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Two major disasters struck during 79 and 80. On 24 August 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted, burying the surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under metres of ash and lava; the following year, a fire broke out in Rome that lasted three days and that destroyed a number of important public buildings. Consequently, Titus spent much of his reign coordinating relief efforts and restoring damaged property. On 13 September 81 after barely two years in office, he unexpectedly died of fever during a trip to the Sabine territories.
==== Campaign against the Chatti ====
In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then. He fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries. He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland.
Domitian quickly launched a counteroffensive, personally travelling to the region accompanied by a large force commanded by his praetorian prefect Cornelius Fuscus. Fuscus successfully drove the Dacians back across the border in mid-85, prompting Domitian to return to Rome and celebrate his second triumph.
Domitian firmly believed in the traditional Roman religion, and personally saw to it that ancient customs and morals were observed throughout his reign. In order to justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule, Domitian emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter, perhaps most significantly through the impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. A small chapel dedicated to Jupiter Conservator was also constructed near the house where Domitian had fled to safety on 20 December 69. Later in his reign, he replaced it with a more expansive building, dedicated to Jupiter Custos.
4th century writings by Eusebius of Caesarea maintain that Jews and Christians were heavily persecuted toward the end of Domitian's reign. The Book of Revelation is thought by some to have been written during this period. Although Jews were heavily taxed, no contemporary authors mention trials or executions based on religious offenses other than those within the Roman religion.
At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. The governor of Germania Inferior, Lappius Maximus, moved to the region at once, assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia, Titus Flavius Norbanus. From Spain, Trajan was summoned, while Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard.
Some rulers handled this arrangement with less subtlety than others. Domitian was not so subtle. From the outset of his reign, he stressed the reality of his autocracy. He disliked aristocrats and had no fear of showing it, withdrawing every decision-making power from the Senate, and instead relying on a small set of friends and equestrians to control the important offices of state.
== Death and succession ==
In accordance with an astrological prediction the Emperor believed that he would die around noon, and was therefore restless during this time of the day. On his last day, Domitian was feeling disturbed and asked a servant several times what time it was. The boy, included in the plot, lied, saying that it was much later than noon. More at ease, the Emperor went to his desk to sign some decrees, where he was suddenly approached by Stephanus:
The Fasti Ostienses, the Ostian Calendar, records that the same day the Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor. Despite his political experience, this was a remarkable choice. Nerva was old and childless, and had spent much of his career out of the public light, prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian's assassination.
Modern historians consider this highly implausible however, noting that malicious rumours such as those concerning Domitia's alleged infidelity were eagerly repeated by post-Domitianic authors, and used to highlight the hypocrisy of a ruler publicly preaching a return to Augustan morals, while privately indulging in excesses and presiding over a corrupt court. Nevertheless, the account of Suetonius has dominated imperial historiography for centuries.
The work of the spade and the use of common sense have done much to mitigate the influence of Tacitus and Pliny and redeem the memory of Domitian from infamy or oblivion. But much remains to be done.
== In later arts ==
The Marcus Didius Falco series of crime novels (1989 —) by Lindsey Davis, set during the reign of Vespasian. Domitian appears as a peripheral character, and is named as the primary suspect in the murder being investigated in the first novel, Silver Pigs.
Roman Games: A Plinius Secundus Mystery (2010), a crime novel by Bruce Macbain, featuring Pliny the Younger;
The challenge to race was sent from Oxford in the October term which was accepted by Cambridge. Both boats were built specifically for the race, Cambridge's by Searle and Oxford's by Salter. Oxford were "occasionally looked after" by H. Baxter, who rowed in the 1860 race, and C. G. Lane who represented the Dark Blues in the 1858 and 1859 races. The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 (in the March and December races) and the 1852 race.
As a result of strong winds and a large volume of land water running into the river, the race was re-scheduled for 11am. Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station, handing the Surrey station to Oxford. The starter, Edward Searle, gave the command to start, with neither boat taking an early advantage. By the Star and Garter pub, Cambridge had edged ahead and spurted to take a half-length lead and by the Duke's Head pub, the Light Blues had moved further in front. A steering error from Gaskell, the Cambridge cox, saw their lead eroded such that Oxford led by Craven Cottage. At the football ground, rough water created by one of the nearby steamboats (who, according to MacMichael, had "shamefully put her paddle-wheels into motion") caused a swell to slow the Oxford boat.
As Dean approached the United States, numerous gale warnings were issued. Many of these warnings were issued from North Carolina up to Rhode Island. Small craft advisories were also raised along much of the eastern seaboard, covering places between Cape Cod, Massachusetts to Jupiter Inlet, Florida. In Norfolk, Virginia, the naval station was placed under "hurricane condition 3", meaning that destructive winds were anticipated within 48 hours. In parts of North Carolina, residents were urged to prepare for the storm and remain out of the rough coastal waters.
