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Nelson Mandela's faith made him a worldwide leader of peace Peter Morey Photographic, Associated Press South Africa's Nelson Mandela, who died Dec. 5, leaves behind a legacy of peace and reconciliation influenced by his own faith, and which has in turn influenced others of faith. While Mandela was Christian, there was uncertainty as to the exact denomination he professed. He was baptized in the Methodist Church and attended a Methodist school as he grew up, but much of his family — his first wife, his sister and other close relatives — were Jehovah’s Witnesses, according to Michael Trimmer in an article for Christian Today. Denomination aside, Mandela believed that Christianity was responsible for many achievements and advances in Africa. "The Church was as concerned with this world as the next: I saw that virtually all of the achievements of Africans seemed to have come about through the missionary work of the Church," Mandela said in his autobiography “The Long Walk to Freedom,” quoted by Trimmer in his article. The religious community, along with many other world leaders, held Nelson in high regard. According to an article by the United Methodist Church, he was awarded the 2000 Peace Award by the World Methodist Council and referred to as a saint by the president of the United Methodist Council of Bishops. Desmond Tutu, the archbishop emeritus of Cape Town and a Nobel Peace Prize winner in 1984, also held Mandela in an almost saintly regard. “Was he a saint? Not if a saint is entirely flawless. I believe he was saintly because he inspired others powerfully and revealed in his character, transparently, many of God’s attributes of goodness: compassion, concern for others, desire for peace, forgiveness and reconciliation,” Tutu said in an article for The New York Times. “Thank God for this remarkable gift to South Africa and the world. May he rest in peace and rise in glory.” Along with Tutu, Pope Francis sent condolences and a prayed that “the late President’s example will inspire generations of South Africans to put justice and the common good at the forefront of their political aspirations.” While Mandela was a Christian, he recognized the power of all religions to influence people to do good and worked tirelessly to create a South Africa — and, perhaps indirectly, the world — where all men were equal despite differences in race or religion. "Religion is one of the most important forces in the world. Whether you are a Christian, a Muslim, a Buddhist, a Jew, or a Hindu, religion is a great force, and it can help one have command of one's own morality, one's own behavior, and one's own attitude," Mandela said as quoted by The Huffington Post. - Preparing to split up, LDS General Primary... - General Women's Session focuses on family, home - Photo gallery: Holi festival immerses Utahns... - 'Killing Jesus' takes up middle ground on... - LDS Church releases Easter video, campaign - 185th Annual General Conference talk... - Defending the Faith: Joseph, the stone and... - Returning LDS missionary, father battling... - 11 things you should know about the... 91 - The latest developments on religious... 44 - General Women's Session focuses on... 34 - The challenges and blessings of... 34 - State bills to protect religious... 27 - Taylor Halverson: Learning is becoming... 20 - 'Killing Jesus' takes up middle ground... 17 - Indiana Gov. Mike Pence: ‘Not... 16	6
Afonso de Albuquerque \|\|This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. (April 2013)\| \|Afonso de Albuquerque\| \|Governor and Captain-General of the Seas of India, Viceroy of India, First Duke of Goa\| \|Duke of Goa\| \|Successor\|\|Brás de Albuquerque\| Brás de Albuquerque, 2nd Duke of Goa Afonso de Albuquerque \|Father\|\|Gonçalo de Albuquerque\| \|Mother\|\|Leonor de Menezes\| Alhandra, Kingdom of Portugal \|Died\|\|16 December 1515 Goa, Portuguese India \|Buried\|\|Igreja da Nossa Senhora da Graça, Lisbon, Kingdom of Portugal\| \|Occupation\|\|Admiral, Viceroy of India, Duke of Goa\| Afonso de Albuquerque (Alhandra ca. 1453 - December 16, 1515, at sea), commonly known as Afonso the Great, "O Grande" (Portuguese: Afonso de Albuquerque, also spelled Aphonso d'Albuquerque and Alfonso), was a Portuguese general, a "great conqueror," a statesman, and an empire builder. Albuquerque advanced the three-fold Portuguese grand scheme of combating Islam, spreading Christianity and securing the trade of spices and the establishment of a Portuguese Asian empire. Among his achievements, Afonso was the first European to enter the Persian Gulf and led the first voyage by a European fleet into the Red Sea. His military and administrative works are generally regarded as among the most vital to building and securing the Portuguese Empire in the Orient, the Middle East, and the spice routes of the Eastern Oceania. Albuquerque is generally considered a military genius, and "probably the greatest naval commander of the age" given his successful strategy: He attempted to close all the Indian Ocean naval passages to the Atlantic, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and to the Pacific, transforming it into a Portuguese mare clausum established over the opposition of the Ottoman Empire and its Muslim and Hindu allies. In the expansion of the Portuguese Empire, Albuquerque initiated a rivalry that would become known as the Ottoman–Portuguese war, which would endure for many years. Many of the Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts in which Albuquerque was directly involved took place in the Indian Ocean, in the Persian Gulf regions for control of the trade routes, and on the coasts of India. It was Albuquerque's military brilliance in these initial campaigns against the much larger Ottoman Empire and its allies that enabled Portugal to become the first global empire in history. He had a record of engaging and defeating much larger armies and fleets. For example, his capture of Ormuz in 1507 against the Persians was accomplished with an army fifty times smaller. Other famous battles and offensives led by Albuquerque include the conquest of Goa in 1510 and the capture of Malacca in 1511. He became admiral of the Indian Ocean, and was appointed head of the "fleet of the Arabian and Persian sea" in 1506. During the last five years of his life, he turned to administration, where his actions as second governor of Portuguese India were crucial to the longevity of the Portuguese Empire. He pioneered European sea trade with China during the Ming Dynasty with envoy Rafael Perestrello, Thailand with Duarte Fernandes as envoy, and with Timor, passing through Malaysia and Indonesia in a voyage headed by António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão. He also aided diplomatic relations with Ethiopia using priest envoys Joao Gomes and João Sanches, and settled diplomatic ties with Persia, during the Safavid dynasty. - 1 Early life - 2 Governor of Portuguese India, 1509-1515 - 2.1 Conquest of Goa, 1510 - 2.2 Conquest of Malacca, 1511 - 2.3 Missions from Malacca - 2.4 Shipwreck on the Flor de la mar, 1511 - 2.5 Return to the Red Sea, 1513 - 2.6 Administration and diplomacy in Goa, 1514 - 2.7 Conquest of Ormuz and Illness - 3 Legacy - 4 Titles and honours - 5 Son - 6 Ancestry - 7 References - 8 Bibliography - 9 External links Afonso de Albuquerque, was born in 1453 in Alhandra, near Lisbon. He was the second son of Gonçalo de Albuquerque, Lord of Vila Verde dos Francos and Dona Leonor de Menezes. His father held an important position at court and was connected by remote illegitimate descent with the Portuguese monarchy. He was educated in mathematics and Latin at the court of Afonso V of Portugal, where he befriended Prince John, the future King John II of Portugal. Albuquerque’s early training is described by Diogo Barbosa Machado: “D. Affonso de Albuquerque, surnamed the Great, by reason of the heroic deeds wherewith he filled Europe with admiration, and Asia with fear and trembling, was born in the year 1453, in the Estate called, for the loveliness of its situation, the Paradise of the Town of Alhandra, six leagues distant from Lisbon. He was the second son of Gonçalo de Albuquerque, Lord of Villaverde, and of D. Leonor de Menezes, daughter of D. Álvaro Gonçalves de Athayde, Count of Atouguia, and of his wife D. Guiomar de Castro, and corrected this injustice of nature by climbing to the summit of every virtue, both political and moral. He was educated in the Palace of the King D. Afonso V, in whose palaestra he strove emulously to become the rival of that African Mars”. Albuquerque served 10 years in North Africa, where he gained military experience in fierce campaigns against Muslim powers and Ottoman Turks. In 1471, under the command of Afonso V of Portugal, he was present at the conquest of Tangier and Arzila in Morocco, serving there as an officer for some years. In 1476, he accompanied Prince John in wars against Castile, such as the Battle of Toro. He participated in the campaign on the Italian peninsula in 1480 to rescue Ferdinand II of Aragon from the Ottoman invasion of Otranto that ended in victory. On his return in 1481, when Prince John was crowned as King John II, Albuquerque was made Master of the Horse for his distinguished exploits, chief equerry (estribeiro-mor) to the King, a post Albuquerque held throughout John's reign (1481–95). In 1489, he returned to military campaigns in North Africa, as commander of defence in the fortress of Graciosa, an island in the river Luco near the city of Larache, and in 1490 was part of the guard of King John II, returning to Arzila in 1495, where his younger brother Martim died fighting by his side. First expedition to India, 1503 When King Manuel I of Portugal was enthroned, he showed some reticence towards Albuquerque, a close friend of his dreaded predecessor and seventeen years his senior. Eight years later, on April 6, 1503, after a long military career and at a mature age, Albuquerque was sent on his first expedition to India along with his cousin Francisco de Albuquerque. Each commanded three ships, sailing with Duarte Pacheco Pereira and Nicolau Coelho. They engaged in several battles against the forces of the Zamorin of Calicut (Calecute, Kozhikode) and succeeded in establishing the King of Cohin (Cohim, Kochi) securely on his throne. In return, the King gave them permission to build the Portuguese fort Immanuel (Fort Kochi) and establish trade relations with Quilon (Coulão, Kollam). This laid the foundation for the eastern Portuguese Empire. Second expedition to India, 1506 Albuquerque returned home on July 1504, and was well received by King Manuel I. After Albuquerque assisted with the creation of a strategy for the Portuguese efforts in the east, King Manuel entrusted him with the command of a squadron of five vessels in the fleet of sixteen sailing for India in early 1506 headed by Tristão da Cunha. Their aim was to conquer Socotra and build a fortress there, hoping to close the trade in the Red Sea. Albuquerque went as "chief-captain for the Coast of Arabia", sailing under da Cunha's orders until reaching Mozambique. He carried a sealed letter with a secret mission ordered by the King: after fulfilling the first mission, he was to replace the first viceroy of India, Francisco de Almeida, whose term ended two years later. Before departing, he legitimated a natural son born in 1500 and made his will. First conquest of Socotra and Hormuz, 1507 The fleet left Lisbon on April 6, 1506. Albuquerque piloted his ship himself, having lost his appointed pilot on departure. In Mozambique Channel, they rescued Captain João da Nova, who had had difficulties on his return from India; Nova and his ship, the Frol de la mar, joined the fleet. From Malindi, da Cunha sent envoys to Ethiopia, which at the time was thought to be closer than it actually is. Those included the priest João Gomes, João Sanches and Tunisian Sid Mohammed who, having failed to cross the region, headed for Socotra; from there, Albuquerque managed to land them in Filuk. After a series of successful attacks on Arab cities on the east Africa coast, they conquered Socotra and built a fortress at Suq, hoping to establish a base to stop the Red Sea commerce to the Indian Ocean. At Socotra, they parted ways: Tristão da Cunha sailed for India, where he would relieve the Portuguese besieged at Cannanore, while Albuquerque took seven ships and five hundred men in an unrequested[clarification needed] advance towards Ormuz in the Persian Gulf, one of the chief eastern centers of commerce. On his way, he conquered the cities of Curiati (Kuryat), Muscat in July 1507, and Khor Fakkan, accepting the submission of the cities of Kalhat and Sohar. On September 25, he arrived with a fearsome reputation at Ormuz and soon captured the city, which agreed to become a tributary state of the Portuguese king. A few days later, the King of Ormuz was met by an envoy demanding the payment of tribute to Shah Ismail I from Persia. He was sent back with the answer that the only tribute would be in cannonballs and guns, thus beginning the connection between Albuquerque and Shah Ismail I (often named Xeque Ismael). Immediately Albuquerque began building the Fort of Our Lady of Victory (later renamed Fort of Our Lady of the Conception), engaging his men of all ranks in the work. However, some of his officers revolted against the heavy work and climate and, claiming that Albuquerque was exceeding his orders, departed for India. With the fleet reduced to only two ships and left without supplies, he was unable to maintain this position for long. Forced to abandon Ormuz in January 1508, he raided coastal villages to resupply the settlement of Socotra, returned to Ormuz, and only then headed to India. Arrest at Cannanore, 1509 Albuquerque arrived at Cannanore on the Malabar coast in December 1508, where he immediately opened before the viceroy, Dom Francisco de Almeida, the sealed letter he had received from the King appointing him governor. The viceroy, supported by the officers who had left Albuquerque at Ormuz, had a matching royal order, but declined to yield, protesting that his term ended only in January and stating his intention to avenge his son's death by fighting the Mamluk fleet of Mirocem, refusing Albuquerque's offer to fight him himself. Afonso de Albuquerque avoided confrontation — which could have led to civil war — and moved to Kochi, pending instructions from Portugal, maintaining his entourage himself. He was described by Fernão Lopes de Castanheda as patiently enduring open opposition from the group that had gathered around Almeida, with whom he kept formal contact. Increasingly isolated, he wrote to Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, who arrived in India with a new fleet, but was ignored as Sequeira joined the Viceroy. At the same time, Albuquerque refused approaches from opponents of the Viceroy, who encouraged him to seize power. On February 3, 1509, Almeida fought the naval Battle of Diu against a joint fleet of Mamluks, Ottomans, the Zamorin of Calicut and the Sultan of Gujarat, regarding it as personal revenge for the death of his son. His victory was decisive: the Ottomans and Mamluks abandoned the Indian Ocean, easing the way for Portuguese rule there for over 100 years. In August, after a petition from Albuquerque's former officers with the support of Diogo Lopes de Sequeira claiming him unfit for governance, he was sent in custody in an old ship to St. Angelo Fort in Cannanore. There he remained under what he considered to be imprisonment. In September 1509, Sequeira tried to establish contact with the Sultan of Malacca but failed, leaving behind 19 Portuguese prisoners. Governor of Portuguese India, 1509-1515 Albuquerque was released after three months' confinement, on the arrival at Cannanore of the Marshal of Portugal with a large fleet. He was the most important Portuguese noble ever to visit India and he brought an armada of fifteen ships and 3,000 men sent by the King to defend the rights of Albuquerque and take Calicut. On 4 November 1509, Albuquerque became the second Governor of the State of India, a position he would hold until his death. Almeida, having returned home in 1510, Albuquerque speedily showed the energy and determination of his character. He intended to dominate the Muslim world and control the Spice trade. Initially King Manuel I and his council in Lisbon tried to distribute the power, outlining three areas of jurisdiction in the Indian Ocean: in 1509, the nobleman Diogo Lopes de Sequeira was sent with a fleet to Southeast Asia, with the task of seeking an agreement with Sultan Mahmud Shah of Malacca, but failed and returned to the kingdom.[clarification needed] To Jorge de Aguiar was given the region between the Cape of Good Hope and Gujarat. He was succeeded by Duarte de Lemos, but left for Cochin and then for the kingdom, leaving his fleet to Albuquerque. Conquest of Goa, 1510 In January 1510, obeying the orders from the kingdom and knowing of the absence of Zamorin, Albuquerque advanced on Calicut. The attack was unsuccessful, as Marshal D. Fernando Coutinho ventured into the inner city against instructions, fascinated by its richness, and was ambushed. During the rescue, Albuquerque received a severe wound and had to retreat. Soon after the failed attack, Albuquerque hastened to assemble a powerful fleet of 23 ships and 1200 men. Contemporary reports state that he wanted to fight the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate fleet in the Red Sea or return to Hormuz. However, he had been informed by Timoji (a privateer in the service of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire) that it would be easier to fight them in Goa, where they had sheltered after the Battle of Diu, and also of the illness of the Sultan Yusuf Adil Shah and war between the Deccan sultanates. So he invested by surprise in the capture of Goa to the Sultanate of Bijapur. He thus completed another mission, for Portugal wanted not to be seen as an eternal "guest" of Kochi and had been coveting Goa as the best trading port in the region. A first assault took place in Goa from March 4 to May 20, 1510. After initial occupation, feeling unable to hold the city given the poor condition of its fortifications, the cooling of Hindu residents' support and insubordination among his ranks following a severe attack by Ismail Adil Shah, Albuquerque refused a truce offered by the Sultan and abandoned the city in August. His fleet was scattered, and a palace revolt in Kochi hindered his recovery, so he headed to Fort Anjediva. New ships arrived from Portugal, which were intended for the nobleman Diogo Mendes de Vasconcelos at Malacca, who had been given a rival command of the region. Only three months later, on November 25, Albuquerque reappeared at Goa with a renovated fleet, Diogo Mendes de Vasconcelos compelled to accompany him with the reinforcements for Malacca and about 300 Malabari reinforcements from Cannanore. In less than a day, they took Goa from Ismail Adil Shah and his Ottoman allies, who surrendered on 10 December. It is estimated that 6000 of the 9000 Muslim defenders of the city died, either in the fierce battle in the streets or by drowning while trying to escape. Albuquerque regained the support of the Hindu population, although he frustrated the initial expectations of Timoja, who aspired to become governor. Albuquerque rewarded him by appointing him chief "Aguazil" of the city, an administrator and representative of the Hindu and Muslim people, as a knowledgeable interpreter of the local customs. He then made an agreement to lower the yearly dues. In Goa, Albuquerque started the first Portuguese mint in the East, after complaints from merchants and Timoja about the scarcity of currency, taking it as an opportunity to announce the territorial conquest. The new coin, based on the existing local coins, showed a cross on one side and the design of an armillary sphere (or "esfera"), King Manuel's badge, on the other. Gold, silver and bronze coins were issued, respectively gold cruzados or manueis, esferas and alf-esferas, and "leais". Another mint was established at Malacca in 1511. Despite constant attacks, Goa became the centre of Portuguese India, with the conquest triggering the compliance of neighbouring kingdoms: the Sultan of Gujarat and the Zamorin of Calicut sent embassies, offering alliances and local grants to fortify. Conquest of Malacca, 1511 Afonso de Albuquerque explained to his armies why the Portuguese wanted to capture Malacca: - "The king of Portugal has often commanded me to go to the Straits, because...this was the best place to intercept the trade which the Moslems...carry on in these parts. So it was to do Our Lord’s service that we were brought here; by taking Malacca, we would close the Straits so that never again would the Moslems be able to bring their spices by this route.... I am very sure that, if this Malacca trade is taken out of their hands, Cairo and Mecca will be completely lost." - The Commentaries of the Great Afonso de Albuquerque In February 1511, through a friendly Hindu merchant called Nina Chatu, Albuquerque received a letter from Rui de Araújo, one of the nineteen Portuguese held at Malacca since 1509. It urged moving forward with the largest possible fleet to demand their release, and gave details about the fortifications. Albuquerque showed it to Diogo Mendes de Vasconcelos, as an argument to advance in a joint fleet. In April 1511, after fortifying Goa, he gathered a force of about 900 Portuguese, 200 Hindu mercenaries and about eighteen ships. He then set sail from Goa to Malacca against orders and despite the protest of Diogo Mendes, who claimed the command of the expedition. Albuquerque eventually centralized the Portuguese government in the Indian Ocean. After the conquest of Malacca, he wrote a letter to the King where he explained his disagreement with Diogo Mendes, suggesting that further divisions could be harmful to the Portuguese in India. Under his command was Ferdinand Magellan, who had participated in the failed embassy of Diogo Lopes de Sequeira in 1509. After a false start towards the Red Sea, they sailed to the Strait of Malacca. It was the richest city that the Portuguese tried to take, and a focal point in the trade network where Malay traders met Gujarati, Chinese, Japanese, Javanese, Bengali, Persian and Arabic, among others, described by Tomé Pires as of invaluable richness. Despite its wealth, it was mostly a wooden-built city, with few masonry buildings but was defended by a mercenary force estimated at 20,000 men and more than 2000 pieces of artillery. Its greatest weakness was the unpopularity of the government of Sultan Mahmud Shah, who favoured Muslims, arousing dissatisfaction amongst other merchants. Albuquerque made a bold approach to the city, his ships decorated with banners, firing cannon volleys. He declared himself lord of all the navigation, demanding the Sultan release the prisoners, pay for the damage, and asking to build a fortified trading post. The Sultan eventually freed the prisoners, but was unimpressed by the small Portuguese contingent. Albuquerque then burned some ships at the port and four coastal buildings as a demonstration. The city being divided by the Malacca River, the connecting bridge was a strategic point, so at dawn on 25 July the Portuguese landed and fought a tough battle, facing poisoned arrows, taking the bridge in the evening. After waiting for the reaction of the Sultan, they returned to the ships. As the Sultan did not respond, they prepared a junk offered by Chinese merchants, filling it with men, artillery, sandbags. Commanded by António de Abreu, it sailed upriver at high tide to the bridge. The day after, all had landed. After a fierce fight during which the Sultan appeared with an army of war elephants, the defenders were dispersed and the Sultan fled. Albuquerque rested his men for a week and waited for the reaction of the Sultan. Merchants approached, asking for Portuguese protection. They were given banners to mark their premises, a sign that they would not be looted. On 15 August, the Portuguese attacked again, but the Sultan had fled the city. Under strict orders, they looted the city, but respected the banners. Albuquerque prepared Malacca's defences against any Malay counterattack, immediately building a fortress, assigning his men to shifts and using stones from the mosque and the cemetery. Despite the delays caused by heat and malaria, it was completed in November 1511, its surviving door known as "A Famosa" ('the beautiful'). It was possibly then that Albuquerque had a large stone engraved with the names of the participants in the conquest. To quell disagreements over the order of the names, Albuquerque had it set facing the wall, with the single inscription Lapidem quem reprobaverunt aedificantes (Latin for "The stone the builders rejected", from prophecy of David, Psalm 118:22-23) on the front. He settled the Portuguese administration, reappointing Rui de Araújo as factor, a post assigned before his 1509 arrest, and appointing rich merchant Nina Chatu to replace the previous bendahara, representative of the Kafir people and adviser. Besides assisting in the governance of the city and first Portuguese coinage, he provided the junks for several diplomatic missions. Meanwhile, Albuquerque arrested and had executed the powerful Javanese merchant Utimuti Raja who, after being appointed to a position in the Portuguese administration as representative of the Javanese population, had maintained contacts with the exiled royal family. Missions from Malacca Embassies to Pegu, Sumatra and Siam, 1511 Most Muslim and Gujarati merchants having fled the city, Albuquerque now invested in diplomatic efforts demonstrating generosity to Southeast Asian merchants, like the Chinese, to encourage good relations with the Portuguese. Trade and diplomatic missions were sent to continental kingdoms: Rui Nunes da Cunha was sent to Pegu (Burma), from where king Binyaram sent back a friendly emissary to Kochi in 1514 and Sumatra, Sumatran kings of Kampar and Indragiri sending emissaries to Albuquerque accepting the new power, as vassal states of Malacca. Knowing of Siamese ambitions over Malacca, Albuquerque immediately sent Duarte Fernandes in a diplomatic mission to the Kingdom of Siam (Thailand), travelling in a Chinese junk returning home. He was one of the former Portuguese arrested in Malacca, having gathered knowledge about the culture of the region. There he was the first European to arrive, establishing amicable relations between the kingdom of Portugal and the court of the King of Siam Ramathibodi II, returning with a Siamese envoy bearing gifts and letters to Albuquerque and the king of Portugal. Expedition to the "spice islands" (Maluku islands), 1512 In November, after having secured Malacca and learning the location of the then secret "spice islands", Albuquerque sent an expedition of three ships sailing east to find them, led by trusted António de Abreu with the deputy commander Francisco Serrão. Malay sailors were recruited to guide them through Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands and the Ambon Island to Banda Islands, where they arrived in early 1512. There they remained for about a month, buying and filling their ships with nutmeg and cloves. António de Abreu then sailed to Amboina whilst Serrão stepped forward to the Moluccas but was shipwrecked near Seram. Sultan Abu Lais of Ternate heard of their stranding, and, seeing a chance to ally himself with a powerful foreign nation, brought them to Ternate in 1512 were they were permitted to build a fort on the island, the Forte de São João Baptista de Ternate (pt), built in 1522. China expeditions, 1513 In early 1513, Jorge Álvares— sailing on a mission under Albuquerque's orders — was allowed to land in Lintin Island, on the Pearl River Delta in southern China. Soon after, Albuquerque sent Rafael Perestrello to southern China, seeking out trade relations with the Ming dynasty. In ships from Portuguese Malacca, Rafael sailed to Canton (Guangzhou) in 1513, and again from 1515–1516 to trade with Chinese merchants. These ventures, along with those of Tomé Pires and Fernão Pires de Andrade, were the first direct European diplomatic and commercial ties with China. Shipwreck on the Flor de la mar, 1511 In 20 November 1511 Albuquerque sailed from Malacca to the coast of Malabar on board the old Flor de la mar carrack that had served to support the conquest of Malacca. Despite already being deemed unsafe, Afonso de Albuquerque used her to transport the treasure amassed in the conquest, given her large capacity: he wanted to give the court of King Manuel I a show of Malaccan treasures. There were also the offers from the Kingdom of Siam (Thailand) to the king of Portugal and all his own fortune. On the voyage a storm arose and the Flor De La Mar was wrecked, and he himself barely escaped with his life. Albuquerque returned from Malacca to Kochi, but could not sail to Goa as it faced a serious revolt headed by the forces of Ismael Adil Shah, the Sultan of Bijapur, commanded by Rasul Khan with the help of some of his countrymen. While he was absent in Malacca, Portuguese who opposed the taking of Goa had waived the possession, even written to the king stating that it would be best to let it go. Held up by the monsoon and with few forces available, he had to wait for the arrival of reinforcement fleets headed by his nephew D. Garcia de Noronha and Jorge de Mello Pereira. On 10 September 1512, Albuquerque set sail from Cochin to Goa with fourteen ships carrying 1,700 soldiers. Determined to recapture the fortress, he ordered trenches to be dug and a wall to be breached. But on the very morning of the planned final assault, Rasul Khan surrendered. Albuquerque demanded the fort be handed over with all its artillery, ammunition and horses, and the deserters to be given up. Some had joined Rasul Khan when the Portuguese were forced to flee Goa in May 1510, others during the recent siege. Rasul Khan consented, on condition that their lives be spared. Albuquerque agreed and he left Goa. Albuquerque kept his word, but mutilated them horribly. One such renegade was Fernão Lopes, bound for Portugal in custody, who escaped at the island of Saint Helena and led a 'Robinson Crusoe' life for many years. After such measures the town became the most prosperous Portuguese settlement in India. Return to the Red Sea, 1513 In December 1512 an envoy from Ethiopia arrived at Goa. Mateus was sent by regent queen Eleni following the arrival of the Portuguese from Socotra in 1507, as an ambassador for the king of Portugal in search of a coalition to help face growing Ottoman influence. He was received in Goa with great honour by Albuquerque, as a long sought "Prester John" envoy. His arrival was announced by king Manuel I of Portugal to Pope Leo X in 1513. Although Mateus faced the distrust of some of Albuquerque rivals, who tried to prove he was some impostor or Muslim spy, Albuquerque sent him to Portugal. The king is described as having wept with joy at their report. In February 1513, while Mateus was in Portugal, Albuquerque sailed to the Red Sea with a force of about 1000 Portuguese and 400 Malabaris. He was, from the start, under orders from the kingdom to secure that channel to Portugal. Barren Socotra had proved ineffective to control the Red Sea entrance and was abandoned, and Albuquerque's hint that Massawa could be a good Portuguese base might have been influenced by Mateus' reports. Knowing that Mamluks were preparing a second fleet at Suez, he wanted to advance before reinforcements arrived in Aden. He accordingly laid siege to the city. Aden was a fortified city, but although having scaling ladders they broke and after half day of fierce battle Albuquerque was forced to retreat. They cruised the Red Sea inside the Bab al-Mandab, as the first European fleet to have sailed this route. Albuquerque attempted to reach Jeddah, but the winds were unfavourable and so sheltered at Kamaran island in May, until sickness among the men and lack of fresh water forced to retreat. In August 1513, after a second attempt to reach Aden, they returned to India with no substantial results. In order to destroy the power of Egypt, Albuquerque is said to have entertained the idea of diverting the course of the Nile river and so rendering the whole country barren. Perhaps most tellingly, he intended to steal the body of the Prophet Muhammad, and hold it for ransom until all Muslims had left the Holy Land. Administration and diplomacy in Goa, 1514 In 1514 Afonso de Albuquerque devoted himself to governing Goa, concluding peace with Calicut and receiving embassies from Indian governors, strengthening the city and stimulating the marriage of Portuguese with local women. At that time, Portuguese women were barred from travelling overseas due to superstition about women on ships, as well as the unsafe nature of the sea route. In 1511, the Portuguese government encouraged their explorers to marry local women, under a policy set by Albuquerque. To promote settlement, the King of Portugal granted freeman status and exemption from Crown taxes to Portuguese men (known as casados, or "married men") who ventured overseas and married local women. With Albuquerque's encouragement, mixed marriages flourished. He appointed local people for positions in the Portuguese administration and didn't interfere with local traditions, except "sati", the practice of immolating widows, which he forbade. In March 1514 King Manuel I of Portugal had sent to Pope Leo X a huge and exotic embassy led by Tristão da Cunha, who toured the streets of Rome in an extravagant procession of animals from the colonies and wealth from the Indies that struck Europe. His reputation reached its peak, laying foundations of the Portuguese Empire in the East. In early 1514, Afonso de Albuquerque had sent ambassadors to Sultan Muzafar II, ruler of Cambay, to seek permission to build a fort on Diu. The mission returned without an agreement, but diplomatic gifts were exchanged, including an Indian rhinoceros. Albuquerque sent the gift, named ganda, and its Indian keeper, Ocem, to King Manuel I. In late 1515, the king sent it as a gift, the famous Dürer's Rhinoceros to Pope Leo X. Dürer never saw the actual rhinoceros, which was the first living example seen in Europe since Roman times. Conquest of Ormuz and Illness In 1513, at Cannanore, Albuquerque was visited by a Persian ambassador from Shah Ismail I, who had sent ambassadors to Gujarat, Ormuz and Bijapur. The shah's ambassador to Bijapur invited Albuquerque to send back an envoy to Persia. Miguel Ferreira was sent via Ormuz to Tabriz, where he had several interviews with the shah about common goals on defeating the Mamluk sultan. Having returned with rich presents and an ambassador, on the journey back in March 1515 they were met by Albuquerque at Ormuz, where he went to establish his rule. Fueled by the offers of the shah, Albuquerque had decided to recapture Ormuz. He had learned that after the Portuguese retreat in 1507, a young king was reigning under the influence of a powerful Persian vizier, Reis Hamed, whom the king greatly feared. At Hormuz, Albuquerque had a parley with the king and asked the vizier to be present. He then had him immediately stabbed and killed by his entourage, thus "freeing" the dominated king, so the island in the Persian Gulf yielded to him without resistance and remained a vassal state of the Portuguese Empire. Hormuz itself would not be Persian territory for another century, until a British-Persian alliance finally expelled the Portuguese in 1622. There in Hormuz, Albuquerque stood, engaging in diplomatic efforts and receiving envoys while becoming increasingly ill. In November 1515, he decided to return[where?], but during the journey his illness would become increasingly fatal, and would lead to his eventual death in the harbour of Goa. Albuquerque's life ended on a bitter note, with a painful and ignominious close. At this time, his political enemies back at the Portuguese court had planned his demise. They had lost no opportunity in stirring up the jealousy of King Manuel against him, insinuating that Albuquerque intended to usurp power in Portuguese India. Since at least the beginning of November 1515, Albuquerque had known that he had been replaced in the government of India by one of his enemies, Lopo Soares de Albergaria. Reportedly, he even received a letter from the ambassador of the Persian potentate Shah Ismael, inviting Albuquerque to become a leading lord in Persia. Albuquerque's illness was reported as early as September 1515. While on his return voyage from Ormuz in the Persian Gulf, within eyesight of the harbor of Goa, he received news about a Portuguese fleet arriving from Europe, bearing dispatches announcing that he was to be replaced by his personal foe, the Portuguese Lopo Soares de Albergaria. Feeling himself near death, he drew up his will, appointed the captain and senior officials of Hormuz, and organised a final council with his captains to decide the main matters affecting the Estado da Índia. He wrote a long letter to the king, voicing his bitterness: "I am in ill favor with the king for love of men, and with men for love of the king." In this letter, he petitioned King Manuel to confer to his natural son all of the high honors and rewards that were justly due to Albuquerque. He wrote in dignified and affectionate terms, assuring King Manuel I of his loyalty. On December 16, 1515, Albuquerque died within sight of Goa. The gentiles[who?] were reported as saying, "It could not be that he was dead, but that God had need of him for some war and had therefore sent for him". In Portugal, King Manuel's zigzagging policies continued, still trapped by the constraints of real-time medieval communication between Lisbon and India and unaware that Albuquerque was dead. Hearing rumours that the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt was preparing a magnificent army at Suez to prevent the conquest of Hormuz, he quickly repented of having replaced Albuquerque, and in March 1516 urgently wrote to Albergaria to return the command of all operations to Albuquerque and provide him with resources to face the Egyptian threat. He organised a new Portuguese navy in Asia, with orders that Albuquerque, if he were still in India, to be made commander-in-chief against the Sultan of Cairo's armies. Manuel would afterwards learn that Albuquerque had died many months earlier, and that his reversed decision had been delivered many months too late. Albuquerque's body was buried in Goa, according to his will, in the Church of Nossa Senhora da Serra (Our Lady of the Hill), built in 1513 thanking[clarification needed] for his escape from Kamaran island. After 51 years, in 1566, his body was moved to Nossa Senhora da Graça church in Lisbon, which was ruined and rebuilt after the 1755 Great Lisbon earthquake. King Manuel I of Portugal was belatedly convinced of Albuquerque's loyalty, and endeavoured to atone for the ingratitude with which he had treated him by heaping honours upon his son, Brás de Albuquerque (1500–1580), whom he renamed "Afonso" in memory of his father. Afonso de Albuquerque was a prolific writer, having written numerous letters to the king reporting all kind of matters during his governorship, from minor issues to major strategies. In 1557, his son published a collection his letters under the title Commentarios do Grande Affonso d'Alboquerque.