sentence1
stringlengths 8
10.6k
| sentence2
stringlengths 8
10.6k
| label
int64 0
1
|
|---|---|---|
The author succeeds reasonably well in chronicling developments in aviation technology, but social and cultural changes are much more difficult. The cultural and social world of Biggles (whether in the 1930s or some earlier period) does not persist completely unchanged through the whole series – for instance, in an early book, the evidence points to an English nobleman as the perpetrator but Biggles dismisses this out of hand as the gentry would never commit a crime; in a later novel, one of the gentry is the villain. Nonetheless, the social context of the books, viewed in chronological order, does become increasingly old-fashioned, even anachronistic, especially in those works set after the Second World War. | Even within a group of stories set in the same time frame, there are some chronological inconsistencies: | 1 |
The author succeeds reasonably well in chronicling developments in aviation technology, but social and cultural changes are much more difficult. The cultural and social world of Biggles (whether in the 1930s or some earlier period) does not persist completely unchanged through the whole series – for instance, in an early book, the evidence points to an English nobleman as the perpetrator but Biggles dismisses this out of hand as the gentry would never commit a crime; in a later novel, one of the gentry is the villain. Nonetheless, the social context of the books, viewed in chronological order, does become increasingly old-fashioned, even anachronistic, especially in those works set after the Second World War. | Also included in the presentation pack were labels containing greetings messages. The two related to Biggles, shown in white text on a blue background, read "Happy Birthday" and "Chocks Away". The Biggles stamp, its associated presentation pack and first day covers were described in the British Philatelic Bulletin of January 1994. | 0 |
The author succeeds reasonably well in chronicling developments in aviation technology, but social and cultural changes are much more difficult. The cultural and social world of Biggles (whether in the 1930s or some earlier period) does not persist completely unchanged through the whole series – for instance, in an early book, the evidence points to an English nobleman as the perpetrator but Biggles dismisses this out of hand as the gentry would never commit a crime; in a later novel, one of the gentry is the villain. Nonetheless, the social context of the books, viewed in chronological order, does become increasingly old-fashioned, even anachronistic, especially in those works set after the Second World War. | It is doubtful whether a careful rearrangement of the various First World War stories could result in a coherent sequence. When W. E. Johns started the Biggles series, he can hardly have anticipated that he would be called on to write so many Biggles stories to short editorial deadlines, so that such inconsistencies are perhaps inevitable. | 1 |
The author succeeds reasonably well in chronicling developments in aviation technology, but social and cultural changes are much more difficult. The cultural and social world of Biggles (whether in the 1930s or some earlier period) does not persist completely unchanged through the whole series – for instance, in an early book, the evidence points to an English nobleman as the perpetrator but Biggles dismisses this out of hand as the gentry would never commit a crime; in a later novel, one of the gentry is the villain. Nonetheless, the social context of the books, viewed in chronological order, does become increasingly old-fashioned, even anachronistic, especially in those works set after the Second World War. | Biggles returned to service in the Second World War, initially with a Supermarine S6B type machine in the Baltic Sea and then to defy the Nazis and their allies in Norway. He then took up his post as Commanding Officer of 666 Squadron, RAF, a Special Duties squadron that fought in the Battle of Britain before being sent around the world on specific assignments. Biggles, Algy, Smyth and Hebblethwaite are joined by a new companion, the monocle-wearing Lord Bertram 'Bertie' Lissie. The changed setting forced Johns to update his material with references to new flying slang and aeroplanes, unsuccessfully at first but later with more realism. Biggles' new squadron includes a diverse cast, including the American 'Tex' O'Hara (from Texas), the Welshman 'Taffy' Hughes, the Cockney 'Tug' Carrington, the Oxford graduate Henry Harcourt and 'Ferocity' Ferris from the streets of Liverpool. | 0 |
Since the Biggles books were first published, attitudes to race and ethnicity have changed. During the 1960s and 1970s a perception of Biggles as unacceptably racially prejudiced, especially considered as children's literature, drove Biggles from many public and school libraries. | Biggles was brought up in British India, speaks fluent Hindi and has a number of Indian friends and colleagues. In "Biggles Goes to School", on one occasion when told to write lines in Latin, he remarks that he would rather do so in Hindi. On another occasion the adult Biggles asserts to Air Commodore Raymond that "while men are decent to me I try to be decent to them, regardless of race, colour, politics, creed or anything else". While individually developed non-white characters are infrequent, when they do occur, they are usually "positive", from the Oxford-educated "Chinaman", Li Chi, in "Biggles Flies Again" and "Biggles Delivers the Goods" and the perky Polynesian girl, Full Moon, in "Biggles in the South Seas", to Alexander MacKay, a part "Red Indian" nicknamed "Minnie" who joins "the chums" as a valued colleague and is even set to inherit Biggles' job in "Biggles Does Some Homework". It has been said that the positive characteristics of these characters include relatively light complexions, Western education and general usefulness to the white hero and his friends and allies. | 1 |
Since the Biggles books were first published, attitudes to race and ethnicity have changed. During the 1960s and 1970s a perception of Biggles as unacceptably racially prejudiced, especially considered as children's literature, drove Biggles from many public and school libraries. | Air Commodore Raymond also appeared in W. E. Johns' "Steeley Books". | 0 |
Since the Biggles books were first published, attitudes to race and ethnicity have changed. During the 1960s and 1970s a perception of Biggles as unacceptably racially prejudiced, especially considered as children's literature, drove Biggles from many public and school libraries. | Johns himself said he was "completely non-political and non-racial" in his books. Neil Clark of the Express defended John, saying, "In most of the books the villains are white men, usually out to steal from poorer countries" and recounting an incident in which Biggles vowed revenge upon the villains who killed a black man. | 1 |
Since the Biggles books were first published, attitudes to race and ethnicity have changed. During the 1960s and 1970s a perception of Biggles as unacceptably racially prejudiced, especially considered as children's literature, drove Biggles from many public and school libraries. | Biggles first appears as a teenaged "scout" (fighter) pilot in the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) during the First World War. He joined the RFC in 1916 at the age of 17, having conveniently "lost" his birth certificate. Biggles represents a particularly "British" hero, combining professionalism with a gentlemanly air. Under the stress of combat he develops from a slightly hysterical youth prone to practical jokes to a calm, confident, competent leader. He is occasionally given "special" (secret) missions by the shadowy figure of Colonel (initially Major) Raymond (Wing Commander/Air Commodore in later books, reflecting the creation of the Royal Air Force with its own ranks), who is already involved with the intelligence side of operations. Biggles is accompanied by his cousin Algernon ('Algy') Lacey and his mechanic Flight Sergeant Smyth, who accompany Biggles on his adventures after the war. Added to the team in 1935 is the teenager Ginger Hebblethwaite. | 0 |
Biggles was brought up in British India, speaks fluent Hindi and has a number of Indian friends and colleagues. In "Biggles Goes to School", on one occasion when told to write lines in Latin, he remarks that he would rather do so in Hindi. On another occasion the adult Biggles asserts to Air Commodore Raymond that "while men are decent to me I try to be decent to them, regardless of race, colour, politics, creed or anything else". While individually developed non-white characters are infrequent, when they do occur, they are usually "positive", from the Oxford-educated "Chinaman", Li Chi, in "Biggles Flies Again" and "Biggles Delivers the Goods" and the perky Polynesian girl, Full Moon, in "Biggles in the South Seas", to Alexander MacKay, a part "Red Indian" nicknamed "Minnie" who joins "the chums" as a valued colleague and is even set to inherit Biggles' job in "Biggles Does Some Homework". It has been said that the positive characteristics of these characters include relatively light complexions, Western education and general usefulness to the white hero and his friends and allies. | Since the Biggles books were first published, attitudes to race and ethnicity have changed. During the 1960s and 1970s a perception of Biggles as unacceptably racially prejudiced, especially considered as children's literature, drove Biggles from many public and school libraries. | 1 |
Biggles was brought up in British India, speaks fluent Hindi and has a number of Indian friends and colleagues. In "Biggles Goes to School", on one occasion when told to write lines in Latin, he remarks that he would rather do so in Hindi. On another occasion the adult Biggles asserts to Air Commodore Raymond that "while men are decent to me I try to be decent to them, regardless of race, colour, politics, creed or anything else". While individually developed non-white characters are infrequent, when they do occur, they are usually "positive", from the Oxford-educated "Chinaman", Li Chi, in "Biggles Flies Again" and "Biggles Delivers the Goods" and the perky Polynesian girl, Full Moon, in "Biggles in the South Seas", to Alexander MacKay, a part "Red Indian" nicknamed "Minnie" who joins "the chums" as a valued colleague and is even set to inherit Biggles' job in "Biggles Does Some Homework". It has been said that the positive characteristics of these characters include relatively light complexions, Western education and general usefulness to the white hero and his friends and allies. | After the Great War, Biggles' adventures as a freelance charter pilot, took him around the world in an unidentified amphibian named the "Vandal" (often illustrated on covers, anachronistically, as either a Supermarine Walrus or Supermarine Sea Otter). The nearest "real" aircraft that fits W. E. Johns description of the "Vandal", is a Vickers Viking Mk 4. His team grows when he and Algy meet young Ginger Hebblethwaite in "The Black Peril", while foiling a possible plot against Britain. Post-Second World War editions of the book change this plot from a German to a Russian plot. Ginger brings the energy and daring of youth to these and many of their later adventures. Between the wars Biggles and his friends mix their own escapades with ventures on behalf of British Secret Service. | 0 |
Biggles was brought up in British India, speaks fluent Hindi and has a number of Indian friends and colleagues. In "Biggles Goes to School", on one occasion when told to write lines in Latin, he remarks that he would rather do so in Hindi. On another occasion the adult Biggles asserts to Air Commodore Raymond that "while men are decent to me I try to be decent to them, regardless of race, colour, politics, creed or anything else". While individually developed non-white characters are infrequent, when they do occur, they are usually "positive", from the Oxford-educated "Chinaman", Li Chi, in "Biggles Flies Again" and "Biggles Delivers the Goods" and the perky Polynesian girl, Full Moon, in "Biggles in the South Seas", to Alexander MacKay, a part "Red Indian" nicknamed "Minnie" who joins "the chums" as a valued colleague and is even set to inherit Biggles' job in "Biggles Does Some Homework". It has been said that the positive characteristics of these characters include relatively light complexions, Western education and general usefulness to the white hero and his friends and allies. | In some Biggles stories the hero refers to Germans as 'the Hun' or 'Boche', and editors have revised such terms for later editions of the stories. | 1 |