The 1869 Atlantic hurricane season was the earliest season in the Atlantic hurricane database in which there were at least ten tropical cyclones. Initially there were only three known storms in the year, but additional research uncovered the additional storms. Meteorologist Christopher Landsea estimates up to six storms may remain missing from the official database for each season in this era, due to small tropical cyclone size, sparse ship reports, and relatively unpopulated coastlines. All activity occurred in a three-month period between the middle of August and early October.
At landfall, the hurricane was compact, estimated around 60 mi (97 km) wide. However, less than 10 miles (16 km) west of the center, there were no strong winds. The hurricane produced a storm surge of 8 ft (2.4 m), which was lessened due to it moving ashore at low tide. In Providence, Rhode Island, high waves damaged coastal wharves and left flooding. The hurricane weakened quickly over land, passing just west of Boston early on September 9 as a minimal hurricane. There, the winds downed many trees and left severe damage. All telegraph lines between New York and Boston were cut, although the storm did produce beneficial heavy rainfall. Shortly thereafter it dissipated over Maine. There was one confirmed death in Massachusetts. Offshore Maine, a schooner capsized, killing all but one in the crew.
The only basis for identifying the eighth tropical cyclone of the season was from a report by the bark Crescent Wave. On September 14, the ship encountered strong winds and heavy rainfall about halfway between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde. At the time, the storm was at least 600 mi (970 km) east of the previous hurricane.
The final hurricane of the season was first observed on October 4 by a ship off the southeast coast of North Carolina. With winds estimated at 105 mph (165 km / h), the storm tracked northeastward, passing just east of Martha's Vineyard before moving across Cape Cod late on October 4. As it moved along the coast, the storm produced heavy precipitation, reaching 12.25 in (311 mm) in Canton, Connecticut. The strongest winds did not affect Massachusetts, although a few hours later the hurricane struck just east of Portland, Maine at peak intensity. This made it one of six storms to produce hurricane-force winds in Maine, along with Hurricane Carol in 1953, Hurricane Edna in 1954, Hurricane Donna in 1960, Hurricane Gerda in 1969, and Hurricane Gloria in 1985. In Maine, the high rainfall caused widespread flooding, while the high winds destroyed at least 90 houses. The hurricane quickly weakened over land, and after turning northeastward into Atlantic Canada dissipated on October 5 near the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
== Background ==
There seems to be some confusion in several historical sources regarding the marriage. For example, the twelfth-century monk Ordericus Vitalis (died 1142 ×) claimed that Magnús himself married the daughter of an Irish king in about 1093. According to Morkinskinna, Magnús was at one point set to marry a certain Maktildr, described as an "emperor's daughter". It is possible that Maktildr represents Matilda (died 1118), a woman who was a sister of the reigning Étgar mac Maíl Choluim, King of Scotland (died 1107), and who is known to have married Henry I, King of England (died 1135) in 1110. In fact, the episode concerning Magnús and Maktildr in Morkinskinna may have influenced the erroneous claim preserved by the same source and Fagrskinna purporting that Sigurðr married a daughter of Máel Coluim mac Donnchada, King of Scotland. At about the same time as the marriage between Bjaðmunjo and Sigurðr, the former's father secured yet another marital alliance through another daughter and Arnulf de Montgomery, Earl of Pembroke (died 1118 × 1122), an English magnate in the midst of a revolt against the reigning King of England.
Initial parliamentary discussion of the design focused less on the anticipated cost of the ships than the idea that France was being left behind in the technological arms race, particularly in regard to the innovative Parsons steam turbines used by HMS Dreadnought. In response the navy sent a technical mission to inspect the Parsons factory, several shipyards, and gun factories as well as the Barr & Stroud rangefinder factory in May 1906 and concluded that the turbines offered more power in a smaller volume than triple-expansion steam engines at a significant increase in fuel consumption at low speeds. Two ships had already been ordered from the naval dockyards three months previously when the navy decided to use the turbines in July. To further complicate things, Gaston requested a study using the heavier and more powerful 45-caliber 305-millimeter Modèle 1906 gun on 3 August while not endorsing the navy's decision to use turbines. On 6 October the director of naval construction, M. Dudebout, urgently requested a decision while recommending that three ships use steam engines and the others turbines. He felt that this would minimize delays and expense as the design needed to be modified to accommodate the turbines and their four propeller shafts, no company in France knew how to build the turbines, and the latter were three times as expensive as steam engines. Gaston was inclined to accept Dudebout's recommendation, but prevaricated until December, after parliamentary debates showed overwhelming support for turbines in all six ships. Contracts for the remaining four ships were signed on 26 December, the day after the conclusion of the debate. Gaston also delayed in deciding on which boilers to use. He sent another technical mission to Britain to look at Babcock & Wilcox's design in April 1907, but did not make a decision in favor of French-built boilers until 3 June 1908, after all the ships had been laid down.
