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msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_10045770#15_14808216
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http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-business-v2.0/s15-operations-management-in-manuf.html
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Operations Management in Manufacturing and Service Industries
|
Chapter 11
Operations Management in Manufacturing and Service Industries
Chapter 11 Operations Management in Manufacturing and Service Industries
The Challenge: Producing Quality Jetboards
11.1 Operations Management in Manufacturing
Learning Objectives
Operations Management in Manufacturing
Planning the Production Process
Production-Method Decisions
Make-to-Order
Mass Production
Mass Customization
Facilities Decisions
Site Selection
Capacity Planning
Key Takeaways
Exercises
11.2 Facility Layouts
Learning Objective
Key Takeaways
Exercise
11.3 Managing the Production Process in a Manufacturing Company
Learning Objective
Purchasing and Supplier Selection
E-Purchasing
Inventory Control
Just-in-Time Production
Material Requirements Planning
Work Scheduling
Key Takeaways
Exercise
11.4 Graphical Tools: PERT and Gantt Charts
Learning Objective
Gantt Charts
PERT Charts
Key Takeaways
Exercise
11.5 The Technology of Goods Production
Learning Objective
Computer-Aided Design
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
Computer-Integrated Manufacturing
Flexible Manufacturing Systems
Key Takeaways
Exercise
11.6 Operations Management for Service Providers
Learning Objectives
Operations Planning
Operations Processes
Facilities
Site Selection
Size and Layout
Capacity Planning
Managing Operations
Scheduling
Inventory Control
Key Takeaways
Exercise
11.7 Producing for Quality
Learning Objective
Quality Management
Customer Satisfaction
Employee Involvement
Continuous Improvement
Statistical Process Control
Benchmarking
International Quality Standards
ISO 9000 and ISO 14000
Outsourcing
Outsourcing in the Manufacturing Sector
Outsourcing in the Service Sector
Key Takeaways
Exercises
11.8 Cases and Problems
Learning on the Web (AACSB)
How to Build a BMW
Career Opportunities
Wanted: Problem Solvers and Creative Thinkers
Ethics Angle (AACSB)
Team-Building Skills (AACSB)
Growing Accustomed to Your Fit
The Global View (AACSB)
What’s the State of Homeland Job Security?
|
Make-to-Order
At one time, most consumer goods, such as furniture and clothing, were made by individuals practicing various crafts. By their very nature, products were customized to meet the needs of the buyers who ordered them. This process, which is called a make-to-order strategy
Production method in which products are made to customer specification. , is still commonly used by such businesses as print or sign shops that produce low-volume, high-variety goods according to customer specifications. Mass Production
Figure 11.2
Automakers produce a high volume of cars in anticipation of future demand. © 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation
By the early twentieth century, however, a new concept of producing goods had been introduced: mass production (or make-to-stock strategy)
Production method in which high volumes of products are made at low cost and held in inventory in anticipation of future demand. is the practice of producing high volumes of identical goods at a cost low enough to price them for large numbers of customers. Goods are made in anticipation of future demand (based on forecasts) and kept in inventory for later sale. This approach is particularly appropriate for standardized goods ranging from processed foods to electronic appliances.
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http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-business-v2.0/s15-operations-management-in-manuf.html
|
Operations Management in Manufacturing and Service Industries
|
Chapter 11
Operations Management in Manufacturing and Service Industries
Chapter 11 Operations Management in Manufacturing and Service Industries
The Challenge: Producing Quality Jetboards
11.1 Operations Management in Manufacturing
Learning Objectives
Operations Management in Manufacturing
Planning the Production Process
Production-Method Decisions
Make-to-Order
Mass Production
Mass Customization
Facilities Decisions
Site Selection
Capacity Planning
Key Takeaways
Exercises
11.2 Facility Layouts
Learning Objective
Key Takeaways
Exercise
11.3 Managing the Production Process in a Manufacturing Company
Learning Objective
Purchasing and Supplier Selection
E-Purchasing
Inventory Control
Just-in-Time Production
Material Requirements Planning
Work Scheduling
Key Takeaways
Exercise
11.4 Graphical Tools: PERT and Gantt Charts
Learning Objective
Gantt Charts
PERT Charts
Key Takeaways
Exercise
11.5 The Technology of Goods Production
Learning Objective
Computer-Aided Design
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
Computer-Integrated Manufacturing
Flexible Manufacturing Systems
Key Takeaways
Exercise
11.6 Operations Management for Service Providers
Learning Objectives
Operations Planning
Operations Processes
Facilities
Site Selection
Size and Layout
Capacity Planning
Managing Operations
Scheduling
Inventory Control
Key Takeaways
Exercise
11.7 Producing for Quality
Learning Objective
Quality Management
Customer Satisfaction
Employee Involvement
Continuous Improvement
Statistical Process Control
Benchmarking
International Quality Standards
ISO 9000 and ISO 14000
Outsourcing
Outsourcing in the Manufacturing Sector
Outsourcing in the Service Sector
Key Takeaways
Exercises
11.8 Cases and Problems
Learning on the Web (AACSB)
How to Build a BMW
Career Opportunities
Wanted: Problem Solvers and Creative Thinkers
Ethics Angle (AACSB)
Team-Building Skills (AACSB)
Growing Accustomed to Your Fit
The Global View (AACSB)
What’s the State of Homeland Job Security?
|
© 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation
By the early twentieth century, however, a new concept of producing goods had been introduced: mass production (or make-to-stock strategy)
Production method in which high volumes of products are made at low cost and held in inventory in anticipation of future demand. is the practice of producing high volumes of identical goods at a cost low enough to price them for large numbers of customers. Goods are made in anticipation of future demand (based on forecasts) and kept in inventory for later sale. This approach is particularly appropriate for standardized goods ranging from processed foods to electronic appliances. Mass Customization
But there’s a disadvantage to mass production: customers, as one contemporary advertising slogan puts it, can’t “have it their way.” They have to accept standardized products as they come off assembly lines. Increasingly, however, customers are looking for products that are designed to accommodate individual tastes or needs but can still be bought at reasonable prices. To meet the demands of these consumers, many companies have turned to an approach called mass customization
Production method in which fairly high volumes of customized products are made at fairly low prices.
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http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-business-v2.0/s15-operations-management-in-manuf.html
|
Operations Management in Manufacturing and Service Industries
|
Chapter 11
Operations Management in Manufacturing and Service Industries
Chapter 11 Operations Management in Manufacturing and Service Industries
The Challenge: Producing Quality Jetboards
11.1 Operations Management in Manufacturing
Learning Objectives
Operations Management in Manufacturing
Planning the Production Process
Production-Method Decisions
Make-to-Order
Mass Production
Mass Customization
Facilities Decisions
Site Selection
Capacity Planning
Key Takeaways
Exercises
11.2 Facility Layouts
Learning Objective
Key Takeaways
Exercise
11.3 Managing the Production Process in a Manufacturing Company
Learning Objective
Purchasing and Supplier Selection
E-Purchasing
Inventory Control
Just-in-Time Production
Material Requirements Planning
Work Scheduling
Key Takeaways
Exercise
11.4 Graphical Tools: PERT and Gantt Charts
Learning Objective
Gantt Charts
PERT Charts
Key Takeaways
Exercise
11.5 The Technology of Goods Production
Learning Objective
Computer-Aided Design
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
Computer-Integrated Manufacturing
Flexible Manufacturing Systems
Key Takeaways
Exercise
11.6 Operations Management for Service Providers
Learning Objectives
Operations Planning
Operations Processes
Facilities
Site Selection
Size and Layout
Capacity Planning
Managing Operations
Scheduling
Inventory Control
Key Takeaways
Exercise
11.7 Producing for Quality
Learning Objective
Quality Management
Customer Satisfaction
Employee Involvement
Continuous Improvement
Statistical Process Control
Benchmarking
International Quality Standards
ISO 9000 and ISO 14000
Outsourcing
Outsourcing in the Manufacturing Sector
Outsourcing in the Service Sector
Key Takeaways
Exercises
11.8 Cases and Problems
Learning on the Web (AACSB)
How to Build a BMW
Career Opportunities
Wanted: Problem Solvers and Creative Thinkers
Ethics Angle (AACSB)
Team-Building Skills (AACSB)
Growing Accustomed to Your Fit
The Global View (AACSB)
What’s the State of Homeland Job Security?
|
Mass Customization
But there’s a disadvantage to mass production: customers, as one contemporary advertising slogan puts it, can’t “have it their way.” They have to accept standardized products as they come off assembly lines. Increasingly, however, customers are looking for products that are designed to accommodate individual tastes or needs but can still be bought at reasonable prices. To meet the demands of these consumers, many companies have turned to an approach called mass customization
Production method in which fairly high volumes of customized products are made at fairly low prices. , which (as the term suggests) combines the advantages of customized products with those of mass production. This approach requires that a company interact with the customer to find out exactly what the customer wants and then manufacture the good, using efficient production methods to hold down costs. One efficient method is to mass-produce a product up to a certain cut-off point and then to customize it to satisfy diff
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http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-nutrition/s07-01-the-basic-structural-and-funct.html
|
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
|
3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Diagram the components of a cell. Describe the organization of the human body. One cell divides into two, which begins the creation of millions of more cells that ultimately become you. © Shutterstock
What distinguishes a living organism from an inanimate object? A living organism conducts self-sustaining biological processes. A cell is the smallest and most basic form of life. Robert Hooke, one of the first scientists to use a light microscope, discovered the cell in 1665. In all life forms, including bacteria, plants, animals, and humans, the cell
Basic structural and functional unit of all life.
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http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-nutrition/s07-01-the-basic-structural-and-funct.html
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
|
3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
© Shutterstock
What distinguishes a living organism from an inanimate object? A living organism conducts self-sustaining biological processes. A cell is the smallest and most basic form of life. Robert Hooke, one of the first scientists to use a light microscope, discovered the cell in 1665. In all life forms, including bacteria, plants, animals, and humans, the cell
Basic structural and functional unit of all life. was defined as the most basic structural and functional unit. Based on scientific observations over the next 150 years, scientists formulated the cell theory
Cells are the most basic building units of life, all living things are composed of cells, and new cells are made from preexisting cells, which divide into two. , which is used for all living organisms no matter how simple or complex. The cell theory incorporates three principles: Cells are the most basic building units of life.
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http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-nutrition/s07-01-the-basic-structural-and-funct.html
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
|
3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
was defined as the most basic structural and functional unit. Based on scientific observations over the next 150 years, scientists formulated the cell theory
Cells are the most basic building units of life, all living things are composed of cells, and new cells are made from preexisting cells, which divide into two. , which is used for all living organisms no matter how simple or complex. The cell theory incorporates three principles: Cells are the most basic building units of life. All living things are composed of cells. New cells are made from preexisting cells, which divide into two. Who you are has been determined because of two cells that came together inside your mother’s womb. The two cells containing all of your genetic information (DNA) united to begin making new life. Cells divided and differentiated into other cells with specific roles that led to the formation of the body’s numerous body organs, systems, blood, blood vessels, bone, tissue, and skin.
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http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-nutrition/s07-01-the-basic-structural-and-funct.html
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
|
3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
All living things are composed of cells. New cells are made from preexisting cells, which divide into two. Who you are has been determined because of two cells that came together inside your mother’s womb. The two cells containing all of your genetic information (DNA) united to begin making new life. Cells divided and differentiated into other cells with specific roles that led to the formation of the body’s numerous body organs, systems, blood, blood vessels, bone, tissue, and skin. As an adult, you are comprised of trillions of cells. Each of your individual cells is a compact and efficient form of life—self-sufficient, yet interdependent upon the other cells within your body to supply its needs. Independent single-celled organisms must conduct all the basic processes of life: it must take in nutrients (energy capture), excrete wastes, detect and respond to its environment, move, breathe, grow, and reproduce. Even a one-celled organism must be organized to perform these essential processes.
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http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-nutrition/s07-01-the-basic-structural-and-funct.html
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
|
3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
As an adult, you are comprised of trillions of cells. Each of your individual cells is a compact and efficient form of life—self-sufficient, yet interdependent upon the other cells within your body to supply its needs. Independent single-celled organisms must conduct all the basic processes of life: it must take in nutrients (energy capture), excrete wastes, detect and respond to its environment, move, breathe, grow, and reproduce. Even a one-celled organism must be organized to perform these essential processes. All cells are organized from the atomic level to all its larger forms. Oxygen and hydrogen atoms combine to make the molecule water (H 2 O). Molecules bond together to make bigger macromolecules. The carbon atom is often referred to as the backbone of life because it can readily bond with four other elements to form long chains and more complex macromolecules. Four macromolecules—carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids—make up all of the structural and functional units of cells.