- a clear reference to Caesar's Commentaries- which he later reviewed and re-published in 1576. There Albuquerque was described as "a man of middle stature, with a long face, fresh complexion, the nose somewhat large. He was a prudent man, and a Latin scholar, and spoke in elegant phrases; his conversation and writings showed his excellent education. He was of ready words, very authoritative in his commands, very circumspect in his dealings with the Moors, and greatly feared yet greatly loved by all, a quality rarely found united in one captain. He was very valiant and favoured by fortune." In 1572, Albuquerque's feats were described in The Lusiads, the Portuguese main epic poem by Luís Vaz de Camões (Canto X, strophe 40 to 49). The poet praises his achievements, but has the muses frown upon the harsh rule of his men, of whom Camões was almost a contemporary fellow. In 1934, Albuquerque was celebrated by Fernando Pessoa in Mensagem, a symbolist epic. In the first part of this work, called "Brasão" (Coat-of-Arms), he relates Portuguese historical protagonists to each of the fields in the Portuguese coat-of-arms, Albuquerque being one of the wings of the griffin headed by Henry the Navigator, the other wing being King John II. Numerous homages have been made to Albuquerque. He is featured in the Padrão dos Descobrimentos monument. Additionally there is a square carrying his name in the Portuguese capital of Lisbon, which also features a bronze statue. Two Portuguese Navy ships have been named in his honour: the sloop NRP Afonso de Albuquerque (1884) and the warship NRP Afonso de Albuquerque, the latter belonging to a sloop class named Albuquerque. The fabled Spice Islands were always on the imagination of Europe since ancient times. In the 2nd century AD, Malaya was known, by Ptolemy the Greek geographer, who labelled it 'Aurea Chersonesus"; and who said that it was believed the fabled area was rich in an abundance of gold. Even Indian traders who referred to the East Pacific region, as "Land of Gold" and made regular visits to Malaya in search of the precious metal, tin and sweet scented jungle woods. But neither Ptolemy, nor Rome, nor Alexander would have the fortune of laying eyes upon the fabled regions of the East Pacific. Albuquerque became the first European to reach the Spice Islands. Upon discovering Malaysia, he proceeded in 1511 to conquer Malacca. Albuquerque then commissioned an expedition under the command of António de Abreu and Vice-Commander Francisco Serrão (the latter being a cousin of Magellan) to further explore the extremities of the region in east Indonesia. As a result of these voyages of exploration by Albuquerque, the Portuguese became the first Europeans to discover and to reach the fabled Spice Islands of Malaysia, Indonesia and the Indies in addition to the discovering their sea routes. He effectively found what had always evaded Columbus' grasp — the wealth of the Orient. The discovery of Albuquerque would not go unnoticed and it did not take long for Magellan to arrive in the same region only several years later and discover the Philippines for Spain, giving birth to the Papal Treaty of Zaragoza. Albuquerque's operations sent a voyage pushing further south which made the European discovery of Timor in the far south of Oceania, and the discovery of Papua New Guinea in 1512. This was soon followed up by another Portuguese Jorge de Menezes in 1526, who named Papua New Guinea, the "Island of the Papua". Through the diplomatic activities of Albuquerque, Portugal opened up for the first time in history, the sea between Europe and China. As early as 1513, Jorge de Albuquerque, a Portuguese commanding officer in Malaca, sent his subordinate Jorge Álvares to sail to China on a ship loaded with pepper from Sumatra. After sailing many miles across the sea, Jorge Álvares and his crew dropped anchor in Tamao, an island located at the mouth of the Pearl River. This was to be the first time the Portuguese ever to set foot in the territory known as China, the mythical "Middle Kingdom" where they erected a stone Padrão. Jorge is the first European to reach Chinese land by sea, and, the first European to discover Hong Kong. One year later, in 1514, Afonso de Albuquerque, the Viceroy of the Estado da India dispatched Italian, Rafael Perestrello to sail to China in order to pioneer European trade relations with the Chinese nation. Rafael Perestrelo was quoted as saying, "being a very good and honest people, the Chinese hope to make friends with the Portuguese." In spite of initial harmony and excitement between the two empires, difficulties began to arise shortly afterwards. When cultures have encountered each other for the first time, there has often been misunderstanding, bigotry, even hostility, and the Portuguese were not alone in this regard. Portugal's efforts in establishing long lasting ties with China however paid off, in the long run. Eventually, the Portuguese colonized Macau, and established the first European permanent settlement on Chinese soil in history, which served as a permanent colonial base in southern China, and the two empires maintained an exchange in culture and trade that would span for nearly 500 years. The longest empire in history begun by Albuquerque centuries earlier, ended when Portugal handed over the government of Macau back to China (1515-1999). Albuquerque pioneered trade relations with Thailand, being the first European to discover Thailand. Titles and honours - Governor and Captain-General of the Seas of India - 2nd Governor of India - 1st Duke of Goa - A knight of the Portuguese Order of Saint James of the Sword - Fidalgo of the Royal Household Afonso de Albuquerque had a bastard son with an unknown woman. He legitimized the boy in February 1506. Before his death, he asked King Manuel I to leave him all his wealth and that he take care of his education. When Albuquerque died, Manuel I renamed the child "Afonso" in his father's memory. Brás Afonso de Albuquerque, or Braz in the old spelling, was born in 1500 and died in 1580. \|Ancestors of Afonso de Albuquerque\| - Thomas Edmund Farnsworth Wright (2006). Dictionary Of World History 2E. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-280700-7. - "End of Europe's Middle Ages — New Monarchies: Portugal". Ucalgary.ca. Retrieved 2013-04-18. - "Conquista de Málaca. Revista BRASIL-EUROPA 127/2. Bispo, A.A. (Ed.). 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By Vilhena, Maria da Conceição. pp. 641.642 (Universidade dos Açores) ("ARQUIPÉLAGO. História". ISSN 0871-7664. 2ª série, vol. 5 (2001): 627-649) (2001) (" ) - John Jeremy Hespeler-Boultbee (2011). A Story in Stones: Portugal's Influence on Culture and Architecture in the Highlands of Ethiopia 1493-1634. p. 186. ISBN 978-1-926585-99-4. - Cecil H. Clough (1994). The European Outthrust and Encounter — The First Phase, 1400-1700: Essays in Tribute to David Beers Quinn on His 85th Birthday. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-85323-229-2. - (Damião de Góis, Chronica do Feliçissimo rei dom Manuel , Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade, 1954, Part III, chapter lix) and (Armando Cortesão, Esparsos, Coimbra: Imprensa de Coimbra, 1974, 25, 77-81.) - Couto, Dejanirah; Loureiro, Rui (2008). Revisiting Hormuz: Portuguese Interactions in the Persian Gulf Region in the Early Modern Period. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 219. ISBN 978-3-447-05731-8. - The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama, by Sanjay Subrahmanyam, p. 365 - "Afonso de Albuquerque". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2010-08-22. - Robert Crowley; Geoffrey Parker (December 1, 1996). Albuquerque, Afonso de. The Reader's Companion to Military History (Houghton Mifflin). - (Henry Morse Stephens 1897) - Vasco Da Gama, By Kingsley Garland Jayne; pp. 78.79, Taylor & Francis, 1970 - "Afonzo de Albuquerque". CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA. Newadvent.org. 1907-03-01. Archived from the original on 15 September 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-22. - Vasco Da Gama by Kingsley Garland Jayne; pp. 79, Taylor & Francis - Vasco Da Gama, by Kingsley Garland Jayne; pp. 79, Taylor & Francis, 1970 - Chisholm 1911. - Diogo do Couto, Décadas da Ásia, década X, livro I - Foundations of the Portuguese empire, 1415-1580, p. 239, Bailey Wallys Diffie, Boyd C. Shafer, George Davison Winius - Afonso de Albuquerque; Walter de Gray Birch (2000). Commentaries of the Great Afonso - 4 Vols. ISBN 978-81-206-1514-4. - J. J. Hespeler-Boultbee (2006). A Story in Stones: Portugal's Influence on Culture and Architecture in the Highlands of Ethiopia, 1493-1634. CCB Publishing. p. 178. ISBN 978-0-9781162-1-7. - However, Socotra was abandoned four years later, as it was not advantageous as a base. See Foundations of the Portuguese empire, 1415-1580, Diffie, Shafer, Winius, p. 233 - Percy Molesworth Sykes (2006). History of Persia. HESPERIDES Press. p. 271. ISBN 978-1-4067-2692-3. - According to Brás de Albuquerque it was Xeque Ismael who coined the term "Lion of the seas" for Albuquerque - Carter, Laraine Newhouse (January 1, 1991). Persian Gulf States: Chapter 1B. The Gulf During the Medieval Period. Countries of the World (Bureau Development, Inc.). - Afonso de Albuquerque, like many others since then, took office as governor: when appointing the Viceroy Francisco de Almeida, the King promised not to appoint another in his lifetime, a vote of confidence in contradiction with the short term of three years he gave him, that may be due to the great fears about the sharing of power that this position represented. See Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415-1580, p. 239, Por Bailey Wallys Diffie, Boyd C. 239, by Bailey Wallys Diffie, Boyd C. Shafer, George Davison Winius Shafer, George Davison Winius - In the first months of 1508, the son of D. Francisco de Almeida, Lourenço de Almeida, died in dramatic circumstances at the Battle of Chaul and there are reports that the viceroy, an enlightened and incorruptible ruler, turned vindictive and cruel. - Fernão Lopes de Castanheda (1833). Historia do Descobrimento e Conquista da India pelos Portugueses. Typographia Rollandiana. - (Henry Morse Stephens 1897, pp. 61–62) - R. S. Whitewayy (1995). The Rise of Portuguese Power in India (1497-1550). p. 126. ISBN 978-81-206-0500-8. - Neto, Ricardo Bonalume (2002-04-01). "Lightning rod of Portuguese India". MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History (Cowles Enthusiast Media Spring). p. 68. - Neto, Ricardo Bonalume. MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History pp. 68. Cowles Enthusiast Media Spring. 2002-04-01. (Page news on 2006-10-20) - Almeida returned to Portugal five days later, but died in a skirmish with the Khoikhoi near the Cape of Good Hope. - Barbara Watson Andaya; Leonard Y. Andaya (1984). A History of Malaysia. Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-312-38121-9. - Foundations of the Portuguese empire, 1415-1580, p. 245-247, Diffie, Winius - Foundations of the Portuguese empire, 1415-1580, p. 247, Diffie, Winius - Bhagamandala Seetharama Shastry, Charles J. 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ISBN 978-0-340-69676-7. - However, after the death of the Chinese Zhengde Emperor on April 19, 1521, conservative factions at court seeking to limit eunuch influence rejected the new Portuguese embassy, fought sea battles with the Portuguese around Tuen Mun, and Tomé was forced to write letters to Malacca stating that he and other ambassadors would not be released from prison in China until the Portuguese relinquished their control of Malacca and returned it to the deposed Sultan of Malacca (who was previously a Ming tributary vassal). See Mote, Frederick W. and Denis Twitchett. (1998). The Cambridge History of China; Volume 7–8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24333-5 (Hardback edition). Page 340. Nonetheless, Portuguese relations with China became normalized again by the 1540s and in 1557 a permanent Portuguese base at Macau in southern China was established with consent from the Ming court. - Diffie, Bailey W. and George D. Winius (1977). 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ISBN 978-0-521-84548-9. - This Church was later demolished between 1811 and 1842, in Manoel José Gabriel Saldanha, "História de Goa:(política e arqueológica)", p.145, ISBN 81-206-0590-X - Bibliotheca Lusitana, Diogo Barbosa Machado, Tomo I, página 23 - Stier, Hans Erich (1942) Die Welt als Geschichte: Zeitschrift für Universalgeschichte "W. Kohlhammer". - Forbes, Jack D. (1993) Africans and Native Americans "University of Illinois Press". 344 pages. ISBN 0-252-06321-X. - Albuquerque, Brás, Commentaries, vol VI, p. 198 - "Alphonso mangoes". Savani Farms. Retrieved 2006-07-14. - Lonely Planet Malaysia, Singapore & Brunei by Simon Richmond, Lonely Planet, 2010. page. 30 - Cross-Cultural Alliance-Making and Local Resistance in Maluku during the Revolt of Prince Nuku, 1780-1810 by Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van de Rector Magnificus, prof. mr. P. F. van der Heijden, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op woensdag 12 september 2007 klokke 15.00 uur. Page 11 (online: ) - "::: Papua New Guinea Expedition :::". Sio.ucsd.edu. Retrieved 2013-04-18. - Gordon L Rottman (2002). World War Two Pacific Island Guide. Greenwood Press. p. 152. ISBN 978-0-313-31395-0. - McKinnon, Rowan; Carillet, Jean-Bernard; Starnes, Dean (2008). Papua New Guinea & Solomon Islands. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-74104-580-2. - Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands by Max Quanchi, John Robson, Scarecrow Press, 2005. page XLIII - NEWSLETTER JULY – DECEMBER 2012. Nº11 MACAU SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL CENTRE P.I. MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE, THE MING PORCELAIN BOTTLE OF JORGE ÁLVARES INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM — MACAU: PAST AND PRESENT. page 10. (online: http://www.cccm.pt/anexos_publicacoes/d20121024230228.pdf) - Denis Crispin Twitchett; John King Fairbank (1978). The Cambridge History of China. p. 336. 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Retrieved 2013-04-18. - "The 10 Greatest Empires In The History Of The World \| Business Insider Australia". Au.businessinsider.com. 2011-10-01. Retrieved 2013-04-18. - Portuguese Republic. "Portugal". En.academic.ru. Retrieved 2013-04-18. - The Bricks of an Empire IMS-1999 585 Years of Portuguese Emigration Stanley L. Engennan, Joâo César das Neves, December 1996. page 2. - Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania by Barbara A. West. Infobase Publishing, 2009. p. 800 - Afonso de Albuquerque (1774). Commentarios do grande Afonso Dalboquerque: capitão geral que foi das Indias Orientaes em tempo do muito poderoso rey D. Manuel, o primeiro deste nome. Na Regia Officina Typografica. - Albuquerque, Afonso de, D. Manuel I, António Baião, "Cartas para el-rei d. Manuel I" (Albuquerque letters to the king, in Portuguese), Editora Livraria Sá de Costa, 1957 - Kerr, Robert (1824). A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels, Arranged in Systematic Order. Edinburgh: William Blackwood. (volume 6, I chapter) - Henry Morse Stephens (1897). Albuquerque. Rulers of India series. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-1524-3. - Danvers, Frederick Charles (1894). The Portuguese in India. London: W. H. Allen. ISBN 978-1-4021-5080-7 - Bailey Bailey Wallys Diffie; George George Davison Winius (1977). Foundations of the Portuguese Empire: 1415-1580. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-0782-2. - António Henrique R. de Oliveira Marques (1976). A History of Portugal. New York : Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-08353-9. - M. D. D. Newitt (2005). A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, 1400-1668. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-23980-6. - Panikkar, K. M. (1929). Malabar and the Portuguese: Being a History of the Relations of the Portuguese with Malabar from 1500 to 1663. Bombay: D.B. Taraporevala Sons. ASIN B000878T7Q. - Sanceau, Elaine "Indies adventure: the amazing career of Afonso de Albuquerque, captain-general and governor of India (1509-1515)", Blackie, 1936 - This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Albuquerque, Alphonso d'". Encyclopædia Britannica 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. - Bandelier, Adolph Francis Alphonse (1907). "Afonzo de Albuquerque". Catholic Encyclopedia 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Afonso de Albuquerque.\| Francisco de Almeida \|Viceroy of Portuguese India Lopo Soares de Albergaria	6
Suggested Readings in English THE INGENIOUS GENTLEMAN, DON QUIXOTE DE LA MANCHA DON QUIXOTE’S BACKGROUND AND FIRST SALLY (Chapters I-VI): I. Which treats of the station in life and the pursuits of the famous gentleman, Don Quixote de la Mancha. II. Which treats of the first sally that the ingenious Don Quixote made from his native heath. III. Of the amusing manner in which Don Quixote had himself dubbed a knight. IV. Of what happened to our knight when he sallied forth from the inn. V. In which is continued the narrative of the misfortune that befell our knight. VI. Of the great and diverting scrutiny which the curate and the barber made in the library of our ingenious gentleman. THE SECOND SALLY: ADVENTURE OF THE WINDMILLS, ENCOUNTER WITH THE BISCAYAN (Chapters VII-X): VII. Of the second sally of our good knight, Don Quixote de la Mancha. VIII. Of the good fortune which the valorous Don Quixote had in the terrifying and never-before-imagined adventure of the windmills, along with other events that deserve to be suitably recorded. IX. In which is conccluded and brought to an end the stupendous battle between the gallant Biscayan and the valiant Knight of La Mancha. X. Of the pleasing conversation that took place between Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, his squire. A PASTORAL INTERLUDE (Chapters XI-XIV): From XI. Of what happened to Don Quixote in the company of certain goatherds. From XIII. In which is brought to a close the story of the shepherdress Marcela, along with other events. From XIV. In which are…other unlooked-for happenings. MORE ADVENTURES ALONG THE WAY (Chapters XV-XXII): XV. In which is related the unfortunate adventure that befell Don Quixote when he encountered certain wicked Yanguesans. XVI. Of what happened to the ingenious gentleman in the inn which he imagined was a castle. XVII. Wherein is continued the account of the innumerable troubles that the brave Don Quixote and his good squire Sancho Panza endured in the inn, which, to his sorrow, the knight took to be a castle. XVIII. In which is set forth the conversation that Sancho Panza had with his master, Don Quixote, along with other adventures deserving of record. XIX. Of the shrewd things that Sancho Panza said to his master and the adventure that happened to him in connection with a dead body, along with other famous events. XX. Of an adventure such as never was seen or heard of, which was completed by the valorous Don Quixote de la Mancha with less peril than any famous knight in all the world ever incurred in a similar undertaking. XXI. Which treats of the high and richly rewarded adventure of Mambrino’s helmet, together with other things that happened to our invincible knight. XXII. Of how Don Quixote freed many unfortunate ones who, much against their will, were being taken where they did not wish to go. DON QUIXOTE’S PENANCE AND SANCHO’S EMBASSY TO DULCINEA (Chapters XXIII-XXIX): From XXIII. Of what happened to the famous Don Quixote in the Sierra Morena, which is one of the rarest adventures related in this true history. From XXV. Which treats of the strange things that happened to the valiant Knight of La Mancha in the Sierra Morena and of his imitation of Beltenebros’s penance. THE RETURN TO THE VILLAGE (Chapters XXX-LII): From XXX. Which treats of…matters very pleasant and amusing. XXXI. Of the delectable conversation that took place between Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, his squire, together with other events. XXXV. In which the “Story of the One Who Was Too Curious for His Own Good” is brought to a close, and in which is related the fierce and monstrous battle Don Quixote waged with certain skins of red wine. From XLIII. In which is related…other strange events that took place at the inn. XLIV. In which are continued the unheard-of adventures at the inn. XLV. In which the diSancho Panzaute over Mambrino’s helmet and the packsaddle is finally settled, with other events that in all truth occurred. XLVI. Wherein is concluded the notable adventure of the troopers, together with an account of the great ferocity of our good knight, Don Quixote. XLVII. Of the strange manner in which a Sancho Panzaell was laid on Don Quixote de la Mancha, together with other remarkable occurrences. XLVIII. In which the canon continues his discourse on the subject of books of chivalry, with other matters worthy of his intelligence. XLIX. Of the shrewd conversation that Sancho Panza had with his master, Don Quixote. L. Of the weighty argument that took place between Don Quixote and the canon. From LII. …The rare adventure of the penitents, which the knight by the sweat of his brow brought to a happy conclusion. PREPARATIONS FOR THE THIRD SALLY (Chapters I-VII): I. Of the conversation which the curate and the barber had with Don Quixote concerning his malady. II. Which treats of the notable quarrel that Sancho Panza had with Don Quixote’s niece and housekeeper, along with other droll happenings. III. Of the laughable conversation that took place between Don Quixote, Sancho Panza, and the bachelor Sanson Carrasco. IV. Wherein Sancho Panza answers the bachelor’s questions and removes his doubts, together with other events that are worthy of being known and set down. V. Of the shrewd and droll remarks that passed between Sancho Panza and his wife, Teresa Panza, with other matters of a pleasant nature that deserve to be recorded. VI. Of what took place between Don Quixote and his niece and housekeeper, which is one of the most important chapters in the entire history. VII. Of what passed between Don Quixote and his squire, with other very famous incidents. THE “ENCHANTMENT” OF DULCINEA (Chapters VIII-X): VIII. Wherein is related what happened to Don Quixote as he went to see his lady, Dulcinea del Toboso. IX. A chapter in which is related what will be found set forth in it. X. Wherein is related the ingenuity that Sancho Panza diSancho Panzalayed by laying a Sancho Panzaell upon the lady Dulcinea, with other events as outlandish as they are true. TO THE ROAD AGAIN (Chapters XI-XXIX): XI. Of the strange adventure that befell the valiant Don Quixote in connection with the cart or wagon of the Parliament of Death. From XIV. Wherein is continued the adventure of the Knight of the Wood. From XVI. Of what happened to Don Quixote upon his meeting with a prudent gentleman of La Mancha. XVII. Wherein Don Quixote’s unimaginable courage reaches its highest point, together with the adventure of the lions and its happy ending. From XXII. Wherein is related the great adventure of the Cave of Montsinos in the heart of La Mancha, which the valiant Don Quixote brought to a triumphant conclusion. XXIII. Of the amazing things which the incomparable Don Quixote told of having seen in the deep Cave of Montesinos, an adventure the grandeur and impossible nature of which have caused it to be regarded as apocryphal. From XXIV. Wherein are related trifling matters… XXVVIII. Of things that, Benengeli says, the reader will come to know if he reads attentively. WITH THE DUKE AND DUCHESS (Chapters XXX-XLI): From XXXII. Concerning…incidents, some serious and some amusing. XXXIII. Of the delightful conversation which the ducheess and her waiting women had with Sancho Panza, worth reading and worth noting. From XXXV. Wherein is continued the information that Don Quixote received concerning Dulcinea’s disenchantment, with other astonishing incidents. XXXVI. Wherein is related the weird and never-before-imagined adventure of the Distressed Duenna, otherwise known as the Countess Trifaldi, together with a letter that Sancho Panza wrote to his wife, Teresa Panza. XLI. Of the coming of Clavinleño, with the conclusion of this long-drawn-out adventure. SANCHO’S GOVERNMENT (Chapters XLII-LV): XLII. Of the advice which Don Quixote gave Sancho Panza before the latter set out to govern his island, with other well-considered matters. XLIII. Of the further advice which Don Quixote gave to Sancho Panza. XLIV. How Sancho Panza was taken away to be governor, and the strange adventure that befell Don Quixote in the castle. XLV. Of how the great Sancho took possession of his island and of the way in which he began to govern. XLVII. Wherein is continued the account of how Sancho Panza deported himself in his government. XLIX. Of what happened to Sancho Panza as he made the rounds of his island. L. Wherein is set forth who the enchanters and executioners were who Sancho Panzaanked the duenna and pinched and scratched Don Quixote, together with what happened to the page who carried the letter to Teresa Panza, Sancho Panza’s wife. LI. Of the course of Sancho Panza’s government, with other entertaining matters of a similar nature. From LII. (The CorreSancho Panzaondence of Teresa Panza). LIII. Of the troublous end and conclusion of Sancho Panza’s government. From LV. Of the things that happened to Sancho… THE LAST ADVENTURES (Chapters LVI-LXXIV): From LXII. Which deals with…things that cannot be left untold. From LXIV. Which treats of the adventure that caused Don Quixote the most sorrow of all those that have thus far befallen him. LXXI. Of what befell Don Quixote and his squire Sancho on the way to their village. LXXIV. Of how Don Quixote fell sick, of the will that he made, and of the manner of his death. TWO EXEMPLARY NOVELS Rinconete and Cortadillo Man of Glass “FOOT IN THE STIRRUP”: Cervantes’ Farewell to Life (from The Troubles of Persiles and Sigismunda) To Don Quixote To Two Exemplary Novels To “Foot in the Stirrup”	6
MEXICO CITY (AP) - Archaeologists in Mexico say they have found an unprecedented human burial in which the skeleton of a young woman was found near Mexico City's Templo Mayor surrounded by piles of 1,789 human bones. Experts say the Aztecs usually cremated the remains of high-ranking members of their society, and even among buried commoners they haven't found such a large aggregation of bones. The National Institute of Anthropology and History says some of the human bones show what may be cut marks. Archaeologist Susan Gillespie said Tuesday that the find is unprecedented for the Aztec culture. Researchers say they also found the buried trunk of what may have been one of the sacred trees that the Azetcs believed held up the firmament.	6
"This is a very successful history of the Indian Ocean. It is also, often silently, an important contribution to world history.... What is remarkable is that Alpers touches all the main bases and themes even in this short compass. ... Alpers has long been known as an East Africa, and especially Mozambique, specialist. This makes even more commendable the way he writes extensively and knowledgably on the other side of the ocean, the Bay of Bengal, the Malay world, and the South China Sea." --International Journal of Maritime History "The selection and organization of the documents is so effective that the book provides a wonderful introduction into Africa's intersection with Europe through the words of the people who lived through it. From the era of the slave trade to the establishment of the new South Africa, Africa and the West portrays Africa as a real place full of complex and interesting people and institutions, and it emphasizes that the 'Western' intersection with Africa was more than just an impact and response. People experienced, observed, critiqued, thought, planned, plotted, and dreamed. Together, the documents of this collection provide powerful evidence of the sheer level of thought, debate, struggle, and planning that went into every stage of the Africa/West experience." --African Studies Quarterly "This superb collection illuminates the West's impact on Africa from 1400 to 1994. The editors note that they have endeavored to publish documents that will interest audiences from middle school students to college graduates. They have succeeded. These highly readable selections will serve Africa well as they help students understand that African history is complex, engaging, and important." --International Journal of African Historical Studies "An excellent example of a documentary textbook for use in undergraduate classrooms." -- World History Bulletin About the Author Willim H. Worger is Professor of History at UCLA. Nancy L. Clark is Professor of History at Louisiana State University. Edward A. Alpers is Professor of History at UCLA.	6
Mystery Pyramid Built by Newfound Ancient Culture? Archaeologists first found the objects about 15 years ago in the valley of Tulancingo, a major canyon that drops off into Mexico's Gulf Coast. Most of the 41 artifacts"do not fit into any of the known cultures of the Valley of Tulancingo, or the highlands of central Mexico," said Carlos Hernández, an archaeologist at Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History in the central state of Hidalgo. comments powered by Disqus - Here's a look at history of 'religious freedom' laws - ‘Hamilton’ Puts Politics Onstage and Politicians in Attendance - Earth Tectonic Plate Simulation Reveals Our Planet Has Changed A Lot In 200 Million Years - For G.O.P., Support for Israel Becomes New Litmus Test - Yale’s Beinecke Library Buys Vast Collection of Lincoln Photos - History's Grandin Wins Bancroft Prize for "The Empire of Necessity" - Nobel prize-winning scientist writes a history of science - Ken Burns tackles history of cancer - Role-playing history game gets students jazzed	6
\|Languages\|\|Dutch, Zulu, English\| \|Religion\|\|Dutch Reformed Church\| \|Prime Minister\|\|Andries Pretorius\| \|Historical era\|\|The Great Trek\| \|-\|\|Established\|\|12 October 1839\| \|-\|\|Battle of Blood River\|\|16 December 1838\| \|-\|\|Alliance with Zulu\|\|January 1840\| \|-\|\|Annexed by Britain\|\|12 May 1843\| \|This article needs additional citations for verification. (September 2009)\| The Natalia Republic was a short-lived Boer republic, established in 1839 by local Afrikaans-speaking Voortrekkers shortly after the Battle of Blood River. The republic was located on the coast of the Indian Ocean beyond the Eastern Cape, and was previously named Natália by Portuguese sailors. The republic was conquered and annexed by Britain in 1843. After the British annexation of the Natalia Republic, most local Voortrekker Boers trekked north into Transorangia, later known as the Orange Free State, and the Transvaal. - 1 History - 2 Natalia's government - 3 Transfer to colonial government - 4 Aftermath - 5 See also - 6 References European settlement and setbacks Long inhabited by varying cultures of indigenous Africans, the region was colonized and renamed in their language by the Portuguese. The first Europeans to settle the country were emigrant Boers from the Cape Colony, led by Piet Retief (c. 1780-1838). He was of Huguenot descent. Passing through the almost deserted upper regions, Retief arrived at the bay[clarification needed] in October 1837. During this journey, he chose a site for the capital of the future state which he envisioned. He went to the capital or kraal of the Zulu king, Dingane, to obtain a cession of territory for the Dutch farmers. Dingane consented on condition that the Boers recover cattle stolen by the Tlokwa chief. Retief managed that and, with the help of the Rev. F. Owen, a missionary living at Dingane's kraal, he drew up a deed of cession in English. Dingane and Retief signed it on 4 February 1838. Two days later, Dingane ordered the execution of Retief and all of his party, 66 whites and 34 Khoikhoi servants. The Zulu king commanded his impis to kill all the Boers who had entered Natal. The Zulu forces crossed the Tugela the same day, and the most advanced parties of the Boers were massacred, many at a spot near where the town of Weenen now stands, its name (meaning wailing or weeping) commemorating the event. Other of the farmers hastily laagered and were able to repulse the Zulu attacks; the assailants suffering serious loss at a fight near Bushman River. In one week after the murder of Retief, the Zulus killed 600 Boers - men, women and children. Hearing of the attack on the Boers, the British settlers at the bay sent a force to help them. Robert Biggar commanded 20 British and a following of 700 friendly Zulus and crossed the Tugela near its mouth. On the 17 April, in a desperate fight with a Zulu force led by Nongalaza KaNondela, the British were overwhelmed and only four Europeans escaped to the bay. Pursued by the Zulus, the surviving inhabitants of Durban took refuge on a ship then in harbour. After the Zulus retired, fewer than a dozen Englishmen returned to live at the port; the missionaries, hunters and other traders returned to the Cape. The Boers had repelled the Zulu attacks on their laagers; joined by others from the Drakensberg, about 400 men under Hendrik Potgieter and Piet Uys advanced to attack Dingane. On 11 April, they were attacked and with difficulty cut their way out. Among those slain were Piet Uys and his son Dirk, aged 15. Battle of Blood River Toward the end of the year, the Boers received reinforcements. In December 460 men set out under Boer General Andries Pretorius to take on the Zulus. Andries Pretorius selected Jan Gerritze Bantjes (1817-1887) as his scribe and secretary in recording events of the campaign and coming retaliation battle with the Zulus. Bantjes wrote in his journal the daily progress of the commando when they started out 27 Nov.1838. until they reached their selected battle site over two weeks later the 15.Nov. 1838. They avoided being led into a trap as happened on the previous attempt to attack the Zulus in April which ended in disaster. On the journey, they had small skirmishes with various kraals but the main Zulu army had not arrived yet to attack. Boer and Zulu scouts were constantly monitoring each other's whereabouts. On Sunday 09.December as Bantjes wrote in his journal, the Boers congregated under a clear sky to sing appropriate psalms and celebrate the Sabbath, taking a vow which became known as the "Day of The Vow or Covenant" that "if the Lord might give us victory, we hereby deem to found a house as a memorial of his Great Name at a place where it shall please Him", and that they also implore the help and assistance of God in accomplishing this Vow and that they write down this Day of Victory in a book and disclose this event to our very last posterities in order that this will forever be celebrated in the honour of God." On Sunday 16 December 1838, while laagered near the Umslatos River or Hippo Pool, they were attacked by more than 30 000+ Zulus and outnumbered more than 60 to 1. As Bantjes wrote in his journal - "Sunday, December 16 was like being newly born for us - the sky was clear, the weather fine and bright. We hardly saw the twilight of the break of day or the guards, who were still at their posts and could just make out the distant Zulus approaching. All the patrols were called back into the laager by firing alarm signals from the cannons. The enemy came forward at full speed and suddenly they had encircled the area around the laager. As it got lighter, so we could see them approaching over their predecessors who had already been shot back. Their rapid approach (though terrifying to witness due to their great numbers) was an impressive sight. The Zulus came in regiments, each captain with his men behind (as the patrols had seen them coming the day before) until they had surrounded us. I could not count them, but I was told that a captive Zulu gave the number at thirty-six regiments, each regiment calculated to be "nine hundred to a thousand men strong." The battle now began and the cannons unleashed from each gate, such that the battle was fierce and noisy, even the discharging of small arms fire from our marksmen on all sides was like thunder. After more than two hours of fierce battle, the Commander in Chief gave orders that the gates be opened and mounted men sent to fight the enemy in fast attacks, as the enemy near constantly stormed the laager time and again, and he feared the ammunition would soon run out. With the power of their firearms and with their ox wagons in a laager formation and some excellent tactics, the Boers fought off the Zulu. After three hours, the Boers had killed an estimated 3,000 Zulus and had only three of their men wounded, among them Pretorius. Jan Gerritze Bantjes kept his journal of the entire campaign and the Battle of Blood River. The Zulus withdrew in defeat, many crossing the river which had turned red with blood and thereafter known as the Battle of Blood River. The Boers celebrated the Day of the Covenant every year on 16 December and most of them credit the victory to God. British at Port Natal Returning south, Pretorius and his commandos found that the British had annexed Port Natal (now Durban) on 4 December with a detachment of the 72nd Highlanders from Cape Colony. While the governor of the Cape, Major-General Sir George Napier, had invited the emigrants to return to the colony, he had stated his intention to take military possession of the port. He wanted to prevent the Boers from establishing an independent republic on the coast with a harbour through which access to the interior could be gained. Napier withdrew the Highlanders on Christmas Eve 1839. Overthrow of Dingane After the battle, Pretorius took advantage of dissension in the Zulu kingdom to ally himself with Mpande, brother of the Zulu king Dingane. Dingane's attempt to extend his kingdom north to compensate for losses to the Boers had failed. He was defeated by the Swazi people in 1839, leading to discontent with his rule. In exchange for cattle and territory Pretorius agreed to support Mpande's bid to overthrow Dingane. A Boer force supported Mpande's Zulu impi in the invasion. At the Battle of Maqongqo, Dingane was crushed and was put to flight with what retainers chose to follow him into exile. Pretorius took 36,000 head of cattle and proclaimed a large tract of land extending from St. Lucia Bay to be part of the Natalia Republic. According to Maxwell Shamase, On 14 February 1840 Pretorius issued a proclamation whereby the territory from the sea next to the Black Mfolozi River, where it ran through the double mountains, close to the origin and then next to Hooge Randberg in a straight line to the Drakensberg, St. Lucia Bay inclusive was declared as border between KwaZulu and the Republic of Natalia. On the banks of the Klip River the Voortrekkers received about 36 000 head of cattle looted after the Maqongqo battle. They received an additional 15 000 head of cattle from Mpande as a token of allegiance. Legislative power was vested in the volksraad (consisting of 24 members), while the president and executive were changed every three months. For issues of importance, a meeting was called of het publiek, that is, of all who chose to attend, to sanction or reject it. "The result," says the historian Theal, "was utter anarchy. Decisions of one day were frequently reversed the next, and every one held himself free to disobey any law that he did not approve of.. .. Public opinion of the hour in each section of the community was the only force in the land." (History of South Africa 1834 - 1854, chap. xliv.). The Zulus continued to exist as a distinct and numerous people with their own dispensation within their own territory to the north and east, in the region known as Zululand. The settlers were in loose alliance with and in quasi-supremacy over the Boer communities that had left the Cape and settled at Winburg and at Potchefstroom. They declared a free and independent state under the title of "The Republic of Port Natal and adjacent countries," and sought (September 1840) from Sir George Napier an acknowledgment of their independence by Great Britain. Sir George did not give an answer but was sympathetic to the Boer farmers. He was disturbed when a commando force under Andries Pretorius attacked the Xhosa in December 1840. The national government declined to recognized Natalia's independence but proposed to trade with it if the people would accept a military force to defend against other European powers. Sir George communicated this decision to the volksraad in September 1841. British and Dutch influences The Boers strongly resented the contention of the British that they could not shake off British nationality though beyond the bounds of any recognized British possession, nor were they prepared to see their only port garrisoned by British troops. They rejected Napier's overtures. In December 1841, Napier announced his intention to resume military occupation of Port Natal, citing the Boers' attack on the Xhosa. In February 1842 the settlers responded, with a document written by J. N. Boshoff (afterwards president of the Orange Free State). The farmers complained about the lack of representative government, and concluded by a protest against the occupation of any part of their territory by British troops. Soon after, the Boers were encouraged in their opposition to Great Britain. In March 1842 a Dutch vessel sent out by G. G. Ohrig, an Amsterdam merchant who sympathized with the farmers, reached Port Natal. J. A. Smellekamp concluded a treaty with the volksraad assuring them of the protection of the Netherlands. The Natal Boers believed the Netherlands to be one of the great powers of Europe, and were firmly persuaded that its government would aid them in resisting England. Transfer to colonial government Napier takes charge The British government was still undecided as to its policy towards Natal. In April 1842 Lord Stanley (afterwards 14th earl of Derby), then secretary for the colonies in the second Peel Administration, wrote to Sir George Napier that the establishment of a colony in Natal would be attended with little prospect of advantage, but at the same time stated that the pretensions of the emigrants to be regarded as an independent community could not be admitted. Various measures were proposed which would but have aggravated the situation. Napier took the initiative however, and dispatched Captain J. Charlton Smith with a garrison to occupy Port Natal. They arrived on 4 May 1842, much to the vehement demands from the Boers that the British should leave. Captain Smith (according to his Dispatch of 25 May 1842), who had hitherto been at pains to avoid hostilities and in favour of conciliation, on receiving an "insolent" letter demanding that the force he commanded should immediately quit Natal, followed up the removal by armed men of a quantity of cattle belonging to the troops deemed it absolutely necessary that some steps should be taken in order to prevent a repetition of such outrages. He therefore determined, after mature consideration, to march and attack their camp at the Congella. A Royal Artillery boat was fitted with a howitzer and the sergeant in charge of the boat was given instructions to drop down the channel to within 500 yards of Congella and await the troops in order that they might form under the cover of its fire, aided by that of two six-pounders which accompanied Captain Smith's force. To Smith's mortification, the boat failed to arrive until it was too late to be of any use and, besides, took up a position too distant for her fire to be of much effect. Though Smith was informed the Boers (the Emigrant Farmers) suffered severe losses in the action, the result for Smith's force was a disaster and the loss of life very severe. Smith retreated to his camp, where he was besieged until 26 June 1842, when Lieutenant-colonel A. J. Cloete's relief force arrived in the war ship Southampton. Finally, in deference to the strongly urged views of Sir George Napier, Lord Stanley, in a despatch of 13 December, received in Cape Town on 23 April 1843, consented to Natal becoming a British colony. The institutions adopted were to be as far as possible in accordance with the wishes of the people, but it was a fundamental condition "that there should not be in the eye of the law any distinction or disqualification whatever, founded on mere difference of colour, origin, language or creed." Sir George then appointed Mr Henry Cloete (a brother of Colonel Josias Cloete) a special commissioner to explain to the Natal volksraad the decision of the government. There was a considerable party of Natal Boers still strongly opposed to the British, and they were reinforced by numerous bands of Boers who came over the Drakensberg from Winburg and Potchefstroom. Commandant Jan Mocke of Winburg (who had helped to besiege Captain Smith at Durban) and others of the "war party" attempted to induce the volksraad not to submit, and a plan was formed to murder Pretorius, Boshoff and other leaders, who were now convinced that the only chance of ending the state of complete anarchy into which the country had fallen was by accepting British sovereignty. Extent of the colony In these circumstances the task of Mr Henry Cloete was one of great difficulty and delicacy. He behaved with the utmost tact and got rid of the Winburg and Potchefstroom burghers by declaring that he should recommend the Drakensberg as the northern limit of Natal. On 8 August 1843 the Natal volksraad unanimously agreed to the terms proposed by Lord Stanley. Many of the Boers who would not acknowledge British rule trekked once more over the mountains into what became the Orange Free State and Transvaal provinces to seek their freedom and independence. At the end of 1843 there were not more than 500 Dutch families left in Natal. Cloete, before returning to the Cape, visited Mpande and obtained from him a valuable concession. Hitherto the Tugela River from source to mouth had been the recognized frontier between Natal and Zululand. Mpande gave up to Natal all the territory between the Buffalo and Tugela rivers, now forming Klip River county. Proclaimed a British Colony of Natal in 1843, it became a part of Cape Colony in 1844. The power of the volksraad did not truly end until 1845, when an effective British administration was established under Martin West as lieutenant-governor. After the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879, the British defeated the Zulu army, and annexed Zululand to Natal in 1893. One of the four founding provinces of South Africa, it is now KwaZulu-Natal. This province is still home to the Zulu nation, which forms the majority of the population and Zulu is, together with English and Afrikaans, an official languages. The province also has a large ethnic Indian population, as well as Boer-descended residents in the north and ethnic British descendants, mainly in the cities. - Battle of Congella - Dick King - KwaZulu-Natal Province - South African Republic - Orange Free State - Boer republics - Timothy Joseph Stapleton, Faku: rulership and colonialism in the Mpondo Kingdom (c. 1780-1867), Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, 2001, ISBN 0889203458, p. 64	6