The battleships were also armed with two submerged 450-millimeter (17.7 in) torpedo tubes, one on each broadside. Each tube was angled 10°forward and 3°downward. Each ship carried six Modèle 1909R torpedoes. They had a 114-kilogram (251 lb) warhead and two speed / range settings: 3,000 meters (3,300 yd) at 28 knots (52 km / h; 32 mph) or 2,000 meters (2,200 yd) at 33 knots (61 km / h; 38 mph). The Dantons also had storage space for 10 Harlé Modèle 1906 mines, which had an explosive charge of 60 kilograms (130 lb) of guncotton. These could not be laid by the ships themselves, but had to be off-loaded for use.
The Danton-class ships were built with 6,725 metric tons (6,619 long tons) of armor, 36 percent of their designed displacement and almost 1,200 metric tons (1,200 long tons) more than their predecessors. Their waterline armored belt had a maximum thickness of 250 millimeters (9.8 in) between the fore and aft turrets that reduced to 180 millimeters (7.1 in) towards the bow and stern. The belt consisted of two strakes of armor, 4.5 meters (14 ft 9 in) high, that covered the sides of the hull up to the main deck and extended 1.1 m (3 ft 7 in) below the normal waterline. Most of the lower armor plates tapered to a thickness of 80 – 100 millimeters (3.1 – 3.9 in) along their bottom edge and the upper plates tapered to 220 millimeters (8.7 in) amidships and down to 140 millimeters (5.5 in) at the ends of the ship. The belt armour was backed by 80 millimeters (3.1 in) of teak. It extended almost the entire length of the ship, with only the very stern unprotected. At the stern, the belt terminated in a 200-millimeter (7.9 in) transverse bulkhead; the forward 154-millimeter (6.1 in) transverse bulkhead connected the sides of the forward barbette to the belt.
Danton's wreck was discovered in 2007 between Algeria and Sardinia at a depth of over 1,000 meters (3,300 ft).
At the end of July 2012, Libor Michálek accepted the Czech Pirate, Green, and Christian Democrat Party senatorial nominations for District 26. The Pirate Party was his primary affiliation due to its transparency and accountability platforms. His personal 12-point platform prioritized direct democracy, fair political party competition, and anti-corruption oversight efforts alongside social welfare reforms. In the October 2012 elections, he won 24.3 percent of the first round vote and 74.4 percent of the first-past-the-post runoff, giving him the seat. Another candidate, Karel Berka, challenged the decision, but the Czech Supreme Administrative Court found the claims unfounded. He was the first Pirate Party candidate to be elected to national office, the 81-seat Czech Senate. His senatorial term is 2012 – 2018.
= Dangerously in Love =
Beyoncé launched her career as lead singer to R & B group Destiny's Child in the late 1990s. According to Corey Moss of MTV News, "fans are eager to see" how Beyoncé, after years with the group, performs solo. While recording their third album, Survivor, in late 2000, Beyoncé announced the group would be put on hiatus in order for the members to produce solo albums in the coming years, which they hoped would boost interest in Destiny's Child. The idea of individual releases emanated from the group's manager and Beyoncé's father, Mathew.
Dangerously in Love was originally a song of the same title which Beyoncé had written for Survivor. The song was deemed too sophisticated compared to other songs on Survivor, and the group decided not to release it as a single off the album. After recording several tracks for Dangerously in Love, Beyoncé decided to add "Dangerously in Love", after realizing that it fit the overriding theme of the album. Since the album's release date was postponed to capitalize on the success of "Dilemma", Beyoncé had been offered the chance to further enhance the album. Although she was disappointed with the move, Beyoncé realized that "everything happens for a reason", agreeing to return to the recording studio to work with other songwriters. This allowed her to record more songs, including the album's lead single, "Crazy in Love". In late 2002, Beyoncé paused working on Dangerously in Love for a holiday tour with Destiny's Child. With a few weeks left for recording in March 2003, Beyoncé was still collaborating with other guests on the album, including Sean Paul and P. Diddy.
== Release and promotion ==
Dangerously in Love debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart, with sales of 317,000 copies according to Nielsen SoundScan. In its second week the album slid to number two with 183,000 sold, behind Ashanti's Chapter II. Although the album's first-week sales failed to match that of Survivor, which sold 663,000 units in its debut in 2001, Beyoncé earned the highest among Destiny's Child members' solo albums by best weeks: Rowland sold 77,000 copies for Simply Deep in its strongest week while Williams earned 17,000 copies for Heart to Yours in its top week. The album has been certified four-time platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Dangerously in Love remains as Beyoncé's best-selling album to date, with cumulative sales of 5 million copies in the United States as of June 2016.
After the group's formal disbandment, Beyoncé recorded and released her second album, B'Day, on September 4, 2006. The album gave Beyoncé her second number one in the United States, and its debut week sales exceeded that of Dangerously in Love, the former having sold 541,000 units. Despite the album's first two singles' average commercial performance — neither of which reached the peak of the Billboard Hot 100 — its "handsome debut" was noted by Keith Caulfield of Billboard as having generated "by goodwill earned from the performance of [Beyoncé's] smash first album Dangerously in Love."
