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the south west wind blows across nigeria between | till September | Title: Geography of Nigeria
Text:Geography of Nigeria Nigeria is a country in West Africa. Nigeria shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the north. Its coast lies on the Gulf of Guinea in the south and it borders Lake Chad to the northeast. Noted geographical features in Nigeria include the Adamawa highlands, Mambilla Plateau, Jos Plateau, Obudu Plateau, the Niger River, River Benue and Niger Delta. Nigeria is found in the Tropics, where the climate is seasonally damp and very humid. Nigeria is affected by four climate types; these climate types are distinguishable, as one moves from the southern part of Nigeria to the northern part of Nigeria through Nigeria's middle belt. The tropical monsoon climate, designated by the Köppen climate classification as "Am", is found in the southern part of the country. This climate is influenced by the monsoons originating from the South Atlantic ocean, which is brought into the country by the (maritime tropical) MT airmass, a warm moist sea to land seasonal wind. Its warmth and high humidity gives it a strong tendency to ascend and produce copious rainfall, which is a result of the condensation of water vapour in the rapidly rising air. The Tropical monsoon climate has a very small temperature range. Then temperature ranges are almost constant throughout the year, for example, Warri town in the southern part of Nigeria, records a maximum of for its hottest month while its lowest temperature is in its coldest month. The temperature difference of Warri town is not more than 2 °C (5 °F). The southern part of Nigeria experiences heavy and abundant rainfall. These storms are usually convectional in nature due to the regions proximity, to the equatorial belt. The annual rainfall received in this region is very high, usually above the rainfall totals giving for tropical rainforest climates worldwide. Over of rainfall is received in the coastal region of Nigeria around the Niger delta area. Bonny town found in the coastal region of the Niger delta area in southern Nigeria receives well over of rainfall annually. The rest of the southeast receives between 2,000 and of rain per year. The southern region of Nigeria experiences a double rainfall maxima characterised by two high rainfall peaks, with a short dry season and a longer dry season falling between and after each peaks. The first rainy season begins around March and last to the end of July with a peak in June, this rainy season is followed by a short dry break in August known as the August break which is a short dry season lasting for two to three weeks in August. This break is broken by the short rainy season starting around early September and lasting to Mid October with a peak period at the end of September. The ending of the short rainy season in October is followed by long dry season. This period starts from late October and lasts till early March with peak dry conditions between early December and late February. The tropical savanna climate or tropical wet and dry climate, is extensive in area and covers most of Western Nigeria to central Nigeria beginning from the Tropical rainforest climate boundary in southern Nigeria to the central part of Nigeria, where it exerts enormous influence on the region. This climate, the tropical savanna climate exhibits a well marked rainy season and a dry season with a single peak known as the summer maximum due to its distance from the equator. Temperatures are above throughout the year. Abuja, Nigeria's capital city found in central Nigeria, has a temperature range of to , and an annual rainfall of about with a single rainfall maxima in September. The single Dry season experienced in this climate, the tropical savanna climate in central Nigeria beginning from December to march, is hot and dry with the Harmattan wind, a continental tropical (CT) airmass laden with dust from the Sahara Desert prevailing throughout this period. With the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) swinging northward over West Africa from the Southern Hemisphere in April, heavy showers coming from pre-monsoonal convective clouds mainly in the form of squall lines also known as the north easterlies formed mainly as a result of the interactions of the two dominant airmasses in Nigeria known as the Maritime tropical(south westerlies) and the Continental tropical(north easterlies), begins in central Nigeria while the Monsoons from the south atlantic ocean arrives in central Nigeria in July bringing with it high humidity, heavy cloud cover and heavy rainfall which can be daily occurrence lasting till September when the monsoons gradually begin retreating southward to the southern part of Nigeria.Rainfall totals in central Nigeria varies from in the lowlands of the river Niger Benue trough to over along the south western escarpment of the Jos Plateau. The Sahel climate or tropical dry climate, is the predominant climate type in the northern part of Nigeria. Annual rainfall totals are lower compared to the southern and central part of Nigeria. The rainy season in the northern part of Nigeria last for only three to four months (June–September). The rest of the year is hot and dry with temperatures climbing as high as . Alpine climate or highland climate or mountain climate are found on highlands regions in Nigeria. Highlands with the alpine climate in Nigeria, are well over above sea level. Due to their location in the tropics, this elevation is high enough to reach the temperate climate line in the tropics thereby giving the highlands, mountains and the plateau regions standing above this height, a cool mountain climate. Nigeria, like the rest of West Africa and other tropical lands, has only two seasons. These are the dry season and the rainy season. The dry season is accompanied by a dust laden airmass from the Sahara Desert, locally known as Harmattan, or by its main name, The Tropical Continental (CT) airmass, while the rainy season is heavily influenced by an airmass originating from the south atlantic ocean, locally known as the south western wind, or by its main name, The Tropical Maritime (MT) airmass. These two major wind systems in Nigeria are known as the trade winds. The tropical maritime airmass (MT) is responsible for Nigeria's rainy season. This wind (the tropical maritime airmass) invades the country from February in the southern part of Nigeria while it takes longer for the wind to fully cover the whole of the country, reaching the northern part of Nigeria in June. Its invasion is as a result of the northward retreat, of the tropical continental airmass (CT) known as the harmattan. The northward retreat of the tropical continental airmass (CT), is caused by the sun's northward shift from the tropic of capricorn in the southern hemisphere to the tropic of cancer in the northern hemisphere. This shift begins from February and ends in June, when the sun is fully overhead, at the tropic of cancer in the northern hemisphere. During this northward migration of the sun as a result of the earth tilting along its axis, the sun crosses the equator (around March), moving over west Africa at this time on its journey to the northern hemisphere. West Africa comes directly under the sun at this time. The sun is overhead throughout west Africa and over Nigeria during this period of the sun's northward migration to the tropic of cancer in the northern hemisphere. The whole of West Africa is heated intensely as result of the increased insolation received from the sun being overhead over west Africa. Temperatures can climb as high as over west Africa during this time. Temperatures in the northern part of Nigeria can go as high as in cities like Maiduguri. The high temperatures coupled with an increase in insolation causes a region of low pressure to develop over west Africa and Nigeria (between March to May). The Tropical continental airmass (CT) from the Sahara Desert in the northern part of West Africa, is weakened due to the overheating of the land surface in west Africa and Nigeria at this time. The Tropical continental airmass (CT) begins to retreat northwards to the Sahara Desert due to massive heating of the land which transfers heat in the form of convection into the Tropical continental airmass (CT) which constitutes the main layer of air above the land. This transfer of heat in the Tropical continental airmass (CT) in turn, causes the wind to expand and become lighter as this is the normal behaviour for winds moving above intensely heated grounds. The Tropical continental airmass (CT) loses its strength as a major airmass in the region of west Africa and over Nigeria at this time (around February in the southern part of Nigeria to June in northern Nigeria) and begins to retreat coupled with the rising of air in form of convection within this airmass (Tropical continental airmass (CT)), further weakening the dominance of the wind over west Africa and Nigeria. The Tropical continental airmass (CT) finally retreats from most part of Nigeria, and the West African atmosphere around April to May, leaving an empty atmosphere over Nigeria. The sun's rays enters into the atmosphere of Nigeria more intense than it does during the presence of the Tropical continental airmass, which contained dust (in form of haze) that reduced the intensity of the sun. The overheating of the west Africa land mass and Nigeria in particular creates a low pressure region over west Africa and Nigeria. This low pressure zone attracts the Tropical Maritime Airmass (MT) from the south Atlantic Ocean since areas of low pressures experiences inward blowing winds because winds are moving air blowing outwards from regions of high pressure to regions of low pressure. The Tropical Maritime Airmass is a warm humid and unstable trade wind due to its warmth. Convectional currents are easily set up within the airmass whenever there is little instability in the airmass as a result of a slight to a very high orographic uplift in mountainous regions like the obudu plateau or the heating of the land which can trigger the formation of cumulonimbus cloud leading to thunderstorms within the airmass. During the dominance of the Tropical Maritime Airmass (MT) in the rainy season of Nigeria, mornings are bright and sunny, the sun's heating of the land in the mornings and afternoons sets up convectional currents, these currents rise vertically and cumulonimbus clouds are formed, by afternoons to evenings, torrential downpour follows. The Easterly wave or the African easterly waves is another major contributor of rainfall during the summer monsoons months of May to September in Nigeria. The nature of this waves changes at about the 15 degrees line. The waves that pass south of this line carry moisture and create convection that leads to rain clouds. Nigeria's northern end is south of the 15 degrees line at about 14 degrees. Nigeria's location in the wetter part of the easterly waves south of the 15 degree line creates wetter climatic conditions for Nigeria especially during the monsoons. The Tropical Continental Airmass (CT) locally known as the harmattan, is a wind originating from North Africa which crosses the Sahara Desert into west Africa to Nigeria. This airmass dominates Nigeria's climate during the dry season from December to March. The Tropical continental airmass is dusty and creates a haze within the atmosphere of west Africa and Nigeria when it predominates. The haze is as a result of the dust within the airmass limiting visibility and blocking much of the sun's rays from reaching the earth. The mass has no ability of forming rain due to low humidity within the airmass, since it crosses the Sahara Desert, it picks up dust instead of water thereby creating little chances for rainfall. The airmass makes life difficult as a result of low visibility which hampers transportation. The dust haze creates an almost desert conditions in the country during the dominance of the Tropical continental airmass (the harmattan). But its coming brings some relief to farmers since the low humidity present in the air quickens the drying of their crops. Nigeria's location in the tropics has given her a tropical hot climate. Temperatures in Nigeria vary according to the seasons of the year as with other lands found in the tropics. Nigeria's seasons are determined by rainfall with rainy season and dry season being the major seasons in Nigeria. The rainy season of Nigeria brings in cooler weather to the country as a result of an increased cloud cover that acts as a blockage to the intense sunshine of the tropics by blocking much of the suns rays in the rainy season; this in turn cools the land, and the winds above the ground remains cool thereby making for cooler temperatures during the rainy season. But afternoons in the rainy season can be hot and humid, a feature of tropical climates. In the rainy season it is damp, and the rainfalls are usually abundant. The dry season of Nigeria is a period of little cloud cover in the southern part of Nigeria to virtually no cloud cover in the northern part of Nigeria. The sun shines through the atmosphere with little obstructions from the clear skies making the dry season in Nigeria a period of warm weather conditions.In the middle of the dry season around December, a dusty wind from the Sahara Desert called the harmattan enters Nigeria from the northeastern part of the country blocking sun rays partially from shining and also creating haze in the atmosphere, this activities of the wind lowers temperatures considerably saving inhabitants for sometime, from the scorching heat that would have occurred as a result of clearer skies during the dry season. But with the withdrawal of this wind around March to April following the onset of the rainy season, temperatures can go as high as in some parts of Nigeria. Semi temperate weather conditions prevail on the highlands in central Nigeria above above sea level, namely the Jos Plateau. Temperatures on the Jos plateau ranges between 16 °C to 25 °C which are cool all year round. Temperate weather conditions occur on the highlands along the Nigeria Cameroon border, in the eastern part of Nigeria. Highlands in these region attain an average height of more than to some standing above above sea level. The climate on these highlands is temperate all year round. The major highlands in this region are the Obudu Plateau above , Mambilla Plateau above and Mt Chappal Waddi above . Nigeria's most expansive topographical region is that of the valleys of the Niger and Benue River valleys (which merge into each other and form a "y" shaped confluence at Lokoja). Plains rise to the north of the valleys. To the southwest of the Niger there is "rugged" highland, and to the southeast of the Benue hills and mountains are found all the way to the border with Cameroon. Coastal plains are found in both the southwest and the southeast. The Niger Delta is located in the southern part of Nigeria. It is one of the world's largest arcuate fan-shaped river deltas. The riverine area of the Niger Delta is a coastal belt of swamps bordering the Atlantic ocean. The swamps are vegetated tidal flats formed by a reticulate pattern of interconnected meandering creeks and distributaries of the River Niger. The vegetation of the Niger Delta consist mainly of forest swamps. The forest are of two types, nearest the sea is a belt of saline/brackish Mangrove swamp separated from the sea by sand beach ridges within the mangrove swamp. Numerous sandy islands occur with fresh water vegetation. Fresh water swamps gradually supersede the mangrove on the landward side. About 70% of Nigeria's crude oil and gas production is from the area. The riverine area is home to a large population of people living mainly in small villages scattered along the banks of rivers and creeks. Rainfall in the coastal belt of the Niger Delta is heavy due to the closeness of the Delta region to the equator. Annual rainfall totals vary from 2400 to over 4000 millimeters. Niger Delta cities and their annually rainfall totals in millimeters: Nigeria is covered by three types of vegetation: forests (where there is significant tree cover), savannahs (insignificant tree cover, with grasses and flowers located between trees), and montane land. (The latter is the least common, and is mainly found in the mountains near the Cameroon border.) Both the forest zone and the savannah zone are divided into three parts. Some of the forest zone's most southerly portion, especially around the Niger River and Cross River deltas, is mangrove swamp (see Central African mangroves). North of this is fresh water swamp, containing different vegetation from the salt water mangrove swamps, and north of that is rain forest. The savannah zone's three categories are divided into mm' Guinean forest-savanna mosaic, made up of plains of tall grass which are interrupted by trees, the most common across the country; Sudan savannah, similar but with shorter grasses and shorter trees; and Sahel savannah patches of grass and sand, found in the northeast. Nigeria's natural resources include but are not limited to petroleum (see petroleum in Nigeria), tin, columbite, iron ore, coal, limestone, lead, zinc, natural gas, hydropower, and arable land. This is a list of the extreme points of Nigeria, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
Title: Niger Delta