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http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-nutrition/s07-01-the-basic-structural-and-funct.html
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
|
3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
All cells are organized from the atomic level to all its larger forms. Oxygen and hydrogen atoms combine to make the molecule water (H 2 O). Molecules bond together to make bigger macromolecules. The carbon atom is often referred to as the backbone of life because it can readily bond with four other elements to form long chains and more complex macromolecules. Four macromolecules—carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids—make up all of the structural and functional units of cells. Although we defined the cell as the “most basic” unit of life, it is structurally and functionally complex (see Figure 3.1 ). A cell can be thought of as a mini-organism consisting of tiny organs called organelles. The organelles
A structural or functional unit in a cell that is constructed from several macromolecules bonded together. are structural and functional units constructed from several macromolecules bonded together. A typical animal cell contains the following organelles:
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http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-nutrition/s07-01-the-basic-structural-and-funct.html
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
|
3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
Although we defined the cell as the “most basic” unit of life, it is structurally and functionally complex (see Figure 3.1 ). A cell can be thought of as a mini-organism consisting of tiny organs called organelles. The organelles
A structural or functional unit in a cell that is constructed from several macromolecules bonded together. are structural and functional units constructed from several macromolecules bonded together. A typical animal cell contains the following organelles: the nucleus (which houses the genetic material DNA), mitochondria (which generate energy), ribosomes (which produce protein), the endoplasmic reticulum (which is a packaging and transport facility), and the golgi apparatus (which distributes macromolecules). In addition, animal cells contain little digestive pouches, called lysosomes and peroxisomes, which break down macromolecules and destroy foreign invaders. All of the organelles are anchored in the cell’s cytoplasm via a cytoskeleton. The cell’s organelles are isolated from the surrounding environment by a plasma membrane. Figure 3.1
The cell is structurally and functionally complex.
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http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-nutrition/s07-01-the-basic-structural-and-funct.html
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
|
3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
the nucleus (which houses the genetic material DNA), mitochondria (which generate energy), ribosomes (which produce protein), the endoplasmic reticulum (which is a packaging and transport facility), and the golgi apparatus (which distributes macromolecules). In addition, animal cells contain little digestive pouches, called lysosomes and peroxisomes, which break down macromolecules and destroy foreign invaders. All of the organelles are anchored in the cell’s cytoplasm via a cytoskeleton. The cell’s organelles are isolated from the surrounding environment by a plasma membrane. Figure 3.1
The cell is structurally and functionally complex. Video 3.1
Discovery Video: Cells
(click to see video)
This video describes the importance of cells in the human body. Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
Unicellular (single-celled) organisms can function independently, but the cells of multicellular organisms are dependent upon each other and are organized into five different levels in order to coordinate their specific functions and carry out all of life’s biological processes. Cells. Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of all life.
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
|
3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
Video 3.1
Discovery Video: Cells
(click to see video)
This video describes the importance of cells in the human body. Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
Unicellular (single-celled) organisms can function independently, but the cells of multicellular organisms are dependent upon each other and are organized into five different levels in order to coordinate their specific functions and carry out all of life’s biological processes. Cells. Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of all life. Examples include red blood cells and nerve cells. Tissues. Tissues
A group of cells that share a common structure and function and that work together. are groups of cells that share a common structure and function and work together. There are four types of human tissues:
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
|
3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
Examples include red blood cells and nerve cells. Tissues. Tissues
A group of cells that share a common structure and function and that work together. are groups of cells that share a common structure and function and work together. There are four types of human tissues: connective, which connects tissues; epithelial, which lines and protects organs; muscle, which contracts for movement and support; and nerve, which responds and reacts to signals in the environment. Organs.
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
|
3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
connective, which connects tissues; epithelial, which lines and protects organs; muscle, which contracts for movement and support; and nerve, which responds and reacts to signals in the environment. Organs. Organs
A group of tissues arranged in a specific manner to support a common function. are a group of tissues arranged in a specific manner to support a common physiological function. Examples include the brain, liver, and heart. Organ systems. Organ systems
Two or more organs that support a specific physiological function.
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
|
3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
Organs
A group of tissues arranged in a specific manner to support a common function. are a group of tissues arranged in a specific manner to support a common physiological function. Examples include the brain, liver, and heart. Organ systems. Organ systems
Two or more organs that support a specific physiological function. are two or more organs that support a specific physiological function. Examples include the digestive system and central nervous system. There are eleven organ systems in the human body (see Table 3.1 "The Eleven Organ Systems in the Human Body and Their Major Functions" ). Organism. An organism
The complete living system capable of conducting all basic life processes.
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
|
3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
are two or more organs that support a specific physiological function. Examples include the digestive system and central nervous system. There are eleven organ systems in the human body (see Table 3.1 "The Eleven Organ Systems in the Human Body and Their Major Functions" ). Organism. An organism
The complete living system capable of conducting all basic life processes. is the complete living system capable of conducting all of life’s biological processes. Table 3.1 The Eleven Organ Systems in the Human Body and Their Major Functions
Organ System
Organ Components
Major Function
Circulatory
heart, blood/lymph vessels, blood, lymph
Transport nutrients and waste products
Digestive
mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines
Digestion and absorption
Endocrine
all glands (thyroid, ovaries, pancreas)
Produce and release hormones
Immune
white blood cells, lymphatic tissue, marrow
Defend against foreign invaders
Integumentary
skin, nails, hair, sweat glands
Protective, body temperature regulation
Muscular
skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle
Body movement
Nervous
brain, spinal cord, nerves
Interprets and responds to stimuli
Reproductive
gonads, genitals
Reproduction and sexual characteristics
Respiratory
lungs, nose, mouth, throat, trachea
Gas exchange
Skeletal
bones, tendons, ligaments, joints
Structure and support
Urinary
kidneys, bladder, ureters
Waste excretion, water balance
Figure 3.2 Organ Systems in the Human Body
© Networkgraphics
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Energy is required in order to build molecules into larger macromolecules, and to turn macromolecules into organelles and cells, and then turn those into tissues, organs, and organ systems, and finally into an organism. Proper nutrition provides the necessary nutrients to make the energy that supports life’s processes. Your body builds new macromolecules from the nutrients in food. Nutrient and Energy Flow
Energy is stored in a nutrient’s chemical bonds.
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
|
3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
is the complete living system capable of conducting all of life’s biological processes. Table 3.1 The Eleven Organ Systems in the Human Body and Their Major Functions
Organ System
Organ Components
Major Function
Circulatory
heart, blood/lymph vessels, blood, lymph
Transport nutrients and waste products
Digestive
mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines
Digestion and absorption
Endocrine
all glands (thyroid, ovaries, pancreas)
Produce and release hormones
Immune
white blood cells, lymphatic tissue, marrow
Defend against foreign invaders
Integumentary
skin, nails, hair, sweat glands
Protective, body temperature regulation
Muscular
skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle
Body movement
Nervous
brain, spinal cord, nerves
Interprets and responds to stimuli
Reproductive
gonads, genitals
Reproduction and sexual characteristics
Respiratory
lungs, nose, mouth, throat, trachea
Gas exchange
Skeletal
bones, tendons, ligaments, joints
Structure and support
Urinary
kidneys, bladder, ureters
Waste excretion, water balance
Figure 3.2 Organ Systems in the Human Body
© Networkgraphics
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Energy is required in order to build molecules into larger macromolecules, and to turn macromolecules into organelles and cells, and then turn those into tissues, organs, and organ systems, and finally into an organism. Proper nutrition provides the necessary nutrients to make the energy that supports life’s processes. Your body builds new macromolecules from the nutrients in food. Nutrient and Energy Flow
Energy is stored in a nutrient’s chemical bonds. Energy comes from sunlight, which plants then capture and, via photosynthesis, use it to transform carbon dioxide in the air into the molecule, glucose. When the glucose bonds are broken, energy is released. Bacteria, plants, and animals (including humans) harvest the energy in glucose via a biological process called cellular respiration
The process by which the stored chemical energy in nutrients is transformed into cellular energy. . In this process the chemical energy of glucose is transformed into cellular energy in the form of the molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
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3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
Energy comes from sunlight, which plants then capture and, via photosynthesis, use it to transform carbon dioxide in the air into the molecule, glucose. When the glucose bonds are broken, energy is released. Bacteria, plants, and animals (including humans) harvest the energy in glucose via a biological process called cellular respiration
The process by which the stored chemical energy in nutrients is transformed into cellular energy. . In this process the chemical energy of glucose is transformed into cellular energy in the form of the molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Cellular respiration requires oxygen (aerobic) and it is provided as a waste product of photosynthesis. The waste products of cellular respiration are carbon dioxide (CO 2) and water, which plants use to conduct photosynthesis again. Thus, energy is constantly cycling between plants and animals. As energy is consumed nutrients are recycled within it. Plants harvest energy from the sun and capture it in the molecule, glucose.
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
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3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
Cellular respiration requires oxygen (aerobic) and it is provided as a waste product of photosynthesis. The waste products of cellular respiration are carbon dioxide (CO 2) and water, which plants use to conduct photosynthesis again. Thus, energy is constantly cycling between plants and animals. As energy is consumed nutrients are recycled within it. Plants harvest energy from the sun and capture it in the molecule, glucose. Humans harvest the energy in glucose and capture it into the molecule, ATP. In this section, we have learned that all life is composed of cells capable of transforming small organic molecules into energy. How do complex organisms such as humans convert the large macromolecules in the foods that we eat into molecules that can be used by cells to make cellular energy? In the next section, we will discuss the physiological process of digestion to answer this question. Key Takeaways
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
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3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
Humans harvest the energy in glucose and capture it into the molecule, ATP. In this section, we have learned that all life is composed of cells capable of transforming small organic molecules into energy. How do complex organisms such as humans convert the large macromolecules in the foods that we eat into molecules that can be used by cells to make cellular energy? In the next section, we will discuss the physiological process of digestion to answer this question. Key Takeaways
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. Cells are independent, single-celled organisms that take in nutrients, excrete wastes, detect and respond to their environment, move, breathe, grow, and reproduce. The macromolecules carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids make up all of the structural and functional units of cells. In complex organisms, cells are organized into five levels so that an organism can conduct all basic processes associated with life. There are eleven organ systems in the human body that work together to support life, all of which require nutrient input. Energy is constantly cycling between plants and animals.
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The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
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3.1
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
3.1 The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
Learning Objectives
Video 3.1
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
An Organism Requires Energy and Nutrient Input
Nutrient and Energy Flow
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
Cells are independent, single-celled organisms that take in nutrients, excrete wastes, detect and respond to their environment, move, breathe, grow, and reproduce. The macromolecules carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids make up all of the structural and functional units of cells. In complex organisms, cells are organized into five levels so that an organism can conduct all basic processes associated with life. There are eleven organ systems in the human body that work together to support life, all of which require nutrient input. Energy is constantly cycling between plants and animals. As energy is consumed nutrients are recycled within it. Discussion Starter
Discuss the importance of organization in the human body. If the body becomes disorganized by a disease or disorder what happens to its function? Can you think of a good example (what about leg fracture and movement)?
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Energy and Calories
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3.4
Energy and Calories
3.4 Energy and Calories
Learning Objective
The Calorie Is a Unit of Energy
Estimating Caloric Content
Interactive 3.2
Estimating the Amount of Energy from Each Macronutrient
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
Energy and Calories
3.4 Energy and Calories
Learning Objective
Estimate your total daily caloric /energy needs based upon your physical activity level. Energy
The quantity of work a particular system can perform. is essential to life. You must eat to have energy. You must go to bed at a decent time, so that when you wake up in the morning, you will not be too tired and you will have sufficient energy for the next day’s activities. Energy is also everywhere in our environment: sunlight, wind, water, plants, and animals. All living things use energy every day. Energy can be defined as the quantity of work a particular system can perform, whether it be a growing child’s body or a train transporting passengers from one place to another. Energy also helps us perform daily functions and tasks such as breathing, walking up a flight of steps, and studying for a test.
