;7 + 0;08 = (decimal) 248,832 + 41,472 + 5,184 + 576 + 60 + 6 + 0.58333333333... + 0.05555555555... Now, because the summands are already converted to base ten, the usual decimal arithmetic is used to perform the addition and recompose the number, arriving at the conversion result: Duodecimal -----> Decimal 100,000 = 248,832 20,000 = 41,472 3,000 = 5,184 400 = 576 50 = 60 + 6 = + 6 0;7 = 0.58333333333... 0;08 = 0.05555555555... -------------------------------------------- 123,456;78 = 296,130.63888888888... That is, (duodecimal) 123,456.78 equals (decimal) 296,130.63 ≈ 296,130.64 If the given number is in decimal and the target base is duodecimal, the method is basically same. Using the digit conversion tables: (decimal) 100,000 + 20,000 + 3,000 + 400 + 50 + 6 + 0.7 + 0.08 = (duodecimal) 49,54 + ,68 + 1,80 + 294 + 42 + 6 + 0;84972497249724972497... + 0;062... However, in order to do this sum and recompose the number, now the addition tables for the duodecimal system have to be used, instead of the addition tables for decimal most people are already familiar with, because the summands are now in base twelve and so the arithmetic with them has to be in duodecimal as well. In decimal, 6 + 6 equals 12, but in duodecimal it equals 10; so, if using decimal arithmetic with duodecimal numbers one would arrive at an incorrect result. Doing the arithmetic properly in duodecimal, one gets the result: Decimal -----> Duodecimal 100,000 = 49,54 20,000 = ,68 3,000 = 1,80 400 = 294 50 = 42 + 6 = + 6 0.7 = 0;84972497249724972497... 0.08 = 0;062... -------------------------------------------------------- 123,456.78 = 5,540;943... That is, (decimal) 123,456.78 equals (duodecimal) 5,540;9... ≈ 5,540;94 Duodecimal to decimal digit conversion Decimal to duodecimal digit conversion Divisibility rules (In this section, all numbers are written with duodecimal) This section is about the divisibility rules in duodecimal. 1 Any integer is divisible by 1. 2 If a number is divisible by 2 then the unit digit of that number will be |
David Hayes Agnew (November 24, 1818March 22, 1892) was an American surgeon. Biography Agnew was born on November 24, 1818, Nobleville, Pennsylvania (present-day Christiana). His parents were Robert Agnew and Agnes Noble. Agnew grew up as a Christian. He was surrounded by a family of doctors and had always known he was going to become a physician. As a young boy, he had a sharp sense of humor and was very intelligent. He was educated at Jefferson College, and at Delaware College in Newark, Delaware. He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine on April 6, 1838. He returned to Nobleville to help his father in his clinic. He worked there for two years. His father was an asthmatic and moved to Maryland in 1840 because the climate was more suited to his condition. Agnew moved with him. On November 21, 1841, he married Margaret Irwin. In 1852, he bought and revived the Philadelphia School of Anatomy. He held responsibility for ten years until 1862. During the American Civil War he was consulting surgeon in the Mower Army Hospital, near Philadelphia, and acquired a considerable reputation for his operations in cases of gunshot wounds. On December 21, 1863, he became the Demonstrator of Anatomy and Assistant Lecturer on Clinical Surgery at The University of Pennsylvania. Later, he was requested to assist the Professor of Surgery in the Conduct of the surgical clinics. In the year 1865, he gave summer instruction courses. For the next seven years, he worked for the University as Demonstrator of Anatomy. A large portion of his success was due to his wife's energy, intelligence, and determination. She gave him an impetus to try harder and not be satisfied with his first try. He was elected | a physician. As a young boy, he had a sharp sense of humor and was very intelligent. He was educated at Jefferson College, and at Delaware College in Newark, Delaware. He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine on April 6, 1838. He returned to Nobleville to help his father in his clinic. He worked there for two years. His father was an asthmatic and moved to Maryland in 1840 because the climate was more suited to his condition. Agnew moved with him. On November 21, 1841, he married Margaret Irwin. In 1852, he bought and revived the Philadelphia School of Anatomy. He held responsibility for ten years until 1862. During the American Civil War he was consulting surgeon in the Mower Army Hospital, near Philadelphia, and acquired a considerable reputation for his operations in cases of gunshot wounds. On December 21, 1863, he became the Demonstrator of Anatomy and Assistant Lecturer on Clinical Surgery at The University of Pennsylvania. Later, he was requested to assist the Professor of Surgery in the Conduct of the surgical clinics. In the year 1865, he gave summer instruction courses. For the next seven years, he worked for the University as Demonstrator of Anatomy. A large portion of his success was due to his wife's energy, intelligence, and determination. She gave him an impetus to try harder and not be satisfied with his first try. He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1872. Garfield case On July 2, 1881, President James A. Garfield was shot by Charles J. Guiteau. He held the position of chief consulting surgeon. When a committee came to give him his money for helping, Agnew said, "Gentlemen, I present no bill for my attendance to President Garfield. I gave my services freely and gratuitously". He was never optimistic about the President's case and was not fooled by fallacious beliefs. This |