Text:Niger Delta The Niger Delta is the delta of the Niger River sitting directly on the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean in Nigeria. It is typically considered to be located within nine coastal southern Nigerian states, which include: all six states from the South South geopolitical zone, one state (Ondo) from South West geopolitical zone and two states (Abia and Imo) from South East geopolitical zone. Of all the states that the region covers, only Cross River is not an oil-producing state. The Niger Delta is a very densely populated region sometimes called the Oil Rivers because it was once a major producer of palm oil. The area was the British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, when it was expanded and became the Niger Coast Protectorate. The delta is a petroleum-rich region and has been the center of international controversy over pollution. The Niger Delta, as now defined officially by the Nigerian government, extends over about and makes up 7.5% of Nigeria's land mass. Historically and cartographically, it consists of present-day Bayelsa, Delta, and Rivers States. In 2000, however, Obasanjo's regime included Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Cross River State, Edo, Imo and Ondo States in the region. Some 31 million people of more than 40 ethnic groups including the Bini, Efik, Esan, Ibibio, Igbo, Annang, Yoruba, Oron, Ijaw, Ikwerre, Abua/Odual, Itsekiri, Isoko, Urhobo, Ukwuani, Kalabari, Okrika and Ogoni, are among the inhabitants of the political Niger Delta, speaking about 250 different dialects. The Niger Delta, and the South South geopolitical zone (which contains six of the states in Niger Delta) are two different entities. The Niger Delta separates the Bight of Benin from the Bight of Bonny within the larger Gulf of Guinea. The area was the British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, when it was expanded and became the Niger Coast Protectorate. The core Niger Delta later became a part of the eastern region of Nigeria, which came into being in 1951 (one of the three regions, and later one of the four regions). The majority of the people were those from the colonial Calabar and Ogoja divisions, the present-day Ogoja, Annang, Ibibio, Oron, Efik, Ijaw and Ogoni peoples. The National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) was the ruling political party of the region. The NCNC later became the National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, after western Cameroon decided to separate from Nigeria. The ruling party of eastern Nigeria did not seek to preclude the separation and even encouraged it. The then Eastern Region had the third, fourth and fifth largest indigenous ethnic groups in the country including Igbo, Efik-Ibibio and Ijaw. In 1953, the old eastern region had a major crisis due to the expulsion of professor Eyo Ita from office by the majority Igbo tribe of the old eastern region. Ita, an Efik man from Calabar, was one of the pioneer nationalists for Nigerian independence. The minorities in the region, the Ibibio, Annang, Efik, Ijaw and Ogoja, were situated along the southeastern coast and in the delta region and demanded a state of their own, the Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers (COR) state. The struggle for the creation of the COR state continued and was a major issue concerning the status of minorities in Nigeria during debates in Europe on Nigerian independence. As a result of this crisis, Professor Eyo Ita left the NCNC to form a new political party called the National Independence Party (NIP) which was one of the five Nigerian political parties represented at the conferences on Nigerian Constitution and Independence. In 1961, another major crisis occurred when the then eastern region of Nigeria allowed present-day Southwestern Cameroon to separate from Nigeria (from the region of what is now Akwa Ibom and Cross River states) through a plebiscite while the leadership of the then Northern Region took the necessary steps to keep Northwestern Cameroon in Nigeria, in present-day Adamawa and Taraba states. The aftermath of the 1961 plebiscite has led to a dispute between Cameroon and Nigeria over the small territory of Bakassi. A new phase of the struggle saw the declaration of an Independent Niger Delta Republic by Isaac Adaka Boro during Nigerian president Ironsi's administration, just before the Nigerian Civil War. Also just before the Nigerian civil war, Southeastern State of Nigeria was created (also known as Southeastern Nigeria or Coastal Southeastern Nigeria), which had the colonial Calabar division, and colonial Ogoja division. Rivers State was also created. Southeastern state and River state became two states for the minorities of the old eastern region, and the majority Igbo of the old eastern region had a state called East Central state. Southeastern state was renamed Cross River state and was later split into Cross River state and Akwa Ibom state. Rivers state was later divided into Rivers state and Bayelsa State. The people of the eastern region suffered heavily and sustained many deaths during 1967–1970 Nigerian Civil War, also known as the Biafran War, in which the eastern region declared an independent state named Biafra that was eventually defeated, thereby preserving the sovereignty and indivisibility of the Nigerian state, which led to the loss of many souls. During the next phase of resistance in the Niger Delta, local communities demanded environmental and social justice from the federal government, with Ken Saro Wiwa and the Ogoni Tribe as the lead figures for this phase of the struggle. Cohesive oil protests became most pronounced in 1990 with the publication of the Ogoni Bill of Rights. The indigents protested against the lack of economic development, e.g. schools, good roads, and hospitals, in the region, despite all the oil wealth created. They also complained about environmental pollution and destruction of their land and rivers by foreign oil companies. Ken Saro Wiwa and nine other oil activists from Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) were arrest and killed under Sani Abacha in 1995. Although protests have never been as strong as they were under Saro-Wiwa, there is still an oil reform movement based on peaceful protests today as the Ogoni struggle served as a modern-day eye opener to the Peoples of the region. Unfortunately, the struggle got out of control, and the present phase has become militant. When long-held concerns about loss of control over resources to the oil companies were voiced by the Ijaw people in the Kaiama Declaration in 1998, the Nigerian government sent troops to occupy the Bayelsa and Delta states. Soldiers opened fire with rifles, machine guns, and tear gas, killing at least three protesters and arresting twenty-five more. Since then, local indigenous activity against commercial oil refineries and pipelines in the region have increased in frequency and militancy. Recently foreign employees of Shell, the primary corporation operating in the region, were taken hostage by outraged local people. Such activities have also resulted in greater governmental intervention in the area, and the mobilization of the Nigerian army and State Security Service into the region, resulting in violence and human rights abuses. In April 2006, a bomb exploded near an oil refinery in the Niger Delta region, a warning against Chinese expansion in the region. MEND stated: "We wish to warn the Chinese government and its oil companies to steer well clear of the Niger Delta. The Chinese government, by investing in stolen crude, places its citizens in our line of fire." Government and private initiatives to develop the Niger Delta region have been introduced recently. These include the Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC), a government initiative, and the Development Initiative (DEVIN), a community development non-governmental organization (NGO) based in Port Harcourt in the Niger Delta. Uz and Uz Transnational, a company with a strong commitment to the Niger Delta, has introduced ways of developing the poor in the Niger Delta, especially in Rivers State. In September 2008, MEND released a statement proclaiming that their militants had launched an "oil war" throughout the Niger Delta against both, pipelines and oil-production facilities, and the Nigerian soldiers that protect them. Both MEND and the Nigerian Government claim to have inflicted heavy casualties on one another. In August 2009, the Nigerian government granted amnesty to the militants; many militants subsequently surrendered their weapons in exchange for a presidential pardon, rehabilitation programme, and education. Western Niger Delta consists of the western section of coastal South-South Nigeria which includes Delta, and the southernmost parts of Edo, and Ondo States. The western (or Northern) Niger Delta is an heterogeneous society with several ethnic groups including the Urhobo, Isoko, Itsekiri, Ijaw (or Izon) and Ukwuani groups in Delta State; the Bini, Esan,Auchi,Esako,oral,igara and Afenmai in Edo State; and the Yoruba (Ilaje) in Ondo State. Their livelihoods are primarily based on fishing and farming. History has it that the Western Niger was controlled by chiefs of the four primary ethnic groups the Itsekiri, Isoko, Ijaw, and Urhobo with whom the British government had to sign separate "Treaties of Protection" in their formation of "Protectorates" that later became southern Nigeria. Central Niger Delta consists of the central section of coastal South-South Nigeria which includes Bayelsa, Rivers, Abia and Imo States. The Central Niger Delta region has the Ijaw (including the Nembe-Brass, Ogbia, Kalabari people, Ibani of Opobo & Bonny, Abua, Okrika, Engenni and Andoni clans), the Ogoni People (Khana, Gokana and Eleme) and the Igbo (Etche, Ogba, Ikwerre, Ndoni, Ekpeye and Ndoki) in Rivers State. Eastern Niger Delta consists of Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State. Nigeria has become West Africa's biggest producer of petroleum. Some a day are extracted in the Niger Delta. It is estimated that 38 billion barrels of crude oil still reside under the delta as of early 2012. The first oil operations in the region began in the 1950s and were undertaken by multinational corporations, which provided Nigeria with necessary technological and financial resources to extract oil. Since 1975, the region has accounted for more than 75% of Nigeria's export earnings. Together oil and natural gas extraction comprise "97 per cent of Nigeria's foreign exchange revenues". Much of the natural gas extracted in oil wells in the Delta is immediately burned, or flared, into the air at a rate of approximately 70 million m³per day. This is equivalent to 41% of African natural gas consumption and forms the largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions on the planet. In 2003, about 99% of excess gas was flared in the Niger Delta, although this value has fallen to 11% in 2010. (See also gas flaring volumes). The biggest gas flaring company is the Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, a joint venture that is majority owned by the Nigerian government. In Nigeria, "...despite regulations introduced 20 years ago to outlaw the practice, most associated gas is flared, causing local pollution and contributing to climate change." The environmental devastation associated with the industry and the lack of distribution of oil wealth have been the source and/or key aggravating factors of numerous environmental movements and inter-ethnic conflicts in the region, including recent guerrilla activity by the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND). In September 2012 Eland Oil & Gas purchased a 45% interest in OML 40, with its partner Starcrest Energy Nigeria Limited, from the Shell Group. They intend to recommission the existing infrastructure and restart existing wells to re-commence production at an initial gross rate of 2,500 bopd with a target to grow gross production to 50,000 bopd within four years. Oil revenue allocation has been the subject of much contention well before Nigeria gained its independence. Allocations have varied from as much as 50%, owing to the First Republic's high degree of regional autonomy, and as low as 10% during the military dictatorships. This is the table below. "* State allocations are based on 5 criteria: equality (equal shares per state), population, social development, land mass, and revenue generation. " "**The derivation formula refers to the percentage of the revenue oil-producing states retain from taxes on oil and other natural resources produced in the state." World Bank Report The documentary film "Sweet Crude", which premiered April 2009 at the Full Frame Documentary Film Festival, tells the story of Nigeria's Niger Delta. The effects of oil in the fragile Niger Delta communities and environment have been enormous. Local indigenous people have seen little if any improvement in their standard of living while suffering serious damage to their natural environment. According to Nigerian federal government figures, there were more than 7,000 oil spills between 1970 and 2000. It has been estimated that a clean-up of the region, including full restoration of swamps, creeks, fishing grounds and mangroves, could take 25 years.
Title: Garrick Sokari Braide
Text:Garrick Sokari Braide Garrick Sokari Braide (1882-1918) was an African preacher. Braide was born in Obonoma in the Niger Delta region, and grew up in Bakana. He was baptized in 1910 at the age of 28, and was confirmed in 1912. Braide offered an African alternative to traditional evangelism. Rather than teaching creeds, he campaigned mainly on the destruction of idols. Braide also campaigned particularly effectively against alcohol consumption. After successes at healing people, Braide began to be viewed by his followers as a prophet. The decrease in alcohol consumption led authorities, worried about decreased tax revenue, to investigate him. Braide was arrested in March 1916 on charges including disturbing the peace. Braide was released from prison in 1918, and died later that year. His followers established the Christ Army Church of Nigeria in 1916.
Title: Onikwu
Text:Onikwu Onikwu(Oni-Kwu) also pronounce "Oniukwu" is community in Rivers State, Nigeria. Onikwu is self-contained district or community within Ndoni town, distance is about 6.4 km from Ndoni to Onikwu. The name "Oni-kwu/Nd-oni, Ndoni also pronounce Nde-Oni means Oni people while Oni-ukwu meaning the elder of Oni people. In Ukwuani-Aboh-Ndoni language, ukwu means elder, and Nde means people of. Onikwu and Ndoni are of same ethnic group located in Ogba Egbema/Ndoni Local government of Rivers State. The community alongside them have other neighboring villages which include Ase-Azaga, Isukwa, Odugiri. Agwe, Ugbaja, Isala Ase-Imoniteh and Ogbe-Ogene. All of the said communities are located in the Central Niger Delta region, south-south Nigeria. The Oni (Onikwu/Ndoni) people migrated from Benin, during the empire of Benin (1440–1897) a pre-colonial African state in what is now modern Nigeria("Benin empire," ). It should not be confused with the modern-day country called Benin, formerly called Dahomey. The mythic origins of Benin state that the city was originally under the rule of Ogisos, meaning "Kings of the Sky". When the last Ogiso died, the nobles and chiefs disagreed over who would be the next Ogiso, so the Benin sent a message to Ife to the Oni of Ile-Ife. Oba Oduduwa, the mythic ancient first king of Ife. The Benin pleaded with him to send them a king; eventually Oduduwa sent to them his grandson, prince Oranmiyan. When Oranmiyan came to Benin, he struggled with the culture and customs of the Benin people. Because of his own difficulties acclimating to his new kingdom, Oba Oranmiyan changed the name of the city to Ile-Ibinu (1180-1897) which in the Yoruba language means the "Land of Vexation," and decided to leave the city. The people of Onikwu always observe their festival known as Udi-Yeli once in every year between February and March, the Onikwu people has no king but opkala one of the most aged among the elders in the community. The king was shifted from Onikwu to Ndoni town for every long time due to the less population of the Onikwu people in other world minor in population when compare with Ndoni people. At earlier settlement the Onikwu people are said to hold and the keeper of the Ofor of the land which the use to perform their traditional rights. At the end of the Onikwu Udi-Yeli, the Ndoni community commences its own as well called Udi-Yeli this is generally believed to be this way because the Onikwu is their elder of the land. At the end of Onikwu Udi-Yeli the people of Ndoni comes to perform some traditional dance like Nmanwu (spirit) a masquerade. Ukwuani-Aboh-Ndoni language is the dialects of the Onikwu/Ndoni, the language is widely use within the region of Niger Delta Central. The Ndokwa people of Delta State are also believed to be people of Benin as well, the Ukwuani-Aboh-Ndoni is of the Ukwuani (Ukwani, Ukwali, Kwale), Abo (Aboh, Eboh), Ndoni. A dialect subgroup within the Igbo language subgroup due to boundaries shared with Ibo Delta and part of Anambra State within Ndoni region of the Rivers State, this closeness has influenced the dialect of the Aboh/Ndoni people which they sound little more of igbo subgroup but different people, culture, and history entirely. History has shown that the Onikwu/Ndoni people are immigrants from Benin during pre-colonial African state. Traditional ruler: HRH, Gabriel Obi the Awor and okpala-ukwu of Ndoni("Monarch canvasses dev," 2010) known as the king of the region. The area has produced prominent sons and daughters, which includes: Chief (Dr.) Ifeanyi Odili from Umuokeye Ndoni community, he was educated at Corydon Technical College, London and the London School of Economics where he obtained his first degree. He joined Lonhro limited in London and later deployed to Beirut, Lebanon, where he served for many years. He thereafter ventured into private business and later became the Chairman of Aeromaritime Group of Companies in 1975. He is a Director of many successful Companies including Baco Line of Germany and MTN Nigeria Limited("Brawal shipping limited ," 2012). Peter Odili from Umu-onyema Ndoni. He graduated from the Medical School of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, and pursued post-graduate work in Tropical Medicine at the University of Liverpool in the United Kingdom. Dr. Peter Odili is married to Justice Mary Okaego Odili (born. 12 May 1952). In 1988/89, Peter Odili was elected member and leader of Rivers State Delegates to the Constituent Assembly. In 1992, he was elected as the Deputy Governor of Rivers State. After the Nigerian Third Republic ended, he was again elected to the National Constitutional Conference and became the Conference Committee Chairman on State Creation. Dr. Odili thereafter became the National Secretary of the defunct Democratic Party of Nigeria (DPN) Peter Odili was elected governor of Rivers State in April 1999, and was reelected in April 2003 and completed his tenur 2007. Agnes Okoh from Ogbe-ukwu Ndoni, a prophetess and founder of Christ Holy Church International(Oduro, 2007.) Also she is the grandmother of Most Rev. Daniel C. Okoh the General Overseer of the Christ Holy Church International, Vice President of the Christian Association of Nigeria, and President of the Organisation of African Instituted Churches. The Osanakpo Family from Umu-olodu notable as industrialist and within the business circle. Dr. Nnamdi Obiosa, from Onikwu a notable Onikwu son. Nigeria, like the rest of West Africa and other tropical lands, has only two seasons. These are the Dry season and the Rainy season. The dry season is accompanied by a dust laden airmass from the Sahara Desert, locally known as Harmattan, or by its main name, The Tropical Continental (CT) airmass, while the rainy season is heavily influenced by an airmass originating from the south Atlantic Ocean, locally known as the south west wind, or by its main name, The Tropical Maritime (MT) airmass. These two major wind systems in Nigeria are known as the trade winds. The region Onikwu/Ndoni is flood prone communities, this is because the inland part of Rivers state consists of tropical rainforest; towards the coast the typical Niger Delta environment features many mangrove swamps, beside that the communities lies along the Niger Delta Central coastal region. In October 2012, villages like Ndoni, Ase-Azaga, Isukwa, Odugiri. Agwe, Onikwu, Ugbaja, Isala and Ogbe-Ogene were badly hit by the flood.