Biggles was brought up in British India, speaks fluent Hindi and has a number of Indian friends and colleagues. In "Biggles Goes to School", on one occasion when told to write lines in Latin, he remarks that he would rather do so in Hindi. On another occasion the adult Biggles asserts to Air Commodore Raymond that "while men are decent to me I try to be decent to them, regardless of race, colour, politics, creed or anything else". While individually developed non-white characters are infrequent, when they do occur, they are usually "positive", from the Oxford-educated "Chinaman", Li Chi, in "Biggles Flies Again" and "Biggles Delivers the Goods" and the perky Polynesian girl, Full Moon, in "Biggles in the South Seas", to Alexander MacKay, a part "Red Indian" nicknamed "Minnie" who joins "the chums" as a valued colleague and is even set to inherit Biggles' job in "Biggles Does Some Homework". It has been said that the positive characteristics of these characters include relatively light complexions, Western education and general usefulness to the white hero and his friends and allies. | Though Biggles and his friends age in the books, they do so much more slowly (and inconsistently) than is historically credible. For instance, Biggles (with some of his First World War "chums"), who by now should be well into their forties, are still relatively junior squadron officers flying Spitfires during the Battle of Britain. In the stories set after the end of the Second World War, Biggles and Algy, in particular, are, by the rules of arithmetic, passing into their fifties and early sixties, while retaining levels of activity and lifestyle more typical of people at least thirty years younger. | 0 |
Johns himself said he was "completely non-political and non-racial" in his books. Neil Clark of the Express defended John, saying, "In most of the books the villains are white men, usually out to steal from poorer countries" and recounting an incident in which Biggles vowed revenge upon the villains who killed a black man. | There are instances in which unpleasant "foreigners" are mixed race, and Johns has been accused of stereotyping non-whites. With the evil "Chungs" of "Biggles Hits the Trail" and the Aboriginals of "Biggles in Australia", in particular, Johns applies stereotypes typical of his time to non-white opponents of his hero. "No Rest for Biggles", set in Liberia, where he encounters descendants of Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henri Cristophe plotting to set up a black empire, is another novel some might consider racist. In "Biggles in Borneo", Dayak headhunters are stereotyped as barely human "savages", even though they are Biggles' allies against the Japanese. The portrayals of non-whites these books (and others in the "Biggles" canon) is typical of a genre of fiction for young people that was once common. | 1 |
Johns himself said he was "completely non-political and non-racial" in his books. Neil Clark of the Express defended John, saying, "In most of the books the villains are white men, usually out to steal from poorer countries" and recounting an incident in which Biggles vowed revenge upon the villains who killed a black man. | Some albums were released in 1990 featuring the Biggles team. The titles are separate from the books though they cover the same war or after war investigation operations of Biggles. | 0 |
Johns himself said he was "completely non-political and non-racial" in his books. Neil Clark of the Express defended John, saying, "In most of the books the villains are white men, usually out to steal from poorer countries" and recounting an incident in which Biggles vowed revenge upon the villains who killed a black man. | Since the Biggles books were first published, attitudes to race and ethnicity have changed. During the 1960s and 1970s a perception of Biggles as unacceptably racially prejudiced, especially considered as children's literature, drove Biggles from many public and school libraries. | 1 |
Johns himself said he was "completely non-political and non-racial" in his books. Neil Clark of the Express defended John, saying, "In most of the books the villains are white men, usually out to steal from poorer countries" and recounting an incident in which Biggles vowed revenge upon the villains who killed a black man. | In 1986, a Biggles video game was released as a tie-in to movie "Biggles: Adventures in Time" by Mirrorsoft for the platforms Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum. It included levels based in 1917 and other levels set in modern-day London. | 0 |
In some Biggles stories the hero refers to Germans as 'the Hun' or 'Boche', and editors have revised such terms for later editions of the stories. | There are instances in which unpleasant "foreigners" are mixed race, and Johns has been accused of stereotyping non-whites. With the evil "Chungs" of "Biggles Hits the Trail" and the Aboriginals of "Biggles in Australia", in particular, Johns applies stereotypes typical of his time to non-white opponents of his hero. "No Rest for Biggles", set in Liberia, where he encounters descendants of Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henri Cristophe plotting to set up a black empire, is another novel some might consider racist. In "Biggles in Borneo", Dayak headhunters are stereotyped as barely human "savages", even though they are Biggles' allies against the Japanese. The portrayals of non-whites these books (and others in the "Biggles" canon) is typical of a genre of fiction for young people that was once common. | 1 |
In some Biggles stories the hero refers to Germans as 'the Hun' or 'Boche', and editors have revised such terms for later editions of the stories. | In 1986, a Biggles video game was released as a tie-in to movie "Biggles: Adventures in Time" by Mirrorsoft for the platforms Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum. It included levels based in 1917 and other levels set in modern-day London. | 0 |
In some Biggles stories the hero refers to Germans as 'the Hun' or 'Boche', and editors have revised such terms for later editions of the stories. | In "Biggles Delivers the Goods" the headhunters seem to provide "exotic colour". | 1 |
In some Biggles stories the hero refers to Germans as 'the Hun' or 'Boche', and editors have revised such terms for later editions of the stories. | Biggles left school and initially joined the army as a subaltern in the Rifle Regiment in 1916. He transferred to the Royal Flying Corps and learned to fly in the summer of 1916, at No. 17 Flying Training School, which was at Settling, Norfolk, flying solo after two hours of instruction. He then attended No. 4 'School of Fighting' in Frensham, Lincolnshire. | 0 |
There are instances in which unpleasant "foreigners" are mixed race, and Johns has been accused of stereotyping non-whites. With the evil "Chungs" of "Biggles Hits the Trail" and the Aboriginals of "Biggles in Australia", in particular, Johns applies stereotypes typical of his time to non-white opponents of his hero. "No Rest for Biggles", set in Liberia, where he encounters descendants of Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henri Cristophe plotting to set up a black empire, is another novel some might consider racist. In "Biggles in Borneo", Dayak headhunters are stereotyped as barely human "savages", even though they are Biggles' allies against the Japanese. The portrayals of non-whites these books (and others in the "Biggles" canon) is typical of a genre of fiction for young people that was once common. | In "Biggles Delivers the Goods" the headhunters seem to provide "exotic colour". | 1 |
There are instances in which unpleasant "foreigners" are mixed race, and Johns has been accused of stereotyping non-whites. With the evil "Chungs" of "Biggles Hits the Trail" and the Aboriginals of "Biggles in Australia", in particular, Johns applies stereotypes typical of his time to non-white opponents of his hero. "No Rest for Biggles", set in Liberia, where he encounters descendants of Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henri Cristophe plotting to set up a black empire, is another novel some might consider racist. In "Biggles in Borneo", Dayak headhunters are stereotyped as barely human "savages", even though they are Biggles' allies against the Japanese. The portrayals of non-whites these books (and others in the "Biggles" canon) is typical of a genre of fiction for young people that was once common. | While the purpose of the Biggles stories was to entertain adolescent boys, in the First World War stories Johns paid attention to historical detail and helped recreate the primitive days of early air combat, when pilots often died in their first combat and before devices such as pilot's oxygen supply and parachutes had become practical. Various models on which the Biggles character might have been based have been suggested, including rugby player and WWI flying ace Cyril Lowe, fighter pilot Albert Ball and air commodore Arthur Bigsworth. Johns stated that the character was a composite of many individuals in the RFC (including himself). | 0 |
There are instances in which unpleasant "foreigners" are mixed race, and Johns has been accused of stereotyping non-whites. With the evil "Chungs" of "Biggles Hits the Trail" and the Aboriginals of "Biggles in Australia", in particular, Johns applies stereotypes typical of his time to non-white opponents of his hero. "No Rest for Biggles", set in Liberia, where he encounters descendants of Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henri Cristophe plotting to set up a black empire, is another novel some might consider racist. In "Biggles in Borneo", Dayak headhunters are stereotyped as barely human "savages", even though they are Biggles' allies against the Japanese. The portrayals of non-whites these books (and others in the "Biggles" canon) is typical of a genre of fiction for young people that was once common. | In some Biggles stories the hero refers to Germans as 'the Hun' or 'Boche', and editors have revised such terms for later editions of the stories. | 1 |
There are instances in which unpleasant "foreigners" are mixed race, and Johns has been accused of stereotyping non-whites. With the evil "Chungs" of "Biggles Hits the Trail" and the Aboriginals of "Biggles in Australia", in particular, Johns applies stereotypes typical of his time to non-white opponents of his hero. "No Rest for Biggles", set in Liberia, where he encounters descendants of Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henri Cristophe plotting to set up a black empire, is another novel some might consider racist. In "Biggles in Borneo", Dayak headhunters are stereotyped as barely human "savages", even though they are Biggles' allies against the Japanese. The portrayals of non-whites these books (and others in the "Biggles" canon) is typical of a genre of fiction for young people that was once common. | Biggles first appears as a teenaged "scout" (fighter) pilot in the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) during the First World War. He joined the RFC in 1916 at the age of 17, having conveniently "lost" his birth certificate. Biggles represents a particularly "British" hero, combining professionalism with a gentlemanly air. Under the stress of combat he develops from a slightly hysterical youth prone to practical jokes to a calm, confident, competent leader. He is occasionally given "special" (secret) missions by the shadowy figure of Colonel (initially Major) Raymond (Wing Commander/Air Commodore in later books, reflecting the creation of the Royal Air Force with its own ranks), who is already involved with the intelligence side of operations. Biggles is accompanied by his cousin Algernon ('Algy') Lacey and his mechanic Flight Sergeant Smyth, who accompany Biggles on his adventures after the war. Added to the team in 1935 is the teenager Ginger Hebblethwaite. | 0 |
In "Biggles Delivers the Goods" the headhunters seem to provide "exotic colour". | There are instances in which unpleasant "foreigners" are mixed race, and Johns has been accused of stereotyping non-whites. With the evil "Chungs" of "Biggles Hits the Trail" and the Aboriginals of "Biggles in Australia", in particular, Johns applies stereotypes typical of his time to non-white opponents of his hero. "No Rest for Biggles", set in Liberia, where he encounters descendants of Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henri Cristophe plotting to set up a black empire, is another novel some might consider racist. In "Biggles in Borneo", Dayak headhunters are stereotyped as barely human "savages", even though they are Biggles' allies against the Japanese. The portrayals of non-whites these books (and others in the "Biggles" canon) is typical of a genre of fiction for young people that was once common. | 1 |