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Energy and Calories
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3.4
Energy and Calories
3.4 Energy and Calories
Learning Objective
The Calorie Is a Unit of Energy
Estimating Caloric Content
Interactive 3.2
Estimating the Amount of Energy from Each Macronutrient
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
Energy is also everywhere in our environment: sunlight, wind, water, plants, and animals. All living things use energy every day. Energy can be defined as the quantity of work a particular system can perform, whether it be a growing child’s body or a train transporting passengers from one place to another. Energy also helps us perform daily functions and tasks such as breathing, walking up a flight of steps, and studying for a test. Energy is classified as either potential or kinetic. Potential energy
Stored energy. is stored energy, or energy waiting to happen. Kinetic energy
Moving energy. is energy in motion.
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Energy and Calories
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3.4
Energy and Calories
3.4 Energy and Calories
Learning Objective
The Calorie Is a Unit of Energy
Estimating Caloric Content
Interactive 3.2
Estimating the Amount of Energy from Each Macronutrient
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
Energy is classified as either potential or kinetic. Potential energy
Stored energy. is stored energy, or energy waiting to happen. Kinetic energy
Moving energy. is energy in motion. To illustrate this, think of an Olympic swimmer standing at the pool’s edge awaiting the sound of the whistle to begin the race. While he waits for the signal, he has potential energy. When the whistle sounds and he dives into the pool and begins to swim, his energy is kinetic (in motion). Some basic forms of energy are: Thermal (heat) energy.
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Energy and Calories
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3.4
Energy and Calories
3.4 Energy and Calories
Learning Objective
The Calorie Is a Unit of Energy
Estimating Caloric Content
Interactive 3.2
Estimating the Amount of Energy from Each Macronutrient
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
To illustrate this, think of an Olympic swimmer standing at the pool’s edge awaiting the sound of the whistle to begin the race. While he waits for the signal, he has potential energy. When the whistle sounds and he dives into the pool and begins to swim, his energy is kinetic (in motion). Some basic forms of energy are: Thermal (heat) energy. We can say that a cup of hot tea has thermal energy. Thermal energy is defined as the collective, microscopic, kinetic, and potential energy of the molecules within matter. In a cup of tea, the molecules have kinetic energy because they are moving and oscillating, but they also possess potential energy due to their shared attraction to each other. Chemical energy. In your body, blood sugar (glucose) possesses chemical energy
Potential energy in chemical bonds.
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Energy and Calories
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3.4
Energy and Calories
3.4 Energy and Calories
Learning Objective
The Calorie Is a Unit of Energy
Estimating Caloric Content
Interactive 3.2
Estimating the Amount of Energy from Each Macronutrient
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
We can say that a cup of hot tea has thermal energy. Thermal energy is defined as the collective, microscopic, kinetic, and potential energy of the molecules within matter. In a cup of tea, the molecules have kinetic energy because they are moving and oscillating, but they also possess potential energy due to their shared attraction to each other. Chemical energy. In your body, blood sugar (glucose) possesses chemical energy
Potential energy in chemical bonds. . When glucose reacts chemically with oxgen, energy is released from the glucose. Once the energy is released, your muscles will utilize it to produce mechanical force and heat. Electrochemical energy. In the body, electrical impulses travel to and from the brain encoded as nerve impulses.
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Energy and Calories
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3.4
Energy and Calories
3.4 Energy and Calories
Learning Objective
The Calorie Is a Unit of Energy
Estimating Caloric Content
Interactive 3.2
Estimating the Amount of Energy from Each Macronutrient
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
. When glucose reacts chemically with oxgen, energy is released from the glucose. Once the energy is released, your muscles will utilize it to produce mechanical force and heat. Electrochemical energy. In the body, electrical impulses travel to and from the brain encoded as nerve impulses. Once the brain receives an electrical impulse it causes the release of a messenger chemical (glutamate, for example). This in turn facilitates electrical impulses as they move from one neuron to another. The Calorie Is a Unit of Energy
The amount of energy in nutrients can be quantified into specific units that can be measured. The unit of measurement that defines the energy contained in a energy-yielding nutrient is called a calorie. A calorie
A unit of energy;
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Energy and Calories
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3.4
Energy and Calories
3.4 Energy and Calories
Learning Objective
The Calorie Is a Unit of Energy
Estimating Caloric Content
Interactive 3.2
Estimating the Amount of Energy from Each Macronutrient
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
Once the brain receives an electrical impulse it causes the release of a messenger chemical (glutamate, for example). This in turn facilitates electrical impulses as they move from one neuron to another. The Calorie Is a Unit of Energy
The amount of energy in nutrients can be quantified into specific units that can be measured. The unit of measurement that defines the energy contained in a energy-yielding nutrient is called a calorie. A calorie
A unit of energy; equivalent to the amount of energy required to heat 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius. is the amount of energy in the form of heat that is required to heat one gram of water one degree Celsius. To measure the number of calories in a particular food substance, a certain amount of food is burned in a device called a calorimeter. As the food burns, heat is created. The heat dissipates to the surrounding water while a thermometer detects the change in temperature of the water.
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Energy and Calories
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3.4
Energy and Calories
3.4 Energy and Calories
Learning Objective
The Calorie Is a Unit of Energy
Estimating Caloric Content
Interactive 3.2
Estimating the Amount of Energy from Each Macronutrient
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
equivalent to the amount of energy required to heat 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius. is the amount of energy in the form of heat that is required to heat one gram of water one degree Celsius. To measure the number of calories in a particular food substance, a certain amount of food is burned in a device called a calorimeter. As the food burns, heat is created. The heat dissipates to the surrounding water while a thermometer detects the change in temperature of the water. You can even perform calorimetry at home with a more basic device. However, it is not likely that you will use this device to measure calorie content in the foods that you eat since mathematical formulas have been developed to estimate caloric content. Estimating Caloric Content
The energy contained in energy-yielding nutrients differs because the energy-yielding nutrients are composed of different types of chemical bonds. A carbohydrate or a protein yields 4 kilocalories per gram, whereas a lipid yields 9 kilocalories per gram. A kilocalorie (Calorie)
A kilocalorie is the amount of heat generated by a particular macronutrient that raises the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree Celsius (this is what is denoted on the Nutrition Facts panel).
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Energy and Calories
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3.4
Energy and Calories
3.4 Energy and Calories
Learning Objective
The Calorie Is a Unit of Energy
Estimating Caloric Content
Interactive 3.2
Estimating the Amount of Energy from Each Macronutrient
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
You can even perform calorimetry at home with a more basic device. However, it is not likely that you will use this device to measure calorie content in the foods that you eat since mathematical formulas have been developed to estimate caloric content. Estimating Caloric Content
The energy contained in energy-yielding nutrients differs because the energy-yielding nutrients are composed of different types of chemical bonds. A carbohydrate or a protein yields 4 kilocalories per gram, whereas a lipid yields 9 kilocalories per gram. A kilocalorie (Calorie)
A kilocalorie is the amount of heat generated by a particular macronutrient that raises the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree Celsius (this is what is denoted on the Nutrition Facts panel). is the amount of heat generated by a particular macronutrient that raises the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree Celsius. A kilocalorie of energy performs one thousand times more work than a calorie. On the Nutrition Facts panel, the calories within a particular food are expressed as kilocalories, which is commonly denoted as “Calories” with a capital “C” (1 kcal = 1 Calorie = 1,000 calories). Calculating the number of Calories in commercially prepared food is made fairly easy since the total number of Calories in a serving of a particular food is listed on the Nutrition Facts panel. If you wanted to know the number of Calories in the breakfast you consumed this morning just add up the number of Calories in each food.
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Energy and Calories
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3.4
Energy and Calories
3.4 Energy and Calories
Learning Objective
The Calorie Is a Unit of Energy
Estimating Caloric Content
Interactive 3.2
Estimating the Amount of Energy from Each Macronutrient
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
is the amount of heat generated by a particular macronutrient that raises the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree Celsius. A kilocalorie of energy performs one thousand times more work than a calorie. On the Nutrition Facts panel, the calories within a particular food are expressed as kilocalories, which is commonly denoted as “Calories” with a capital “C” (1 kcal = 1 Calorie = 1,000 calories). Calculating the number of Calories in commercially prepared food is made fairly easy since the total number of Calories in a serving of a particular food is listed on the Nutrition Facts panel. If you wanted to know the number of Calories in the breakfast you consumed this morning just add up the number of Calories in each food. For example, if you ate one serving of yogurt that contained 150 Calories, on which you sprinkled one half of a cup of low-fat granola cereal that contained 209 Calories, and drank a glass of orange juice that contained 100 Calories, the total number of Calories you consumed at breakfast is 150 + 209 + 100 = 459 Calories. If you do not have a Nutrition Facts panel for a certain food, such as a half cup of blueberries, and want to find out the amount of Calories it contains, go to MyFood-a-pedia, a website maintained by the USDA (see Note 3.48 "Interactive 3.2" ). Interactive 3.2
My Food-a-pedia is a tool that calculates the Calories in foods. It also compares the caloric content between foods. http://apps.usa.gov/myfood-a-pedia.shtml
Estimating the Amount of Energy from Each Macronutrient
Also listed on the Nutrition Facts panel are the amounts of total fat, total carbohydrate, and protein in grams.
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Energy and Calories
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3.4
Energy and Calories
3.4 Energy and Calories
Learning Objective
The Calorie Is a Unit of Energy
Estimating Caloric Content
Interactive 3.2
Estimating the Amount of Energy from Each Macronutrient
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
For example, if you ate one serving of yogurt that contained 150 Calories, on which you sprinkled one half of a cup of low-fat granola cereal that contained 209 Calories, and drank a glass of orange juice that contained 100 Calories, the total number of Calories you consumed at breakfast is 150 + 209 + 100 = 459 Calories. If you do not have a Nutrition Facts panel for a certain food, such as a half cup of blueberries, and want to find out the amount of Calories it contains, go to MyFood-a-pedia, a website maintained by the USDA (see Note 3.48 "Interactive 3.2" ). Interactive 3.2
My Food-a-pedia is a tool that calculates the Calories in foods. It also compares the caloric content between foods. http://apps.usa.gov/myfood-a-pedia.shtml
Estimating the Amount of Energy from Each Macronutrient
Also listed on the Nutrition Facts panel are the amounts of total fat, total carbohydrate, and protein in grams. To calculate the contribution of each macronutrient to the total kilocalories in a serving, multiply the number of grams by the number of kilocalories yielded per gram of nutrient. For instance, from the Nutrition Facts panel for yogurt given in Figure 3.7 "A Nutrition Facts Panel for Yogurt", the protein content in one serving is 7 grams. Protein yields 4 kilocalories per gram. The number of kilocalories from protein is calculated by using the following equation: # of grams of protein × 4 kilocalories/gram of protein 7 grams × 4 kilocalories/gram = 28 kilocalories
Figure 3.7 A Nutrition Facts Panel for Yogurt
Because the total number of kilocalories in each serving of yogurt is 150, the percent of energy obtained from protein is calculated by using the following equation:
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Energy and Calories
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3.4
Energy and Calories
3.4 Energy and Calories
Learning Objective
The Calorie Is a Unit of Energy
Estimating Caloric Content
Interactive 3.2
Estimating the Amount of Energy from Each Macronutrient
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
To calculate the contribution of each macronutrient to the total kilocalories in a serving, multiply the number of grams by the number of kilocalories yielded per gram of nutrient. For instance, from the Nutrition Facts panel for yogurt given in Figure 3.7 "A Nutrition Facts Panel for Yogurt", the protein content in one serving is 7 grams. Protein yields 4 kilocalories per gram. The number of kilocalories from protein is calculated by using the following equation: # of grams of protein × 4 kilocalories/gram of protein 7 grams × 4 kilocalories/gram = 28 kilocalories
Figure 3.7 A Nutrition Facts Panel for Yogurt
Because the total number of kilocalories in each serving of yogurt is 150, the percent of energy obtained from protein is calculated by using the following equation: (# kilocalories from protein ÷ total kilocalories per serving) × 100 (28 ÷ 150) × 100 = 18.7 percent
Key Takeaways
Energy is vital to life and is categorized into two types—kinetic and potential. There are also different forms of energy such as thermal, chemical, and electrochemical. Calories are a measurement of a specific quantity of energy contained in foods. The number of calories contained in a commercially prepared food is listed on the Nutrition Facts panel. Discussion Starter
Estimate the total number of kilocalories that you have eaten so far today.