Title: Awka
Text:Awka Awka () is the capital of Anambra State, Nigeria with an estimated population of 301,657 Nigerian census. The city is located , by road, directly north of Port Harcourt in the centre of the densely populated Igbo heartland in south east Nigeria. The West-East Federal highway links Lagos, Benin City, Asaba, Onitsha, and Enugu to Awka and several local roads link it to other important towns such as Ekwulobia, Agulu, Enugwu-Ukwu, Abagana and Nnewi. Strategically, Awka is located midway between two major cities in Northern Igboland, Onitsha and Enugu which has informed its choice as an administrative center for the colonial authorities and today as a base for the Anambra State government. In pre-colonial days Awka also became famous as the home of the Agbala Oracle a deity that was said to be a daughter of the great Long Juju shrine of Arochukwu. The Agbala Oracle (which Chinua Achebe drew on for inspiration in his book Things Fall Apart) was consulted to resolve disputes far and wide until it was finally destroyed by colonial authorities in the early part of the 20th century. Awka should not be confused with Awka-Etiti which is a town in Idemili South local government area that is often mistaken for the main capital. Today, Awka is the capital of Anambra state of Nigeria. Slogan: "Sires of Smiths" Awka lies below 300 metres above sea in a valley on the plains of the Mamu River. Two ridges or cuestas, both lying in a North-South direction, form the major topographical features of the area. The ridges reach the highest point at Agulu just outside the Capital Territory. About six kilometers east of this, the minor cuesta peaks about 150 metres above sea level at Ifite –Awka. Awka is sited in a fertile tropical valley but most of the original Rain forest has been lost due to clearing for farming and human settlement. A few examples of the original rain forest remains at places like the Ime Oka shrine. Wooded savannah grassland predominates primarily to the north and east of the city. South of the town on the slopes of the Awka-Orlu Uplands are some examples of soil erosion and gullying. Awka is in the tropical rainforest zone of Nigeria and experiences two distinct seasons brought about by the two predominant winds that rule the area: the southwestern monsoon winds from the Atlantic Ocean and the northeastern dry winds from across the Sahara desert. The monsoon winds from the Atlantic creates six months of heavy tropical rains, which occur between April and July, followed by a short dry period in August lasting two to three weeks with the rain resuming in September and October. This is followed by five months of dryness (November - March) marked by a Harmattan wind, also known as Ugulu in Igbo, which is a particularly dry and dusty wind which enters Nigeria in late December or in the early part of January and is characterized by a grey haze limiting visibility and blocking the sun's rays before dissipating and leading to extreme dry heat in the latter months of February and March. The temperature in Awka is generally 27-30 degrees Celsius between June and December but rises to 32-34 degrees between January and April, with the last few months of the dry season marked by intense heat. The economy of Awka city revolves primarily around government since many state and federal institutions are located there. Awka hosts the State Governor's Lodge, State Assembly and State Ministries for Health, State Judiciary headquarters, Education, Lands, Water. The Anambra Broadcasting Service (ABS) a TV and radio station are located in the city centre. A number of federal institutions including the Central Bank of Nigeria (which has a currency centre in Awka), the NTA Awka media station, and branches of the Federal Inland Revenue Service, Federal Road Safety Commission, Nigerian Immigration Service, and Corporate Affairs Commission are also present in the city. In recent years, several new businesses have erected fascinating new buildings that have largely changed the face of Awka city. The partly state-owned Orient Petroleum Resources Ltd has the headquarters in Awka. The company is poised to set up a refinery at Igbariam to jump-start the exploitation of the huge crude oil deposits in the Anambra River basin. Also Juhel Nigeria has constructed a manufacturing plant for Parenteral drugs in the city. Major Nigerian Banks such as Access Bank, Bank PHB, Diamond Bank, Ecobank, First Bank, Intercontinental, Oceanic Bank, UBA, Union Bank and Zenith Bank have opened branches in the city. Prior to the Nigerian Civil War, Awka townspeople maintained the city on their own. Market traders cleaned around their stalls; streets and pathways and compounds were swept. Blocked storm drains would be cleared by residents. The first attempt to address the urban decay was made by the Government of Peter Obi who forged a technical cooperation agreement with UN-HABITAT in 2007 to provide technical assistance in the preparation of a structure plan for Awka Capital Territory. The Structural Plan of Awka Capital Territory (2009–2028) is designed as a Core-Multi-Nuclei urban design with Awka, Amawbia and Umuokpu serving as the core of the city with linkages to the major towns of Adazi-Nnukwu, Agulu, ABBA, Abagana, Agukwu-Nri, Amansea, Enugwu-Ukwu, Enugwu-Agidi, Isiagu, Isu-Aniocha, Mgbakwu, Nawfia, Nawgu, Nibo, Nimo, Nise, Okpuno and Umuawulu. Governor Peter Obi implemented just a few of the UN-HABITAT's recommendations managing to tar less than 5 kilometers of urban roads, improve waste collection and upgrade schools and the teaching hospital. His government also began installing water pipes along the popular Nnamdi Azikiwe Road and Ifite Road but he left office without providing a credible citywide public water supply. His successor Governor Willie Obiano has taken on the charge of transforming the ancient town into something the state can be proud of. To spearhead the transformation, Obiano created the Awka Capital Territory Development Authority (ACTDA) mandated to deliver a capital with modern standards of quality. ACTDA has completed aerial mapping in June 2015 with the government set to appoint a town planning firm to develop a Masterplan for the city. Obiano has also gone ahead to change the gateway into and out of Awka by expanding the A232 expressway to three lanes and constructing three flyovers at three key junctions between Amobia and Amansea. Awka hosts a variety of broadcast media organizations including two independent newspaper dailies, an FM radio station for the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria, the offices of the state-run Anambra State Broadcasting Corporation and a Zonal office of the Nigerian Television Authority (NTA). Awka like most Nigerian cities is defined by large rudimentary informal markets where everything from basic food produce to clothes, cosmetics and household items are sold. The largest market in the town is Eke Awka, named after one of the four market days (see Igbo calendar). Located on a former community burial ground in the center of the city, Eke Awka has grown from a small market serving the needs of residents of the Agulu, Ezi-Oka and Amikwo sections of Awka to functioning as the main retail outlet for the city and neighbouring towns. It houses an estimated 5,000 lock-up shops and stalls all tightly packed into less than 35,000 square meters of space and has become infamous for causing tremendous traffic chaos with a medley of shoppers, buses, wheel barrows all jostling for the limited amount of space available. The second largest market in Awka is Nkwo Amaenyi located further down on the busy Zik Avenue business district artery. It is far smaller than Eke Awka with less than 100 market stalls in an area estimated at around 3,000 square meters. In addition to older informal markets there are several supermarkets that have sprung up around the City to cater to customers seeking modern shopping conveniences. Among the most popular include Radopin Supermarket which has two locations in the city, Inter-City Supermarket located in the Amudo section, and opened most recently near the CBN branch office, Roban Stores, a new superstore modeled along the lines of Walmart. Roselife Supermarket and Pharmacy is opened 24hrs, on hand nurses to deal with emergency. It is located at Ultimate Plaza, Regina Junction Awka. It is expected that with the completion of the Ikenga Mall presently under construction, the Shoprite Group of South Africa will also open in the city. Awka has a large university community which at times comprises around 15% of the population of the town. It hosts two primary universities of higher/tertiary education - Nnamdi Azikiwe University and Paul University. Nnamdi Azikiwe University is owned and run by the federal government of Nigeria providing undergraduate and postgraduate education to an estimated student population of 36,000 at its over 100 acre main campus located at Ifite, Awka. Nnamdi Azikiwe University ranks among the top 10 universities in Nigeria in research output. Paul University was founded in 2009 by Bishops of the five ecclesiastical provinces of the Anglican Church East of the Niger as a private university to provide quality undergraduate training in Theology, Natural and Applied Sciences, Social Sciences and Management. The university which is fully residential has an estimated enrollment of around 400 students (expected to reach 3,500) and has replaced St Pauls university College which was founded in 1904 by the Church Missionary Society of the Church of England to train church workers and teachers. Christianity is the main religion of Awka people although many also retain belief in their traditional religion which encompasses many similar traditions and values as noted by G.T. Basden. The Church Missionary Society (CMS) of the Anglican Church was instrumental in bringing Christianity into Eastern Nigeria through Reverend Samuel Ajayi Crowther who founded the Niger branch in 1857. A teacher's training college in Awka was created in 1904. Its oldest church in the town is believed to be the Church of the Holy Spirit which was completed in 1930. The largest church in the capital city today is the Living Faith Church [Winners Chapel, Awka] with a typical Sunday attendance of over 2,500. The Roman Catholic Church lagged behind the Anglican Church in entering Awka but it has built a larger presence ever since. The Catholic faith has two large cathedrals - St. Patrick’s and St. Mary's Catholic Church in Awka as well as four smaller churches such as SS John and Paul's, St. Anthony's, St. Peter's and St. John's spread around the town. Administratively, since 1977 Awka has served as a diocese for the Roman Catholic Church serving 107 parishes and five chaplaincies. Living Faith Church, Awka [A.K.A. Winners' Chapel, Awka] is the largest Pentecostal Church in the metropolis hosting thousands of worshippers weekly in its yet-to-be filled 5000-seat capacity auditorium. It is also the first church in the State Capital to air all of its major weekly programmes live on Youtube, Twitch and on its official website. As a people well known for travelling, Awka developed an enlightened tolerance and kindness towards guests and strangers which led the British missionaries and colonial authorities to choose the town as a key administrative centre. Today, Awka has become the centre of hospitality in Anambra state adapting to the needs of hosting a wide range of visitors. It has become the place for holding political meetings, where conferences are organized by the state government and Nnamdi Azikiwe University and where other events such as workshops and trainings are hosted by federal institutions such as the CBN, Immigration, Federal Road Safety Commission, and NGOs such as FHI, the World Bank and the UN. Awka has also become a home-away-from-home for members of the large Igbo diaspora when they visit their relatives in Awka and nearby towns providing a measure of western-style comfort and services within a hotel and resort setting. Indeed, within half an hour of Awka, it is estimated that there is a diaspora population numbering well over 100,000. The town currently has over 15 3-star hotels among which the most popular include: Awka has a bobbling night life. According to James Eze, the Chief Press Secretary to the Governor of Anambra, Abakiliki Street [Now controversially renamed Club Road] is "where you have the largest concentration of entertainment hangouts. It is also a part of the city that never sleeps. We have a 24 hours life there. Government has provided adequate security, streetlights, road markings and everything that would encourage a 24 hours life in that axis. That district is gradually evolving into what might be called the Las Vegas of Nigeria especially on Friday nights." This street is usually adorned by sex-hawkers and is lighted up all night everyday. Apart from clubs, lounges, hotels, beer parlours and dance-halls which adorn the street; the Club Road also hosts some prominent and adorable residential houses among which the ever-quintessential Bucon Lodge is one. The Imo-Oka festival is a two weeks-long festival of masquerades and dances held in May at the beginning of the farming season in honour of a female deity who it is hoped would make the land fertile and yield bountiful crops. The festival starts with Awka people visiting the community of Umuokpu with masquerades and it ends with a visit to the Imo-Oka stream on the final day which is heralded by a heavy rain that falls in the late afternoon. There are four major events performed during the festival, the ede-mmuo, ogwu oghugha, egwu Opu-Eke and Egwu Imo-Oka. Egwu Opu Eke is a rich cultural dance performed by female worshipers of Imo-Oka shrine which includes priestesses and ordinary women alike decorated in colourful costume dancing in the market square in honour of the deity controlling the shrine. The Imo-Oka festival showcases a variety of masquerades (mmanwu) from sinister ones which flog spectators to friendly ones which sing or dance. The masquerades are believed to represent the spirits of Awka ancestors coming from the land of the dead for the festival. In 2001 Chinwe Chukwuogo-Roy MBE, a daughter of Awka, exhibited her oil on canvas paintings series of Awka Igbo Masquerades, to great acclaim in the Cork Street Gallery in London, various galleries in New York and Washington and at the Didi Museum in Lagos. Awka town has produced many professors, Doctors, Lawyers, Administrators etc.
Title: Paul University
Text:Paul University Paul University, Awka (PUA) is located in Awka, Anambra State in Nigeria. It is a private Christian university. It was founded in 2009 by Bishops of the five ecclesiastical provinces of the Anglican Church East of the Niger to provide undergraduate training in Natural and Applied Sciences, Social Sciences and Management. The university which is fully residential has an estimated enrollment of around 400 students (expected to reach 3,500) and has replaced St Paul's University College which was founded in 1904 by the Church Missionary Society of the Church of England to train church workers and teachers Paul University, Awka currently has three faculties and these faculties offer a variety of courses. The faculties are; Faculty of Natural and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Management and Social Sciences, and Faculty of Arts. In addition, it runs an Institute of Theology, which it inherited from the defunct St. Paul's University College, and also admits students into the JUPEB and Continuing Education Programme (CEP). The school provides the services of a bookshop, cyber cafe, computer training center, among other services The list of courses offered and their duration, and degree awarded are listed below, by faculties. Paul University Library was established on 30 November 2009 to support and facilitate the teaching, learning, research and recreational activities of the University Community. The library inherited the collection of the former St. Paul's College, Awka, which is expanding and broadening as the College Library transforms into a University Library, balancing Sciences with earlier emphasis on the Arts, Social and Management Sciences. The University also runs an E-Library- a section of the library in which collections are stored in electronic media formats (as opposed to print, or other media) and accessible through computers. "2.student/Ngoka Sunday of economics department 2014"
Title: FSTC Awka
Text:FSTC Awka Federal Science and Technical College, Awka (FSTC Awka) is a federal government funded institution that teaches its students about science and technology. FSTC Awka is located in Awka Anambra State, Nigeria in West Africa. The College, Federal Science and Technical College (FSTC) Awka was established in May 2002 along with three other FSTCs spread along geographical divide of the Country. The College, Federal Science and Technical College (FSTC) Awka was established in May 2002 along with three other FSTCs spread along Geographical divide of the Country. The College took off at the former site of Government Technical College (GTC) Awka, which was graciously donated by the government of Anambra State. The College inherited a population of about 970 students from the former college and about 300 students admitted by NECO and NABTEB into JSS1 and STS1 respectively brought the population to 1,270 students. The State Teachers were initially inherited until Education Officers were gradually posted to replace them. These Education Officers were drawn from all part of the Federation The Federal Science and Technical College, Awka is located in the heart of Awka City, the capital of Anambra State at the site of the former GTC, opposite St Paul on Zik Avenue, Awka. To become a centre of excellence where education is utilized as a tool for the total development of the individual.