In "Biggles Delivers the Goods" the headhunters seem to provide "exotic colour". | Biggles returned to service in the Second World War, initially with a Supermarine S6B type machine in the Baltic Sea and then to defy the Nazis and their allies in Norway. He then took up his post as Commanding Officer of 666 Squadron, RAF, a Special Duties squadron that fought in the Battle of Britain before being sent around the world on specific assignments. Biggles, Algy, Smyth and Hebblethwaite are joined by a new companion, the monocle-wearing Lord Bertram 'Bertie' Lissie. The changed setting forced Johns to update his material with references to new flying slang and aeroplanes, unsuccessfully at first but later with more realism. Biggles' new squadron includes a diverse cast, including the American 'Tex' O'Hara (from Texas), the Welshman 'Taffy' Hughes, the Cockney 'Tug' Carrington, the Oxford graduate Henry Harcourt and 'Ferocity' Ferris from the streets of Liverpool. | 0 |
In "Biggles Delivers the Goods" the headhunters seem to provide "exotic colour". | Johns himself said he was "completely non-political and non-racial" in his books. Neil Clark of the Express defended John, saying, "In most of the books the villains are white men, usually out to steal from poorer countries" and recounting an incident in which Biggles vowed revenge upon the villains who killed a black man. | 1 |
In "Biggles Delivers the Goods" the headhunters seem to provide "exotic colour". | He was also featured in the 1986 feature film "Biggles", directed by John Hough with Neil Dickson in the title role. The film attempted to add appeal to the character by adding a science fiction element but it was a commercial and critical failure. Dickson reprised the character in all but name in the Pet Shop Boys' feature film, "It Couldn't Happen Here". | 0 |
Many versions of Biggles comics have been published in countries in Europe, including Great Britain, Belgium, France and Sweden. | In India, Euro Books published 14 titles of the Biggles Series along with compilations of the same in 2007. | 1 |
Many versions of Biggles comics have been published in countries in Europe, including Great Britain, Belgium, France and Sweden. | After the Second World War Johns reinvents Biggles' career yet again, with his former boss Air Commodore Raymond hiring him as a "flying detective" for Scotland Yard. Biggles returns to his rooms in Mount Street, Mayfair and assumes a role as head of the new Special Air Police division with Algy, Ginger and Bertie making up the flying squad. The group takes on criminals who have taken to the air, both at home in Britain and around the globe, as well as battling opponents behind the Iron Curtain. The team fly a wide variety of machines, with Auster and Percival types doing much of the work. | 0 |
Some albums were released in 1990 featuring the Biggles team. The titles are separate from the books though they cover the same war or after war investigation operations of Biggles. | In India, Euro Books published 14 titles of the Biggles Series along with compilations of the same in 2007. | 1 |
Some albums were released in 1990 featuring the Biggles team. The titles are separate from the books though they cover the same war or after war investigation operations of Biggles. | The stamps were designed by Newell and Sorrell, and the artist for the Biggles stamp was Alan Cracknell. Biggles is wearing a leather flying helmet and goggles, holding an 'air mail' envelope addressed to him, and giving the thumbs up. A biplane, probably a De Havilland Tiger Moth is shown flying in the background. | 0 |
In India, Euro Books published 14 titles of the Biggles Series along with compilations of the same in 2007. | Some albums were released in 1990 featuring the Biggles team. The titles are separate from the books though they cover the same war or after war investigation operations of Biggles. | 1 |
In India, Euro Books published 14 titles of the Biggles Series along with compilations of the same in 2007. | Algy starts off in the books as an irresponsible youngster but later on as he ages he becomes more sarcastic and pessimistic. | 0 |
Biggles featured on a stamp issued by the Royal Mail on 1 February 1994, as part of the sixth issue of its Greetings Stamps series. The set comprised ten first class stamps, each portraying a character from children's literature. Aside from Biggles, the other characters featured were Dan Dare, The Three Bears, Rupert Bear, Alice in Wonderland, Noggin the Nog, Peter Rabbit, Red Riding Hood, Orlando the Marmalade Cat and Paddington Bear. | The stamps were designed by Newell and Sorrell, and the artist for the Biggles stamp was Alan Cracknell. Biggles is wearing a leather flying helmet and goggles, holding an 'air mail' envelope addressed to him, and giving the thumbs up. A biplane, probably a De Havilland Tiger Moth is shown flying in the background. | 1 |
Biggles featured on a stamp issued by the Royal Mail on 1 February 1994, as part of the sixth issue of its Greetings Stamps series. The set comprised ten first class stamps, each portraying a character from children's literature. Aside from Biggles, the other characters featured were Dan Dare, The Three Bears, Rupert Bear, Alice in Wonderland, Noggin the Nog, Peter Rabbit, Red Riding Hood, Orlando the Marmalade Cat and Paddington Bear. | Biggles first appears as a teenaged "scout" (fighter) pilot in the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) during the First World War. He joined the RFC in 1916 at the age of 17, having conveniently "lost" his birth certificate. Biggles represents a particularly "British" hero, combining professionalism with a gentlemanly air. Under the stress of combat he develops from a slightly hysterical youth prone to practical jokes to a calm, confident, competent leader. He is occasionally given "special" (secret) missions by the shadowy figure of Colonel (initially Major) Raymond (Wing Commander/Air Commodore in later books, reflecting the creation of the Royal Air Force with its own ranks), who is already involved with the intelligence side of operations. Biggles is accompanied by his cousin Algernon ('Algy') Lacey and his mechanic Flight Sergeant Smyth, who accompany Biggles on his adventures after the war. Added to the team in 1935 is the teenager Ginger Hebblethwaite. | 0 |
The stamps were designed by Newell and Sorrell, and the artist for the Biggles stamp was Alan Cracknell. Biggles is wearing a leather flying helmet and goggles, holding an 'air mail' envelope addressed to him, and giving the thumbs up. A biplane, probably a De Havilland Tiger Moth is shown flying in the background. | Biggles featured on a stamp issued by the Royal Mail on 1 February 1994, as part of the sixth issue of its Greetings Stamps series. The set comprised ten first class stamps, each portraying a character from children's literature. Aside from Biggles, the other characters featured were Dan Dare, The Three Bears, Rupert Bear, Alice in Wonderland, Noggin the Nog, Peter Rabbit, Red Riding Hood, Orlando the Marmalade Cat and Paddington Bear. | 1 |
The stamps were designed by Newell and Sorrell, and the artist for the Biggles stamp was Alan Cracknell. Biggles is wearing a leather flying helmet and goggles, holding an 'air mail' envelope addressed to him, and giving the thumbs up. A biplane, probably a De Havilland Tiger Moth is shown flying in the background. | Biggles was parodied in a series of skits on the 1970s British comedy television show, "Monty Python's Flying Circus", including one titled "Biggles Dictates a Letter". In the sketch, Biggles (Graham Chapman) behaves in a naive and overreactive manner about the sexual orientation of his comrades, shooting Algy in the process. | 0 |
Also included in the presentation pack were labels containing greetings messages. The two related to Biggles, shown in white text on a blue background, read "Happy Birthday" and "Chocks Away". The Biggles stamp, its associated presentation pack and first day covers were described in the British Philatelic Bulletin of January 1994. | The stamps were designed by Newell and Sorrell, and the artist for the Biggles stamp was Alan Cracknell. Biggles is wearing a leather flying helmet and goggles, holding an 'air mail' envelope addressed to him, and giving the thumbs up. A biplane, probably a De Havilland Tiger Moth is shown flying in the background. | 1 |
Also included in the presentation pack were labels containing greetings messages. The two related to Biggles, shown in white text on a blue background, read "Happy Birthday" and "Chocks Away". The Biggles stamp, its associated presentation pack and first day covers were described in the British Philatelic Bulletin of January 1994. | Biggles:341879 | 0 |
New York State Route 380:5182565 | NY 380 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. On April 1, 1980, ownership and maintenance of NY 380 from NY 424 to the east end of its overlap with US 20 was transferred to Chautauqua County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the county and the state of New York. NY 380 was redesignated as County Route 380 (CR 380) just over four months later on August 7, 1980. Unlike its state-numbered predecessor, CR 380 continues south of NY 60 to the town of Busti, where it ends at a junction with Forest Avenue. | 1 |
New York State Route 380:5182565 | The route continued past Redbird into the town of Stockton, where it left Cassadaga Creek and headed uphill as it curved to the west. In Centralia, NY 380 met CR 54 and CR 57 at a four-way intersection. Here, NY 380 turned back to the north and descended into another valley surrounding the Bear Lake Outlet. The route crossed the outlet and followed the waterway into the hamlet of Stockton, centered on the intersection between NY 380 and NY 424 (now part of CR 58). | 0 |
New York State Route 380 (NY 380) was a north–south state highway in Chautauqua County, New York, in the United States. The southern terminus of the route was at an intersection with NY 60 in the town of Gerry. Its northern terminus was at a junction with NY 5 north of the village of Brocton in the town of Portland. In actuality, most of NY 380 was maintained by Chautauqua County; the only part that was maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation was from NY 424 in Stockton to the west end of its overlap with U.S. Route 20 (US 20) in Brocton. | NY 380 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. On April 1, 1980, ownership and maintenance of NY 380 from NY 424 to the east end of its overlap with US 20 was transferred to Chautauqua County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the county and the state of New York. NY 380 was redesignated as County Route 380 (CR 380) just over four months later on August 7, 1980. Unlike its state-numbered predecessor, CR 380 continues south of NY 60 to the town of Busti, where it ends at a junction with Forest Avenue. | 1 |
New York State Route 380 (NY 380) was a north–south state highway in Chautauqua County, New York, in the United States. The southern terminus of the route was at an intersection with NY 60 in the town of Gerry. Its northern terminus was at a junction with NY 5 north of the village of Brocton in the town of Portland. In actuality, most of NY 380 was maintained by Chautauqua County; the only part that was maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation was from NY 424 in Stockton to the west end of its overlap with U.S. Route 20 (US 20) in Brocton. | The route continued past Redbird into the town of Stockton, where it left Cassadaga Creek and headed uphill as it curved to the west. In Centralia, NY 380 met CR 54 and CR 57 at a four-way intersection. Here, NY 380 turned back to the north and descended into another valley surrounding the Bear Lake Outlet. The route crossed the outlet and followed the waterway into the hamlet of Stockton, centered on the intersection between NY 380 and NY 424 (now part of CR 58). | 0 |