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Energy and Calories
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3.4
Energy and Calories
3.4 Energy and Calories
Learning Objective
The Calorie Is a Unit of Energy
Estimating Caloric Content
Interactive 3.2
Estimating the Amount of Energy from Each Macronutrient
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starter
|
(# kilocalories from protein ÷ total kilocalories per serving) × 100 (28 ÷ 150) × 100 = 18.7 percent
Key Takeaways
Energy is vital to life and is categorized into two types—kinetic and potential. There are also different forms of energy such as thermal, chemical, and electrochemical. Calories are a measurement of a specific quantity of energy contained in foods. The number of calories contained in a commercially prepared food is listed on the Nutrition Facts panel. Discussion Starter
Estimate the total number of kilocalories that you have eaten so far today. What percentage of the kilocalories you consumed was obtained from carbohydrates? Protein? Fat?
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
Discuss how carbohydrates are digested and absorbed in the human body. Whole grains provide satisfaction from the beginning to the end of the digestion process. © Thinkstock
Sweetness is one of the five basic taste sensations of foods and beverages and is sensed by protein receptors in cells of the taste buds. Fast-releasing carbohydrates stimulate the sweetness taste sensation, which is the most sensitive of all taste sensations. Even extremely low concentrations of sugars in foods will stimulate the sweetness taste sensation. Sweetness varies between the different carbohydrate types—some are much sweeter than others. Fructose is the top naturally occurring sugar in sweetness value. See Table 4.1 "Sweetness Comparison of Carbohydrates" for sweetness comparisons among different naturally-occurring carbohydrates. Sweetness is a pleasurable sensation and some people enjoy the taste more than others. In a colloquial sense we identify such people as having a “sweet tooth.”
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Sweetness varies between the different carbohydrate types—some are much sweeter than others. Fructose is the top naturally occurring sugar in sweetness value. See Table 4.1 "Sweetness Comparison of Carbohydrates" for sweetness comparisons among different naturally-occurring carbohydrates. Sweetness is a pleasurable sensation and some people enjoy the taste more than others. In a colloquial sense we identify such people as having a “sweet tooth.” This does not mean that the less-sweet whole grains containing more starches and fiber are less satisfying. Whole grains take longer to chew and get sweeter the more you chew them. Additionally, once in the stomach, whole-grain foods take longer to digest, and keep you full longer. Remember too that they contain fiber which makes elimination much smoother. Whole-grain foods satisfy the body the entire way through the digestive tract and provide the nutrients that also better satisfy the body’s functional needs.
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
This does not mean that the less-sweet whole grains containing more starches and fiber are less satisfying. Whole grains take longer to chew and get sweeter the more you chew them. Additionally, once in the stomach, whole-grain foods take longer to digest, and keep you full longer. Remember too that they contain fiber which makes elimination much smoother. Whole-grain foods satisfy the body the entire way through the digestive tract and provide the nutrients that also better satisfy the body’s functional needs. Table 4.1 Sweetness Comparison of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate
Sweetness (percentage of sucrose)
Sucrose
100
Glucose
74
Galactose
33
Fructose
173
Maltose
33
Lactose
16
Starch
0
Fiber
0
Source: Carter, J. Stein. “ Carbohydrates.” © 1996 by J. Stein Carter. All rights reserved.
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Table 4.1 Sweetness Comparison of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate
Sweetness (percentage of sucrose)
Sucrose
100
Glucose
74
Galactose
33
Fructose
173
Maltose
33
Lactose
16
Starch
0
Fiber
0
Source: Carter, J. Stein. “ Carbohydrates.” © 1996 by J. Stein Carter. All rights reserved. http://www.biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/carbohydrates.htm. From the Mouth to the Stomach
The mechanical and chemical digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth. Chewing, also known as mastication, crumbles the carbohydrate foods into smaller and smaller pieces. The salivary glands in the oral cavity secrete saliva that coats the food particles. Saliva contains the enzyme, salivary amylase
Enzyme secreted by the salivary glands in the mouth that breaks down carbohydrates by breaking the glycosidic bonds between monomers.
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
http://www.biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/carbohydrates.htm. From the Mouth to the Stomach
The mechanical and chemical digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth. Chewing, also known as mastication, crumbles the carbohydrate foods into smaller and smaller pieces. The salivary glands in the oral cavity secrete saliva that coats the food particles. Saliva contains the enzyme, salivary amylase
Enzyme secreted by the salivary glands in the mouth that breaks down carbohydrates by breaking the glycosidic bonds between monomers. . This enzyme breaks the bonds between the monomeric sugar units of disaccharides, oligosaccharides
A carbohydrate that is a chain of a few (between three and ten) monosaccharides. , and starches. The salivary amylase breaks down amylose and amylopectin into smaller chains of glucose, called dextrins and maltose. The increased concentration of maltose in the mouth that results from the mechanical and chemical breakdown of starches in whole grains is what enhances their sweetness.
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
. This enzyme breaks the bonds between the monomeric sugar units of disaccharides, oligosaccharides
A carbohydrate that is a chain of a few (between three and ten) monosaccharides. , and starches. The salivary amylase breaks down amylose and amylopectin into smaller chains of glucose, called dextrins and maltose. The increased concentration of maltose in the mouth that results from the mechanical and chemical breakdown of starches in whole grains is what enhances their sweetness. Only about five percent of starches are broken down in the mouth. ( This is a good thing as more glucose in the mouth would lead to more tooth decay.) When carbohydrates reach the stomach no further chemical breakdown occurs because the amylase enzyme does not function in the acidic conditions of the stomach. But mechanical breakdown is ongoing—the strong peristaltic contractions of the stomach mix the carbohydrates into the more uniform mixture of chyme. Salivary glands secrete salivary amylase, which begins the chemical breakdown of carbohydrates by breaking the bonds between monomeric sugar units.
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Only about five percent of starches are broken down in the mouth. ( This is a good thing as more glucose in the mouth would lead to more tooth decay.) When carbohydrates reach the stomach no further chemical breakdown occurs because the amylase enzyme does not function in the acidic conditions of the stomach. But mechanical breakdown is ongoing—the strong peristaltic contractions of the stomach mix the carbohydrates into the more uniform mixture of chyme. Salivary glands secrete salivary amylase, which begins the chemical breakdown of carbohydrates by breaking the bonds between monomeric sugar units. From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
The chyme is gradually expelled into the upper part of the small intestine. Upon entry of the chyme into the small intestine, the pancreas releases pancreatic juice through a duct. This pancreatic juice contains the enzyme, pancreatic amylase
Enzyme secreted by the pancreas that breaks down carbohydrates in the small intestine by breaking the glycosidic bonds between monomers. , which starts again the breakdown of dextrins into shorter and shorter carbohydrate chains. Additionally, enzymes are secreted by the intestinal cells that line the villi.
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
The chyme is gradually expelled into the upper part of the small intestine. Upon entry of the chyme into the small intestine, the pancreas releases pancreatic juice through a duct. This pancreatic juice contains the enzyme, pancreatic amylase
Enzyme secreted by the pancreas that breaks down carbohydrates in the small intestine by breaking the glycosidic bonds between monomers. , which starts again the breakdown of dextrins into shorter and shorter carbohydrate chains. Additionally, enzymes are secreted by the intestinal cells that line the villi. These enzymes, known collectively as disaccharides, are sucrase, maltase, and lactase. Sucrase breaks sucrose into glucose and fructose molecules. Maltase breaks the bond between the two glucose units of maltose, and lactase breaks the bond between galactose and glucose. Once carbohydrates are chemically broken down into single sugar units they are then transported into the inside of intestinal cells. When people do not have enough of the enzyme lactase, lactose is not sufficiently broken down resulting in a condition called lactose intolerance
A condition in which there is incomplete digestion of lactose.
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
These enzymes, known collectively as disaccharides, are sucrase, maltase, and lactase. Sucrase breaks sucrose into glucose and fructose molecules. Maltase breaks the bond between the two glucose units of maltose, and lactase breaks the bond between galactose and glucose. Once carbohydrates are chemically broken down into single sugar units they are then transported into the inside of intestinal cells. When people do not have enough of the enzyme lactase, lactose is not sufficiently broken down resulting in a condition called lactose intolerance
A condition in which there is incomplete digestion of lactose. It is caused by a deficiency in the enzyme, lactase. Symptoms include diarrhea, bloating, and abdominal cramps. . The undigested lactose moves to the large intestine where bacteria are able to digest it. The bacterial digestion of lactose produces gases leading to symptoms of diarrhea, bloating, and abdominal cramps.
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
It is caused by a deficiency in the enzyme, lactase. Symptoms include diarrhea, bloating, and abdominal cramps. . The undigested lactose moves to the large intestine where bacteria are able to digest it. The bacterial digestion of lactose produces gases leading to symptoms of diarrhea, bloating, and abdominal cramps. Lactose intolerance usually occurs in adults and is associated with race. The National Digestive Diseases Information Clearing House states that African Americans, Hispanic Americans, American Indians, and Asian Americans have much higher incidences of lactose intolerance while those of northern European descent have the least. National Digestive Diseases Information Clearing House. “ Lactose Intolerance.” Last updated April 23, 2012.
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Lactose intolerance usually occurs in adults and is associated with race. The National Digestive Diseases Information Clearing House states that African Americans, Hispanic Americans, American Indians, and Asian Americans have much higher incidences of lactose intolerance while those of northern European descent have the least. National Digestive Diseases Information Clearing House. “ Lactose Intolerance.” Last updated April 23, 2012. http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/lactoseintolerance/. Most people with lactose intolerance can tolerate some amount of dairy products in their diet. The severity of the symptoms depends on how much lactose is consumed and the degree of lactase deficiency. Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
The cells in the small intestine have membranes that contain many transport proteins in order to get the monosaccharides and other nutrients into the blood where they can be distributed to the rest of the body. The first organ to receive glucose, fructose, and galactose is the liver.
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/lactoseintolerance/. Most people with lactose intolerance can tolerate some amount of dairy products in their diet. The severity of the symptoms depends on how much lactose is consumed and the degree of lactase deficiency. Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
The cells in the small intestine have membranes that contain many transport proteins in order to get the monosaccharides and other nutrients into the blood where they can be distributed to the rest of the body. The first organ to receive glucose, fructose, and galactose is the liver. The liver takes them up and converts galactose to glucose, breaks fructose into even smaller carbon-containing units, and either stores glucose as glycogen or exports it back to the blood. How much glucose the liver exports to the blood is under hormonal control and you will soon discover that even the glucose itself regulates its concentrations in the blood. Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth and is most extensive in the small intestine. The resultant monosaccharides are absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to the liver. Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels:
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
The liver takes them up and converts galactose to glucose, breaks fructose into even smaller carbon-containing units, and either stores glucose as glycogen or exports it back to the blood. How much glucose the liver exports to the blood is under hormonal control and you will soon discover that even the glucose itself regulates its concentrations in the blood. Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth and is most extensive in the small intestine. The resultant monosaccharides are absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to the liver. Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Glucose levels in the blood are tightly controlled, as having either too much or too little glucose in the blood can have health consequences. Glucose regulates its levels in the blood via a process called negative feedback. An everyday example of negative feedback is in your oven because it contains a thermostat. When you set the temperature to cook a delicious homemade noodle casserole at 375°F the thermostat senses the temperature and sends an electrical signal to turn the elements on and heat up the oven. When the temperature reaches 375°F the thermostat senses the temperature and sends a signal to turn the element off.
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
The Pancreas and Liver
Glucose levels in the blood are tightly controlled, as having either too much or too little glucose in the blood can have health consequences. Glucose regulates its levels in the blood via a process called negative feedback. An everyday example of negative feedback is in your oven because it contains a thermostat. When you set the temperature to cook a delicious homemade noodle casserole at 375°F the thermostat senses the temperature and sends an electrical signal to turn the elements on and heat up the oven. When the temperature reaches 375°F the thermostat senses the temperature and sends a signal to turn the element off. Similarly, your body senses blood glucose levels and maintains the glucose “temperature” in the target range. The glucose thermostat is located within the cells of the pancreas. After eating a meal containing carbohydrates glucose levels rise in the blood. Insulin-secreting cells in the pancreas sense the increase in blood glucose and release the hormonal message, insulin, into the blood. Insulin sends a signal to the body’s cells to remove glucose from the blood by transporting to the insides of cells and to use it to make energy or for building macromolecules.