The Palace of the Argentine National Congress (Spanish: Palacio del Congreso Nacional Argentino, often referred locally as Palacio del Congreso) is a monumental building, seat of the Argentine National Congress, located in Buenos Aires at the western end of Avenida de Mayo (at the other end of which is the Casa Rosada). Constructed between 1898 and 1906, the palace is a National Historic Landmark. The Kilometre Zero for all Argentine National Highways is marked on a milestone at the Congressional Plaza, next to the building. I took this photo at Mayo Avenue. This avenue connects the Plaza de Mayo with Congressional Plaza, and extends 1.5 km (0.93 mi) in a west-east direction before merging into Avenida Rivadavia. The avenue was built on an initiative by Mayor Torcuato de Alvear, work began in 1885 and was completed in 1894. The avenue is often compared with La Gran Vía in Madrid, although the Spanish avenue was built later (1910). Nobody has marked this note useful - Copyright: Andre Bonavita (bona) (13037) - Genre: Places - Medium: Color - Date Taken: 2013-08-11 - Categories: Architecture - Camera: Canon EOS Rebel T3i, Sigma 70-300mm F4-5.6 APO DG - Exposure: f/8, 1/50 seconds - More Photo Info: view - Photo Version: Original Version - Travelogue: Winter in Argentina - Date Submitted: 2014-08-06 6:02	6
Saint Martin is a tropical island in the northeast Caribbean, approximately 300 km (186 miles) east of Puerto Rico. This small island (37 square miles) is divided roughly 60/40 between France and the Netherlands Antilles. it is the smallest inhabited sea island divided between two nations, a division dating to 1648. The southern Dutch half comprises the Eilandgebied Sint Maarten (Island area of St. Martin) and is part of the Netherlands Antilles. The northern French half comprises the Collectivité de Saint-Martin (Collectivity of St. Martin) and is an overseas collectivity of France. The population of the entire island is avout 75,000 (about 5000 more than Sault Ste. Marie), with the Dutch having a slightly higher population. (Those prolific Dutch people, you know!!) The main towns are Philipsburg (Dutch side) where we are docked and Marigot (French side). The highest hilltop is the Pic Paradis (424 m) on center of a hill chain (French side). There is no river on the island, but many dry guts. These Caribbean Islands are very similar in appearance and have arisen from volcanos. The average yearly air temperature is 27 °C (min 17 °C, max 35 °C) and it is about that temperature today, a beautiful day, sunny and warm with a nice breeze. Around 800 AD, the island was settled by Arawak Indians who arrived from South America, given the name Soualiga, or Land of Salt. In 1493, when Christopher Columbus embarked on his second voyage to the New World he anchored at the island of Saint Martin on November 11, 1493, the feast day of Saint Martin of Tours. In his honor, Columbus named the island San Martin. This name was translated to Sint Maarten (Dutch), Saint-Martin (French) and "Saint Martin" in English. On March 23, 1648, France and the Dutch Republic agreed to divide the island between their two nations, so they signed the Treaty of Concordia. At that time, these countries agreed that the residents of either side of the island can be commercially active on the other side without any red tape or border difficulties. Folklore surrounds the history of the once ever-changing border division between St. Martin and Sint Maarten, and a popular story among locals narrates that "to divide the island in two sections, the inhabitants were told to choose two walkers, one chosen by the French-dominated community and the other one by the Dutch-dominated community, who were put back to back in one extreme of the island, making them walk in opposite directions while stuck to the litoral line, and not allowing them to run. The point where they eventually met was set as the other extreme of the island, and the subsequently created line was chosen as the frontier, dividing Saint-Martin from Sint Maarten. Seemingly, the French walker had walked more than his Dutch counterpart (each one earned his land, respectively, 54km² and 32km²). As the first man chose wine as his stimulant prior to the race, while the latter chose beer, the difference between such beverages' lightness was said to be the cause of the territorial differences by French locals, while Dutch locals tended to blame the French walker for running." This contract of peaceful coexistence turns out to be the oldest active, undisputed treat on our planet. Each partition remains true to the cultural life-styles of their respective homelands...they co-exist in complete contrast but perfect harmony. In 2003, St. Marten, the French side, voted in favour of secession from Guadeloupe in order to form a separate overseas collectivity (COM) of France. This did occur in 2007. The status of the Dutch side was due to change to a country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands in December 2008, but this has been postponed to October 2010. St. Martin's Dutch side is known for its festive nightlife, beaches, jewelry, exotic drinks made with native rum-based guavaberry liquors, and plentiful casinos, while its French side, is known more for its nude beaches, clothes, shopping (including outdoor markets), and rich French and Indian Caribbean cuisine. (Thank goodness we docked on the Dutch side.) Shopping on St Maarten and Saint Martin offers duty-free goods in numerous boutiques. Popular goods include local crafts & arts, exotic foods, jewelry, liquor, tobacco, leather goods, as well as most designer goods. (Too bad my sons didn't send me with a shopping list and $ for diamonds because they are a "bargain" here.) I have not yet won anything in the shipboard casino and have not run into Paula Deen yet but I am looking!! A cruise is a great way to travel but I think I prefer being in or around one place for an extended period as Gail and I did in Puerto Vallarta in 2008 and Arizona last year so that you can really immerse yourself in the culture and get to know the people and the land. Most if the people on these small Caribbean Islands are involved in the tourist industry and it is a lesson in humility to find out that the average weekly salary is about $120/week for long hours and having to put up with haughty tourists. The week before this cruise, this ship did dock in Haiti just after the earthquake. One of the employees told me of the efforts of the staff to collect funds for Haiti and they did drop off water and food also. Many people in Haiti also rely on tourism so I guess they were encouraged to dock the ship there despite the catastrophe. (Sister #2, Jannette, did want to make a side trip so that she could bring some orphaned babies back to Canada.) The Sister + 1 continue to have lots of laughs and enjoyable moments!! All are still on board at this point. Tot: 0.18s; Tpl: 0.009s; cc: 6; qc: 44; dbt: 0.077s; 1; m:apollo w:www (220.127.116.11); sld: 2; ; mem: 6.4mb	6
The Bié Plateau, which forms the central region of the territory, has an average altitude of 6,000 ft (1,830 m). Rising abruptly from the coastal lowland, the plateau slopes gently eastward toward the Congo and Zambezi basins and forms one of Africa's major watersheds. The uneven topography of the plateau has resulted in the formation of numerous rapids and waterfalls, which are used for the production of hydroelectric power. The territory's principal rivers are the Cuanza and the Cunene. Rainfall in the south and along the coast north to Luanda is generally low. In northern Angola it is usually dry and cool from May to October and wet and hot from November to April. The characteristic landscape is savanna woodlands and grasslands. The northeast, however, has densely forested valleys that yield hardwoods, and palm trees are cultivated along a narrow coastal strip. In addition to Luanda, other important cities are Huambo, Lobito, Benguela, and Namibe. The overwhelming majority of Angola's population is of African descent, and most of the people speak Bantu and other African languages. The official language, however, is Portuguese, though French is the predominate European language in Cabinda. The Ovimbundu, Kimbundu, and Bakongo are the largest ethnic groups. After Angola secured its independence from Portugal, many Europeans left the country. Traditional indigenous religions prevail, but there is a large Roman Catholic minority and a smaller Protestant minority. Angola's rich agricultural sector was formerly the mainstay of the economy and currently provides employment for the majority of the people. Food must be imported in large quantities, however, because of the disruption caused by the country's protracted civil war. All areas of production suffered during the fighting that began in 1975. Coffee and sugarcane are the most important cash crops. Sisal, corn, cotton, manioc, tobacco, and bananas are raised, and fishing is also important. Livestock, notably cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs, is raised in much of the savanna region. Angola has substantial mineral resources and hydroelectric power. Most large-scale industries are nationalized. Oil, chiefly from reserves offshore, is the most lucrative product, providing about 50% of the country's GDP and 90% of its exports. Oil revenues have not done much to improve the economy at large or the everyday lives of Angolans, especially in the interior, because huge sums have been spent on the armed forces and lost due to government corruption. Diamond mining is also a principal industry; for many years in the late 20th cent. revenue from the mines supported UNITA rebels (see under Postcolonial History). Natural gas is produced, and Angola has deposits of iron ore, phosphates, copper, feldspar, gold, bauxite, and uranium. Industries include metals processing, meat and fish processing, brewing, and the manufacture of cement, tobacco products, and textiles. The Benguela railroad, which carries metals from the mines of Congo (Kinshasa) and the Zambian Copperbelt, was an important source of revenue, but much of the line fell into disrepair during the civil war. Angola's road network and communications system have also been affected by civil strife. In 2005, the government began using a $2 billion line of credit from China to help rebuild the country's infrastructure. Luanda and Lobito are Angola's main shipping ports. The country's main trading partners are the United States, China, South Korea, Portugal, and France. Angola is a member of the Southern African Development Community. Angola is governed under the constitution of 1975 as amended. After many years of one-party Marxist rule, Angola is now a struggling multiparty democracy. Its executive branch is headed by the president, popularly elected for a five-year term, who serves as both chief of state and head of government. However, the last presidential election was held in 1992; subsequent elections have been postponed. The prime minister and council of ministers are appointed by the president. Angola has a unicameral 220-seat National Assembly, whose members are elected by proportional vote for four-year terms, and a judicial branch with a supreme court. Adminstratively, the country is divided into 18 provinces. The first inhabitants of the area that is now Angola are thought to have been members of the hunter-gatherer Khoisan group. Bantu-speaking peoples from West Africa arrived in the region in the 13th cent., partially displacing the Khoisan and establishing a number of powerful kingdoms. The Portuguese first explored coastal Angola in the late 15th cent., and except for a short occupation (1641-48) by the Dutch, it was under Portugal's control until they left the country late in the 20th cent. Although they failed to discover the gold and other precious metals they were seeking, the Portuguese found in Angola an excellent source of slaves for their colony in Brazil. Portuguese colonization of Angola began in 1575, when a permanent base was established at Luanda. By this time the Mbundu kingdom had established itself in central Angola. After several attempts at subjugation, Portuguese troops finally broke the back of the kingdom in 1902, when the Bié Plateau was captured. Construction of the Benguela railroad followed, and white settlers arrived in the Angolan highlands. The modern development of Angola began only after World War II. In 1951 the colony was designated an overseas province, and Portugal initiated plans to develop industries and hydroelectric power. Although the Portuguese professed the aim of a multiracial society of equals in Angola, most Africans still suffered repression. Inspired by nationalist movements elsewhere, the native Angolans rose in revolt in 1961. When the uprising was quelled by the Portuguese army, many fled to Congo (Kinshasa) and other neighboring countries. In 1962 a group of refugees in the Congo, led by Holden Roberto, organized the Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA). It maintained supply and training bases in the Congo, waged guerrilla warfare in Angola, and, while developing contacts with both Western and Communist nations, obtained its chief support from the Organization of African Unity (OAU). Angola's liberation movement comprised two other guerrilla groups as well. The Marxist-influenced Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola (MPLA), founded in 1956, had its headquarters in Zambia and was most active among educated Angolan Africans and mestiços living abroad. The MPLA led the struggle for Angolan independence. The third rival group was the União Nacional para a Independěncia Total de Angola (UNITA), which was established in 1966 under the leadership of Jonas Savimbi. As a result of the guerrilla warfare, Portugal was forced to keep more than 50,000 troops in Angola by the early 1970s. In 1972 the heads of the FNLA and MPLA assumed joint leadership of a newly formed Supreme Council for the Liberation of Angola, but their military forces did not merge. That same year the Portuguese national assembly changed Angola's status from an overseas province to an "autonomous state" with authority over internal affairs; Portugal was to retain responsibility for defense and foreign relations. Elections were held for a legislative assembly in 1973. In Apr., 1974, the Portuguese government was overthrown in a military uprising. In May of that year the new government proclaimed a truce with the guerrillas in an effort to promote peace talks. Later in the year Portugal seemed intent on granting Angola independence; however, the situation was complicated by the large number of Portuguese and other Europeans (estimated at 500,000) resident there, by continued conflict among the African liberation movements, and by the desire of some Cabindans for their oil-rich region to become independent as a separate.Postcolonial History Portugal granted Angola independence in 1975 and the MPLA assumed control of the government in Luanda; Agostinho Neto became president. The FNLA and UNITA, however, proclaimed a coaliton government in Nova Lisboa (now Huambo), but by early 1976 the MPLA had gained control of the whole country. Most of the European population fled the political and economic upheaval that followed independence, taking their investments and technical expertise with them. When Neto died in 1979, José Eduardo dos Santos succeeded him as president. In the 1970s and 80s the MPLA government received large amounts of aid from Cuba and the Soviet Union, while the United States supported first the FNLA and then UNITA. In Cabinda, independence forces that had fought against the Portuguese now fought against the Angolan government. Although the FNLA faded in importance, UNITA obtained the support of South Africa, which was mounting its own campaigns against the Southwest Africa People's Organization (SWAPO), a Namibian liberation group based in Angola. In the late 1980s the United States provided military aid to UNITA and demanded the withdrawal of Cuban troops and an end to Soviet assistance. As a result of negotiations among Angola, South Africa, Cuba, and the United States, the withdrawal of Cuban troops began in 1989. Also in the late 1980s, Marxist Angola implemented programs of privatization under President dos Santos. A cease-fire between the ruling MPLA and UNITA was reached in 1991, and the government agreed to make Angola a multiparty state. However, when dos Santos won UN-supervised elections held in Sept., 1992, UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi charged fraud and refused to accept the results. In Nov., 1992, bitter fighting broke out between rebel UNITA troops and government forces, destroying many cities and much of the country's infrastructure. Despite initial victories that gave UNITA control of some two thirds of Angola, the MPLA eventually gained the upper hand in the renewed warfare. In Nov., 1994, with UNITA on the verge of defeat, dos Santos and Savimbi signed the Lusaka protocol, a new agreement on ending the conflict. The two sides committed to the integration of several thousand UNITA troops into the government armed forces as well as the demobilization of thousands more from both sides. UN peacekeeping troops began arriving in June, 1995, to supervise the process. Troop integration, however, was suspended in 1996, and UNITA's demobilization efforts lagged. A new government of national unity was formed in 1997, including several UNITA deputies; Savimbi had declined a vice presidency in 1996. With renewed fighting in 1998, Angola's ruling MPLA put the country's coalition government on hold, saying that UNITA had failed to meet its peace-treaty obligations. It suspended all UNITA representatives from parliament and declared that it would no longer deal with Savimbi, instead recognizing a splinter group, UNITA Renovada. In 1999 the United Nations voted to pull out all remaining troops stationed in the country, while continuing humanitarian relief work with over a million refugees. UNITA was able to finance its activities, including an estimated 30,000 troops stationed in neighboring Zambia and Congo (Kinshasa), with some $500 million a year in diamond revenues from mines it controlled in the country's northeast. Fighting continued, with Angola's army inflicting several defeats on UNITA beginning in late 1999, weakening UNITA's still sizable forces. International restrictions (2001) on sales of diamonds not certfied as coming from legitimate sources also hurt UNITA, and the death of Savimbi in battle in 2002 was a severe blow to the rebels, who subsequently signed a cease-fire agreement and demobilized. UNITA subsequently reconstituted itself as a political party. Also in 2002 Angolan government forces gained the upper hand against Cabindan separatists; a peace agreement for the province was signed in 2006. As many as one million people died in the Angolan civil war, and the country's infrastructure was slow to recover from the effects of the fighting. Parliamentary elections scheduled for 2007 were postponed late in 2006 until mid-2008, and the presidential election was then set for 2009. In Mar., 2007, there was an apparent attack on the leader of UNITA, Isaias Samakuva; UNITA accused the government of trying to assassinate him. When the parliamentary elections were finally held in Sept., 2008, they were marred by procedural irregulaties and difficulties but were otherwise generally transparent, and the MPLA won a landslide victory, with more than 80% of the vote. In 2009 the presidential election (scheduled for Sept., 2009) was again postponed; a new constitution approved by the National Assembly in Jan., 2010, abolished direct election for the president. See B. Davidson, In the Eye of the Storm (1972); G. J. Bender, Angola Under the Portuguese (1978); P. M. Martin, Historical Dictionary of Angola (1980); K. Akpau et al., Alvor and Beyond: Political Trends and Legal Issues in Angola (1988); J. C. Miller, Angola: A Way of Death (1988). Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (República de Angola, pronounced Repubilika ya Ngola), is a country in south-central Africa bordering Namibia to the south, Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, and Zambia to the east, and with a west coast along the Atlantic Ocean. The exclave province Cabinda has a border with the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Angola was a Portuguese colony from the 16th century to 1975. The country is the second-largest petroleum and diamond producer in sub-Saharan Africa, yet its people are among the continent's poorest. According to the International Monetary Fund, more than $4 billion in oil receipts have disappeared from Angola's treasury in the 2000s. In August 2006, a peace deal was signed with a faction of the FLEC, a separatist guerrilla from the Cabinda exclave in the North, which is still active. About 65% of Angola's oil comes from that region. In 1648, Portugal retook Luanda and initiated a conquest of the lost territories, which restored the pre-occupation possessions of Portugal by 1650. Treaties regulated relations with Congo in 1649 and Njinga's Kingdom of Matamba and Ndongo in 1656. The conquest of Pungo Andongo in 1671 was the last great Portuguese expansion, as attempts to invade Congo in 1670 and Matamba in 1681 failed. Portugal expanded its territory behind the colony of Benguela in the eighteenth century, and began the attempt to occupy other regions in the mid-nineteenth century. The process resulted in few gains until the 1880s. Development of the interior began after the Berlin Conference in 1885, fixed the colony's borders, and British and Portuguese investment fostered mining, railways, and agriculture. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior didn't occur until the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1951, the colony was designated as an overseas province, called Portuguese West Africa. Portugal had a presence in Angola for nearly five hundred years, and the population's initial reaction to calls for independence was mixed. Roberto, Neto, Savimbi, and the Portuguese government signed the Alvor Agreement on January 15, setting November 11 as the date for independence. Alvor marked Angola’s transition from the war for independence to the war for Luanda. Portuguese authorities deliberately excluded the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) and Eastern Revolt from participating in the negotiations to ensure Angola’s territorial integrity, in direct opposition to the de Spínola’s plans for Angola. The coalition government the Alvor Agreement established soon fell as nationalist factions, doubting one another's commitment to the peace process, tried to take control of the colony by force. Parliamentary elections held on September, 5th, 2008, announced MPLA as the winning party with 81% of votes. The closest opposition party was UNITA with 10%. These elections were the first since 1992. The National Police have implemented a modernization and development plan to increase the capabilities and efficiency of the total force. In addition to administrative reorganization; modernization projects include procurement of new vehicles, aircraft and equipment, construction of new police stations and forensic laboratories, restructured training programs and the replacement of AKM rifles with 9 mm UZIs for police officers in urban areas. Angola is bordered by Namibia to the south, Zambia to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north-east, and the South Atlantic Ocean to the west. The exclave of Cabinda also borders the Republic of the Congo to the north. Angola's capital, Luanda, lies on the Atlantic coast in the north-west of the country. Angola's average temperature on the coast is 60 degrees Fahrenheit (16 °C) in the winter and 70 degrees Fahrenheit (21 °C) in the summer. Angola's economy has undergone a period of transformation in recent years, moving from the disarray caused by a quarter century of war to being the second fastest growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest in the world. In 2004, China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola. The loan is being used to rebuild Angola's infrastructure, and has also limited the influence of the International Monetary Fund in the country. Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed in late-2005 and which is expected to grow to by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in Sonangol Group, a conglomerate which is owned by the Angolan government. In December 2006, Angola was admitted as a member of OPEC. The economy grew 18% in 2005, 26% in 2006 and 17.6% in 2007 and it's expected to stay above 10% for the rest of the decade. The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has led to the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons, thus resulting in large-scale increases in agriculture production. The country has developed its economy since political stability arose in 2002. However, it faces huge social and economic problems as a result of an almost continual state of conflict since 1961, although the highest level of destruction and socio-economic damage was reached after the 1975 independence, during the long years of civil war. Rapidly rising production and revenues from the oil sector have been the main driving forces behind the improvements in overall economic activity – nevertheless, poverty remains widespread. Anti-corruption watchdog Transparency International rated Angola one of the 10 most corrupt countries in the world in 2005. The capital city is the most developed and the only large economic center worth mentioning in the country, however, slums called musseques, stretch for miles beyond Luanda's former city limits. Angola is a majority Christian country, with 53% of citizens professing the religion. Most Angolan Christians are Roman Catholic, 38%, or Protestant, 15%. 47% of Angolans practice indigenous beliefs. It is estimated that Angola was host to 12,100 refugees and 2,900 asylum seekers by the end of 2007. 11,400 of those refugees were originally from the Democratic Republic of Congo (Congo-Kinshasa) who arrived in the 1970s. Although by law, education in Angola is compulsory and free for 8 years, the government reports that a certain percentage of students are not attending school due to a lack of school buildings and teachers. Students are often responsible for paying additional school-related expenses, including fees for books and supplies. In 1999, the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 percent and in 1998, the most recent year for which data are available, the net primary enrollment rate was 61 percent. Gross and net enrollment ratios are based on the number of students formally registered in primary school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance. There continue to be significant disparities in enrollment between rural and urban areas. In 1995, 71.2 percent of children ages 7 to 14 years were attending school. It is reported that higher percentages of boys attend school than girls. During the Angolan Civil War (1975-2002), nearly half of all schools were reportedly looted and destroyed, leading to current problems with overcrowding. The Ministry of Education hired 20,000 new teachers in 2005, and continued to implement teacher trainings. Teachers tend to be underpaid, inadequately trained, and overworked (sometimes teaching two or three shifts a day). Teachers also reportedly demand payment or bribes directly from their students. Other factors, such as the presence of landmines, lack of resources and identity papers, and poor health also prevent children from regularly attending school. Although budgetary allocations for education were increased in 2004, the education system in Angola continues to be extremely under-funded. Literacy is quite low, with 67.4% of the population over the age of 15 able to read and write in Portuguese. 82.9% of males and 54.2% of women are literate as of 2001.	6
William John McConnell \|Birthplace:\|\|Commerce, Oakland, MI, USA\| \|Death:\|\|Died in Moscow, Latah, ID, USA\| \|Place of Burial:\|\|Moscow Cemetery, Moscow, Latah County, Idaho, United States\| \|Managed by:\|\|Private User\| Historical records matching William J. McConnell, Governor, U.S. Senator About William J. McConnell, Governor, U.S. Senator William John McConnell (September 18, 1839 – March 30, 1925) was the third Governor of Idaho from 1893 until 1897. Prior to that he represented Idaho as one of its first United States Senators after statehood. After receiving a public school education in Michigan, McConnell headed west as freight wagon driver and ended up in California. There, he found work where he could get it: miner, store clerk, cowboy, and teacher. In 1862, he moved to Oregon, where he taught school, and then followed the gold rush into Idaho the following year. Perhaps based on his earlier experience in California, McConnell spotted opportunity on the way to the gold fields around Idaho City, Idaho. Rather than joining the throngs of prospectors, he and two other men claimed some good farmland near Horseshoe Bend, Idaho. He and the others dug the first significant irrigation ditch along the Payette River and began raising vegetables. The following year, McConnell led a pack train loaded with produce over the mountains to Placerville, Idaho and sold them at "fabulous" prices. At the time, Idaho Territory was about a year old and law enforcement was scant to non-existent. When he and other settlers along the Payette began to lose horses and mules to thieves, the youthful McConnell took the lead in organizing a Vigilance committee for the region. While it did not end crime in the area, the work of the committee did reduce it and, according to the Illustrated History, "The farmers had no further trouble with horse thieves." McConnell later published a history of the period, which included a lengthy account of the vigilantes' work. He offered no apologies and asked for no forgiveness … but simply described what he saw as the necessity for what was done. Although, or perhaps because, McConnell was the recognized leader of the vigilantes, in 1865 he was appointed a Deputy U. S. Marshal for Idaho Territory. At the end of his two-year term, he returned to California and Oregon. Pacific Coast interlude In about 1867, McConnell married Louisa Brown and their first child was born in California, where W. J. owned (or worked in) a general store and raised cattle. About 1871, the family moved to Oregon, where they eventually settled in Yamhill County. There, McConnell owned a general store and ran cattle. In 1882, he was elected to the Oregon State Senate, and was then selected as the Senate President. Return to Idaho Around 1879, McConnell had begun investing in the growing town of Moscow, Idaho and in 1884 he moved his family there. The general store he opened with a partner in Moscow was for many years considered the finest in the region. When leaders convened a constitutional convention, preparatory to Idaho statehood, McConnell represented Latah County. After Idaho became at state on July 3, 1890, McConnell was one of its first U. S. Senators. He served only a short term, which was meant to get the state "in sync" with a normal election cycle. For a time, the new state actually had three Senator-elects: McConnell, Fred T. Dubois, and "Judge" William H. Clagett. The Senate had to vote on which of the two besides McConnell they would seat – they chose Dubois. McConnell's term ended in March 1891, and he decided to run for Governor as the candidate for the Republican Party. In a state-level reflection of political turmoil across the country, he won with only a plurality (40.6%) of the vote: candidates for the Democratic and Populist parties split 58% of the rest. A Prohibition Party candidate polled about 1.3%. When he ran for re-election, he won in a similar manner, polling 41.5% of the votes with the Democrats and Populists splitting most of the remaining votes. After his first gubernatorial election, McConnell ended his involvement with the store in Moscow and moved to Boise. There, in 1895, his daughter Mary (or sometimes Mamie) married William E. Borah, who would be elected as Idaho's U. S. Senator less than a decade later. Taking office in 1893 as a minority candidate did not smooth McConnell task as Idaho's third governor. (The first governor, George L. Shoup, resigned after serving just a few months before being elected for a full term as a U.S. Senator.) Having been so recently granted statehood, Idaho had to work out many details of how the state would be governed. Thus, many problems landed on his desk. Under McConnell's administrations, the Idaho did away with a "test oath" whose effect was to disenfranchise the state's considerable body of Mormon voters. Also, the state was the fourth to grant women the right to vote, in 1896. The state also initiated the infrastructure needed to administer irrigation projects eligible for Carey Act consideration. Several years would pass before a complete and effective system could be put in place, but Idaho eventually became the single greatest success story under the Act. During his tenure, the state suffered – along with the nation – through the severe depression called the Panic of 1893, when several major railroads and over 500 banks failed. The economic crisis naturally exacerbated the conflict between labor unions and companies, especially in the silver mines in the Coeur d'Alene region of North Idaho. The crisis in Idaho deepened with the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act – the Federal government was no longer required to purchase a set monthly amount of silver. The resulting crash in prices squeezed the mining companies, leading to layoffs and moves to cut wages. The subsequent unrest, and flare-ups of violence, led McConnell to threaten the use of troops to keep the peace. McConnell did not run for a third term, perhaps realizing that his mainstream Republican Party was going to lose badly. McConnell was himself a "Free Silver" supporter, but refused to abandon the Party over one divisive issue. As expected, a coalition of Democrats, Populists, and Silver-Republicans swept the 1896 state elections; mainstream Republicans retained only one seat in the legislature. Fortunately for McConnell, Republican William McKinley handily beat William Jennings Bryan, the Democratic/Populist candidate for President. As a reward for his party loyalty, he received an appointment in the Bureau of Indian Affairs, a position he held until 1901. Later, he served as an Immigration Service Inspector from 1909 until his death in 1925.	7
RACHAL, TEXAS. Rachal, twenty-one miles south of Falfurrias on U.S. Highway 281 and Farm Road 755 in south central Brooks County, was established in 1913 and named for E. R. Rachal, the first tax assessor in Brooks County. In 1936 the community had ten inhabitants and one business. By 1945 it had a population of forty and two businesses. After 1964 the population fluctuated between thirty and forty. In 1990 the dispersed community had a population of thirty-six and two businesses. The population remained the same in 2000. The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Alicia A. Garza, "RACHAL, TX," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hnr02), accessed March 27, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
TOWASH, TEXAS. Towash was on Towash Creek fifteen miles west of Hillsboro in extreme west central Hill County. The area was originally settled by a band of Ioni Indians, who moved from Louisiana to the east bank of the Brazos River in 1835. Anglo-American traders and soldiers referred to the settlement as Towash Village, for the name of the Indians' leader. The arrival of substantial numbers of Anglo-American settlers in 1850 forced the Ioni to move again, this time to a site further upriver. The white pioneers apparently established a settlement, which they called Towash, at the site of the former Indian community. Prominent among the newly arrived settlers were brothers Simpson Cash Dyer and James Harrison Dyer, who in 1854 received permission from state authorities to construct a stone dam on the Brazos River at Towash to power a gristmill. In 1860 the Dyers added a wool-carding machine to their water-driven industrial plant. During the early years of the Civil War, women reportedly traveled from as far as 100 miles away to have wool carded at Towash for use in clothing and blankets for Confederate soldiers. A flood destroyed the dam in 1863, but it apparently was rebuilt and a cotton gin established by 1866, the year in which a local post office began operating. This post office closed in 1881, reopened in 1899, and closed permanently two years later. Between 1860 and 1870 Towash had a number of stores and wagonyards, a blacksmith shop, and a ferryboat system. The community began to decline during the late 1870s, however, as the growth of nearby Whitney drew away settlers and businesses. In 1905–06 the white school at Towash had sixty-five students and the black school, fifty. In 1908 a flood destroyed the dam, mill, and gin. The area was permanently inundated as a result of the construction of Lake Whitney in 1951. Hill County Historical Commission, A History of Hill County, Texas, 1853–1980 (Waco: Texian, 1980). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Brian Hart, "TOWASH, TX," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hvt53), accessed March 26, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
HENDERSON NATHANIEL Q. HENDERSON NATHANIEL Q. (1866–1949). Nathanial “Nat” Q. Henderson, educator and civic leader, was born on September 28, 1866, in Columbus, Texas, to Henry Henderson and Mariah Campbell Henderson. His father was a teacher so his educational leadership began long before moving to Houston. After graduating from Prairie View State Normal School (now Prairie View A&M University) in 1885, Nathaniel Henderson returned to his hometown of Columbus and served as principal of the Columbus Colored School for twelve years. He then served as principal of a school in Weimar, Texas. Henderson pursued further studies at Fisk University, the University of Chicago, Columbia University, and Tuskegee Institute. Before moving to Houston, Henderson had a distinguished political career. He served as deputy revenue collector in the Third District of Texas (Galveston), appointed by President William McKinley. At least once, he was a delegate to the Republican National Convention. He married Mamie L. Williams in Colorado County on September 4, 1893, and they became the parents of six children who all became teachers. Many of their descendants followed their lead as educators. Nat Q. Henderson was the principal of Bruce Elementary School in Houston from 1909 to 1942 and in this capacity helped shape the lives of thousands of students. He and his faculty provided clothing and food for needy students. Henderson saw the school progress from classes being held in what was known as the "Old Red Barn” to the construction of a modern facility in 1920. Under his leadership the faculty grew to twenty-six teachers, a secretary, doctor, and nurse when he retired in 1942. While serving as principal, Henderson took a leadership role in all aspects of the community. He was so engaged in civic, community, and educational affairs that he was known as the “Mayor of Fifth Ward.” He helped establish the first public library (Colored Carnegie Library) for African Americans in Houston, the city’s first Negro day nursery, the Dorcas Home for delinquent females, and a farm for delinquent black youth. In 1912 he helped victims of the Great Fifth Ward Fire, a major fire which destroyed some forty blocks in Houston’s central city and left hundreds homeless. Ira B. Bryant noted in his book, The Development of Houston Negro Schools, that “Professor Henderson was very largely responsible for the excellent manner in which relief was brought to the unfortunate” during the fire. To alleviate the conditions created by the fire, Henderson helped establish an organization that later became known as the Colored Federated Charities. Henderson was an elder of Gregg Street Presbyterian Church (now Pinecrest Presbyterian). He and his family became pioneer members after the church opened in the 1920s. He also played an active role in supporting the Houston Negro Hospital (now Riverside General Hospital) when it opened in 1926. He was an active member of several fraternities including the Masons, Odd Fellows, and Knights of Pythias. Residents of the Fifth Ward considered Henderson a pioneer among men who functioned as mayor of communities during times when city officials paid little or no attention to African-American neighborhoods. Though he never witnessed his students having the right to be educated alongside white children, he assumed a leadership role in every effort toward community improvements. Henderson died in Houston on January 24, 1949, and was buried in Houston’s Oak Park Cemetery (now Golden Gate Cemetery). Nat Q. Henderson Elementary School is located not far from where he lived and worked in the heart of Houston. Patricia Smith Prather and Bob Lee, Texas Trailblazer Series (Houston: Texas Trailblazer Preservation Association, 1994). Ira Babington Bryant, Jr., The Development of Houston Negro Schools (Houston: Informer, 1935). Andrew Webster Jackson, A Sure Foundation and a Sketch of Negro Life in Texas (Houston: 1940). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Patricia S. Prather, "HENDERSON NATHANIEL Q. ," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fhe96), accessed March 31, 2015. Uploaded on July 18, 2013. Modified on July 22, 2013. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