a recreational pastime. Competitors possess many of the same characteristics as gymnasts and dancers, including strength, flexibility, kinaesthetic judgment and air awareness. Some professional divers were originally gymnasts or dancers as both the sports have similar characteristics to diving. Dmitri Sautin holds the record for most Olympic diving medals won, by winning eight medals in total between 1992 and 2008. History Plunging Although diving has been a popular pastime across the world since ancient times, the first modern diving competitions were held in England in the 1880s. The exact origins of the sport are unclear, though it likely derives from the act of diving at the start of swimming races. The 1904 book Swimming by Ralph Thomas notes English reports of plunging records dating back to at least 1865. The 1877 edition to British Rural Sports by John Henry Walsh makes note of a "Mr. Young" plunging in 1870, and also states that 25 years prior, a swimmer named Drake could cover . The English Amateur Swimming Association (at the time called the Swimming Association of Great Britain) first started a "plunging championship" in 1883. The Plunging Championship was discontinued in 1937. Fancy diving Diving into a body of water had also been a method used by gymnasts in Germany and Sweden since the early 19th century. The soft landing allowed for more elaborate gymnastic feats in midair as the jump could be made from a greater height. This tradition evolved into 'fancy diving', while diving as a preliminary to swimming became known as 'Plain diving'. In England, the practice of high diving – diving from a great height – gained popularity; the first diving stages were erected at the Highgate Ponds at a height of in 1893 and the first world championship event, the National Graceful Diving Competition, was held there by the Royal Life Saving Society in 1895. The event consisted of standing and running dives from either . It was at this event that the Swedish tradition of fancy diving was introduced to the sport by the athletes Otto Hagborg and C F Mauritzi. They demonstrated their acrobatic techniques from the 10m diving board at Highgate Pond and stimulated the establishment of the Amateur Diving Association in 1901, the first organization devoted to diving in the world (later amalgamated with the Amateur Swimming Association). Fancy diving was formally introduced into the championship in 1903. Olympic era Plain diving was first introduced into the Olympics at the 1904 event. The 1908 Olympics in London added 'fancy diving' and introduced elastic boards rather than fixed platforms. Women were first allowed to participate in the diving events for the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm. In the 1928 Olympics, 'plain' and 'fancy' diving were amalgamated into one event – 'Highboard Diving'. The diving event was first held indoors in the Empire Pool for the 1934 British Empire Games and 1948 Summer Olympics in London. Competitive diving Most diving competitions consist of three disciplines: 1 m and 3 m springboards, and the platform. Competitive athletes are divided by gender, and often by age group. In platform events, competitors are allowed to perform their dives on either the five, seven and a half (generally just called seven), nine, or ten meter towers. In major diving meets, including the Olympic Games and the World Championships, platform diving is from the 10 meter height. Divers have to perform a set number of dives according to established requirements, including somersaults and twists. Divers are judged on whether and how well they completed all aspects of the dive, the conformance of their body to the requirements of the dive, and the amount of splash created by their entry to the water. A possible score out of ten is broken down into three points for the takeoff (meaning the hurdle), three for the flight (the actual dive), and three for the entry (how the diver hits the water), with one more available to give the judges flexibility. The raw score is multiplied by a degree of difficulty factor, derived from the number and combination of movements attempted. The diver with the highest total score after a sequence of dives is declared the winner. Synchronized diving Synchronized diving was adopted as an Olympic sport in 2000. Two divers form a team and perform dives simultaneously. The dives are identical. It used to be possible to dive opposites, also known as a pinwheel, but this is no longer part of competitive synchronized diving. For example, one diver would perform a forward dive and the other an inward dive in the same position, or one would do a reverse and the other a back movement. In these events, the diving would be judged both on the quality of execution and the synchronicity – in timing of take-off and entry, height and forward travel. Scoring the dive There are rules governing the scoring of a dive. Usually a score considers three elements of the dive: the approach, the flight, and the entry. The primary factors affecting the scoring are: if a hand-stand is required, the length of time and quality of the hold the height of the diver at the apex of the dive, with extra height resulting in a higher score the distance of the diver from the diving apparatus throughout the dive (a diver must not be dangerously close, should not be too far away, but should ideally be within of the platform) the properly defined body position of the diver according to the dive being performed, including pointed toes and feet touching at all times the proper amounts of rotation and revolution upon completion of the dive and entry into the water angle of entry – a diver should enter the water straight, without any angle. amount of splash – many judges award divers for the amount of splash created by the