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Similarly, your body senses blood glucose levels and maintains the glucose “temperature” in the target range. The glucose thermostat is located within the cells of the pancreas. After eating a meal containing carbohydrates glucose levels rise in the blood. Insulin-secreting cells in the pancreas sense the increase in blood glucose and release the hormonal message, insulin, into the blood. Insulin sends a signal to the body’s cells to remove glucose from the blood by transporting to the insides of cells and to use it to make energy or for building macromolecules. In the case of muscle tissue and the liver, insulin sends the biological message to store glucose away as glycogen. The presence of insulin in the blood signifies to the body that it has just been fed and to use the fuel. Insulin has an opposing hormone called glucagon. As the time after a meal increases, glucose levels decrease in the blood. Glucagon-secreting cells in the pancreas sense the drop in glucose and, in response, release glucagon into the blood.
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
In the case of muscle tissue and the liver, insulin sends the biological message to store glucose away as glycogen. The presence of insulin in the blood signifies to the body that it has just been fed and to use the fuel. Insulin has an opposing hormone called glucagon. As the time after a meal increases, glucose levels decrease in the blood. Glucagon-secreting cells in the pancreas sense the drop in glucose and, in response, release glucagon into the blood. Glucagon communicates to the cells in the body to stop using all the glucose. More specifically, it signals the liver to break down glycogen and release the stored glucose into the blood, so that glucose levels stay within the target range and all cells get the needed fuel to function properly. Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
Almost all of the carbohydrates, except for dietary fiber and resistant starches, are efficiently digested and absorbed into the body. Some of the remaining indigestible carbohydrates are broken down by enzymes released by bacteria in the large intestine.
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Glucagon communicates to the cells in the body to stop using all the glucose. More specifically, it signals the liver to break down glycogen and release the stored glucose into the blood, so that glucose levels stay within the target range and all cells get the needed fuel to function properly. Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
Almost all of the carbohydrates, except for dietary fiber and resistant starches, are efficiently digested and absorbed into the body. Some of the remaining indigestible carbohydrates are broken down by enzymes released by bacteria in the large intestine. The products of bacterial digestion of these slow-releasing carbohydrates are short-chain fatty acids and some gases. The short-chain fatty acids are either used by the bacteria to make energy and grow, are eliminated in the feces, or are absorbed into cells of the colon, with a small amount being transported to the liver. Colonic cells use the short-chain fatty acids to support some of their functions. The liver can also metabolize the short-chain fatty acids into cellular energy. The yield of energy from dietary fiber is about 2 kilocalories per gram for humans, but is highly dependent upon the fiber type, with soluble fibers and resistant starches yielding more energy than insoluble fibers.
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Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
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4.2
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Learning Objective
From the Mouth to the Stomach
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Absorption: Going to the Blood Stream
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels: The Pancreas and Liver
Leftover Carbohydrates: The Large Intestine
A Carbohydrate Feast
Glycemic Index
Interactive 4.1
Balancing the Thanksgiving Feast
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
The products of bacterial digestion of these slow-releasing carbohydrates are short-chain fatty acids and some gases. The short-chain fatty acids are either used by the bacteria to make energy and grow, are eliminated in the feces, or are absorbed into cells of the colon, with a small amount being transported to the liver. Colonic cells use the short-chain fatty acids to support some of their functions. The liver can also metabolize the short-chain fatty acids into cellular energy. The yield of energy from dietary fiber is about 2 kilocalories per gram for humans, but is highly dependent upon the fiber type, with soluble fibers and resistant starches yielding more energy than insoluble fibers. Since dietary fiber is digested much less in the gastrointestinal tract than other carbohydrate types (simple sugars, many starches) the rise in blood glucose after eating them is less, and slower. These physiological attributes of high-fiber foods (i.e. whole grains) are linked to a decrease in weight gain and reduced risk of chronic diseases, such as Type 2 diabetes
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The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
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4.3
The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
4.3 The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
Learning Objective
Energy Production
Energy Storage
Building Macromolecules
Sparing Protein
Lipid Metabolism
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
4.3 The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
Learning Objective
List four primary functions of carbohydrates in the human body. There are five primary functions of carbohydrates in the human body. They are energy production, energy storage, building macromolecules, sparing protein, and assisting in lipid metabolism. Energy Production
The primary role of carbohydrates is to supply energy to all cells in the body. Many cells prefer glucose as a source of energy versus other compounds like fatty acids. Some cells, such as red blood cells, are only able to produce cellular energy from glucose. The brain is also highly sensitive to low blood-glucose levels because it uses only glucose to produce energy and function (unless under extreme starvation conditions). About 70 percent of the glucose entering the body from digestion is redistributed (by the liver) back into the blood for use by other tissues. Cells that require energy remove the glucose from the blood with a transport protein in their membranes. The energy from glucose comes from the chemical bonds between the carbon atoms.
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The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
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4.3
The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
4.3 The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
Learning Objective
Energy Production
Energy Storage
Building Macromolecules
Sparing Protein
Lipid Metabolism
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Some cells, such as red blood cells, are only able to produce cellular energy from glucose. The brain is also highly sensitive to low blood-glucose levels because it uses only glucose to produce energy and function (unless under extreme starvation conditions). About 70 percent of the glucose entering the body from digestion is redistributed (by the liver) back into the blood for use by other tissues. Cells that require energy remove the glucose from the blood with a transport protein in their membranes. The energy from glucose comes from the chemical bonds between the carbon atoms. Sunlight energy was required to produce these high-energy bonds in the process of photosynthesis. Cells in our bodies break these bonds and capture the energy to perform cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is basically a controlled burning of glucose versus an uncontrolled burning. A cell uses many chemical reactions in multiple enzymatic steps to slow the release of energy (no explosion) and more efficiently capture the energy held within the chemical bonds in glucose. The first stage in the breakdown of glucose is called glycolysis.
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The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
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4.3
The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
4.3 The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
Learning Objective
Energy Production
Energy Storage
Building Macromolecules
Sparing Protein
Lipid Metabolism
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Sunlight energy was required to produce these high-energy bonds in the process of photosynthesis. Cells in our bodies break these bonds and capture the energy to perform cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is basically a controlled burning of glucose versus an uncontrolled burning. A cell uses many chemical reactions in multiple enzymatic steps to slow the release of energy (no explosion) and more efficiently capture the energy held within the chemical bonds in glucose. The first stage in the breakdown of glucose is called glycolysis. Glycolysis
The first stage of glucose breakdown; a ten-step enzymatic process that splits glucose into two three-carbon molecules and yields two molecules of ATP. , or the splitting of glucose, occurs in an intricate series of ten enzymatic-reaction steps. The second stage of glucose breakdown occurs in the energy factory organelles, called mitochondria. One carbon atom and two oxygen atoms are removed, yielding more energy.
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The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
|
4.3
The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
4.3 The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
Learning Objective
Energy Production
Energy Storage
Building Macromolecules
Sparing Protein
Lipid Metabolism
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Glycolysis
The first stage of glucose breakdown; a ten-step enzymatic process that splits glucose into two three-carbon molecules and yields two molecules of ATP. , or the splitting of glucose, occurs in an intricate series of ten enzymatic-reaction steps. The second stage of glucose breakdown occurs in the energy factory organelles, called mitochondria. One carbon atom and two oxygen atoms are removed, yielding more energy. The energy from these carbon bonds is carried to another area of the mitochondria, making the cellular energy available in a form cells can use. Cellular respiration is the process by which energy is captured from glucose. Energy Storage
Figure 4.5
The structure of glycogen enables its rapid mobilization into free glucose to power cells. If the body already has enough energy to support its functions, the excess glucose is stored as glycogen (the majority of which is stored in the muscle and liver). A molecule of glycogen may contain in excess of fifty thousand single glucose units and is highly branched, allowing for the rapid dissemination of glucose when it is needed to make cellular energy ( Figure 4.5 ).
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The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
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4.3
The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
4.3 The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
Learning Objective
Energy Production
Energy Storage
Building Macromolecules
Sparing Protein
Lipid Metabolism
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
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The energy from these carbon bonds is carried to another area of the mitochondria, making the cellular energy available in a form cells can use. Cellular respiration is the process by which energy is captured from glucose. Energy Storage
Figure 4.5
The structure of glycogen enables its rapid mobilization into free glucose to power cells. If the body already has enough energy to support its functions, the excess glucose is stored as glycogen (the majority of which is stored in the muscle and liver). A molecule of glycogen may contain in excess of fifty thousand single glucose units and is highly branched, allowing for the rapid dissemination of glucose when it is needed to make cellular energy ( Figure 4.5 ). The amount of glycogen in the body at any one time is equivalent to about 4,000 kilocalories—3,000 in muscle tissue and 1,000 in the liver. Prolonged muscle use (such as exercise for longer than a few hours) can deplete the glycogen energy reserve. Remember also from Chapter 3 "Nutrition and the Human Body" that this is referred to as “hitting the wall” or “bonking” and is characterized by fatigue and a decrease in exercise performance. The weakening of muscles sets in because it takes longer to transform the chemical energy in fatty acids and proteins to usable energy than glucose. After prolonged exercise, glycogen is gone and muscles must rely more on lipids and proteins as an energy source.
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4.3
The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
4.3 The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
Learning Objective
Energy Production
Energy Storage
Building Macromolecules
Sparing Protein
Lipid Metabolism
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
The amount of glycogen in the body at any one time is equivalent to about 4,000 kilocalories—3,000 in muscle tissue and 1,000 in the liver. Prolonged muscle use (such as exercise for longer than a few hours) can deplete the glycogen energy reserve. Remember also from Chapter 3 "Nutrition and the Human Body" that this is referred to as “hitting the wall” or “bonking” and is characterized by fatigue and a decrease in exercise performance. The weakening of muscles sets in because it takes longer to transform the chemical energy in fatty acids and proteins to usable energy than glucose. After prolonged exercise, glycogen is gone and muscles must rely more on lipids and proteins as an energy source. Athletes can increase their glycogen reserve modestly by reducing training intensity and increasing their carbohydrate intake to between 60 and 70 percent of total calories three to five days prior to an event. People who are not hardcore training and choose to run a 5-kilometer race for fun do not need to consume a big plate of pasta prior to a race since without long-term intense training the adaptation of increased muscle glycogen will not happen. The liver, like muscle, can store glucose energy as a glycogen, but in contrast to muscle tissue it will sacrifice its stored glucose energy to other tissues in the body when blood glucose is low. Approximately one-quarter of total body glycogen content is in the liver (which is equivalent to about a four-hour supply of glucose) but this is highly dependent on activity level. The liver uses this glycogen reserve as a way to keep blood-glucose levels within a narrow range between meal times.
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The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
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4.3
The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
4.3 The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
Learning Objective
Energy Production
Energy Storage
Building Macromolecules
Sparing Protein
Lipid Metabolism
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Athletes can increase their glycogen reserve modestly by reducing training intensity and increasing their carbohydrate intake to between 60 and 70 percent of total calories three to five days prior to an event. People who are not hardcore training and choose to run a 5-kilometer race for fun do not need to consume a big plate of pasta prior to a race since without long-term intense training the adaptation of increased muscle glycogen will not happen. The liver, like muscle, can store glucose energy as a glycogen, but in contrast to muscle tissue it will sacrifice its stored glucose energy to other tissues in the body when blood glucose is low. Approximately one-quarter of total body glycogen content is in the liver (which is equivalent to about a four-hour supply of glucose) but this is highly dependent on activity level. The liver uses this glycogen reserve as a way to keep blood-glucose levels within a narrow range between meal times. When the liver’s glycogen supply is exhausted, glucose is made from amino acids obtained from the destruction of proteins in order to maintain metabolic homeostasis. Building Macromolecules
Although most absorbed glucose is used to make energy, some glucose is converted to ribose and deoxyribose, which are essential building blocks of important macromolecules, such as RNA, DNA, and ATP ( Figure 4.6 ). Glucose is additionally utilized to make the molecule NADPH, which is important for protection against oxidative stress and is used in many other chemical reactions in the body. If all of the energy, glycogen-storing capacity, and building needs of the body are met, excess glucose can be used to make fat. This is why a diet too high in carbohydrates and calories can add on the fat pounds—a topic that will be discussed shortly.
