Datasets:
drexalt
/
msmarco-2.1-segmented

Dataset card Data Studio Files Community
1
docid
stringlengths
25
45
url
stringlengths
14
987
title
stringlengths
0
45k
headings
stringlengths
1
259k
segment
stringlengths
2
10k
start_char
int64
0
9.96k
end_char
int64
2
10k
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11604905#13_16378209
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-03-formulas-for-ionic-compounds.html
Formulas for Ionic Compounds
3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Note Note Note Note Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
Because these ions contain more than one atom, they are called polyatomic ions An ion with more than one atom. . Polyatomic ions have characteristic formulas, names, and charges that should be memorized. For example, NO 3− is the nitrate ion; it has one nitrogen atom and three oxygen atoms and an overall 1− charge. Table 3.1 "Some Polyatomic Ions" lists the most common polyatomic ions. Table 3.1 Some Polyatomic Ions Name Formula ammonium ion NH 4+ acetate ion C 2 H 3 O 2− (also written CH 3 CO 2−) carbonate ion CO 32− chromate ion CrO 42− dichromate ion Cr 2 O 72− hydrogen carbonate ion (bicarbonate ion) HCO 3− cyanide ion CN − hydroxide ion OH − nitrate ion NO 3− nitrite ion NO 2− permanganate ion MnO 4− phosphate ion PO 43− hydrogen phosphate ion HPO 42− dihydrogen phosphate ion H 2 PO 4− sulfate ion SO 42− hydrogen sulfate ion (bisulfate ion) HSO 4− sulfite ion SO 32− The rule for constructing formulas for ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions is the same as for formulas containing monatomic (single-atom) ions: the positive and negative charges must balance. If more than one of a particular polyatomic ion is needed to balance the charge, the entire formula for the polyatomic ion must be enclosed in parentheses, and the numerical subscript is placed outside the parentheses. This is to show that the subscript applies to the entire polyatomic ion.
6,412
7,786
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11604905#14_16380378
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-03-formulas-for-ionic-compounds.html
Formulas for Ionic Compounds
3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Note Note Note Note Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
Table 3.1 "Some Polyatomic Ions" lists the most common polyatomic ions. Table 3.1 Some Polyatomic Ions Name Formula ammonium ion NH 4+ acetate ion C 2 H 3 O 2− (also written CH 3 CO 2−) carbonate ion CO 32− chromate ion CrO 42− dichromate ion Cr 2 O 72− hydrogen carbonate ion (bicarbonate ion) HCO 3− cyanide ion CN − hydroxide ion OH − nitrate ion NO 3− nitrite ion NO 2− permanganate ion MnO 4− phosphate ion PO 43− hydrogen phosphate ion HPO 42− dihydrogen phosphate ion H 2 PO 4− sulfate ion SO 42− hydrogen sulfate ion (bisulfate ion) HSO 4− sulfite ion SO 32− The rule for constructing formulas for ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions is the same as for formulas containing monatomic (single-atom) ions: the positive and negative charges must balance. If more than one of a particular polyatomic ion is needed to balance the charge, the entire formula for the polyatomic ion must be enclosed in parentheses, and the numerical subscript is placed outside the parentheses. This is to show that the subscript applies to the entire polyatomic ion. An example is Ba (NO 3) 2. Example 4 Write the chemical formula for an ionic compound composed of each pair of ions. the potassium ion and the sulfate ion the calcium ion and the nitrate ion Solution Potassium ions have a charge of 1+, while sulfate ions have a charge of 2−. We will need two potassium ions to balance the charge on the sulfate ion, so the proper chemical formula is K 2 SO 4. Calcium ions have a charge of 2+, while nitrate ions have a charge of 1−. We will need two nitrate ions to balance the charge on each calcium ion. The formula for nitrate must be enclosed in parentheses.
6,729
8,384
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11604905#15_16382831
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-03-formulas-for-ionic-compounds.html
Formulas for Ionic Compounds
3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Note Note Note Note Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
An example is Ba (NO 3) 2. Example 4 Write the chemical formula for an ionic compound composed of each pair of ions. the potassium ion and the sulfate ion the calcium ion and the nitrate ion Solution Potassium ions have a charge of 1+, while sulfate ions have a charge of 2−. We will need two potassium ions to balance the charge on the sulfate ion, so the proper chemical formula is K 2 SO 4. Calcium ions have a charge of 2+, while nitrate ions have a charge of 1−. We will need two nitrate ions to balance the charge on each calcium ion. The formula for nitrate must be enclosed in parentheses. Thus, we write Ca (NO 3) 2 as the formula for this ionic compound. Skill-Building Exercise Write the chemical formula for an ionic compound composed of each pair of ions. the magnesium ion and the carbonate ion the aluminum ion and the acetate ion Recognizing Ionic Compounds There are two ways to recognize ionic compounds. First, compounds between metal and nonmetal elements are usually ionic. For example, CaBr 2 contains a metallic element (calcium, a group 2A metal) and a nonmetallic element (bromine, a group 7A nonmetal).
7,787
8,915
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11604905#16_16384637
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-03-formulas-for-ionic-compounds.html
Formulas for Ionic Compounds
3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Note Note Note Note Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
Thus, we write Ca (NO 3) 2 as the formula for this ionic compound. Skill-Building Exercise Write the chemical formula for an ionic compound composed of each pair of ions. the magnesium ion and the carbonate ion the aluminum ion and the acetate ion Recognizing Ionic Compounds There are two ways to recognize ionic compounds. First, compounds between metal and nonmetal elements are usually ionic. For example, CaBr 2 contains a metallic element (calcium, a group 2A metal) and a nonmetallic element (bromine, a group 7A nonmetal). Therefore, it is most likely an ionic compound. ( In fact, it is ionic.) In contrast, the compound NO 2 contains two elements that are both nonmetals (nitrogen, from group 5A, and oxygen, from group 6A). It is not an ionic compound; it belongs to the category of covalent compounds that we will study in Chapter 4 "Covalent Bonding and Simple Molecular Compounds".
8,385
9,279
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11604905#17_16386198
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-03-formulas-for-ionic-compounds.html
Formulas for Ionic Compounds
3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Note Note Note Note Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
Therefore, it is most likely an ionic compound. ( In fact, it is ionic.) In contrast, the compound NO 2 contains two elements that are both nonmetals (nitrogen, from group 5A, and oxygen, from group 6A). It is not an ionic compound; it belongs to the category of covalent compounds that we will study in Chapter 4 "Covalent Bonding and Simple Molecular Compounds". Also note that this combination of nitrogen and oxygen has no electric charge specified, so it is not the nitrite ion. Second, if you recognize the formula of a polyatomic ion in a compound, the compound is ionic. For example, if you see the formula Ba (NO 3) 2, you may recognize the “NO 3 ” part as the nitrate ion, NO 3−. (Remember that the convention for writing formulas for ionic compounds is not to include the ionic charge.) This is a clue that the other part of the formula, Ba, is actually the Ba 2+ ion, with the 2+ charge balancing the overall 2− charge from the two nitrate ions. Thus, this compound is also ionic.
8,916
9,907
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11604905#18_16387872
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-03-formulas-for-ionic-compounds.html
Formulas for Ionic Compounds
3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Note Note Note Note Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
Also note that this combination of nitrogen and oxygen has no electric charge specified, so it is not the nitrite ion. Second, if you recognize the formula of a polyatomic ion in a compound, the compound is ionic. For example, if you see the formula Ba (NO 3) 2, you may recognize the “NO 3 ” part as the nitrate ion, NO 3−. (Remember that the convention for writing formulas for ionic compounds is not to include the ionic charge.) This is a clue that the other part of the formula, Ba, is actually the Ba 2+ ion, with the 2+ charge balancing the overall 2− charge from the two nitrate ions. Thus, this compound is also ionic. Example 5 Identify each compound as ionic or not ionic. Na 2 O PCl 3 NH 4 Cl OF 2 Solution S
9,280
10,000
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#0_16389279
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay We will see that the word salt has a specific meaning in chemistry, but to most people, this word refers to table salt. This kind of salt is used as a condiment throughout the world, but it was not always so abundant. Two thousand years ago, Roman soldiers received part of their pay as salt, which explains why the words salt and salary come from the same Latin root ( salarium ). Today, table salt is either mined or obtained from the evaporation of saltwater. Table salt is sodium chloride (NaCl), which is a simple compound of two elements that are necessary for the human body to function properly. Sodium, for example, is important for nerve conduction and fluid balance. In fact, human blood is about a 0.9% sodium chloride solution, and a solution called normal saline is commonly administered intravenously in hospitals. Although some salt in our diets is necessary to replenish the sodium and chloride ions that we excrete in urine and sweat, too much is unhealthy, and many people may be ingesting more salt than their bodies need. The RDI of sodium is 2,400 mg—the amount in about 1 teaspoon of salt—but the average intake of sodium in the United States is between 4,000 mg and 5,000 mg, partly because salt is a common additive in many prepared foods. Previously, the high ingestion of salt was thought to be associated with high blood pressure, but current research does not support this link.
0
1,513
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#1_16392258
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Sodium, for example, is important for nerve conduction and fluid balance. In fact, human blood is about a 0.9% sodium chloride solution, and a solution called normal saline is commonly administered intravenously in hospitals. Although some salt in our diets is necessary to replenish the sodium and chloride ions that we excrete in urine and sweat, too much is unhealthy, and many people may be ingesting more salt than their bodies need. The RDI of sodium is 2,400 mg—the amount in about 1 teaspoon of salt—but the average intake of sodium in the United States is between 4,000 mg and 5,000 mg, partly because salt is a common additive in many prepared foods. Previously, the high ingestion of salt was thought to be associated with high blood pressure, but current research does not support this link. Even so, some doctors still recommend a low-salt diet (never a “no-salt” diet) for patients with high blood pressure, which may include using a salt substitute. Most salt substitutes use potassium instead of sodium, but some people complain that the potassium imparts a slightly bitter taste. There are only 118 known chemical elements but tens of millions of known chemical compounds. Compounds can be very complex combinations of atoms, but many important compounds are fairly simple. Table salt, as we have seen, consists of only two elements:
710
2,060
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#2_16395083
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Even so, some doctors still recommend a low-salt diet (never a “no-salt” diet) for patients with high blood pressure, which may include using a salt substitute. Most salt substitutes use potassium instead of sodium, but some people complain that the potassium imparts a slightly bitter taste. There are only 118 known chemical elements but tens of millions of known chemical compounds. Compounds can be very complex combinations of atoms, but many important compounds are fairly simple. Table salt, as we have seen, consists of only two elements: sodium and chlorine. Nevertheless, the compound has properties completely different from either elemental sodium (a chemically reactive metal) or elemental chlorine (a poisonous, green gas). We will see additional examples of such differences in this chapter and Chapter 4 "Covalent Bonding and Simple Molecular Compounds", as we consider how atoms combine to form compounds. 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Define the octet rule. Describe how ionic bonds are formed.
1,514
2,541
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#3_16397580
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
sodium and chlorine. Nevertheless, the compound has properties completely different from either elemental sodium (a chemically reactive metal) or elemental chlorine (a poisonous, green gas). We will see additional examples of such differences in this chapter and Chapter 4 "Covalent Bonding and Simple Molecular Compounds", as we consider how atoms combine to form compounds. 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Define the octet rule. Describe how ionic bonds are formed. Atoms can join together by forming a chemical bond A very strong attraction between two atoms. , which is a very strong attraction between two atoms. Chemical bonds are formed when electrons in different atoms interact with each other to make an arrangement that is more stable than when the atoms are apart. What causes atoms to make a chemical bond with other atoms, rather than remaining as individual atoms? A clue comes by considering the noble gas elements, the rightmost column of the periodic table.
2,061
3,049
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#4_16400029
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Atoms can join together by forming a chemical bond A very strong attraction between two atoms. , which is a very strong attraction between two atoms. Chemical bonds are formed when electrons in different atoms interact with each other to make an arrangement that is more stable than when the atoms are apart. What causes atoms to make a chemical bond with other atoms, rather than remaining as individual atoms? A clue comes by considering the noble gas elements, the rightmost column of the periodic table. These elements—helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon—do not form compounds very easily, which suggests that they are especially stable as lone atoms. What else do the noble gas elements have in common? Except for helium, they all have eight valence electrons. Chemists have concluded that atoms are especially stable if they have eight electrons in their outermost shell. This useful rule of thumb is called the octet rule The idea that atoms tend to have eight electrons in their valence shell.
2,541
3,554
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#5_16402509
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
These elements—helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon—do not form compounds very easily, which suggests that they are especially stable as lone atoms. What else do the noble gas elements have in common? Except for helium, they all have eight valence electrons. Chemists have concluded that atoms are especially stable if they have eight electrons in their outermost shell. This useful rule of thumb is called the octet rule The idea that atoms tend to have eight electrons in their valence shell. , and it is a key to understanding why compounds form. Note Of the noble gases, only krypton, xenon, and radon have been found to make compounds. There are two ways for an atom that does not have an octet of valence electrons to obtain an octet in its outer shell. One way is the transfer of electrons between two atoms until all atoms have octets. Because some atoms will lose electrons and some atoms will gain electrons, there is no overall change in the number of electrons, but individual atoms acquire a nonzero electric charge.
3,050
4,089
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#6_16405016
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
, and it is a key to understanding why compounds form. Note Of the noble gases, only krypton, xenon, and radon have been found to make compounds. There are two ways for an atom that does not have an octet of valence electrons to obtain an octet in its outer shell. One way is the transfer of electrons between two atoms until all atoms have octets. Because some atoms will lose electrons and some atoms will gain electrons, there is no overall change in the number of electrons, but individual atoms acquire a nonzero electric charge. Those that lose electrons become positively charged, and those that gain electrons become negatively charged. Charged atoms are called ions A charged atom. . Because opposite charges attract (while like charges repel), these oppositely charged ions attract each other, forming ionic bonds An attraction between oppositely charged ions. .