Title: Yorubaland
Text:Yorubaland Yorubaland () is the cultural region of the Yoruba people in West Africa. It spans the modern day countries of Nigeria, Togo and Benin, and covers a total land area of 142,114 km or about the same size as the combined land areas of Greece and Montenegro, of which 106,016 km, representing about 74.6% within Nigeria, 18.9% in Benin, and the remaining 6.5% in Togo. The geocultural space contains an estimated 55 million people, the overwhelming majority of this population being ethnic Yorubas. About 5.3 million people are estimated to practice the Yoruba religion worldwide, with the largest number of practitioners being found in Nigeria. Geophysically, Yorubaland spreads north from the Gulf of Guinea and west from the Niger River into Benin and Togo. In the northern section, Yorubaland begins in the suburbs just west of Lokoja and continues unbroken up to the Ogou tributary of the Mono River in Togo, a distance of around 610 km. In the south, it begins in an area just west of the Benin river occupied by the Ilaje Yorubas and continues uninterrupted up to Porto Novo, a total distance of about 270 km as the crow flies. West of Porto Novo Gbe speakers begin to predominate. The northern section is thus more expansive than the southern coastal section. The land is characterised by mangrove forests, estuaries and coastal plains in the south, which rise steadily northwards into rolling hills and a jagged highland region in the interior, commonly known as the "Yorubaland plateau" or "Western upland". The highlands are pronounced in the Ekiti area of the region, especially around the Effon ridge and the Okemesi fold belt, which have heights in excess of 732m (2,400 ft) and are characterized by numerous waterfalls and springs such as Olumirin waterfall, Arinta waterfall, and Effon waterfall. The highest elevation is found at the Idanre Inselberg Hills, which have heights in excess of 1,050 meters. In general, the landscape of the interior is undulating land with occasional inselbergs jutting out dramatically from the surrounding rolling landscape. Some include: Okeagbe hills: 790m, Olosunta in Ikere Ekiti: 690m, Shaki inselbergs, and Igbeti hill. With coastal plains, southern lowlands, and interior highlands, Yorubaland has several large rivers and streams that crisscross the terrain. These rivers flow in two general directions within the Yoruba country; southwards into the lagoons and creeks which empty into the Atlantic ocean, and northwards into the Niger river. The Osun River which empties into the Lekki Lagoon, the Ogun River which empties into the Lagos Lagoon, Mono River, Oba River, Owena river, Erinle River, Yewa River which discharges into the Badagry creek, Okpara River which drains into the Porto-Novo lagoon, Ouémé River, Ero river between Ekiti State and Kwara State, among numerous others. Others such as the Moshi river, Oshin and Oyi flow towards the Niger (north). The Nigerian part of Yorubaland comprises today's Ọyọ, Ọṣun, Ogun, Kwara, Ondo, Ekiti, Lagos as well as parts of Kogi . The Beninese portion consists of Ouémé department, Plateau Department, Collines Department, Tchaourou commune of Borgou Department, Bassila commune of Donga Department, Ouinhi and Zogbodomey commune of Zou Department, and Kandi commune of Alibori Department. The Togolese portions are the Ogou and Est-Mono prefectures in Plateaux Region, and the Tchamba prefecture in Centrale Region. The climate of Yorubaland varies from North to South. The Southern, Central and Eastern portions of the territory is tropical high forest covered in thick verdant foliage and composed of many varieties of hardwood timber such as Milicia excelsa which is more commonly known locally as "Iroko", Antiaris africana, Terminalia superba which is known locally as "Afara", Entandrophragma or "Sapele", Lophira alata, Triplochiton scleroxylon (or "Obeche"), Khaya grandifoliola (or "African Mahogany") and Symphonia globulifera amongst numerous other species. Some non-native species such as Tectona grandis (Teak) and Gmelina arborea (Pulp wood) have been introduced into the ecosystem and are being extensively grown in several large forest plantations. The ecosystem here forms the major section of the Nigerian lowland forest region, the broadest forested section of Nigeria. The coastal section of this area features an area covered by swamp flats and dominated by such plants as mangroves and other stilt plants as well as palms, ferns and coconut trees on the beaches. This portion includes most of Ondo, Ekiti, Ogun, Osun, Lagos states and is characterised by generally high levels of precipitation defined by a double maxima (peak period); March–July and September–November. Annual rainfall in Okitipupa, for example, is in excess of 2,000mm. The area is the center of a thriving Cocoa, Natural rubber, Kola nut and Oil palm production industry, as well as lucrative logging. Ondo, Ekiti and Osun states are the leading producers of cocoa in Nigeria, while the southern portions of Ogun and Ondo states (Odigbo, Okitipupa and Irele) play host to large plantations of oil palm and rubber. The northern and western portions of the region is characterized by tropical woodland savanna climate (Aw), with a single rainfall maxima. This area covers the Northern two-third of Oyo, Northwestern Ogun, Kwara, Kogi, Collines (Benin), Northern half of Plateau department (Benin) and Central Togo. Part of this region is derived savanna which was once covered in forest but has lost tree cover due to agricultural and other pressures on land. Annual rainfall here hovers between 1,100 and 1,500mm. Annual precipitation in Ilorin for example is 1,220 mm. Tree species here include the Blighia sapida more commonly known as "Ackee" in English and "Ishin" in Yoruba, and Parkia biglobosa which is the locust bean tree used in making Iru or ogiri, a local cooking condiment. The monsoon (rainy period) in both climatic zones is followed by a drier season characterized by northwest trade winds that bring the harmattan (cold dust-laden windstorms) that blow from the Sahara. They normally affect all areas except a small portion of the southern coast. Nonetheless, it has been reported that the harmattan has reached as far as Lagos in some years. Oduduwa is regarded as the legendary progenitor of the Yoruba, and almost every Yoruba settlement traces its origin to princes of Ile-Ife in Osun State, Nigeria. As such, Ife can be regarded as the cultural and spiritual homeland of the Yoruba nation, both within and outside Nigeria. According to an Oyo account, Oduduwa was a Yoruba emissary; said to have come from the east, sometimes understood by some sources as the "vicinity" true East on the Cardinal points, but more likely signifying the region of the Ekiti and Okun sub-communities in Yorubaland, Nigeria. On the other hand, linguistic evidence seems to corroborate the fact that the eastern half of Yorubaland was settled at an earlier time in history than the Western regions, as the Northwest and Southwest Yoruba dialects show more linguistic innovations than their Central and Eastern counterparts. Between 1100 and 1700, the Yoruba Kingdom of Ife experienced a golden age, part of which was a sort of artistic and ideological renaissance. It was then surpassed by the Oyo Empire as the dominant Yoruba military and political power between 1700 and 1900. Yoruba people generally feel a deep sense of culture and tradition that unifies and helps identify them. There are sixteen established kingdoms, states that are said to have been descendants of Oduduwa himself. The other sub-kingdoms and chiefdoms that exist are second order branches of the original sixteen kingdoms. There are various groups and subgroups in Yorubaland based on the many distinct dialects of the Yoruba language, which although all mutually intelligible, have peculiar differences. The governments of these diverse people are quite intricate and each group and subgroup varies in their pattern of governance. In general, government begins at home with the immediate family. The next level is the extended family with its own head, an Olori-Ebi. A collection of distantly related extended families makes up a town. The individual chiefs that serve the towns as corporate entities, called Olóyès, are subject to the Baálès that rule over them. A collection of distantly related towns makes up a clan. A separate group of "Oloyes" are subject to the Oba that rules over an individual clan, and this "Oba" may himself be subject to another "Oba", depending on the grade of the Obaship. Ife was surpassed by the Oyo Empire as the dominant Yoruba military and political power between 1600 CE and 1800 CE. The nearby kingdom of Benin was also a powerful force between 1300 and 1850 CE. Most of the city states were controlled by Obas, priestly monarchs, and councils made up of Oloyes, recognised leaders of royal, noble and, often, even common descent, who joined them in ruling over the kingdoms through a series of guilds and sects. Different states saw differing ratios of power between the kingship and the chiefs' council. Some, such as Oyo, had powerful, autocratic monarchs with almost total control, while in others such as the Ijebu city-states, the senatorial councils were supreme and the Ọba served as something of a figurehead. In all cases, however, Yoruba monarchs were subject to the continuing approval of their constituents as a matter of policy, and could be easily compelled to abdicate for demonstrating dictatorial tendencies or incompetence. The order to vacate the throne was usually communicated through an aroko or symbolic message, which usually took the form of parrot eggs delivered in a covered calabash bowl by the Ogboni senators. In most cases, the message would compel the Oba to take his own life, which he was bound by oath to do. Following a jihad (known as the Fulani War) led by Uthman Dan Fodio (1754–1817) and a rapid consolidation of the Hausa city-states of contemporary northern Nigeria, the Fulani Sokoto Caliphate annexed the buffer Nupe Kingdom and began to press southwards towards the Oyo Empire. Shortly after, they overran the Yoruba city of Ilorin and then sacked Ọyọ-Ile, the capital city of the Oyo Empire. Further attempts by the Sokoto Caliphate to expand southwards were checked by the Yoruba who had rallied to resist under the military leadership of the city-state of Ibadan, which rose from the old Oyo Empire, and of the Ijebu city-states. However, the Oyo hegemony had been dealt a mortal blow. The other Yoruba city-states broke free of Oyo dominance, and subsequently became embroiled in a series of internecine wars, a period when millions of individuals were forcibly transported to the Americas and the Caribbean, eventually ending up in such countries as The Bahamas, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Brazil, Haiti and Venezuela, among others. These wars weakened the Yoruba in their opposition to what was coming next; British military invasions. The military defeat at Imagbon of Ijebu forces by the British colonial army in 1882 ensured a tentative European settlement in Lagos, one which was gradually expanded by protectorate treaties. These treaties proved decisive in the eventual annexation of the rest of Yorubaland and, eventually, of southern Nigeria and the Cameroons. In 1960, greater Yorubaland was subsumed into the Federal Republic of Nigeria. According to Yoruba historians, by the time the British came to colonize and subjugate Yorubaland first to itself and later to the Fulani of Northern Nigeria, the Yoruba were getting ready to recover from what is popularly known as the Yoruba Civil War. One of the lessons of the internecine Yoruba wars was the opening of Yorubaland to Fulani hegemony whose major interest was the imposition of sultanistic despotism on Old Oyo Ile and present-day Ilorin. The most visible consequence of this was the adding of almost one-fifth of Yorubaland from Offa to Old Oyo to Kabba to the then-Northern Nigeria of Lord Frederick Lugard and the subsequent subjugation of this portion of Yorubaland under the control of Fulani feudalism. Yorubaland is one of the most populated ethnic homelands in Africa. It is also highly urbanized, holding 40% of settlements in Nigeria with over 100,000 people, although there is also a very large rural population like the rest of Africa. The regional population density is considerably high, at approximately 387 people in every square kilometer. This population density is not evenly distributed across the region, with values ranging from more than 140,000 people / Km in certain districts of Lagos like Mushin, Ajeromi-Ifelodun, Shomolu, Agege and Isale Eko - which are among the world's densest, to 42,000 people / Km in the urban city core of Ibadan. On a subregional level, the Ekiti, Osun, Southern and central Ogun, Porto Novo and suburbs, Ibadan metro, Lagos, and the Akoko area of northern Ondo state are the vicinities with the higher population densities. On the contrasting end of the spectrum, Ifelodun and Moro local government areas of central Kwara, with densities of about 80 people / Km, Ijebu east and Ogun Waterside local Government areas of eastern Ogun with densities of around 95 people / Km, Atisbo and Iwajowa LGAs in western Oyo (50 and 55 ppl/Km), as well as central Benin and Togolese Yorubaland have the lowest densities. Typically, cities are laid out such that both the palace of the king or paramount chief and the central market are located in the city core. This area is immediately surrounded by the town itself, which is in turn surrounded by farmland and smaller villages. The larger settlements in Yorubaland tend to be nucleated in nature, with very high densities surrounded by agricultural areas of low density. Cities grow from the inside out. By definition the nearer a part of town is to the city core, the older it is, with the palace and the central market in the very center of town being the oldest establishments and the foundation of the city itself.
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what does hp mean in war and order | hit points or health points | Title: Masonic ritual and symbolism
Text:Masonic ritual and symbolism Masonic ritual is the scripted words and actions that are spoken or performed during the degree work in a Masonic Lodge. Masonic symbolism is that which is used to illustrate the principles which Freemasonry espouses. Masonic ritual has appeared in a number of contexts within literature including in "The Man Who Would Be King", by Rudyard Kipling, and "War and Peace", by Leo Tolstoy. Freemasonry is described in its own ritual as a "Beautiful" or "Peculiar system of morality, veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols". The symbolism of freemasonry is found throughout the Masonic Lodge, and contains many of the working tools of a medieval or renaissance stonemason. The whole system is transmitted to initiates through the medium of Masonic ritual, which consists of lectures and allegorical plays. Common to all of Freemasonry is the three grade system of "craft" or "blue lodge" freemasonry, whose allegory is centred on the building of the Temple of Solomon, and the story of the chief architect, Hiram Abiff. Further degrees have different underlying allegories, often linked to the transmission of the story of Hiram. Participation in these is optional, and usually entails joining a separate Masonic body. The type and availability of the "Higher Degrees" also depends on the Masonic Jurisdiction of the Craft Lodge that first initiated the mason. Freemasons conduct their degree work, often from memory, following a preset script and ritualised format. There are a variety of different Masonic rites for Craft Freemasonry. Each Masonic jurisdiction is free to standardize (or not standardize) its own ritual. However, there are similarities that exist among jurisdictions. For example, all Masonic rituals for the first three degrees use the architectural symbolism of the tools of the medieval "operative" stonemason. Freemasons, as "speculative" masons (meaning philosophical rather than actual building), use this symbolism to teach moral and ethical lessons, such as the four cardinal virtues of Fortitude, Prudence, Temperance, and Justice, and the principles of "Brotherly Love, Relief (or Morality), and Truth" (commonly found in English language rituals), or "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" (commonly found in French rituals). In most jurisdictions, a Bible, Quran, Talmud, Vedas or other appropriate sacred text (known in some rituals as the Volume of the Sacred Law) will always be displayed while the Lodge is open (in some French Lodges, the Masonic Constitutions are used instead). In Lodges with a membership of mixed religions it is common to find more than one sacred text displayed. A candidate will be given his choice of religious text for his Obligation, according to his beliefs. UGLE alludes to similarities to legal practice in the UK, and to a common source with other oath taking processes. In keeping with the geometrical and architectural theme of Freemasonry, the Supreme Being is referred to in Masonic ritual by the titles of the "Great Architect of the Universe", "Grand Geometrician" or similar, to make clear that the reference is generic, and not tied to a particular religion's conception of God. Some lodges make use of tracing boards: painted or printed illustrations depicting the various symbolic emblems of Freemasonry. They can be used as teaching aids during the lectures that follow each of the three degrees, when an experienced member explains the various concepts of Freemasonry to new members. Solomon's Temple is a central symbol of Freemasonry which holds that the first three Grand Masters were King Solomon, King Hiram I of Tyre, and Hiram Abiff—the craftsman/architect who built the temple. Masonic initiation rites include the reenactment of a scene set on the Temple Mount while it was under construction. Every Masonic Lodge, therefore, is symbolically the Temple for the duration of the degree and possesses ritual objects representing the architecture of the Temple. These may either be built into the hall or be portable. Among the most prominent are replicas of the pillars Boaz and Jachin through which every initiate has to pass. Historically, Freemasons used various signs (hand gestures), grips or "tokens" (handshakes), and passwords to identify legitimate Masonic visitors from non-Masons who might wish to gain admission to meetings. These signs, grips, and passwords have been exposed multiple times; today Freemasons use dues cards and other forms of written identification. Mormon temple worship shares a commonality of symbols, signs, vocabulary and clothing with Freemasonry, including robes, aprons, handshakes, ritualistic raising of the arms, etc. However, the meanings of each are different for the Freemasons and the Mormons. Speaking in 1877 at the St. George Temple, Brigham Young related LDS temple worship to the story of Hiram Abiff and Solomon's Temple, though he believed the ceremony had not been practiced in its fullness. Freemasons often say that they "are not a secret society, but rather a society with secrets". The secrets of Freemasonry are the various modes of recognition – grips (handshakes), passwords and signs (hand gestures) that indicate one is a Freemason. While these and the rest of masonic ritual have all been exposed multiple times through the years, Freemasons continue to act as if they were secret, and promise not to discuss them with outsiders more out of tradition than a need for actual secrecy. This has led to a "perception" of more extensive secrecy among non-Freemasons. Anti-masons note the existence of “bloody oaths” by which the initiate swears to keep secret the key parts of masonic ceremonies. This perception of secrecy has led to the creation of many Masonic conspiracy theories. The mysterious disappearance of William Morgan in 1826 was said to be due to his threat to publish a book detailing the secret rituals of Freemasonry. An attempt was made to burn down the publishing house, and separately, Morgan was arrested on charges of petty larceny. He was seized and taken to Fort Niagara, after which he disappeared. The suspicion behind this led to the creation of the Anti-Masonic Party, which enjoyed brief popularity but rapidly became defunct after they fielded a Freemason as their presidential candidate in 1832.