NY 380 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. On April 1, 1980, ownership and maintenance of NY 380 from NY 424 to the east end of its overlap with US 20 was transferred to Chautauqua County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the county and the state of New York. NY 380 was redesignated as County Route 380 (CR 380) just over four months later on August 7, 1980. Unlike its state-numbered predecessor, CR 380 continues south of NY 60 to the town of Busti, where it ends at a junction with Forest Avenue. | New York State Route 380 (NY 380) was a north–south state highway in Chautauqua County, New York, in the United States. The southern terminus of the route was at an intersection with NY 60 in the town of Gerry. Its northern terminus was at a junction with NY 5 north of the village of Brocton in the town of Portland. In actuality, most of NY 380 was maintained by Chautauqua County; the only part that was maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation was from NY 424 in Stockton to the west end of its overlap with U.S. Route 20 (US 20) in Brocton. | 1 |
NY 380 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. On April 1, 1980, ownership and maintenance of NY 380 from NY 424 to the east end of its overlap with US 20 was transferred to Chautauqua County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the county and the state of New York. NY 380 was redesignated as County Route 380 (CR 380) just over four months later on August 7, 1980. Unlike its state-numbered predecessor, CR 380 continues south of NY 60 to the town of Busti, where it ends at a junction with Forest Avenue. | NY 380 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and extended from NY 60 north of Jamestown to NY 5 north of Brocton, a routing that remained in place up to and through the 1970s. Although the highway was signed as a state route, most of the route was actually maintained by Chautauqua County. The only section of the route that was maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation was the portion between NY 424 in Stockton and US 20 in Brocton. NY 380's short overlap with US 20 in Brocton was also state-maintained. | 0 |
NY 380 began at the modern intersection of NY 60 and CR 44 in the Ellicott community of Kimball Stand. The route proceeded west along modern CR 44 to what is now CR 380, where it turned north to join the current alignment of CR 380. NY 380 left the vicinity of Kimball Stand and headed northwest along the base of a valley surrounding Cassadaga Creek to the hamlet of Towerville, where it intersected with CR 59 and CR 48. After leaving Towerville, Route 380 went northward into the town of Ellery. Here, it intersected CR 52 and CR 66 in Redbird, a community in the extreme northeastern corner of the town. | The route continued past Redbird into the town of Stockton, where it left Cassadaga Creek and headed uphill as it curved to the west. In Centralia, NY 380 met CR 54 and CR 57 at a four-way intersection. Here, NY 380 turned back to the north and descended into another valley surrounding the Bear Lake Outlet. The route crossed the outlet and followed the waterway into the hamlet of Stockton, centered on the intersection between NY 380 and NY 424 (now part of CR 58). | 1 |
NY 380 began at the modern intersection of NY 60 and CR 44 in the Ellicott community of Kimball Stand. The route proceeded west along modern CR 44 to what is now CR 380, where it turned north to join the current alignment of CR 380. NY 380 left the vicinity of Kimball Stand and headed northwest along the base of a valley surrounding Cassadaga Creek to the hamlet of Towerville, where it intersected with CR 59 and CR 48. After leaving Towerville, Route 380 went northward into the town of Ellery. Here, it intersected CR 52 and CR 66 in Redbird, a community in the extreme northeastern corner of the town. | On April 1, 1980, ownership and maintenance of NY 380's lone independent, state-maintained portion from NY 424 to the east end of its overlap with US 20 was transferred from the state of New York to Chautauqua County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government. The county also assumed maintenance of NY 424, NY 428, and two reference routes in Dunkirk and Fredonia in the swap. In exchange, the state received ownership and maintenance of NY 394 between US 20 and NY 5 in the town of Westfield, US 62 from NY 60 to NY 394 through the hamlet of Frewsburg, and Forest Avenue from the Pennsylvania state line in Busti to NY 60 in Jamestown. Forest Avenue became NY 952P, an unsigned reference route. | 0 |
The route continued past Redbird into the town of Stockton, where it left Cassadaga Creek and headed uphill as it curved to the west. In Centralia, NY 380 met CR 54 and CR 57 at a four-way intersection. Here, NY 380 turned back to the north and descended into another valley surrounding the Bear Lake Outlet. The route crossed the outlet and followed the waterway into the hamlet of Stockton, centered on the intersection between NY 380 and NY 424 (now part of CR 58). | NY 380 continued to run along the Bear Lake Outlet to a junction known as Kelly Corners southeast of Bear Lake. At this point, NY 380 turned westward and crossed over the outlet on its way to a more isolated area of the town. It intersected CR 37 before curving back to the north and passing through the town of Portland on its way into the village of Brocton. Here, NY 380 overlapped with US 20 for about before exiting the village. NY 380 crossed over the New York State Thruway (Interstate 90) just before it came to an end at an intersection with NY 5 on the southern shore of Lake Erie. Lake Erie State Park is about a few hundred feet up the road on NY 5 eastbound. | 1 |
The route continued past Redbird into the town of Stockton, where it left Cassadaga Creek and headed uphill as it curved to the west. In Centralia, NY 380 met CR 54 and CR 57 at a four-way intersection. Here, NY 380 turned back to the north and descended into another valley surrounding the Bear Lake Outlet. The route crossed the outlet and followed the waterway into the hamlet of Stockton, centered on the intersection between NY 380 and NY 424 (now part of CR 58). | On April 1, 1980, ownership and maintenance of NY 380's lone independent, state-maintained portion from NY 424 to the east end of its overlap with US 20 was transferred from the state of New York to Chautauqua County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government. The county also assumed maintenance of NY 424, NY 428, and two reference routes in Dunkirk and Fredonia in the swap. In exchange, the state received ownership and maintenance of NY 394 between US 20 and NY 5 in the town of Westfield, US 62 from NY 60 to NY 394 through the hamlet of Frewsburg, and Forest Avenue from the Pennsylvania state line in Busti to NY 60 in Jamestown. Forest Avenue became NY 952P, an unsigned reference route. | 0 |
NY 380 continued to run along the Bear Lake Outlet to a junction known as Kelly Corners southeast of Bear Lake. At this point, NY 380 turned westward and crossed over the outlet on its way to a more isolated area of the town. It intersected CR 37 before curving back to the north and passing through the town of Portland on its way into the village of Brocton. Here, NY 380 overlapped with US 20 for about before exiting the village. NY 380 crossed over the New York State Thruway (Interstate 90) just before it came to an end at an intersection with NY 5 on the southern shore of Lake Erie. Lake Erie State Park is about a few hundred feet up the road on NY 5 eastbound. | The route continued past Redbird into the town of Stockton, where it left Cassadaga Creek and headed uphill as it curved to the west. In Centralia, NY 380 met CR 54 and CR 57 at a four-way intersection. Here, NY 380 turned back to the north and descended into another valley surrounding the Bear Lake Outlet. The route crossed the outlet and followed the waterway into the hamlet of Stockton, centered on the intersection between NY 380 and NY 424 (now part of CR 58). | 1 |
NY 380 continued to run along the Bear Lake Outlet to a junction known as Kelly Corners southeast of Bear Lake. At this point, NY 380 turned westward and crossed over the outlet on its way to a more isolated area of the town. It intersected CR 37 before curving back to the north and passing through the town of Portland on its way into the village of Brocton. Here, NY 380 overlapped with US 20 for about before exiting the village. NY 380 crossed over the New York State Thruway (Interstate 90) just before it came to an end at an intersection with NY 5 on the southern shore of Lake Erie. Lake Erie State Park is about a few hundred feet up the road on NY 5 eastbound. | Although the entirety of NY 380 was now maintained by Chautauqua County, save for the portion that overlapped US 20 in Brocton, the NY 380 designation remained in place until August 7, 1980, when it was redesignated as CR 380. Unlike NY 380, CR 380 continues south from the hamlet of Kimball Stand, intersecting NY 394 in Falconer and passing through the Hamlet of Stillwater to the town of Busti, where it ends at Forest Avenue in the hamlet of Busti south of Kimball Stand. The highways that comprise the "extension" of the 380 designation were already county routes prior to 1980. A small portion of NY 380's routing in Kimball Stand is now part of CR 44. | 0 |
NY 380 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and extended from NY 60 north of Jamestown to NY 5 north of Brocton, a routing that remained in place up to and through the 1970s. Although the highway was signed as a state route, most of the route was actually maintained by Chautauqua County. The only section of the route that was maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation was the portion between NY 424 in Stockton and US 20 in Brocton. NY 380's short overlap with US 20 in Brocton was also state-maintained. | On April 1, 1980, ownership and maintenance of NY 380's lone independent, state-maintained portion from NY 424 to the east end of its overlap with US 20 was transferred from the state of New York to Chautauqua County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government. The county also assumed maintenance of NY 424, NY 428, and two reference routes in Dunkirk and Fredonia in the swap. In exchange, the state received ownership and maintenance of NY 394 between US 20 and NY 5 in the town of Westfield, US 62 from NY 60 to NY 394 through the hamlet of Frewsburg, and Forest Avenue from the Pennsylvania state line in Busti to NY 60 in Jamestown. Forest Avenue became NY 952P, an unsigned reference route. | 1 |
NY 380 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and extended from NY 60 north of Jamestown to NY 5 north of Brocton, a routing that remained in place up to and through the 1970s. Although the highway was signed as a state route, most of the route was actually maintained by Chautauqua County. The only section of the route that was maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation was the portion between NY 424 in Stockton and US 20 in Brocton. NY 380's short overlap with US 20 in Brocton was also state-maintained. | NY 380 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. On April 1, 1980, ownership and maintenance of NY 380 from NY 424 to the east end of its overlap with US 20 was transferred to Chautauqua County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the county and the state of New York. NY 380 was redesignated as County Route 380 (CR 380) just over four months later on August 7, 1980. Unlike its state-numbered predecessor, CR 380 continues south of NY 60 to the town of Busti, where it ends at a junction with Forest Avenue. | 0 |
On April 1, 1980, ownership and maintenance of NY 380's lone independent, state-maintained portion from NY 424 to the east end of its overlap with US 20 was transferred from the state of New York to Chautauqua County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government. The county also assumed maintenance of NY 424, NY 428, and two reference routes in Dunkirk and Fredonia in the swap. In exchange, the state received ownership and maintenance of NY 394 between US 20 and NY 5 in the town of Westfield, US 62 from NY 60 to NY 394 through the hamlet of Frewsburg, and Forest Avenue from the Pennsylvania state line in Busti to NY 60 in Jamestown. Forest Avenue became NY 952P, an unsigned reference route. | Although the entirety of NY 380 was now maintained by Chautauqua County, save for the portion that overlapped US 20 in Brocton, the NY 380 designation remained in place until August 7, 1980, when it was redesignated as CR 380. Unlike NY 380, CR 380 continues south from the hamlet of Kimball Stand, intersecting NY 394 in Falconer and passing through the Hamlet of Stillwater to the town of Busti, where it ends at Forest Avenue in the hamlet of Busti south of Kimball Stand. The highways that comprise the "extension" of the 380 designation were already county routes prior to 1980. A small portion of NY 380's routing in Kimball Stand is now part of CR 44. | 1 |