diver on entry, with less splash resulting in a higher score. Each dive is assigned a degree of difficulty (DD), which is determined from a combination of the moves undertaken, position used, and height. The DD value is multiplied by the scores given by the judges. To reduce the subjectivity of scoring in major meets, panels of five or seven judges are assembled; major international events such as the Olympics use seven-judge panels. For a five-judge panel, the highest and lowest scores are discarded and the middle three are summed and multiplied by the DD. For seven-judge panels, as of the 2012 London Olympics, the two highest scores and two lowest are discarded, leaving three to be summed and multiplied by the DD. (Prior to the London Olympics, the highest and lowest scores were eliminated, and the remaining five scores were multiplied by , to allow for comparison to five-judge panels.) The canceling of scores is used to make it difficult for a single judge to manipulate scores. There is a general misconception about scoring and judging. In serious meets, the absolute score is somewhat meaningless. It is the relative score, not the absolute score that wins meets. Accordingly, good judging implies consistent scoring across the dives. Specifically, if a judge consistently gives low scores for all divers, or consistently gives high scores for the same divers, the judging will yield fair relative results and will cause divers to place in the correct order. However, absolute scores have significance to the individual divers. Besides the obvious instances of setting records, absolute scores are also used for rankings and qualifications for higher level meets. In synchronised diving events, there is a panel of seven, nine, or eleven judges; two or three to mark the execution of one diver, two or three to mark the execution of the other, and the remaining three or five to judge the synchronisation. The execution judges are positioned two on each side of the pool, and they score the diver which is nearer to them. The 2012 London Olympics saw the first use of eleven judges. The score is computed similarly to the scores from other diving events, but has been modified starting with the 2012 London Olympics for the use of the larger judging panels. Each group of judges will have the highest and lowest scores dropped, leaving the middle score for each diver's execution and the three middle scores for synchronization. The total is then weighted by and multiplied by the DD. The result is that the emphasis is on the synchronization of the divers. The synchronisation scores are based on: time of take-off height attained synchronisation of rotations and twists time of entry to the water forward travel from the board The judges may also disqualify the diver for certain violations during the dive, including: receiving a score of 0 on all dives performed in the event improper equipment usage (e.g., female divers not using hair ties) Competitive strategy To win dive meets, divers create a dive list in advance of the meet. To win the meet the diver must accumulate more points than other divers. Often, simple dives with low DDs will look good to spectators but will not win meets. The competitive diver will attempt the highest DD dives possible with which they can achieve consistent, high scores. If divers are scoring 8 or 9 on most dives, it may be a sign of their extreme skill, or it may be a sign that their dive list is not competitive, and they may lose the meet to a diver with higher DDs and lower scores. In competition, divers must submit their lists beforehand, and once past a deadline (usually when the event is announced or shortly before it begins) they cannot change their dives. If they fail to perform the dive announced, even if they physically cannot execute the dive announced or if they perform a more difficult dive, they will receive a score of zero. Under exceptional circumstances, a redive may be granted, but these are exceedingly rare (usually for very young divers just learning how to compete, or if some event outside the diver's control has caused them to be unable to perform-such as a loud noise). In the Olympics or other highly competitive meets, many divers will have nearly the same list of dives as their competitors. The importance for divers competing at this level is not so much the DD, but how they arrange their list. Once the more difficult rounds of dives begin it is important to lead off with a confident dive to build momentum. They also tend to put a very confident dive in front of a very difficult dive to ensure that they will have a good mentality for the difficult dive. Most divers have pre-dive and post-dive rituals that help them either maintain or regain focus. Coaches also play a role in this aspect of the sport. Many divers rely on their coaches to help keep their composure during the meet. In a large meet coaches are rarely allowed on the deck to talk to their athlete so it is common to see coaches using hand gestures or body movements to communicate. There are some American meets which will allow changes of the position of the dive even after the dive has been announced immediately before execution, but these are an exception to the rules generally observed internationally. Generally, NCAA rules allow for dives to be changed while the diver is on the board, but the diver must request the change directly after the dive is announced. This applies especially in cases where the wrong dive is announced. If the diver pauses during his or her hurdle to ask for a change of dive, it will be declared a balk (when the diver stops mid-hurdle) and the change of dive will not be permitted. Under FINA law, no dive