ACME, TEXAS. Acme, on U.S. Highway 287 four miles west of Quanah in central Hardeman County, developed around cement and plaster industries established there in the 1890s. In 1890 James Sickler, who operated a gypsum-processing plant in Kansas, discovered a large gypsum bed on Grosbeck Creek and reestablished his milling plant at the Texas site. He and his partners formed the Lone Star Cement Plaster Company, and later other Kansas manufacturers established another gypsum mill about a mile downstream from the first plant. The town's post office was established in 1898, and the Fort Worth and Denver City and Quanah, Acme, and Pacific railroads provided service. The Acme Tap Railroad Company was formed in 1909 when one of the gypsum plants refused to give its rival rail access. By the early 1900s the town had a hotel, a railway depot, a general store, and a school. Over the years a number of historic objects were discovered as a result of the open-pit gypsum excavations, including the remains of some prehistoric mastodons, which were said to have been sent to museums in St. Louis. In 1945 the population of Acme was estimated at 400. The gypsum industry remained important to the town through the middle twentieth century, when Acme served as the home of the CertainTeed Products Corporation, once among the country's largest gypsum plants. The plant and mine closed during the 1960s, however, causing the community to decline. The population was estimated at fourteen in 1975. By the mid-1980s the old gypsum plant was owned and operated by the Georgia Pacific Corporation, which produced gypsum wallboard for the construction industry. Though little remained of the town except for scattered dwellings and the ruins of old buildings, Acme still reported a population of fourteen in 1990. T. Lindsay Baker, Ghost Towns of Texas (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986). Bill Neal, The Last Frontier: The Story of Hardeman County (Quanah, Texas: Quanah Tribune-Chief, 1966). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Alice J. Rhoades, "ACME, TX," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hna05), accessed March 30, 2015. Uploaded on June 9, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
LEADAY, TEXAS. Leaday, on the Colorado River and Farm Road 2134, in southwestern Coleman County, was founded in 1861 by Rich Coffeyqv, who camped on Grape Creek for two or three years before homesteading at the mouth of the Concho River. Coffey's store, saloon, and post office at the Trap Crossing of the Colorado River was later washed away, and a new site called Trigger was established across the river. In 1876 William H. Day's ranch included the area, and Coffey's rock house became the ranch headquarters. Leaday developed with the sale of ranchland to farmers and was named for the ranch owners, J. C. Lea and his wife, Mabel, who had been Mrs. William H. Day (see LEA, MABEL DOSS). It was laid out in 1904. In 1946 the community had a gin, a post office, four stores, and 100 residents. The population was fifty-five in 1980 and 1990. Leona Bruce, They Came in Peace to Coleman County (Fort Worth: Branch-Smith, 1970). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article."LEADAY, TX," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hnl18), accessed April 01, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION OF 1875 CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION OF 1875. The Constitutional Convention of 1875 was the result of the determination of the Democrats of Texas to eliminate the radical Constitution of 1869. A strong movement to have the changes in that document made by a legislative joint committee and then submitted to the voters failed in the House of Representatives because of a belief that the electorate would resent such a centralized method of providing a new organic law. The legislature then called an election in August 1875, in which voters approved a convention to prepare a new constitution and elected three delegates from each of the state's thirty senatorial districts. The time before the constitutional convention was marked by a number of Democratic measures designed to undo many Republican acts previously passed. The centralized school system was weakened. State salaries and expenditures were cut, and the governor was stripped of his powers to appoint some state officers and declare martial law. The convention, presided over by Edward B. Pickett, met in Austin on September 6, 1875, and adjourned on November 24. The new Constitution of 1876, which was adopted by a vote of fifty-three to eleven, was submitted to the people in an election on February 15, 1876. Seventy-five of the members of the convention were Democrats, fifteen, including six black men, were Republicans. Before the convention had gone far with its work one of the black members resigned, and his place was taken by a white Democrat. One of the members had helped write the Constitution of 1845; eight had been members of the Secession Convention of 1861; one had served in the Constitutional Convention of 1866; not a member had taken part in the Constitutional Convention of 1868–69. About forty of the delegates were members of the Grange; a number had been commissioned officers in the Confederate Army; three had served in the United States Army. Leigh Chalmers was chosen as secretary of the convention. Standing committees, each consisting of five to fifteen delegates, were appointed and covered issues including federal relations, suffrage, education, crime, railroads, and public lands. Agricultural and law-oriented interests controlled much of the agenda. In an effort to reverse the perceived Republican excesses of the previous years, restrictions were placed on salaries, expenditures, taxes, and the state debt. State banks were abolished, some activities of corporations and railroads were limited, and term limits were placed on many public offices. The majority of the convention believed so firmly in economy that they refused to employ a stenographer and would not allow the proceedings of the convention to be published. The document that they prepared provided for short terms of office, low salaries, and limited powers for officials and indicated generally a lack of faith in government. These features were the results of the reaction of the members of the convention to the events of the Civil War and Reconstruction,qqv through which they had just passed. Alwyn Barr, Reconstruction to Reform: Texas Politics, 1876–1906 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1971). J. E. Ericson, "The Delegates to the Convention of 1875," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 67 (July 1963). Seth Shepard McKay, Making the Texas Constitution of 1876 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1924). Caleb Perry Patterson et al., State and Local Government in Texas (New York: Macmillan, 1940). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Ralph W. Steen, "CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION OF 1875," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/mjc05), accessed March 26, 2015. Uploaded on June 12, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
AIRVILLE, TEXAS. Airville is at the intersection of Farm roads 2904 and 437, eleven miles east of Temple in northeast Bell County. The community had three businesses in 1931, but by 1944 it had only a single business, a school, and several houses. By 1964 Airville had only ten inhabitants living in scattered dwellings. The population was still ten in 2000. The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Mark Odintz, "AIRVILLE, TX," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hra16), accessed March 31, 2015. Uploaded on June 9, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
Lawrence T. Jones III Texas Photographs, DeGolyer Library, Central University Libraries, Southern Methodist University HOUSTON, SAMUEL (1793–1863). Sam Houston, one of the most illustrious political figures of Texas, was born on March 2, 1793, the fifth child (and fifth son) of Samuel and Elizabeth (Paxton) Houston, on their plantation in sight of Timber Ridge Church, Rockbridge County, Virginia. He was of Scots-Irish ancestry and reared Presbyterian. He acquired rudimentary education during his boyhood by attending a local school for no more than six months. When he was thirteen years old, his father died; some months later, in the spring of 1807, he emigrated with his mother, five brothers, and three sisters to Blount County in Eastern Tennessee, where the family established a farm near Maryville on a tributary of Baker's Creek. Houston went to a nearby academy for a time and reportedly fed his fertile imagination by reading classical literature, especially the Iliad. Rebelling at his older brothers' attempts to make him work on the farm and in the family's store in Maryville, Houston ran away from home as an adolescent in 1809 to dwell among the Cherokees, who lived across the Tennessee River. Between intermittent visits to Maryville, he sojourned for three years with the band of Chief Oolooteka, who adopted him and gave him the Indian name Colonneh, or "the Raven." Houston viewed Oolooteka as his "Indian Father" and the Cherokees much as a surrogate family. He henceforth maintained great sympathy toward Indians. At age eighteen he left the Cherokees to set up a school, so that he could earn money to repay debts. After war broke out with the British, he joined the United States Army as a twenty-year-old private, on March 24, 1813. Within four months he received a promotion to ensign of the infantry; in late December he was given a commission as a third lieutenant. As part of Andrew Jackson's army, he fought at the battle of Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River on March 26, 1814. During the engagement he received three near-fatal wounds. One of them, from a rifle ball in his right shoulder, never completely healed. For his valor at Horseshoe Bend, Houston won the attention of General Jackson, who thereafter became his benefactor. Houston, in return, revered Jackson and became a staunch Jacksonian Democrat. While convalescing, he was promoted to second lieutenant and traveled extensively—to Washington, New Orleans, New York, and points between. While stationed in Nashville, he was detailed in late 1817 as sub-Indian agent to the Cherokees. In that capacity, he assisted Oolooteka and his clan in their removal to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River, as stipulated by the Treaty of 1816. Houston, by then first lieutenant, resigned from the army on March 1, 1818, and shortly thereafter from his position as subagent, following difficulties with Secretary of War John C. Calhoun. Still in poor health, Houston read law in Nashville for six months during 1818 in the office of Judge James Trimble. He subsequently opened a law practice in Lebanon, Tennessee. With Jackson's endorsement, he became adjutant general (with the rank of colonel) of the state militia through appointment by Governor Joseph McMinn. In late 1818, Houston was elected attorney general (prosecuting attorney) of the District of Nashville, where he took up residence. After returning to private practice in Nashville by late 1821, he was elected major general of the state militia by his fellow officers. He was likewise prominent in the Nash Masonic order by the early 1820s. Houston's rapid rise in public office continued in 1823, when, as a member of Jackson's political circle, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives from the Ninth Tennessee District. As a member of Congress, he worked mightily, though unsuccessfully, for the election of Andrew Jackson to the presidency in 1824. In 1825 he was returned to Congress for a second and final term. In 1827, ever the Jackson protégé, Houston was elected governor of Tennessee. He was thirty-four years of age, extremely ambitious, and in the thick of tumultuous Tennessee politics. Standing six feet two inches tall and handsome, he cut a dashing figure wherever he went. On January 22, 1829, he married nineteen-year-old Eliza Allen of Gallatin, Tennessee. Houston subsequently announced his bid for reelection to the governorship. After eleven weeks and amid much mystery, the marriage ended. Eliza returned to her parents' home. Extremely distraught, Houston abruptly resigned from his office on April 16 and fled west across the Mississippi River to Indian Territory. Both parties maintained a lifelong silence about the affair. Houston's exit brought the Tennessee phase of his career to an end. As a possible heir apparent to Andrew Jackson, he may well have given up an opportunity to run eventually for president of the United States. He made his way to the lodge of Oolooteka in what is now Oklahoma to live once again in self-imposed exile among the Cherokees, this time for three years. Among the Indians he tried to reestablish his tranquility. He dressed Indian-style and, although he corresponded with Andrew Jackson, he secluded himself from contacts with white society. Initially, too, he drank so heavily that he reportedly earned the nickname "Big Drunk." He quickly became active in Indian affairs, especially in helping to keep peace between the various tribes in Indian Territory. He was granted Cherokee citizenship and often acted as a tribal emissary. Under Cherokee law, he married Diana (also known as Tiana) Rogers Gentry, an Indian woman of mixed blood. Together, they established a residence and trading post called Wigwam Neosho on the Neosho River near Fort Gibson. Gradually reinvolving himself in the white world, he made various trips East-to Tennessee, Washington, and New York. In December 1831, while on the Arkansas River, Houston encountered Alexis de Tocqueville, the latter on his famous travels in the United States. Houston impressed the Frenchman as an individual of great physical and moral energy, the universal American in perpetual motion; Houston undoubtedly served as an example for Tocqueville's composite description of the "nervous American," the man-on-the-make so pervasive in the United States during the Age of Jackson. On the evening of April 13, 1832, on the streets of Washington, Houston thrashed William Stanbery, United States representative from Ohio, with a hickory cane. The assault resulted from a perceived insult by Stanbery over an Indian rations contract. Houston was soon arrested and tried before the House of Representatives. Francis Scott Key served as his attorney. The month-long proceedings ended in an official reprimand and a fine, but the affair catapulted Houston back into the political arena. Leaving Diana and his life among the Indians, Houston crossed the Red River into Mexican Texas on December 2, 1832, and began another, perhaps the most important, phase of his career. His "true motives" for entering Texas have been the source of much speculation. Whether he did so simply as a land speculator, as an agent provocateur for American expansion intent on wresting Texas from Mexico, or as someone scheming to establish an independent nation, Houston saw Texas as his "land of promise." For him, it represented a place for bold enterprise, rife with political and financial opportunity. He quickly became embroiled in the Anglo-Texans' politics of rebellion. He served as a delegate from Nacogdoches at the Convention of 1833 in San Felipe, where he sided with the more radical faction under the leadership of William H. Wharton. He also pursued a law practice in Nacogdoches and filed for a divorce from Eliza, which was finally granted in 1837. As prescribed by Mexican law, he was baptized into the Catholic Church, under the name Samuel Pablo. In September 1835 he chaired a mass meeting in Nacogdoches to consider the possibility of convening a consultation. By October, Houston had expressed his belief that war between Texas and the central government was inevitable. That month he became commander in chief of troops for the Department of Nacogdoches and called for volunteers to begin the "work of liberty." He served as a delegate from Nacogdoches to the Consultation of 1835, which deliberated in Columbia in October and at San Felipe in November. On November 12 the Consultation appointed Houston major general of the Texas army. During February 1836, Houston and John Forbes, as commissioners for the provisional government, negotiated a treaty with the Cherokee Indians in East Texas, thus strategically establishing peace on that front. In March, Houston served as a delegate from Refugio to the convention at Washington-on-the-Brazos, where, on his birthday, March 2, the assembly adopted the Texas Declaration of Independence. Two days later Houston received the appointment of major general of the army from the convention, with instructions to organize the republic's military forces. After joining his army in Gonzales, Houston and his troops retreated eastward as the Mexican army under Gen. Antonio López de Santa Anna swept across Texas. This campaign caused Houston much anguish because the Texan rebels suffered from a general lack of discipline. He likewise fretted when the citizenry fled in the so-called Runaway Scrape. Despite these problems, Houston and his men defeated Santa Anna's forces at the decisive battle of San Jacinto on the afternoon of April 21, 1836. During this engagement, his horse, Saracen, was shot beneath him, and Houston was wounded severely just above his ankle. The capture of Santa Anna the next day made the victory complete. At San Jacinto, Sam Houston became forever enshrined as a member of the pantheon of Texas heroes and a symbol for the age. Riding the wave of popularity as "Old Sam Jacinto," Houston became the first regularly elected president of the Republic of Texas, defeating Stephen F. Austin. During his two presidential terms he successfully guided the new ship of state through many trials and tribulations. His first term lasted from October 22, 1836, to December 10, 1838. The town of Houston was founded in 1836, named in his honor, and served as the capital of the republic during most of his first administration. During this term Houston sought to demilitarize Texas by cannily furloughing much of the army. He also tried, with limited success, to avoid trouble between white settlers and Indians. One of his biggest crises came with the Córdova Rebellion, an unsuccessful revolt in 1838 by a group of Kickapoo Indians and Mexican residents along the Angelina River. In late 1836, Houston sent Santa Anna, then a prisoner of war, to Washington to seek the annexation of Texas to the United States. Although Houston favored annexation, his initial efforts to bring Texas into the Union proved futile, and he formally withdrew the offer by the end of his first term. After leaving office because the Constitution of the Republic of Texas barred a president from succeeding himself, Houston served in the Texas House of Representatives as a congressman from San Augustine from 1839 to 1841. He was in the forefront of the opposition to President Mirabeau B. Lamar, who had been Houston's vice president. Houston particularly criticized Lamar's expansionist tendencies and harsh measures toward the Indians. On May 9, 1840, Houston married twenty-one-year-old Margaret Moffette Lea of Marion, Alabama. A strict Baptist, Margaret served as a restraining influence on her husband and especially bridled his drinking. They had eight children: Sam Houston, Jr., (1843), Nancy Elizabeth (1846), Margaret (1848), Mary William (1850), Antoinette Power (1852), Andrew Jackson Houston (1854), William Rogers (1858), and Temple Lea Houston (1860). Houston succeeded Lamar to a second term as president from December 12, 1841, to December 9, 1844. During this administration, Houston stressed financial austerity and drastically reduced government offices and salaries. He and the Congress even tried to sell the four-ship Texas Navy, an effort forcibly prevented by the people of Galveston. Houston reestablished peace with the Indians by making treaties with the bands that still remained in Texas. Although many Texans clamored for action, President Houston deftly managed to avoid war with Mexico after the two Mexican invasions of 1842. After the first incursion Houston directed that the government archives be moved from Austin, an order that ultimately resulted in the "Archive War," in which residents of Austin forcibly prevented removal of the files. After the second invasion Houston authorized a force under Gen. Alexander Somervell to pursue the enemy to the Rio Grande and, if conditions warranted, to attack Mexico. Part of Somervell's legion became the disastrous Mier expedition, an escapade that Houston opposed. In 1843 Houston approved of the abortive Snively expedition, which sought to interdict trade along the Santa Fe Trail. In 1844 Houston found it necessary to send the militia to quell the Regulator-Moderator War in Shelby County, an East Texas feud that presented one of the most vexing problems of his second administration. Houston was succeeded to the presidency by Anson Jones, whom the electorate viewed as a "Houston man." Sam Houston's name had become synonymous with Texas. Indeed, Texas politics during the republic had been characterized by a struggle between Houston and anti-Houston factions. When Texas joined the union, Houston became one of its two United States senators, along with Thomas Jefferson Rusk (see SENATORS). Houston served in the Senate from February 21, 1846, until March 4, 1859. Beginning with the 1848 election, he was mentioned as a possible candidate for president. He even had a biography published in 1846 by Charles Edwards Lester entitled Sam Houston and His Republic, which amounted to campaign publicity. As senator, Houston emerged as an ardent Unionist, true to his association with Andrew Jackson, a stand that made him an increasingly controversial figure. He stridently opposed the rising sectionalism of the antebellum period and delivered eloquent speeches on the issue. A supporter of the 1820 Missouri Compromise, which banned slavery north of latitude 36°30', Houston voted in 1848 for the Oregon Bill prohibiting the "peculiar institution" in that territory, a vote proslavery Southerners later held against him. Although he was a slaveowner who defended slavery in the South, Houston again clashed with his old nemesis who led the proslavery forces when he opposed John C. Calhoun's Southern Address in 1849. Houston always characterized himself as a Southern man for the Union and opposed any threats of disunity, whether from Northern or Southern agitators. He incurred the permanent wrath of proslavery elements by supporting the Compromise of 1850, a series of measures designed to ensure sectional harmony. In 1854, Houston alienated Democrats in Texas and the South even further by opposing the Kansas-Nebraska Bill because it allowed the status of slavery to be determined by popular sovereignty, a concept he saw as potentially destabilizing to the nation. He likewise embraced the principles of the American (Know-Nothing) party as a response to growing states'-rights sentiment among the Democrats. In 1854, he joined the Baptist Church, no doubt in partial response to the troubles of this period of his life. His career in the Senate was effectively ended when, in 1855, the Texas legislature officially condemned his position on the Kansas-Nebraska Act. As a lame-duck senator, Houston ran for governor of Texas in 1857. He was defeated in a rigorous campaign by the state Democratic party's official nominee, Hardin R. Runnels. Predictably, the state legislature did not reelect Houston to the Senate; instead, in late 1857, it replaced him with John Hemphill. The replacement took place at the end of Houston's term, in 1859. So concerned was Houston about sectional strife that during his final year in the Senate he advocated establishing a protectorate over Mexico and Central America as a way to bring unity to the United States. Out of the Senate, Houston ran a second time for governor in 1859. Because of his name recognition, a temporary lull in the sectional conflict, and other factors, he defeated the incumbent, Runnels, in the August election and assumed office on December 21. As governor he continued to pursue his fanciful plans for a protectorate over Mexico, and envisioned the use of Texas Rangers and volunteers to accomplish that end. He likewise tried to enlist the aid of Robert E. Lee, Benjamin McCulloch, and some New York financiers for his scheme. Because of his staunch Unionism, Houston was nearly nominated for the presidency in May 1860 by the National Union party convention in Baltimore, but narrowly lost to John Bell. His possible candidacy received favorable mention by people in many regions of the nation who longed to prevent sectional strife. When Abraham Lincoln was elected president of the United States, the clamor of discontent in Texas prompted Houston to call a special session of the state legislature. Adamantly opposed to secession, Houston warned Texans that civil war would result in a Northern victory and destruction of the South, a prophecy that was borne out by future events. The Secession Convention, however, convened a week later and began a series of actions that withdrew Texas from the Union; Houston acquiesced to these events rather than bring civil strife and bloodshed to his beloved state. But when he refused to take the oath of loyalty to the newly formed Confederate States of America, the Texas convention removed him from office on March 16 and replaced him with Lieutenant Governor Edward Clark two days later. Reportedly, during these traumatic days President Lincoln twice offered Houston the use of federal troops to keep him in office and Texas in the Union, offers that Houston declined, again to avoid making Texas a scene of violence. Instead, the Raven—now sixty-eight years of age, weary, with a family of small children, and recognizing the inevitable-again chose exile. After leaving the Governor's Mansion, Houston at least verbally supported the Southern cause. Against his father's advice, Sam, Jr., eagerly joined the Confederate Army and was wounded at the battle of Shiloh. Houston moved his wife and other children in the fall of 1862 to Huntsville, where they rented a two-story residence known as the Steamboat House, so called because it resembled a riverboat. Rumors abounded that Houston, though ailing and aged, harbored plans to run again for governor. But on July 26, 1863, after being ill for several weeks, he died in the downstairs bedroom of the Steamboat House, succumbing to pneumonia at age seventy. Dressed in Masonic ceremonial trappings, he was buried in Oakwood Cemetery at Huntsville. See also ANTEBELLUM TEXAS, and HOUSTON, MARGARET MOFFETTE LEA. Donald Braider, Solitary Star: A Biography of Sam Houston (New York: Putnam, 1974). Randolph B. Campbell, Sam Houston and the American Southwest (New York: HarperCollins, 1993). Marshall De Bruhl, Sword of San Jacinto: A Life of Sam Houston (New York: Random House, 1993). Llerena B. Friend, Sam Houston: The Great Designer (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1969). Jack Gregory and Rennard Strickland, Sam Houston with the Cherokees, 1829–1833 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976). Clifford Hopewell, Sam Houston: Man of Destiny (Austin: Eakin Press, 1987). Lenoir Hunt, "My Master:" The Inside Story of Sam Houston and His Time, by Jeff Hamilton as told to Lenoir Hunt (Dallas: Manfred Van Nort, 1940). Marquis James, The Raven: A Biography of Sam Houston (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1929; rpts., New York: Paperback Library, 1967, Atlanta: Mockingbird Books, 1977). C. Edwards Lester, Sam Houston and His Republic (New York: Burgess, Stringer, 1846; rpt., New York: Books for Libraries Press, 1972). Madge Thornall Roberts, Star of Destiny: The Private Life of Sam and Margaret Houston (Denton: University of North Texas Press, 1993). William Seale, Sam Houston's Wife: A Biography of Margaret Lea Houston (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970). Frank X. Tolbert, The Day of San Jacinto (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959; 2d ed., Austin: Pemberton Press, 1969). Amelia W. Williams and Eugene C. Barker, eds., The Writings of Sam Houston, 1813–1863 (8 vols., Austin: University of Texas Press, 1938–43; rpt., Austin and New York: Pemberton Press, 1970). John Hoyt Williams, Sam Houston: A Biography of the Father of Texas (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993). Marion Karl Wisehart, Sam Houston (Washington: Luce, 1962). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Thomas H. Kreneck, "HOUSTON, SAMUEL," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fho73), accessed March 26, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Modified on January 27, 2014. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
CRISWELL CREEK (FAYETTE COUNTY) CRISWELL CREEK (Fayette County). Criswell Creek rises about a mile west of the Southern Pacific tracks and 2½ miles southwest of West Point in northwestern Fayette County (at 29°54' N, 97°03' W) and runs northeast for about five miles, crossing the Southern Pacific tracks, State Highway 71, and the Missouri, Kansas and Texas tracks, before reaching its mouth on the Colorado River (at 29°58' N, 97°01' W). South of West Point the creek traverses an area with a fine sandy loam surface soil over a very firm clay subsoil. This land is of marginal value for agriculture and is used primarily as cattle pasture. Between West Point and the Colorado River the stream runs through gently rolling terrain surfaced by firm calcareous clay layers overlying gravel deposits. This land produces good corn and hay crops, but much of the soil has been stripped to allow access to the gravel. The creek is probably named for John Yancy Criswell, an original settler in the area who in July 1835 accompanied John Henry Moore in an expedition against the Tawakoni (or Tehuacana) Indians. Leonie Rummel Weyand and Houston Wade, An Early History of Fayette County (La Grange, Texas: La Grange Journal, 1936). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article."CRISWELL CREEK (FAYETTE COUNTY)," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rbcrm), accessed April 01, 2015. Uploaded on June 12, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
HUTCHINS, TEXAS. Hutchins is at the southern Dallas city limit and Interstate Highway 45, nine miles south of downtown Dallas in southern Dallas County. Settlement at the site began around 1860, as Hutchins became the trading place for settlers along the west bank of the river and new arrivals who crossed the Trinity River at Dowd's Ferry from the east. The town was named for William J. Hutchins, one of the promoters of the Houston and Texas Central Railway, which was completed through Hutchins in 1872. At that time the community had gins, a gristmill, several general stores, a school, and a church. Hutchins also had a post office by the end of 1872. In 1884 it had a population of 250, three general stores, three gins, two gristmills, one sawmill, three doctors, and a wagonmaker. By 1890 the population had grown to 300. It was 204 in 1904 and 500 in 1926. It remained steady until 1952, when it was 741, and then rose to 1,100 by 1961 and 2,719 by 1990. The number of businesses increased from fifteen in 1931 to sixty-seven in 1990. In 1991 small manufacturing dominated business in Hutchins. Producers of central-air conditioning units and parts, bronze and brass castings, and data-processing cards and magnetic tapes were the largest industries. In 2000 the population was 2,805 with 133 businesses. Most of the town's residents are employed in Dallas. The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Kelly A. Woestman, "HUTCHINS, TX," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hgh12), accessed March 26, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
ROBINSON PEAK. Robinson Peak, also known as Robertson Peak, stands ten miles northwest of Coleman in northwestern Coleman County (at 31°56' N, 99°30' W). The peak rises to 2,100 feet above sea level, roughly 115 feet above the surrounding terrain. The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article."ROBINSON PEAK," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rjr11), accessed March 29, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
SALEM, TX (BASTROP COUNTY) SALEM, TEXAS (Bastrop County). Salem, two miles northwest of Jeddo in southern Bastrop County, had a one-teacher school for twenty-nine black students in 1881. In 1905 the students numbered fifty-five. The school became part of the Jeddo district when the county instituted a school district system in 1907. St. Philips Church and several houses marked Salem on maps of the county in the 1940s and 2000s, but no population estimates for the community were available. William Henry Korges, Bastrop County, Texas: Historical and Educational Development (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, 1933). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Vivian Elizabeth Smyrl, "SALEM, TX (BASTROP COUNTY)," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hrsvy), accessed March 26, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
AYRES, ATLEE BERNARD AYRES, ATLEE BERNARD (1873–1969). Atlee Bernard Ayres, architect, was born in Hillsboro, Ohio, on July 12, 1873, the son of Nathan Tandy and Mary Parsons (Atlee) Ayres. The family moved to Texas, lived first in Houston, and then moved in 1888 to San Antonio, where Nathan Ayres for many years managed the Alamo Flats, a luxury apartment hotel. In 1890 Ayres went to New York to study at the Metropolitan School of Architecture, a subsidiary of Columbia University. There he won first prize in the school's annual design competition. His teachers included William Ware, a student of Richard Morris Hunt. Ayres took drawing lessons at the Art Students League at night and studied painting under Frank Vincent Dumont on Sundays. Upon his graduation from the school of architecture in 1894 he returned to San Antonio and worked for various architects. He subsequently moved to Mexico, where he practiced until 1900. That year he moved back to San Antonio and began a partnership with Charles A. Coughlin that lasted until Coughlin's death in 1905. Ayres designed the Halff house (1908) and a villa for Col. George W. Brackenridge (date unknown) that was later was torn down. In 1924 Ayres formed a partnership with his son, Robert M. Ayres. During the 1920s and 1930s Atlee B. and Robert M. Ayres, as the firm was called, designed numerous residences in the Spanish Colonial Revival style, among them the Hogg house (1924), the Mannen house (1926), the Newton house (1927), and the Atkinson house (1928, now the Marion Koogler McNay Art Museumqv). The firm was also adept in using other revival modes, including the Colonial Revival of the H. Lutcher Brown residence (1936) and the English Tudor of the Jesse Oppenheimer residence (1924). In 1915 Ayres was state architect of Texas, a position that allowed him to design the Blind Institute (now the Texas School for the Blindqv), the Texas State Office Building, and other important public buildings. On the University of Texas campus he designed Carothers Dormitory and the original Pharmacy Building. He drew plans for courthouses in Kingsville, Alice, Refugio, Del Rio, and Brownsville. In San Antonio his firm helped design the exterior of the Municipal Auditorium (1923) and the Administration Building at Randolph Air Force Base (1931), known as the "Taj Mahal," with a tower that conceals a 500,000-gallon water tank. It also designed the thirty-story Smith-Young Tower (1929), the Plaza Hotel (1927), and the Federal Reserve Bank Building (1928) and remodeled the Menger Hotel (1949–53). Ayres was the author of Mexican Architecture (1926). He was a charter member of the Texas Society of Architects and was one of three architects instrumental in securing passage of state legislation in 1937 for the licensing of architects to practice. He received license number 3. He married Olive Moss Cox in San Antonio in 1896, and the couple had two sons. After Mrs. Ayres's death in 1937 he married Katherine Cox, his second cousin, in 1940. Ayres was still practicing architecture when he died at the age of ninety-six on November 6, 1969, in San Antonio. He was buried in Mission Burial Park. Ayres and Ayres Collection, Architectural Drawings Collection (Architecture and Planning Library, University of Texas at Austin). Chris Carson and William B. McDonald, eds., A Guide to San Antonio Architecture (San Antonio Chapter, American Institute of Architects, 1986). Stephanie Hetos Cocke, "Atlee B. and Robert M. Ayres," Texas Architect, November-December 1989. Vertical Files, Dolph Briscoe Center for American History, University of Texas at Austin. The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article."AYRES, ATLEE BERNARD," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fay03), accessed April 01, 2015. Uploaded on June 9, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
SANDHILL, TX (FLOYD COUNTY) SANDHILL, TEXAS (Floyd County). Sandhill is at the junction of Farm roads 784 and 378, nine miles west of Floydada and ten miles southwest of Lockney in southwestern Floyd County. The area was settled before 1900. A school was built in 1892, and the community was designated a voting precinct by 1896. A post office, established in 1902, was known as Mickey for the names of several postmasters. Sandhill was one of thirty-two rural school districts in the 1920s. A school continued in the community until it was consolidated with that of Floydada in the 1950s. The Sandhill store, which was run by Mrs. Louise Shurbet from 1940 to 1984, continued to operate, as did the Sandhill elevator. Regional crops include corn, seed maize, wheat, and cotton. Early settler family names were Miller, Shurbet, Mickey, Fox, Mackey, McLain, Darby, and McClesky. The post office was discontinued in 1943. In the 1980s the population was estimated at forty. By 2000 the population was thirty-three. Floyd County Historical Museum, History of Floyd County, 1876–1979 (Dallas: Taylor, 1979). Arthur Hecht, comp., Postal History in the Texas Panhandle (Canyon, Texas: Panhandle-Plains Historical Society, 1960). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Charles G. Davis, "SANDHILL, TX (FLOYD COUNTY)," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hnsag), accessed April 01, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
TRAMMELL, NICHOLAS (1780–1856). Nicholas Trammell, pioneer, was born in 1780 in a Tennessee settlement on Duck River, the son of Nicholas and Frances (Maulding) Trammell. His father, one of the founders of Nashborough (Nashville), was killed by Cherokees in 1784. For his heroic defense of Davidson County, the elder Trammell's widow and young son were awarded 640 acres of land. Trammell grew to manhood under the guidance of his kinsmen, who were noted trackers, traders, salt makers, and surveyors. Like other participants in the Anglo surge westward they moved frequently, and by 1808 they were living in Arkansas, where Trammell acted as a French and Indian interpreter for the courts. He entered a land claim on the White River crossing of the Southwest Trail, which led to St. Louis, Missouri. With this as his base of operations he roamed widely and by 1811 had opened the Southwest Trail as far as the Ouachita River. Neighbors from the White River settlement soon moved there and became involved in the manufacture of salt. Trammell, perhaps following Indian trails, continued to the Red River and onward to Nacogdoches, Texas, along a route that became known as Trammel's Trace. Shanties and corrals were built along the road, no doubt to take advantage of the unstable conditions in the Neutral Ground and exploit the horse trade in Spanish Texas. Trammell took a break from this profitable business during the War of 1812 to serve in the frontier regiment of B. F. McFarland and to perform scouting duties for other units. As the decade closed, villages sprang up along the Red River at Jonesborough and Pecan Point. When troops from Fort Smith, Arkansas, attempted to evict the settlers in 1819, Trammell cut a trail whereby they could reach desirable points in Texas by way of Trammel's Trace. Soon thereafter he moved his family to the vicinity of Nacogdoches, one of the first Anglos to do so from the upper Red River district. Although not listed on any of the Mexican census reports for Texas, Trammell was very active around Nacogdoches, as established by the archives kept there. During the early 1820s he was in scrapes over racing debts, was a witness to violence along the road, and was accused of slave and horse theft. In 1825 he bought land on the Trinity River from empresario Haden Edwardsqv and operated a ferry at the crossing of the Old San Antonio Road. This sale was protested by Ignacio Sartuche, who claimed to have been previously awarded the tract by the Mexican government. Alcalde Samuel Norris sent the militia to evict Trammell in October 1826, and Trammell fled to Pecan Point with other "bad men," thus sparking the difficulty known as the Fredonian Rebellion. Apparently, Trammell returned to Hempstead County, Arkansas, where many of his kinsmen lived, and resumed the life of trader and tavern keeper. His mysterious comings and goings gave rise to many legends. He was commissioned to cut several roads east of the Red River, but none except Trammel's Trace bears his name. In 1843, after the death of his first wife, known only as Sarah, he married Mary Sadberry. Upon the outbreak of the Mexican War, Washington, Arkansas, was made the rendezvous point for state volunteers. Once ten companies had been mustered, they were led southward by "old Nick Trammell, notorious highwayman and slave smuggler." The Guadalupe River valley Trammell passed through must have appealed to him, because after the war he led several members of his family back to Texas. "Old Nick" died in Gonzales County in 1856, leaving six children by his first wife, two by his second, and numerous grandchildren scattered across the frontier. James and Mary Dawson, Trammel Trace Collection, Southwest Arkansas Regional Archives, Washington, Arkansas. The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Jack Jackson, "TRAMMELL, NICHOLAS," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/ftr29), accessed April 01, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