On April 1, 1980, ownership and maintenance of NY 380's lone independent, state-maintained portion from NY 424 to the east end of its overlap with US 20 was transferred from the state of New York to Chautauqua County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government. The county also assumed maintenance of NY 424, NY 428, and two reference routes in Dunkirk and Fredonia in the swap. In exchange, the state received ownership and maintenance of NY 394 between US 20 and NY 5 in the town of Westfield, US 62 from NY 60 to NY 394 through the hamlet of Frewsburg, and Forest Avenue from the Pennsylvania state line in Busti to NY 60 in Jamestown. Forest Avenue became NY 952P, an unsigned reference route. | The route continued past Redbird into the town of Stockton, where it left Cassadaga Creek and headed uphill as it curved to the west. In Centralia, NY 380 met CR 54 and CR 57 at a four-way intersection. Here, NY 380 turned back to the north and descended into another valley surrounding the Bear Lake Outlet. The route crossed the outlet and followed the waterway into the hamlet of Stockton, centered on the intersection between NY 380 and NY 424 (now part of CR 58). | 0 |
Although the entirety of NY 380 was now maintained by Chautauqua County, save for the portion that overlapped US 20 in Brocton, the NY 380 designation remained in place until August 7, 1980, when it was redesignated as CR 380. Unlike NY 380, CR 380 continues south from the hamlet of Kimball Stand, intersecting NY 394 in Falconer and passing through the Hamlet of Stillwater to the town of Busti, where it ends at Forest Avenue in the hamlet of Busti south of Kimball Stand. The highways that comprise the "extension" of the 380 designation were already county routes prior to 1980. A small portion of NY 380's routing in Kimball Stand is now part of CR 44. | NY 380 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and extended from NY 60 north of Jamestown to NY 5 north of Brocton, a routing that remained in place up to and through the 1970s. Although the highway was signed as a state route, most of the route was actually maintained by Chautauqua County. The only section of the route that was maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation was the portion between NY 424 in Stockton and US 20 in Brocton. NY 380's short overlap with US 20 in Brocton was also state-maintained. | 1 |
Although the entirety of NY 380 was now maintained by Chautauqua County, save for the portion that overlapped US 20 in Brocton, the NY 380 designation remained in place until August 7, 1980, when it was redesignated as CR 380. Unlike NY 380, CR 380 continues south from the hamlet of Kimball Stand, intersecting NY 394 in Falconer and passing through the Hamlet of Stillwater to the town of Busti, where it ends at Forest Avenue in the hamlet of Busti south of Kimball Stand. The highways that comprise the "extension" of the 380 designation were already county routes prior to 1980. A small portion of NY 380's routing in Kimball Stand is now part of CR 44. | NY 380 continued to run along the Bear Lake Outlet to a junction known as Kelly Corners southeast of Bear Lake. At this point, NY 380 turned westward and crossed over the outlet on its way to a more isolated area of the town. It intersected CR 37 before curving back to the north and passing through the town of Portland on its way into the village of Brocton. Here, NY 380 overlapped with US 20 for about before exiting the village. NY 380 crossed over the New York State Thruway (Interstate 90) just before it came to an end at an intersection with NY 5 on the southern shore of Lake Erie. Lake Erie State Park is about a few hundred feet up the road on NY 5 eastbound. | 0 |
Clifty Falls State Park:2781045 | On Oct. 27, 1920, citizens of Madison, Indiana gave the land for the park, , to the state of Indiana at the suggestion of Richard Lieber. This was after a year's work by the citizens. A system of naturalist programs for Indiana state parks started in 1927, with Clifty Falls being one of the first four with one. | 1 |
Clifty Falls State Park:2781045 | Clifty Falls State Park is named for the waterfalls on Clifty Creek. | 0 |
Clifty Falls State Park:2781045 | The park features Clifty Creek, Little Clifty Creek, and a canyon in which the sun only shines during midday. | 1 |
Clifty Falls State Park:2781045 | Clifty Creek Canyon traverses the entire north-south length of the state park. The upper rim of the canyon at the north end of the park is above sea level, descending to the valley of the Ohio River which is above sea level. The creek descends down to about before dropping over one of the two Clifty Falls. Then it runs downward until reaching the Ohio River. Two other major canyons enter Clifty Creek Canyon from the east, they are Deans Branch (Tunnel Falls) and Hoffman Branch (Hoffman Falls). | 0 |
Clifty Falls State Park is an Indiana state park on in Jefferson County, Indiana in the United States. It is northeast of Louisville, Kentucky. | The park features Clifty Creek, Little Clifty Creek, and a canyon in which the sun only shines during midday. | 1 |
Clifty Falls State Park is an Indiana state park on in Jefferson County, Indiana in the United States. It is northeast of Louisville, Kentucky. | Clifty Falls State Park is named for the waterfalls on Clifty Creek. | 0 |
Clifty Falls State Park is an Indiana state park on in Jefferson County, Indiana in the United States. It is northeast of Louisville, Kentucky. | On Oct. 27, 1920, citizens of Madison, Indiana gave the land for the park, , to the state of Indiana at the suggestion of Richard Lieber. This was after a year's work by the citizens. A system of naturalist programs for Indiana state parks started in 1927, with Clifty Falls being one of the first four with one. | 1 |
Clifty Falls State Park is an Indiana state park on in Jefferson County, Indiana in the United States. It is northeast of Louisville, Kentucky. | Clifty Creek Canyon traverses the entire north-south length of the state park. The upper rim of the canyon at the north end of the park is above sea level, descending to the valley of the Ohio River which is above sea level. The creek descends down to about before dropping over one of the two Clifty Falls. Then it runs downward until reaching the Ohio River. Two other major canyons enter Clifty Creek Canyon from the east, they are Deans Branch (Tunnel Falls) and Hoffman Branch (Hoffman Falls). | 0 |
On Oct. 27, 1920, citizens of Madison, Indiana gave the land for the park, , to the state of Indiana at the suggestion of Richard Lieber. This was after a year's work by the citizens. A system of naturalist programs for Indiana state parks started in 1927, with Clifty Falls being one of the first four with one. | The park features Clifty Creek, Little Clifty Creek, and a canyon in which the sun only shines during midday. | 1 |
On Oct. 27, 1920, citizens of Madison, Indiana gave the land for the park, , to the state of Indiana at the suggestion of Richard Lieber. This was after a year's work by the citizens. A system of naturalist programs for Indiana state parks started in 1927, with Clifty Falls being one of the first four with one. | Clifty Falls State Park has ten trails that vary from easy, moderate, rugged and very rugged. Trail two is the only very rugged trail and it is the most rugged trail in all of Indiana. Because of the danger of falling rocks, the end of the trail is blocked from the public. There are old steps, also blocked, that used to lead down to the falls. You can see the falls from an overlook carved out of the side of the canyon. | 0 |
On Oct. 27, 1920, citizens of Madison, Indiana gave the land for the park, , to the state of Indiana at the suggestion of Richard Lieber. This was after a year's work by the citizens. A system of naturalist programs for Indiana state parks started in 1927, with Clifty Falls being one of the first four with one. | Clifty Falls State Park:2781045 | 1 |
On Oct. 27, 1920, citizens of Madison, Indiana gave the land for the park, , to the state of Indiana at the suggestion of Richard Lieber. This was after a year's work by the citizens. A system of naturalist programs for Indiana state parks started in 1927, with Clifty Falls being one of the first four with one. | Clifty Creek Canyon traverses the entire north-south length of the state park. The upper rim of the canyon at the north end of the park is above sea level, descending to the valley of the Ohio River which is above sea level. The creek descends down to about before dropping over one of the two Clifty Falls. Then it runs downward until reaching the Ohio River. Two other major canyons enter Clifty Creek Canyon from the east, they are Deans Branch (Tunnel Falls) and Hoffman Branch (Hoffman Falls). | 0 |
The park features Clifty Creek, Little Clifty Creek, and a canyon in which the sun only shines during midday. | Clifty Falls State Park:2781045 | 1 |
The park features Clifty Creek, Little Clifty Creek, and a canyon in which the sun only shines during midday. | Clifty Falls State Park has ten trails that vary from easy, moderate, rugged and very rugged. Trail two is the only very rugged trail and it is the most rugged trail in all of Indiana. Because of the danger of falling rocks, the end of the trail is blocked from the public. There are old steps, also blocked, that used to lead down to the falls. You can see the falls from an overlook carved out of the side of the canyon. | 0 |
The park features Clifty Creek, Little Clifty Creek, and a canyon in which the sun only shines during midday. | On Oct. 27, 1920, citizens of Madison, Indiana gave the land for the park, , to the state of Indiana at the suggestion of Richard Lieber. This was after a year's work by the citizens. A system of naturalist programs for Indiana state parks started in 1927, with Clifty Falls being one of the first four with one. | 1 |
The park features Clifty Creek, Little Clifty Creek, and a canyon in which the sun only shines during midday. | Clifty Creek Canyon traverses the entire north-south length of the state park. The upper rim of the canyon at the north end of the park is above sea level, descending to the valley of the Ohio River which is above sea level. The creek descends down to about before dropping over one of the two Clifty Falls. Then it runs downward until reaching the Ohio River. Two other major canyons enter Clifty Creek Canyon from the east, they are Deans Branch (Tunnel Falls) and Hoffman Branch (Hoffman Falls). | 0 |
It has many beautiful nature trails, especially those that go near Clifty Falls. The Clifty Inn is available for overnight guests, and the park contains a campground with sites for RV and tent campers. | Clifty Falls State Park is an Indiana state park on in Jefferson County, Indiana in the United States. It is northeast of Louisville, Kentucky. | 1 |
It has many beautiful nature trails, especially those that go near Clifty Falls. The Clifty Inn is available for overnight guests, and the park contains a campground with sites for RV and tent campers. | Clifty Falls State Park is named for the waterfalls on Clifty Creek. | 0 |
It has many beautiful nature trails, especially those that go near Clifty Falls. The Clifty Inn is available for overnight guests, and the park contains a campground with sites for RV and tent campers. | The park features Clifty Creek, Little Clifty Creek, and a canyon in which the sun only shines during midday. | 1 |
It has many beautiful nature trails, especially those that go near Clifty Falls. The Clifty Inn is available for overnight guests, and the park contains a campground with sites for RV and tent campers. | Clifty Falls State Park is named for the waterfalls on Clifty Creek. | 0 |
Palaeography:24566 | Palaeography (UK) or paleography (US; ultimately from , "palaiós", "old", and , "gráphein", "to write") is the study of historic writing systems and the deciphering and dating of historical manuscripts, including the analysis of historic handwriting. It is concerned with the forms and processes of writing; not the textual content of documents. Included in the discipline is the practice of deciphering, reading, and dating manuscripts, and the cultural context of writing, including the methods with which writing and books were produced, and the history of scriptoria. | 1 |