"Naughty Girl" contains interpolations from "Love to Love You Baby" (1975) by Donna Summer
== Personnel ==
== Description ==
It has been doubted whether these mouths might not be accidental, and formed by insects after the expansion of the plant. But this (not to mention their regularity, and that each is furrowed by its border of ciliae) is clearly disproved, from the marks of the projections formed by the mouths being seen on the expanded rays, when freshly opened ... I have likewise found an abortive plant, in which the seed did not ripen; but which had numerous projecting papillae on the head, where the mouths should have been formed.
= Dusky dolphin =
The dusky dolphin is small to medium in length compared with other species in the family. There is significant variation in size among the different population areas. The largest dusky dolphins have been encountered off the coast of Peru, where they are up to 210 cm (6 feet) in length and 100 kg (210 pounds) in mass. The size for dusky dolphins in New Zealand have been recorded to be a length range of 167 – 178 cm and a weight range of 69 – 78 kg for females and a length range of 165 – 175 cm and a weigh range of 70 – 85 kg for males.
== Ecology and behaviour ==
=== Foraging and predation ===
In the mating groups, the males pursue a female in high-speed chases. Females seem to prefer males with great speed and agility rather than size, strength, or aggression. Females may extend the chase as long as possible so only the best male remains. Females may try to evade males that are not vigorous or lack social skill. Males also may form alliances to catch females. Unlike male bottlenose dolphins, male dusky dolphins cannot monopolise females. The time when female dusky dolphins first reproduce varies between regions. New Zealand dolphins first reproduce at about seven to years, with possibly six to seven years for Argentine dolphins. A study of dusky dolphins off the coast of Peru showed the reproductive cycle lasts around 28.6 months, with mother dolphins pregnant for 12.9 months, lactating for a further 12 months, and resting for 3.7 months before the cycle begins again. During copulation, females tend to be on the top. As with all species where females mate with multiple partners, male dusky dolphins have large testicles for sperm competition. Dusky dolphins sometimes engage in sexual behaviour for reasons other than reproduction, perhaps for greeting, communication, or strengthening social bonds. Homosexual behaviour between males has been observed. Dolphins having sex for social reasons tend to be more relaxed.
=== General ===
Bellaire was founded in 1908 by William Wright Baldwin, who was the president of the South End Land Company. Baldwin, a native of Iowa, was well known as the vice president of the Burlington Railroad. Bellaire was founded on what was part of William Marsh Rice's 9,449 acres (38.24 km2) ranch. Baldwin surveyed the eastern 1,000 acres (4.0 km2) of the ranch into small truck farms. He named those farms "Westmoreland Farms". Baldwin started Bellaire in the middle of "Westmoreland Farms" to serve as a residential neighborhood and an agricultural trading center. South End Land Company advertised to farmers in the Midwestern United States. Baldwin stated that the town was named "Bellaire", or "Good Air" for its breezes ". Bellaire may have been named after Bellaire, Ohio, a town served by one of Baldwin's rail lines.
In January 2010 Siegel announced that she would oppose a plan to locate a permanent, privately funded Houston Dynamo stadium at the intersection of South Rice and Westpark, near Bellaire. In April 2010 it was announced that the Dynamo stadium, now known as BBVA Compass Stadium, would be built in East Downtown Houston.
=== Local government ===
Zoning and land use controversies, common throughout Bellaire's history, resulted in the 1977 recall of the mayor and three council members. The City of Bellaire voted against banning smoking in bars and restaurants on Monday January 15, 2007. Mayor Cindy Siegel and Pat McLaughlan, one council member, voted for the ban, while the other five members, including Peggy Faulk, voted against the ban. The National Restaurant Association asked Bellaire to consider adopting a smoking ban to put it in sync with the City of Houston, which adopted a similar ordinance in 2005. In December 2009 the city voted to ban texting while driving. Bans of texting while driving were passed in Bellaire and West University Place, Texas within hours of one another. In 2010 the city voted 5-2 to ban the feeding of cats on public property and establish a rule requiring the permission of the owner of a piece of private property in order to feed cats on private property. The city received negative e-mail feedback from various locations, including Switzerland.
The City of Bellaire has property zoned for light industrial, commercial, and mixed-use residential and commercial uses. Bellaire has some high-rise office buildings along Interstate 610. Frost Bank's Houston-area offices are located in Bellaire. AT & T Inc. operates its Houston-area headquarters in an office building at 6500 West Loop South in Bellaire; the building was with SBC Corporation before it absorbed the former AT & T. The Houston Metropolitan Chamber, previously the Greater Southwest Houston Chamber of Commerce, assists economy activity in Bellaire. The main offices of the Greater Southwest Houston Chamber of Commerce were previously located in Bellaire. Chevron has a 33-acre (130,000 m2) campus at 4800 Fournace Place in Bellaire that is the headquarters for the Chevron Pipe Line Company along with several other business units. Prior to the merger between Chevron and Texaco, the facility belonged to Texaco. Texaco built the 502,000 square feet (46,600 m2) square foot facility. South Texas Dental has its corporate headquarters in Bellaire.