3,554
4,427
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#7_16407347
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Those that lose electrons become positively charged, and those that gain electrons become negatively charged. Charged atoms are called ions A charged atom. . Because opposite charges attract (while like charges repel), these oppositely charged ions attract each other, forming ionic bonds An attraction between oppositely charged ions. . The resulting compounds are called ionic compounds A compound formed with an ionic bond. and are the primary subject of this chapter. The second way for an atom to obtain an octet of electrons is by sharing electrons with another atom. These shared electrons simultaneously occupy the outermost shell of more than one atom. The bond made by electron sharing is called a covalent bond.
4,090
4,812
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#8_16409528
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
The resulting compounds are called ionic compounds A compound formed with an ionic bond. and are the primary subject of this chapter. The second way for an atom to obtain an octet of electrons is by sharing electrons with another atom. These shared electrons simultaneously occupy the outermost shell of more than one atom. The bond made by electron sharing is called a covalent bond. Covalent bonding and covalent compounds will be discussed in Chapter 4 "Covalent Bonding and Simple Molecular Compounds". Note Despite our focus on the octet rule, we must remember that for small atoms, such as hydrogen, helium, and lithium, the first shell is, or becomes, the outermost shell and hold only two electrons. Therefore, these atoms satisfy a “duet rule” rather than the octet rule. Example 1 A sodium atom has one valence electron. Do you think it is more likely for a sodium atom to lose one electron or gain seven electrons to obtain an octet?
4,428
5,372
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#9_16411943
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Covalent bonding and covalent compounds will be discussed in Chapter 4 "Covalent Bonding and Simple Molecular Compounds". Note Despite our focus on the octet rule, we must remember that for small atoms, such as hydrogen, helium, and lithium, the first shell is, or becomes, the outermost shell and hold only two electrons. Therefore, these atoms satisfy a “duet rule” rather than the octet rule. Example 1 A sodium atom has one valence electron. Do you think it is more likely for a sodium atom to lose one electron or gain seven electrons to obtain an octet? Solution Although either event is possible, a sodium atom is more likely to lose its single valence electron. When that happens, it becomes an ion with a net positive charge. This can be illustrated as follows: Sodium atom Sodium ion 11 protons 11+ 11 protons 11+ 11 electrons 11− 10 electrons 10− 0 overall charge +1 overall charge Skill-Building Exercise A fluorine atom has seven valence electrons. Do you think it is more likely for a fluorine atom to lose seven electrons or gain one electron to obtain an octet?
4,813
5,892
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#10_16414518
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Solution Although either event is possible, a sodium atom is more likely to lose its single valence electron. When that happens, it becomes an ion with a net positive charge. This can be illustrated as follows: Sodium atom Sodium ion 11 protons 11+ 11 protons 11+ 11 electrons 11− 10 electrons 10− 0 overall charge +1 overall charge Skill-Building Exercise A fluorine atom has seven valence electrons. Do you think it is more likely for a fluorine atom to lose seven electrons or gain one electron to obtain an octet? Answers The octet rule is the concept that atoms tend to have eight electrons in their valence electron shell. Ionic bonds are formed by the attraction between oppositely charged ions. Key Takeaways Atoms have a tendency to have eight electrons in their valence shell. The attraction of oppositely charged ions is what makes ionic bonds. Exercises Why is an ionic compound unlikely to consist of two positively charged ions?
5,372
6,317
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#11_16416948
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Answers The octet rule is the concept that atoms tend to have eight electrons in their valence electron shell. Ionic bonds are formed by the attraction between oppositely charged ions. Key Takeaways Atoms have a tendency to have eight electrons in their valence shell. The attraction of oppositely charged ions is what makes ionic bonds. Exercises Why is an ionic compound unlikely to consist of two positively charged ions? Why is an ionic compound unlikely to consist of two negatively charged ions? A calcium atom has two valence electrons. Do you think it will lose two electrons or gain six electrons to obtain an octet in its outermost electron shell? An aluminum atom has three valence electrons. Do you think it will lose three electrons or gain five electrons to obtain an octet in its outermost electron shell?
5,892
6,713
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#12_16419228
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Why is an ionic compound unlikely to consist of two negatively charged ions? A calcium atom has two valence electrons. Do you think it will lose two electrons or gain six electrons to obtain an octet in its outermost electron shell? An aluminum atom has three valence electrons. Do you think it will lose three electrons or gain five electrons to obtain an octet in its outermost electron shell? A selenium atom has six valence electrons. Do you think it will lose six electrons or gain two electrons to obtain an octet in its outermost electron shell? An iodine atom has seven valence electrons. Do you think it will lose seven electrons or gain one electron to obtain an octet in its outermost electron shell? Answers Positive charges repel each other, so an ionic compound is not likely between two positively charged ions.
6,317
7,144
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#13_16421512
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
A selenium atom has six valence electrons. Do you think it will lose six electrons or gain two electrons to obtain an octet in its outermost electron shell? An iodine atom has seven valence electrons. Do you think it will lose seven electrons or gain one electron to obtain an octet in its outermost electron shell? Answers Positive charges repel each other, so an ionic compound is not likely between two positively charged ions. It is more likely to lose two electrons. It is more likely to gain two electrons. 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Define the two types of ions. Use Lewis diagrams to illustrate ion formation. Most atoms do not have eight electrons in their valence electron shell.
6,713
7,405
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#14_16423663
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
It is more likely to lose two electrons. It is more likely to gain two electrons. 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Define the two types of ions. Use Lewis diagrams to illustrate ion formation. Most atoms do not have eight electrons in their valence electron shell. Some atoms have only a few electrons in their outer shell, while some atoms lack only one or two electrons to have an octet. In cases where an atom has three or fewer valence electrons, the atom may lose those valence electrons quite easily until what remains is a lower shell that contains an octet. Atoms that lose electrons acquire a positive charge as a result because they are left with fewer negatively charged electrons to balance the positive charges of the protons in the nucleus. Positively charged ions are called cations A positively charged ion. .
7,144
7,966
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#15_16425944
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Some atoms have only a few electrons in their outer shell, while some atoms lack only one or two electrons to have an octet. In cases where an atom has three or fewer valence electrons, the atom may lose those valence electrons quite easily until what remains is a lower shell that contains an octet. Atoms that lose electrons acquire a positive charge as a result because they are left with fewer negatively charged electrons to balance the positive charges of the protons in the nucleus. Positively charged ions are called cations A positively charged ion. . Most metals become cations when they make ionic compounds. Some atoms have nearly eight electrons in their valence shell and can gain additional valence electrons until they have an octet. When these atoms gain electrons, they acquire a negative charge because they now possess more electrons than protons. Negatively charged ions are called anions A negatively charged ion. .
7,406
8,343
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#16_16428340
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Most metals become cations when they make ionic compounds. Some atoms have nearly eight electrons in their valence shell and can gain additional valence electrons until they have an octet. When these atoms gain electrons, they acquire a negative charge because they now possess more electrons than protons. Negatively charged ions are called anions A negatively charged ion. . Most nonmetals become anions when they make ionic compounds. Note The names for positive and negative ions are pronounced CAT-eye-ons and ANN-eye-ons, respectively. Electron Transfer We can use electron configurations to illustrate the electron transfer process between sodium atoms and chlorine atoms. Recall the electron configuration of sodium from Chapter 2 "Elements, Atoms, and the Periodic Table": Na:
7,967
8,752
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#17_16430587
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Most nonmetals become anions when they make ionic compounds. Note The names for positive and negative ions are pronounced CAT-eye-ons and ANN-eye-ons, respectively. Electron Transfer We can use electron configurations to illustrate the electron transfer process between sodium atoms and chlorine atoms. Recall the electron configuration of sodium from Chapter 2 "Elements, Atoms, and the Periodic Table": Na: 1s22s22p63s1 As demonstrated in Example 1 (in Section 3.1 "Two Types of Bonding" ), sodium is likely to achieve an octet in its outermost shell by losing its one valence electron. The remaining species has the following electron configuration: The cation produced in this way, Na +, is called the sodium ion to distinguish it from the element. The outermost shell of the sodium ion is the second electron shell, which has eight electrons in it. The octet rule has been satisfied.
8,344
9,232
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#18_16432939
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
1s22s22p63s1 As demonstrated in Example 1 (in Section 3.1 "Two Types of Bonding" ), sodium is likely to achieve an octet in its outermost shell by losing its one valence electron. The remaining species has the following electron configuration: The cation produced in this way, Na +, is called the sodium ion to distinguish it from the element. The outermost shell of the sodium ion is the second electron shell, which has eight electrons in it. The octet rule has been satisfied. Figure 3.1 "The Formation of a Sodium Ion" is a graphical depiction of this process. Figure 3.1 The Formation of a Sodium Ion On the left, a sodium atom has 11 electrons. On the right, the sodium ion only has 10 electrons and a 1+ charge. A chlorine atom has the following electron configuration: Cl:
8,753
9,533
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#19_16435182
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Figure 3.1 "The Formation of a Sodium Ion" is a graphical depiction of this process. Figure 3.1 The Formation of a Sodium Ion On the left, a sodium atom has 11 electrons. On the right, the sodium ion only has 10 electrons and a 1+ charge. A chlorine atom has the following electron configuration: Cl: 1s22s22p63s23p5 Only one more electron is needed to achieve an octet in chlorine’s valence shell. ( In table salt, this electron comes from the sodium atom.) The electron configuration of the new species that results is as follows: In this case, the ion has the same outermost shell as the original atom, but now that shell has eight electrons in it. Once again, the octet rule has been satisfied.
9,233
9,930
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11620398#20_16437346
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s06-ionic-bonding-and-simple-ionic.html
Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds
Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Chapter 3 Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds Opening Essay 3.1 Two Types of Bonding Learning Objectives Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.2 Ions Learning Objectives Electron Transfer Lewis Diagrams Note Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Polyatomic Ions Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Recognizing Ionic Compounds Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers 3.4 Ionic Nomenclature Learning Objective Naming Ions Example 6 Skill-Building Exercise Example 7 Skill-Building Exercise Naming Compounds Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.5 Formula Mass Learning Objective Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise To Your Health: Hydrates Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 3.6 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
1s22s22p63s23p5 Only one more electron is needed to achieve an octet in chlorine’s valence shell. ( In table salt, this electron comes from the sodium atom.) The electron configuration of the new species that results is as follows: In this case, the ion has the same outermost shell as the original atom, but now that shell has eight electrons in it. Once again, the octet rule has been satisfied. The resulting anion, Cl −, is called the chloride ion; note the sligh
9,534
10,000
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11677122#0_16439282
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s07-02-covalent-compounds-formulas-an.html
Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names
4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names 4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names Learning Objectives Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Note Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names 4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names Learning Objectives Determine the chemical formula of a simple covalent compound from its name. Determine the name of a simple covalent compound from its chemical formula. What elements make covalent bonds? Covalent bonds form when two or more nonmetals combine. For example, both hydrogen and oxygen are nonmetals, and when they combine to make water, they do so by forming covalent bonds. Nonmetal atoms in polyatomic ions are joined by covalent bonds, but the ion as a whole participates in ionic bonding. For example, ammonium chloride has ionic bonds between a polyatomic ion, NH 4+, and Cl − ions, but within the ammonium ion, the nitrogen and hydrogen atoms are connected by covalent bonds: Example 2 Is each compound formed from ionic bonds, covalent bonds, or both?
0
856
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11677122#1_16440734
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s07-02-covalent-compounds-formulas-an.html
Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names
4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names 4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names Learning Objectives Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Note Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
Covalent bonds form when two or more nonmetals combine. For example, both hydrogen and oxygen are nonmetals, and when they combine to make water, they do so by forming covalent bonds. Nonmetal atoms in polyatomic ions are joined by covalent bonds, but the ion as a whole participates in ionic bonding. For example, ammonium chloride has ionic bonds between a polyatomic ion, NH 4+, and Cl − ions, but within the ammonium ion, the nitrogen and hydrogen atoms are connected by covalent bonds: Example 2 Is each compound formed from ionic bonds, covalent bonds, or both? Na 2 O Na 3 PO 4 N 2 O 4 Solution The elements in Na 2 O are a metal and a nonmetal, which form ionic bonds. Because sodium is a metal and we recognize the formula for the phosphate ion (see Table 3.1 "Some Polyatomic Ions" ), we know that this compound is ionic. However, polyatomic ions are held together by covalent bonds, so this compound contains both ionic and covalent bonds. The elements in N 2 O 4 are both nonmetals, rather than a metal and a nonmetal. Therefore, the atoms form covalent bonds.
289
1,361
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11677122#2_16442408
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s07-02-covalent-compounds-formulas-an.html
Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names
4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names 4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names Learning Objectives Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Note Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
Na 2 O Na 3 PO 4 N 2 O 4 Solution The elements in Na 2 O are a metal and a nonmetal, which form ionic bonds. Because sodium is a metal and we recognize the formula for the phosphate ion (see Table 3.1 "Some Polyatomic Ions" ), we know that this compound is ionic. However, polyatomic ions are held together by covalent bonds, so this compound contains both ionic and covalent bonds. The elements in N 2 O 4 are both nonmetals, rather than a metal and a nonmetal. Therefore, the atoms form covalent bonds. Skill-Building Exercise Is each compound are formed from ionic bonds, covalent bonds, or both? Ba (OH) 2 F 2 PCl 3 The chemical formulas for covalent compounds are referred to as molecular formulas A chemical formula for a covalent compound. because these compounds exist as separate, discrete molecules. Typically, a molecular formula begins with the nonmetal that is closest to the lower left corner of the periodic table, except that hydrogen is almost never written first (H 2 O is the prominent exception). Then the other nonmetal symbols are listed.