Palaeography:24566 | These facts may be due to accident, the few early papyri happening to represent an archaic style which had survived along with a more advanced one; but it is likely that there was a rapid development at this period, due partly to the opening of Egypt, with its supplies of papyri, and still more to the establishment of the great Alexandrian Library, which systematically copied literary and scientific works, and to the multifarious activities of Hellenistic bureaucracy. From here onward, the two types of script were sufficiently distinct (though each influenced the other) to require separate treatment. Some literary papyri, like the roll containing Aristotle's "Constitution of Athens", were written in cursive hands, and, conversely, the book-hand was occasionally used for documents. Since the scribe did not date literary rolls, such papyri are useful in tracing the development of the book-hand. | 0 |
Palaeography (UK) or paleography (US; ultimately from , "palaiós", "old", and , "gráphein", "to write") is the study of historic writing systems and the deciphering and dating of historical manuscripts, including the analysis of historic handwriting. It is concerned with the forms and processes of writing; not the textual content of documents. Included in the discipline is the practice of deciphering, reading, and dating manuscripts, and the cultural context of writing, including the methods with which writing and books were produced, and the history of scriptoria. | The discipline is one of the auxiliary sciences of history. It is important for understanding, authenticating, and dating historic texts. However, it generally cannot be used to pinpoint dates with high precision. | 1 |
Palaeography (UK) or paleography (US; ultimately from , "palaiós", "old", and , "gráphein", "to write") is the study of historic writing systems and the deciphering and dating of historical manuscripts, including the analysis of historic handwriting. It is concerned with the forms and processes of writing; not the textual content of documents. Included in the discipline is the practice of deciphering, reading, and dating manuscripts, and the cultural context of writing, including the methods with which writing and books were produced, and the history of scriptoria. | Old Aramaic appeared in the 11th century BC as the official language of the first Aramaean states. The oldest witnesses to it are inscriptions from northern Syria of the 10th to 8th centuries BC, especially extensive state treaties (c. 750 BC) and royal inscriptions. The early Old Ancient should be classified as "Ancient Aramaic" and consists of two clearly distinguished and standardised written languages, the Early Ancient Aramaic and the Late Ancient Aramaic. Aramaic was influenced at first principally by Akkadian, then from the 5th century BC by Persian and from the 3rd century BC onwards by Greek, as well as by Hebrew, especially in Palestine. As Aramaic evolved into the imperial language of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the script used to write it underwent a change into something more cursive. The best examples of this script come from documents written on papyrus from Egypt. About 500 BC, Darius I (522–486) made the Aramaic used by the Achaemenid imperial administration into the official language of the western half of the Persian Empire. This so-called "Imperial Aramaic" (the oldest dated example, from Egypt, belonging to 495 BC) is based on an otherwise unknown written form of Ancient Aramaic from Babylonia. In orthography, Imperial Aramaic preserves historical forms—alphabet, orthography, morphology, pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax and style are highly standardised. Only the formularies of the private documents and the Proverbs of Ahiqar have maintained an older tradition of sentence structure and style. Imperial Aramaic immediately replaced Ancient Aramaic as a written language and, with slight modifications, it remained the official, commercial and literary language of the Near East until gradually, beginning with the fall of the Persian Empire (331 BC) and ending in the 4th century AD, it was replaced by Greek, Persian, the eastern and western dialects of Aramaic and Arabic, though not without leaving its traces in the written form of most of these. In its original Achaemenid form, Imperial Aramaic is found in texts of the 5th to 3rd centuries BC. These come mostly from Egypt and especially from the Jewish military colony of Elephantine, which existed at least from 530 to 399 BC. | 0 |
The discipline is one of the auxiliary sciences of history. It is important for understanding, authenticating, and dating historic texts. However, it generally cannot be used to pinpoint dates with high precision. | Palaeography:24566 | 1 |
The discipline is one of the auxiliary sciences of history. It is important for understanding, authenticating, and dating historic texts. However, it generally cannot be used to pinpoint dates with high precision. | Palaeography can be used to provide information about the date at which a document was written. However, "paleography is a last resort for dating" and, "for book hands, a period of 50 years is the least acceptable spread of time" with it being suggested that "the 'rule of thumb' should probably be to avoid dating a hand more precisely than a range of at least seventy or eighty years". In a 2005 e-mail addendum to his 1996 "The Paleographical Dating of P-46" paper Bruce W. Griffin stated "Until more rigorous methodologies are developed, it is difficult to construct a 95% confidence interval for NT [New Testament] manuscripts without allowing a century for an assigned date." William M Schniedewind went even further in the abstract to his 2005 paper "Problems of Paleographic Dating of Inscriptions" and stated that "The so-called science of paleography often relies on circular reasoning because there is insufficient data to draw precise conclusion about dating. Scholars also tend to oversimplify diachronic development, assuming models of simplicity rather than complexity". | 0 |
The Aramaic language was the international trade language of the Ancient Middle East, originating in what is modern-day Syria, between 1000 and 600 BC. It spread from the Mediterranean coast to the borders of India, becoming extremely popular and being adopted by many people, both with or without any previous writing system. The Aramaic script was written in a consonantal form with a direction from right to left. The Aramaic alphabet, a modified form of Phoenician, was the ancestor of the modern Arabic and Hebrew scripts, as well as the Brāhmī script, the parent writing system of most modern abugidas in India, Southeast Asia, Tibet, and Mongolia. Initially, the Aramaic script did not differ from the Phoenician, but then the Aramaeans simplified some of the letters, thickened and rounded their lines: a specific feature of its letters is the distinction between d and r. One innovation in Aramaic is the "matres lectionis" system to indicate certain vowels. Early Phoenician-derived scripts did not have letters for vowels, and so most texts recorded just consonants. Most likely as a consequence of phonetic changes in North Semitic languages, the Aramaeans reused certain letters in the alphabet to represent long vowels. The letter "aleph" was employed to write /ā/, "he" for /ō/, "yod" for /ī/, and "vav" for /ū/. | Old Aramaic appeared in the 11th century BC as the official language of the first Aramaean states. The oldest witnesses to it are inscriptions from northern Syria of the 10th to 8th centuries BC, especially extensive state treaties (c. 750 BC) and royal inscriptions. The early Old Ancient should be classified as "Ancient Aramaic" and consists of two clearly distinguished and standardised written languages, the Early Ancient Aramaic and the Late Ancient Aramaic. Aramaic was influenced at first principally by Akkadian, then from the 5th century BC by Persian and from the 3rd century BC onwards by Greek, as well as by Hebrew, especially in Palestine. As Aramaic evolved into the imperial language of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the script used to write it underwent a change into something more cursive. The best examples of this script come from documents written on papyrus from Egypt. About 500 BC, Darius I (522–486) made the Aramaic used by the Achaemenid imperial administration into the official language of the western half of the Persian Empire. This so-called "Imperial Aramaic" (the oldest dated example, from Egypt, belonging to 495 BC) is based on an otherwise unknown written form of Ancient Aramaic from Babylonia. In orthography, Imperial Aramaic preserves historical forms—alphabet, orthography, morphology, pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax and style are highly standardised. Only the formularies of the private documents and the Proverbs of Ahiqar have maintained an older tradition of sentence structure and style. Imperial Aramaic immediately replaced Ancient Aramaic as a written language and, with slight modifications, it remained the official, commercial and literary language of the Near East until gradually, beginning with the fall of the Persian Empire (331 BC) and ending in the 4th century AD, it was replaced by Greek, Persian, the eastern and western dialects of Aramaic and Arabic, though not without leaving its traces in the written form of most of these. In its original Achaemenid form, Imperial Aramaic is found in texts of the 5th to 3rd centuries BC. These come mostly from Egypt and especially from the Jewish military colony of Elephantine, which existed at least from 530 to 399 BC. | 1 |
The Aramaic language was the international trade language of the Ancient Middle East, originating in what is modern-day Syria, between 1000 and 600 BC. It spread from the Mediterranean coast to the borders of India, becoming extremely popular and being adopted by many people, both with or without any previous writing system. The Aramaic script was written in a consonantal form with a direction from right to left. The Aramaic alphabet, a modified form of Phoenician, was the ancestor of the modern Arabic and Hebrew scripts, as well as the Brāhmī script, the parent writing system of most modern abugidas in India, Southeast Asia, Tibet, and Mongolia. Initially, the Aramaic script did not differ from the Phoenician, but then the Aramaeans simplified some of the letters, thickened and rounded their lines: a specific feature of its letters is the distinction between d and r. One innovation in Aramaic is the "matres lectionis" system to indicate certain vowels. Early Phoenician-derived scripts did not have letters for vowels, and so most texts recorded just consonants. Most likely as a consequence of phonetic changes in North Semitic languages, the Aramaeans reused certain letters in the alphabet to represent long vowels. The letter "aleph" was employed to write /ā/, "he" for /ō/, "yod" for /ī/, and "vav" for /ū/. | Attention should be drawn at the outset to certain fundamental definitions and principles of the science. The original characters of an alphabet are modified by the material and the implements used. When stone and chisel are discarded for papyrus and reed-pen, the hand encounters less resistance and moves more rapidly. This leads to changes in the size and position of the letters, and then to the joining of letters, and, consequently, to altered shapes. We are thus confronted at an early date with quite distinct types. The majuscule style of writing, based on two parallel lines, ADPL, is opposed to the minuscule, based on a system of four lines, with letters of unequal height, adpl. Another classification, according to the care taken in forming the letters, distinguishes between the set book-hand and the cursive script. The difference in this case is determined by the subject matter of the text; the writing used for books ("scriptura libraria") is in all periods quite distinct from that used for letters and documents ("epistolaris, diplomatica"). While the set book-hand, in majuscule or minuscule, shows a tendency to stabilise the forms of the letters, the cursive, often carelessly written, is continually changing in the course of years and according to the preferences of the writers. | 0 |