Title: Isis railway line
Text:Isis railway line The Isis Branch Railway Line was a narrow gauge railway line in Queensland, Australia. It was approved for construction by the Parliament of Queensland in September, 1885. The North Coast line north from Brisbane, reached Maryborough in August 1881, Howard in March 1883 and Goodwood, to the south of Bundaberg, in August 1887. The first section branched in a westerly direction from the North Coast line south of Goodwood at Isis Junction. Opened on 31 October 1887, Childers formed at the terminus and stops were established en route at Bootharh, Horton and Doolbi. The Childers station site is now part of the Isis District State High School grounds The line enabled development of sugarcane production in the region and a short extension northwest via Huxley, Lynwood and Kowbi to Cordalba opened on 1 June 1896. Kowbi was originally named Hapsburg, but following a large upswell of Anti-German sentiment in Australia after World War I it was changed to the local Aboriginal name for "sugar" . The line serviced early sugar mills at Knockroe (near Kowbi), Huxley and Doolbi until they were taken over by the Isis Central Mill. Another fifty kilometre extension southwest to Dallarnil was approved in December 1909 and opened on 6 May 1913. En route stops were built at Thynne, Marule, Junien, Booyal, Munderbong, Tawah, Stanton and Kukar. The Dallarnil extension should never have been built. Much of the country was infertile and the prospect of agricultural development was overestimated. Small quantities of sugarcane, railway sleepers, cream, lime and cattle were carried but only in spasmodic fashion. Two trains a week were enough to meet the low volume of traffic and the service beyond Cordalba ceased on 1 July 1955. The Isis Central Mill purchased the Cordalba Dallarnil section for intended conversion to 2 feet tramway but road transport was preferred. The rest of the line closed on 1 July 1964 in response to transport of bulk sugar by road and sugarcane by mill owned tramways. G H Verhoeven "The Isis Branch Line" ARHS Bulletin May 1963 Rod Milne "West of Cordalba" ARHS Bulletin June 1993
Title: Isis Masonic Lodge
Text:Isis Masonic Lodge Isis Masonic Lodge is a heritage-listed masonic temple at 18 Macrossan Street, Childers, Bundaberg Region, Queensland, Australia. It was designed by F H Faircloth and built from 1897 to 1909. It is also known as Corinthian Lodge. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 28 April 2000. The Isis Masonic Lodge in Childers is a two-storey timber building constructed in two stages, the first in 1897 and the second in 1909, to the design of Bundaberg architect Frederick Herbert Faircloth. Located in Macrossan Street, a block behind the main street of Childers, the building survived a major fire in the town in 1902 and remains as one of the oldest buildings in the town. In the 1870s timber cutters were the first European settlers to come to the area surrounding Childers, attracted by large quantities of hoop pine, red cedar and other timbers. The town was established during the 1880s after the land in the nearby area was surveyed into farm blocks in 1882. There was no official town survey and Childers developed following the private subdivision of portions 870 and 871, at the railhead of the 1887 Isis railway line from Isis Junction. On 31 December 1886, the Isis Divisional Board was proclaimed and the extension of the railway to Childers in 1887 provided further impetus for the development of the town. The Freemasonry movement was an integral part of community life in the 19th century and the establishment of a Lodge was a local event representing progress and consolidation of the community. The first meeting of Freemasons in the Childers district took place in 1894 and was called by Constable Richard Henderson and Thomas Gaydon, a local chemist. Early members came from all three constitutions of the time, the English, Scottish and Irish and a vote was taken at a second meeting in January 1895 which resolved to establish a Lodge under the English constitution. This was achieved in April of the same year with the inauguration of the Corinthian Lodge No. 2573 EC. There were 14 founding members and the Master was Worshipful Brother Robert Henry Blisset who had been master of the Star of the East Lodge in Maryborough. The opening ceremony and consecration of the Corinthian Lodge took place in the Isis Divisional Board's Office on 4 April 1895. Subsequent lodge meetings were held in the Childers schoolroom, with furniture and regalia provided by sponsor Lodges in Maryborough and Bundaberg. Members paid a joining fee of for members of English Constitution Lodges and for members of other constitutions, a portion of which went towards a building fund. A hall committee was formed in July 1896 and the land in Macrossan Street was purchased in April 1897 upon this committee's recommendation, at a cost of . Members of the lodge cleared the land and donated money and goods towards the new hall. A single storey timber hall was proposed and funding was provided in the form of a loan from Wor. Bro. Blissett who matched the interest rates offered by the Bank of North Queensland. Bundaberg architect F Herbert Faircloth was commissioned to provide plans in 1897. Herbert Faircloth was responsible for the design of a large number of buildings in Childers, particularly after a disastrous fire destroyed most of the main street in March 1902. Born in Maryborough in 1870, Faircloth was articled to the German-trained Bundaberg architect Anton Hettrich and practised for most of his life in Bundaberg, designing many of the town's major buildings. The first Lodge meeting was held in the new hall on 8 October 1897. By 1908 it became apparent that the hall was not big enough and Faircloth was again approached to provide plans for an additional storey to the hall. JE Sharpe's tender of was accepted and the enlarged hall was consecrated on 9 July 1909. Two storey halls were a popular form for Lodges in Queensland - the upper floor would be reserved for Lodge meetings and the lower floor provided space for a range of public events, such as dances, euchre and smoke nights, picnics and sports days. Founded on principles of fellowship, charity and "the practice of moral and social virtue" , Freemasonry thrived in the absence of Government welfare and Freemasons supported each other and their families, particularly in country areas. In 1920, the two Grand Lodges of Queensland merged to form the United Grand Lodge of Queensland, ending years of division within the Freemasonry movement in Queensland. As a consequence, the name of the Corinthian Masonic Lodge in Childers was changed to its current name - the Isis No. 93 UGLQ first appearing in the minutes of 11 November 1921. Minor alterations have taken place over the years, including the installation of electricity in 1915, replacement of weatherboards in 1956 and re-wiring, re-stumping and replacement of the corrugated iron roof in 1976. A kitchen and toilet have been added to the rear of the building. The building has been used continuously as a Masonic Lodge since its construction. The Isis Masonic Lodge is a tall rectilinear timber building whose form and simplicity creates a striking presence in Macrossan Street, Childers. Located in a residential setting, the site is grassed and slopes away from road level with a ramp and handrail defining access to the building. Two thin pencil pines Cupressus semperzirens on either side of the entry ramp are the only plantings on the site. The building is two storey and raised on concrete and timber stumps, with an ornate facade whose parapet covers the gable end of the shallow, pitched roof. The facade is the most characteristic aspect of the building. Painted in blue and white, the colours of Freemasonry, the front stands out starkly against the undecorated sides and back of the building. The front elevation is symmetrically composed around a central entrance which consists of doorways and a porch. The porch has a gable roof at the upper level, supported on timber posts with a decorative wrought iron balustrade to the balcony which is accessed via French doors. The porch is supported at ground level by timber Tuscan columns surmounted by a simple entablature bearing the name of the Lodge and a sign commemorating its centenary. The columns are mounted on pedestals. The central entrance consists of a pair of timber doors with a fanlight above and moulded architrave. The doorway is flanked by double hung timber windows on both levels. At upper level, the architrave of these windows takes the form of mini-pilasters supporting a moulded lintel. The front elevation is finished in chamferboards. Pilasters are located at the corners, separated by a protruding string course at first floor level. The upper level pilasters support an entablature and pediment with simple timber mouldings and the symbols of Freemasonry are located within the tympanum. The sides and back of the building are clad in weatherboards with four aluminium framed windows at the upper level and three smaller windows at the lower level. Five small wall vents with iron hoods are located between the windows on the top floor on both sides of the building. The planning of the interior of the building is simple, the front section contains anterooms and a stairwell with the rest of the building occupied by hall-like spaces on both levels. On the ground floor, there is a wide entry hall decorated with framed photographs of early members of the Lodge, the Queen and photographs of the building over time. A door opening leads to a large square room with timber columns located down the centre of the room. The room is lined in horizontal tongue-in-groove boarding. On the eastern wall are small timber display cases which contain a collection of Lodge cards. Two doors at the back of the room lead to a small kitchen and toilet, both lined in fibro-cement boarding with recent aluminium framed windows. A small servery hatch is located in the wall between the kitchen and the hall. A cast iron ladder leading to a hatch to the upper hall which serves as a fire escape is situated in the south-eastern corner of the kitchen. A set of timber stairs outside the toilet in the south-western corner leads to the undercroft space where another toilet is to be found. The staircase is located on the eastern side of the entry space and features a cedar balustrade with turned balusters and substantial newels. The stairwell and anterooms on both levels are lined with horizontal tongue-in-groove boarding, painted with a colour scheme of a dark brown dado, cream walls and white ceilings. Floors are timber. A small storage room is located at the top of the stairs and a narrow landing leads to the main Lodge room which is entered via a door at the eastern side of the building. The main room is lined in horizontal tongue-in-groove boarding painted in tones of blue and white. The floor is carpeted in a strong blue colour with the central feature of a tessallated timber board of black and white squares which was given to the Isis Lodge when the Tiaro Lodge was closed down. Furniture and regalia is unfixed and includes bench seating, a number of ornate timber chairs and several staves. The ceiling has a number of decorative ceiling roses. The Isis Masonic Lodge was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 28 April 2000 having satisfied the following criteria. The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history. The Isis Masonic Lodge is important in illustrating the evolution of Queensland's history having been constructed during a period of unprecedented growth in the Isis, when Childers emerged as the centre of a substantial sugar-growing district and major social, cultural and religious institutions were established in the town. The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places. As a two-storey, timber hall with an impressive facade with decorative timber detailing and blue and white colour scheme, the Isis Masonic Hall demonstrates the principal characteristics of Masonic Temples in small rural settlements. The place is important because of its aesthetic significance. The building has aesthetic significance derived from its fine yet simple design and timber detailing and its striking presence in the streetscape. The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons. The place has a strong and special association with the Childers community, in particular local Freemasons and their families, as the principal and symbolic place for the practice of Freemasonry in the town and an important centre for cultural and social activities for over 100 years.
Title: Colin Falck
Text:Colin Falck Colin Falck (born 14 July 1934) is a literary critic and poet. He was associate professor in modern literature at York College of Pennsylvania. In 1962 Falck co-founded the influential postwar British poetry magazine "The Review" with Oxford University schoolmates Ian Hamilton, Michael Fried, and John Fuller. Falck's poetry would later appear in the first issue of Hamilton's magazine "The New Review". In January 1985 he set up, and has from that date acted as chair of, the Thurlow Road Poetry Workshop. Among the poets to have brought their work to the fortnightly (now monthly) meetings of the group are Hugo Williams, Jo Shapcott, Ruth Padel, Eva Salzman, Adam Thorpe, Michael Donaghy, Don Paterson, Jane Duran and Vicki Feaver. His 1989 treatise "Myth, Truth and Literature: Towards a True Postmodernism", attempted to re-think the entire foundation of Romantic art criticism since Kant. The first chapter is a sustained polemic against what Falck argued was the nihilism and ontological emptiness of post-modernism and post-structuralist literary theory. The next chapter offers, in opposition to Saussure, a theory of the origin of language based on onomatopoeia. One critic said:He offers a Neo-Romantic, expressivist view influenced by Shelley. His view is "not" self-expressivist, however, since it denies the epistemological notion of a detached subject and situates the human being in the world in the manner of modern phenomenology...Art, for Falck, gives ontological truth. The book makes constant reference to Kant, Coleridge, Schiller, Shelley, Blake, Keats and Goethe. Author Camille Paglia hailed the book as "reveal[ing] the future of literary criticism." Falck criticized W. H. Auden's didactic theory of poetry: "Responsible poetry therefore becomes a kind of war-time fruit-cake, with the raisins of escape thinly distributed in a daily bread of parable."
Title: Sarah Bakewell
Text:Sarah Bakewell Sarah Bakewell (born 1962/63) is a British author of non-fiction. She currently lives in London. She received the Windham–Campbell Literature Prize in Non-Fiction. Bakewell was born in the seaside town of Bournemouth, England, where her parents ran a small hotel. When she was five, the family began travelling through India in a camper and continued to do so for two years before settling in Sydney, Australia. There, her father worked as a bookseller and her mother worked as a librarian. She was educated at Essex University in England, and spent some of her young adulthood working in bookstores. As a child, she often wrote and she began writing again during her job at the Wellcome Library in London as a curator of early printed books, which she began in the early 1990s. "The Smart", her first book, related the story of an 18th-century forgery trial she came across in the Wellcome collection. In 2002, she quit this job to devote more energy to writing. She published "The English Dane", the biography of Danish revolutionary and explorer Jorgen Jorgenson, in 2005. In 2010, she published "How to Live", a biography of 16th century essayist Michel Eyquem de Montaigne.