856
1,917
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11677122#3_16444069
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s07-02-covalent-compounds-formulas-an.html
Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names
4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names 4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names Learning Objectives Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Note Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
Skill-Building Exercise Is each compound are formed from ionic bonds, covalent bonds, or both? Ba (OH) 2 F 2 PCl 3 The chemical formulas for covalent compounds are referred to as molecular formulas A chemical formula for a covalent compound. because these compounds exist as separate, discrete molecules. Typically, a molecular formula begins with the nonmetal that is closest to the lower left corner of the periodic table, except that hydrogen is almost never written first (H 2 O is the prominent exception). Then the other nonmetal symbols are listed. Numerical subscripts are used if there is more than one of a particular atom. For example, we have already seen CH 4, the molecular formula for methane. Naming binary (two-element) covalent compounds is similar to naming simple ionic compounds. The first element in the formula is simply listed using the name of the element. The second element is named by taking the stem of the element name and adding the suffix - ide.
1,361
2,339
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11677122#4_16445642
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s07-02-covalent-compounds-formulas-an.html
Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names
4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names 4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names Learning Objectives Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Note Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
Numerical subscripts are used if there is more than one of a particular atom. For example, we have already seen CH 4, the molecular formula for methane. Naming binary (two-element) covalent compounds is similar to naming simple ionic compounds. The first element in the formula is simply listed using the name of the element. The second element is named by taking the stem of the element name and adding the suffix - ide. A system of numerical prefixes is used to specify the number of atoms in a molecule. Table 4.1 "Numerical Prefixes for Naming Binary Covalent Compounds" lists these numerical prefixes. Normally, no prefix is added to the first element’s name if there is only one atom of the first element in a molecule. If the second element is oxygen, the trailing vowel is usually omitted from the end of a polysyllabic prefix but not a monosyllabic one (that is, we would say “monoxide” rather than “monooxide” and “trioxide” rather than “troxide”). Table 4.1 Numerical Prefixes for Naming Binary Covalent Compounds Number of Atoms in Compound Prefix on the Name of the Element 1 mono-* 2 di- 3 tri- 4 tetra- 5 penta- 6 hexa- 7 hepta- 8 octa- 9 nona- 10 deca- *This prefix is not used for the first element’s name.
1,918
3,141
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11677122#5_16447531
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s07-02-covalent-compounds-formulas-an.html
Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names
4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names 4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names Learning Objectives Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Note Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
A system of numerical prefixes is used to specify the number of atoms in a molecule. Table 4.1 "Numerical Prefixes for Naming Binary Covalent Compounds" lists these numerical prefixes. Normally, no prefix is added to the first element’s name if there is only one atom of the first element in a molecule. If the second element is oxygen, the trailing vowel is usually omitted from the end of a polysyllabic prefix but not a monosyllabic one (that is, we would say “monoxide” rather than “monooxide” and “trioxide” rather than “troxide”). Table 4.1 Numerical Prefixes for Naming Binary Covalent Compounds Number of Atoms in Compound Prefix on the Name of the Element 1 mono-* 2 di- 3 tri- 4 tetra- 5 penta- 6 hexa- 7 hepta- 8 octa- 9 nona- 10 deca- *This prefix is not used for the first element’s name. Let us practice by naming the compound whose molecular formula is CCl 4. The name begins with the name of the first element—carbon. The second element, chlor ine, becomes chlor ide, and we attach the correct numerical prefix (“tetra-”) to indicate that the molecule contains four chlorine atoms. Putting these pieces together gives the name carbon tetrachloride for this compound. Example 3 Write the molecular formula for each compound.
2,340
3,579
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11677122#6_16449452
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s07-02-covalent-compounds-formulas-an.html
Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names
4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names 4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names Learning Objectives Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Note Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
Let us practice by naming the compound whose molecular formula is CCl 4. The name begins with the name of the first element—carbon. The second element, chlor ine, becomes chlor ide, and we attach the correct numerical prefix (“tetra-”) to indicate that the molecule contains four chlorine atoms. Putting these pieces together gives the name carbon tetrachloride for this compound. Example 3 Write the molecular formula for each compound. chlorine trifluoride phosphorus pentachloride sulfur dioxide dinitrogen pentoxide Solution If there is no numerical prefix on the first element’s name, we can assume that there is only one atom of that element in a molecule. ClF 3 PCl 5 SO 2 N 2 O 5 (The di - prefix on nitrogen indicates that two nitrogen atoms are present.) Skill-Building Exercise Write the molecular formula for each compound. nitrogen dioxide dioxygen difluoride sulfur hexafluoride selenium monoxide Note Because it is so unreactive, sulfur hexafluoride is used as a spark suppressant in electrical devices such as transformers. Example 4 Write the name for each compound.
3,141
4,225
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11677122#7_16451162
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s07-02-covalent-compounds-formulas-an.html
Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names
4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names 4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names Learning Objectives Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Note Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
chlorine trifluoride phosphorus pentachloride sulfur dioxide dinitrogen pentoxide Solution If there is no numerical prefix on the first element’s name, we can assume that there is only one atom of that element in a molecule. ClF 3 PCl 5 SO 2 N 2 O 5 (The di - prefix on nitrogen indicates that two nitrogen atoms are present.) Skill-Building Exercise Write the molecular formula for each compound. nitrogen dioxide dioxygen difluoride sulfur hexafluoride selenium monoxide Note Because it is so unreactive, sulfur hexafluoride is used as a spark suppressant in electrical devices such as transformers. Example 4 Write the name for each compound. BrF 5 S 2 F 2 CO Solution bromine pentafluoride disulfur difluoride carbon monoxide Skill-Building Exercise Write the name for each compound. CF 4 SeCl 2 SO 3 For some simple covalent compounds, we use common names rather than systematic names. We have already encountered these compounds, but we list them here explicitly: H 2 O: water NH 3:
3,579
4,568
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11677122#8_16452773
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s07-02-covalent-compounds-formulas-an.html
Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names
4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names 4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names Learning Objectives Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Note Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
BrF 5 S 2 F 2 CO Solution bromine pentafluoride disulfur difluoride carbon monoxide Skill-Building Exercise Write the name for each compound. CF 4 SeCl 2 SO 3 For some simple covalent compounds, we use common names rather than systematic names. We have already encountered these compounds, but we list them here explicitly: H 2 O: water NH 3: ammonia CH 4: methane Methane is the simplest organic compound A compound containing carbon atoms. . Organic compounds are compounds with carbon atoms and are named by a separate nomenclature system that we will introduce in Section 4.6 "Introduction to Organic Chemistry". Answers A covalent compound is usually composed of two or more nonmetal elements.
4,225
4,924
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11677122#9_16454080
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s07-02-covalent-compounds-formulas-an.html
Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names
4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names 4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names Learning Objectives Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Note Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
ammonia CH 4: methane Methane is the simplest organic compound A compound containing carbon atoms. . Organic compounds are compounds with carbon atoms and are named by a separate nomenclature system that we will introduce in Section 4.6 "Introduction to Organic Chemistry". Answers A covalent compound is usually composed of two or more nonmetal elements. It is just like an ionic compound except that the element further down and to the left on the periodic table is listed first and is named with the element name. Name the first element first and then the second element by using the stem of the element name plus the suffix - ide. Use numerical prefixes if there is more than one atom of the first element; always use numerical prefixes for the number of atoms of the second element. Key Takeaways The chemical formula of a simple covalent compound can be determined from its name.
4,569
5,454
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11677122#10_16455563
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s07-02-covalent-compounds-formulas-an.html
Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names
4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names 4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names Learning Objectives Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Note Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
It is just like an ionic compound except that the element further down and to the left on the periodic table is listed first and is named with the element name. Name the first element first and then the second element by using the stem of the element name plus the suffix - ide. Use numerical prefixes if there is more than one atom of the first element; always use numerical prefixes for the number of atoms of the second element. Key Takeaways The chemical formula of a simple covalent compound can be determined from its name. The name of a simple covalent compound can be determined from its chemical formula. Exercises Identify whether each compound has covalent bonds. NaI Na 2 CO 3 N 2 O SiO 2 Identify whether each compound has covalent bonds. C 2 H 6 C 6 H 5 Cl KC 2 H 3 O 2 Ca (OH) 2 Identify whether each compound has ionic bonds, covalent bonds, or both. Na 3 PO 4 K 2 O COCl 2 CoCl 2 Identify whether each compound has ionic bonds, covalent bonds, or both.
4,924
5,894
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11677122#11_16457138
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s07-02-covalent-compounds-formulas-an.html
Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names
4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names 4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names Learning Objectives Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Note Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
The name of a simple covalent compound can be determined from its chemical formula. Exercises Identify whether each compound has covalent bonds. NaI Na 2 CO 3 N 2 O SiO 2 Identify whether each compound has covalent bonds. C 2 H 6 C 6 H 5 Cl KC 2 H 3 O 2 Ca (OH) 2 Identify whether each compound has ionic bonds, covalent bonds, or both. Na 3 PO 4 K 2 O COCl 2 CoCl 2 Identify whether each compound has ionic bonds, covalent bonds, or both. FeCl 3 Fe (NO 3) 3 (NH 2) 2 CO SO 3 Which is the correct molecular formula—H 4 Si or SiH 4? Explain. Which is the correct molecular formula—SF 6 or F 6 S? Explain. Write the name for each covalent compound.
5,454
6,101
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11677122#12_16458403
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s07-02-covalent-compounds-formulas-an.html
Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names
4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names 4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names Learning Objectives Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Note Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
FeCl 3 Fe (NO 3) 3 (NH 2) 2 CO SO 3 Which is the correct molecular formula—H 4 Si or SiH 4? Explain. Which is the correct molecular formula—SF 6 or F 6 S? Explain. Write the name for each covalent compound. SiF 4 NO 2 CS 2 P 2 O 5 Write the name for each covalent compound. CO S 2 O 3 BF 3 GeS 2 Write the formula for each covalent compound. iodine trichloride disulfur dibromide arsenic trioxide xenon hexafluoride Write the formula for each covalent compound. boron trichloride carbon dioxide tetraphosphorus decoxide germanium dichloride Write two covalent compounds that have common rather than systematic names. What is the name of the simplest organic compound?
5,894
6,562
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11677122#13_16459692
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s07-02-covalent-compounds-formulas-an.html
Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names
4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names 4.2 Covalent Compounds: Formulas and Names Learning Objectives Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Note Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Key Takeaways Exercises Answers
SiF 4 NO 2 CS 2 P 2 O 5 Write the name for each covalent compound. CO S 2 O 3 BF 3 GeS 2 Write the formula for each covalent compound. iodine trichloride disulfur dibromide arsenic trioxide xenon hexafluoride Write the formula for each covalent compound. boron trichloride carbon dioxide tetraphosphorus decoxide germanium dichloride Write two covalent compounds that have common rather than systematic names. What is the name of the simplest organic compound? What would its name be if it followed the nomenclature for binary covalent compounds? Answers no yes yes yes both ionic covalent ionic SiH 4; except for water, hydrogen is almost never listed first in a covalent compound. silicon tetrafluoride nitrogen dioxide carbon disulfide diphosphorus pentoxide ICl 3 S 2 Br 2 AsO 3 XeF 6 H 2 O and NH 3 (water and ammonia) (answers will vary)
6,101
6,945
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11684857#0_16461160
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s08-01-the-law-of-conservation-of-mat.html
The Law of Conservation of Matter
5.1 The Law of Conservation of Matter 5.1 The Law of Conservation of Matter Learning Objectives Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answer
The Law of Conservation of Matter 5.1 The Law of Conservation of Matter Learning Objectives Correctly define a law as it pertains to science. State the law of conservation of matter. In science, a law A general statement that explains a large number of observations. is a general statement that explains a large number of observations. Before being accepted, a law must be verified many times under many conditions. Laws are therefore considered the highest form of scientific knowledge and are generally thought to be inviolable. Scientific laws form the core of scientific knowledge. One scientific law that provides the foundation for understanding in chemistry is the law of conservation of matter In any given system that is closed to the transfer of matter (in and out), the amount of matter in the system stays constant. . It states that in any given system that is closed to the transfer of matter (in and out), the amount of matter in the system stays constant.
0
970
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11684857#1_16462591
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s08-01-the-law-of-conservation-of-mat.html
The Law of Conservation of Matter
5.1 The Law of Conservation of Matter 5.1 The Law of Conservation of Matter Learning Objectives Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answer
Laws are therefore considered the highest form of scientific knowledge and are generally thought to be inviolable. Scientific laws form the core of scientific knowledge. One scientific law that provides the foundation for understanding in chemistry is the law of conservation of matter In any given system that is closed to the transfer of matter (in and out), the amount of matter in the system stays constant. . It states that in any given system that is closed to the transfer of matter (in and out), the amount of matter in the system stays constant. A concise way of expressing this law is to say that the amount of matter in a system is conserved. What does this mean for chemistry? In any chemical change, one or more initial substances change into a different substance or substances. Both the initial and final substances are composed of atoms because all matter is composed of atoms. According to the law of conservation of matter, matter is neither created nor destroyed, so we must have the same number and type of atoms after the chemical change as were present before the chemical change.
416
1,518
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11684857#2_16464153
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s08-01-the-law-of-conservation-of-mat.html
The Law of Conservation of Matter
5.1 The Law of Conservation of Matter 5.1 The Law of Conservation of Matter Learning Objectives Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answer
A concise way of expressing this law is to say that the amount of matter in a system is conserved. What does this mean for chemistry? In any chemical change, one or more initial substances change into a different substance or substances. Both the initial and final substances are composed of atoms because all matter is composed of atoms. According to the law of conservation of matter, matter is neither created nor destroyed, so we must have the same number and type of atoms after the chemical change as were present before the chemical change. Before looking at explicit examples of the law of conservation of matter, we need to examine the method chemists use to represent chemical changes. Answers The law of conservation of matter states that in any given system that is closed to the transfer of matter, the amount of matter in the system stays constant The law of conservation of matter says that in chemical reactions, the total mass of the products must equal the total mass of the reactants. Key Takeaway The amount of matter in a closed system is conserved. Exercises Express the law of conservation of matter in your own words. Explain why the concept of conservation of matter is considered a scientific law.