may be changed after the deadline for the dive-sheet to be submitted (generally a period ranging from one hour to 24 hours, depending on the rulings made by the event organiser). It is the diver's responsibility to ensure that the dive-sheet is filled in correctly, and also to correct the referee or announcer before the dive if they describe it incorrectly. If a dive is performed which is as submitted but not as (incorrectly) announced, it is declared failed and scores zero according to a strict reading of the FINA law. But in practice, a re-dive would usually be granted in these circumstances. Governance The global governing body of diving is FINA, which also governs swimming, synchronised swimming, water polo and open water swimming. Almost invariably, at national level, diving shares a governing body with the other aquatic sports. This is frequently a source of political friction as the committees are naturally dominated by swimming officials who do not necessarily share or understand the concerns of the diving community. Divers often feel, for example, that they do not get adequate support over issues like the provision of facilities. Other areas of concern are the selection of personnel for the specialised Diving committees and for coaching and officiating at events, and the team selection for international competitions. There are sometimes attempts to separate the governing body as a means to resolve these frustrations, but they are rarely successful. For example, in the UK the Great Britain Diving Federation was formed in 1992 with the intention of taking over the governance of Diving from the ASA (Amateur Swimming Association). Although it initially received widespread support from the diving community, the FINA requirement that international competitors had to be registered with their National Governing Body was a major factor in the abandonment of this ambition a few years later. Since FINA refused to rescind recognition of the ASA as the British governing body for all aquatic sports including diving, this meant that the elite divers had to belong to ASA-affiliated clubs to be eligible for selection to international competition. In the United States scholastic diving is almost always part of the school's swim team. Diving is a separate sport in Olympic and Club Diving. The NCAA will separate diving from swimming in special diving competitions after the swim season is completed. Safety Despite the apparent risk, the statistical incidence of injury in supervised training and competition is extremely low. The majority of accidents that are classified as 'diving-related' are incidents caused by individuals jumping from structures such as bridges or piers into water of inadequate depth. Many accidents also occur when divers do not account for rocks and logs in the water. Because of this many beaches and pools prohibit diving in shallow waters or when a lifeguard is not on duty. After an incident in Washington in 1993, most US and other pool builders are reluctant to equip a residential swimming pool with a diving springboard so home diving pools are much less common these days. In the incident, 14-year-old Shawn Meneely made a "suicide dive" (holding his hands at his sides, so that his head hit the bottom first) in a private swimming pool and became a tetraplegic. The lawyers for the family, Jan Eric Peterson and Fred Zeder, successfully sued the diving board manufacturer, the pool builder, and the National Spa and Pool Institute over the inappropriate depth of the pool. The NSPI had specified a minimum depth of 7 ft 6 in (2.29 m) which proved to be insufficient in the above case. The pool into which Meneely dived was not constructed to the published standards. The standards had changed after the diving board was installed on the non-compliant pool by the homeowner. But the courts held that the pool "was close enough" to the standards to hold NSPI liable. The multimillion-dollar lawsuit was eventually resolved in 2001 for US$6.6 million ($8 million after interest was added) in favor of the plaintiff. The NSPI was held to be liable, and was financially strained by the case. It filed twice for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection and was successfully reorganized into a new swimming pool industry association. In competitive diving, FINA takes regulatory steps to ensure that athletes are protected from the inherent dangers of the sport. For example, they impose restrictions according to age on the | angular momentum remains constant throughout the dive, but since angular momentum = rotational velocity × moment of inertia, and the moment of inertia is larger when the body has an increased radius, the speed of rotation may be increased by moving the body into a compact shape, and reduced by opening out into a straight position. Since the tucked shape is the most compact, it gives the most control over rotational speed, and dives in this position are easier to perform. Dives in the straight position are hardest, since there is almost no scope for altering the speed, so the angular momentum must be created at take-off with a very high degree of accuracy. (A small amount of control is available by moving the position of the arms and by a slight hollowing of the back). The opening of the body for the entry does not stop the rotation, but merely slows it down. The vertical entry achieved by expert divers is largely an illusion created by starting the entry slightly short of vertical, so that the legs are vertical as they disappear beneath the surface. A small amount of additional tuning is available by 'entry save' techniques, whereby underwater movements of the upper body and arms against the