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The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
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4.3
The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
4.3 The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
Learning Objective
Energy Production
Energy Storage
Building Macromolecules
Sparing Protein
Lipid Metabolism
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
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When the liver’s glycogen supply is exhausted, glucose is made from amino acids obtained from the destruction of proteins in order to maintain metabolic homeostasis. Building Macromolecules
Although most absorbed glucose is used to make energy, some glucose is converted to ribose and deoxyribose, which are essential building blocks of important macromolecules, such as RNA, DNA, and ATP ( Figure 4.6 ). Glucose is additionally utilized to make the molecule NADPH, which is important for protection against oxidative stress and is used in many other chemical reactions in the body. If all of the energy, glycogen-storing capacity, and building needs of the body are met, excess glucose can be used to make fat. This is why a diet too high in carbohydrates and calories can add on the fat pounds—a topic that will be discussed shortly. Figure 4.6
The sugar molecule deoxyribose is used to build the backbone of DNA. © Shutterstock
Sparing Protein
In a situation where there is not enough glucose to meet the body’s needs, glucose is synthesized from amino acids. Because there is no storage molecule of amino acids, this process requires the destruction of proteins, primarily from muscle tissue. The presence of adequate glucose basically spares the breakdown of proteins from being used to make glucose needed by the body. Lipid Metabolism
As blood-glucose levels rise, the use of lipids as an energy source is inhibited.
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4.3
The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
4.3 The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
Learning Objective
Energy Production
Energy Storage
Building Macromolecules
Sparing Protein
Lipid Metabolism
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
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Figure 4.6
The sugar molecule deoxyribose is used to build the backbone of DNA. © Shutterstock
Sparing Protein
In a situation where there is not enough glucose to meet the body’s needs, glucose is synthesized from amino acids. Because there is no storage molecule of amino acids, this process requires the destruction of proteins, primarily from muscle tissue. The presence of adequate glucose basically spares the breakdown of proteins from being used to make glucose needed by the body. Lipid Metabolism
As blood-glucose levels rise, the use of lipids as an energy source is inhibited. Thus, glucose additionally has a “fat-sparing” effect. This is because an increase in blood glucose stimulates release of the hormone insulin, which tells cells to use glucose (instead of lipids) to make energy. Adequate glucose levels in the blood also prevent the development of ketosis. Ketosis is a metabolic condition resulting from an elevation of ketone bodies in the blood. Ketone bodies are an alternative energy source that cells can use when glucose supply is insufficient, such as during fasting.
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4.3
The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
4.3 The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
Learning Objective
Energy Production
Energy Storage
Building Macromolecules
Sparing Protein
Lipid Metabolism
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
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Thus, glucose additionally has a “fat-sparing” effect. This is because an increase in blood glucose stimulates release of the hormone insulin, which tells cells to use glucose (instead of lipids) to make energy. Adequate glucose levels in the blood also prevent the development of ketosis. Ketosis is a metabolic condition resulting from an elevation of ketone bodies in the blood. Ketone bodies are an alternative energy source that cells can use when glucose supply is insufficient, such as during fasting. Ketone bodies are acidic and high elevations in the blood can cause it to become too acidic. This is rare in healthy adults, but can occur in alcoholics, people who are malnourished, and in individuals who have Type 1 diabetes. The minimum amount of carbohydrate in the diet required to inhibit ketosis in adults is 50 grams per day. Carbohydrates are critical to support life’s most basic function—the production of energy. Without energy none of the other life processes are performed.
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4.3
The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
4.3 The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
Learning Objective
Energy Production
Energy Storage
Building Macromolecules
Sparing Protein
Lipid Metabolism
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
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Ketone bodies are acidic and high elevations in the blood can cause it to become too acidic. This is rare in healthy adults, but can occur in alcoholics, people who are malnourished, and in individuals who have Type 1 diabetes. The minimum amount of carbohydrate in the diet required to inhibit ketosis in adults is 50 grams per day. Carbohydrates are critical to support life’s most basic function—the production of energy. Without energy none of the other life processes are performed. Although our bodies can synthesize glucose it comes at the cost of protein destruction. As with all nutrients though, carbohydrates are to be consumed in moderation as having too much or too little in the diet may lead to health problems. Key Takeaways
The four primary functions of carbohydrates in the body are to provide energy, store energy, build macromolecules, and spare protein and fat for other uses. Glucose energy is stored as glycogen, with the majority of it in the muscle and liver. The liver uses its glycogen reserve as a way to keep blood-glucose levels within a narrow range between meal times.
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4.3
The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
4.3 The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
Learning Objective
Energy Production
Energy Storage
Building Macromolecules
Sparing Protein
Lipid Metabolism
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
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Although our bodies can synthesize glucose it comes at the cost of protein destruction. As with all nutrients though, carbohydrates are to be consumed in moderation as having too much or too little in the diet may lead to health problems. Key Takeaways
The four primary functions of carbohydrates in the body are to provide energy, store energy, build macromolecules, and spare protein and fat for other uses. Glucose energy is stored as glycogen, with the majority of it in the muscle and liver. The liver uses its glycogen reserve as a way to keep blood-glucose levels within a narrow range between meal times. Some glucose is also used as building blocks of important macromolecules, such as RNA, DNA, and ATP. The presence of adequate glucose in the body spares the breakdown of proteins from being used to make glucose needed by the body. Discussion Starters
Discuss two reasons it is essential to include carbohydrates in your diet. Why is it necessary for the body to spare protein?
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
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What Are Lipids? 5.1 What Are Lipids? Learning Objective
Explain the role of lipids in overall health. Lipids are important fats that serve different roles in the human body. A common misconception is that fat is simply fattening. However, fat is probably the reason we are all here. Throughout history, there have been many instances when food was scarce. Our ability to store excess caloric energy as fat for future usage allowed us to continue as a species during these times of famine. So, normal fat reserves are a signal that metabolic processes are efficient and a person is healthy. Lipids are a family of organic compounds that are mostly insoluble in water.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
However, fat is probably the reason we are all here. Throughout history, there have been many instances when food was scarce. Our ability to store excess caloric energy as fat for future usage allowed us to continue as a species during these times of famine. So, normal fat reserves are a signal that metabolic processes are efficient and a person is healthy. Lipids are a family of organic compounds that are mostly insoluble in water. Composed of fats and oils, lipids are molecules that yield high energy and have a chemical composition mainly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Lipids perform three primary biological functions within the body: they serve as structural components of cell membranes, function as energy storehouses, and function as important signaling molecules. The three main types of lipids are triacylglycerols, phospholipids, and sterols. Triacylglycerols (also known as triglycerides) make up more than 95 percent of lipids in the diet and are commonly found in fried foods, vegetable oil, butter, whole milk, cheese, cream cheese, and some meats.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Composed of fats and oils, lipids are molecules that yield high energy and have a chemical composition mainly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Lipids perform three primary biological functions within the body: they serve as structural components of cell membranes, function as energy storehouses, and function as important signaling molecules. The three main types of lipids are triacylglycerols, phospholipids, and sterols. Triacylglycerols (also known as triglycerides) make up more than 95 percent of lipids in the diet and are commonly found in fried foods, vegetable oil, butter, whole milk, cheese, cream cheese, and some meats. Naturally occurring triacylglycerols are found in many foods, including avocados, olives, corn, and nuts. We commonly call the triacylglycerols in our food “fats” and “oils.” Fats are lipids that are solid at room temperature, whereas oils are liquid. As with most fats, triacylglycerols do not dissolve in water. The terms fats, oils, and triacylglycerols are discretionary and can be used interchangeably.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Naturally occurring triacylglycerols are found in many foods, including avocados, olives, corn, and nuts. We commonly call the triacylglycerols in our food “fats” and “oils.” Fats are lipids that are solid at room temperature, whereas oils are liquid. As with most fats, triacylglycerols do not dissolve in water. The terms fats, oils, and triacylglycerols are discretionary and can be used interchangeably. In this chapter when we use the word fat, we are referring to triacylglycerols. Phospholipids
The second most common of the three basic lipids. Similar to triacylglycerols, phospholipids have an acid containing phosphorus in place of one of the fatty acids. These lipids appear in all cell membranes. make up only about 2 percent of dietary lipids.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
In this chapter when we use the word fat, we are referring to triacylglycerols. Phospholipids
The second most common of the three basic lipids. Similar to triacylglycerols, phospholipids have an acid containing phosphorus in place of one of the fatty acids. These lipids appear in all cell membranes. make up only about 2 percent of dietary lipids. They are water-soluble and are found in both plants and animals. Phospholipids are crucial for building the protective barrier, or membrane, around your body’s cells. In fact, phospholipids are synthesized in the body to form cell and organelle membranes. In blood and body fluids, phospholipids form structures in which fat is enclosed and transported throughout the bloodstream. Sterols are the least common type of lipid.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
They are water-soluble and are found in both plants and animals. Phospholipids are crucial for building the protective barrier, or membrane, around your body’s cells. In fact, phospholipids are synthesized in the body to form cell and organelle membranes. In blood and body fluids, phospholipids form structures in which fat is enclosed and transported throughout the bloodstream. Sterols are the least common type of lipid. Cholesterol is perhaps the best well-known sterol. Though cholesterol has a notorious reputation, the body gets only a small amount of its cholesterol through food—the body produces most of it. Cholesterol is an important component of the cell membrane and is required for the synthesis of sex hormones, vitamin D, and bile salts. Later in this chapter, we will examine each of these lipids in more detail and discover how their different structures function to keep your body working. Figure 5.1 Types of Lipids
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
The excess energy from the food we eat is digested and incorporated into adipose tissue
Fatty tissue in the body that consists of masses of fat-storing cells.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Cholesterol is perhaps the best well-known sterol. Though cholesterol has a notorious reputation, the body gets only a small amount of its cholesterol through food—the body produces most of it. Cholesterol is an important component of the cell membrane and is required for the synthesis of sex hormones, vitamin D, and bile salts. Later in this chapter, we will examine each of these lipids in more detail and discover how their different structures function to keep your body working. Figure 5.1 Types of Lipids
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
The excess energy from the food we eat is digested and incorporated into adipose tissue
Fatty tissue in the body that consists of masses of fat-storing cells. , or fatty tissue. Most of the energy required by the human body is provided by carbohydrates and lipids. As discussed in Chapter 4 "Carbohydrates", glucose is stored in the body as glycogen. While glycogen provides a ready source of energy, lipids primarily function as an energy reserve. As you may recall, glycogen is quite bulky with heavy water content, thus the body cannot store too much for long.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
, or fatty tissue. Most of the energy required by the human body is provided by carbohydrates and lipids. As discussed in Chapter 4 "Carbohydrates", glucose is stored in the body as glycogen. While glycogen provides a ready source of energy, lipids primarily function as an energy reserve. As you may recall, glycogen is quite bulky with heavy water content, thus the body cannot store too much for long. Alternatively, fats are packed together tightly without water and store far greater amounts of energy in a reduced space. A fat gram is densely concentrated with energy—it contains more than double the amount of energy than a gram of carbohydrate. Energy is needed to power the muscles for all the physical work and play an average person or child engages in. For instance, the stored energy in muscles propels an athlete down the track, spurs a dancer’s legs to showcase the latest fancy steps, and keeps all the moving parts of the body functioning smoothly. Unlike other body cells that can store fat in limited supplies, fat cells are specialized for fat storage and are able to expand almost indefinitely in size.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Alternatively, fats are packed together tightly without water and store far greater amounts of energy in a reduced space. A fat gram is densely concentrated with energy—it contains more than double the amount of energy than a gram of carbohydrate. Energy is needed to power the muscles for all the physical work and play an average person or child engages in. For instance, the stored energy in muscles propels an athlete down the track, spurs a dancer’s legs to showcase the latest fancy steps, and keeps all the moving parts of the body functioning smoothly. Unlike other body cells that can store fat in limited supplies, fat cells are specialized for fat storage and are able to expand almost indefinitely in size. An overabundance of adipose tissue can result in undue stress on the body and can be detrimental to your health. A serious impact of excess fat is the accumulation of too much cholesterol
An important component of the cell membrane. Required for the synthesis of sex hormones, vitamin D, and bile salts. in the arterial wall, which can thicken the walls of arteries and lead to cardiovascular disease
A disease of the heart or blood vessels. .