971
2,194
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11684857#3_16465839
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s08-01-the-law-of-conservation-of-mat.html
The Law of Conservation of Matter
5.1 The Law of Conservation of Matter 5.1 The Law of Conservation of Matter Learning Objectives Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answer
Before looking at explicit examples of the law of conservation of matter, we need to examine the method chemists use to represent chemical changes. Answers The law of conservation of matter states that in any given system that is closed to the transfer of matter, the amount of matter in the system stays constant The law of conservation of matter says that in chemical reactions, the total mass of the products must equal the total mass of the reactants. Key Takeaway The amount of matter in a closed system is conserved. Exercises Express the law of conservation of matter in your own words. Explain why the concept of conservation of matter is considered a scientific law. Answer Matter may not be created or destroyed.
1,518
2,241
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11687528#0_16467026
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s09-05-mole-mass-and-mass-mass-proble.html
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems
6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise Answers To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Convert from mass or moles of one substance to mass or moles of another substance in a chemical reaction. We have established that a balanced chemical equation is balanced in terms of moles as well as atoms or molecules. We have used balanced equations to set up ratios, now in terms of moles of materials, that we can use as conversion factors to answer stoichiometric questions, such as how many moles of substance A react with so many moles of reactant B. We can extend this technique even further. Recall that we can relate a molar amount to a mass amount using molar mass. We can use that ability to answer stoichiometry questions in terms of the masses of a particular substance, in addition to moles. We do this using the following sequence: Collectively, these conversions are called mole-mass calculations A stoichiometry calculation converting between masses and moles of different substances in a chemical reaction. . As an example, consider the balanced chemical equation Fe2O3 + 3SO3 → Fe2(SO4)3 If we have 3.59 mol of Fe 2 O 3, how many grams of SO 3 can react with it? Using the mole-mass calculation sequence, we can determine the required mass of SO 3 in two steps.
0
1,271
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11687528#1_16468874
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s09-05-mole-mass-and-mass-mass-proble.html
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems
6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise Answers To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
We do this using the following sequence: Collectively, these conversions are called mole-mass calculations A stoichiometry calculation converting between masses and moles of different substances in a chemical reaction. . As an example, consider the balanced chemical equation Fe2O3 + 3SO3 → Fe2(SO4)3 If we have 3.59 mol of Fe 2 O 3, how many grams of SO 3 can react with it? Using the mole-mass calculation sequence, we can determine the required mass of SO 3 in two steps. First, we construct the appropriate molar ratio, determined from the balanced chemical equation, to calculate the number of moles of SO 3 needed. Then using the molar mass of SO 3 as a conversion factor, we determine the mass that this number of moles of SO 3 has. The first step resembles the exercises we did in Section 6.4 "Mole-Mole Relationships in Chemical Reactions". As usual, we start with the quantity we were given: 3.59 mol Fe 2 O 3 × 3 mol SO 3 1 mol Fe 2 O 3 = 10.77 mol SO 3 The mol Fe 2 O 3 units cancel, leaving mol SO 3 unit.
797
1,815
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11687528#2_16470476
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s09-05-mole-mass-and-mass-mass-proble.html
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems
6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise Answers To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
First, we construct the appropriate molar ratio, determined from the balanced chemical equation, to calculate the number of moles of SO 3 needed. Then using the molar mass of SO 3 as a conversion factor, we determine the mass that this number of moles of SO 3 has. The first step resembles the exercises we did in Section 6.4 "Mole-Mole Relationships in Chemical Reactions". As usual, we start with the quantity we were given: 3.59 mol Fe 2 O 3 × 3 mol SO 3 1 mol Fe 2 O 3 = 10.77 mol SO 3 The mol Fe 2 O 3 units cancel, leaving mol SO 3 unit. Now, we take this answer and convert it to grams of SO 3, using the molar mass of SO 3 as the conversion factor: 10.77 mol SO 3 × 80 .06 g SO 3 1 mol SO 3 = 862 g SO 3 Our final answer is expressed to three significant figures. Thus, in a two-step process, we find that 862 g of SO 3 will react with 3.59 mol of Fe 2 O 3. Many problems of this type can be answered in this manner. The same two-step problem can also be worked out in a single line, rather than as two separate steps, as follows:
1,272
2,310
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11687528#3_16472097
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s09-05-mole-mass-and-mass-mass-proble.html
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems
6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise Answers To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Now, we take this answer and convert it to grams of SO 3, using the molar mass of SO 3 as the conversion factor: 10.77 mol SO 3 × 80 .06 g SO 3 1 mol SO 3 = 862 g SO 3 Our final answer is expressed to three significant figures. Thus, in a two-step process, we find that 862 g of SO 3 will react with 3.59 mol of Fe 2 O 3. Many problems of this type can be answered in this manner. The same two-step problem can also be worked out in a single line, rather than as two separate steps, as follows: We get exactly the same answer when combining all the math steps together as we do when we calculate one step at a time. Example 8 How many grams of CO 2 are produced if 2.09 mol of HCl are reacted according to this balanced chemical equation? CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O Solution Our strategy will be to convert from moles of HCl to moles of CO 2 and then from moles of CO 2 to grams of CO 2. We will need the molar mass of CO 2, which is 44.01 g/mol. Performing these two conversions in a single-line gives 46.0 g of CO 2:
1,816
2,840
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11687528#4_16473704
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s09-05-mole-mass-and-mass-mass-proble.html
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems
6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise Answers To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
We get exactly the same answer when combining all the math steps together as we do when we calculate one step at a time. Example 8 How many grams of CO 2 are produced if 2.09 mol of HCl are reacted according to this balanced chemical equation? CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O Solution Our strategy will be to convert from moles of HCl to moles of CO 2 and then from moles of CO 2 to grams of CO 2. We will need the molar mass of CO 2, which is 44.01 g/mol. Performing these two conversions in a single-line gives 46.0 g of CO 2: The molar ratio between CO 2 and HCl comes from the balanced chemical equation. Skill-Building Exercise How many grams of glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6) are produced if 17.3 mol of H 2 O are reacted according to this balanced chemical equation? 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 It is a small step from mole-mass calculations to mass-mass calculations A stoichiometry calculation converting between the mass of one substance and the mass of a different substance in a chemical reaction. . If we start with a known mass of one substance in a chemical reaction (instead of a known number of moles), we can calculate the corresponding masses of other substances in the reaction.
2,310
3,502
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11687528#5_16475480
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s09-05-mole-mass-and-mass-mass-proble.html
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems
6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise Answers To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
The molar ratio between CO 2 and HCl comes from the balanced chemical equation. Skill-Building Exercise How many grams of glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6) are produced if 17.3 mol of H 2 O are reacted according to this balanced chemical equation? 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 It is a small step from mole-mass calculations to mass-mass calculations A stoichiometry calculation converting between the mass of one substance and the mass of a different substance in a chemical reaction. . If we start with a known mass of one substance in a chemical reaction (instead of a known number of moles), we can calculate the corresponding masses of other substances in the reaction. The first step in this case is to convert the known mass into moles, using the substance’s molar mass as the conversion factor. Then—and only then—we use the balanced chemical equation to construct a conversion factor to convert that quantity to moles of another substance, which in turn can be converted to a corresponding mass. Sequentially, the process is as follows: This three-part process can be carried out in three discrete steps or combined into a single calculation that contains three conversion factors. The following example illustrates both techniques.
2,840
4,069
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11687528#6_16477300
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s09-05-mole-mass-and-mass-mass-proble.html
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems
6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise Answers To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
The first step in this case is to convert the known mass into moles, using the substance’s molar mass as the conversion factor. Then—and only then—we use the balanced chemical equation to construct a conversion factor to convert that quantity to moles of another substance, which in turn can be converted to a corresponding mass. Sequentially, the process is as follows: This three-part process can be carried out in three discrete steps or combined into a single calculation that contains three conversion factors. The following example illustrates both techniques. Example 9 Methane can react with elemental chlorine to make carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4 ). The balanced chemical equation is as follows: CH4 + 4Cl2 → CCl4 + 4HCl How many grams of HCl are produced by the reaction of 100.0 g of CH 4? Solution First, let us work the problem in stepwise fashion. We begin by converting the mass of CH 4 to moles of CH 4, using the molar mass of CH 4 (16.05 g/mol) as the conversion factor:
3,503
4,490
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11687528#7_16478879
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s09-05-mole-mass-and-mass-mass-proble.html
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems
6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise Answers To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Example 9 Methane can react with elemental chlorine to make carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4 ). The balanced chemical equation is as follows: CH4 + 4Cl2 → CCl4 + 4HCl How many grams of HCl are produced by the reaction of 100.0 g of CH 4? Solution First, let us work the problem in stepwise fashion. We begin by converting the mass of CH 4 to moles of CH 4, using the molar mass of CH 4 (16.05 g/mol) as the conversion factor: 100.0 g CH 4 × 1 mol CH 4 16.05 g CH 4 = 6.231 mol CH 4 Note that we inverted the molar mass so that the gram units cancel, giving us an answer in moles. Next, we use the balanced chemical equation to determine the ratio of moles CH 4 and moles HCl and convert our first result into moles of HCl: 6.231 mol CH 4 × 4 mol HCl 1 mol CH 4 = 24.92 mol HCl Finally, we use the molar mass of HCl (36.46 g/mol) as a conversion factor to calculate the mass of 24.92 mol of HCl: 24.92 mol HCl × 36 .46 g HCl 1 mol HCl = 908.5 g HCl In each step, we have limited the answer to the proper number of significant figures. If desired, we can do all three conversions on a single line:
4,069
5,160
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11687528#8_16480564
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s09-05-mole-mass-and-mass-mass-proble.html
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems
6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise Answers To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
100.0 g CH 4 × 1 mol CH 4 16.05 g CH 4 = 6.231 mol CH 4 Note that we inverted the molar mass so that the gram units cancel, giving us an answer in moles. Next, we use the balanced chemical equation to determine the ratio of moles CH 4 and moles HCl and convert our first result into moles of HCl: 6.231 mol CH 4 × 4 mol HCl 1 mol CH 4 = 24.92 mol HCl Finally, we use the molar mass of HCl (36.46 g/mol) as a conversion factor to calculate the mass of 24.92 mol of HCl: 24.92 mol HCl × 36 .46 g HCl 1 mol HCl = 908.5 g HCl In each step, we have limited the answer to the proper number of significant figures. If desired, we can do all three conversions on a single line: 100.0 g CH 4 × 1 mol CH 4 16.05 g CH 4 × 4 mol HCl 1 mol CH 4 × 36 .46 g HCl 1 mol HCl = 908.7 g HCl This final answer is slightly different from our first answer because only the final answer is restricted to the proper number of significant figures. In the first answer, we limited each intermediate quantity to the proper number of significant figures. As you can see, both answers are essentially the same. Skill-Building Exercise The oxidation of propanal (CH 3 CH 2 CHO) to propionic acid (CH 3 CH 2 COOH) has the following chemical equation: CH3CH2CHO + 2K2Cr2O7 → CH3CH2COOH + other products How many grams of propionic acid are produced by the reaction of 135.8 g of K 2 Cr 2 O 7?
4,490
5,850
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11687528#9_16482533
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s09-05-mole-mass-and-mass-mass-proble.html
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems
6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise Answers To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
100.0 g CH 4 × 1 mol CH 4 16.05 g CH 4 × 4 mol HCl 1 mol CH 4 × 36 .46 g HCl 1 mol HCl = 908.7 g HCl This final answer is slightly different from our first answer because only the final answer is restricted to the proper number of significant figures. In the first answer, we limited each intermediate quantity to the proper number of significant figures. As you can see, both answers are essentially the same. Skill-Building Exercise The oxidation of propanal (CH 3 CH 2 CHO) to propionic acid (CH 3 CH 2 COOH) has the following chemical equation: CH3CH2CHO + 2K2Cr2O7 → CH3CH2COOH + other products How many grams of propionic acid are produced by the reaction of 135.8 g of K 2 Cr 2 O 7? Answers mol first substance → mol second substance → mass second substance mass first substance → mol first substance → mol second substance → mass second substance To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Taxol is a powerful anticancer drug that was originally extracted from the Pacific yew tree ( Taxus brevifolia ). As you can see from the accompanying figure, taxol is a very complicated molecule, with a molecular formula of C 47 H 51 NO 14. Isolating taxol from its natural source presents certain challenges, mainly that the Pacific yew is a slow-growing tree, and the equivalent of six trees must be harvested to provide enough taxol to treat a single patient. Although related species of yew trees also produce taxol in small amounts, there is significant interest in synthesizing this complex molecule in the laboratory.
5,160
6,680
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11687528#10_16484673
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s09-05-mole-mass-and-mass-mass-proble.html
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems
6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise Answers To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Answers mol first substance → mol second substance → mass second substance mass first substance → mol first substance → mol second substance → mass second substance To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Taxol is a powerful anticancer drug that was originally extracted from the Pacific yew tree ( Taxus brevifolia ). As you can see from the accompanying figure, taxol is a very complicated molecule, with a molecular formula of C 47 H 51 NO 14. Isolating taxol from its natural source presents certain challenges, mainly that the Pacific yew is a slow-growing tree, and the equivalent of six trees must be harvested to provide enough taxol to treat a single patient. Although related species of yew trees also produce taxol in small amounts, there is significant interest in synthesizing this complex molecule in the laboratory. After a 20-year effort, two research groups announced the complete laboratory synthesis of taxol in 1994. However, each synthesis required over 30 separate chemical reactions, with an overall efficiency of less than 0.05%. To put this in perspective, to obtain a single 300 mg dose of taxol, you would have to begin with 600 g of starting material. To treat the 26,000 women who are diagnosed with ovarian cancer each year with one dose, almost 16,000 kg (over 17 tons) of starting material must be converted to taxol. Taxol is also used to treat breast cancer, with which 200,000 women in the United States are diagnosed every year.