Bellaire holds annual Fourth of July parades and annual "'snow' in the park" Christmas celebrations.
The city is served by Houston Independent School District (HISD). Bellaire is within Trustee District V.
Bellaire's first school opened in 1909; the school moved to a new site in 1914 and an addition opened in 1927; when the addition opened the school was renamed "Condit." Horn opened in 1949, Pershing opened in 1927, Bellaire High School opened in 1955. Pin Oak opened in 2002. Pershing's current campus opened in January 2007. The current Horn and Lovett buildings were scheduled to open in August 2011. The rebuilds of Horn, Lovett, and Herod Elementary of Houston together had a cost of $ 49 million and were a part of a $ 1 billion bond program approved by HISD voters in 2007.
Three independent (private) schools, including Episcopal High School (9-12), The Post Oak School (Montessori K-8), and the Veritas Christian Academy (K-8), are located in Bellaire. Episcopal High School opened in fall 1984; its campus previously housed Marion High School and the Congregation of the Sisters of the Incarnate Word and Blessed Sacrament, a Roman Catholic school operated by the Sisters of the Incarnate Word and Blessed Sacrament and within the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston. The current campus of The Post Oak School opened in 1986; the school had been previously housed in the Gordon Elementary School campus. Pilgrim Lutheran School is located just south of Bellaire on Chimney Rock Road. Holy Ghost School, a Catholic private K-8 school, is located in Houston and adjacent to the Bellaire city limits. Private schools near Bellaire in areas of Houston include Saint Agnes Academy, Strake Jesuit College Preparatory, St. Francis Episcopal Day School (Texas), and St. Thomas' Episcopal School.
The city of Bellaire also operates its own library, the Bellaire City Library, at 5111 Jessamine Street. The Friends of the Bellaire Library, a 501 (c) (3) non-profit organization, was established in 1951 to support the City of Bellaire Library.
= Alien Spidy =
Alien Spidy was advertised as a PlayStation Vita game early in its development history, with Sony using gameplay footage of the game on the Vita at a presentation at Gamescom 2011. The game was never released on that platform, however. In an interview, Enigma Software CEO Daniel Parente claimed that the game was developed for all major platforms, and after bringing Kalypso Media on board as a publisher, the latter chose which platforms to release the game on, and when. The project manager at Kalypso Media for Alien Spidy, Andrew McKerrow, noted that the developer attempted to secure a publisher by pitching the game on a large number of platforms. In a separate interview with Daniel Parente, conducted in October 2012, Enigma Software's CEO called the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 the game's lead platforms, stating that the game was "designed to be played with a gamepad".
Critics near universally took issue with the game's controls. Critics found that the webs that they shot did not go where they wanted them to go, and multiple reviewers described navigation as "trial and error". Reviewers also found that they could not always jump when they wanted to, and one reviewer found that power-ups failed to activate when she wanted them to. Reviewers also complained that it was extremely difficult to get enough stars to progress from one stage to the next, forcing players to replay the same levels over and over again. Because points are subtracted each time Spidy dies, the problems with the control scheme exacerbate how difficult it is to get enough stars to progress.
=== Evolution and systematics ===
== Description ==
The volume, pitch, tempo and order of notes can be changed depending on the message the Australian raven intends to convey. There are a variety of contact calls: a pair often makes a low murmuring sound when preening each other while roosting, and members of a flock carry on with a quiet chattering while at rest. Birds make a call and answer sequence if temporarily out of sight of one another while foraging. Birds in flocks make a single high-pitched caa while flying over another territory as a transit call to signify they are just passing through. An Australian raven will give a longer caa with a downward inflexion to signify its return to the nest to its mate.
Australian ravens are intelligent birds, and like many other corvids have innovative methods of seeking out food. Foraging takes place in the early morning or late afternoon; birds rest in the hotter part of the day. Food is taken mainly from the ground, birds either finding objects while flying overhead, or by walking along and looking. However, they occasionally feed in trees — Australian ravens forage eucalypt foliage for Christmas beetles (Anoplognathus), and devote a substantial amount of time to look for nests and eggs to eat. They have also been known to take golf balls from fairways, possibly mistaking them for eggs. Ravens use their bill rather than their feet to explore or turn items on the ground (rocks or sticks) over, or hold or snatch food while flying. They have also been recorded using fence posts as anvils to bash snails against before eating them. Australian ravens most often eat food where they find it unless taking food back for nestlings. Occasionally they have been observed caching carrion or a killed animal in a hole nearby to store it. They can pack shredded meat in their mouth under their tongue. Australian ravens have adapted well to eating food scraps in urban areas, such as school playgrounds, rubbish tips, bins outside supermarkets or restaurants, abattoirs, piggeries and farmyards. In one isolated study, they were observed feeding on nectar from eucalypt flowers. Australian ravens sometimes forage in mixed-species flocks with any of the other four species of Australian corvids. Sometimes they are aggressive with little ravens if both are at a food source and drive them off, though not if the smaller species greatly outnumbers the larger.