Aramaic writing and language supplanted Babylonian cuneiform and Akkadian language, even in their homeland in Mesopotamia. The wide diffusion of Aramaic letters led to its writing being used not only in monumental inscriptions, but also on papyrus and potsherds. Aramaic papyri have been found in large numbers in Egypt, especially at Elephantine—among them are official and private documents of the Jewish military settlement in 5 BC. In the Aramaic papyri and potsherds, words are separated usually by a small gap, as in modern writing. At the turn of the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC, the heretofore uniform Aramaic letters developed new forms, as a result of dialectal and political fragmentation in several subgroups. The most important of these is the so-called square Hebrew block script, followed by Palmyrene, Nabataean, and the much later Syriac script. | Old Aramaic appeared in the 11th century BC as the official language of the first Aramaean states. The oldest witnesses to it are inscriptions from northern Syria of the 10th to 8th centuries BC, especially extensive state treaties (c. 750 BC) and royal inscriptions. The early Old Ancient should be classified as "Ancient Aramaic" and consists of two clearly distinguished and standardised written languages, the Early Ancient Aramaic and the Late Ancient Aramaic. Aramaic was influenced at first principally by Akkadian, then from the 5th century BC by Persian and from the 3rd century BC onwards by Greek, as well as by Hebrew, especially in Palestine. As Aramaic evolved into the imperial language of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the script used to write it underwent a change into something more cursive. The best examples of this script come from documents written on papyrus from Egypt. About 500 BC, Darius I (522–486) made the Aramaic used by the Achaemenid imperial administration into the official language of the western half of the Persian Empire. This so-called "Imperial Aramaic" (the oldest dated example, from Egypt, belonging to 495 BC) is based on an otherwise unknown written form of Ancient Aramaic from Babylonia. In orthography, Imperial Aramaic preserves historical forms—alphabet, orthography, morphology, pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax and style are highly standardised. Only the formularies of the private documents and the Proverbs of Ahiqar have maintained an older tradition of sentence structure and style. Imperial Aramaic immediately replaced Ancient Aramaic as a written language and, with slight modifications, it remained the official, commercial and literary language of the Near East until gradually, beginning with the fall of the Persian Empire (331 BC) and ending in the 4th century AD, it was replaced by Greek, Persian, the eastern and western dialects of Aramaic and Arabic, though not without leaving its traces in the written form of most of these. In its original Achaemenid form, Imperial Aramaic is found in texts of the 5th to 3rd centuries BC. These come mostly from Egypt and especially from the Jewish military colony of Elephantine, which existed at least from 530 to 399 BC. | 1 |
Aramaic writing and language supplanted Babylonian cuneiform and Akkadian language, even in their homeland in Mesopotamia. The wide diffusion of Aramaic letters led to its writing being used not only in monumental inscriptions, but also on papyrus and potsherds. Aramaic papyri have been found in large numbers in Egypt, especially at Elephantine—among them are official and private documents of the Jewish military settlement in 5 BC. In the Aramaic papyri and potsherds, words are separated usually by a small gap, as in modern writing. At the turn of the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC, the heretofore uniform Aramaic letters developed new forms, as a result of dialectal and political fragmentation in several subgroups. The most important of these is the so-called square Hebrew block script, followed by Palmyrene, Nabataean, and the much later Syriac script. | The oldest example of minuscule cursive writing that has been discovered is a letter on papyrus, found in Egypt, dating from the 4th century. This marks a highly important date in the history of Latin writing, for with only one known exception, not yet adequately explained—two fragments of imperial rescripts of the 5th century—the minuscule cursive was consequently the only "scriptura epistolaris" of the Roman world. The ensuing succession of documents show a continuous improvement in this form of writing, characterised by the boldness of the strokes and by the elimination of the last lingering majuscule forms. The Ravenna deeds of the 5th and 6th centuries exhibit this hand at its perfection. | 0 |
The term Middle Aramaic refers to the form of Aramaic which appears in pointed texts and is reached in the 3rd century AD with the loss of short unstressed vowels in open syllables, and continues until the triumph of Arabic. | The Aramaic language was the international trade language of the Ancient Middle East, originating in what is modern-day Syria, between 1000 and 600 BC. It spread from the Mediterranean coast to the borders of India, becoming extremely popular and being adopted by many people, both with or without any previous writing system. The Aramaic script was written in a consonantal form with a direction from right to left. The Aramaic alphabet, a modified form of Phoenician, was the ancestor of the modern Arabic and Hebrew scripts, as well as the Brāhmī script, the parent writing system of most modern abugidas in India, Southeast Asia, Tibet, and Mongolia. Initially, the Aramaic script did not differ from the Phoenician, but then the Aramaeans simplified some of the letters, thickened and rounded their lines: a specific feature of its letters is the distinction between d and r. One innovation in Aramaic is the "matres lectionis" system to indicate certain vowels. Early Phoenician-derived scripts did not have letters for vowels, and so most texts recorded just consonants. Most likely as a consequence of phonetic changes in North Semitic languages, the Aramaeans reused certain letters in the alphabet to represent long vowels. The letter "aleph" was employed to write /ā/, "he" for /ō/, "yod" for /ī/, and "vav" for /ū/. | 1 |
The term Middle Aramaic refers to the form of Aramaic which appears in pointed texts and is reached in the 3rd century AD with the loss of short unstressed vowels in open syllables, and continues until the triumph of Arabic. | Most of the available inscriptions and manuscripts written in the above scripts—in languages like Prākrita, Pāḷi, Saṃskṛta, Apabhraṃśa, Tamil and Persian—have been read and exploited for history writing, but numerous inscriptions preserved in different museums still remain undeciphered for lack of competent palaeographic Indologists, as there is a gradual decline in the subcontinent of such disciplines as palaeography, epigraphy and numismatics. The discipline of ancient Indian scripts and the languages they are written needs new scholars who, by adopting traditional palaeographic methods and modern technology, may decipher, study and transcribe the various types of epigraphs and legends still extant today. | 0 |
Old Aramaic appeared in the 11th century BC as the official language of the first Aramaean states. The oldest witnesses to it are inscriptions from northern Syria of the 10th to 8th centuries BC, especially extensive state treaties (c. 750 BC) and royal inscriptions. The early Old Ancient should be classified as "Ancient Aramaic" and consists of two clearly distinguished and standardised written languages, the Early Ancient Aramaic and the Late Ancient Aramaic. Aramaic was influenced at first principally by Akkadian, then from the 5th century BC by Persian and from the 3rd century BC onwards by Greek, as well as by Hebrew, especially in Palestine. As Aramaic evolved into the imperial language of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the script used to write it underwent a change into something more cursive. The best examples of this script come from documents written on papyrus from Egypt. About 500 BC, Darius I (522–486) made the Aramaic used by the Achaemenid imperial administration into the official language of the western half of the Persian Empire. This so-called "Imperial Aramaic" (the oldest dated example, from Egypt, belonging to 495 BC) is based on an otherwise unknown written form of Ancient Aramaic from Babylonia. In orthography, Imperial Aramaic preserves historical forms—alphabet, orthography, morphology, pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax and style are highly standardised. Only the formularies of the private documents and the Proverbs of Ahiqar have maintained an older tradition of sentence structure and style. Imperial Aramaic immediately replaced Ancient Aramaic as a written language and, with slight modifications, it remained the official, commercial and literary language of the Near East until gradually, beginning with the fall of the Persian Empire (331 BC) and ending in the 4th century AD, it was replaced by Greek, Persian, the eastern and western dialects of Aramaic and Arabic, though not without leaving its traces in the written form of most of these. In its original Achaemenid form, Imperial Aramaic is found in texts of the 5th to 3rd centuries BC. These come mostly from Egypt and especially from the Jewish military colony of Elephantine, which existed at least from 530 to 399 BC. | The term Middle Aramaic refers to the form of Aramaic which appears in pointed texts and is reached in the 3rd century AD with the loss of short unstressed vowels in open syllables, and continues until the triumph of Arabic. | 1 |
Old Aramaic appeared in the 11th century BC as the official language of the first Aramaean states. The oldest witnesses to it are inscriptions from northern Syria of the 10th to 8th centuries BC, especially extensive state treaties (c. 750 BC) and royal inscriptions. The early Old Ancient should be classified as "Ancient Aramaic" and consists of two clearly distinguished and standardised written languages, the Early Ancient Aramaic and the Late Ancient Aramaic. Aramaic was influenced at first principally by Akkadian, then from the 5th century BC by Persian and from the 3rd century BC onwards by Greek, as well as by Hebrew, especially in Palestine. As Aramaic evolved into the imperial language of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the script used to write it underwent a change into something more cursive. The best examples of this script come from documents written on papyrus from Egypt. About 500 BC, Darius I (522–486) made the Aramaic used by the Achaemenid imperial administration into the official language of the western half of the Persian Empire. This so-called "Imperial Aramaic" (the oldest dated example, from Egypt, belonging to 495 BC) is based on an otherwise unknown written form of Ancient Aramaic from Babylonia. In orthography, Imperial Aramaic preserves historical forms—alphabet, orthography, morphology, pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax and style are highly standardised. Only the formularies of the private documents and the Proverbs of Ahiqar have maintained an older tradition of sentence structure and style. Imperial Aramaic immediately replaced Ancient Aramaic as a written language and, with slight modifications, it remained the official, commercial and literary language of the Near East until gradually, beginning with the fall of the Persian Empire (331 BC) and ending in the 4th century AD, it was replaced by Greek, Persian, the eastern and western dialects of Aramaic and Arabic, though not without leaving its traces in the written form of most of these. In its original Achaemenid form, Imperial Aramaic is found in texts of the 5th to 3rd centuries BC. These come mostly from Egypt and especially from the Jewish military colony of Elephantine, which existed at least from 530 to 399 BC. | Hands of the 11th century are marked in general (though there are exceptions) by a certain grace and delicacy, exact but easy; those of the 12th by a broad, bold sweep and an increasing freedom, which readily admits uncial forms, ligatures and enlarged letters but has not lost the sense of style and decorative effect. In the 13th and still more in the 14th centuries there was a steady decline; the less formal hands lost their beauty and exactness, becoming ever more disorderly and chaotic in their effect, while formal style imitated the precision of an earlier period without attaining its freedom and naturalness, and often appears singularly lifeless. In the 15th century, especially in the West, where Greek scribes were in request to produce manuscripts of the classical authors, there was a revival, and several manuscripts of this period, though markedly inferior to those of the 11th and 12th centuries, are by no means without beauty. | 0 |