JUANITA CREEK (DUVAL COUNTY) JUANITA CREEK (Duval County). Juanita Creek rises eleven miles northwest of Freer in northwestern Duval County (at 28°00' N, 98°44' W) and runs northwest, across southwestern McMullen County, for twelve miles to its mouth on the Nueces River, near the southeastern boundary of La Salle County (at 28°06' N, 98°48' W). The creek rises in low-rolling terrain and descends to flat terrain with locally shallow depressions. The local clay and sandy loam soils support grasses, mesquite, chaparral, conifers, and water-tolerant hardwoods. The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article."JUANITA CREEK (DUVAL COUNTY)," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rbj54), accessed March 27, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
HAM'S HOLE. Ham's Hole is a natural spring at the head of Ham Creek 5½ miles east of Cleburne State Recreational Park in southwestern Johnson County. George W. Kendall mentioned it in his account of the Texan Santa Fe expedition and David Porter Smythe, who visited the site in 1852, called the 150-foot-long and thirty-foot-wide limestone pot-hole a "very remarkable natural reservoir." The ledge from which the spring rises resembles an immense bathtub. Ham's Hole was a popular picnic and camping spot around 1900. George Wilkins Kendall, Narrative of the Texan Santa Fe Expedition (2 vols., New York: Harper, 1844; rpts. Austin: Steck, 1935; n.p.: Readex, 1966). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article."HAM'S HOLE," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rph01), accessed March 28, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
TEXAS SUNSET ACT TEXAS SUNSET ACT. The Texas Sunset Act, which was passed in 1977 by the Sixty-fifth Legislature, provided for a commission to review most state agencies every twelve years in order to determine if they should be continued or abolished. The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Vivian Elizabeth Smyrl, "TEXAS SUNSET ACT," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/mltne), accessed April 01, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
BROWNSVILLE, CATHOLIC DIOCESE OF BROWNSVILLE, CATHOLIC DIOCESE OF. The Catholic Church in the four future counties composing the Diocese of Brownsville began in 1548, when the Spanish monarchy decreed, and Pope Paul III confirmed, the Diocese of Guadalajara. These mission lands, part of the northern provinces of New Spain, were within the jurisdiction of the Franciscan colleges for the Propagation of the Faith at Querétaro and Zacatecas. In 1777 the Diocese of Linares was formed; in 1792, when the see (episcopal seat) was moved, it became the Diocese of Monterrey. Subsequent church-state tensions in Mexico resulting from the decade-long Mexican war of independence left the Diocese of Monterrey with no resident bishop. The Mexican War also disrupted life in the lower Rio Grande area. However, there were scattered priests who ministered to Catholics on both sides of the Rio Grande (see CATHOLIC DIOCESAN CHURCH OF SPANISH AND MEXICAN TEXAS). With the establishment of the Prefecture Apostolic of Texas in 1840, the Brownsville region came under American administration. The French-speaking Oblates of Mary Immaculate were the first order of religious to arrive in the lower Rio Grande region after the establishment of the Diocese of Galveston in 1847. They were recruited by Jean Marie Odin, its first bishop. Upon their arrival in 1849 they found most of the Catholics in the area living on ranchos. Thus began the horseback ministry of the Oblates at Santa Rita and more than 100 other ranchos and communities along the river. La Lomita ranch, south of the site of present-day Mission, became an important way-station for the "Cavalry of Christ" (see LA LOMITA MISSION). The Galveston diocese included the entire state of Texas. Odin's successor, Claude Marie Dubuis, found the area too large to administer as a unit and appealed to Rome for some division of the territory. The resulting Vicariate Apostolic of Brownsville, established in 1874 by act of Pope Pius IX, included the land between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande, an area that later became the dioceses of Corpus Christi and Brownsville. By the same act Immaculate Conception Church in Brownsville (built under the direction of the Oblates and completed in 1859) was selected as cathedral. Catholics in the area numbered between 30,000 and 40,000. Those who resided in the four counties that make up the present Diocese of Brownsville were mostly all Mexican Americans who could trace their lineage to early settlers brought by José de Escandón's colonization of the region in the mid-eighteenth century. Many of the oldest towns in the present diocese originated with these early Catholic settlements. Laredo was the oldest city in the vicariate and is the site of the oldest parish in South Texas, San Agustín, built in 1789. The first bishop of the vicariate was Dominic Manucy, a priest from the Diocese of Mobile. He had only about twenty priests: fourteen Oblates in Brownsville, Rio Grande City, and Roma, and others in Corpus Christi, Laredo, Refugio, San Patricio, and San Diego. In 1875 Manucy moved the see to Corpus Christi, built a new church there to replace the original worn-out structure that had served the community since 1854, and kept the name of St. Patrick's for the new church, completed in 1881. When Manucy requested a transfer and was appointed bishop of the Diocese of Mobile in 1884, he appointed Father Claude C. Jaillet as vicar general of Brownsville. From 1885 to 1890 Jaillet handled the administration, and the vicariate had no bishop. From 1852 on, the Oblates consistently accounted for half of the clergy in the vicariate. Notable orders of women serving in the vicariate were the Sisters of the Incarnate Word and Blessed Sacrament, who came from Lyons, France, and arrived in Brownsville in 1853; the Ursuline Sisters, who came to Laredo in 1868; and the Sisters of Mercy, who arrived in Refugio in 1875. The Brownsville convent and school of the IWBS sisters were demolished by the hurricane of 1867 but soon reconstructed. Peter Verdaguer, made second bishop in 1890, moved the see to Laredo, where most of the Catholic population lived. He was highly esteemed by the people, who affectionately called him "Padre Pedro." He continually traveled throughout the vicariate for the twenty years of his assignment, and died on a tour of confirmation near Mercedes in 1911. Provincial bishops meeting in New Orleans later that year requested that Rome elevate the vicariate to a diocese. Pope Pius X did so in 1912 and made Corpus Christi the see city. The following year Paul J. Nussbaum was named bishop. With an area of 88,000 square miles, the new diocese had a total population estimated at 158,000; 83,000 of these were Catholics, and 70,000 of these were Hispanic. Bishop Emmanuel B. Ledvina succeeded to the see in 1921. He became a great builder of churches in the diocese before resigning for reasons of health in 1949 and being succeeded by Mariano S. Garriga. The Diocese of Brownsville was established on July 10, 1965, composed of four counties in the lower Rio Grande valley—Cameron, Hidalgo, Starr, and Willacy—an area of 4,226 square miles, taken from the Catholic Diocese of Corpus Christi. Its first bishop was Adolph Marx, who had been auxiliary bishop in Corpus Christi. Marx was installed in September 1965; he soon left for Europe to attend meetings of the Second Vatican Council, and died on November 1 in his birthplace, Cologne, Germany. His successor, Humberto Medeirosqv, was appointed and installed in 1966. Medeiros left Texas to become archbishop of Boston in 1970 and was made a cardinal in 1973. John J. Fitzpatrick served as bishop of Brownsville from 1971 until his retirement in 1991. An important feature of his tenure was attention to the migrant farmworkers of South Texas. In a 1977 publication, Fitzpatrick noted that "70 per cent of the 400,000 people in the Valley [were] Catholics; 83 per cent of the Catholics speak Spanish as their first language....Only 112 priests serve almost 300,000 Catholics, the lowest ratio of priests to Catholics in any diocese in this country." A 1976 survey of the diocese showed that 57 percent of the 61 parishes had Sunday Masses in Spanish. Of all Masses each week, 56 percent were in Spanish. Fitzpatrick was succeeded by Enrique San Pedro, a native of Cuba who had served five years as the first Hispanic auxiliary bishop of the Diocese of Galveston-Houstonqv. San Pedro died in 1994, and Raymundo Peña was appointed to succeed him. In 1994 the Catholic population of the diocese was 652,214 (of a total population of 805,203), served by sixty-one parishes and forty-six missions. Fifty-nine of the parishes had resident pastors. The diocese had two homes for the aged, two retreat houses, one health-care center, and nine social-service agencies. Men's religious orders represented in the diocese numbered ten; women's, thirty-six. There were seven monastery-residences for priests and brothers and sixty-six convent-residences for sisters. Catholic student centers were located at the campuses of the University of Texas at Brownsville and U.T–Pan American at Edinburgh. Catholic elementary and secondary schools enrolled 3,238 students. Carlos E. Castañeda, Our Catholic Heritage in Texas (7 vols., Austin: Von Boeckmann-Jones, 1936–58; rpt., New York: Arno, 1976). Donald E. Chipman, Spanish Texas, 1519–1821 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992). Gilbert R. Cruz, "The Vicariate Apostolic of Brownsville, 1874–1912: An Overview of Its Origins and Development," in From the Mississippi to the Pacific: Essays in Honor of John Francis Bannon, ed. Russell M. Magnaghi (Marquette: Northern Michigan University Press, 1982). Bernard Doyon, The Cavalry of Christ on the Rio Grande, 1849–1883 (Milwaukee: Bruce, 1956). James Talmadge Moore, Through Fire and Flood: The Catholic Church in Frontier Texas, 1836–1900 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1992). New Catholic Encyclopedia (16 vols., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967–74). Robert E. Wright, O.M.I., "Pioneer Religious Congregations of Men in Texas before 1900," Journal of Texas Catholic History and Culture 5 (1994). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Jana E. Pellusch, "BROWNSVILLE, CATHOLIC DIOCESE OF," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/icb02), accessed March 30, 2015. Uploaded on June 12, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
EARPVILLE, TEXAS. Earpville was on a site that is now within the city limits of Longview in Gregg County. It was founded by the James Earp family of Alabama in the 1840s and had a post office from 1850 to 1867. In 1848 James Earp and his son-in-law James Starkey purchased 1,031 acres of the Alexander Jordan headright bounded on the east by the Upshur-Harrison county line and on the west by the Hamilton McNutt survey. Earp purchased several adjoining tracts of land the following year and built his homestead near the Marshall-Tyler road at the base of the largest rock hill in the area, where Longview's water towers are now located. During the 1850s other members of the Earp family joined James in Upshur County, and the settlement became known as Earpville. The community was on the stagecoach line from Louisiana to San Antonio. Dr. Job Taylor, a physician and lay preacher, operated the stagecoach stop. In 1860 the population was 276, and the community had a saddler, three merchants, a carpenter, three blacksmiths, a wagonmaker, and a minister. A Methodist congregation met in a small log structure beginning in the mid-1800s. It moved to a new building in 1860 and in 1875 became the First Methodist Church of Longview, which still exists. Although there are no records of a school in Earpville, some evidence suggests that the children of the community received private instruction from the postmaster, who was also a teacher, in 1861. With the coming of the Southern Pacific Railroad in 1870 Longview was built, and Earpville ceased to exist as a separate settlement. Norman W. Black and Ellie Caston, comps., Guide to Gregg County's Historical Markers (Longview, Texas: Gregg County Historical Museum and Gregg County Historical Commission, 1988). John Dickson, History of Gregg County, Texas (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, 1957). Longview Junior Chamber of Commerce, The History of Gregg County (Fort Worth, 1957). Frank Waters, The Earp Brothers of Tombstone: The Story of Mrs. Virgil Earp (New York: Potter, 1960; rpt., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1976). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Charlotte Allgood, "EARPVILLE, TX," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hve53), accessed March 30, 2015. Uploaded on June 12, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
SHAFTER, WILLIAM RUFUS SHAFTER, WILLIAM RUFUS (1835–1906). William R. (Pecos Bill) Shafter, United States Army officer, son of Hugh Morris and Eliza (Sumner) Shafter, was born on October 16, 1835, near Galesburg, Michigan. He had two brothers and one sister. After completing an elementary school education, Shafter worked on his father's farm and taught school at Galesburg, Mendon, and Athens, Michigan. In 1861 he enrolled in Prairie Seminary, but when the Civil War broke out he left school to join a local volunteer regiment. During the war he took part in several campaigns, including the battle of Ball's Bluff and the Peninsular campaign. He was captured at Thompson's Station, Tennessee, in March 1863 and spent several months in a Confederate prison. After his release he was transferred to the regular army and served as an officer in the Seventeenth United States Colored Infantry, a regiment of black troops, in the battle of Nashville in December 1864. Shafter was commissioned a lieutenant colonel after the war and went to Louisiana briefly before a transfer in 1867 took him to Texas. He served as lieutenant colonel of the all-black Twenty-fourth United States Infantry along the Rio Grande until 1868, when he moved to Fort Clark in West Texas. After 1870 Shafter served primarily as a field commander. He executed his assignments with vigor despite his physical bulk, which would have slowed most men. Working under Col. Ranald S. Mackenzie, Shafter commanded scouting expeditions and campaigns against hostile Indians. He led several excursions into the Llano Estacado and Big Bend areas, thus proving these regions accessible to the military despite their barrenness. His expeditions also deprived hostile forces of the psychological and military advantage of safe refuge. Shafter's most renowned feat in West Texas was the Llano Estacado campaign of 1875. Combining two companies of his Twenty-fourth Infantry with parts of the Twenty-fifth United States Infantry and Tenth United States Cavalry and a company of Seminole Indian scouts, Shafter drove his men more than 2,500 miles from June to December. Often exhausted and short of water, the troops made three crossings of the Llano Estacado and swept the plains clear of Indians. Shafter's campaign also proved the plains habitable and paved the way for white settlement of the region. Between 1876 and the end of 1878 Shafter led three separate campaigns into Mexico against Indians. He became colonel of the First Infantry in 1879 and the following year participated in the war against Victorio, the great Apache leader. After leaving Texas, Shafter served in Arizona before a transfer in 1886 took him to California. In 1890–91 he was in South Dakota helping to return Indians to Pine Ridge after the Wounded Knee massacre. He was promoted in 1897 to brigadier general and in 1898 led American troops to Cuba during the Spanish-American War, in which he commanded the largest force of United States troops that had left American soil up to that time. Shafter was a Republican and a Protestant. He married Harriet Grimes in 1862, and they had one child, Mary. In 1895 Shafter received the Medal of Honor for meritorious service in the Civil War. Shortly after his promotion to major general in 1901, he retired to his sixty-acre farm adjoining his daughter's ranch near Bakersfield, California. On November 12, 1906, Shafter, terribly overweight, died at his daughter's home from an intestinal obstruction complicated by pneumonia. He was buried next to his wife at the presidio in San Francisco, California. Paul H. Carlson, "William R. Shafter Commanding Black Troops in West Texas," West Texas Historical Association Year Book 50 (1974). Paul H. Carlson, William R. Shafter, Military Commander in the American West (Ph.D. dissertation, Texas Tech University, 1973). M. L. Crimmins, "Shafter's Explorations in Western Texas, 1875," West Texas Historical Association Year Book 9 (1933). William H. Leckie, The Buffalo Soldiers: A Narrative of the Negro Cavalry in the West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1967). Robert M. Utley, "`Pecos Bill' on the Texas Frontier," American West, January 1969. The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Paul H. Carlson, "SHAFTER, WILLIAM RUFUS," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fsh02), accessed April 01, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
FREDERICKSBURG COLLEGE. Fredericksburg College was founded in 1876 by the German Methodist Church of Fredericksburg. Its original purpose was to teach adult students, but financial difficulties soon forced the college to admit students of all ages. Total enrollment at the college was about 150, including some boarding students from Houston, Galveston, Llano, and Mason. W. J. R. Thoenssen, the first principal, was succeeded by Charles F. Tansill. Courses were offered in the arts and sciences, with emphasis on foreign languages. When the college was discontinued in 1884, the building and property were sold to the Fredericksburg Independent School District. Ella Amanda Gold, The History of Education in Gillespie County (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, 1945). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Clinton P. Hartmann, "FREDERICKSBURG COLLEGE," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/kbf09), accessed March 27, 2015. Uploaded on June 12, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
CHANDLER, WELCOME WILLIAMS CHANDLER, WELCOME WILLIAMS (1813–1870). Welcome Chandler, the first settler, farmer, county judge, postmaster, and store owner in Brown County, was born in North Carolina to William Hugh and Tebitha Elizabeth (Hodges) Chandler in January 1813. The family moved to Copiah County, Mississippi, where Chandler married Sarah Brown in 1834; they moved to Texas in 1854. That summer, Chandler, Samuel R. Coggin, and J. H. Fowler visited the Brown County area and resolved to settle there permanently. In July 1856 Chandler arrived with his wife, their eight children, J. H. Fowler (who became the first bridegroom in Brown County by marrying Chandler's daughter Mary Ann the following year, and who also brought the first herd of cattle to Brown County in December 1856), and seven slaves. On Pecan Bayou, just east of the site of Brownwood, they built the first dwelling in Brown County, a large log cabin. Chandler also operated the county's first store, a settlers' supply house, in his home. Although local mail service may have existed earlier, the first official post office in Brownwood was apparently established on February 20, 1860, and located in Chandler's house. Chandler was named postmaster, a position he held till January 23, 1867, when the post office was temporarily discontinued by the United States government. On March 21, 1857, the first election in the county took place in the Chandler home, and Chandler was elected county commissioner; however, because of a mistake about county boundaries made by the state legislature, none of the officers elected in 1857 ever served. Instead they asked the legislature to correct its mistake, and it did so on February 8, 1858. The second election, on August 2, 1858, was also held in the Chandler home, and Chandler was elected chief justice (county judge). The first courthouse in the county, a log structure, was built on Chandler's farm in October 1858. Chandler was elected county treasurer on August 4, 1862. After the defeat of the Confederacy and the invalidation of county elections of the Civil War years, a new election of county officers was held on August 25, 1865, and Welcome Chandler rode with the results in less than a day to have them validated in Austin (140 miles from Brownwood), so that the county would not be without the rule of law. He was elected judge of the county board of appeals in 1869. The Chandlers had five more children after arriving in Brown County. Their daughters Melissa and Laura Caldora were the first twins born in the county, and their daughter Ella was the second white child born there. The first Confederate flag in the county was made by Mrs. Chandler, her daughter Jane, and Mrs. Brooks W. Lee. It was first flown on February 23, 1861, when the residents of Brown County met in the Chandler home and voted to ratify the ordinance of secession. Chandler died in Williamson County, Texas, in May 1870 and was buried in Florence, Texas. Thomas Robert Havins, Something about Brown: A History of Brown County, Texas (Brownwood, Texas: Banner Printing, 1958). Tevis Clyde Smith, Frontier's Generation (Brownwood, Texas, 1931; 2d ed. 1980). James C. White, The Promised Land: A History of Brown County (Brownwood, Texas: Brownwood Banner, 1941). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Charlotte Laughlin, "CHANDLER, WELCOME WILLIAMS," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fch41), accessed March 30, 2015. Uploaded on June 12, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
MINK, TEXAS. Mink, on the banks of Mink Creek twenty-five miles southwest of Conroe in southwestern Montgomery County, was one of the earliest towns in the county. Settlement began about 1845 when a man named Mink took up farming in the area; soon a gristmill was constructed near his homestead. At first the community was known as Mink Prairie, but by 1850 it was referred to simply as Mink. There was a blacksmith shop in the settlement by the early 1850s. After the Civil War an influx of settlers from Tennessee and Kentucky into southwestern Montgomery County accelerated the development of the community. During the 1870s a Grange hall was built that also functioned as an interdenominational church, a schoolhouse, and a civic center. Soon a cotton gin was established, and a Methodist church was constructed near the Grange hall. A post office opened in the community in 1885. By 1896 Mink had a general store, two churches, two flour mills, and a population of 300. In 1902 the International-Great Northern Railroad constructed its Spring-to-Navasota branch line through southwestern Montgomery County, bypassing Mink to the north. Its residents and businesses rapidly moved onto the rail line at the new town of Magnolia two miles northeast. The Mink post office was discontinued in 1903, and within a few years the community had been completely abandoned. Montgomery County Genealogical Society, Montgomery County History (Winston-Salem, North Carolina: Hunter, 1981). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Charles Christopher Jackson, "MINK, TX," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hvm89), accessed April 01, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
SAPOAK, TEXAS. Sapoak (Sap Oak), on Ranch Road 1715 in northern Erath County, was settled by John Cross, R. M. Yarbrough, and S. H. Davis soon after the Civil War. W. C. Rigsby established a gin there about 1880, and M. H. Nichols served as the first postmaster when a post office opened in 1903. The local office was discontinued in 1905 and replaced by rural mail delivery from Morgan Mill. The population was twenty-five in 1920, and by 1947 the town had fifty residents and a church, a school, and two stores. No population figures are available for the community after 1947. During the late 1980s the site was marked by a church and a cemetery. The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article."SAPOAK, TX," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hts04), accessed March 31, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
There are dozens of forts, military installations, and old camps across the Lone Star State. With the arrival of the first Spanish conquistadors in the region now known as 1519, it was already populated by numerous Native American tribes, whose ancestors had been there for thousands of years. Soon regions of Texas would be claimed by both royal France and imperial Spain, both of which would mount military expeditions to explore various areas. A small number of simple fortifications were established in this era to protect both French and Spanish claims from each other, and to protect expeditionary operations from unwelcoming local For over two centuries, various groups fought over access and/or control over the region that would become the period from 1519 to 1848, all or parts of Texas were claimed by six countries: France, Spain, Mexico, the Republic of Texas, the United States of America, and the Confederate States of America in 1861–65. Ownership of specific lands were also claimed and disputed by different ethnic groups, including numerous Native American tribes, Mexican residents, Anglo- and African-American settlers, and European immigrants. Access to and control of resources were also claimed and disputed by various economic groups, such as farmers, ranchers, settlers, buffalo hunters, traders, bandits, and revolutionaries. Over the centuries, claims and disputes were enforced by Native American warriors, Spanish conquistadors, French cavaliers, Texas Rangers, local militias, and uniformed regular army regiments of Spain, Mexico, United States, and the During these years of dispute, there were numerous military camps, barracks, fortified trading posts, palisades, stockades, blockhouses, strongholds, and fortifications built to establish, defend, or dispute the many claims to the area. Many of these are long gone, but the Lone Star State continues to preserve a number of historical buildings, some are still operational military installations, and sites are designated by historical markers. The Alamo - See Full Article HERE. Camp Cooper (1856-61) - A collection of tents and makeshift buildings of mud, stone, and wood, this short-lived camp protected settlers and controlled the 400 or so Indians living on Comanche Reservation. Robert E. Lee served at the camp as a junior officer in 1856-57. It was the base of numerous expeditions and patrols against the Indians until the Civil War began and the commander Texas troops. During the post-Civil War period, State Texas Rangers occasionally used the camp. A building dating from the early 1850's, probably constructed with fragments of post structures, stands in the vicinity of the southern edge of the parade ground. The present privately owned ranch house, a mile to the east, contains stones and glass from the camp. Permission to visit the site, which involves wading across the hip-deep Clear Fork of the Brazos River, should be obtained from the ranch owners. The site of the old camp is on a privately owned ranch, in the vicinity of Fort Griffin State Park, which is on U.S. 283. the site is accessible by foot only. Camp Cureton (1862-1864) - This short-lived post was established in March, 1862 on the Gainesville-Fort Belknap Road, where it crossed the West Fork of the Trinity River southeast of present-day Archer City. Built by Captain Jack J. Creton and his regiment, the fort was named for him. A Confederate post, it along with several others were established to restrict Indians from coming into the region. Several wooden buildings and rock-fence corrals made up the fort. It was closed by March, 1864, when the troops were moved to Fort Belknap. Nothing remains of the fort today. Also known as Jackass Camp, the post was built in 1918 after the Brite Ranch and Neville Ranch raids by Mexican bandits, the fort was named for the J. R. Holland Ranch on which it was built. The post included two barracks, that could house up to 400 men, four officers' houses, a mess hall, a guardhouse, bakery, blacksmith shop, and a quartermaster store. The post was responsible for supplying pack trains for the United States Cavalry as it patrolled the Mexican border against Pancho Villa and his bandits. By 1921 the army began phasing out border patrols in Presidio County and Camp Holland was closed. The buildings were initially leased to civilians, the Texas Rangers, and to customs and immigration border patrols. Later, they were sold. Situated in Viejo Pass about 12 miles west of Valentine, Texas the site is also known as the site of the last battle in Presidio County between the U.S. Cavalry and Indians, which occurred June 12, 1880. A historic marker designates the Some of the old fort buildings still stand on the privately owned Miller Ranch. Camp Hudson (1857-61, 1867-1877) - Also referred to as Fort Hudson, this post was located on San Pedro Creek, a tributary of the Devils River, 21 miles north of Comstock, One of several posts built on the San Antonio-El Paso Road to protect travelers, it was established by Lieutenant Theodore Fink in June, 1857 and named for Lieutenant Walter W. Hudson, who died in action on April, 1850 as the result of action against Built along an isolated section of the creek, the post was constructed of a mixture of gravel and lime, which provided very good insulation. A post office at the site opened the same year it was built. Because of its isolated location, there were very few travelers across this section of road. Most of those who did pass by the fort were military troops, including an experimental camel caravan from in 1859. When the began, troops were pulled from the post in March, 1861. Though the camp was abandoned by the U.S. Army, the post office continued to operate, serving area settlers until 1866. When a stagecoach was ambushed by between Camp Hudson and Fort Stockton, and two military escorts were killed in late October, 1867, soldiers were once again sent to occupy the post. Over the next several years, various companies occupied the post, which was re-organized in 1871. The soldiers were tasked with protecting travelers, new arrived settlers, and fought with on several occasions. By January, 1877, the threat of Indian attacks was over and the post was abandoned. The site is located in a desolate rock-strewn field. A state marker and a small gravestone are all that’s left of the old post. The site is located in Val Verde County, on Highway 163, about 20 miles north of Comstock. Camp Verde (1856-69) - One of a chain of forts Texas settlers, the troops of Camp Verde did their share of Comanche fighting, but it won its major distinction as headquarters of the Army's camel experiment. This project was the brainchild of Beale, Superintendent of Indian Affairs for persuaded the Secretary of War, Jefferson Davis, to test camels in transporting personnel and freight in arid country. At his urging, Congress appropriated $30,000 in 1855 to conduct the experiment. More than 70 camels, acquired by the War Department in the Mediterranean area, and a few herders arrived on Navy ships at Indianola, in 1856-57 and were then herded to Camp Verde. A specially erected caravansary, or khan, modeled after one in North Africa, accommodated them. In 1857 Beale took about 25 of them to Fort Tejon, California, while surveying a proposed road across the Southwest. Those based at Camp Verde were tested under field conditions in various parts of Colonel Robert E. Lee was in charge of the experiment. The Confederates acquired the camels when they took over Camp Verde in 1861 and they were still on hand when Federal troops reoccupied it in 1866. Three years later, the Army relinquished Camp Verde and sold the herd to a private entrepreneur San Antonio. Although the camels had demonstrated their superiority over mules, after the war, any project associated with Confederate President Jefferson Davis was discredited. This and other factors brought about the end of the program. Today, there are only two remaining stucco buildings, much altered and probably dating from the 1850's, used today by the ranch owners as guesthouses. One of these is a linear barracks building, a composite of three original structures. The other building, the officers' quarters, has a rear wing. Mounds of earth reveal the site of the caravansary. The parade ground is distinguishable. Camp Verde is located in Kerr County, on County Road 689, about two miles north of the town of Camp Verde. Continued Next Page	7
FELDER, GABRIEL (1797–1868). Gabriel Felder, judge, was born in Orangeburg, South Carolina, on January 29, 1797, the son of Samuel and Ann (Horger) Felder. He was a justice of the peace in his young manhood and thereafter was known as Judge. He moved first to Mississippi, where he married. In the spring of 1851 he moved to Texas with his wife, Ann, and two sons. He settled in Washington County and between 1852 and 1856 purchased several tracts of land totaling 2,418 acres on the banks of New Year Creek, at a cost of more than $19,000, to be paid as he received money from his property in South Carolina. He had inherited a fourth of the estate of his brother, John M. Felder, of Orangeburg, South Carolina, amounting to $100,000, which included $48,830 in "Negro property," or ninety-five slaves, and $51,000 in money, mules, and horses. Jesse Y. Felder, a relative, was employed to bring the slaves from South Carolina to Texas. They arrived about June 20, 1854, too late to make a crop that year. Felder was a cotton planter, but since most of the land he purchased in Texas was heavily timbered, time and money were required to bring it into cultivation. By the time of his death only about 250 acres had been plowed. He made a trip back to South Carolina almost every year and always returned with sufficient money to satisfy his debts. He constructed his home, together with the millhouse, cotton gin, slave cabins, and other outbuildings, using the labor force from his own plantation; he was aided in building the mill and gin by an experienced mechanic. At the Methodist Conference of 1855 he was appointed to the first board of trustees of Soule University, in Chappell Hill. He served as president of the board from June 29, 1858, until his death. In 1854 he endowed the Chair of Ancient and Modern Languages at Soule, called the Felder Professorship, in the amount of $25,000. In 1853 he provided the pews and finished the belfry of the new brick Methodist church at Washington-on-the-Brazos. After the death of his first wife on October 19, 1863, he married Mrs. Mildred S. Oliver, on April 28, 1864. The ceremony was performed by his friend James W. Shipman, an elder in the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. The census of 1860 listed Felder as owning 130 slaves; he was thus the largest slaveholder in Washington County. Felder died on March 10, 1868. His will provided a 200-acre homestead for his widow, which included the residence, household furniture, carriage, and two carriage horses. To Mattie Alexander, an orphan raised by Felder, he left "a sum sufficient for her maintenance and support and to give her a good English education." His son Adlai D. (who was non compos mentis) and grandson, Gabriel S. Felder (son of Rufus H. Felder, who preceded Gabriel Felder in death) shared equally in the remainder of the estate. Macum Phelan, History of Early Methodism in Texas, 1817–1866 (Nashville: Cokesbury, 1924); A History of the Expansion of Methodism in Texas, 1867–1902 (Dallas: Mathis, Van Nort, 1937). Homer S. Thrall, History of Methodism in Texas (Houston: Cushing, 1872; rpt., n.p.: Walsworth, 1976). Ralph A. Wooster, "Notes on Texas' Largest Slaveholders, 1860," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 65 (July 1961). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Nath and Judy Winfield, "FELDER, GABRIEL," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/ffe13), accessed March 26, 2015. Uploaded on June 12, 2010. Modified on October 24, 2013. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
WESTERN RAIL ROAD WESTERN RAIL ROAD. The Western Rail Road Company was incorporated on March 22, 1974, as the PB Railroad, Incorporated, but due to a conflict in the initials of the railroad, the name was changed to Western Rail Road Company on September 22, 1975. Construction began in 1976 and was completed by December of that year. The WRRC connected with both the Missouri Pacific and Missouri-Kansas-Texas. As of 1991 the track was owned by the Houston-based Parker Brothers Company. The railroad company had four miles of track in Comal County and was used as an industrial line to serve a quarry and cement plant owned by Parker Brothers. In 1980 the railroad employed thirty-three people and shipped 33,472 carloads over its track. The top commodities shipped were nonmetal minerals, clay, glass, stone, and coal. The range of revenue that year was $5 to $9 million. The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Chris Cravens, "WESTERN RAIL ROAD," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/eqwvf), accessed March 26, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
WILLIAMS, JOHN A. WILLIAMS, JOHN A. (?–1840). John A. Williams moved to Texas in 1822. He was living on Ayish Bayou by 1824 with his wife and slaves and, within a year, built a cotton gin. During the Fredonian Rebellion, he sided with the Edwards brothers at first but soon changed and supported the Mexican authorities. In 1827 he moved to the lower Trinity River, where he chose a league on the west bank known as Pine Bluff. He mapped the Neches and Sabine watersheds for James E. B. Austin that same year. Like many of his fellow settlers, Williams received title to his homestead from land commissioner José Francisco Madero in 1831 and probably sympathized with the land commissioner in his disputes with Anahuac commander John Davis Bradburn. This was a popular position among the Anglo settlers, and Williams was elected alcalde of the new ayuntamiento at Anahuac in January 1832. Williams was initially a leader in the local protest against Bradburn in June 1832 (see ANAHUAC DISTURBANCES), but he was later branded a tory when he refused to join the rebel Anglos in an attack against Bradburn and the centralist government. He criticized the conventions of 1832 and 1833qv and in 1835 spoke against the call for volunteers to march to Gonzales and the Consultation. William H. Wharton offered $500 for his arrest because of his tory stand, and the General Council believed that he should be arrested. He sought refuge in Louisiana in 1836. The identity and fate of Williams's first wife are unknown. He married Margaretta Jane Dugat in the Atascosito district in 1832, and the couple had three children. In 1838 he sold Pine Bluff to William Moore. Williams died in Jefferson County between April and June 1840. Margaret S. Henson, Juan Davis Bradburn: A Reappraisal of the Mexican Commander of Anahuac (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1982). Miriam Partlow, Liberty, Liberty County, and the Atascosito District (Austin: Pemberton, 1974). C. Allen True, "John A. Williams, Champion of Mexico in the Early Days of the Texas Revolution," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 47 (1943). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Margaret Swett Henson, "WILLIAMS, JOHN A.," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fwi27), accessed March 30, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	7