Title: In Parenthesis
Text:In Parenthesis In Parenthesis is an epic poem of the First World War by David Jones first published in England in 1937. Although Jones had been known solely as an engraver and painter prior to its publication, the poem won the Hawthornden Prize and the admiration of writers such as W. B. Yeats and T. S. Eliot. Based on Jones's own experience as an infantryman, "In Parenthesis" narrates the experiences of English Private John Ball in a mixed English-Welsh regiment starting with embarcation from England and ending seven months later with the assault on Mametz Wood during the Battle of the Somme. The work employs a mixture of lyrical verse and prose, is highly allusive, and ranges in tone from formal to Cockney colloquial and military slang. In Part 1, Ball and his battalion assemble, march to Southampton, and sail at night across the channel. In Part 2 they receive instruction and training and travel towards the front, where Ball has the shattering experience of a long-range heavy shell exploding nearby (p. 24). In Part 3 they march at night along a road and then through flooded communication trenches to a position in the front line. As Ball stands sentry, narrative realism gives way to Irish and Welsh mythic associations. Part 4 concerns a typical day in the front line, from morning stand-to to evening stand-down, alternating between fatigue duty, horrendous violence, and boredom. This day is circular in shape, with echoing allusions centring on the great, long boast of Dai Greatcoat (pp. 79–84). He is the archetypal soldier who has fought in previous historical, legendary, and scriptural conflicts and who never dies. Part 5 is a montage of events in estaminets and work parties in reserve (behind the lines) where rumours abound, culminating in their long march south towards the Somme. In Part 6 they are moved into various positions, and Ball meets and talks with friends. In Part 7 they begin their assault and fight through the day and into the night. Soldiers die whom the reader has come to know. Ball is wounded. In one later passage, the mythic Queen of the Wood visits the dead, bestowing on them garlands according to their worth (pp. 185–6). Part 7 is the most fragmented, most allusive, most lyrical part of the poem. The work is preceded by the poet's 7-page Preface and followed by his 33 pages of notes. It is accompanied (in some editions) by his frontispiece-drawing of a soldier standing in the waste land and his endpiece-drawing of a spear-pierced scapegoat. The allusions throughout are literary, historical, and scriptural. The literary allusions include Shakespeare, primarily "Henry V", Coleridge's "Rime of the Ancient Mariner" and "Christabel", Lewis Carroll's "Alice" books, and "The Song of Roland" but they also include Malory, "The Gododdin", "The Mabinogion", and the sixth-century Welsh poem "Preiddeu Annwn" ("The Harrowing of Hell"). The principal cumulative effect of these allusions is symbolically to align the Battle of the Somme with the catastrophic (for the Welsh) defeats at Catraeth and Camlan. Far from "romanticizing" war, allusions to romance give to battle frightening archetypal force and express the combatants' preverbal intensity of emotion. Allusions to scripture (especially the Book of Revelation) contribute to this effect. At the centre of the book, Dai Greatcoat says that "you", the reader, "ought to ask" questions (like the Grail-questor): "Why... what's the meaning of this." It is a question about war but also about life in general—in his Preface, Jones writes that he did not intend this to be a "War Book". Life has always involved war (and suffering and dying), so if war has no meaning neither does life. The answer to the question may lie in Malory's Beaumains (alluded to on p. 118), whose true character is disguised by employment as a kitchen boy. However painful the circumstances in life, meaning resides in the virtue (courage, patience, kindness) of human beings, in this case infantrymen. T. S. Eliot called it "a work of genius." W. H. Auden considered it "a masterpiece," "the greatest book about the First World War" that he had read, a work in which Jones did "for the British and the Germans what Homer did for the Greeks and the Trojans" in "a masterpiece" comparable in quality to "The Divine Comedy". The novelist and poet Adam Thorpe says it "towers above any other prose or verse memorial of that war (indeed, of any war)". The Jones scholar Thomas Dilworth writes that it is "probably the greatest work of British Modernism written between the wars" and "the greatest work of literature in English on war." The best discussion of "In Parenthesis" published in Jones's lifetime is by John H. Johnston. Paul Fussell contends that "The effect of the poem, for all its horrors, is to rationalize and even to validate the war by implying that it somehow recovers many of the motifs and values of medieval chivalric romance" (p. 147). Thomas Dilworth, however, argues against Fussell's interpretation, stating the important battles that Jones alludes to - most of them Celtic defeats - are symbolically contained in the archetypal calamities of Camlann and the fall of Troy (94-9). Dilworth argues that Jones' allusions to romance literature expresses the horror of modern war and the poignancy of the deaths of infantrymen (98-9); and contends that Jones intended to reinterpret the traditional depiction of war by, for example, revealing Shakespeare's "Henry V" as an incipient anti-war play (99-100). Some critics, such as Evelyn Cobley and Umberto Rossi (who carried out a detailed analysis of Part 7), consider "In Parenthesis" a destructured novel, not a poem.
Title: Adam Thorpe
Text:Adam Thorpe Adam Thorpe (born 5 December 1956, Paris, France) is a British poet and novelist whose works also include short stories, translations, radio dramas and documentaries. He is a frequent contributor of reviews and articles to various newspapers, journals and magazines, including the "Guardian", the "Poetry Review" and the "Times Literary Supplement". Adam Thorpe was born in Paris and grew up in India, Cameroon and England. Graduating from Oxford's Magdalen College in 1979, he founded a touring theatre company, then settled in London to teach drama and English literature. He spoused Joanna Wistreich, an English teacher, in 1985; they had three children, and they now live in France. His writing has garnered recognition throughout his career, and has been translated into many languages. His first collection of poetry, "Mornings in the Baltic" (1988), was shortlisted that year for the Whitbread Poetry Award. His first novel, "Ulverton" (1992), an episodic work covering 350 years of English rural history, won critical acclaim worldwide, including that of the novelist John Fowles, who reviewed it in "The Guardian" as: "...the most interesting first novel I have read these last years". The novel was awarded the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize for 1992. Karl Ove Knausgård, author of the internationally acclaimed bestseller "My Struggle", stated during a reading in Washington DC that, "My favourite... English novel is by Adam Thorpe called "Ulverton"... a brilliant, very, very good and very unBritish novel... It's magic, a magic book." Hilary Mantel has recently written: "There is no contemporary I admire more than Adam Thorpe, whose novel "Ulverton" is a late twentieth century masterpiece." In 2007 Thorpe was shortlisted for prizes in three respective genres: the Forward Poetry Prize, the BBC National Short Story Award and the South Bank Show Award for the year's best novel ("Between Each Breath"). His novel "Hodd" (2009), a darker version of the Robin Hood legend in the form of a medieval document, was shortlisted for the inaugural Walter Scott Prize for Historical Fiction in 2010. His sixth poetry collection, "Voluntary" (2012), was a Poetry Book Society Recommendation. His 2012 novel, the literary thriller "Flight", was described by D. J. Taylor in the "Guardian" as confirming "a long-held impression that Thorpe is one of the most underrated writers on the planet." Thorpe started his career as an actor, and is the author of many BBC radio dramas starring, among others, Tara Fitzgerald, Sian Phillips and Patrick Malahide; his one-stage play, "Couch Grass and Ribbon", written almost entirely in Berkshire dialect, was performed at the Watermill Theatre, Berkshire, in 1996. Using period language, he has translated two great nineteenth-century French novels for Vintage Classics: Flaubert's "Madame Bovary" and Zola's "Thérèse Raquin". His first work of non-fiction, "On Silbury Hill", described by Paul Farley in the "Guardian" as "a rich and evocative book of place", was "Book of the Week" on Radio 4 in August 2014.
Title: How to Live (biography)
Text:How to Live (biography) How to Live, or a life of Montaigne in one question and twenty attempts at an answer, by Sarah Bakewell, was published by Chatto & Windus in 2010, and by Other Press on September 20, 2011. It is about the life of 16th century nobleman, wine grower, and essayist Michel Eyquem de Montaigne. In it, Bakewell "roughly maps out Montaigne's life against the questions he raises along the way," drawing the answers to these questions from his "Essays". According to the book's webpage posted by Other Press, "How to Live" concerns the following: "How to get along with people, how to deal with violence, how to adjust to losing someone you love—such questions arise in most people’s lives. They are all versions of a bigger question: How do you live? This question obsessed Renaissance writers, none more than Michel Eyquem de Montaigne, considered by many to be the first truly modern individual. He wrote free-roaming explorations of his thoughts and experience, unlike anything written before. More than four hundred years later, Montaigne’s honesty and charm still draw people to him. Readers come to him in search of companionship, wisdom, and entertainment —and in search of themselves. Just as they will to this spirited and singular biography." In addition to summarizing Montaigne's life and work, "How to Live" offers an ideological context, discussing the Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics, and their cultivation of prosoche ("mindfulness") through ataraxia ("equilibrium," or having control over your emotions). It also offers a historical context, explaining Montaigne's time of "soured ideals, when high Renaissance hopes, in Bakewell's words, 'dissolved into violence, cruelty and extremist theology.'" Bakewell also provides her own commentary on Montaigne's life and work. For example, she asserts that the idea of writing about oneself was invented by Michel de Montaigne, and that this is one of the reasons his teachings are still relevant today, in particular to the many bloggers who are following his example, knowingly or not, by writing about themselves. She also suggests that the empathy readers have historically felt with him "derives partly from the free-style form of the prose as it follows the 'thousand paths' of one man's 'random' reasoning, and partly from the author's confessed inadequacy." Another example of her commentary is that she suggests his unconventional education of only being allowed to speak Latin “benefited him in exactly the areas where it also damaged him,” making him an independent thinker, but also making him detached. "How to Live" was awarded the 2010 National Book Critics Circle Award for Biography, and generally was received well. It has been praised in its capacity as a literary self-help book. In his review of the book in The Guardian, Adam Thorpe wrote that it "skillfully plucks a life-guide from the incessant flux of Montaigne's prose," while Denis Haritou calls it "the most literate “self-help” book that you’ll ever find" in his introduction to Bakewell's article on "Three Guys One Book". Similarly, in his review of the book in "The Guardian", Nicholas Lezard writes that "Bakewell's title suggests something that might belong in the self-help section of a mainstream bookstore – and I did fear something de Bottonesque – but she approaches her subject very much in a spirit of which he would have approved." Bakewell's writing voice and enthusiasm about Montaigne have also been praised. In his review of the book in "The Independent", Michael Bywater writes that "Sarah Bakewell embraces [Montaigne's] exuberant digressiveness with delight and obvious profound affection. It's rare to come across a biographer who remains so deliciously fond of her subject. She turns her extensive research towards making the reader not just know Montaigne but love him... Bakewell pulls off the great trick of writing Montaigne in both the context of his own time and of subsequent ages. If you know his work, "How to Live" will delight and illuminate. If you don't, the book stands splendidly alone, as a picture of a man worth knowing, and will certainly turn you to the "Essays". In short, Montaigne has here the biography he deserves, and would have enjoyed its unconventional structure... Bakewell makes no attempt to efface herself, yet her vivid presence never obscures his. It's rather like having a conversation about a mutual friend, with one who knows him much better." Meanwhile, in his introduction to Bakewell's article on "Three Guys One Book", Denis Haritou writes that "Reading "How to Live" is like wandering in a sun-dappled forest of literature. There are so many paths to take, so many hints of other great writers to explore, that you could never track them all down from one reading. This book’s a keeper."
Title: The Anathemata
Text:The Anathemata The Anathemata is an epic poem by the British poet David Jones, first published in England in 1952. Along with 1937's "In Parenthesis", it is the text upon which Jones' reputation largely rests. The poem is composed of eight sections, which together narrate the thought processes of one cambrophile English Catholic at Mass over the span of roughly seven seconds. Section I: "Rite and Fore-time" begins during a mid-twentieth century Mass, but quickly shifts to contemplate prehistoric ritual and myth-making. In the following sections, "Middle-sea and Lear-sea", "Angle-Land", and "Redriff", Jones' poem considers the theme of nautical navigation. Throughout, several ships in distinct historical periods sail westward from Troy to Rome (following the fall of Troy), then around Western Europe to the English coast (ca. 400AD), and finally to London via the Thames (mid-nineteenth century). Section V, "The Lady of the Pool", is an extended monologue of sorts given by one Elen/Helen/Helena/Eleanore, a personification of the city of London, in the mid-fifteenth century. In section VI, "Keel, Ram, Stauros", the ship(s) we have been following explicitly becomes the World Ship, with the divine Logos for keel, and the Cross ("stauros") as a mast. Finally, section VII, "Mabinog's Liturgy", concerns the Mediaeval Welsh celebration of Christmas Mass, while section VII, "Sherthursdaye and Venus Day", centres on The Last Supper and Crucifixion. While in this brief summary and indeed upon first reading the poem's structure may seem chaotic, Thomas Dilworth has celebrated "The Anathemata's" wide-open form as unique in being formally whole. Dilworth notes that the structure produced by Jones' poetry is a "symmetrical multiple chiasmus," evident in Jones' manuscripts of the poem from its inception. He then provides the following illustration of its form:<br> ((((((((O))))))))<br> "Anathemata" is Greek for "things set apart," or "special things." In lieu of any coherent plot, notes William Blissett, the eight sections of Jones' poem repeatedly revolve around the core history of man in Britain "as seen joyfully through Christian eyes as preparation of the Gospel and as continuation of Redemption in Christendom, with the Sacrifice of Calvary and the Mass as eternal centre." This revolving structure reflects Jones' belief that cultural artefacts of the past lived on within specific cultures in a continuous line artistic interpretation. As such, the text is densely allusive, and moves freely between old/middle/early modern/modern English, Welsh, and Latin. In this respect, it is similar to "The Cantos" of Ezra Pound, or James Joyce's "Finnegans Wake", and can confuse and mislead the over-attentive but impatient reader. Thomas Dilworth has asserted that the reason that Jones' poetry is not widely read today is the "general neglect of "The Anathemata."" Despite this, the poem was well received by Jones' fellow poets. For example, W.H. Auden has described it as "very probably the finest long poem written in English this century," and T.S. Eliot felt that it secured Jones' status—along with Ezra Pound, James Joyce, and Eliot himself—as a master of English Modernism. John Berryman of the New York Times Book Review gave the poem a glowing review, calling it "sinewy, inventive, sensitive, vigorous, devoted, not at all a crackpot or homiletic operation. (...) I will not call it parasitic, for it enjoys its own materials; but is it epiphytic ? Here is where criticism of the brilliant thing must begin." Finally, the Times Literary Supplement also gave a favourable review, but also accurately forecasted Dilworth's lament that it would be ignored: the text "bristles with too many arcane allusions for a reader to grasp the meaning within its magic without a great deal of that 'mugging-up' which shatters the poetic illusion."
Title: Tiny Toon Adventures: Buster Busts Loose!
Text:Tiny Toon Adventures: Buster Busts Loose! Tiny Toon Adventures: Buster Busts Loose! (released in Japan as Tiny Toon Adventures) is a video game for the Super NES console that is based on the animated TV series "Tiny Toon Adventures". It was developed and published by Konami. The game was released in 1992 in Japan and in 1993 in Europe and North America. This game features Buster Bunny in a side-scrolling adventure. It has three difficulty level settings: easy, normal, and hard (in game they are known as "Children", "Normal" and "Challenge" modes respectively) (except the Japanese version which only has easy and normal). Levels are significantly smaller in easy mode, and Buster only has one health container in hard mode, although extra containers can be collected by exploring the levels. The number of containers are reset after each level. This is done to add more of a challenge in this mode. There are a total of six levels in the game when played normally (the fifth level is removed in easy mode). Buster's objectives vary from level to level, ranging from feeding Dizzy Devil so he stops destroying the school kitchen to defeating "Duck Vader". As is common for the era, the full ending is only accessed by finishing the game on hard (or normal in the Japanese release). After completing each level, the player is given a chance to earn extra lives by playing a minigame, the type of which is determined by spinning a wheel.