5,850
7,314
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11687528#11_16486735
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s09-05-mole-mass-and-mass-mass-proble.html
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems
6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise Answers To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
After a 20-year effort, two research groups announced the complete laboratory synthesis of taxol in 1994. However, each synthesis required over 30 separate chemical reactions, with an overall efficiency of less than 0.05%. To put this in perspective, to obtain a single 300 mg dose of taxol, you would have to begin with 600 g of starting material. To treat the 26,000 women who are diagnosed with ovarian cancer each year with one dose, almost 16,000 kg (over 17 tons) of starting material must be converted to taxol. Taxol is also used to treat breast cancer, with which 200,000 women in the United States are diagnosed every year. This only increases the amount of starting material needed. Clearly, there is intense interest in increasing the overall efficiency of the taxol synthesis. An improved synthesis not only will be easier but also will produce less waste materials, which will allow more people to take advantage of this potentially life-saving drug. Figure 6.4 The Structure of the Cancer Drug Taxol Because of the complexity of the molecule, hydrogen atoms are not shown, but they are present on every atom to give the atom the correct number of covalent bonds (four bonds for each carbon atom). Key Takeaway A balanced chemical equation can be used to relate masses or moles of different substances in a reaction.
6,680
8,011
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11687528#12_16488637
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s09-05-mole-mass-and-mass-mass-proble.html
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems
6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise Answers To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
This only increases the amount of starting material needed. Clearly, there is intense interest in increasing the overall efficiency of the taxol synthesis. An improved synthesis not only will be easier but also will produce less waste materials, which will allow more people to take advantage of this potentially life-saving drug. Figure 6.4 The Structure of the Cancer Drug Taxol Because of the complexity of the molecule, hydrogen atoms are not shown, but they are present on every atom to give the atom the correct number of covalent bonds (four bonds for each carbon atom). Key Takeaway A balanced chemical equation can be used to relate masses or moles of different substances in a reaction. Exercises Given the following unbalanced chemical equation, H3PO4 + NaOH → H2O + Na3PO4 what mass of H 2 O is produced by the reaction of 2.35 mol of H 3 PO 4? Given the following unbalanced chemical equation, C2H6 + Br2 → C2H4Br2 + HBr what mass of HBr is produced if 0.884 mol of C 2 H 6 is reacted? Certain fats are used to make soap, the first step being to react the fat with water to make glycerol (also known as glycerin) and compounds called fatty acids. One example is as follows: C 3 H 5 (OOC (CH 2) 14 CH 3) 3 a fat + 3H 2 O → C 3 H 5 (OH) 3 glycerol + 3CH 3 (CH 2) 14 COOH fatty acid How many moles of glycerol can be made from the reaction of 1,000.0 g of C 3 H 5 (OOC (CH 2) 14 CH 3) 3?
7,315
8,712
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11687528#13_16490627
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s09-05-mole-mass-and-mass-mass-proble.html
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems
6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise Answers To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Exercises Given the following unbalanced chemical equation, H3PO4 + NaOH → H2O + Na3PO4 what mass of H 2 O is produced by the reaction of 2.35 mol of H 3 PO 4? Given the following unbalanced chemical equation, C2H6 + Br2 → C2H4Br2 + HBr what mass of HBr is produced if 0.884 mol of C 2 H 6 is reacted? Certain fats are used to make soap, the first step being to react the fat with water to make glycerol (also known as glycerin) and compounds called fatty acids. One example is as follows: C 3 H 5 (OOC (CH 2) 14 CH 3) 3 a fat + 3H 2 O → C 3 H 5 (OH) 3 glycerol + 3CH 3 (CH 2) 14 COOH fatty acid How many moles of glycerol can be made from the reaction of 1,000.0 g of C 3 H 5 (OOC (CH 2) 14 CH 3) 3? Photosynthesis in plants leads to the general overall reaction for producing glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ): 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 How many moles of glucose can be made from the reaction of 544 g of CO 2? Precipitation reactions, in which a solid (called a precipitate) is a product, are commonly used to remove certain ions from solution. One such reaction is as follows: Ba (NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) How many grams of Na 2 SO 4 are needed to precipitate all the barium ions produced by 43.9 g of Ba (NO 3) 2? Nitroglycerin [C 3 H 5 (ONO 2) 3] is made by reacting nitric acid (HNO 3) with glycerol [C 3 H 5 (OH) 3] according to this reaction:
8,011
9,377
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11687528#14_16492596
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s09-05-mole-mass-and-mass-mass-proble.html
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems
6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise Answers To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Photosynthesis in plants leads to the general overall reaction for producing glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ): 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 How many moles of glucose can be made from the reaction of 544 g of CO 2? Precipitation reactions, in which a solid (called a precipitate) is a product, are commonly used to remove certain ions from solution. One such reaction is as follows: Ba (NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) How many grams of Na 2 SO 4 are needed to precipitate all the barium ions produced by 43.9 g of Ba (NO 3) 2? Nitroglycerin [C 3 H 5 (ONO 2) 3] is made by reacting nitric acid (HNO 3) with glycerol [C 3 H 5 (OH) 3] according to this reaction: C3H5(OH)3 + 3HNO3 → C3H5(ONO2)3 + 3H2O If 87.4 g of HNO 3 are reacted with excess glycerol, what mass of nitroglycerin can be made? Antacids are bases that neutralize acids in the digestive tract. Magnesium hydroxide [Mg (OH) 2] is one such antacid. It reacts with hydrochloric acid in the stomach according to the following reaction: Mg (OH)2 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + 2H2O How many grams of HCl can a 200 mg dose of Mg (OH) 2 neutralize?
8,712
9,808
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11687528#15_16494286
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s09-05-mole-mass-and-mass-mass-proble.html
Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems
6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems 6.5 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Problems Learning Objective Example 8 Skill-Building Exercise Example 9 Skill-Building Exercise Answers To Your Health: The Synthesis of Taxol Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
C3H5(OH)3 + 3HNO3 → C3H5(ONO2)3 + 3H2O If 87.4 g of HNO 3 are reacted with excess glycerol, what mass of nitroglycerin can be made? Antacids are bases that neutralize acids in the digestive tract. Magnesium hydroxide [Mg (OH) 2] is one such antacid. It reacts with hydrochloric acid in the stomach according to the following reaction: Mg (OH)2 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + 2H2O How many grams of HCl can a 200 mg dose of Mg (OH) 2 neutralize? Acid rain is caused by the reaction of nonmetal oxides with water in the atmosphere. One such reaction involves nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) and produces nitric acid (HNO 3 ): 3NO2 + H2O → 2HNO3 +
9,377
10,000
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11698890#0_16495497
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s11-02-solids-and-liquids.html
Solids and Liquids
8.2 Solids and Liquids 8.2 Solids and Liquids Learning Objective Solids Liquids Gases Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answer Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Solids and Liquids 8.2 Solids and Liquids Learning Objective Describe the solid and liquid phases. Solids and liquids are collectively called condensed phases because their particles are in virtual contact. The two states share little else, however. Solids In the solid state, the individual particles of a substance are in fixed positions with respect to each other because there is not enough thermal energy to overcome the intermolecular interactions between the particles. As a result, solids have a definite shape and volume. Most solids are hard, but some (like waxes) are relatively soft. Many solids composed of ions can also be quite brittle. Figure 8.7 Crystalline Arrangement Some large crystals look the way they do because of the regular arrangement of atoms (ions) in their crystal structure. © Thinkstock Solids usually have their constituent particles arranged in a regular, three-dimensional array of alternating positive and negative ions called a crystal A regular, three-dimensional array of alternating positive and negative ions. .
0
1,053
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11698890#1_16497071
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s11-02-solids-and-liquids.html
Solids and Liquids
8.2 Solids and Liquids 8.2 Solids and Liquids Learning Objective Solids Liquids Gases Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answer Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Most solids are hard, but some (like waxes) are relatively soft. Many solids composed of ions can also be quite brittle. Figure 8.7 Crystalline Arrangement Some large crystals look the way they do because of the regular arrangement of atoms (ions) in their crystal structure. © Thinkstock Solids usually have their constituent particles arranged in a regular, three-dimensional array of alternating positive and negative ions called a crystal A regular, three-dimensional array of alternating positive and negative ions. . The effect of this regular arrangement of particles is sometimes visible macroscopically, as shown in Figure 8.7 "Crystalline Arrangement". Some solids, especially those composed of large molecules, cannot easily organize their particles in such regular crystals and exist as amorphous A solid with no regular structure. (literally, “without form”) solids. Glass is one example of an amorphous solid. Liquids If the particles of a substance have enough energy to partially overcome intermolecular interactions, then the particles can move about each other while remaining in contact.
531
1,637
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11698890#2_16498710
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s11-02-solids-and-liquids.html
Solids and Liquids
8.2 Solids and Liquids 8.2 Solids and Liquids Learning Objective Solids Liquids Gases Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answer Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
The effect of this regular arrangement of particles is sometimes visible macroscopically, as shown in Figure 8.7 "Crystalline Arrangement". Some solids, especially those composed of large molecules, cannot easily organize their particles in such regular crystals and exist as amorphous A solid with no regular structure. (literally, “without form”) solids. Glass is one example of an amorphous solid. Liquids If the particles of a substance have enough energy to partially overcome intermolecular interactions, then the particles can move about each other while remaining in contact. This describes the liquid state. In a liquid, the particles are still in close contact, so liquids have a definite volume. However, because the particles can move about each other rather freely, a liquid has no definite shape and takes a shape dictated by its container. Gases If the particles of a substance have enough energy to completely overcome intermolecular interactions, then the particles can separate from each other and move about randomly in space. This describes the gas state, which we will consider further in Section 8.3 "Gases and Pressure".
1,054
2,197
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11698890#3_16500382
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s11-02-solids-and-liquids.html
Solids and Liquids
8.2 Solids and Liquids 8.2 Solids and Liquids Learning Objective Solids Liquids Gases Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answer Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
This describes the liquid state. In a liquid, the particles are still in close contact, so liquids have a definite volume. However, because the particles can move about each other rather freely, a liquid has no definite shape and takes a shape dictated by its container. Gases If the particles of a substance have enough energy to completely overcome intermolecular interactions, then the particles can separate from each other and move about randomly in space. This describes the gas state, which we will consider further in Section 8.3 "Gases and Pressure". Like liquids, gases have no definite shape, but unlike solids and liquids, gases have no definite volume either. The change from solid to liquid usually does not significantly change the volume of a substance. However, the change from a liquid to a gas significantly increases the volume of a substance, by a factor of 1,000 or more. Figure 8.8 "A Representation of the Solid, Liquid, and Gas States" shows the differences among solids, liquids, and gases at the molecular level, while Table 8.2 "Characteristics of the Three States of Matter" lists the different characteristics of these states. Figure 8.8 A Representation of the Solid, Liquid, and Gas States A solid has definite volume and shape, a liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape, and a gas has neither a definite volume nor shape.
1,638
3,003
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11698890#4_16502267
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s11-02-solids-and-liquids.html
Solids and Liquids
8.2 Solids and Liquids 8.2 Solids and Liquids Learning Objective Solids Liquids Gases Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answer Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Like liquids, gases have no definite shape, but unlike solids and liquids, gases have no definite volume either. The change from solid to liquid usually does not significantly change the volume of a substance. However, the change from a liquid to a gas significantly increases the volume of a substance, by a factor of 1,000 or more. Figure 8.8 "A Representation of the Solid, Liquid, and Gas States" shows the differences among solids, liquids, and gases at the molecular level, while Table 8.2 "Characteristics of the Three States of Matter" lists the different characteristics of these states. Figure 8.8 A Representation of the Solid, Liquid, and Gas States A solid has definite volume and shape, a liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape, and a gas has neither a definite volume nor shape. Table 8.2 Characteristics of the Three States of Matter Characteristic Solid Liquid Gas shape definite indefinite indefinite volume definite definite indefinite relative intermolecular interaction strength strong moderate weak relative particle positions in contact and fixed in place in contact but not fixed not in contact, random positions Example 2 What state or states of matter does each statement, describe? This state has a definite volume. This state has no definite shape. This state allows the individual particles to move about while remaining in contact. Solution This statement describes either the liquid state or the solid state.
2,198
3,649
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11698890#5_16504258
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s11-02-solids-and-liquids.html
Solids and Liquids
8.2 Solids and Liquids 8.2 Solids and Liquids Learning Objective Solids Liquids Gases Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answer Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Table 8.2 Characteristics of the Three States of Matter Characteristic Solid Liquid Gas shape definite indefinite indefinite volume definite definite indefinite relative intermolecular interaction strength strong moderate weak relative particle positions in contact and fixed in place in contact but not fixed not in contact, random positions Example 2 What state or states of matter does each statement, describe? This state has a definite volume. This state has no definite shape. This state allows the individual particles to move about while remaining in contact. Solution This statement describes either the liquid state or the solid state. This statement describes either the liquid state or the gas state. This statement describes the liquid state. Skill-Building Exercise What state or states of matter does each statement describe? This state has individual particles in a fixed position with regard to each other. This state has individual particles far apart from each other in space.
3,003
3,999
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11698890#6_16505789
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s11-02-solids-and-liquids.html
Solids and Liquids
8.2 Solids and Liquids 8.2 Solids and Liquids Learning Objective Solids Liquids Gases Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answer Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
This statement describes either the liquid state or the gas state. This statement describes the liquid state. Skill-Building Exercise What state or states of matter does each statement describe? This state has individual particles in a fixed position with regard to each other. This state has individual particles far apart from each other in space. This state has a definite shape. Answer Solids have stronger intermolecular interactions than liquids do. Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid Earth is the only known body in our solar system that has liquid water existing freely on its surface. That is a good thing because life on Earth would not be possible without the presence of liquid water.
3,649
4,360
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11698890#7_16507014
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s11-02-solids-and-liquids.html
Solids and Liquids
8.2 Solids and Liquids 8.2 Solids and Liquids Learning Objective Solids Liquids Gases Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answer Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
This state has a definite shape. Answer Solids have stronger intermolecular interactions than liquids do. Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid Earth is the only known body in our solar system that has liquid water existing freely on its surface. That is a good thing because life on Earth would not be possible without the presence of liquid water. Water has several properties that make it a unique substance among substances. It is an excellent solvent; it dissolves many other substances and allows those substances to react when in solution. In fact, water is sometimes called the universal solvent because of this ability. Water has unusually high melting and boiling points (0°C and 100°C, respectively) for such a small molecule.