Who works the longest hours? - 23 May 2012 - From the section Magazine Chill winds sweeping the world economy have left many people out of a job, and some of those still working have been asked to worker longer hours for the same pay. Recently the UK government urged the country to work harder, after slipping back into recession. So which countries put the most hours in? A look at the average annual hours worked per person in selected countries puts South Korea top with a whopping 2,193 hours, followed by Chile on 2,068. British workers clock up 1,647 hours and Germans 1,408 - putting them at the bottom of the table, above only the Netherlands. Greek workers have had a bad press recently but, as we reported in February, they work longer hours than any other Europeans . Their average of 2,017 hours a year puts them third in the international ranking, based on figures compiled by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). It's worth mentioning that the OECD has only 34 members - most of them developed countries - and some very important countries, such as India, China and Brazil, are not among them. The OECD data includes full and part-time salaried workers and the self-employed. It includes all the hours they work, including overtime. While figures are available for some other parts of the world, they are not directly comparable to the OECD data because they are collated very differently or they are out of date, so we are focusing only on the OECD nations. But by looking at data from the OECD and the International Labour Organization (ILO) we can see some broad and interesting trends. "Asian countries tend to work the longest [hours], they also have the highest proportion of workers that are working excessively long hours of more than 48 hours a week," says Jon Messenger, an ILO expert on working hours. "Korea sticks out because it's a developed country that's working long hours," he says. "Normally it's developing countries like Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka - countries like this that are working long hours." But working longer doesn't necessarily mean working better. "Generally speaking, long working hours are associated with lower productivity per hour. Workers are working very long hours to achieve a minimum level of output or to achieve some minimum level of wages because frankly they're not very productive," Messenger says. The picture is very different in the developed world, where working hours have been falling. "Over the last century, you've seen a reduction from very long working hours - nearly 3,000 a year at the beginning of the 1900s - to the turn of the 21st Century when most developing countries were under 1,800 hours," says Messenger. "And indeed some of the most productive countries were even lower than that." The drop in working hours is in part a reflection of the greater number of part-time workers in the developed world. A large number of part-time workers brings down a country's average - in the case of Japan, for example, a high proportion of people work excessive hours, but many also work part-time, leaving the country in the middle of the table, with 1,700 hours. "You have more and more people working part-time hours," says Messenger. "They're quite capable of supporting themselves, quite capable of producing what they need to produce, so it's just not necessary to work longer than that." Tighter labour laws in developed countries, particularly in Europe, have also reduced working hours. The differences between the most developed nations are small but leave entitlement makes a difference. Messenger says the average Briton works 150 fewer hours than an American. "The difference is really driven by the fact that the US is the only developed country that has no legal or contractual or collective requirement to provide any minimum amount of annual leave," he says. The UK, in contrast, is subject to the European working time directive, which requires at least four weeks of paid annual leave for every employee. Some European countries have a higher statutory level of paid leave - 25 days in Austria, Denmark, France, Italy, Luxembourg and Sweden in 2010, according to the European Industrial Relations Observatory (Eiro). And some employers provide more paid leave than the statutory miniumum. Paid public holidays, which come on top of that, averaged between nine and 10 in the European Union in 2010. "The combined total of agreed annual leave and public holidays varied in the EU from 40 days in Germany and Denmark to 27 days in Romania - a difference of around 48% or 2.5 working weeks," Eiro said in a report published last year . When comparing hours worked, however, there's one more thing which must be acknowledged. Each country collects its own data, and their methods may be not always be perfectly comparable.	8
Learn something new every day More Info... by email Many students require financial assistance to attend college, but not everyone qualifies for scholarships and grants. Luckily, there are many types of college loans available, with options for every student. Some college loans are based on financial need, some are government loans available to all, some require a good credit history and can be acquired through private lending sources, and some are available specifically for parents of college students. The most common types of loans are: Stafford Loans are either Federal Family Education Loans (FFELs) or William D. Ford Federal Direct Loans (Direct Loans). College loans in the Stafford family are for students. Direct Loans are funded by the government and FFELs are funded by banks and other private lenders. The choice of FFEL or Direct is up to the school, not the student. However, both programs are virtually identical as far as eligibility and amounts available, but the repayment terms may differ. Stafford Loans are offered after a student completes the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA). Information is transmitted to each school selected, then the school puts together a financial aid package that includes the type and amount of loans a student is eligible for. These loans are either subsidized or unsubsidized, depending on financial need. If a loan is subsidized, the federal government pays the interest while the student is enrolled at least half-time in college or is in a deferment or grace period. PLUS Loans are also either Direct Loans or FEFLs, but they can be borrowed by parents of dependent students. Borrowers must have an acceptable credit history. Direct PLUS Loan applications are given out by a school's financial aid office. FEFL PLUS Loan applications are given out by a school's financial aid office, as well as by private lenders. PLUS loans are always unsubsidized. Though PLUS Loans have historically been known as "parent" loans, they are now also available to graduate and professional students with the same terms as the parent loans. Federal Perkins Loans Federal Perkins Loans are available at some, but not all, colleges. Eligibility is based on financial need, and each individual school determines how funds are to be allocated. Perkins loans may be given to both undergraduate and graduate students. There is no credit history requirement and loans are repaid directly to the college. Private Lender Loans When government college loans aren't enough to pay the full cost of attending school, private loans are available. There is a credit history requirement, but most loan programs allow a co-signer if the student does not qualify. For students who are interested in vocational programs that do not receive the same types of aid as traditional colleges, private college loans can make up the difference and allow the student to pursue the program of his or her choice. Does anyone know how to apply for community college student loans? Is it the same as applying for a four-year institution? I never went to college, and now I have decided that I would like to go back to school. I am interested in my local community college because they offer a nuclear technician associates in partnership with a local power utility. I would love to go back to school, but the financial aid process is honestly quite daunting. @Alchemy- It is great that you are returning to school, especially as a parent. It can be really tough to afford to go to school with little ones at home and a job. I am also a parent returning to school so I had to deal with similar things. Without student loans and grants, I would never have been able to go back to school. What I did was petition my financial aid office to raise my estimated cost of attendance so I could borrow more for school. I met with a financial aid adviser and she was very helpful at helping me find the necessary paperwork. The school raised my cost of attendance without a problem. All I had to do was supply information regarding childcare. I even qualified for subsidized daycare through the university. The daycare program did have a long waiting list however, so my daughter will not enroll until the fall. How does a school determine my eligibility for student loans? I am a parent and I work part-time. I have more expenses than the average student right out of high school. I was awarded a financial aid package based on my cost of attendance, but it did not include things like childcare expenses, etc. My financial aid package included college student loans, but I did not receive the maximum loan amount allowable. I will need to borrow more for my education, but I would much prefer to use federal loans because they have lower interest rates than private loans. Does anyone have any advice? One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!	8
Learn something new every day More Info... by email A command economy is one in which all aspects of the economic system of a specific nation are controlled to some degree by a centralized body, usually the government. Every step in the production process, from utilization of resources to volume produced to wages earned by labor, is controlled by the government, and wealth is redistributed as the ruling power sees fit. As a result, one of the chief characteristics of a command economy, also known as a planned economy, is that the individual pursuit of wealth is replaced by a concerted effort from all economic channels to improve society as a whole. There are two types of economies prevalent in the world. Most countries prefer a market economy, which is characterized by a market for goods and services predicated on the laws of supply and demand and unfettered by any sort of outside control. By contrast, in a command economy, every decision involving the economy is made by the centralized government, as in the former Soviet Union. Very often, the characteristics of a command economy come to light when shown in contrast to those of a market economy. For example, production levels are decided upon in a market economy depending on what kind of demand there is for a particular product. In a command economy, the governing body decides what is produced and to what section of the country it should be allocated. Pricing is another part of a command economy that falls under the authority of the government. Since profits are funneled back to the government, price levels are ideally set up so that there is some benefit to the country at large. This occurs when the government redistributes the wealth throughout society, by deciding upon wages for labor and by using the money for government products to benefit the citizens. Of all the characteristics of this type of economy, perhaps the most general and definitive is the overall subordination of the individual to the collective. If done properly, a command economy can efficiently manage resources so that there is minimal waste and also keep prices at a level that benefits a vast majority of the populace. Labor can also be controlled to discourage high unemployment. All of these benefits come at the expense of certain individual freedoms related to amassing personal wealth. Since very few countries in the world have a command economy, does this mean that a market economy is superior? It's hard to believe that China is still a command economy in some ways. Aren't they a bit too open for a command economy though? It's involved in trade and imports and exports a lot of goods. I don't think that China fits the traditional model of a command economy very well. China is also a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and they follow all WTO regulations that market economies like the United States follow. One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!	8
I was an Economics major in college, and one of the concepts we discussed was “sunk costs.” In Econ terms, a sunk cost is one that has already been expended and which cannot be recovered. The thinking goes that since you’ve spent it and you aren’t getting it back, you shouldn’t figure those costs into any decisions you make going forward. Examples of sunk costs include things like advertising, the use of consultants, product research, and staff training. If, for example, you had spent $100,000 on product research for a new widget but the widget wasn’t selling, then you should ignore that $100,000 in making future decisions because it’s a sunk cost and won’t impact the future sales (or lack thereof) of the product. The “Sunk Cost Fallacy” (sometimes called the Concorde Fallacy) is one where further investment is deemed necessary because otherwise the money already spent will be lost, but thinking in this manner ignores the fact that additional investment can accrue more losses (meaning, be careful about throwing good money after bad). So, why the Econ lesson here in an LSAT blog? Because some of the things we frequently hear from LSAT prep students are based on a sunk cost fallacy, and I've always found it a useful discussion because it can help inform the choices you make, or plan to make.	8
Definitions for david ricardo This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word david ricardo Ricardo, David Ricardo(noun) English economist who argued that the laws of supply and demand should operate in a free market (1772-1823) David Ricardo was a British political economist and stock trader. He was often credited with systematizing economics, and was one of the most influential of the classical economists, along with Thomas Malthus, Adam Smith, and John Stuart Mill. He was also a member of Parliament, businessman, financier and speculator, who amassed a considerable personal fortune. Perhaps his most important contribution was the theory of comparative advantage, a fundamental argument in favour of free trade among countries and of specialisation among individuals. Ricardo argued that there is mutual benefit from trade even if one party is more productive in every possible area than its trading counterpart, as long as each concentrates on the activities where it has a relative productivity advantage. Find a translation for the david ricardo definition in other languages: Select another language: Discuss these david ricardo definitions with the community: Word of the Day Would you like us to send you a FREE new word definition delivered to your inbox daily? Use the citation below to add this definition to your bibliography: "david ricardo." Definitions.net. STANDS4 LLC, 2015. Web. 27 Mar. 2015. <http://www.definitions.net/definition/david ricardo>.	8
April 25, 2012 (PLANSPONSOR.com) – A white paper by the MetLife Mature Market Institute looks at a number of theories about the impact Baby Boomers have had on American society. The paper, “How Boomers Turned Conventional Wisdom on Its Head: A Historian’s View on How the Future May Judge a Transitional Generation,” written by historian W. Andrew Achenbaum, notes that those born between 1946 and 1955 changed conventional American life stages, redefined inclusivity and contributed to the health of all Americans. According to the report, they are also the first generation whose impact continues well into middle age and beyond. Boomers Rearranged the Three Boxes of Life Instead of going to school, entering the labor force after high school and retiring in their 60's, Boomers rearranged the traditional life stages. Many went to college, entered the work force a little later and changed jobs a number of times, rather than remaining with one employer. Retirement became phased as people "unretired" and re-entered the work force in encore careers. Boomers Widened the Range of Inclusivity Boomers did not necessarily instigate the various struggles for equality over the past six decades, but this generation institutionalized an ethos of inclusivity in U.S. society. Boomers Advanced Healthfulness—Structurally and Personally Advances in adult Boomer life expectancy were attributed to medical breakthroughs in heart disease and strokes as well as changed behaviors (smoking cessation, dietary modifications). While obesity and poor nutrition choices still remain an issue, Boomers incorporated preventive care into their life styles with nutrition, exercise and holistic medicine, leading to multi-billion dollar industries.	8
In economics, an isoquant (derived from quantity and the Greek word iso, meaning equal) is a contour line drawn through the set of points at which the same quantity of output is produced while changing the quantities of two or more inputs. While an indifference curve mapping helps to solve the utility-maximizing problem of consumers, the isoquant mapping deals with the cost-minimization problem of producers. Isoquants are typically drawn along with isocost curves in capital-labor graphs, showing the technological tradeoff between capital and labor in the production function, and the decreasing marginal returns of both inputs. Adding one input while holding the other constant eventually leads to decreasing marginal output, and this is reflected in the shape of the isoquant. A family of isoquants can be represented by an isoquant map, a graph combining a number of isoquants, each representing a different quantity of output. Isoquants are also called equal product curves. An isoquant shows the extent to which the firm in question has the ability to substitute between the two different inputs at will in order to produce the same level of output. An isoquant map can also indicate decreasing or increasing returns to scale based on increasing or decreasing distances between the isoquant pairs of fixed output increment, as output increases. If the distance between those isoquants increases as output increases, the firm's production function is exhibiting decreasing returns to scale; doubling both inputs will result in placement on an isoquant with less than double the output of the previous isoquant. Conversely, if the distance is decreasing as output increases, the firm is experiencing increasing returns to scale; doubling both inputs results in placement on an isoquant with more than twice the output of the original isoquant. As with indifference curves, two isoquants can never cross. Also, every possible combination of inputs is on an isoquant. Finally, any combination of inputs above or to the right of an isoquant results in more output than any point on the isoquant. Although the marginal product of an input decreases as you increase the quantity of the input while holding all other inputs constant, the marginal product is never negative in the empirically observed range since a rational firm would never increase an input to decrease output. An isoquants shows all those combinations of factors which produce same level of output. An isoquants is also known as equal product curve or iso-product curve. Shapes of Isoquants If the two inputs are perfect substitutes, the resulting isoquant map generated is represented in fig. A; with a given level of production Q3, input X can be replaced by input Y at an unchanging rate. The perfect substitute inputs do not experience decreasing marginal rates of return when they are substituted for each other in the production function. If the two inputs are perfect complements, the isoquant map takes the form of fig. B; with a level of production Q3, input X and input Y can only be combined efficiently in the certain ratio occurring at the kink in the isoquant. The firm will combine the two inputs in the required ratio to maximize profit. Isoquants are typically combined with isocost lines in order to solve a cost-minimization problem for given level of output. In the typical case shown in the top figure, with smoothly curved isoquants, a firm with fixed unit costs of the inputs will have isocost curves that are linear and downward sloped; any point of tangency between an isoquant and an isocost curve represents the cost-minimizing input combination for producing the output level associated with that isoquant. A line joining tangency points of isoquants and isocosts (with input prices held constant) is called the expansion path. The only relevant portion of the isoquant is the one that is convex to the origin, part of the curve which is not convex to the origin implies negative marginal product for factors of production. The higher the isoquant, the higher the production. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Isoquants.\| - Production, costs, and pricing - Production theory basics - Marginal rate of technical substitution - Varian, Hal R., Microeconomic Analysis, third edition, Norton, 1992. - Chiang, Alpha C., Fundamental Methods of Mathematical Economics, third edition, McGraw-Hill, 1984. - Salvatore, Dominick (1989). Schaum's outline of theory and problems of managerial economics, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-054513-7	8
Poverty, Development and Wellbeing: Dimensions of Social Change Poverty is often seen as having low income and inability to access standardized services for living.However, poverty measures have failed to measure the deprivations which are more detrimental inachieving the human well being. Accordingly, development goal is intended to achieve the benefit that arematerially sufficient and disregards the resources which are intrinsically important. Individual’s intrinsiccapabilities are often undermined that function for their overall well being. The challenges are then toincrease the individual’s capabilities with adequate freedom and choices for the responsible well being. ______________________________________________________________________________________ : poverty, wellbeing, development, capabilities, and social change Development as defined by Sen (1999a) is removal of various unfreedom: “ poverty aswell as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive states ”. Despite the unlimitedgrowth of world’s wealth, it denies the elementary freedoms of massive poor who are themajority (Black, 1999; Simon, 1999; Morse, 2004). Lack of substantive freedoms sometimesrelate to economic poverty that can rob people’s freedoms to have basic living conditions (e.g.food to satisfy hunger and to have sufficient nutrition, to obtain remedies to treat basic illnessetc). On the other aspect, lack of social services such as education, organized health services, andother institutions to maintain the growth of civil society also restricts their social freedom(Morse, 2004; Sen, 1985: Sen, 1999a).Development constitutes a process of enlarging people’s choices; of enhancing participatory democratic processes for making decisions; of providing human beings with theopportunity to develop their fullest potential’ and of enabling the marginalized people to1	8
Different media have inherent strengths and weaknesses. Some, like newspapers and television, offer immediacy and frequency. They are delivered fresh each day. Others, like the Yellow Pages or a Google search ad, offer the potential of a highly interested audience that is seeking your product or service. Still others, like direct mail, can target an individual consumer. When you select your media, you make tradeoffs. There are four basic dimensions for your choices: - Low reach vs. high reach. - Low frequency vs. high frequency - Low targeting vs. high targeting - Low cost-per-impression vs. high cost-per-impression Reach is the number of consumers reached by the vehicle. Make sure that you know not only the vehicle's total reach, but also how many of your targeted consumers are being reached. A vehicle may reach a large audience, but few of your targeted consumers may be in that audience. Example: The New York Times newspaper reaches a large audience, but just a tiny fraction of that audience is in Marin County. Frequency is the number of times the vehicle is in front of consumers. Example: A daily newspaper gets read every day. A weekly publication gets read once a week. A monthly publication gets read once a month. If you want your advertising message to be in front of consumers frequently, you need to select the proper media vehicles or mix of vehicles. Targeting is the ability to hit a narrow consumer segment. The target may be defined geographically (e.g., homes within two miles of my business location) or demographically (e.g., consumers with annual household incomes above $100,000). Cost-per-impression is the price of reaching one consumer. An ad in a weekly publication might cost you $500 and the publication will reach 30,000 readers. This means the cost-per-impression is $0.016 - under 2 cents each. A direct-mail piece to 200 potential customers might cost you $72 - 25 cents each to print and another 35 cents to mail. So each impression costs you 60 cents. The chart at left compares the positions of different media on these dimensions. Note that some media can be two things at once. For instance, direct mail can be highly targeted (an address specific mailing) or almost untargeted (a blanket mailing to a whole ZIP code). Direct mail also can be relatively inexpensive (a single-sheet flyer in a "marriage mail" packet) or highly expensive (a solo mail piece with high production values, like a catalogue). Another example: A daily newspaper can be highly targeted if your target consumer matches the newspaper's audience (e.g., educated, affluent consumers within the newspaper's geography), but less so if it does not match up (e.g., consumers under age 30 who live in apartments). What is important is that you know who you are trying to reach and how frequently you want to reach them over what period of time. Then select the media vehicle or vehicles that will achieve your end. NEXT: Tips on using newspaper advertising	8
Minimum wage in the United States The minimum wage in the United States is set by a network of federal, state, and local statutes. Workers generally must be paid no less than the statutory minimum wage as specified by either the federal, state, or local government. As of July 2009, the federal government mandates a nationwide minimum wage level of $7.25 per hour. Effective January 1, 2015 there were 29 states with a minimum wage higher than the federal minimum. From 2014 to 2015, nine states increased their minimum wage levels through automatic adjustments, while increases in 11 other states occurred through legislative or ballot changes. The federal minimum wage peaked at about $10 in 1968, as measured in 2014 inflation adjusted dollars. On March 26, 2014, Connecticut passed legislation to raise the minimum wage from $8.70 to $10.10 by 2017, the first state to address President Obama's call for an increase in the minimum wage. On June 2, 2014, the City Council of Seattle, Washington passed a local ordinance to increase the minimum wage of the city to $15 an hour, giving the city the highest minimum wage in the United States, which will be phased in over seven years, to be fully implemented by 2021. The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimated in 2014 that raising the minimum wage to $10.10 and indexing it to inflation would increase the wages of 16.5 million workers in 2016, while raising it to $9.00 without indexing would affect 7.6 million. Among workers paid by the hour in 2013, 1.5 million were reported as earning exactly the prevailing federal minimum wage. About 1.8 million were reported as earning wages below the minimum. Together, these 3.3 million workers with wages at or below the minimum represent, respectively: 1.0% of the population, 1.6% of the labor force, 2.5% of all workers, and 4.3% of hourly workers. - 1 History - 2 Trends in purchasing power - 3 Economic effects - 4 Commentary - 5 Polls - 6 List of minimum wage levels by jurisdiction - 7 Jobs affected by the minimum wage - 8 See also - 9 References - 10 External links In 1912, Massachusetts organized a commission to recommend non-compulsory minimum wages for women and children. Within eight years, at least thirteen U.S. states and the District of Columbia would pass minimum wage laws. The Lochner era United States Supreme Court consistently invalidated compulsory minimum wage laws. The laws were considered unconstitutional for interfering with the ability of employers to freely negotiate appropriate wage contracts with employees. The first attempt at establishing a national minimum wage came in 1933, when a $0.25 per hour standard was set as part of the National Industrial Recovery Act. However, in the 1935 court case Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States (295 U.S. 495), the United States Supreme Court declared the act unconstitutional, and the minimum wage was abolished. The minimum wage was re-established in the United States in 1938 (pursuant to the Fair Labor Standards Act), once again at $0.25 per hour ($4.07 in 2012 dollars). In United States v. Darby Lumber Co. (1941), the Supreme Court upheld the Fair Labor Standards Act, holding that Congress had the power under the Commerce Clause to regulate employment conditions. Since it was last reset on July 24, 2009, the federal minimum wage in the United States has been $7.25 per hour. Some U.S. territories (such as American Samoa) are exempt. Some types of labor are also exempt: employers may pay tipped labor a minimum of $2.13 per hour, as long as the hour wage plus tip income equals at least the minimum wage. Persons under the age of 20 may be paid $4.25 an hour for the first 90 calendar days of employment (sometimes known as a youth, teen, or training wage) unless a higher state minimum exists. The July 24, 2009 increase was the last of three steps of the Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007. The wage increase was signed into law on May 25, 2007, as a rider to the U.S. Troop Readiness, Veterans' Care, Katrina Recovery, and Iraq Accountability Appropriations Act, 2007. The bill also contained almost $5 billion in tax cuts for small businesses. Voters in six states (Arizona, Colorado, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, and Ohio) in 2006 approved statewide increases in the state minimum wage. The amounts of these increases ranged from $1 to $1.70 per hour and all increases were designed to annually index to inflation. Some politicians in the United States have advocated linking the minimum wage to the Consumer Price Index, thereby increasing the wage automatically each year based on increases to the Consumer Price Index. So far, Arizona, Ohio, Oregon, Missouri, Vermont and Washington have linked their minimum wages to the consumer price index. Minimum wage indexing also takes place each year in Florida, San Francisco, California, and Santa Fe, New Mexico. In April 2014, the U.S. Senate debated the Minimum Wage Fairness Act (S. 1737; 113th Congress). The bill would amend the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA) to increase the federal minimum wage for employees to $10.10 per hour over the course of a two year period. The bill was strongly supported by President Barack Obama and many of the Democratic Senators, but strongly opposed by Republicans in the Senate and House. Later in the year, voters in the Republican-controlled states of Alaska, Arkansas, Nebraska and South Dakota considered ballot initiatives to raise the minimum wage above the national rate of $7.25 per hour. In all four states the initiatives were successful. The results provide further evidence that raising minimum pay has support across party lines. Trends in purchasing power The minimum wage had its highest purchasing value in 1968, when it was $1.60 per hour ($10.88 in 2014 dollars). From January 1981 to April 1990, the minimum wage was frozen at $3.35 per hour, then a record-setting wage freeze. From September 1, 1997 through July 23, 2007, the federal minimum wage remained constant at $5.15 per hour, breaking the old record. Congress then gave states the power to set their minimum wages above the federal level. As of July 1, 2010[update], fourteen states had done so. Some government entities, such as counties and cities, observe minimum wages that are higher than the state as a whole. One notable example of this is Santa Fe, New Mexico, whose $9.50 per hour minimum wage was the highest in the nation, until San Francisco increased its minimum wage to $9.79 in 2009. Another device to increase wages, living wage ordinances, generally apply only to businesses that are under contract to the local government itself. Since 1984, the purchasing power of the federal minimum wage has decreased. Measured in real terms (adjusted for inflation) using 1984 dollars, the real minimum wage was $3.35 in 1984, $2.90 in 1995, $2.74 in 2005, and $3.23 in 2013. If the minimum wage had been raised to $10.00 in 2013, that would have equated to $4.46 in 1984 dollars. The economic effects of raising the minimum wage are controversial. Adjusting the minimum wage may affect current and future levels of employment, prices of goods and services, economic growth, income inequality and poverty. The interconnection of price levels, central bank policy, wage agreements, and total aggregate demand creates a situation in which the conclusions drawn from macroeconomic analysis are highly influenced by the underlying assumptions of the interpreter. Employment and job creation Classical economics argues that raising the price of something results in a lower quantity demanded, in this case fewer workers. Conceptually, if an employer does not believe a worker generates value equal to or in excess of the minimum wage, that worker will not be hired or retained. Empirical work in the 1990s contradicted this basic model. In a landmark study in 1994, economists David Card and Alan Krueger compared the effect on employment in 410 restaurants in New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania following an increase in the New Jersey minimum wage from $4.25 to $5.05 in April 1992. The study found "no indication that the rise in the minimum wage reduced employment." In February 2014, the CBO reported the theoretical effects of a federal minimum wage increase under two scenarios, an increase to $10.10 with indexing for inflation thereafter and an increase to $9.00 with no indexing: - Approximately 16.5 million workers would have their wages rise under the $10.10 option versus 7.5 million under the $9.00 option. - Employment would likely fall by 500,000 under the $10.10 option and 100,000 under the $9.00 option, with a wide range of possible outcomes. The CBO report is controversial and economists say the CBO job loss projection is based upon flawed studies and estimates that are questionable, as well as failing to explain the assumptions the report makes to support job losses. A 2013 Center for Economic and Policy Research (CEPR) review of multiple studies since 2000 indicated that there was "little or no employment response to modest increases in the minimum wage." The study indicated 11 reasons for this finding, the most important including: "reductions in labor turnover; improvements in organizational efficiency; reductions in wages of higher earners ('wage compression'); and small price increases." Another CEPR study in 2014 found that job creation within the United States is faster within states that raised their minimum wage. In 2014, the state with the highest minimum wage in the nation, Washington, exceeded the national average for job growth in the United States. One study concluded that a 10% increase in the minimum wage lowers low-skill employment by 2-4% and total restaurant employment by 1-3%. Some argue that an increasing minimum wage might reduce youth employment (since these workers are likely to have fewer skills than older workers). Overall, there is no consensus between economists about the effects of minimum wages on youth employment. The Economist wrote in December 2013: "A minimum wage, providing it is not set too high, could thus boost pay with no ill effects on jobs...Some studies find no harm to employment from federal or state minimum wages, others see a small one, but none finds any serious damage." Conceptually, raising the minimum wage increases the cost of labor, all other things being equal. Employers may accept lower profits or raise their prices or both. If their prices increase, consumers may demand a lesser quantity of the product, substitute other products or switch to imported products. Marginal producers (those who are barely profitable enough to survive) may be forced out of business if they cannot raise their prices sufficiently to offset the higher cost of labor. Whether the increased income of the workers benefiting from the minimum wage increase can offset these effects is debatable. Some economic research has shown that restaurant prices rise in response to minimum wage increases. Whether growth (GDP, a measure of both income and production) increases or decreases depends significantly on whether the income shifted from owners to workers results in an overall higher level of spending. The tendency of a consumer to spend their next dollar is referred to as the marginal propensity to consume or MPC. The transfer of income from higher income owners (who tend to save more, meaning a lower MPC) to lower income workers (who tend to save less, with a higher MPC) can actually lead to an increase in total consumption and higher demand for goods, leading to increased employment. The CBO reported in February 2014 that income (GDP) overall would be marginally higher after raising the minimum wage, indicating a small net positive increase in growth. Raising the minimum wage to $10.10 and indexing it to inflation would result in a net $2 billion increase in income during the second half of 2016, while raising it to $9.00 and not indexing it would result in a net $1 billion increase in income. An increase in the minimum wage is a form of redistribution from higher-income persons (business owners or "capital") to lower income persons (workers or "labor") and therefore should reduce income inequality. The CBO estimated in February 2014 that raising the minimum wage under either scenario described above would improve income inequality. Families with income more than 6 times the poverty threshold would see their incomes fall (due in part to their business profits declining with higher employee costs), while families with incomes below that threshold would rise. By raising the wages of lower income persons, more are above the poverty threshold. This far exceeds any employment impacts. CBO estimated in February 2014 that raising the minimum wage would reduce the number of persons below the poverty income threshold by 900,000 under the $10.10 option versus 300,000 under the $9.00 option. Federal budget deficit The CBO reported in February 2014 that "[T]he net effect on the federal budget of raising the minimum wage would probably be a small decrease in budget deficits for several years but a small increase in budget deficits thereafter. It is unclear whether the effect for the coming decade as a whole would be a small increase or a small decrease in budget deficits." On the cost side, the report cited higher wages paid by the government to some of its employees along with higher costs for certain procured goods and services. This might be offset by fewer government benefits paid, as some workers with higher incomes would receive fewer government transfer payments. On the revenue side, some would pay higher taxes and others less. Quality of jobs Minimum wage jobs rarely include health insurance coverage, although that is changing in some parts of the United States where the cost of living is high, such as California or Massachusetts. \|New York City\|\|$4.00\| In 2014, over 600 economists signed a letter in support of a $10.10 minimum wage increase with research suggesting that a minimum-wage increase could have a small stimulative effect on the economy as low-wage workers spend their additional earnings, raising demand and job growth. Also, seven recipients of the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences were among 75 economists endorsing an increase in the minimum wage for U.S. workers and said "the weight" of economic research shows higher pay doesn’t lead to fewer jobs. According to a February 2013 survey of the University of Chicago IGM Forum, which includes approximately 40 economists: - 34% agreed with the statement that "Raising the federal minimum wage to $9 per hour would make it noticeably harder for low-skilled workers to find employment", while 56% were either uncertain or disagreed. - 42% agreed with the statement that "...raising the minimum wage to $9 per hour and indexing it to inflation...would be a desirably policy", with 32% uncertain and 11% disagreeing or strongly disagreeing. According to a paper written in 2000 by Fuller and Geide-Stevenson, 73.5% (27.9% of which agreed with provisos) of American economists agreed that a minimum wage increases unemployment among unskilled and young workers, while 26.5% disagreed with this statement. Economist Paul Krugman advocated raising the minimum wage moderately in 2013, citing several reasons, including: - The minimum wage was below its 1960s purchasing power, despite a near doubling of productivity; - The great preponderance of the evidence indicates there is no negative impact on employment from moderate increases; and - A high level of public support, specifically Democrats and Republican women. Former President Bill Clinton advocated raising the minimum wage during 2014: "I think we ought to raise the minimum wage because it doesn’t just raise wages for the three or four million people who are directly affected by it, it bumps the wage structure everywhere...The estimates are that 35 million Americans would get a pay raise if the federal minimum wage was raised...If you [raise the minimum wage] in a phased way, it always creates jobs. Why? Because people who make the minimum wage or near it are struggling to get by, they spend every penny they make, they turn it over in the economy, they create jobs, they create opportunity, and they take better care of their children. It’s just the right thing to do, but it’s also very good economics." The Pew Center reported in January 2014 that 73% of Americans supported raising the minimum wage from $7.25 to $10.10 per hour. By party, 53% of Republicans and 90% of Democrats favored this action. A Lake Research Partners poll in February 2012 included the following findings: - Strong support overall for raising the minimum wage, with 73% of likely voters supporting an increase to $10 and indexing it to inflation during 2014, including 58% who strongly support the action; - Support crosses party lines, with support from 91% of Democrats, 74% of Independents, and 50% of Republicans; and - A majority (56%) believe that raising the minimum wage will help the economy, with 16% believing it won't make a difference. Only 21% felt it would hurt the economy. List of minimum wage levels by jurisdiction This is a list of the minimum wages (per hour) in each state and territory of the United States, for jobs covered by federal minimum wage laws. If the job is not subject to the federal Fair Labor Standards Act, then state, city, or other local laws may determine the minimum wage. A common exemption to the federal minimum wage is a company having revenue of less than $500,000 per year while not engaging in any interstate commerce. Under the federal law, workers who receive a portion of their salary from tips, such as waitstaff, are required only to have their total compensation, including tips, meet the minimum wage. Therefore, often, their hourly wage, before tips, is less than the minimum wage. Seven states, and Guam, do not allow for a tip credit. Additional exemptions to the minimum wage include many seasonal employees, student employees, and certain disabled employees as specified by the FLSA. In addition, some counties and cities within states may observe a higher minimum wage than the rest of the state in which they are located; sometimes this higher wage will apply only to businesses that are under contract to the local government itself, while in other cases the higher minimum will be enforced across the board. \|Tipped\|\|$2.13\|\|The Fair Labor Standards Act requires a minimum wage of $2.13 for tipped workers with the expectation that wages plus tips total no less than $7.25 per hour. The employer must pay the difference if total income does not add up to $7.25 per hour.