=== Parasites and predators ===
=== Plans ===
== Engineering ==
== Incidents ==
= Social history of viruses =
Over the past 50,000 – 100,000 years, as modern humans increased in numbers and dispersed throughout the world, new infectious diseases emerged, including those caused by viruses. Earlier, humans lived in small, isolated communities, and most epidemic diseases did not exist. Smallpox, which is the most lethal and devastating viral infection in history, first emerged among agricultural communities in India about 11,000 years ago. The virus, which only infected humans, probably descended from the poxviruses of rodents. Humans probably came into contact with these rodents, and some people became infected by the viruses they carried. When viruses cross this so-called "species barrier", their effects can be severe, and humans may have had little natural resistance. Contemporary humans lived in small communities, and those who succumbed to infection either died or developed immunity. This acquired immunity is only passed down to offspring temporarily, by antibodies in breast milk and other antibodies that cross the placenta from the mother's blood to the unborn child's. Therefore, sporadic outbreaks probably occurred in each generation. In about 9000 BC, when many people began to settle on the fertile flood plains of the River Nile, the population became dense enough for the virus to maintain a constant presence because of the high concentration of susceptible people. Other epidemics of viral diseases that depend on large concentrations of people, such as mumps, rubella and polio, also first occurred at this time.
Measles is an old disease, but it was not until the 10th century that the Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (865 – 925) – known as "Rhazes" – first identified it. Rhazes used the Arabic name hasbah for measles. It has had many other names including rubeola from the Latin word rubeus, "red", and morbilli, "small plague". The close similarities between measles virus, canine distemper virus and rinderpest virus have given rise to speculation that measles was first transmitted to humans from domesticated dogs or cattle. The measles virus appears to have fully diverged from the then-widespread rinderpest virus by the 12th century.
== Early to late modern period ==
Many paintings can be found in the museums of Europe depicting tulips with attractive coloured stripes. Most, such as the still life studies of Johannes Bosschaert, were painted during the 17th century. These flowers were particularly popular and became sought after by those who could afford them. At the peak of this tulip mania in the 1630s, one bulb could cost as much as a house. It was not known at the time that the stripes were caused by a virus accidentally transferred by humans to tulips from jasmine. Weakened by the virus, the plants turned out to be a poor investment. Only a few bulbs produced flowers with the attractive characteristics of their parent plants.
Despite objections from those medical practitioners who still practised variolation, and who foresaw a decline in their income, free vaccination of the poor was introduced in the UK in 1840. Because of associated deaths, variolation was declared illegal in the same year. Vaccination was made compulsory in England and Wales by the 1853 Vaccination Act, and parents could be fined £ 1 if their children were not vaccinated before they were three months of age. The law was not adequately enforced, and the system for providing vaccinations, unchanged since 1840, was ineffective. After an early compliance by the population only a small proportion were vaccinated. Compulsory vaccination was not well received and, following protests, the Anti-Vaccination League and the Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League were formed in 1866. Following the anti-vaccination campaigns there was a severe outbreak of smallpox in Gloucester in 1895, the city's first in twenty years; 434 people died, including 281 children. Despite this, the British government conceded to the protesters and the Vaccination Act of 1898 abolished fines and made provision for a "conscientious objector" clause – the first use of the term – for parents who did not believe in vaccination. During the following year, 250,000 objections were granted, and by 1912 less than half of the population of newborns were being vaccinated. By 1948, smallpox vaccination was no longer compulsory in the UK.
=== Smallpox eradication ===
During the summers of the mid-20th century, parents in the US and Europe dreaded the annual appearance of poliomyelitis (or polio), which was commonly known as "infantile paralysis". The disease was rare at the beginning of the century, and worldwide there were only a few thousand cases per year, but by the 1950s there were 60,000 cases each year in the US alone and an average of 2,300 in England and Wales.
HIV crossed the species barrier between chimpanzees and humans in Africa in the early decades of the 20th century. During the years that followed there were enormous social changes and turmoil in Africa. Population shifts were unprecedented as vast numbers of people moved from rural farms to the expanding cities, and the virus was spread from remote regions to densely populated urban conurbations. The incubation period for AIDS is around 10 years, so a global epidemic starting in the early 1980s is credible. At this time there was much scapegoating and stigmatisation. The "out of Africa" theory for the origin of the HIV pandemic was not well received by Africans, who felt that the "blame" was misplaced. This led the World Health Assembly to pass a 1987 resolution, which stated that HIV is "a naturally occurring [virus] of undetermined geographic origin".
The most recent pandemic occurred in 2009, but none of the last three has caused anything near the devastation seen in 1918. Exactly why the strain of influenza that emerged in 1918 was so devastating is a question that still remains unanswered.
=== Hepatitis viruses ===
Foot-and-mouth disease is a highly contagious infection caused by an aphthovirus, and is classified in the same family as poliovirus. The virus has infected animals, mainly ungulates, in Africa since ancient times and was probably brought to the Americas in the 19th century by imported livestock. Foot-and-mouth disease is rarely fatal, but the economic losses incurred by outbreaks in sheep and cattle herds can be high. The last occurrence of the disease in the US was in 1929, but as recently as 2001, several large outbreaks occurred throughout the UK and thousands of animals were killed and burnt.