3,999
4,748
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11698890#8_16508286
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s11-02-solids-and-liquids.html
Solids and Liquids
8.2 Solids and Liquids 8.2 Solids and Liquids Learning Objective Solids Liquids Gases Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answer Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Water has several properties that make it a unique substance among substances. It is an excellent solvent; it dissolves many other substances and allows those substances to react when in solution. In fact, water is sometimes called the universal solvent because of this ability. Water has unusually high melting and boiling points (0°C and 100°C, respectively) for such a small molecule. The boiling points for similar-sized molecules, such as methane (BP = −162°C) and ammonia (BP = −33°C), are more than 100° lower. Though a liquid at normal temperatures, water molecules experience a relatively strong intermolecular interaction that allows them to maintain the liquid phase at higher temperatures than expected. Unlike most substances, the solid form of water is less dense than its liquid form, which allows ice to float on water. In colder weather, lakes and rivers freeze from the top, allowing animals and plants to continue to live underneath. Water also requires an unusually large amount of energy to change temperature.
4,360
5,392
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11698890#9_16509864
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s11-02-solids-and-liquids.html
Solids and Liquids
8.2 Solids and Liquids 8.2 Solids and Liquids Learning Objective Solids Liquids Gases Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answer Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
The boiling points for similar-sized molecules, such as methane (BP = −162°C) and ammonia (BP = −33°C), are more than 100° lower. Though a liquid at normal temperatures, water molecules experience a relatively strong intermolecular interaction that allows them to maintain the liquid phase at higher temperatures than expected. Unlike most substances, the solid form of water is less dense than its liquid form, which allows ice to float on water. In colder weather, lakes and rivers freeze from the top, allowing animals and plants to continue to live underneath. Water also requires an unusually large amount of energy to change temperature. While 100 J of energy will change the temperature of 1 g of Fe by 230°C, this same amount of energy will change the temperature of 1 g of H 2 O by only 100°C. Thus, water changes its temperature slowly as heat is added or removed. This has a major impact on weather, as storm systems like hurricanes can be impacted by the amount of heat that ocean water can store. Water’s influence on the world around us is affected by these properties. Isn’t it fascinating that such a small molecule can have such a big impact?
4,749
5,908
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11698890#10_16511580
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s11-02-solids-and-liquids.html
Solids and Liquids
8.2 Solids and Liquids 8.2 Solids and Liquids Learning Objective Solids Liquids Gases Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answer Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
While 100 J of energy will change the temperature of 1 g of Fe by 230°C, this same amount of energy will change the temperature of 1 g of H 2 O by only 100°C. Thus, water changes its temperature slowly as heat is added or removed. This has a major impact on weather, as storm systems like hurricanes can be impacted by the amount of heat that ocean water can store. Water’s influence on the world around us is affected by these properties. Isn’t it fascinating that such a small molecule can have such a big impact? Key Takeaway Solids and liquids are phases that have their own unique properties. Exercises What are the general properties of solids? What are the general properties of liquids What are the general properties of gases? What phase or phases have a definite volume? What phase or phases do not have a definite volume?
5,393
6,225
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11698890#11_16512948
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s11-02-solids-and-liquids.html
Solids and Liquids
8.2 Solids and Liquids 8.2 Solids and Liquids Learning Objective Solids Liquids Gases Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answer Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Key Takeaway Solids and liquids are phases that have their own unique properties. Exercises What are the general properties of solids? What are the general properties of liquids What are the general properties of gases? What phase or phases have a definite volume? What phase or phases do not have a definite volume? Name a common substance that forms a crystal in its solid state. Name a common substance that forms an amorphous solid in its solid state. Are substances with strong intermolecular interactions likely to be solids at higher or lower temperatures? Explain. Are substances with weak intermolecular interactions likely to be liquids at higher or lower temperatures?
5,908
6,588
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11698890#12_16514143
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s11-02-solids-and-liquids.html
Solids and Liquids
8.2 Solids and Liquids 8.2 Solids and Liquids Learning Objective Solids Liquids Gases Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answer Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Name a common substance that forms a crystal in its solid state. Name a common substance that forms an amorphous solid in its solid state. Are substances with strong intermolecular interactions likely to be solids at higher or lower temperatures? Explain. Are substances with weak intermolecular interactions likely to be liquids at higher or lower temperatures? Explain. State two similarities between the solid and liquid states. State two differences between the solid and liquid states. If individual particles are moving around with respect to each other, a substance may be in either the _______ or ________ state but probably not in the _______ state. If individual particles are in contact with each other, a substance may be in either the ______ or _______ state but probably not in the ______ state.
6,225
7,035
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11698890#13_16515465
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s11-02-solids-and-liquids.html
Solids and Liquids
8.2 Solids and Liquids 8.2 Solids and Liquids Learning Objective Solids Liquids Gases Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answer Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Explain. State two similarities between the solid and liquid states. State two differences between the solid and liquid states. If individual particles are moving around with respect to each other, a substance may be in either the _______ or ________ state but probably not in the _______ state. If individual particles are in contact with each other, a substance may be in either the ______ or _______ state but probably not in the ______ state. Answers hard, specific volume and shape, high density, cannot be compressed variable volume and shape, low density, compressible sodium chloride (answers will vary) At higher temperatures, their intermolecular interactions are strong enough to hold the particles in place. high density; definite volume
6,589
7,338
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#0_16516731
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Recognize a compound as an Arrhenius acid or an Arrhenius base. One way to define a class of compounds is by describing the various characteristics its members have in common. In the case of the compounds known as acids, the common characteristics include a sour taste, the ability to change the color of the vegetable dye litmus to red, and the ability to dissolve certain metals and simultaneously produce hydrogen gas. For the compounds called bases, the common characteristics are a slippery texture, a bitter taste, and the ability to change the color of litmus to blue. Acids and bases also react with each other to form compounds generally known as salts. Note Although we include their tastes among the common characteristics of acids and bases, we never advocate tasting an unknown chemical! Chemists prefer, however, to have definitions for acids and bases in chemical terms. The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius developed the first chemical definitions of acids and bases in the late 1800s. Arrhenius defined an acid A compound that increases the concentration of hydrogen ion (H +) in aqueous solution. as a compound that increases the concentration of hydrogen ion (H +) in aqueous solution.
0
1,308
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#1_16518611
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Note Although we include their tastes among the common characteristics of acids and bases, we never advocate tasting an unknown chemical! Chemists prefer, however, to have definitions for acids and bases in chemical terms. The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius developed the first chemical definitions of acids and bases in the late 1800s. Arrhenius defined an acid A compound that increases the concentration of hydrogen ion (H +) in aqueous solution. as a compound that increases the concentration of hydrogen ion (H +) in aqueous solution. Many acids are simple compounds that release a hydrogen cation into solution when they dissolve. Similarly, Arrhenius defined a base A compound that increases the concentration of hydroxide ion (OH −) in aqueous solution. as a compound that increases the concentration of hydroxide ion (OH −) in aqueous solution. Many bases are ionic compounds that have the hydroxide ion as their anion, which is released when the base dissolves in water. Many bases and their aqueous solutions are named using the normal rules of ionic compounds that were presented in Chapter 3 "Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds", Section 3.4 "Ionic Nomenclature";
766
1,951
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#2_16520381
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Many acids are simple compounds that release a hydrogen cation into solution when they dissolve. Similarly, Arrhenius defined a base A compound that increases the concentration of hydroxide ion (OH −) in aqueous solution. as a compound that increases the concentration of hydroxide ion (OH −) in aqueous solution. Many bases are ionic compounds that have the hydroxide ion as their anion, which is released when the base dissolves in water. Many bases and their aqueous solutions are named using the normal rules of ionic compounds that were presented in Chapter 3 "Ionic Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds", Section 3.4 "Ionic Nomenclature"; that is, they are named as hydroxide compounds. For example, the base sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is both an ionic compound and an aqueous solution. However, aqueous solutions of acids have their own naming rules. The names of binary acids (compounds with hydrogen and one other element in their formula) are based on the root of the name of the other element preceded by the prefix hydro - and followed by the suffix - ic acid. Thus, an aqueous solution of HCl [designated “HCl (aq)”] is called hydrochloric acid, H 2 S (aq) is called hydrosulfuric acid, and so forth.
1,309
2,517
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#3_16522184
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
that is, they are named as hydroxide compounds. For example, the base sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is both an ionic compound and an aqueous solution. However, aqueous solutions of acids have their own naming rules. The names of binary acids (compounds with hydrogen and one other element in their formula) are based on the root of the name of the other element preceded by the prefix hydro - and followed by the suffix - ic acid. Thus, an aqueous solution of HCl [designated “HCl (aq)”] is called hydrochloric acid, H 2 S (aq) is called hydrosulfuric acid, and so forth. Acids composed of more than two elements (typically hydrogen and oxygen and some other element) have names based on the name of the other element, followed by the suffix - ic acid or -ous acid, depending on the number of oxygen atoms in the acid’s formula. Other prefixes, like per- and hypo-, also appear in the names for some acids. Unfortunately, there is no strict rule for the number of oxygen atoms that are associated with the - ic acid suffix; the names of these acids are best memorized. Table 10.1 "Formulas and Names for Some Acids and Bases" lists some acids and bases and their names.
1,952
3,115
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#4_16523934
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Acids composed of more than two elements (typically hydrogen and oxygen and some other element) have names based on the name of the other element, followed by the suffix - ic acid or -ous acid, depending on the number of oxygen atoms in the acid’s formula. Other prefixes, like per- and hypo-, also appear in the names for some acids. Unfortunately, there is no strict rule for the number of oxygen atoms that are associated with the - ic acid suffix; the names of these acids are best memorized. Table 10.1 "Formulas and Names for Some Acids and Bases" lists some acids and bases and their names. Note that acids have hydrogen written first, as if it were the cation, while most bases have the negative hydroxide ion, if it appears in the formula, written last. Note The name oxygen comes from the Latin meaning “acid producer” because its discoverer, Antoine Lavoisier, thought it was the essential element in acids. Lavoisier was wrong, but it is too late to change the name now. Table 10.1 Formulas and Names for Some Acids and Bases Formula Name Acids HCl (aq) hydrochloric acid HBr (aq) hydrobromic acid HI (aq) hydriodic acid H 2 S (aq) hydrosulfuric acid HC 2 H 3 O 2 (aq) acetic acid HNO 3 (aq) nitric acid HNO 2 (aq) nitrous acid H 2 SO 4 (aq) sulfuric acid H 2 SO 3 (aq) sulfurous acid HClO 3 (aq) chloric acid HClO 4 (aq) perchloric acid HClO 2 (aq) chlorous acid H 3 PO 4 (aq) phosphoric acid H 3 PO 3 (aq) phosphorous acid Bases NaOH (aq) sodium hydroxide KOH (aq) potassium hydroxide Mg (OH) 2 (aq) magnesium hydroxide Ca (OH) 2 (aq) calcium hydroxide NH 3 (aq) ammonia Example 1 Name each substance. HF (aq) Sr (OH) 2 (aq) Solution This acid has only two elements in its formula, so its name includes the hydro - prefix.
2,518
4,254
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#5_16526305
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Note that acids have hydrogen written first, as if it were the cation, while most bases have the negative hydroxide ion, if it appears in the formula, written last. Note The name oxygen comes from the Latin meaning “acid producer” because its discoverer, Antoine Lavoisier, thought it was the essential element in acids. Lavoisier was wrong, but it is too late to change the name now. Table 10.1 Formulas and Names for Some Acids and Bases Formula Name Acids HCl (aq) hydrochloric acid HBr (aq) hydrobromic acid HI (aq) hydriodic acid H 2 S (aq) hydrosulfuric acid HC 2 H 3 O 2 (aq) acetic acid HNO 3 (aq) nitric acid HNO 2 (aq) nitrous acid H 2 SO 4 (aq) sulfuric acid H 2 SO 3 (aq) sulfurous acid HClO 3 (aq) chloric acid HClO 4 (aq) perchloric acid HClO 2 (aq) chlorous acid H 3 PO 4 (aq) phosphoric acid H 3 PO 3 (aq) phosphorous acid Bases NaOH (aq) sodium hydroxide KOH (aq) potassium hydroxide Mg (OH) 2 (aq) magnesium hydroxide Ca (OH) 2 (aq) calcium hydroxide NH 3 (aq) ammonia Example 1 Name each substance. HF (aq) Sr (OH) 2 (aq) Solution This acid has only two elements in its formula, so its name includes the hydro - prefix. The stem of the other element’s name, fluorine, is fluor, and we must also include the - ic acid ending. Its name is hydrofluoric acid. This base is named as an ionic compound between the strontium ion and the hydroxide ion: strontium hydroxide. Skill-Building Exercise Name each substance.
3,116
4,545
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#6_16528368
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
The stem of the other element’s name, fluorine, is fluor, and we must also include the - ic acid ending. Its name is hydrofluoric acid. This base is named as an ionic compound between the strontium ion and the hydroxide ion: strontium hydroxide. Skill-Building Exercise Name each substance. H 2 Se (aq) Ba (OH) 2 (aq) Notice that one base listed in Table 10.1 "Formulas and Names for Some Acids and Bases" —ammonia—does not have hydroxide as part of its formula. How does this compound increase the amount of hydroxide ion in aqueous solution? Instead of dissociating into hydroxide ions, ammonia molecules react with water molecules by taking a hydrogen ion from the water molecule to produce an ammonium ion and a hydroxide ion: NH3(aq) + H2O (ℓ) → NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq) Because this reaction of ammonia with water causes an increase in the concentration of hydroxide ions in solution, ammonia satisfies the Arrhenius definition of a base. Many other nitrogen-containing compounds are bases because they too react with water to produce hydroxide ions in aqueous solution.