\| \|Non-tipped\|\|$7.25\|\|Per the Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007 (FMWA) .since July 24, 2009.\| \|Youth\|\|$4.25\|\|Per the Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007 (FMWA) since July 24, 2009, persons under the age of 20 may be paid $4.25 for the first 90 calendar days of their employment.\| \|Alaska\|\|$8.75\|\|$8.75\|\|Alaska's minimum wage increased to $8.75 on February 28, 2015, and will increase to $9.75 in 2016.\| \|Arizona\|\|$8.05\|\|$4.90\|\|Arizona's minimum wage increased to $8.05 on January 1, 2015. The state tipped minimum wage is $3 per hour less. Pursuant to Arizona Proposition 202 (2006), the rates are adjusted annually on January 1 based on the U.S. Consumer Price Index. This rate increase does not affect student workers in places such as libraries and cafeterias because those positions are given by universities, which are state entities.\| \|Arkansas\|\|$7.50 Note: Federal minimum wage applies to businesses involved in interstate commerce, and to most businesses with gross revenues over $500,000, where state minimum wage is lower.\|\|$2.63\|\|Arkansas' minimum wage will increase to $8.00 in 2016 and to $8.50 by 2017. The current rate is applicable to employers of 4 or more employees.\| \|California\|\|$9.00\|\|$9.00\|\|California's minimum wage will increase to $10.00 on January 1, 2016. Berkeley: $10.00 since October 1, 2014; will increase to $11.00 effective October 1, 2015 and to $12.53 effective October 1, 2016. Jackson Rancheria: $10.60 since January 1, 2014 on the Tribe's sovereign 1,500-acre reservation in Amador County. Oakland: 12.25 since March 2, 2014. (Oakland has the highest minimum wage in the United States.) San Francisco: San Francisco's minimum wage has been $11.05 since January 1, 2015 and the rate will increase to $15.00 by 2018. San Jose: $10.30 since January 1, 2015.\| \|Colorado\|\|$8.23\|\|$5.21\|\|Changes yearly in response to inflation. The tipped wage is $3.02 less than the minimum wage \| \|Connecticut\|\|$9.15\|\|$6.21\|\|Connecticut's minimum wage increased to $9.15 on January 1, 2015. On March 26, 2014, the state passed legislation to raise the minimum wage to $10.10 by January 1, 2017. Connecticut's tipped minimum wage is 69% of the state minimum wage (tipped employees defined as $10/wk or $2/day in tips).\| \|Delaware\|\|$7.75\|\|$2.23\|\|Delaware's minimum wage will increase to $8.25 on June 1, 2015.\| \|Florida\|\|$8.05\|\|$5.03\|\|Florida's minimum wage is increased annually based upon a cost of living formula, following a 2004 ballot referendum. Florida's minimum wage increased to $8.05 and the tipped minimum wage to $5.03 on January 1, 2015.\| \|$2.13\|\|Only applicable to employers of 6 or more employees. If fewer than six, then there is no minimum at all. The state law excludes from coverage any employment that is subject to the Federal Fair Labor Standards Act when the federal rate is greater than the state rate.\| \|Hawaii\|\|$7.75\|\|$7.00\|\|Hawaii's minimum wage increased to $7.75 on January 1, 2015, and will increase to $10.10 by January 1, 2018. Tipped employees earn 25 cents less than the current state minimum wage.\| \|Illinois\|\|$8.25\|\|$4.95\|\|$7.75\|\|Employers may pay anyone under the age of 18, or anyone for the first 90 days of employment, fifty cents less. Tipped employees earn 60% of the minimum wage (employers may claim credit for tips, up to 40% of wage) There is also a training wage for tipped employees.\| \|Iowa\|\|$7.25\|\|$4.35\|\|Most small retail and service establishments grossing less than $300,000 annually are not required to pay the minimum wage. Tipped employees can be paid 60% of the minimum wage.\| \|Kentucky\|\|$7.25\|\|$2.13\|\|Louisville's minimum wage will increase to $9.00 by 2017.\| \|Maine\|\|$7.50\|\|$3.75\|\|Tipped rate is half of the current state minimum wage.\| \|Maryland\|\|$7.25\|\|$3.63\|\|Maryland's minimum wage will increase to $10.10 by 2018.\| \|Massachusetts\|\|$9.00\|\|$2.63\|\|Massachusetts' minimum wage will increase to $11.00 by 2017 making it the highest minimum-wage in the country at the state level. Massachusetts is the only state in the country that mandates time-and-a-half for retail workers working on Sunday. When the state minimum wage takes full effect at $11 an hour in 2017 the effective minimum wage for a retail worker working on Sunday is $16.50 an hour.\| \|Michigan\|\|$8.15\|\|$2.65\|\|$4.25\|\|Michigan's minimum wage will increase to $9.25 by September 2018. Minors under 18 years of age may be paid a minimum hourly wage rate of $7.25 per hour.\| \|Minnesota\|\|$8.00\|\|$6.50 Small Employer $6.15 Large employer \|Small employers, whose annual receipts are less than $625,000 and who do not engage in interstate commerce, can pay their employees $5.25 per hour. Overtime applies after 48 hours per week. Note: The federal minimum wage for all employers grossing more than $500,000 is $7.25 an hour as of July 24, 2009, so the Minnesota large-employer rate of $6.15 an hour is obsolete as of that date, except that it applies to tipped employees as it is higher than the federal tipped rate. For large-employer, the minimum wage becomes $8.00/hour on Aug 1, 2014; $9.00 on Aug 1, 2015; and $9.50 on Aug 1, 2016. For small-employer, the same timeframe will be used for increases to $6.50, $7.25, then $7.75. Beginning January 1, 2018, all minimum wage rates will increase by the national implicit price deflator or 2.5%, whichever is lower.\| \|Missouri\|\|$7.65\|\|$3.75\|\|Missouri's minimum wage rate is automatically adjusted annually based on the U.S. Consumer Price Index rounded to the nearest five cents, and will increase to $7.65 on January 1, 2015.\| \|Montana\|\|$8.05\|\|$7.90\|\|Montana's minimum wage rate is automatically adjusted annually based on the U.S. Consumer Price Index, and increased to $8.05 on January 1, 2015. Income from tips cannot offset an employee's pay rate. The state minimum wage for business with less than $110,000 in annual sales is $4.00.\| \|Nebraska\|\|$8.00\|\|$2.13\|\|Minimum wage rate will increase to $9.00 in 2016.\| \|Nevada\|\|$8.25\|\|$8.25\|\|The minimum wage has been $8.25 ($1 higher than the federal minimum) since July 1, 2010. Employers who offer health benefits can pay employees $7.25. The rate is adjusted every July 1, based on the federal minimum or the accumulated inflation since 2006, whichever is higher, based on a 2006 Minimum Wage Amendment to the Nevada Constitution.\| \|New Jersey\|\|$8.38\|\|$2.13\|\|New Jersey's minimum wage increased to $8.38 on January 1, 2015.\| \|New Mexico\|\|$7.50\|\|$2.13\|\|$10.84 in Santa Fe as of 2015. (Santa Fe has the third highest minimum wage in the United States after Oakland and San Francisco.) Albuquerque's minimum wage became $8.75 on January 1, 2015.\| \|New York\|\|$8.75 \|\|Varies\|\|The Minimum Wage rate increased to $8.75 on December 31, 2014, and will increase to $9.00 on December 31, 2015. New York State also has a minimum for exempt employees of $543.75 per week as of July 24, 2009. Tipped employee minimum ranges from $4.90 to $5.65 depending on industry. Effective December 31, 2013, there are different rules for the minimum cash wage for employers employing tipped employees outside of the hospitality industry, (e.g., in car washes and in salons). For workers earning more than $1.95 on average per hour in tips, the minimum cash wage will be $6.05 per hour; for workers earning between $1.20 and $1.95 in tips on average per hour, the cash wage is $6.80 \| \|North Dakota\|\|$7.25\|\|$4.86\|\|Tipped minimum is 67% of the minimum wage.\| \|Ohio\|\|$8.10\|\|$3.98\|\|$7.25\|\|This rate is adjusted annually on January 1 based on the U.S. Consumer Price Index and will increase to $8.10 on January 1, 2015.\| \|Oklahoma\|\|$7.25\|\|$2.13\|\|Oklahoma's minimum wage for employers grossing under $100,000 and with less than 10 employees per location is $2.00.(OK Statutes 40-197.5).\| \|Oregon\|\|$9.25\|\|$9.25\|\|Rises with inflation since 2003 due to Oregon Ballot Measure 25 (2002).\| \|Rhode Island\|\|$9.00\|\|$2.89\|\|Rhode Island's minimum wage increased to $9.00 in 2015.\| \|South Dakota\|\|$8.50\|\|$2.13\|\|South Dakota's minimum wage increased to $8.50 on January 1, 2015, and is indexed to inflation. The minimum wage for those under 18 is $7.50.\| \|Vermont\|\|$9.15\|\|$9.15\|\|Vermont's minimum wage increased to $9.15 on January 1, 2015, will increase to $10.50 by January 1, 2018, and will be indexed to inflation beginning on January 1, 2019.\| \|Washington\|\|$9.47 \|\|$9.47\|\|$8.05\|\|Minimum wage increases annually by a voter-approved cost-of-living adjustment based on the federal Consumer Price Index for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers (CPI-W). Beginning in 2015, the city of Seattle will begin phasing in a minimum wage rate of $15.00 which is to be completed for businesses with over 500 employees by 2017, and for all businesses by 2021. Washington is particularly unique in the fact that not only does it have the highest minimum wage in the country but it also does not have a state wide income tax.\| \|West Virginia\|\|$8.00\|\|$5.80\|\|West Virginia's minimum wage increased to $8.00 on December 31, 2014, and will increase to $8.75 on December 31, 2015. The state minimum wage is applicable to employers of six or more employees at one location not involved in interstate commerce. The state's minimum wage for tipped employees is 80% of the federal minimum wage.\| \|American Samoa\|\|$4.18-$5.59\|\|Varies by industry. On September 30, 2010, President Obama signed legislation that delays scheduled wage increases for 2010 and 2011. On July 26, 2012, President Obama signed S. 2009 into law, postponing the minimum wage increase for 2012, 2013, and 2014. Annual wage increases of $0.50 will recommence on September 30, 2015 and continue every three years until all rates have reached the federal minimum.\| \|District of Columbia\|\|$9.50\|\|This rate is automatically set at $1 above the federal minimum wage rate. The tipped wage in Washington, D.C., is $2.77 per hour. A law enacted in January 2014 will have annual increases every July; $10.50 in 2015, and $11.50 in 2016. Afterwards the increases will be based on the region's cost of living.\| \|Guam\|\|$7.25\|\|Tipped employee minimum $6.55\| \|Northern Mariana Islands\|\|$5.55\|\|Since September 30, 2012. Wages were to go up $0.50 annually to the $7.25 rate by 2015. Bill S. 256 to delay the planned increases to the full rate until 2018 passed in Sept. 2013.\| \|Puerto Rico\|\|$7.25\|\|Employers covered by the Federal Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) are subject only to the federal minimum wage and all applicable regulations. Employers not covered by the FLSA will be subject to a minimum wage that is at least 70 percent of the federal minimum wage or the applicable mandatory decree rate, whichever is higher. The Secretary of Labor and Human Resources may authorize a rate based on a lower percentage for any employer who can show that implementation of the 70 percent rate would substantially curtail employment in that business. Puerto Rico also has minimum wage rates that vary according to the industry. These rates range from a minimum of $5.08 to $7.25 per hour. \|U.S. Virgin Islands\|\|$7.25\|\|Except businesses with gross annual receipts of less than $150,000, then $4.30. (In practice, the Virgin Islands adopts the federal per hour rate)\| Jobs affected by the minimum wage The jobs that are most likely to be directly affected by the minimum wage are the ones that pay a wage close to the minimum. According to the May 2006 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates, the four lowest-paid occupational sectors in May 2006 (when the federal minimum wage was $5.15 per hour) were the following: \|Sector\|\|Workers Employed\|\|Median Wage\|\|Mean Wage\|\|Mean Annual\| \|Food Preparation and Serving Related Occupations\|\|11,029,280\|\|$7.90\|\|$8.86\|\|$18,430\| \|Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations\|\|450,040\|\|$8.63\|\|$10.49\|\|$21,810\| \|Personal Care and Service Occupations\|\|3,249,760\|\|$9.17\|\|$11.02\|\|$22,920\| \|Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance Occupations\|\|4,396,250\|\|$9.75\|\|$10.86\|\|$22,580\| Two years later, in May 2008, when the federal minimum wage was $5.85 per hour and was about to increase to $6.55 per hour in July 2008, these same sectors were still the lowest-paying, but their situation (according to Bureau of Labor Statistics data) was: \|Sector\|\|Workers Employed\|\|Median Wage\|\|Mean Wage\|\|Mean Annual\| \|Food Preparation and Serving Related Occupations\|\|11,438,550\|\|$8.59\|\|$9.72\|\|$20,220\| \|Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations\|\|438,490\|\|$9.34\|\|$11.32\|\|$23,560\| \|Personal Care and Service Occupations\|\|3,437,520\|\|$9.82\|\|$11.59\|\|$24,120\| \|Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance Occupations\|\|4,429,870\|\|$10.52\|\|$11.72\|\|$24,370\| In 2006, workers in the following 13 individual occupations received, on average, a median hourly wage of less than $8.00 per hour: \|Occupation\|\|Workers Employed\|\|Median Wage\|\|Mean Wage\|\|Mean Annual\| \|Waiters and Waitresses\|\|2,312,930\|\|$3.14\|\|$4.27\|\|$11,190\| \|Combined Food Preparation and Serving Workers, Including Fast Food\|\|2,461,890\|\|$7.24\|\|$7.66\|\|$15,930\| \|Dining Room and Cafeteria Attendants and Bartender Helpers\|\|401,790\|\|$7.36\|\|$7.84\|\|$16,320\| \|Cooks, Fast Food\|\|612,020\|\|$7.41\|\|$7.67\|\|$15,960\| \|Ushers, Lobby Attendants, and Ticket Takers\|\|101,530\|\|$7.64\|\|$8.41\|\|$17,500\| \|Counter Attendants, Cafeteria, Food Concession, and Coffee Shop\|\|524,410\|\|$7.76\|\|$8.15\|\|$16,950\| \|Hosts and Hostesses, Restaurant, Lounge, and Coffee Shop\|\|340,390\|\|$7.78\|\|$8.10\|\|$16,860\| \|Amusement and Recreation Attendants\|\|235,670\|\|$7.83\|\|$8.43\|\|$17,530\| \|Farmworkers and Laborers, Crop, Nursery, and Greenhouse\|\|230,780\|\|$7.95\|\|$8.48\|\|$17,630\| In 2008, only two occupations paid a median wage less than $8.00 per hour: \|Occupation\|\|Workers Employed\|\|Median Wage\|\|Mean Wage\|\|Mean Annual\| \|Combined Food Preparation and Serving Workers, Including Fast Food\|\|2,708,840\|\|$7.90\|\|$8.36\|\|$17,400\| According to the May 2009 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates, the lowest-paid occupational sectors in May 2009 (when the federal minimum wage was $7.25 per hour) were the following: \|Sector\|\|Workers Employed\|\|Median Wage\|\|Mean Wage\|\|Mean Annual\| \|Combined Food Preparation and Serving Workers, Including Fast Food\|\|2,695,740\|\|$8.28\|\|$8.71\|\|$18,120\| \|Waiters and Waitresses\|\|2,302,070\|\|$8.50\|\|$9.80\|\|$20,380\| \|Dining Room and Cafeteria Attendants and Bartender Helpers\|\|402,020\|\|$8.51\|\|$9.09\|\|$18,900\| \|Cooks, Fast Food\|\|539,520\|\|$8.52\|\|$8.76\|\|$18,230\| - "States’ Minimum Wages Rise, Helping Millions of Workers". 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The source page has a clickable US map with current and projected state-by-state minimum wage rates for each state. - "Minimum Wages for Tipped Employees". US Department of Labor. January 1, 2013. Retrieved 2013-09-25. - "State Minimum Wage Rates". LaborLawCenter.com. Retrieved 2013-09-24. - "Minimum Wage FAQs". Industrial Commission of Arizona. Retrieved August 6, 2010. - Lopez, Rebecca M. (2 January 2015). "Minimum Wage Surges in 2015 and Beyond". The National Law Review (Godfrey & Kahn S.C.). Retrieved 26 January 2015. - "Minimum wage". California Department of Industrial Relations. Retrieved August 6, 2010. - Lifsher, Marc (September 12, 2013). "California Legislature approves raising minimum wage to $10". LATimes.com. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2013-09-25. - "Minimum Wage Ordinance (MWO)". City of Berkeley. Retrieved 26 November 2014. - Kasler, Dale (October 15, 2013). "Jackson Rancheria announcing raise for hundreds of employees". Sacramento Bee. Retrieved October 16, 2013. - "Minimum Wage Ordinance (MWO)". Retrieved January 2, 2014. - "2014 Official Minimum Wage Bulletin". Retrieved January 2, 2014. - "Labor Laws: Minimum Wage". Colorado Department of Labor and Employment. Retrieved 2013-09-25. - "Colorado's minimum wage becomes first in the country to drop". Syracuse Post-Standard. January 1, 2010. - "2012 Colorado Minimum Wage Fact Sheet -- December 2012". Colorado DOLE. Retrieved 2013-09-25. - "History of Minimum Wage Rates". Connecticut Department of Labor. Retrieved January 31, 2013. - Del. governor signs minimum wage increase - "Florida's New Minimum Wage for 2013". Florida Department of Economic Opportunity. October 13, 2012. Retrieved November 8, 2012. - Note: Federal minimum wage applies to businesses involved in interstate commerce, and to most businesses with gross revenues over $500,000, where state minimum wage is lower. - "Minimum Wage Change -- Spotlight -- Georgia Department of Labor". Dol.state.ga.us. Retrieved 2013-06-13. - Go to Georgia Code Title 34, Chapter 4, § 34-4-3 - "Minimum Wage and Overtime". Hawaii Department of Labor and Industrial Relations. Retrieved 2013-09-25. - "Minimum Wage/Overtime FAQ". Illinois Department of Labor. Retrieved 2013-09-25. - "Wage and Hour Questions and Answers". Iowa Workforce Development. - "Sebelius signs bill to raise Kansas minimum wage to $7.25 an hour". Kansas City Business Journal. April 23, 2009. - "Minimum Wage Poster". Maine Department of Labor Standards. Retrieved September 3, 2010. - Wagner, John (February 11, 2014). "Maryland governor urges minimum-wage rise to $10.10 to help state’s lowest-paid workers". The Washington Post. Retrieved 18 February 2014. - "Minimum Wage Program". Executive Office of Labor and Workforce Development. Retrieved March 28, 2012. - "What is the Michigan Minimum Wage?". Michigan Department of Energy, Labor & Economic Growth. Retrieved July 8, 2011. - "How federal minimum-wage increase affects Minnesota businesses". Minnesota Department of Labor and Industry. Retrieved November 8, 2010. - "Labor Standards -- Minnesota's minimum-wage law". Minnesota Department of Labor and Industry. Retrieved September 25, 2013. - "Labor Standards -- Minnesota's minimum-wage law". Minnesota Department of Labor and Industry. Retrieved June 3, 2014. - http://fox2now.com/2014/11/07/small-increase-coming-to-missouris-minimum-wage/. Missing or empty - "Nevada’s minimum wage and daily overtime rates unchanged for 2013". Nevada Office of the Labor Commissioner. April 1, 2013. Retrieved 2013-09-25. - "Minimum Wage Rate Increasing". Las Vegas Review Journal. June 26, 2010. - Minimum wage proposal gets minimum attention, fizzles out during N.J. budget battle - Livio, Susan (November 5, 2013). "N.J. voters approve constitutional amendment raising minimum wage". The Star Ledger. Retrieved November 6, 2013. - "Minimum Wages - New York State Department of Labor". Labor.state.ny.us. 2013-05-08. Retrieved 2013-06-13. - "New York approves $9 minimum wage". upi.com. UPI. March 29, 2013. Retrieved 2013-09-24. - Viswanathan, Subhash (September 22, 2009). "New York Increases Amount of Salary Necessary to Qualify Employees for Executive and Administrative Exemptions". New York Labor And Employment Law Report. Retrieved 2013-09-24. - Tripp, Noel P.; Jackson Lewis P.C. (8 Dec 2013). "New York’s New Miscellaneous Wage Order Tip Credit Provision to Impact Businesses Such As Car Washes and Salons". The National Law Review. Retrieved 10 Dec 2013. - $7.25 for employees under 16 years old and employees whose employers gross less than $288,000 in 2013. - "Ohio minimum wage to go up 10 cents next week". Cleveland Plain Dealer. December 30, 2010. - "Your Rights Under the Oklahoma Minimum Wage Act". Oklahoma Department of Labor. Retrieved 2013-09-25. - "Vermont Minimum Wage Notice". Vermont Department of Labor. 2013. Retrieved 2013-09-25. - "Minimum Wage". Washington State Department of Labor and Industries. Retrieved 2014-06-05. - Employees aged 14 or 15 may be paid 85% of the minimum wage. - "Minimum Wage". Washington State Department of Labor and Industries. Retrieved 2013-10-14. - "Seattle City Council approves historic $15 minimum wage". Seattle Times. 2014-06-02. Retrieved 2014-06-05. - "The Wisconsin's 2009 Minimum Wage Rates". Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development. July 24, 2009. - "Wage Rate in American Samoa". Department of Labor Wage and Hour Division. - "President Obama signs Minimum Wage delay into Law". US Dept of Labor. October 1, 2012. - "Wage and Hour Compliance". District of Columbia Department of Employment Services. Retrieved 2013-09-25. - DeBonis, Mike (January 15, 2014). "D.C. minimum wage hike is signed into law". The Washington Post. - "National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates United States". US Bureau of Labor Statistics. May 2006. Retrieved 2013-10-06. - "National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates United States". US Bureau of Labor Statistics. May 2008. Retrieved 2013-10-06. - "National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates United States". US Bureau of Labor Statistics. May 2009. Retrieved 2013-10-06. - Minimum wage in the United States at DMOZ - Federal Minimum Wage. United States Department of Labor Wage and Hour Division. - Minimum Wages for Tipped Employees. United States Department of Labor Wage and Hour Division. - History of Federal Minimum Wage United States Department of Labor Wage and Hour Division. - U.S. Minimum Wage History. Oregon State University - Wealth and Poverty (Anth 484). Last updated December 26, 2012.	8
Introduction to an Alternative History of Money This paper integrates the various strands of an alternative, heterodox view on the origins of money and the development of the modern financial system in a manner that is consistent with the findings of historians and anthropologists. As is well known, the orthodox story of money's origins and evolution begins with the creation of a medium of exchange to reduce the costs of barter. To be sure, the history of money is "lost in the mists of time," as money's invention probably predates writing. Further, the history of money is contentious. And, finally, even orthodox economists would reject the Robinson Crusoe story and the evolution from a commodity money through to modern fiat money as historically accurate. Rather, the story told about the origins and evolution of money is designed to shed light on the "nature" of money. The orthodox story draws attention to money as a transactions-cost-minimizing medium of exchange. Heterodox economists reject the formalist methodology adopted by orthodox economists in favor of a substantivist methodology. In the formalist methodology, the economist begins with the "rational" economic agent facing scarce resources and unlimited wants. Since the formalist methodology abstracts from historical and institutional detail, it must be applicable to all human societies. Heterodoxy argues that economics has to do with a study of the institutionalized interactions among humans and between humans and nature. The economy is a component of culture; or, more specifically, of the material life process of society. As such, substantivist economics cannot abstract from the institutions that help to shape economic processes; and the substantivist problem is not the formal one of choice, but a problem concerning production and distribution. A powerful critique of the orthodox story regarding money can be developed using the findings of comparative anthropology, comparative history, and comparative economics. Given the embedded nature of economic phenomenon in prior societies, an understanding of what money is and what it does in capitalist societies is essential to this approach. This can then be contrasted with the functioning of precapitalist societies in order to allow identification of which types of precapitalist societies would use money and what money would be used for in these societies. This understanding is essential for informed speculation on the origins of money. The comparative approach used by heterodox economists begins with an understanding of the role money plays in capitalist economies, which shares essential features with analyses developed by a wide range of Institutionalist, Keynesian, Post Keynesian, and Marxist macroeconomists. This paper uses the understanding developed by comparative anthropology and comparative history of precapitalist societies in order to logically reconstruct the origins of money. Please report citation or reference errors to , or , if you are the registered author of the cited work, log in to your RePEc Author Service profile, click on "citations" and make appropriate adjustments.: - Stephanie Bell & John Henry & L Randall Wray, 2004. "A Chartalist Critique of John Locke's Theory of Property, Accumulation, and Money: or, is it Moral to Trade Your Nuts for Gold?," Review of Social Economy, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 62(1), pages 51-65. - Perry Mehrling, 2000. "Modern Money: Fiat or Credit?," Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, M.E. Sharpe, Inc., vol. 22(3), pages 397-406, April. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:lev:wrkpap:wp_717. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc. For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: (Marie-Celeste Edwards) If references are entirely missing, you can add them using this form.	8
Leadership For Dummies US $19.99 Add to Cart Part I: Introducing Leadership. Chapter 1: Taking the Lead. Chapter 2: Pinning Down the Meaning of Leadership. Chapter 3: Leadership and Management: Two Sides of the Same Coin. Part II: Leading Yourself. Chapter 4: Leading ‘Inside Out’: Knowing Yourself to Become a Better Leader. Chapter 5: Singing Your Leadership Song: Being in Tune with Your Values. Chapter 6: Stepping Up to Leadership: Handling Dilemmas. Part III: Leading Others. Chapter 7: Developing a Sense of Purpose. Chapter 8: Employing the Power of Engaging Leadership. Chapter 9: Becoming an Engaging Leader. Chapter 10: Modifying Your Leadership Style. Chapter 11: Leading People to Peak Performance. Part IV: Leading People Through Change. Chapter 12: Diving into a Sea of Change. Chapter 13: Transforming Workplace Culture: A Leader's Approach. Chapter 14: Reinforcing a New Culture: Maintaining Your Workplace Changes. Part V: Leading Different Types of Team. Chapter 15: Leading Your Own Team. Chapter 16: Taking on a Project Team. Chapter 17: Facilitating Virtual Teams. Chapter 18: Leading Your Senior Management Team. Part VI: The Part of Tens. Chapter 19: Ten Tips on Taking the Lead. Chapter 20: Ten Tips for Leading Yourself. Chapter 21: Ten Tips for Engaging People.	8
UNDP will work to ensure the National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP) 2015-2019 incorporate a comprehensive approach to the country development, which includes specific targets for poverty reduction and employment generation. This planning framework is aligned with the nine Cambodia Millennium Development Goals. To help the country achieve these goals, UNDP works to strengthen national capacities and decrease the country’s economic and social vulnerabilities, engaging with private sector and supporting selected trade sectors moving up the value chain and having better access to markets. UNDP supports the government to monitor and track progress toward MDGs at both national and subnational levels. An important part of this work is supporting the government to monitor impacts of social protection scheme. Complementing this, policy research conducted by UNDP in areas such as extractive industries, industrial policies and human capital development aims to assist the government in generating and implementing innovative policy options that promote inclusiveness of economic growth that should benefit to all Cambodians. In mine clearance, UNDP contributes to poverty reduction and rural development by building the capacity of government in the areas of monitoring, regulation, quality assurance, socio-economic planning, and post-clearance land use. Key Facts about Poverty Reduction in Cambodia Poverty has been reduced to 19.8 percent in 2011 from 47 percent in 1993. Almost a fourth, however, still lives below the national poverty line (3,871 riel or US$0.96). Meanwhile, seasonal urban poverty starts to be more visible. In the rural areas where 80 percent of the population live, poverty continues to persist, resulting in people migrating to urban centres or across the borders to search for work with limited or no protection from abuses. Geographical inequality levels remains an issue, as poverty estimates can vary from 0.1 % to 37% from one province to another. Latest publicationHDR Analysis on Cambodia Presented in this leaflet is an abstract of the 2013 Human Development Report on Cambodia’s performance on key indices of human development. It is to underscore the progresses in key human development indices and draw attentions to inequalities that potentially restricts and or undo human development progresses achieved over the last two decades or longer. In short, it is a brief account on Cambodia’s HDI/IHDI, Gender Inequality Index (GII), Multi-dimensional Poverty Index (MPI) and concluding remarks based on the 2013 Human Development Report. - 23 Feb 2015:Cambodia: Investing in human capital critical for sustaining growth - 09 Feb 2015:More mine-free land released to Cambodian farmers - 02 Sep 2014:Cambodia’s human development index value continues to rise in 2014	8
Financial responsibility begins in the home with early budget management Pocket money, saving and explaining the value of work are still central to teaching financial literacy to children Small children typically respond better when something is more tangible, which can be more difficult in this digital era, but piggy banks can still be found Balancing a chequebook may be a skill largely consigned to the past, but learning about money still remains a vital life skill for children to acquire. Given that it’s unlikely to be taught in school, it’s largely up to parents to pass on some financial lessons, at least if they ever want to wean their children off the “bank of mam and dad”. But are parents doing enough? A recent survey from Danske Bank shows that just half of all parents regularly talk to their children about how to spend and manage their money – even though almost everyone responding thought that their child would benefit from such discussions. So there’s an obvious disconnect between what is happening and what should be happening. But, even though parents may feel ill-equipped to pass on financial advice, particularly given so many are still reeling from decisions they made themselves during the boom, a couple of simple steps can make a difference. In theory, pocket money is an ideal way to teach your children about money. It’s a set amount of cash and they learn to understand what that money can buy them and that, if they want to make a big ticket expenditure, they will have to save up for it. Joanna Fortune, a clinical psychotherapist with Solamh parent child relationship clinic, agrees:“I think it’s a good idea because it has many child development benefits: it encourages independence, it helps with budgeting and gives an appreciation of the value of money. “It also allows children to decide on things they like, to make choices, and to know that if they really want something, they have to save for it,” she says. But how much should you give? Statistics from Danske Bank show that 80 per cent of parents give, on average, €27 a month to 12 to 16 year olds, with 11 per cent giving more than €50. Fortune advises that the amount you give should be influenced by your own family situation and not by what other children are getting. Not only that, it’s important for children to get the message that when it’s gone it’s gone and it won’t be topped up again. “If you want it to be an effective development tool, you have to stick to your budget if you’re helping them to budget,” she says. A regular payday also helps with budgeting and reinforces the message that the money has to last a week. But should pocket money be used to encourage children helping out at home? “You’d want to be very clear. If you’re giving pocket money that is earned by doing household chores or tasks, you should add the caveat that part of being in a family is the expectation that everyone helps out. You don’t get paid to be in a family,” she says, adding that while children may not get paid for everyday chores, you might offer them the opportunity to take on additional chores to earn additional money. Children typically respond better when something is more tangible, which can be more difficult in this digital era. With the days of banking books now long gone however, one way of recreating that level of engagement with your child is by using saving stamps from the Post Office. You can pick up a “Cyril Squirrel” savings card in your local post office, and stamps can be bought for just €1 each. So, every pocket money day could involve a trip to the post office to allow children to save a certain portion of their allowance. Another option would be for parents to buy the stamps in bulk and allocate them each week, thereby saving on the weekly trips. The only downside to the cards is that, to cash them in, they must first be lodged to an existing post office account. Credit unions often also run saving stamp schemes. St Colmcille’s in Kells, Co. Meath for example, runs its “Sammy Stamp” programme, which allows children to buy stamps for as little as 50 cent, which they keep in their saving book. As an alternative, or for smaller children, a money box or piggy bank can fulfil the same goal. Fortune recommends that children save 10 per cent of their pocket money, so even if they get just €2 a week, 20 cent should be saved. “It all matters; it’s all relative to their age and stage of life,” says Fortune, adding that, if there’s a busy week coming up where children might need more money than usual, they should be encouraged to save extra in the preceding weeks . Establishing saving habits early will also help when children encounter the windfall that has become religious celebrations such as first Holy Communion and Confirmation, where a typical child will come into about €400. Easier said than done perhaps in the current climate, but getting a job is a way for children to learn how the world of money works; particularly if they get taxed. “I think getting a job is great idea,” says Fortune, adding that if children get a job they may no longer pocket money, so adds the following caveat:“I’d be very careful about how much disposable income they have – some teenagers have quite a bit.” Children under 14 cannot work, but those aged between 14 and 15 can do light work during the school holidays, while 15-year-olds may do eight hours a week light work in school term time. Children under 18 are entitled to earn 70 per cent of the minimum wage, or €6.06 per hour. Tools for money games In the US, it seems that parents assign more importance to teaching kids money management skills, even sending them to summer camp to do so. At Camp Millionaire for example, which is an activity-based financial literacy programme , children spend the weekend learning how to invest in stocks and pay credit card bills and phone bills. Presumably to cover the cost of the course, which is $229 (€171) for a two-day session. But if you would like to take a more formal approach to teaching your children about money, there are some other options which don’t involve such a significant outlay. This is a website developed by Danske Bank which aims to introduce your child (aged between five and seven) to information about where money comes from, what money is worth and how to prioritise and save up. For older children, in the 10-12 and 12-15 age groups, controlyourmoney.ie will help with financial literacy and aims to do so in a “fun and informative” way. Megan and the Money Tree Written by personal finance journalist Emma Kennedy, this book aims to introduce children to financial concepts using an easy-to-follow story and fun activities. Apps for your smart phone or tablet Mindblown Life is a free app aimed at teenagers that allows the user to create an avatar, which they use to navigate through financial challenges such as dealing with debt and learning how to save. For younger kids, you can download a free app from countmybeanz.com, which gives children the chance to establish savings and checking accounts with a fictional currency called “beanz” . The goal of this website from Ulster Bank it to help children learn how to be in charge of their money. It offers tips on teaching children about money, such as letting them work out how much you need to pay for a parking meter and letting them insert the money.	8
- Subscribe NowLimited Time Offer Maryland sees population increase in 17 counties (Database) Baltimore ended its six-decade long population loss in 2012, according to new estimates released Thursday by the U.S. Census Bureau. Baltimore City had 621,342 residents as of July 1, the data shows. That is less than a 1 percent increase over the city’s 2011 population, but is the first time since 1950 that Baltimore gained residents from year to year. The increase could be tied immigrants relocating to the city. Mayor Stephanie Rawlings-Blake has encouraged Hispanic immigration to Baltimore, a move which has increased Spanish-speaking residents and businesses in the Southeastern part of the city. Baltimore is Maryland’s fourth-largest geographic area, according to census data, trailing Montgomery County, Prince George’s County and Baltimore County in total population. Montgomery County had more than a million residents last year and is growing at a rapid rate; the county added more than 13,000 residents since 2011. Only Howard County, which increased its population by 1.8 percent, saw a larger percentage of growth among all Maryland counties in 2012. Anne Arundel and Baltimore counties each added more than 5,000 residents in the last year, according to census data. Maryland saw population increases in 17 of its 24 jurisdictions, slightly bucking a national trend of declining county populations. Alleghany County saw the biggest drop off with a loss of 477 residents from 2011 to 2012. More than a third of U.S. counties decreased in population in 2012 due to “an aging population and weakened local economies,” according to the AP. In a table below, take a look at the census totals for all Maryland counties to see which areas saw the largest increases, and decreases, last year. \|County\|\|Census (April 1, 2010)\|\|2010 (as of July 1)\|\|2011(as of July 1)\|\|2012 (as of July 1)\|\|Difference in population from 2012-2011\|\|% Difference in population from 2012-2011\| \|Anne Arundel County\|\|537,656\|\|539,360\|\|544,818\|\|550,488\|\|5670\|\|1.04\| \|Prince George's County\|\|863,420\|\|865,705\|\|874,045\|\|881,138\|\|7093\|\|0.81\| \|Queen Anne's County\|\|47,798\|\|47,878\|\|48,400\|\|48,595\|\|195\|\|0.4\| \|St. Mary's County\|\|105,151\|\|105,778\|\|107,681\|\|108,987\|\|1306\|\|1.21\| Jack Lambert is responsible for driving breaking news coverage on the BBJ's website, baltimorebusinessjournal.com. His specialty coverage areas are sports business and transportation. However, Jack goes where the news is on a daily basis. If you are commenting using a Facebook account, your profile information may be displayed with your comment depending on your privacy settings. By leaving the 'Post to Facebook' box selected, your comment will be published to your Facebook profile in addition to the space below. - Most popular - 8 things you need to know this morning - Vicki Brick becomes CEO of family gym business - Della Notte redevelopment plan draws unexpected opposition - Nemphos, Cohen out at Duane Morris - McCormick has narrowed the field in its headquarters search - Chef works to open his Baltimore restaurant after fire shuts it down - Here's who acquired Union Wharf - Columbia's potential cool factor: The transformation begins - CVS to be anchor tenant at Johns Hopkins' St. Paul Street project - Bozzuto sells Union Wharf apartments in Fells Point Embassy Suites Baltimore - Inner Harbor Sandra and Malcolm Berman Brain & Spine Institute at LifeBridge Health Big Brothers Big Sisters of the Greater Chesapeake New York Life Insurance Sales Support Specialist York Building Prodcuts \| Aberdeen, MD Senior Web Application Consultant Cornerstone Professional Group \| Towson, MD Part Time Adjunct Faculty UMBC \| Baltimore, MD Financial Analyst Capital Funding Group \| Baltimore, MD Entry Level - Sales Management Training The Distinctive Edge \| Baltimore, MD	8