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
An overabundance of adipose tissue can result in undue stress on the body and can be detrimental to your health. A serious impact of excess fat is the accumulation of too much cholesterol
An important component of the cell membrane. Required for the synthesis of sex hormones, vitamin D, and bile salts. in the arterial wall, which can thicken the walls of arteries and lead to cardiovascular disease
A disease of the heart or blood vessels. . Thus, while some body fat is critical to our survival and good health, in large quantities it can be a deterrent to maintaining good health. Regulating and Signaling
Triacylglycerols
The most common of the three basic classes of lipids and the main form fat takes in both diet and the human body. A triacylglycerol is made up of three molecules of fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol. control the body’s internal climate, maintaining constant temperature. Those who don’t have enough fat in their bodies tend to feel cold sooner, are often fatigued, and have pressure sores on their skin from fatty acid deficiency.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Thus, while some body fat is critical to our survival and good health, in large quantities it can be a deterrent to maintaining good health. Regulating and Signaling
Triacylglycerols
The most common of the three basic classes of lipids and the main form fat takes in both diet and the human body. A triacylglycerol is made up of three molecules of fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol. control the body’s internal climate, maintaining constant temperature. Those who don’t have enough fat in their bodies tend to feel cold sooner, are often fatigued, and have pressure sores on their skin from fatty acid deficiency. Triacylglycerols also help the body produce and regulate hormones. For example, adipose tissue secretes the hormone leptin, which regulates appetite. In the reproductive system, fatty acids are required for proper reproductive health; women who lack proper amounts may stop menstruating and become infertile. Omega-3 and omega-6 essential fatty acids help regulate cholesterol and blood clotting and control inflammation in the joints, tissues, and bloodstream.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Triacylglycerols also help the body produce and regulate hormones. For example, adipose tissue secretes the hormone leptin, which regulates appetite. In the reproductive system, fatty acids are required for proper reproductive health; women who lack proper amounts may stop menstruating and become infertile. Omega-3 and omega-6 essential fatty acids help regulate cholesterol and blood clotting and control inflammation in the joints, tissues, and bloodstream. Fats also play important functional roles in sustaining nerve impulse transmission, memory storage, and tissue structure. More specifically in the brain, lipids are focal to brain activity in structure and in function. They help form nerve cell membranes, insulate neurons, and facilitate the signaling of electrical impulses throughout the brain. Lipids serve as signaling molecules; they are catalysts of electrical impulse activity within the brain.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Fats also play important functional roles in sustaining nerve impulse transmission, memory storage, and tissue structure. More specifically in the brain, lipids are focal to brain activity in structure and in function. They help form nerve cell membranes, insulate neurons, and facilitate the signaling of electrical impulses throughout the brain. Lipids serve as signaling molecules; they are catalysts of electrical impulse activity within the brain. © Thinkstock
Insulating and Protecting
Did you know that up to 30 percent of body weight is comprised of fat tissue? Some of this is made up of visceral fat or adipose tissue surrounding delicate organs. Vital organs such as the heart, kidneys, and liver are protected by visceral fat. The composition of the brain is outstandingly 60 percent fat, demonstrating the major structural role that fat serves within the body. You may be most familiar with subcutaneous fat, or fat underneath the skin.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
© Thinkstock
Insulating and Protecting
Did you know that up to 30 percent of body weight is comprised of fat tissue? Some of this is made up of visceral fat or adipose tissue surrounding delicate organs. Vital organs such as the heart, kidneys, and liver are protected by visceral fat. The composition of the brain is outstandingly 60 percent fat, demonstrating the major structural role that fat serves within the body. You may be most familiar with subcutaneous fat, or fat underneath the skin. This blanket layer of tissue insulates the body from extreme temperatures and helps keep the internal climate under control. It pads our hands and buttocks and prevents friction, as these areas frequently come in contact with hard surfaces. It also gives the body the extra padding required when engaging in physically demanding activities such as ice- or roller skating, horseback riding, or snowboarding. Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
The dietary fats in the foods we eat break down in our digestive systems and begin the transport of precious micronutrients. By carrying fat-soluble nutrients through the digestive process, intestinal absorption is improved.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
This blanket layer of tissue insulates the body from extreme temperatures and helps keep the internal climate under control. It pads our hands and buttocks and prevents friction, as these areas frequently come in contact with hard surfaces. It also gives the body the extra padding required when engaging in physically demanding activities such as ice- or roller skating, horseback riding, or snowboarding. Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
The dietary fats in the foods we eat break down in our digestive systems and begin the transport of precious micronutrients. By carrying fat-soluble nutrients through the digestive process, intestinal absorption is improved. This improved absorption is also known as increased bioavailability
Refers to the proportion of nutrients that are absorbed or become available in the bloodstream. . Fat-soluble nutrients are especially important for good health and exhibit a variety of functions. Vitamins A, D, E, and K—the fat-soluble vitamins—are mainly found in foods containing fat. Some fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamin A) are also found in naturally fat-free foods such as green leafy vegetables, carrots, and broccoli.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
This improved absorption is also known as increased bioavailability
Refers to the proportion of nutrients that are absorbed or become available in the bloodstream. . Fat-soluble nutrients are especially important for good health and exhibit a variety of functions. Vitamins A, D, E, and K—the fat-soluble vitamins—are mainly found in foods containing fat. Some fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamin A) are also found in naturally fat-free foods such as green leafy vegetables, carrots, and broccoli. These vitamins are best absorbed when combined with foods containing fat. Fats also increase the bioavailability of compounds known as phytochemicals
Nonessential plant compounds considered to have a beneficial impact on human health. , which are plant constituents such as lycopene (found in tomatoes) and beta-carotene (found in carrots). Phytochemicals are believed to promote health and well-being. As a result, eating tomatoes with olive oil or salad dressing will facilitate lycopene absorption.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
These vitamins are best absorbed when combined with foods containing fat. Fats also increase the bioavailability of compounds known as phytochemicals
Nonessential plant compounds considered to have a beneficial impact on human health. , which are plant constituents such as lycopene (found in tomatoes) and beta-carotene (found in carrots). Phytochemicals are believed to promote health and well-being. As a result, eating tomatoes with olive oil or salad dressing will facilitate lycopene absorption. Other essential nutrients, such as essential fatty acids, are constituents of the fats themselves and serve as building blocks of a cell. Figure 5.2 Food Sources for Fat Soluble Vitamins
Note that removing the lipid elements from food also takes away the food’s fat-soluble vitamin content. When products such as grain and dairy are processed, these essential nutrients are lost. Manufacturers replace these nutrients through a process called enrichment. Tools for Change
Remember, fat-soluble nutrients require fat for effective absorption.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Other essential nutrients, such as essential fatty acids, are constituents of the fats themselves and serve as building blocks of a cell. Figure 5.2 Food Sources for Fat Soluble Vitamins
Note that removing the lipid elements from food also takes away the food’s fat-soluble vitamin content. When products such as grain and dairy are processed, these essential nutrients are lost. Manufacturers replace these nutrients through a process called enrichment. Tools for Change
Remember, fat-soluble nutrients require fat for effective absorption. For your next snack, look for foods that contain vitamins A, D, E, and K. Do these foods also contain fat that will help you absorb them? If not, think of ways to add a bit of healthy fat to aid in their absorption. ( For more details on healthy fat, refer to Section 5.4 "Understanding Blood Cholesterol" of this chapter.) The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Athletes have high-energy requirements. © Thinkstock
Fat-rich foods naturally have a high caloric density.
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What Are Lipids?
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5.1
What Are Lipids?
5.1 What Are Lipids?
Learning Objective
The Functions of Lipids in the Body
Storing Energy
Regulating and Signaling
Insulating and Protecting
Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
Tools for Change
The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Smell and Taste
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
For your next snack, look for foods that contain vitamins A, D, E, and K. Do these foods also contain fat that will help you absorb them? If not, think of ways to add a bit of healthy fat to aid in their absorption. ( For more details on healthy fat, refer to Section 5.4 "Understanding Blood Cholesterol" of this chapter.) The Role of Lipids in Food
High Energy Source
Athletes have high-energy requirements. © Thinkstock
Fat-rich foods naturally have a high caloric density. Foods that are high in fat contain more calories than foods high in protein or carbohydrates. As a result, high-fat foods are a convenient source of energy. For example, 1 gram of fat or oil provides 9 kilocalories of energy, compared with 4 kilocalories found in 1 gram of carbohydrate or protein. Depending on the level of physical activity and on nutritional needs, fat requirements vary greatly from person to person. When energy needs are high, the body welcomes the high-caloric densit
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Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
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5.3
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
From the Mouth to the Stomach
Going to the Bloodstream
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
Summarize the steps in lipid digestion and absorption. Explain how lipids are used for energy and stored in the body. Lipids are large molecules and generally are not water-soluble. Like carbohydrates and protein, lipids are broken into small components for absorption. Since most of our digestive enzymes are water-based, how does the body break down fat and make it available for the various functions it must perform in the human body? From the Mouth to the Stomach
The first step in the digestion of triacylglycerols and phospholipids begins in the mouth as lipids encounter saliva. Next, the physical action of chewing coupled with the action of emulsifiers enables the digestive enzymes to do their tasks. The enzyme lingual lipase
An enzyme responsible for the breakdown of triacylglycerols and phospholipids. , along with a small amount of phospholipid as an emulsifier, initiates the process of digestion. These actions cause the fats to become more accessible to the digestive enzymes.
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Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
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5.3
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
From the Mouth to the Stomach
Going to the Bloodstream
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
From the Mouth to the Stomach
The first step in the digestion of triacylglycerols and phospholipids begins in the mouth as lipids encounter saliva. Next, the physical action of chewing coupled with the action of emulsifiers enables the digestive enzymes to do their tasks. The enzyme lingual lipase
An enzyme responsible for the breakdown of triacylglycerols and phospholipids. , along with a small amount of phospholipid as an emulsifier, initiates the process of digestion. These actions cause the fats to become more accessible to the digestive enzymes. As a result, the fats become tiny droplets and separate from the watery components. Figure 5.4 Lipid Digestion
In the stomach, gastric lipase starts to break down triacylglycerols into diglycerides
A product of lipid digestion, consisting of a glycerol molecule that has two fatty acids attached. and fatty acids. Within two to four hours after eating a meal, roughly 30 percent of the triacylglycerols are converted to diglycerides and fatty acids. The stomach’s churning and contractions help to disperse the fat molecules, while the diglycerides derived in this process act as further emulsifiers.
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Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
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5.3
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
From the Mouth to the Stomach
Going to the Bloodstream
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
As a result, the fats become tiny droplets and separate from the watery components. Figure 5.4 Lipid Digestion
In the stomach, gastric lipase starts to break down triacylglycerols into diglycerides
A product of lipid digestion, consisting of a glycerol molecule that has two fatty acids attached. and fatty acids. Within two to four hours after eating a meal, roughly 30 percent of the triacylglycerols are converted to diglycerides and fatty acids. The stomach’s churning and contractions help to disperse the fat molecules, while the diglycerides derived in this process act as further emulsifiers. However, even amid all of this activity, very little fat digestion occurs in the stomach. Going to the Bloodstream
As stomach contents enter the small intestine, the digestive system sets out to manage a small hurdle, namely, to combine the separated fats with its own watery fluids. The solution to this hurdle is bile
A substance secreted by the liver that aids in the absorption and digestion of fats. . Bile contains bile salts, lecithin, and substances derived from cholesterol so it acts as an emulsifier.
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Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
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5.3
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
From the Mouth to the Stomach
Going to the Bloodstream
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
However, even amid all of this activity, very little fat digestion occurs in the stomach. Going to the Bloodstream
As stomach contents enter the small intestine, the digestive system sets out to manage a small hurdle, namely, to combine the separated fats with its own watery fluids. The solution to this hurdle is bile
A substance secreted by the liver that aids in the absorption and digestion of fats. . Bile contains bile salts, lecithin, and substances derived from cholesterol so it acts as an emulsifier. It attracts and holds on to fat while it is simultaneously attracted to and held on to by water. Emulsification increases the surface area of lipids over a thousand-fold, making them more accessible to the digestive enzymes. Once the stomach contents have been emulsified, fat-breaking enzymes work on the triacylglycerols and diglycerides to sever fatty acids from their glycerol foundations. As pancreatic lipase enters the small intestine, it breaks down the fats into free fatty acids and monoglycerides
A product of lipid digestion, consisting of a glycerol molecule with one fatty acid attached. .
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Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
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5.3
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
From the Mouth to the Stomach
Going to the Bloodstream
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
It attracts and holds on to fat while it is simultaneously attracted to and held on to by water. Emulsification increases the surface area of lipids over a thousand-fold, making them more accessible to the digestive enzymes. Once the stomach contents have been emulsified, fat-breaking enzymes work on the triacylglycerols and diglycerides to sever fatty acids from their glycerol foundations. As pancreatic lipase enters the small intestine, it breaks down the fats into free fatty acids and monoglycerides
A product of lipid digestion, consisting of a glycerol molecule with one fatty acid attached. . Yet again, another hurdle presents itself. How will the fats pass through the watery layer of mucous that coats the absorptive lining of the digestive tract? As before, the answer is bile. Bile salts envelop the fatty acids and monoglycerides to form micelles. Micelles have a fatty acid core with a water-soluble exterior.