Title: Electronic Entertainment Expo 2015
Text:Electronic Entertainment Expo 2015 The Electronic Entertainment Expo 2015 (E3 2015) was the 21st Electronic Entertainment Expo held. The event took place at the Los Angeles Convention Center in Los Angeles, California. It began on June 16, 2015, and ended on June 18, 2015, with 52,200 total attendees. Major exhibitors at the convention included Activision Blizzard, Atlus, Bethesda Softworks, Electronic Arts, Microsoft Studios, Nintendo, Nvidia, Sony Computer Entertainment, Square Enix and Ubisoft. While E3 is a closed event to only members of the video game industry and the media, the Entertainment Software Association (ESA) allowed access to the event from gamers for the first time by distributing 5,000 tickets the various exhibitors that they subsequently distributed to their fans. Oculus VR hosted a pre-E3 press conference on June 11, 2015 at 10:00 a.m. During the conference, Oculus Rift's final design was revealed. Oculus Touch, a controller for the Rift, as well as exclusives, including "Damaged Core" from High Voltage Software, "VR Sports Challenge" from Sanzaru Games, "Chronos" from Gunfire Games and "Edge of Nowhere" from Insomniac Games were announced. Bethesda hosted its first ever E3 press conference on June 14 at 7:00 p.m. During the conference, Bethesda Softworks revealed "Fallout Shelter", "Dishonored: Definitive Edition", "Dishonored 2", as well as "", a card game set within the "Elder Scrolls" universe. Release windows, trailers and gameplay demo were released for "Fallout 4", "Doom" and "BattleCry". Microsoft hosted a press conference on June 15 at 9:30 a.m. During the conference, Microsoft announced "ReCore", Xbox One backward compatibility, a new Elite controller, "", "Dark Souls III", "Ashen", "Beyond Eyes", "Ion", "Rare Replay", "Sea of Thieves" and "" and showed footage of "", "Forza Motorsport 6", "Fallout 4" with mod support, "Tom Clancy's The Division", "Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege", "Gigantic", "Tacoma", "Cuphead", "Rise of the Tomb Raider", "Fable Legends", a version of "Minecraft" compatible with Microsoft HoloLens and "Gears of War 4". Electronic Arts hosted a press conference on June 15 at 1:00 p.m. The conference lasted for an hour. During the conference, Electronic Arts announced "Mass Effect Andromeda", showed gameplay of "Need for Speed", announced the "", "Unravel", showed gameplay of "", announced "NHL 16", "NBA Live 16", "", "Minions Paradise", showed footage of "FIFA 16", showed gameplay of "Mirror's Edge Catalyst", showed footage of "Madden NFL 16" and showed gameplay of "Star Wars Battlefront". Ubisoft hosted a press conference on June 15 at 3:00 p.m. During the conference, Ubisoft announced "", a new IP titled "For Honor", "The Crew Wild Run", "Trials Fusion: Awesome Level Max", "Anno 2205", "Just Dance 2016", "Trackmania Turbo" and "Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon Wildlands" and showed gameplay of "Tom Clancy's The Division", "Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege" and "Assassin's Creed Syndicate". Sony hosted a press conference on June 15 at 6:00 p.m. During the conference, Sony re-announced "The Last Guardian", announced a new IP titled "Horizon Zero Dawn", "Hitman", "Dreams", "Firewatch", "", a "Final Fantasy VII" remake, and "Shenmue III" and showed footage of "No Man's Sky", "Assassin's Creed Syndicate", "", "", "Disney Infinity 3.0", "Star Wars: Battlefront" and "". Nintendo, for a third consecutive E3, decided to forego hosting a traditional press conference in favor of a "Nintendo Digital Event"—a pre-recorded video presentation that was streamed online on June 16 at 9:00 a.m. with an accompanying press release. Prior to E3, Nintendo also held an event, the "Nintendo World Championships 2015" (a competition in which a group of players participated in a multi-round competition across multiple Nintendo games), and also featured the announcement of new content for "Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U", "Earthbound Beginnings", "", and new gameplay of "Super Mario Maker" as part of the competition's finale. During the "Digital Event", Nintendo announced "Star Fox Zero", Amiibo figures compatible with "", "", "Hyrule Warriors Legends", "", "Fire Emblem Fates", "Tokyo Mirage Sessions ♯FE", showed footage of "Xenoblade Chronicles X", announced "", "", showed footage of "Yoshi's Woolly World", announced "Yo-kai Watch", "", "" and showed footage of "Super Mario Maker". Square Enix hosted a press conference on June 16 at 10:00 a.m.. During the conference, Square Enix announced "" under the provisional title Nier New Project, "Lara Croft Go", "Kingdom Hearts Unchained χ", "" and a new IP titled "I Am Setsuna" and showed footage of "Just Cause 3", "Rise of the Tomb Raider", "Kingdom Hearts III", "World of Final Fantasy", "Hitman" and "". Announcement footage of Final Fantasy VII Remake was revealed as part of Sony's presentation. A webcast focusing on PC gaming was held on June 16 at 5:00 p.m. by gaming magazine "PC Gamer" and AMD, and hosted by Sean Plott. Representatives of studios including Blizzard Entertainment, Microsoft Studios, Bohemia Interactive, Paradox Interactive, Obsidian Entertainment, as well as Tripwire Interactive, ArenaNet, The Creative Assembly, Frictional Games, Frontier Developments, SCS Software, Splash Damage, Square Enix, Cloud Imperium Games and Devolver Digital made appearances. "Rising Storm 2: Vietnam", a PC port of "Killer Instinct", "American Truck Simulator", a "Pillars of Eternity" expansion known as "", "Planet Coaster" and an expansion of "Arma 3" known as "Tanoa" were announced, and there was footage shown of "Killing Floor 2", "Star Citizen", "", "", "Fable Legends", "Gigantic", "", "Eve Valkyrie", "Ion", "Strafe", the "Guild Wars 2" expansion "Heart of Thorns", "Hitman", "Soma", "Day Z", "Take on Mars", "BlueStreak", "Enter the Gungeon" and "No Man's Sky". This is a list of major video game exhibitors who made appearances at E3 2015. This is a list of notable titles that appeared at E3 2015.
Title: Health (gaming)
Text:Health (gaming) Health or vitality is an attribute assigned to entities such as characters or objects within role-playing games and video games, that indicates their continued ability to function. Health is usually measured in hit points or health points, shortened to HP which lowers by set amounts when the entity is attacked or injured. When the HP of a player character or non-player character reaches zero, that character is incapacitated and barred from taking further action. In some games, such as those with cooperative multiplayer and party based role playing games, it may be possible for an ally to revive a character whose reached 0 hit points and let them return to action. In single player games, running out of health usually equates to "dying" and (in the case of a player character) losing a life or receiving a Game Over. Any entity within a game could have a health value, including the player character, non-player characters and objects. Indestructible entities have no diminishable health value. Health might be displayed as a numeric value, such as "50/100". Here, the first number indicates the current amount of HP an entity has and the second number indicates the entity's maximum HP. In video games, health can also be displayed graphically, such as with a bar that empties itself when an entity loses health (a health bar, typically red), icons that are "chipped away", or in more novel ways. "Dungeons & Dragons" co-creator Dave Arneson described the origin of hit points in a 2002 interview. When Arneson was adapting the medieval wargame "Chainmail" (1971) to a fantasy setting, a process that with Gary Gygax would lead to "Dungeons & Dragons", he saw that the emphasis of the gameplay was moving from large armies to small groups of heroes and eventually to the identification of one player and one character that is essential to role-playing as it was originally conceived. Players became attached to their heroes and did not want them to die every time they lost a die roll. Players were thus given multiple hit points which were incrementally decreased as they took damage. Arneson took the concept, along with armor class, from a set of a naval American Civil War game's rules. The US Navy used a similar concept in their tactical war games already in 1920s and 1930s. In their simulation, each ship had a Life parameter. The unit of Life of the ship was a number of "equivalent penetrative 14-inch shell hits". The Navy considered, e.g., that a Kongō-class battlecruiser had 12 Life points and a Nagato-class battleship had 18.8. A visual power meter representing stamina was used in Nintendo's 1983 arcade game "Punch-Out!!" and Data East's 1981 DECO Cassette System arcade game "Flash Boy". In action video games as well as in role-playing games, health points can usually be depleted by attacking the entity. A defense attribute might reduce the amount of HP that is lost when a character is damaged. It is common in role-playing games for a character's maximum health and defense attributes to be gradually raised as the character levels up. In game design, it is deemed important that a player is aware of it when they are losing health, each hit playing a clear sound effect. Author Scott Rogers states that "health should deplete in an obvious manner, because with every hit, a player is closer to losing their life." The display of health also helps to dramatize the near-loss of a life. Player characters can often restore their health points by consuming certain items, such as health potions, food or first-aid kits. Staying a night at an inn fully restores a character's health in many role-playing video games. In general, the different methods of regenerating health has its uses in a particular genre. In action games, this method is very quick, whereas role-playing games feature slower paced methods to match the gameplay and realism. Some video games feature automatically regenerating health, where lost health points are regained over time. This can be useful to not "cripple" the player, allowing them to continue even after losing a lot of health. However, automatically regenerating health may also cause a player to "power through" sections they might otherwise have had to approach cautiously simply because there are no lasting consequences to losing a large amount of health. To strike a balance between these extremes, many games have implemented a hybrid system, whereby the player only automatically regenerates health to a certain point; they must seek other means (such as traditional pick-ups) to restore the rest. This mechanic initially appeared in action role-playing games, with early examples including the "Hydlide" series, the "Ys" series, and "Woody Poco". In "Woody Poco", the rate at which health recharges is based on food level. In "Hydlide" and "Ys", the player character has to stand still for their health to automatically regenerate. This system was popularized in first-person shooters by "" (2001), though regenerating health in "The Getaway" (2002) has been cited to be more comparable to later use of the mechanic in first-person shooters. The way health is displayed on the screen has an effect on the player. Many games only show the health of the player character, while keeping the health of enemies hidden. This is done in the "Legend of Zelda" series, "Minecraft" and "Monster Hunter" series to keep the player's progress in defeating their enemy unclear and therefore exciting. In these games, the fact that the enemies are being damaged is indicated by their behavior. On the other hand, many fighting games, such as the "Street Fighter" series, use easy-to-read health bars to clearly indicate the progress the player is making with each hit. It is common in first-person shooters to indicate low health of the player character by blood spatters or by a distorted red hue on the screen, attempting to mimic the effects of wounding and trauma. These visual effects fade as health regenerates.
Title: Wanted (video game)
Text:Wanted (video game) The player assumes the role of a Western sheriff, who engages in gunfights in varied locations throughout the American Old West. The game requires quick reactions, as the player has only a moment to shoot an enemy gunslinger after they appear to avoid being shot and losing a health point. The player may shoot bombs hidden among the level scenery, clearing the screen of enemies and replenishing the player's life. The player must also take care not to shoot innocent civilians, or gunmen who surrender, either of which will result in lost health. The end of each round features a boss battle with a bandit leader.
Title: N-Sub
Text:N-Sub The object of the game is to maneuver an on-screen submarine, the "N-Sub," with the joystick and sink the enemy fleet with torpedo fire in the Cobalt Blue Sea. The player can fire torpedoes vertically and horizontally from their submarines by pressing two separate "FIRE" buttons. The player can hold the button longer to fire three torpedoes in rapid succession. Enemy ships attack the N-Sub with missiles, torpedoes and depth charges. A round of gameplay ends when the player defeats a wave of twelve enemy ships. Successive rounds increase in difficulty. The player has multiple lives, or chances to continue after being hit by an enemy ship, and can receive more lives by reaching high scores. The game ends when the player exhausts their lives.
Title: The Legend of Zelda: Tri Force Heroes
Text:The Legend of Zelda: Tri Force Heroes The Legend of Zelda: Tri Force Heroes is an action-adventure game developed and published by Nintendo, with assistance from Grezzo, for the Nintendo 3DS handheld game console. An installment in Nintendo's "The Legend of Zelda" series and a direct sequel to "", it was released worldwide in October 2015. "The Legend of Zelda: Tri Force Heroes" is a cooperative action-adventure game in which three players control differently colored versions of series protagonist Link and join forces to fight enemies and solve puzzles. Similar to previous multiplayer "Zelda" titles, such as "", players must work together, using the items they receive at the start of each level to help each other progress. One of the key puzzle-solving techniques is stacking the three player characters in a totem pole, allowing the top player to reach higher elevations, attack enemies, be thrown across gaps, and perform other actions. Another game mechanic involves collecting items in order to craft outfits that grant the characters various abilities. Players share a heart meter, with all players losing one of their life fairies should the meter run out. The game supports both local and online multiplayer gameplay, wherein players use icons on the touch screen to communicate with each other, as well as a competitive Coliseum mode. A single player can also play the game by controlling doll-like companions called "Doppels" in place of additional players, though the main mode does not support two players without a third. "Tri Force Heroes" features a visual style similar to that used in "". During a Nintendo Direct presentation in November 2015, Nintendo announced free downloadable content (DLC) for the game, which introduces a new dungeon called "The Den of Trials" and two additional costumes. The Den of Trials contains a greater number of stages than the original dungeons and players must defeat all enemies in each of its stages in order to progress. The update was released on December 2, 2015. "Tri Force Heroes" is set several years after "A Link Between Worlds" and centers on Link, who was originally planned on appearing as the same protagonist of "A Link Between Worlds". This was replaced with the Wind Waker styled Link in the final version. "Tri Force Heroes" takes place in Hytopia, a kingdom whose citizens are obsessed with fashion. Princess Styla holds a great power over Hytopia until a witch known as "The Lady" curses her, forcing an unremovable brown jumpsuit upon her. King Tuft, Hytopia's ruler and Styla's father, is devastated by the curse and sends out a call for a hero who can lift it. While many answer the call, the king believes the true hero is one who fulfills a prophecy that tells of three heroes coming together to form a totem pole. This hero is revealed to be Link. He and two teammates travel to the Drablands, where they master dungeons by solving puzzles and defeating enemies. After doing so, the three vanquish The Lady, allowing them to lift the princess' curse. Link, King Tuft, Princess Styla, and the people of Hytopia celebrate the heroes' success. The game is similar to "", and is considered a spiritual successor. The inspiration for "Tri Force Heroes" originated in 2009 from a portion of "" in which Princess Zelda is able to possess phantoms. In an interview with "Polygon" at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2015, "Tri Force Heroes" director Hiromasa Shikata, who had also worked on "Spirit Tracks", explained, "That element [the ability to control phantoms] really intrigued me and brought out the idea that I wanted to try multiplayer as well." Shikata's interest in working on a multiplayer "Zelda" game "was sort of revitalized and came out of hibernation" during the development of "A Link Between Worlds". Regarding Link's ability to don a dress typically worn by Zelda in other installments in the series, Shikata said, "We consulted with folks here in the U.S. and in Japan, and asked 'Do we think we're going [to get] too much of a negative reaction by having Link wear a dress? The development team arrived at the conclusion that having a cross-dressing Link would not be an issue. Shikata expressed the team's hope that having the dress and similar outfits in the game would widen its appeal to young female gamers and remarked, "For us as developers, the more variation we have, and that we can provide to players, the better for everyone." "Tri Force Heroes" received mixed critical reception. While the title's multiplayer gameplay was praised, many reviewers criticized its single-player mode and lack of a two player option. Many reviewers also criticized the game's online functionality and matchmaking features. Review aggregator Metacritic gave the game a score of 73/100 based on 73 reviews. , total worldwide sales are at 1.14 million copies.