A history of Greek handwriting must be incomplete owing to the fragmentary nature of evidence. If one rules out the inscriptions on stone or metal, which belong to the science of epigraphy, we are practically dependent for the period preceding the 4th or 5th century AD on the papyri from Egypt (cf. papyrology), the earliest of which take back our knowledge only to the end of the 4th century BC. This limitation is less serious than might appear, since the few manuscripts not of Egyptian origin which have survived from this period, like the parchments from Avroman or Dura, the Herculaneum papyri, and a few documents found in Egypt but written elsewhere, reveal a uniformity of style in the various portions of the Greek world; but some differences can be discerned, and it is probable that, were there more material, distinct local styles could be traced. | Further, during any given period several types of hand may exist together. There was a marked difference between the hand used for literary works (generally called "uncials" but, in the papyrus period, better styled "book-hand") and that of documents ("cursive") and within each of these classes several distinct styles were employed side by side; and the various types are not equally well represented in the surviving papyri. | 1 |
A history of Greek handwriting must be incomplete owing to the fragmentary nature of evidence. If one rules out the inscriptions on stone or metal, which belong to the science of epigraphy, we are practically dependent for the period preceding the 4th or 5th century AD on the papyri from Egypt (cf. papyrology), the earliest of which take back our knowledge only to the end of the 4th century BC. This limitation is less serious than might appear, since the few manuscripts not of Egyptian origin which have survived from this period, like the parchments from Avroman or Dura, the Herculaneum papyri, and a few documents found in Egypt but written elsewhere, reveal a uniformity of style in the various portions of the Greek world; but some differences can be discerned, and it is probable that, were there more material, distinct local styles could be traced. | The earliest attested form of writing in South India is represented by inscriptions found in caves, associated with the Chalukya and Chera dynasties. These are written in variants of what is known as the Cave character, and their script differs from the Northern version in being more angular. Most of the modern scripts of South India have evolved from this script, with the exception of Vatteluttu, the exact origins of which are unknown, and Nandinagari, which is a variant of Devanagari that developed due to later Northern influence. In south India from the 7th century of the common era onwards, a number of inscriptions belonging to the dynasties of Pallava, Chola and Pandya are found. These records are written in three different scripts known as Tamil, Vattezhuttu and Grantha scripts, the last variety being used to write Sanskrit inscriptions. In the Kerala region, the Vattezhuttu script developed into a still more cursive script called Kolezhuthu during the 14th and 15th centuries. At the same time, the modern Malayalam script developed out of the Grantha script. The early form of the Telugu-Kannada script is found in the inscriptions of the early Kadambas of Banavasi and the early Chalukyas of Badami in the west, and Salankayana and the early Eastern Chalukyas in the east who ruled the Kannada and Telugu speaking areas respectively, during the 4th to 7th centuries. | 0 |
Further, during any given period several types of hand may exist together. There was a marked difference between the hand used for literary works (generally called "uncials" but, in the papyrus period, better styled "book-hand") and that of documents ("cursive") and within each of these classes several distinct styles were employed side by side; and the various types are not equally well represented in the surviving papyri. | The development of any hand is largely influenced by the materials used. To this general rule the Greek script is no exception. Whatever may have been the period at which the use of papyrus or leather as a writing material began in Greece (and papyrus was employed in the 5th century BC), it is highly probable that for some time after the introduction of the alphabet the characters were incised with a sharp tool on stones or metal far oftener than they were written with a pen. In cutting a hard surface, it is easier to form angles than curves; in writing the reverse is the case; hence the development of writing was from angular letters ("capitals") inherited from epigraphic style to rounded ones ("uncials"). But only certain letters were affected by this development, in particular E (uncial ε), Σ (c), Ω (ω), and to a lesser extent A (α). | 1 |
Further, during any given period several types of hand may exist together. There was a marked difference between the hand used for literary works (generally called "uncials" but, in the papyrus period, better styled "book-hand") and that of documents ("cursive") and within each of these classes several distinct styles were employed side by side; and the various types are not equally well represented in the surviving papyri. | While the set book-hand, in square or rustic capitals, was used for the copying of books, the writing of everyday life, letters and documents of all kinds, was in a cursive form, the oldest examples of which are provided by the graffiti on walls at Pompeii ("CIL", iv), a series of waxen tablets, also discovered at Pompeii ("CIL", iv, supplement), a similar series found at Verespatak in Transylvania ("CIL", iii) and a number of papyri. From a study of a number of documents which exhibit transitional forms, it appears that this cursive was originally simplified capital writing. The evolution was so rapid, however, that at quite an early date the "scriptura epistolaris" of the Roman world can no longer be described as capitals. By the 1st century, this kind of writing began to develop the principal characteristics of two new types: the uncial and the minuscule cursive. With the coming into use of writing surfaces which were smooth, or offered little resistance, the unhampered haste of the writer altered the shape, size and position of the letters. In the earliest specimens of writing on wax, plaster or papyrus, there appears a tendency to represent several straight strokes by a single curve. The cursive writing thus foreshadows the specifically uncial forms. The same specimens show great inequality in the height of the letters; the main strokes are prolonged upwards (= b; = d) or downwards (= q; = s). In this direction, the cursive tends to become a minuscule hand. | 0 |
The development of any hand is largely influenced by the materials used. To this general rule the Greek script is no exception. Whatever may have been the period at which the use of papyrus or leather as a writing material began in Greece (and papyrus was employed in the 5th century BC), it is highly probable that for some time after the introduction of the alphabet the characters were incised with a sharp tool on stones or metal far oftener than they were written with a pen. In cutting a hard surface, it is easier to form angles than curves; in writing the reverse is the case; hence the development of writing was from angular letters ("capitals") inherited from epigraphic style to rounded ones ("uncials"). But only certain letters were affected by this development, in particular E (uncial ε), Σ (c), Ω (ω), and to a lesser extent A (α). | Further, during any given period several types of hand may exist together. There was a marked difference between the hand used for literary works (generally called "uncials" but, in the papyrus period, better styled "book-hand") and that of documents ("cursive") and within each of these classes several distinct styles were employed side by side; and the various types are not equally well represented in the surviving papyri. | 1 |
The development of any hand is largely influenced by the materials used. To this general rule the Greek script is no exception. Whatever may have been the period at which the use of papyrus or leather as a writing material began in Greece (and papyrus was employed in the 5th century BC), it is highly probable that for some time after the introduction of the alphabet the characters were incised with a sharp tool on stones or metal far oftener than they were written with a pen. In cutting a hard surface, it is easier to form angles than curves; in writing the reverse is the case; hence the development of writing was from angular letters ("capitals") inherited from epigraphic style to rounded ones ("uncials"). But only certain letters were affected by this development, in particular E (uncial ε), Σ (c), Ω (ω), and to a lesser extent A (α). | Palaeography (UK) or paleography (US; ultimately from , "palaiós", "old", and , "gráphein", "to write") is the study of historic writing systems and the deciphering and dating of historical manuscripts, including the analysis of historic handwriting. It is concerned with the forms and processes of writing; not the textual content of documents. Included in the discipline is the practice of deciphering, reading, and dating manuscripts, and the cultural context of writing, including the methods with which writing and books were produced, and the history of scriptoria. | 0 |
The earliest Greek papyrus yet discovered is probably that containing the "Persae" of Timotheus, which dates from the second half of the 4th century BC and its script has a curiously archaic appearance. E, Σ, and Ω have the capital form, and apart from these test letters the general effect is one of stiffness and angularity. More striking is the hand of the earliest dated papyrus, a contract of 311 BC. Written with more ease and elegance, it shows little trace of any development towards a truly cursive style; the letters are not linked, and though the uncial c is used throughout, E and Ω have the capital forms. A similar impression is made by the few other papyri, chiefly literary, dating from about 300 BC; E may be slightly rounded, Ω approach the uncial form, and the angular Σ occurs as a letter only in the Timotheus papyrus, though it survived longer as a numeral (= 200), but the hands hardly suggest that for at least a century and a half the art of writing on papyrus had been well established. Yet before the middle of the 3rd century BC, one finds both a practised book-hand and a developed and often remarkably handsome cursive. | The development of the Ptolemaic book-hand is difficult to trace, as there are few examples, mostly not datable on external grounds. Only for the 3rd century BC have we a secure basis. The hands of that period have an angular appearance; there is little uniformity in the size of individual letters, and though sometimes, notably in the Petrie papyrus containing the "Phaedo" of Plato, a style of considerable delicacy is attained, the book-hand in general shows less mastery than the contemporary cursive. In the 2nd century the letters grew rounder and more uniform in size, but in the 1st century there is perceptible, here as in the cursive hand, a certain disintegration. Probably at no time did the Ptolemaic book-hand acquire such unity of stylistic effect as the cursive. | 1 |
The earliest Greek papyrus yet discovered is probably that containing the "Persae" of Timotheus, which dates from the second half of the 4th century BC and its script has a curiously archaic appearance. E, Σ, and Ω have the capital form, and apart from these test letters the general effect is one of stiffness and angularity. More striking is the hand of the earliest dated papyrus, a contract of 311 BC. Written with more ease and elegance, it shows little trace of any development towards a truly cursive style; the letters are not linked, and though the uncial c is used throughout, E and Ω have the capital forms. A similar impression is made by the few other papyri, chiefly literary, dating from about 300 BC; E may be slightly rounded, Ω approach the uncial form, and the angular Σ occurs as a letter only in the Timotheus papyrus, though it survived longer as a numeral (= 200), but the hands hardly suggest that for at least a century and a half the art of writing on papyrus had been well established. Yet before the middle of the 3rd century BC, one finds both a practised book-hand and a developed and often remarkably handsome cursive. | Most of the available inscriptions and manuscripts written in the above scripts—in languages like Prākrita, Pāḷi, Saṃskṛta, Apabhraṃśa, Tamil and Persian—have been read and exploited for history writing, but numerous inscriptions preserved in different museums still remain undeciphered for lack of competent palaeographic Indologists, as there is a gradual decline in the subcontinent of such disciplines as palaeography, epigraphy and numismatics. The discipline of ancient Indian scripts and the languages they are written needs new scholars who, by adopting traditional palaeographic methods and modern technology, may decipher, study and transcribe the various types of epigraphs and legends still extant today. | 0 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.