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Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
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5.3
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
From the Mouth to the Stomach
Going to the Bloodstream
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Yet again, another hurdle presents itself. How will the fats pass through the watery layer of mucous that coats the absorptive lining of the digestive tract? As before, the answer is bile. Bile salts envelop the fatty acids and monoglycerides to form micelles. Micelles have a fatty acid core with a water-soluble exterior. This allows efficient transportation to the intestinal microvillus. Here, the fat components are released and disseminated into the cells of the digestive tract lining. Fats can travel through the watery environment of the body due to the process of emulsion. Just as lipids require special handling in the digestive tract to move within a water-based environment, they require similar handling to travel in the bloodstream. Inside the intestinal cells, the monoglycerides and fatty acids reassemble themselves into triacylglycerols.
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Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
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5.3
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
From the Mouth to the Stomach
Going to the Bloodstream
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
This allows efficient transportation to the intestinal microvillus. Here, the fat components are released and disseminated into the cells of the digestive tract lining. Fats can travel through the watery environment of the body due to the process of emulsion. Just as lipids require special handling in the digestive tract to move within a water-based environment, they require similar handling to travel in the bloodstream. Inside the intestinal cells, the monoglycerides and fatty acids reassemble themselves into triacylglycerols. Triacylglycerols, cholesterol, and phospholipids form lipoproteins
Proteins that contains a lipid which serves to transport fat through blood and lymph. when joined with a protein carrier. Lipoproteins have an inner core that is primarily made up of triacylglycerols and cholesterol esters (a cholesterol ester is a cholesterol linked to a fatty acid). The outer envelope is made of phospholipids interspersed with proteins and cholesterol. Together they form a chylomicron
Chylomicron clusters form when lipids are combined with carrier proteins in the cells of the intestinal lining.
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Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
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5.3
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
From the Mouth to the Stomach
Going to the Bloodstream
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Triacylglycerols, cholesterol, and phospholipids form lipoproteins
Proteins that contains a lipid which serves to transport fat through blood and lymph. when joined with a protein carrier. Lipoproteins have an inner core that is primarily made up of triacylglycerols and cholesterol esters (a cholesterol ester is a cholesterol linked to a fatty acid). The outer envelope is made of phospholipids interspersed with proteins and cholesterol. Together they form a chylomicron
Chylomicron clusters form when lipids are combined with carrier proteins in the cells of the intestinal lining. Chylomicron is a vehicle of transport for fats throughout the watery environment of the body to the liver and other tissues. , which is a large lipoprotein that now enters the lymphatic system and will soon be released into the bloodstream via the jugular vein in the neck. Chylomicrons transport food fats perfectly through the body’s water-based environment to specific destinations such as the liver and other body tissues. Cholesterols are poorly absorbed when compared to phospholipids and triacylglycerols. Cholesterol absorption is aided by an increase in dietary fat components and is hindered by high fiber content.
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Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
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5.3
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
From the Mouth to the Stomach
Going to the Bloodstream
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
Chylomicron is a vehicle of transport for fats throughout the watery environment of the body to the liver and other tissues. , which is a large lipoprotein that now enters the lymphatic system and will soon be released into the bloodstream via the jugular vein in the neck. Chylomicrons transport food fats perfectly through the body’s water-based environment to specific destinations such as the liver and other body tissues. Cholesterols are poorly absorbed when compared to phospholipids and triacylglycerols. Cholesterol absorption is aided by an increase in dietary fat components and is hindered by high fiber content. This is the reason that a high intake of fiber is recommended to decrease blood cholesterol. Foods high in fiber such as fresh fruits, vegetables, and oats can bind bile salts and cholesterol, preventing their absorption and carrying them out of the colon. If fats are not absorbed properly as is seen in some medical conditions, a person’s stool will contain high amounts of fat. If fat malabsorption persists the condition is known as steatorrhea. Steatorrhea can result from diseases that affect absorption, such as Crohn’s disease and cystic fibrosis.
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Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
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5.3
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
From the Mouth to the Stomach
Going to the Bloodstream
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
This is the reason that a high intake of fiber is recommended to decrease blood cholesterol. Foods high in fiber such as fresh fruits, vegetables, and oats can bind bile salts and cholesterol, preventing their absorption and carrying them out of the colon. If fats are not absorbed properly as is seen in some medical conditions, a person’s stool will contain high amounts of fat. If fat malabsorption persists the condition is known as steatorrhea. Steatorrhea can result from diseases that affect absorption, such as Crohn’s disease and cystic fibrosis. The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Before the prepackaged food industry, fitness centers, and weight-loss programs, our ancestors worked hard to even locate a meal. They made plans, not for losing those last ten pounds to fit into a bathing suit for vacation, but rather for finding food. Today, this is why we can go long periods without eating, whether we are sick with a vanished appetite, our physical activity level has increased, or there is simply no food available. Our bodies reserve fuel for a rainy day. One way the body stores fat was previously touched upon in Chapter 4 "Carbohydrates".
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Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
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5.3
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
From the Mouth to the Stomach
Going to the Bloodstream
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Before the prepackaged food industry, fitness centers, and weight-loss programs, our ancestors worked hard to even locate a meal. They made plans, not for losing those last ten pounds to fit into a bathing suit for vacation, but rather for finding food. Today, this is why we can go long periods without eating, whether we are sick with a vanished appetite, our physical activity level has increased, or there is simply no food available. Our bodies reserve fuel for a rainy day. One way the body stores fat was previously touched upon in Chapter 4 "Carbohydrates". The body transforms carbohydrates into glycogen that is in turn stored in the muscles for energy. When the muscles reach their capacity for glycogen storage, the excess is returned to the liver, where it is converted into triacylglycerols and then stored as fat. In a similar manner, much of the triacylglycerols the body receives from food is transported to fat storehouses within the body if not used for producing energy. The chylomicrons are responsible for shuttling the triacylglycerols to various locations such as the muscles, breasts, external layers under the skin, and internal fat layers of the abdomen, thighs, and buttocks where they are stored by the body in adipose tissue for future use. How is this accomplished?
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Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
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5.3
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
From the Mouth to the Stomach
Going to the Bloodstream
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
The body transforms carbohydrates into glycogen that is in turn stored in the muscles for energy. When the muscles reach their capacity for glycogen storage, the excess is returned to the liver, where it is converted into triacylglycerols and then stored as fat. In a similar manner, much of the triacylglycerols the body receives from food is transported to fat storehouses within the body if not used for producing energy. The chylomicrons are responsible for shuttling the triacylglycerols to various locations such as the muscles, breasts, external layers under the skin, and internal fat layers of the abdomen, thighs, and buttocks where they are stored by the body in adipose tissue for future use. How is this accomplished? Recall that chylomicrons are large lipoproteins that contain a triacylglycerol and fatty-acid core. Capillary walls contain an enzyme called lipoprotein-lipase that dismantles the triacylglycerols in the lipoproteins into fatty acids and glycerol, thus enabling these to enter into the adipose cells. Once inside the adipose cells, the fatty acids and glycerol are reassembled into triacylglycerols and stored for later use. Muscle cells may also take up the fatty acids and use them for muscular work and generating energy. When a person’s energy requirements exceed the amount of available fuel presented from a recent meal or extended physical activity has exhausted glycogen energy reserves, fat reserves are retrieved for energy utilization.
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Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
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5.3
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
From the Mouth to the Stomach
Going to the Bloodstream
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
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Recall that chylomicrons are large lipoproteins that contain a triacylglycerol and fatty-acid core. Capillary walls contain an enzyme called lipoprotein-lipase that dismantles the triacylglycerols in the lipoproteins into fatty acids and glycerol, thus enabling these to enter into the adipose cells. Once inside the adipose cells, the fatty acids and glycerol are reassembled into triacylglycerols and stored for later use. Muscle cells may also take up the fatty acids and use them for muscular work and generating energy. When a person’s energy requirements exceed the amount of available fuel presented from a recent meal or extended physical activity has exhausted glycogen energy reserves, fat reserves are retrieved for energy utilization. As the body calls for additional energy, the adipose tissue responds by dismantling its triacylglycerols and dispensing glycerol and fatty acids directly into the blood. Upon receipt of these substances the energy-hungry cells break them down further into tiny fragments. These fragments go through a series of chemical reactions that yield energy, carbon dioxide, and water. Key Takeaways
In the stomach fat is separated from other food substances. In the small intestines bile emulsifies fats while enzymes digest them.
| 6,772 | 8,040 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_10199263#13_14976702
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http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-nutrition/s09-03-digestion-and-absorption-of-li.html
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Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
|
5.3
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
From the Mouth to the Stomach
Going to the Bloodstream
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
As the body calls for additional energy, the adipose tissue responds by dismantling its triacylglycerols and dispensing glycerol and fatty acids directly into the blood. Upon receipt of these substances the energy-hungry cells break them down further into tiny fragments. These fragments go through a series of chemical reactions that yield energy, carbon dioxide, and water. Key Takeaways
In the stomach fat is separated from other food substances. In the small intestines bile emulsifies fats while enzymes digest them. The intestinal cells absorb the fats. Long-chain fatty acids form a large lipoprotein structure called a chylomicron that transports fats through the lymph system. Chylomicrons are formed in the intestinal cells and carry lipids from the digestive tract into circulation. Short- and medium-fatty chains can be absorbed directly into the bloodstream from the intestinal microvillus because they are water-soluble. Cholesterol absorption is hindered by foods high in fiber.
| 7,518 | 8,512 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_10199263#14_14978227
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http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-nutrition/s09-03-digestion-and-absorption-of-li.html
|
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
|
5.3
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
From the Mouth to the Stomach
Going to the Bloodstream
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
The intestinal cells absorb the fats. Long-chain fatty acids form a large lipoprotein structure called a chylomicron that transports fats through the lymph system. Chylomicrons are formed in the intestinal cells and carry lipids from the digestive tract into circulation. Short- and medium-fatty chains can be absorbed directly into the bloodstream from the intestinal microvillus because they are water-soluble. Cholesterol absorption is hindered by foods high in fiber. When energy supplies are low the body utilizes its stored fat reserves for energy. Discussion Starters
Explain the role of emulsifiers in fat digestion. Name the part of the digestive system where most fat digestion and absorption occurs. Describe the role of bile salts in the digestion of triacylglycerols and phospholipids. Define chylomicron.
| 8,041 | 8,859 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_10199263#15_14979577
|
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-nutrition/s09-03-digestion-and-absorption-of-li.html
|
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
|
5.3
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
5.3 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Learning Objectives
From the Mouth to the Stomach
Going to the Bloodstream
The Truth about Storing and Using Body Fat
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
|
When energy supplies are low the body utilizes its stored fat reserves for energy. Discussion Starters
Explain the role of emulsifiers in fat digestion. Name the part of the digestive system where most fat digestion and absorption occurs. Describe the role of bile salts in the digestion of triacylglycerols and phospholipids. Define chylomicron. Explain how fiber-rich foods affect cholesterol absorption. Discuss the body’s processes for using energy.
| 8,512 | 8,966 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_10208786#0_14980567
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http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-nutrition/s09-06-lipids-and-the-food-industry.html
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Lipids and the Food Industry
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5.6
Lipids and the Food Industry
5.6 Lipids and the Food Industry
Learning Objectives
Hydrogenation: The Good Gone Bad?
Health Implications of Trans Fats
Dietary-Fat Substitutes
Tools for Change
Key Takeaways
Discussion Starters
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Lipids and the Food Industry
5.6 Lipids and the Food Industry
Learning Objectives
Discuss reasons oils are hydrogenated and describe this process. Describe the health effects of trans fats. What is the first thing that comes to mind when you read ingredients such as “partially hydrogenated oil” and “hydrogenated oil” on a food label? Do you think of heart disease, heart health, or atherosclerosis? Most people probably do not. As we uncover what hydrogenation is and why manufacturers use it, you will be better equipped to adhere to healthier dietary choices and promote your heart health. Hydrogenation: The Good Gone Bad? Food manufacturers are aware that fatty acids are susceptible to attack by oxygen molecules because their points of unsaturation render them vulnerable in this regard. When oxygen molecules attack these points of unsaturation the modified fatty acid becomes oxidized.
| 0 | 895 |
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