4,255
5,325
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#7_16530044
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
H 2 Se (aq) Ba (OH) 2 (aq) Notice that one base listed in Table 10.1 "Formulas and Names for Some Acids and Bases" —ammonia—does not have hydroxide as part of its formula. How does this compound increase the amount of hydroxide ion in aqueous solution? Instead of dissociating into hydroxide ions, ammonia molecules react with water molecules by taking a hydrogen ion from the water molecule to produce an ammonium ion and a hydroxide ion: NH3(aq) + H2O (ℓ) → NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq) Because this reaction of ammonia with water causes an increase in the concentration of hydroxide ions in solution, ammonia satisfies the Arrhenius definition of a base. Many other nitrogen-containing compounds are bases because they too react with water to produce hydroxide ions in aqueous solution. As we noted previously, acids and bases react chemically with each other to form salts. A salt is a general chemical term for any ionic compound formed from an acid and a base. In reactions where the acid is a hydrogen ion containing compound and the base is a hydroxide ion containing compound, water is also a product. The general reaction is as follows: acid + base → water + salt The reaction of acid and base to make water and a salt is called neutralization The reaction of acid and base to make water and a salt.
4,545
5,845
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#8_16531950
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
As we noted previously, acids and bases react chemically with each other to form salts. A salt is a general chemical term for any ionic compound formed from an acid and a base. In reactions where the acid is a hydrogen ion containing compound and the base is a hydroxide ion containing compound, water is also a product. The general reaction is as follows: acid + base → water + salt The reaction of acid and base to make water and a salt is called neutralization The reaction of acid and base to make water and a salt. . Like any chemical equation, a neutralization chemical equation must be properly balanced. For example, the neutralization reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid is as follows: NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (ℓ) with coefficients all understood to be one. The neutralization reaction between sodium hydroxide and sulfuric acid is as follows:
5,325
6,213
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#9_16533425
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
. Like any chemical equation, a neutralization chemical equation must be properly balanced. For example, the neutralization reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid is as follows: NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (ℓ) with coefficients all understood to be one. The neutralization reaction between sodium hydroxide and sulfuric acid is as follows: 2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O (ℓ) Once a neutralization reaction is properly balanced, we can use it to perform stoichiometry calculations, such as the ones we practiced in Chapter 5 "Introduction to Chemical Reactions" and Chapter 6 "Quantities in Chemical Reactions". Example 2 Nitric acid [HNO 3 (aq)] can be neutralized by calcium hydroxide [Ca (OH) 2 (aq)]. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between these two compounds and identify the salt it produces. For one reaction, 16.8 g of HNO 3 is present initially. How many grams of Ca (OH) 2 are needed to neutralize that much HNO 3?
5,845
6,830
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#10_16535006
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O (ℓ) Once a neutralization reaction is properly balanced, we can use it to perform stoichiometry calculations, such as the ones we practiced in Chapter 5 "Introduction to Chemical Reactions" and Chapter 6 "Quantities in Chemical Reactions". Example 2 Nitric acid [HNO 3 (aq)] can be neutralized by calcium hydroxide [Ca (OH) 2 (aq)]. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between these two compounds and identify the salt it produces. For one reaction, 16.8 g of HNO 3 is present initially. How many grams of Ca (OH) 2 are needed to neutralize that much HNO 3? In a second reaction, 805 mL of 0.672 M Ca (OH) 2 is present initially. What volume of 0.432 M HNO 3 solution is necessary to neutralize the Ca (OH) 2 solution? Solution Because there are two OH − ions in the formula for Ca (OH) 2, we need two moles of HNO 3 to provide H + ions. The balanced chemical equation is as follows: Ca (OH)2(aq) + 2HNO3(aq) → Ca (NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O (ℓ) The salt formed is calcium nitrate.
6,213
7,244
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#11_16536640
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
In a second reaction, 805 mL of 0.672 M Ca (OH) 2 is present initially. What volume of 0.432 M HNO 3 solution is necessary to neutralize the Ca (OH) 2 solution? Solution Because there are two OH − ions in the formula for Ca (OH) 2, we need two moles of HNO 3 to provide H + ions. The balanced chemical equation is as follows: Ca (OH)2(aq) + 2HNO3(aq) → Ca (NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O (ℓ) The salt formed is calcium nitrate. This calculation is much like the calculations we did in Chapter 6 "Quantities in Chemical Reactions". First we convert the mass of HNO 3 to moles using its molar mass of 1.01 + 14.00 + 3 (16.00) = 63.01 g/mol; then we use the balanced chemical equation to determine the related number of moles of Ca (OH) 2 needed to neutralize it; and then we convert that number of moles of Ca (OH) 2 to the mass of Ca (OH) 2 using its molar mass of 40.08 + 2 (1.01) + 2 (16.00) = 74.10 g/mol. 16.8 g HNO 3 × 1 mol HNO 3 63.01 g HNO 3 × 1 mol Ca (OH) 2 2 mol HNO 3 × 74.10 g Ca (OH) 2 1 mol Ca (OH) 2 = 9.88 g Ca (OH) 2 needed Having concentration information allows us to employ the skills we developed in Chapter 9 "Solutions".
6,830
7,960
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#12_16538377
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
This calculation is much like the calculations we did in Chapter 6 "Quantities in Chemical Reactions". First we convert the mass of HNO 3 to moles using its molar mass of 1.01 + 14.00 + 3 (16.00) = 63.01 g/mol; then we use the balanced chemical equation to determine the related number of moles of Ca (OH) 2 needed to neutralize it; and then we convert that number of moles of Ca (OH) 2 to the mass of Ca (OH) 2 using its molar mass of 40.08 + 2 (1.01) + 2 (16.00) = 74.10 g/mol. 16.8 g HNO 3 × 1 mol HNO 3 63.01 g HNO 3 × 1 mol Ca (OH) 2 2 mol HNO 3 × 74.10 g Ca (OH) 2 1 mol Ca (OH) 2 = 9.88 g Ca (OH) 2 needed Having concentration information allows us to employ the skills we developed in Chapter 9 "Solutions". First, we use the concentration and volume data to determine the number of moles of Ca (OH) 2 present. Recognizing that 805 mL = 0.805 L, 0.672 M Ca (OH) 2 = mol Ca (OH) 2 0.805 L soln (0.672 M CaOH)2 × (0.805 L soln) = mol Ca (OH)2 = 0.541 mol Ca (OH)2 We combine this information with the proper ratio from the balanced chemical equation to determine the number of moles of HNO 3 needed: 0.541 mol Ca (OH) 2 × 2 mol HNO 3 1 mol Ca (OH) 2 = 1.08 mol HNO 3 Now, using the definition of molarity one more time, we determine the volume of acid solution needed: 0.432 M HNO 3 = 1.08 mol HNO 3 volume of HNO 3 volume of HNO 3 = 1.08 mol HNO 3 0.432 M HNO 3 = 2.50 L = 2 .50 × 10 3 mL HNO 3 Skill-Building Exercise Hydrocyanic acid [HCN (aq)] can be neutralized by potassium hydroxide [KOH (aq)]. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between these two compounds and identify the salt it produces.
7,244
8,867
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#13_16540611
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
First, we use the concentration and volume data to determine the number of moles of Ca (OH) 2 present. Recognizing that 805 mL = 0.805 L, 0.672 M Ca (OH) 2 = mol Ca (OH) 2 0.805 L soln (0.672 M CaOH)2 × (0.805 L soln) = mol Ca (OH)2 = 0.541 mol Ca (OH)2 We combine this information with the proper ratio from the balanced chemical equation to determine the number of moles of HNO 3 needed: 0.541 mol Ca (OH) 2 × 2 mol HNO 3 1 mol Ca (OH) 2 = 1.08 mol HNO 3 Now, using the definition of molarity one more time, we determine the volume of acid solution needed: 0.432 M HNO 3 = 1.08 mol HNO 3 volume of HNO 3 volume of HNO 3 = 1.08 mol HNO 3 0.432 M HNO 3 = 2.50 L = 2 .50 × 10 3 mL HNO 3 Skill-Building Exercise Hydrocyanic acid [HCN (aq)] can be neutralized by potassium hydroxide [KOH (aq)]. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between these two compounds and identify the salt it produces. For one reaction, 37.5 g of HCN is present initially. How many grams of KOH are needed to neutralize that much HCN? In a second reaction, 43.0 mL of 0.0663 M KOH is present initially. What volume of 0.107 M HCN solution is necessary to neutralize the KOH solution? Note Hydrocyanic acid (HCN) is one exception to the acid-naming rules that specify using the prefix hydro- for binary acids (acids composed of hydrogen and only one other element).
7,961
9,313
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#14_16542556
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
For one reaction, 37.5 g of HCN is present initially. How many grams of KOH are needed to neutralize that much HCN? In a second reaction, 43.0 mL of 0.0663 M KOH is present initially. What volume of 0.107 M HCN solution is necessary to neutralize the KOH solution? Note Hydrocyanic acid (HCN) is one exception to the acid-naming rules that specify using the prefix hydro- for binary acids (acids composed of hydrogen and only one other element). Answers Arrhenius acid: a compound that increases the concentration of hydrogen ion (H +) in aqueous solution; Arrhenius base: a compound that increases the concentration of hydroxide ion (OH −) in aqueous solution. the reaction of an acid and a base Key Takeaway An Arrhenius acid increases the H + ion concentration in water, while an Arrhenius base increases the OH − ion concentration in water.
8,867
9,712
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#15_16543985
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Answers Arrhenius acid: a compound that increases the concentration of hydrogen ion (H +) in aqueous solution; Arrhenius base: a compound that increases the concentration of hydroxide ion (OH −) in aqueous solution. the reaction of an acid and a base Key Takeaway An Arrhenius acid increases the H + ion concentration in water, while an Arrhenius base increases the OH − ion concentration in water. Exercises Give two examples of Arrhenius acids. Give two examples of Arrhenius bases. List the general properties of acids. List the general properties of bases. Name each compound.
9,313
9,894
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11706849#16_16545150
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s13-01-arrhenius-definition-of-acids-.html
Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases
10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases 10.1 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases Learning Objective Note Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers
Exercises Give two examples of Arrhenius acids. Give two examples of Arrhenius bases. List the general properties of acids. List the general properties of bases. Name each compound. HBr (aq) Ca (OH) 2 (aq) HNO 3 (aq) Fe (OH) 3 (aq) Name each compound. HI (aq) Cu (OH) 2 (aq) H 3 PO 4 (aq
9,712
10,000
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11719731#0_16546016
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s16-unsaturated-and-aromatic-hydro.html
Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Opening Essay 13.1 Alkenes: Structures and Names Learning Objective Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answers 13.2 Cis-Trans Isomers (Geometric Isomers) Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answer 13.3 Physical Properties of Alkenes Learning Objective Looking Closer: Environmental Note Answers Exercises Answer 13.4 Chemical Properties of Alkenes Learning Objective Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answer 13.5 Polymers Learning Objective The Production of Polyethylene Note Medical Uses of Polymers Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answer 13.6 Alkynes Learning Objectives Note Answers Exercises Answers 13.7 Aromatic Compounds: Benzene Learning Objective Note To Your Health: Benzene and Us Answers Exercises Answer 13.8 Structure and Nomenclature of Aromatic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Example 6 Note Skill-Building Exercise Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons To Your Health: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Cancer Biologically Important Compounds with Benzene Rings Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 13.9 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Opening Essay Our modern society is based to a large degree on the chemicals we discuss in this chapter. Most are made from petroleum. In Chapter 12 "Organic Chemistry: Alkanes and Halogenated Hydrocarbons" we noted that alkanes—saturated hydrocarbons—have relatively few important chemical properties other than that they undergo combustion and react with halogens. Unsaturated hydrocarbons—hydrocarbons with double or triple bonds—on the other hand, are quite reactive. In fact, they serve as building blocks for many familiar plastics—polyethylene, vinyl plastics, acrylics—and other important synthetic materials (e.g., alcohols, antifreeze, and detergents). Aromatic hydrocarbons have formulas that can be drawn as cyclic alkenes, making them appear unsaturated, but their structure and properties are generally quite different, so they are not considered to be alkenes. Aromatic compounds serve as the basis for many drugs, antiseptics, explosives, solvents, and plastics (e.g., polyesters and polystyrene). The two simplest unsaturated compounds—ethylene (ethene) and acetylene (ethyne)—were once used as anesthetics and were introduced to the medical field in 1924. However, it was discovered that acetylene forms explosive mixtures with air, so its medical use was abandoned in 1925.
0
1,379
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11719731#1_16549166
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s16-unsaturated-and-aromatic-hydro.html
Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Opening Essay 13.1 Alkenes: Structures and Names Learning Objective Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answers 13.2 Cis-Trans Isomers (Geometric Isomers) Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answer 13.3 Physical Properties of Alkenes Learning Objective Looking Closer: Environmental Note Answers Exercises Answer 13.4 Chemical Properties of Alkenes Learning Objective Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answer 13.5 Polymers Learning Objective The Production of Polyethylene Note Medical Uses of Polymers Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answer 13.6 Alkynes Learning Objectives Note Answers Exercises Answers 13.7 Aromatic Compounds: Benzene Learning Objective Note To Your Health: Benzene and Us Answers Exercises Answer 13.8 Structure and Nomenclature of Aromatic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Example 6 Note Skill-Building Exercise Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons To Your Health: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Cancer Biologically Important Compounds with Benzene Rings Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 13.9 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
In fact, they serve as building blocks for many familiar plastics—polyethylene, vinyl plastics, acrylics—and other important synthetic materials (e.g., alcohols, antifreeze, and detergents). Aromatic hydrocarbons have formulas that can be drawn as cyclic alkenes, making them appear unsaturated, but their structure and properties are generally quite different, so they are not considered to be alkenes. Aromatic compounds serve as the basis for many drugs, antiseptics, explosives, solvents, and plastics (e.g., polyesters and polystyrene). The two simplest unsaturated compounds—ethylene (ethene) and acetylene (ethyne)—were once used as anesthetics and were introduced to the medical field in 1924. However, it was discovered that acetylene forms explosive mixtures with air, so its medical use was abandoned in 1925. Ethylene was thought to be safer, but it too was implicated in numerous lethal fires and explosions during anesthesia. Even so, it remained an important anesthetic into the 1960s, when it was replaced by nonflammable anesthetics such as halothane (CHBrClCF 3 ). 13.1 Alkenes: Structures and Names Learning Objective Name alkenes given formulas and write formulas for alkenes given names. As we noted in Chapter 4 "Covalent Bonding and Simple Molecular Compounds", alkenes A hydrocarbon with one or more carbon–carbon double bonds.