viscosity of the water affect the position of the legs. Twisting Dives with multiple twists and somersaults are some of the most spectacular movements, as well as the most challenging to perform. The rules state that twisting 'must not be generated manifestly on take-off'. Consequently, divers must use some of the somersaulting angular momentum to generate twisting movements. The physics of twisting can be explained by looking at the components of the angular momentum vector. As the diver leaves the board, the total angular momentum vector is horizontal, pointing directly to the left for a forward dive for example. For twisting rotation to exist, it is necessary to tilt the body sideways after takeoff, so that there is now a small component of this horizontal angular momentum vector along the body's long axis. The tilt can be seen in the photo. The tilting is done by the arms, which are outstretched to the sides just before the twist. When one arm is moved up and the other is moved down (like turning a big steering wheel), the body reacts by tilting to the side, which then begins the twisting rotation. At the completion of the required number of twist rotations, the arm motion is reversed (the steering wheel is turned back), which removes the body's tilt and stops the twisting rotation. An alternative explanation is that the moving arms have precession torque on them which set the body into twisting rotation. Moving the arms back produces opposite torque which stops the twisting rotation. Entry The rules state that the body should be vertical, or nearly so, for entry. Strictly speaking, it is physically impossible to achieve a literally vertical position throughout the entry as there will inevitably still be some rotational momentum while the body is entering the water. Divers therefore attempt to create the illusion of being vertical, especially when performing rapidly rotating multiple somersault movements. For back entries, one technique is to allow the upper body to enter slightly short of vertical so that the continuing rotation leaves the final impression of the legs entering vertically. This is called "Pike save". Another is to use "knee save" movements of scooping the upper body underwater in the direction of rotation so as to counteract the rotation of the legs. The arms must be beside the body for feet-first dives, which are typically competed only on the 1m springboard and only at fairly low levels of 3m springboard, and extended forwards in line for "head-first" dives, which are much more common competitively. It used to be common for the hands to be interlocked with the fingers extended towards the water, but a different technique has become favoured during the last few decades. Now the usual practice is for one hand to grasp the other with palms down to strike the water with a flat surface. This creates a vacuum between the hands, arms and head which, with a vertical entry, will pull down and under any splash until deep enough to have minimal effect on the surface of the water (the so-called "rip entry"). Once a diver is completely under the water they may choose to roll or scoop in the same direction their dive was rotating to pull their legs into a more vertical position. Apart from aesthetic considerations, it is important from a safety point of view that divers reinforce the habit of rolling in the direction of rotation, especially for forward and inward entries. Back injuries such as hyperextension are caused by attempting to re-surface in the opposite direction. Diving from the higher levels increases the danger and likelihood of such injuries. By country Canada In Canada, elite competitive diving is regulated by DPC (Diving Plongeon Canada), although the individual provinces also have organizational bodies. The main competitive season runs from February to July, although some competitions may be held in January or December, and many divers (particularly international level athletes) will train and compete year round. Most provincial level competitions consist of events for 6 age groups (Groups A, B, C, D, E, and Open) for both genders on each of the three board levels. These age groups roughly correspond to those standardized by FINA, with the addition of a youngest age group for divers 9 and younger, Group E, which does not compete nationally and does not have a tower event (although divers of this age may choose to compete in Group D). The age group Open is so called because divers of any age, including those over 18, may compete in these events, so long as their dives meet a minimum standard of difficulty. Although Canada is internationally a fairly strong country in diving, the vast majority of Canadian high schools and universities do not have diving teams, and many Canadian divers accept athletic scholarships from American colleges. Adult divers who are not competitive at an elite level may compete in masters diving. Typically, masters are either adults who never practiced the sport as children or teenagers, or former elite athletes who have retired but still seek a way to be involved in the sport. Many diving clubs have masters teams in addition to their primary competitive ones, and while some masters dive only for fun and fitness, there are also masters competitions, which range from the local to world championship level. National championships Divers can qualify to compete at the age group national championships, or junior national championships, in their age groups as assigned by FINA up to the age of 18. This competition is held annually in July. Qualification is based on achieving minimum scores at earlier competitions in the season, although athletes who place very highly at a national