Title: W.I.T.C.H. (video game)
Text:W.I.T.C.H. (video game) W.I.T.C.H. is a platform game for the Game Boy Advance, released in Europe in October 2005 by Buena Vista Games. The game starts with Hay Lin, one of the five main protagonists, having a vision. The W.I.T.C.H. Guardians Will, Irma, Taranee, Cornelia and Hay Lin embark on a mission to defeat the series' antagonist, Prince Phobos. The game is rated E for Everyone. Each Guardian has the ability to fly as well as two unique elemental powers. Players are able to switch between the Guardians at any time, including after activating a certain power of one Guardian before combining her powers with the next. However, using elemental powers and flying drains energy from the Heart of Kandrakar meter displayed at the top of the screen, above the health meter. Likewise, when characters endure damage bars from the health meter are lost. Caleb is also playable in his own centric levels and uses arrows. The game has 20 levels in total. Although the box art resembles the look of the characters in the comic book, the game's storyline and graphics are based on season 1 of the animated television series based on the comic also called "W.I.T.C.H.".
Title: Centre for Land Warfare Studies
Text:Centre for Land Warfare Studies The Centre for Land Warfare Studies (CLAWS), New Delhi, India is an autonomous think tank on strategic studies and land warfare. The mandate of CLAWS covers national security issues, conventional military operations and sub-conventional warfare. CLAWS is registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 and is a membership-based organisation. It is governed by a Board of Governors and an Executive Council. Research at CLAWS is futuristic in outlook and policy-oriented in approach. CLAWS disseminate the products of its research to its members, members of the armed forces, decision makers, members of the strategic community and interested civilians. It also seeks to contribute to developing a pro-active strategic culture for India. The objective of the organization is to convey policy recommendations based on interactions, consensus and research projects to policymakers and experts. CLAWS has been ranked 67th amongst World Top Defence and National Security Think Tanks as per '2017 Global Go To Think Tank Report' published by University of Pennsylvania, USA. The motto of CLAWS is "Victory through Vision". It encapsulates the founding idea of employing academic and practical research to provide actionable knowledge to the strategic community of India and the world. The vision of CLAWS is to join leading international think tanks in conceptualizing various aspects of land warfare, with special reference to India and its extended neighborhood. CLAWS aspires to attract leading strategic thinkers, defense analysts, scholars and academicians and media persons to deliberate on all facets of land warfare at all levels. The mandate of CLAWS covers national security issues, conventional military operations and sub-conventional warfare. The Centre also focuses on conflicts in the region and military developments in countries within India’s strategic frontiers, particularly those in the South Asian region. The expanded areas of interest are: List of CLAWS Directors CLAWS team comprises serving and retired defence personnel from all services, civilian experts and support staff. CLAWS is involved in primary and secondary research which is qualitative and quantitative in nature. The topics are contemporary and security oriented having a bearing on India's national security and interests. On its website, CLAWS publishes research articles and reports on workshops, conferences, round-table discussions and guest lectures. The organisation undertakes research projects on national security-related issues, especially those pertaining to land warfare. CLAWS conducts research that is futuristic in outlook and policy-oriented in approach. CLAWS follows a set of publication guidelines in terms of types, content, language, design and printing. Publication of the "CLAWS Journal" commenced in November 2007. It is a bi-annual publication (summer and winter editions). The "CLAWS Scholar Warrior" was published beginning in autumn 2010. It is a bi-annual journal published in spring and autumn. "CLAWS Issue Briefs" first went to press in 2008. This quarterly publication consists of short analytical essays that examine current security issues. Publication of the "CLAWS Manekshaw Papers" began in 2008. Issued monthly, "Manekshaw Papers" are researched papers on issues of strategic significance.
Title: Principles of war
Text:Principles of war The earliest known principles of war were documented by Sun Tzu, circa 500 BCE. Machiavelli published his "General Rules" in 1521 which were themselves modeled on Vegetius' "Regulae bellorum generales" (Epit. 3.26.1-33). Henri, Duke of Rohan established his "Guides" for war in 1644. Marquis de Silva presented his "Principles" for war in 1778. Henry Lloyd proffered his version of "Rules" for war in 1781 as well as his "Axioms" for war in 1781.Then in 1805, Antoine-Henri Jomini published his "Maxims" for War version 1, "Didactic Resume" and "Maxims" for War version 2. Carl von Clausewitz wrote his version in 1812 building on the work of earlier writers. There are no agreed Principles of War, not even in the NATO alliance although many of its members have their own. The principles of war identified by Carl von Clausewitz in his essay "Principles of War", and later enlarged in his book, "On War" have been influential on military thinking in the North Atlantic region. Additionally, since their first appearance in English of the military maxims of Napoleon in 1831, all English translations have relied upon the extremely incomplete French edition of General Burnod published in 1827. This has contributed to the erroneous belief that Napoléon Bonaparte had pioneered the "Principles of War". Napoléon was a keen follower of famous military generals of the past, who influenced his thoughts greatly. Albeit, "The armies of today are based on the organization created by Napoleon [sic] for his Grand Army and it has been used ever since." (Weider, par. 12). Since the mid-19th century, due to the influence of the Prussian Army, they have become a guide for many military organizations to focus the thinking of military commanders and political leaders toward concepts and methods of successful prosecution of wars and smaller military operations. Although originally concerned with strategy, grand strategy and tactics, due to the changing nature of warfare and military technology, since the interwar period, the principles are largely applied to the strategic decision-making, and in some cases, to operational mobility of forces. The initial essay dealt with the tactics of combat, and suggested the following general principles: Based on the above, Clausewitz went on to suggest principles for tactics, the scale of combat that dominated European warfare at the time: Clausewitz also included in the essay general principles of strategy by saying that Warfare has three main objects: Strategic Defense Strategic Offense Applied to specific forms of warfare, such as naval warfare, Corbett argued that By maritime strategy we mean the principles which govern a war in which the sea is a substantial factor. Variations exist and differences are minor and semantic or reflect a cultural persuasion for a particular approach. A closer examination of the values and culture of origin reveals its war priorities. The UK uses 10 principles of war, as taught to all officers of the Royal Navy, British Army, and Royal Air Force: The British Army’s principles of war were first published after the First World War and based on the work of the British general and military theorist, J. F. C. Fuller. The definition of each principle has been refined over the following decades and adopted throughout the British armed forces. The tenth principle, added later, was originally called Administration. The first principle has always been stated as pre-eminent and the second is usually considered more important than the remainder, which are not listed in any order of importance. The 2011 edition of British Defence Doctrine (BDD) states and explains the principles with the following preface: “Principles of War guide commanders and their staffs in the planning and conduct of warfare. They are enduring, but not immutable, absolute or prescriptive, and provide an appropriate foundation for all military activity. The relative importance of each may vary according to context; their application requires judgement, common sense and intelligent interpretation. Commanders also need to take into account the legitimacy of their actions, based on the legal, moral, political, diplomatic and ethical propriety of the conduct of military forces, once committed.” The ten principles as listed and defined in the 2011 edition, unchanged from the 2008 edition, of BDD (which also provides explanation) are: These principles of war are commonly used by the armed forces of Commonwealth countries such as Australia. Soviet adoption of the principles of war is considered a part of Military Art, and is therefore a system of knowledge that is the theory and practice of preparing and conducting military operations on the land, at sea, and in the air. As such it includes the following principles The Soviet principles of military science, from "Soviet AirLand Battle Tactics" . Similar principles continue to be followed in CIS countries. Thus it can be seen that in Military art, the Soviet and Western systems are similar, but place their emphasis in wildly differing places. Western systems allow more control and decision-making at lower levels of command, and with this empowerment comes a consistent emphasis. Offensive, mass, and maneuver principles for the western commander all place a sense of personal responsibility and authority to ensure these principles are followed by appropriate action. In contrast the Soviet system stresses preparedness, initiative, and obedience. This places more responsibility at the better prepared and informed centers of command, and provide more overall control of the battle. The United States Armed Forces use the following nine principles of war: Officers in the U.S. Military sometimes use the acronyms "MOSS MOUSE", "MOOSE MUSS", "MOUSE MOSS", "MOM USE SOS", and "SUMO MOSES" to remember the first letters of these nine principles. According to a United States Government document from 2010, the rule governing targeting in a non-international armed conflict is the international humanitarian law which is commonly known as the laws of war. The United States government stated in an undated Department of Justice White paper entitled "Lawfulness of a Lethal Operation Directed Against a U.S. Citizen who is a Senior Operational Leader of Al Qa’ida or An Associated Force" that the four fundamental law-of-war principles governing the use of force are necessity, distinction, proportionality and humanity i.e. the avoidance of unnecessary suffering.(Page 8 of). There is a debate within the American military establishment to adopt flexibility as the tenth principle of war. Frost argues that the concept of flexibility should be integrated with America's warfighting doctrine. Americans soundly retort that flexibility is a given that pervades all aspects of each principle. Many, however, hold that the principle of simplicity implicitly includes flexibility. One of the oldest dicta states that the simple plan is the flexible plan. In 2007, "Armed Forces Journal" published a proposal by van Avery, "12 New Principles of War", to completely overhaul and expand the U.S. principles of war from nine to thirteen. The article was subsequently forwarded to the Joint Chiefs of Staff by Air Force Chief of Staff General Moseley and an effort to overhaul current U.S. doctrine was initiated using van Avery's framework. In 2011, three new "principles of joint operations" were added to the cited nine principles of war. These principles are: Together, these 12 concepts form the "Principles of Joint Operations". The Canadian Armed Forces principles of war/military science are defined by the Royal Military College of Canada or Canadian Forces College website to focus on "principles of command", "principles of war", "operational art and campaign planning", and "scientific principles". The French Army recognizes three principles to be applied to operation of land forces at the tactical level: According to French doctrine, new principles should be observed, primarily to protect the principle of "Freedom of Action": The principles of war according to Israeli doctrine are: The military principles of war of the People's Liberation Army were loosely based on those of the Soviet Union until the 1980s when a significant shift begun to be seen in a more regionally-aware, and geographically-specific strategic, operational and tactical thinking in all services. The PLA is currently influenced by three doctrinal schools which both conflict and complement each other: the People's war, the Regional war, and the Revolution in military affairs that led to substantial increase in the defence spending and rate of technological modernisation of the forces. In recent years, 'Local war under high-tech conditions' has been promoted. These principles can be applied to non-military uses when Unity of command is separated into coordination and reality, Economy of Force is redefined as use of resources, Mass is separated into renewable and non-renewable resources, and relationships are separated from unity of command. In 1913 Harrington Emerson proposed 12 principles of efficiency, the first three of which could be related to principles of war: Clearly defined ideals — Objective, Common sense — Simplicity, Competent counsel — Unity of Command. The some of the twelve non-military principles of efficiency have been formulated by Henry Ford at the turn of the 20th century, and are suggested to be: objective, coordination, action, reality, knowledge, locations (space and time),things, obtaining, using, protecting, and losing. Nine, ten, or twelve principles all provide a framework for efficient development of any objective "Principles of War" was also a book published in 1969 for the Japan Self-Defense Forces. It outlines the basic military principles and strategies by which the Japanese army was to operate. The book was used for most military exams in Japan. The book backs up all military principles with historical examples.
Title: Naval offensive
Text:Naval offensive A naval offensive is the aggressive deployment of naval forces during a military campaign to strategically, operationally or tactically provide secure use of shipping routes, or coastal regions for friendly shipping, or deny them to enemy shipping. The aim of a naval offensive is usually in "exerting specific superiority at the point of impact", and has been considered the best strategy in Europe against a threat of invasion since the Middle Ages. A naval offensive may include use of surface or submarine combat vessels, or both as at the Battle of Heligoland Bight, and aircraft carrier or shore-based fixed-wing and helicopter aircraft and amphibious assault troops to conduct the offensive as a means of "projection of naval power against land objectives", or support one by transporting troops. The scale of a naval offensive need not be a massive ocean fleet operation, but may be conducted with relatively few and light forces on lakes. In the naval history the earliest naval offensives in the record of military history were the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage for the domination of the Mediterranean regional trade, while coastal offensives date to the earlier raids of the Sea Peoples. At least one naval offensive is claimed to have changed the course of history in Europe. The conduct of naval offensives may require construction of naval bases to support offensive action in the area, particularly in the case of submarines. One example is the Bay of Kotor base used by the Austro-Hungarian forces in the Adriatic Sea during the First World War. A naval offensive may be active involving direct combat between units, or passive, involving use of sea route and operational area mining. For use of carrier and land-based naval aviation in a naval offensive
Title: Economy of force
Text:Economy of force Economy of force is one of the nine Principles of War, based upon Carl von Clausewitz's approach to warfare. It is the principle of employing all available combat power in the most effective way possible, in an attempt to allocate a minimum of essential combat power to any secondary efforts. It is the judicious employment and distribution of forces towards the primary objective of any person's conflict. Economy of force is the reciprocal of mass. No part of a force should ever be left without purpose. The allocation of available combat power to such tasks, like limited attacks, defense, delays, deception or even retrograde operations is measured, in order to achieve mass at decisive points elsewhere on the battlefield. Carl von Clausewitz once said that "Every unnecessary expenditure of time, every unnecessary detour, is a waste of power, and therefore contrary to the principles of strategy." The Principles of War are a part of United States Army doctrine. The current doctrinal manual for army operations is FM 3–0 "Operations", which defines, and describes, economy of force as follows: "Allocate minimum essential combat power to secondary efforts. Economy of force is the reciprocal of mass. It requires accepting prudent risk in selected areas to achieve superiority—overwhelming effects—in the decisive operation. Economy of force involves the discriminating employment and distribution of forces. Commanders never leave any element without a purpose. When the time comes to execute, all elements should have tasks to perform."
Title: Strategic defence
Text:Strategic defence Strategic defence is a type of military planning doctrine and a set defense and/or combat activities used for the purpose of deterring, resisting and repelling a strategic offensive, conducted as either a territorial or airspace, invasion or attack; or as part of a cyberspace attack in cyberwarfare; or a naval offensive to interrupt shipping lane traffic as a form of economic warfare. Strategic defense is not always passive in nature. In fact, it often involves military deception, propaganda and psychological warfare,if it involvoes warfare as well as pre-emptive strategies. All forms of military defense are included in the planning, and often civil defense organisations are also included. In military theory, strategic defense thinking seeks to understand and appreciate the theoretical and historical background to any given war or conflict scenario facing the decision-makers at the highest level. Therefore, to fully understand strategic defense activities, analysts need to have a detailed understanding of the relevant geopolitical and socioeconomic challenges and issues that faced the nation state or large organization being studied. Some of the more common issues encountered by strategic defense planners include: Strategic defense is also a predominant peacetime posture of most nation-states in the world at any given time. Although national military intelligence services are always conducting operations to discover offensive threats to security to ensure adequate warning is provided to bring defense forces to a state of combat readiness. In terms of combat scale, a strategic defensive is considered a war that can last from days to generations or a military campaign as a phase of the war, involving a series of operations delimited by time and space and with specific major achievable goal allocated to a defined part of the available armed force. As a campaign, a strategic defence may consist of several battles, some of which may be offensive in nature, or may result in the conduct of withdrawals to new positions, encirclements, or sieges by the defender or the attacker as a means of securing strategic initiative. The strategic goal of a strategic defensive may require a conduct of an offensive operation far removed from the main national territory, such as the case with the 1982 Falklands campaign, which sets logistics apart as the dominant consideration in strategic defensive as a doctrine.
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