559
1,910
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11719731#2_16552275
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s16-unsaturated-and-aromatic-hydro.html
Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Opening Essay 13.1 Alkenes: Structures and Names Learning Objective Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answers 13.2 Cis-Trans Isomers (Geometric Isomers) Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answer 13.3 Physical Properties of Alkenes Learning Objective Looking Closer: Environmental Note Answers Exercises Answer 13.4 Chemical Properties of Alkenes Learning Objective Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answer 13.5 Polymers Learning Objective The Production of Polyethylene Note Medical Uses of Polymers Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answer 13.6 Alkynes Learning Objectives Note Answers Exercises Answers 13.7 Aromatic Compounds: Benzene Learning Objective Note To Your Health: Benzene and Us Answers Exercises Answer 13.8 Structure and Nomenclature of Aromatic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Example 6 Note Skill-Building Exercise Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons To Your Health: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Cancer Biologically Important Compounds with Benzene Rings Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 13.9 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Ethylene was thought to be safer, but it too was implicated in numerous lethal fires and explosions during anesthesia. Even so, it remained an important anesthetic into the 1960s, when it was replaced by nonflammable anesthetics such as halothane (CHBrClCF 3 ). 13.1 Alkenes: Structures and Names Learning Objective Name alkenes given formulas and write formulas for alkenes given names. As we noted in Chapter 4 "Covalent Bonding and Simple Molecular Compounds", alkenes A hydrocarbon with one or more carbon–carbon double bonds. are hydrocarbons with carbon-to-carbon double bonds (R 2 C=CR 2) and alkynes A hydrocarbon with a carbon–carbon triple bond. are hydrocarbons with carbon-to-carbon triple bonds (R–C≡C–R). Collectively, they are called unsaturated hydrocarbons An alkene or alkyne having one or more multiple (double or triple) bonds between carbon atoms. because they have fewer hydrogen atoms than does an alkane with the same number of carbon atoms, as is indicated in the following general formulas: Some representative alkenes—their names, structures, and physical properties—are given in Table 13.1 "Physical Properties of Some Selected Alkenes".
1,380
2,545
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11719731#3_16555213
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s16-unsaturated-and-aromatic-hydro.html
Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Opening Essay 13.1 Alkenes: Structures and Names Learning Objective Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answers 13.2 Cis-Trans Isomers (Geometric Isomers) Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answer 13.3 Physical Properties of Alkenes Learning Objective Looking Closer: Environmental Note Answers Exercises Answer 13.4 Chemical Properties of Alkenes Learning Objective Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answer 13.5 Polymers Learning Objective The Production of Polyethylene Note Medical Uses of Polymers Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answer 13.6 Alkynes Learning Objectives Note Answers Exercises Answers 13.7 Aromatic Compounds: Benzene Learning Objective Note To Your Health: Benzene and Us Answers Exercises Answer 13.8 Structure and Nomenclature of Aromatic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Example 6 Note Skill-Building Exercise Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons To Your Health: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Cancer Biologically Important Compounds with Benzene Rings Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 13.9 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
are hydrocarbons with carbon-to-carbon double bonds (R 2 C=CR 2) and alkynes A hydrocarbon with a carbon–carbon triple bond. are hydrocarbons with carbon-to-carbon triple bonds (R–C≡C–R). Collectively, they are called unsaturated hydrocarbons An alkene or alkyne having one or more multiple (double or triple) bonds between carbon atoms. because they have fewer hydrogen atoms than does an alkane with the same number of carbon atoms, as is indicated in the following general formulas: Some representative alkenes—their names, structures, and physical properties—are given in Table 13.1 "Physical Properties of Some Selected Alkenes". Table 13.1 Physical Properties of Some Selected Alkenes IUPAC Name Molecular Formula Condensed Structural Formula Melting Point (°C) Boiling Point (°C) ethene C 2 H 4 CH 2 =CH 2 –169 –104 propene C 3 H 6 CH 2 =CHCH 3 –185 –47 1-butene C 4 H 8 CH 2 =CHCH 2 CH 3 –185 –6 1-pentene C 5 H 10 CH 2 =CH (CH 2) 2 CH 3 –138 30 1-hexene C 6 H 12 CH 2 =CH (CH 2) 3 CH 3 –140 63 1-heptene C 7 H 14 CH 2 =CH (CH 2) 4 CH 3 –119 94 1-octene C 8 H 16 CH 2 =CH (CH 2) 5 CH 3 –102 121 We used only condensed structural formulas in Table 13.1 "Physical Properties of Some Selected Alkenes". Thus, CH 2 =CH 2 stands for The double bond is shared by the two carbon atoms and does not involve the hydrogen atoms, although the condensed formula does not make this point obvious. Note that the molecular formula for ethene is C 2 H 4, whereas that for ethane is C 2 H 6. The first two alkenes in Table 13.1 "Physical Properties of Some Selected Alkenes" —ethene and propene ( Figure 13.1 "Ethene and Propene" )—are most often called by their common names—ethylene and propylene, respectively. Ethylene is a major commercial chemical.
1,910
3,656
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11719731#4_16558844
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s16-unsaturated-and-aromatic-hydro.html
Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Opening Essay 13.1 Alkenes: Structures and Names Learning Objective Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answers 13.2 Cis-Trans Isomers (Geometric Isomers) Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answer 13.3 Physical Properties of Alkenes Learning Objective Looking Closer: Environmental Note Answers Exercises Answer 13.4 Chemical Properties of Alkenes Learning Objective Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answer 13.5 Polymers Learning Objective The Production of Polyethylene Note Medical Uses of Polymers Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answer 13.6 Alkynes Learning Objectives Note Answers Exercises Answers 13.7 Aromatic Compounds: Benzene Learning Objective Note To Your Health: Benzene and Us Answers Exercises Answer 13.8 Structure and Nomenclature of Aromatic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Example 6 Note Skill-Building Exercise Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons To Your Health: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Cancer Biologically Important Compounds with Benzene Rings Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 13.9 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Table 13.1 Physical Properties of Some Selected Alkenes IUPAC Name Molecular Formula Condensed Structural Formula Melting Point (°C) Boiling Point (°C) ethene C 2 H 4 CH 2 =CH 2 –169 –104 propene C 3 H 6 CH 2 =CHCH 3 –185 –47 1-butene C 4 H 8 CH 2 =CHCH 2 CH 3 –185 –6 1-pentene C 5 H 10 CH 2 =CH (CH 2) 2 CH 3 –138 30 1-hexene C 6 H 12 CH 2 =CH (CH 2) 3 CH 3 –140 63 1-heptene C 7 H 14 CH 2 =CH (CH 2) 4 CH 3 –119 94 1-octene C 8 H 16 CH 2 =CH (CH 2) 5 CH 3 –102 121 We used only condensed structural formulas in Table 13.1 "Physical Properties of Some Selected Alkenes". Thus, CH 2 =CH 2 stands for The double bond is shared by the two carbon atoms and does not involve the hydrogen atoms, although the condensed formula does not make this point obvious. Note that the molecular formula for ethene is C 2 H 4, whereas that for ethane is C 2 H 6. The first two alkenes in Table 13.1 "Physical Properties of Some Selected Alkenes" —ethene and propene ( Figure 13.1 "Ethene and Propene" )—are most often called by their common names—ethylene and propylene, respectively. Ethylene is a major commercial chemical. The US chemical industry produces about 25 billion kilograms of ethylene annually, more than any other synthetic organic chemical. More than half of this ethylene goes into the manufacture of polyethylene, one of the most familiar plastics. ( For more information about polymers and plastics, see Section 13.5 "Polymers" .) Propylene is also an important industrial chemical. It is converted to plastics, isopropyl alcohol, and a variety of other products. (
2,545
4,114
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11719731#5_16562267
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s16-unsaturated-and-aromatic-hydro.html
Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Opening Essay 13.1 Alkenes: Structures and Names Learning Objective Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answers 13.2 Cis-Trans Isomers (Geometric Isomers) Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answer 13.3 Physical Properties of Alkenes Learning Objective Looking Closer: Environmental Note Answers Exercises Answer 13.4 Chemical Properties of Alkenes Learning Objective Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answer 13.5 Polymers Learning Objective The Production of Polyethylene Note Medical Uses of Polymers Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answer 13.6 Alkynes Learning Objectives Note Answers Exercises Answers 13.7 Aromatic Compounds: Benzene Learning Objective Note To Your Health: Benzene and Us Answers Exercises Answer 13.8 Structure and Nomenclature of Aromatic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Example 6 Note Skill-Building Exercise Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons To Your Health: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Cancer Biologically Important Compounds with Benzene Rings Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 13.9 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
The US chemical industry produces about 25 billion kilograms of ethylene annually, more than any other synthetic organic chemical. More than half of this ethylene goes into the manufacture of polyethylene, one of the most familiar plastics. ( For more information about polymers and plastics, see Section 13.5 "Polymers" .) Propylene is also an important industrial chemical. It is converted to plastics, isopropyl alcohol, and a variety of other products. ( For more information about alcohols, see Chapter 14 "Organic Compounds of Oxygen", Section 14.2 "Alcohols: Nomenclature and Classification" .) Figure 13.1 Ethene and Propene The ball-and-spring models of ethene/ethylene (a) and propene/propylene (b) show their respective shapes, especially bond angles. Note Although there is only one alkene with the formula C 2 H 4 (ethene) and only one with the formula C 3 H 6 (propene), there are several alkenes with the formula C 4 H 8. Section 13.2 "Cis-Trans Isomers (Geometric Isomers)" begins a discussion of butenes.
3,657
4,676
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11719731#6_16565027
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s16-unsaturated-and-aromatic-hydro.html
Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Opening Essay 13.1 Alkenes: Structures and Names Learning Objective Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answers 13.2 Cis-Trans Isomers (Geometric Isomers) Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answer 13.3 Physical Properties of Alkenes Learning Objective Looking Closer: Environmental Note Answers Exercises Answer 13.4 Chemical Properties of Alkenes Learning Objective Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answer 13.5 Polymers Learning Objective The Production of Polyethylene Note Medical Uses of Polymers Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answer 13.6 Alkynes Learning Objectives Note Answers Exercises Answers 13.7 Aromatic Compounds: Benzene Learning Objective Note To Your Health: Benzene and Us Answers Exercises Answer 13.8 Structure and Nomenclature of Aromatic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Example 6 Note Skill-Building Exercise Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons To Your Health: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Cancer Biologically Important Compounds with Benzene Rings Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 13.9 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
For more information about alcohols, see Chapter 14 "Organic Compounds of Oxygen", Section 14.2 "Alcohols: Nomenclature and Classification" .) Figure 13.1 Ethene and Propene The ball-and-spring models of ethene/ethylene (a) and propene/propylene (b) show their respective shapes, especially bond angles. Note Although there is only one alkene with the formula C 2 H 4 (ethene) and only one with the formula C 3 H 6 (propene), there are several alkenes with the formula C 4 H 8. Section 13.2 "Cis-Trans Isomers (Geometric Isomers)" begins a discussion of butenes. Here are some basic rules for naming alkenes from the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC): The longest chain of carbon atoms containing the double bond is considered the parent chain. It is named using the same stem as the alkane having the same number of carbon atoms but ends in - ene to identify it as an alkene. Thus the compound CH 2 =CHCH 3 is propene. If there are four or more carbon atoms in a chain, we must indicate the position of the double bond.
4,114
5,158
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_11719731#7_16567808
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s16-unsaturated-and-aromatic-hydro.html
Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Chapter 13 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Opening Essay 13.1 Alkenes: Structures and Names Learning Objective Note Example 1 Skill-Building Exercise Example 2 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answers 13.2 Cis-Trans Isomers (Geometric Isomers) Learning Objectives Example 3 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answer 13.3 Physical Properties of Alkenes Learning Objective Looking Closer: Environmental Note Answers Exercises Answer 13.4 Chemical Properties of Alkenes Learning Objective Example 4 Skill-Building Exercise Answers Exercises Answer 13.5 Polymers Learning Objective The Production of Polyethylene Note Medical Uses of Polymers Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answer 13.6 Alkynes Learning Objectives Note Answers Exercises Answers 13.7 Aromatic Compounds: Benzene Learning Objective Note To Your Health: Benzene and Us Answers Exercises Answer 13.8 Structure and Nomenclature of Aromatic Compounds Learning Objectives Example 5 Skill-Building Exercise Example 6 Note Skill-Building Exercise Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons To Your Health: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Cancer Biologically Important Compounds with Benzene Rings Note Answers Key Takeaway Exercises Answers 13.9 End-of-Chapter Material Chapter Summary Additional Exercises Answers
Here are some basic rules for naming alkenes from the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC): The longest chain of carbon atoms containing the double bond is considered the parent chain. It is named using the same stem as the alkane having the same number of carbon atoms but ends in - ene to identify it as an alkene. Thus the compound CH 2 =CHCH 3 is propene. If there are four or more carbon atoms in a chain, we must indicate the position of the double bond. The carbons atoms are numbered so that the first of the two that are doubly bonded is given the lower of the two possible numbers. The compound CH 3 CH=CHCH 2 CH 3, for example, has the double bond between the second and third carbon atoms. Its name is 2-pentene (not 3-pentene). Substituent groups are named as with alkanes, and their position is indicated by a number. Thus, is 5-methyl-2-hexene.
4,676
5,557