Such disasters occurred when human intervention caused ecological changes by the introduction of crops to new vectors and viruses. Cacao is native to South America and was introduced to West Africa in the late 19th century. In 1936, swollen root disease had been transmitted to plantations by mealybugs from indigenous trees. New habitats can trigger outbreaks of plant virus diseases. Before 1970, the rice yellow mottle virus was only found in the Kisumu district of Kenya, but following the irrigation of large areas of East Africa and extensive rice cultivation, the virus spread throughout East Africa. Human activity introduced plant viruses to native crops. The citrus tristeza virus (CTV) was introduced to South America from Africa between 1926 and 1930. At the same time, the aphid Toxoptera citricidus was carried from Asia to South America and this accelerated the transmission of the virus. By 1950, more than six million citrus trees had been killed by the virus in São Paulo, Brazil. CTV and citrus trees probably coevolved for centuries in their original countries. The dispersal of CTV to other regions and its interaction with new citrus varieties resulted in devastating outbreaks of plant diseases. Because of the problems caused by the introduction – by humans – of plant viruses, many countries have strict importation controls on any materials that can harbour dangerous plant viruses or their insect vectors.
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is caused by a new type of coronavirus. Other coronaviruses were known to cause mild infections in humans, so the virulence and rapid spread of this novel virus strain caused alarm among health professionals as well as public fear. The fears of a major pandemic were not realised, and by July 2003, after causing around 8,000 cases and 800 deaths, the outbreak had ended. The exact origin of the SARS virus is not known, but evidence suggests that it came from bats.
In 1997 an outbreak of respiratory disease occurred in Malaysian farmers and their pigs. More than 265 cases of encephalitis, of which 105 were fatal, were recorded. A new paramyxovirus was discovered in a victim's brain; it was named Nipah virus, after the village where he had lived. The infection was caused by a virus from fruit bats, after their colony had been disrupted by deforestation. The bats had moved to trees nearer the pig farm and the pigs caught the virus from their droppings.
=== Directing and music ===
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a "C" and called it "a curious failure". He felt that the writing was "pretentious" and composed of "some weird, weird bullshit". VanDerWerff wrote that, although the episode was unsuccessful, there was something so "pure and unadorned at its center that I can 't outright hate it". Furthermore, he admired the show and Anderson for "making the attempt". Kevin Silber of Space.com gave the episode a negative review, critical of the script and characterization. He said, "nothing much seems to happen, and what does occur is substantially driven by coincidence and arbitrariness". He did not like Azar and disapproved of Scully's philosophical "reverie", calling it "facile, and hard to reconcile with the determined rationalism she's displayed over the years in the face of events no less strange than those that occur here".
Hurricane Doria was an unusual and erratic hurricane that existed during September 1967. The fourth named storm and hurricane of the 1967 Atlantic hurricane season, Doria developed on September 8 off the east coast of Florida. It meandered until attaining tropical storm status, at which point the storm accelerated towards the northeast. On September 10, Doria intensified into a Category 1 hurricane on the modern-day Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale. After moving out to sea, the storm turned westward towards the United States. A compact cyclone, Doria weakened to a tropical storm shortly before moving ashore in the Mid-Atlantic States. The storm ultimately dissipated on September 21.
= Brehon B. Somervell =
Somervell returned to Washington Barracks to attend the Engineer School but his course was interrupted by the declaration of war by the United States on Germany on 6 April 1917. The course was abruptly terminated and Somervell, along with hundreds of other junior officers, was ordered to appear before an examination board that would determine his fitness for promotion. Following a favorable report from the board, Somervell was promoted to captain on 15 May 1917. He helped organize the 15th Engineers, a rail transport unit, at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In July 1917 this became the first engineer regiment to be sent overseas, arriving in England in July 1917 and France later that month. The 15th Engineers worked on a several construction projects, including a munitions dump at Mehun-sur-Yèvre and an advanced depot and regulating station at Is-sur-Tille. Somervell got his projects completed by working his men around the clock and deploying every available resource regardless of the cost. For his role, Somervell was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal.
In 1935, Somervell was appointed as head of the Works Project Administration in New York City. Over the next three and a half years he spent $ 10,000,000 a month on Great Depression relief works. He worked with the local politicians and labor leaders. He upheld the right of workers to form unions and improved relations with left-wing groups, once declaring that "I wouldn 't know a Red if I saw one, and wouldn't do anything about it if I did". The biggest project was the construction of LaGuardia Airport. Somervell established a reputation as a man who could handle projects involving hundreds of thousands of people and hundreds of millions of dollars.