championship will be automatically qualified to compete at the next. Divers must qualify at two different competitions, at least one of which must be a level 1 competition, i.e. a competition with fairly strict judging patterns. Such competitions include the Polar Bear Invitational in Winnipeg, the Sting in Victoria, and the Alberta Provincial Championships in Edmonton or Calgary. The qualifying scores are determined by DPC according to the results of the preceding year's national competition, and typically do not have much variation from year to year. Divers older than 18, or advanced divers of younger ages, can qualify for the senior national championships, which are held twice each year, once roughly in March and once in June or July. Once again, qualification is based on achieving minimum scores at earlier competitions (in this case, within the 12 months preceding the national championships, and in an Open age group event), or high placements in previous national championships or international competitions. It is no longer the case that divers may use results from age group events to qualify for senior nationals, or results from Open events to qualify for age group nationals. Republic of Ireland In the Republic of Ireland facilities are limited to one pool at the National Aquatic Centre in Dublin. National championships National championships take place late in the year, usually during November. The competition is held at the National Aquatic Centre in Dublin and consists of four events: Irish Open Age Group Championships Irish Open Senior Diving Championships Novice Competition (8–16 yrs) Novice Masters Competition (>25 yrs) United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, diving competitions on all boards run throughout the year. National Masters' Championships are held two or three times per year. United States Summer diving In the United States, summer diving is usually limited to one meter diving at community or country club pools. Some pools organize to form intra-pool competitions. These competitions are usually designed to accommodate all school-age children. High school diving In the United States scholastic diving at the high school level is usually limited to one meter diving (but some schools use three meter springboards.). Scores from those one meter dives contribute to the swim team's overall score. High school diving and swimming concludes their season with a state competition. Depending on the state and the number of athletes competing in the state, certain qualifications must be achieved to compete in the state's championship meet. There are often regional championships and district championships which are necessary to compete in before reaching the state meet to narrow the field to only the most competitive athletes. Most state championship meets consist of eleven dives. The eleven dives are usually split up between two categories: five required (voluntary) dives and six optional dives. Club diving In the United States, pre-college divers interested in learning one and three meter or platform diving should consider a club sanctioned by either USA Diving or AAU Diving. In USA Diving, Future Champions is the entry level or novice diver category with 8 levels of competition. From Future Champions, divers graduate to "Junior Olympic", or JO. JO divers compete in age groups at inter-club competitions, at invitationals, and if qualified, at regional, zone and national competitions. Divers over the age of 19 years of age cannot compete in these events as a JO diver. USA Diving sanctions the Winter Nationals championship with one, three meter, and platform events. In the summer USA Diving sanctions the Summer Nationals including all three events with both Junior and Senior divers. USA Diving is sanctioned by the United States Olympic Committee to select team representatives for international diving competitions including the World Championships and Olympic Games. AAU Diving sanctions one national event per year in the summer. AAU competes on the one, three, and tower to determine the All-American team. College diving In the United States scholastic diving at the college level requires one and three meter diving. Scores from the one and three meter competition contribute to the swim team's overall meet score. College divers interested in tower diving may compete in the NCAA separate from swim team events. NCAA Divisions II and III do not usually compete platform; if a diver wishes to compete platform in college, he or she must attend a Division I school. Each division also has rules on the number of dives in each competition. Division II schools compete with 10 dives in competition whereas Division III schools compete with 11. Division I schools only compete with 6 dives in competition. These 6 dives consist of either 5 optionals and 1 voluntary, or 6 optionals. If the meet is a 5 optional meet, then the divers will perform 1 optional from each category (Front, Back, Inward, Reverse, and Twister) and then 1 voluntary from the category of their choice. The voluntary in this type of meet is always worth a DD (Degree of Difficulty) of 2.0 even if the real DD is worth more or less on a DD sheet. In a 6 optional meet, the divers will yet again perform one dive from each category, but this time they will perform a 6th optional from the category of their choosing, which is worth its actual DD from the DD sheet. The highest level of collegiate competition is the NCAA Division 1 Swimming and Diving Championship. Events at the championship include 1 meter springboard, 3 meter springboard, and platform, as well as various swimming individual and |
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