The best known of these projects was the Pentagon, an enormous office complex to house the War Department's 40,000-person staff together in one building. On the afternoon of Thursday, 17 July 1941, Somervell summoned George Bergstrom and Major Hugh Casey. Bergstrom was a former president of the American Institute of Architects; Casey a Corps of Engineers officer seconded to the Construction Division. The two had previously worked together closely on the design of cantonments. Somervell gave them until 9am on Monday morning to design the building, which he envisaged as a modern, four-story structure with no elevators on the site of the old Washington Hoover Airport. Over that "very busy weekend", Casey, Bergstrom and their staff roughed out the design for a four-story, five-sided structure with a floor area of 5,100,000 square feet (470,000 m2) — twice that of the Empire State Building. The estimated cost was $ 35 million. President Roosevelt subsequently moved the site of the building, over Somervell's objections, in order to prevent it being constructed in front of Arlington National Cemetery.
According to military historian John D. Millett, who served on Somervell's Army Service Forces staff, Somervell was "impatient, tense, and decisive". Some saw him as an "empire-builder". Millett noted the opinion of an observer that:
Littorio and Vittorio Veneto had a standard crew of 80 officers and 1,750 enlisted men; while serving as a flagship, the crew was increased by a command staff of between 11 and 31 additional officers. The standard crew for Roma and Impero was increased by 100 enlisted men. Aircraft facilities were located on the quarterdeck, where it was initially planned to base six La Cierva autogyros. Instead, a single catapult was fitted. The ships were equipped with three Ro.43 reconnaissance seaplanes or navalized Re.2000 fighters. The Re.2000 fighter was a wheeled aircraft and had to land on an airfield.
=== Armor ===
All four ships incorporated a unique underwater protection system named after its designer, Umberto Pugliese. A 40 mm thick torpedo bulkhead extended inboard from the base of the main belt before curving down to meet the bottom of the hull. This formed a void which housed an empty drum 380 mm (15 in) wide with 6 mm (0.24 in) thick walls; the rest of the void was filled with liquid. The drum ran the length of the torpedo defense system, and was designed to collapse to contain the explosive pressure of a torpedo hit. The torpedo bulkhead would prevent any splinters or explosive effects from entering the ships' vitals. The system was designed to protect the ship from torpedo warheads up to 350 kg (770 lb).
== Ships ==
Littorio and Vittorio Veneto had both returned to active duty by August 1941, and on the 22nd the two ships sortied to attack a convoy. They returned to port without encountering any British forces, however. On 26 September, the two battleships attempted to intercept the Operation Halberd convoy, but they broke off the operation without attacking the convoy. While escorting a convoy to North Africa, Vittorio Veneto was torpedoed by the British submarine HMS Urge; repairs lasted until Spring, 1942. Shortly thereafter, on 13 December, Littorio escorted another convoy to North Africa. This operation resulted in the First Battle of Sirte, which ended inconclusively. She provided distant cover to another convoy on 3 – 6 January 1942. On 21 March, she sortied to attack a British convoy, which led to the Second Battle of Sirte. During the engagement, she badly damaged the destroyers Havock and Kingston.
In the early 1930s, the Soviet Navy began a naval construction program, and sought advice from foreign shipbuilders for a new class of battleships. On 14 July 1939, Ansaldo completed a design proposal for the Soviet Navy, for a ship largely based on the Littorio class, designated U.P. 41. The design was for a 42,000 t (41,000 long tons; 46,000 short tons) ship armed with nine 406 mm guns in triple turrets. The Italians did not disclose the specifications of the Pugliese system and instead used a multiple-torpedo bulkhead system. Regardless, the Soviet Navy did not use the U.P. 41 design as the basis for the Sovetsky Soyuz-class battleships they laid down in the late 1930s. They were, however, equipped with the Pugliese system, the details of which were revealed through Soviet espionage.
There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis: sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures, atmospheric instability, high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere, enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center, a pre-existing low level focus or disturbance, and low vertical wind shear. While these conditions are necessary for tropical cyclone formation, they do not guarantee that a tropical cyclone will form. Normally, an ocean temperature of 26.5°C (79.7°F) spanning through a depth of at least 50 metres (160 ft) is considered the minimum to maintain the special mesocyclone that is the tropical cyclone. These warm waters are needed to maintain the warm core that fuels tropical systems. A minimum distance of 500 km (300 mi) from the equator is normally needed for tropical cyclogenesis.
== Paths ==
The remaining themes were written, recorded, and produced throughout 2001. The music was written with a variety of equipment including, "keyboards, synths, and samplers as well as digital recording equipment controlled by computers". Live instrumentations, from members of the Chicago Symphony and Chicago Lyric Opera Orchestra, were added where needed. The soundtrack features a wide range of sounds, O 'Donnell described it as, "Gregorian chant, string orchestra, percussion and just a bit of a' Qawwali voice '". Working closely with level designers, O'Donnell divided the music "into chunks". Based on these "chunks", "[Halo's] audio engine could play [the music] back dynamically based on the player's actions". For the soundtrack release, O 'Donnell rearranged the music featured in the game in order to make listening to the soundtrack "more enjoyable".
"Ambient Wonder" – 1: 57