January 25, 2007 Among occupational groups, education, training, and library occupations (38.5 percent) and protective services (37.0 percent) had the highest unionization rates in 2005. Transportation and material moving occupations (19.0 percent), construction and extraction occupations (17.6 percent), installation, maintenance, and repair occupations (17.2 percent), production occupations (17.1 percent), and community and social services occupations (16.5 percent), also had higher-than-average unionization rates. Sales and related occupations (3.3 percent) and farming, fishing, and forestry occupations (3.9 percent) had the lowest unionization rates. Overall, 12.5 percent of wage and salary workers were union members. These data on unionization membership in 2005 are from the Current Population Survey. Unionization data are for wage and salary workers. Find out more in Union Members in 2005 (PDF) (TXT), news release USDL 06-99. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, The Economics Daily, Unionization rates by occupation in 2005 on the Internet at http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2006/jan/wk4/art03.htm (visited March 29, 2015). Trends in long-term unemployment Long-term unemployment reached historically high levels following the recession of 2007–2009. Housing: before, during, and after the Great Recession looks at consumer expenditures on household items, employment in residential construction, prices for household items, and injuries in occupations involved in building and maintaining our homes. Women veterans in the labor force examines the demographic, employment, and unemployment characteristics of women veterans.	8
Tomorrow is April 8th, the American Association of University Women’s “Equal Pay Day”. Symbolically, it’s the day when women’s earnings will finally catch up to men’s earnings from the previous year. Because of the gender pay gap, it takes women an extra three months of wages to make up that twenty-three percent difference. At the present time, statistical evidence points to the sad reality that Texas does not practice equal pay. According to the 2012 census, Texas women are paid roughly eighty-two cents on the dollar as compared to men. Black women are paid about fifty-nine cents on the dollar and Latino women are paid 45 cents on the dollar for the same work as their male counterparts. College-educated women working full time earn more than a half million dollars less than their male counterparts over the course of a lifetime. Four in 10 mothers are primary breadwinners in their households, and nearly two-thirds are significant earners, making pay equity critical to families’ economic security. Equal pay for equal work is not only an issue that affects women in the present time, it affects them negatively over their life span. A woman’s lifetime of lower pay means less income to save for retirement and less income counted in a Social Security or pension benefit formula. Perhaps this is why Texas ranks so high in poverty for families and for elderly women. We rank 14th among the states in pay gap. Lubbock County ranks 22nd out of the 254 counties in Texas, with our ratio of 76% lower than the state-wide. This issue affects all women in Texas, not just poor women or Democratic women. Suburban Republican women who are part of a two-income household are affected by the Texas pay gap as well. The fight for equal pay for Texans began last year when Senator Wendy Davis presented House Bill 950 the Texas equivalent to the Lilly Ledbetter Act, which increases the statute of limitations for filing a wage discrimination claim. As the Texas law stands now, a woman only has 180 days to file a wage complaint. The Lilly Ledbetter Act does not extend outside of federal courts; Texas is effectively exempt. HB 950 was passed by both chambers of the 83rd Texas Legislature with overwhelming bipartisan support, but was stopped dead in its tracks by Governor Rick Perry. Perry’s claims that it duplicates federal law is strangely misinformed since his own Attorney General, Greg Abbott argued against that very issue in the court case, Prairie View A&M vs. Diljit Chatha. Tomorrow there will be proclamations across the country, but I’m wondering how many of those will take place in Texas. It would be quite hypocritical for our Governor Rick Perry to honor April 8th, since he claims that equal pay is “ridiculous.” And the same for Texas Attorney General Greg Abbott, who’s gone on record as saying we already have equal pay in Texas and there’s no reason we should legislate something that’s already on the books--which is blatantly untrue. I don’t think we’ll hear anything positive from Senator Dan Patrick as he’s said that Texas shouldn’t even enforce equal pay laws. And true to character, David Dewhurst wouldn’t commit to anything, just that he wouldn’t “stand in the way”. EPD certainly won’t receive a positive nod from Bill Hammond, TAB President and lobbyist. A big opponent against the bill, he influenced the Governor to veto it because he mistakenly believed that Texas businesses would be on the hook for unlimited liability. Dear Bill: There should be no concern for lawsuits if Texas businesses follow the law. All of the above-mentioned men claim to be for equal pay, but their actions prove otherwise. They dig their boots in the sand, kicking and screaming, belching all the rhetoric of reason they can muster to avoid doing the right thing. There is no wrong time to do the right thing, gentlemen. I’m not buying their excuses and the 12,673,281 females in Texas who make up 50.4 percent of the population shouldn’t buy it either. Perhaps Texas lawmakers should remember that women make up 47.4 of the labor force and we vote in greater numbers than men. In the last election, 63.7% of those who voted were women. Those figures and some second grade math proves that being against equal pay is political suicide. 180 days, 6 months, is not nearly long enough to file a wage dispute. It could be a year or more before a woman catches the discrepancy. Consider this, in Texas, the statute of limitations for stealing your horse is two years, and likewise, two years, if thieves hijack your John Deere. Don’t Texas’ working women deserve the same consideration as animals and farm equipment? There's no reason that we should have anything less than the protection offered at the federal level and April 8th is the day to claim it. Carol Morgan is a career counselor, writer, speaker, former Democratic candidate for the Texas House and the award-winning author of Of Tapestry, Time and Tears, a historical fiction about the 1947 Partition of India. You may also read her at the Houston Press and MetroLeader News Service. Feel free to email her at [email protected] , follow her on Twitter @CounselorCarol1, on Facebook: CarolMorgan1 and her writer’s blog at www.carolmorgan.org	8
Students explore an alternative to starting a business from scratch – investing in a franchise. They begin by considering the pros and cons of a franchise and whether this form of business is an option that would fit their personality and needs. Students then research and analyze franchise opportunities, ultimately selecting one that they think they might be able to successfully operate in their own community. While making their choice, students consider a variety of factors including their personal interests and abilities, the reputation of the product or service, the franchisor’s ability and willingness to assist the franchisee, and market factors such as consumer demand and anticipated competition. Students are given brief descriptions of three individuals. They act as financial advisors and develop a financial investment portfolio for each client using internet references as they analyze various saving options. The internet web sites assist students by providing information regarding their choices for the portfolios. Students may track the portfolio over several weeks to assess their investment strategies. Hot debate and arguments galore whirl around this question: "Which economic approach is the most efficient and fair to resolve utility issues surrounding the use of common or public property?" This lesson will explore, examine and analyze this perplexing question by engaging in an open-ended role play simulation. The following lessons come from the Council for Economic Education's library of publications. Clicking the publication title or image will take you to the Council for Economic Education Store for more detailed information. The teacher guide accompanies the student activities books in macro- and microeconomics for teaching college-level economics in AP Economics courses. The publication contains course outlines, unit plans, teaching instructions, and answers to the student activities and sample tests. 58 out of 58 lessons from this publication relate to this EconEdLink lesson. This publication contains complete instructions for teaching the lessons in Capstone. When combined with a textbook, Capstone provides activities for a complete high school economics course. 45 exemplary lessons help students learn to apply economic reasoning to a wide range of real-world subjects. 45 out of 45 lessons from this publication relate to this EconEdLink lesson. Focus: Understanding Economics in U.S. History uses a unique mystery-solving approach to teach U.S. economic history to your high school students. 40 out of 40 lessons from this publication relate to this EconEdLink lesson.	8
Every year, PNC Wealth Management calculates the “Christmas Price Index” based on gifts in the song, “The Twelve Days of Christmas.” PNC reports, “Maids-a-Milking, who are paid the minimum wage, were the only service providers not to see an increase this year.” The Christmas Price Index rose from $13,344 in 1997 to $18,920 in 2006. The price of Six Geese-a-Laying increased from $150 to $300, for example. But the cost of Eight Maids-a-Milking remained $41.20 — pegged to the federal minimum wage of $5.15 an hour since Sept. 1, 1997. On Dec. 2, we broke the record for the longest period without a raise since the minimum wage was established in 1938. The prior record of nine years and three months lasted from Jan. 1, 1981 until the minimum wage increase on Apr. 1, 1990. Murray Weidenbaum, chairman of President Reagan’s first Council of Economic Advisers, has acknowledged they wanted to eliminate the minimum wage. But as the Wall Street Journal reported, “Because that would have been such a ‘painful political process,’ Mr. Weidenbaum says that he and other officials were content to let inflation turn the minimum wage into ‘an effective dead letter.'” Today’s minimum wage is less than the 1950 minimum of $6.28, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics inflation calculator. It takes nearly two workers to match the $9.28 buying power of one minimum wage worker in 1968. A full-time worker at minimum wage makes just $10,712 a year — less than $900 a month to cover housing, food, health care, transportation and other expenses. Today, family health coverage costs more than a minimum wage worker’s entire annual income. The minimum wage sets the wage floor. As the floor has sunk below poverty levels, millions of workers find themselves with paychecks above the minimum, but not above poverty wages. The share of national income going to wages and salaries is at the lowest level since 1929 while the share going to after-tax corporate profits is at the highest. Since 1997, domestic corporate profits have risen 72 percent while the minimum wage has fallen 20 percent, adjusted for inflation. Looking back to 1968, domestic corporate profits have climbed 214 percent while the minimum wage plummeted 44 percent. CEOs have enriched themselves and their families for generations to come while workers struggle to support themselves and their children. The highest paid CEO in 1968 made as much as 127 average workers and 239 minimum wage workers. The highest paid CEO in 2005 made as much as 7,443 average workers and 23,282 minimum wage workers. With the federal minimum wage mired in quicksand, a growing number of states have raised their minimums. At least 29 states and the District of Columbia will have minimum wages above $5.15 as of Jan. 1, 2007. Washington and Oregon have the highest state minimums — $7.93 and $7.80 respectively after annual cost of living adjustments effective Jan. 1. States with minimum wages above $5.15 have had better employment trends than the other states. Democrats promise to pass a minimum wage hike in the first 100 hours of the new Congress. The long-delayed Fair Minimum Wage Act would raise the minimum wage in three steps to $5.85, 60 days after enactment, $6.55 one year later in 2008, and $7.25 one year later in 2009. These are steps in the right direction for workers for whom every dollar counts in the struggle to make ends meet. But workers should not have to wait until 2009 for a $7.25 minimum wage that only partly restores buying power lost since 1968. The Economic Policy Institute reports, “Most other developed countries either have implemented automatic increases based on rising prices or require regular meetings of boards authorized to increase the minimum wage” based on factors such as rising prices and economic growth. Ireland and England have minimum wages over $10, calculated in U.S. dollars. Both countries have strong economies with lower unemployment rates in recent years than the United States. Congress has had eight pay raises since 1997 and is scheduled for a $3,300 “cost of living adjustment,” raising congressional pay on Jan. 1 to $168,500 — not counting health coverage, pensions and other benefits. Congress should refuse pay increases until the minimum wage is raised enough to keep workers out of poverty instead of in poverty. Holly Sklar is co-author of “A Just Minimum Wage: Good for Workers, Business and Our Future” (www.letjusticeroll.org) and “Raise the Floor: Wages and Policies That Work for All of Us.” She can be reached at [email protected]. Copyright (c) 2006 Holly Sklar	8
Posted by Booker Perry on Thursday, July 19, 2012 at 4:07pm. PLEASE HELP ME WITH THESE!!!!!!!! 1) If the price of a product produced in a competitive market increases, which of the following is most likely to occur in the labor market for workers who produce the product? A) the demand for labor and the number of workers hired both increase B) the supply of labor and the numbers of workers hired both increase C) the demand for labor and the number of workers hired both decrease D) the supply of labor and the number of workers hired both decrease 2)A decrease in the supply curve for nurses could be accounted for by all of the following except a(n): A) Increase in the rewards available in other comparable occupations B) Increase in the training required for nurses C) Reduction in the number of nursing schools D) Cut in the wages of nurses 3)Trends in employment patterns over the last century indicate A) a need for more farmers. B) fewer women will be entering the work force. C) an increase in the percentage of service jobs. D) an increase in the percentage of manufacturing jobs. 4)Which of the following helps to determine the wage rate a worker earns? A) How much education the worker has B) The location of the job C) The demand for the product D) All of the above Answer this Question ECONOMICS - 1) If the price of a product produced in a competitive market ... economics - Complete the following table for the firm below which is selling its... Economics/Math - Suppose there are four firms in a competitive market and that ... economics - Suppose that for the firm below, the goods market is perfectly ... economy - consider a perfectly competitive market in which all firms have the ... Economics - The price received by sellers in a market will decrease if the ... Economics - In a perfect competitive market setting,which of the following would... Economics - How does the market price of a good in a monopoly market compare ... Economics - Consider a profit maximizing competitive firm with the following ... economics - In the simple economics of a competitive market price increases ...	8
Discuss the impact of the Internet on Porter’s competitive forces model The Internet is a global network that connects a vast number of internal organizational computer networks worldwide. Some typical examples of internal organizational computer networks are the computer systems of a university, a corporation and a hospital. (Turban p.169) The model is used to develop strategies of the competitiveness of companies. The component of the model may be various. There are five major forces can be generalized. First, the entry of new competitors is threatening. This would enlarge the capacity of industry because of increase in competition in business. Secondly, due to the keen competition, buyer would have more choices and would have high buying power, forcing prices down. Higher quality. Also, higher services of flexibility may be required. The Internet services of different companies would differentiate. Thirdly, supplier power will be higher with raising costs and have more dominating power on quality and availability of supply. Therefore, extended quality control is recommended to exert on suppliers. Fourth, substitute products are threatened due to potential market and profit are limited. However, products, services and market segments could be redefine to maintain reasonable business value. Fifth, intense competition from rivals due to price competition and repaid development on products, and the requirement of customer loyalty by different competitors in the industry. Price and service performance have to be improved. The enterprises had to maintain a way to get closer to the end of consumer so as to understand the requirements of the market. Turban. Mclean. Wetherbe 1999 Information Technology For Management Making Connections for Strategic Advantage 2nd edn, John Wiley & Sons. Inc. Read our customer feedbacks	8
Imagine you are a mother of three in Djibouti, a tiny country on the Horn of the Africa with scarce farmable land or drinking water that is a frequent victim of devastating floods and droughts. In this challenging environment, high food prices make it difficult for you and your husband to feed and care for your children and yourselves. Small states (SST) From August 2002, just months after Timor-Leste gained independence, to April 2006, I was the World Bank’s Country Manager for Timor-Leste and thus eyewitness to an unfolding state-building process. The experience affected me profoundly as a development professional. In the short time I lived in Timor-Leste, and notwithstanding daunting circumstances, I saw some agencies, in particular the Ministry of Health and the Central Bank, grow into institutions that delivered results and broadly gained the trust of the population. When community violence erupted in 2006, the Ministry of Health responded effectively, and the Ministry of Social Solidarity repurposed itself around the drawn out displacement process that followed. My observation of this process is what inspired Institutions Taking Root, a new report that illustrates how institutions can become effective even in the most fragile of circumstances. The report looks at some public institutions that do manage to deliver results, earn legitimacy among citizens, and forge resilience. While the specific experiences of these agencies vary from country to country, learning more about the practices and policies that contribute to their success can reveal important clues about how institutions grow stronger and take root in fragile contexts. If the deluge of trend pieces tell us anything, it’s that the millennials are the most fussed over demographic in history. But behind the hype, there is real a tectonic shift. We are now witnessing the largest youth bulge in history. Over half the world’s population is now under thirty, with the majority living in developing and middle-income countries. A youthful population can be source of creativity, innovation and growth –but only if employed and engaged in their societies. Unfortunately, for much of the world’s young people, reality is very different. A number of hurdles prevent young people from contributing as productive, socially responsible citizens. As Emma Murphy of Durham University notes, “Poor education limits their skills, poor employment limits their transition to adulthood and political obstacles limit their voice and participation.” The longer young people are excluded from participating in their economic and political systems, the further we are from realizing the ‘demographic dividend’. It’s a no-brainer. A youth agenda, focusing on the issues that affect young people, must be a critical piece of any post-2015 framework. Where do we start? I see it every time I come back to Honiara, Solomon Island’s bustling capital, soon after I arrive. Young people on the streets, wandering around in groups or by themselves with nothing to do. It’s the same thing my local friends and colleagues mention. Solomon Islanders also ask, “What kind of future lies ahead for our kids?” Solomon Islands face new economic challenges and a rapidly expanding, youthful population. Seven out of 10 Solomon Islanders are under the age of 29. How much social mobility is there in South Asia? The intuitive answer is: very little. South Asia is home to the biggest number of poor in the world and key development outcomes – from child mortality to malnutrition – suggest that poverty is entrenched. Absence of mobility is arguably what defines the caste system, in which occupations are essentially set for individuals at birth. Not surprisingly, the prospects for people from disadvantaged backgrounds to prosper are believed to be gloomier in this part of the world. And yet, our analysis in Addressing Inequality in South Asia, reveals that economic and occupational mobility has become substantial in the region in recent decades. In fact, it could even be comparable to that of very dynamic societies such as the United States and Vietnam. The analysis also suggests that cities support greater mobility than rural areas, and that wage employment – both formal and informal – is one of its main drivers. When splitting the population into three groups—poor, vulnerable, and middle class—upward mobility within the same generation was considerable for both the poor and the vulnerable. In both Bangladesh and India, a considerable fraction of households moved above the poverty line between 2005 and 2010. Meanwhile, a sizable proportion of the poor and the vulnerable moved into the middle class. In India, households from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes – considered together – experienced upward mobility comparable to that of the rest of the population. The Middle East and North Africa region has a large diaspora. According to the latest United Nations estimates, 11 million citizens from the MENA countries lived abroad in 2013. Many of the members of this group hold prominent positions in their adopted countries. They have the potential to contribute to the development of industries in their countries of origin. Executives in multinationals can influence the choice of locations abroad in increasingly defragmented supply-chains. This is especially relevant for members of the diaspora. Seddik Belyamani, originally from Morocco, was Boeing's top airplane salesman, and was instrumental in converting an initial push-back by Boeing’s executives into an interest and a first mover investment in Morocco. It is no exaggeration. Today, around 800 million people go to bed hungry every night. By 2050, we will need to produce at least 50% more food to feed a population on track to reach nine billion. That’s a daunting challenge for our food systems, our planet, and our generation. If we keep eating our planet, what will be left for our children and ourselves in the future? In other words, how will we nutritiously feed nine billion by 2050 in the face of environmental threats? By Francis Ghesquiere and Olivier Mahul This week, the Resilience Dialogue, bringing together representatives from developing countries, donor agencies and multilateral development banks, will focus on financing to build resilience to natural disasters. There is growing recognition that resilience is critical to preserving hard won development gains. The share of development assistance supporting resilience has grown dramatically in recent years. New instruments have emerged in particular to help client countries deal with the economic shock of natural disasters. In this context, an important question is which financial instruments best serve the needs of vulnerable countries? Only by customizing instruments and tools to the unique circumstances of our clients, will we maximize development return on investments. Clearly, low-income countries with limited capacity may not be able to use financial instruments the same way middle-income countries can. Small island developing states subject to financial shocks where loss can exceed their annual GDP face vastly different challenges than large middle-income countries trying to smooth public expenditures over time or safeguard low-income populations against disasters. Watching export growth across South Asia surge in the recent past leads one to ask the obvious but crucial question: Will this trend continue in the longer term and is South Asia on its way to become an export powerhouse, or has it just been a short term, one-off spurt provoked by external forces? Clearly, the rupee depreciation following tapering talk in May 2013 and the recovery in the US constituted favorable tailwinds; however, our analysis in the fall 2014 edition of the South Asia Economic Focus finds that there are more permanent factors at play as well. South Asia is no exception to the trend across developing countries of increasing importance of exports for economic growth. While starting from a low base, the region saw one of the starkest increases in exports to GDP, pushing from 8.5 percent in 1990 to 23 percent in 2013. What makes smart politicians? Jeffrey Frankel has an idea. His recent blog examines the allure, and trap, of universal subsidies. For one thing, they know that pulling the plug on bad policies should be done sooner rather than later. The same can be said of other policies related to investment and labor legislation. Economic democracy is a great thing. However, beware of misguided routes to achieving it. - Egypt, Arab Republic of - Iran, Islamic Republic of - Saudi Arabia - Syrian Arab Republic - United Arab Emirates - West Bank and Gaza - Yemen, Republic of - Middle East and North Africa - Global Economy - Labor and Social Protection - Public Sector and Governance You cannot imagine my surprise while reading a BusinessWeek article last July about an innovative way to transform India’s litter into partial substitute for bitumen in asphalt to build roads! Well, this transformative method arguably holds larger potential than the “garbage to music” recycling approach I recently wrote about in my first post about creative ways to manage waste. “Garbage to roads” was pioneered by an Indian chemist called Vasudevan, and it could help not only in getting rid of tons of plastic litter- thick acrylics and bottles, grocery bags and wrappers-- but in building roads at the same time. It’s a win-win solution for all.	8
Planning, Science, and Freedom [Nature, no. 3759 (November 15, 1941), p. 581–84] The last ten years have witnessed in Great Britain a strong revival of a movement that for at least three generations has been a decisive force in the formation of opinion and the trend of social affairs in Europe: the movement for "economic planning." As in other countries — first in France and then particularly in Germany — this movement has been strongly supported and even led by men of science and engineers. It has now so far succeeded in capturing public opinion that what little opposition there is comes almost solely from a small group of economists. To these economists this movement seems not only to propose unsuitable means for the ends at which it aims; it also appears to them as the main cause of that destruction of individual liberty and spiritual freedom which is the great threat of our age. If these economists are right, a large number of men of science are unwittingly striving to create a state of affairs which they have most reason to fear. It is the purpose of the following sketch to outline the argument on which that view is based. Any brief discussion of "economic planning" is handicapped by the necessity of first explaining what precisely is meant by "planning." If the term were taken in its most general sense of a rational design of human institutions, there could be no room for argument about its desirability. But although the popularity of "planning" is at least partly due to this wider connotation of the word, it is now generally used in a narrower, more specific sense. It describes one only among the different principles which might be deliberately chosen for the organization of economic life: that of central direction of all economic effort as against its direction by competition. Planning, in other words, now means that not only the kind of economic system which we want to adopt should be rationally chosen, but that we should chose one that rests on "conscious" or central control of all economic activity. It is evidently in this sense that, for example, Professor P.M.S. Blackett uses the term when he explains that "the object of planning is largely to overcome the results of competition."1 This narrow use of the term is of course meant to suggest that only this kind of economic organization is rational, and that therefore it alone deserves to be called planning. It is this contention which economists deny. The full argument which leads to the conclusion that planning in the sense of central direction is in fact an inefficient system cannot be reproduced in a few sentences. But the gist of it is simple enough. It is that the competitive or price system makes possible the utilization of an amount of concrete knowledge which could never be achieved or approached without it. It is true, of course, that the director of any centrally planned system is likely to know more than any single entrepreneur under competition. But the former could not possibly use in his single plan all the combined knowledge of all the individual entrepreneurs that is used under competition. The knowledge which is significant here is not so much knowledge of general laws, but knowledge of particular facts and the ever-changing circumstances of the moment — a knowledge which only the man on the spot can possess. The problem of the maximum utilization of knowledge can therefore be solved only by some system which decentralizes the decisions. There is no possibility of a division between the general outline of the plan and the detail of the execution — or at least no way for such a division has yet been shown. The reason for this is that the general features are just the result of an infinity of detail, and there are no principles which, without harm, can be laid down irrespective of the detail. Yet, in order that in a decentralized system the individual decisions should be mutually adjusted to each other, it is of course essential that the individual entrepreneur should learn as promptly as possible about any relevant change in the conditions affecting the factors of production and the commodities with which he is concerned. Now this is precisely what the price system brings about if competition is functioning. It is in effect a system under which every change in conditions and opportunities is promptly and automatically registered so that the individual entrepreneur can read off, as it were, from a few gauges and in simple figures, the relevant results of everything which happens anywhere in the system with respect to the factors and commodities with which he is concerned. "The object of planning is largely to overcome the results of competition." This method of solving by an automatic decentralization a task which, if it had to be solved consciously, would exceed the powers of any human mind, would have been hailed as one of the most marvelous inventions — if it had been invented deliberately. Compared with it the more obvious method of solving the problem by central direction appears incredibly clumsy, primitive, and limited in scope. It is very significant that those socialist economists who have most carefully studied the practical problems of a socialist economy have more than once rediscovered competition and the price system as the best solution — only that unfortunately this system cannot work without private property.2 For the general attitude towards the price system it has, however, been most unfortunate that it has not been deliberately invented, but that it has spontaneously grown up long before we had learnt to understand its operation. It seems to offend a deep instinct of the man of science and particularly the engineer to be asked to believe that anything which has not been deliberately constructed but is the result of a more or less accidental historical growth should be the best method for a human end. Yet the contention is of course not that by some miracle just that system has spontaneously developed which is best suited to modern civilization, but rather that the division of labor, which forms the basis of modern civilization, has been able to develop on a large scale only because man happened to tumble on the method which made this possible. It is now sometimes argued — often by the same type of people who by their propaganda against competition have contributed largely towards its progressive suppression — that although all this is quite true, and although it would be desirable to have competition if it were still possible, technological facts prevent this, and that therefore central planning has become inevitable. This, however, is just one of the many myths which, like that of the "potential plenty," are taken over by one propagandist work from another until they come to be regarded as established facts, although they have little relation to reality. There is no space here to discuss this point at any length, and it must suffice to quote the conclusion at which the most comprehensive recent investigation of the facts has arrived. This is what the final report of the investigation on the "Concentration of Economic Power," by the American Temporary National Economic Committee, has to say on the point: It is sometimes asserted, or assumed, that large scale production, under the conditions of modern technology, is so much more efficient than small-scale production that competition must inevitably give way to monopoly as large establishments drive their smaller rivals from the field. But such generalization finds scant support in any evidence that is now at hand.3 Indeed few people who have watched economic development during the last 20 years or so can have much doubt that the progressive tendency towards monopoly is not the result of any spontaneous or inevitable force, but the effect of a deliberate policy of the governments, inspired by the ideology of "planning." The really remarkable fact is the vitality of competition, which in spite of the persistent attempts towards its suppression is ever again raising its head — only to encounter new measures designed to stifle it. It is a serious thing that in this situation men of science and engineers should so frequently be found leading a movement which in effect merely serves to support the unholy alliance between the monopolistic organizations of capital and labor, and that for a hundred men of science who attack competition and "capitalism" scarcely one can be found who criticizes the restrictionist and protectionist policies which masquerade as "planning" and which are the true cause of the "frustration of science." That this attitude should be so common among natural scientists can scarcely be fully explained by that characteristic bias for anything consciously constructed and against anything which has merely grown up, to which I have already alluded. It is at least as much due to the antagonism of so many natural scientists towards the teaching of economics, whose methods appear to them unfamiliar and strange, and whose results they often either disregard or, like Professor L. Hogben, even violently attack as "the medieval rubbish taught as economics at our Universities."4 This conflict over the methods proper to the pursuit of the study of society is an old one and raises exceedingly complex and difficult problems. But as the prestige which the natural scientists enjoy with the public is so often used to discredit the results of the only systematic and sustained effort to increase our understanding of social phenomena, this dispute is a matter of sufficient importance to make in this context a few words of comment necessary."If the plan is to succeed, every criticism of the plan or the ideology underlying it must be treated as sabotage." If there were reason to suspect that the economists persist in their ways merely from the force of habit and in ignorance of the methods and techniques which in other fields have proved so eminently successful, there could indeed be grave doubt about the validity of their arguments. But attempts to advance the social sciences by a more or less close imitation of the methods of the natural sciences, far from being new, have been a constant feature for more than a century. The same objections against "deductive" economics, the same proposals to make it at last "scientific," and, it must be added, the same characteristic errors and primitive mistakes to which natural scientists approaching this field seem to be prone, have been repeated and discussed over and over again by successive generations of economists and sociologists and have led precisely nowhere. All the progress in the understanding of the phenomena which has been achieved has come from the economists patiently developing the technique which has grown out of their peculiar problems. But in their efforts they have constantly been embarrassed by famous physicists or biologists pronouncing in the name of science in favor of schemes or proposals which do not deserve serious consideration. It was expressing a common experience of all students of social problems when an American sociologist recently complained that "one of the most terrible examples of unscientific mindedness is frequently an eminent natural, i.e., physical or biological scientist speaking on societal matters."5 As the dispute on central planning has become so closely connected with the dispute on the scientific validity of economics, it has been necessary briefly to refer to these matters. But this must not draw us away from our main theme. The technical inferiority or superiority of central planning over competition is not the sole or even the main problem. If the degree of economic efficiency were all that is at stake in this controversy, the dangers of a mistake would still be small compared with what they really are. But just as the alleged greater efficiency of central planning is not the only argument used in its favor, so the objections do not rest solely on its real inefficiency. It must indeed be admitted that if we wanted to make the distribution of incomes between individuals and groups conform to any predetermined absolute standard, central planning would be the only way in which this could be achieved. It could be argued — and has been argued — that it would be worth putting up with less efficiency if thereby greater distributive justice could be obtained. But unfortunately the same factors which make it possible in such a system to control the distribution of income also make it necessary to impose an arbitrary hierarchical order comprising the status of every individual and the place of practically all values of human life. In short, as is now being more and more generally recognized, economic planning inevitably leads to, and is the cause of, the suppression of individual liberty and spiritual freedom which we know as the "totalitarian" system. As has recently been said in Nature by two eminent American engineers, "the State founded on dictatorial authority … and the planned economy are essentially one and the same thing?"6 The reasons why the adoption of a system of central planning necessarily produces a totalitarian system are fairly simple. Whoever controls the means must decide which ends they are to serve. As under modern conditions control of economic activity means control of the material means for practically all our ends, it means control over nearly all our activities. The nature of the detailed scale of values which must guide the planning makes it impossible that it should be determined by anything like democratic means. The director of the planned system would have to impose his scale of values, his hierarchy of ends, which, if it is to be sufficient to determine the plan, must include a definite order of rank in which the status of each person is laid down."The reasons why the adoption of a system of central planning necessarily produces a totalitarian system are fairly simple. Whoever controls the means must decide which ends they are to serve." If the plan is to succeed or the planner to appear successful, the people must be made to believe that the objectives chosen are the right ones. Every criticism of the plan or the ideology underlying it must be treated as sabotage. There can be no freedom of thought, no freedom of the press, where it is necessary that everything should be governed by a single system of thought. In theory socialism may wish to enhance freedom, but in practice every kind of collectivism consistently carried through must produce the characteristic features which Fascism, Nazism and Communism have in common. Totalitarianism is nothing but consistent collectivism, the ruthless execution of the principle that "the whole comes before the individual" and the direction of all members of society by a single will supposed to represent the "whole." It would need much more space than can be given to it here to show in detail how such a system produces a despotic control in every sphere of life, and how in particular in Germany two generations of planners have prepared the soil for Nazism. This has been demonstrated elsewhere.7 Nor is it possible here to show why planning tends to produce intense nationalism and international conflict,"8 or why, as the editors of one of the most ambitious cooperative volumes on planning discovered to his sorrow, "most 'planners' are militant nationalists."9 We must turn here to a more immediate danger which the present trend in Great Britain creates. It is that of a growing divergence between the economic systems here and in the United States which threatens to make impossible any real economic collaboration between the two countries after the war. In the United States the present development is well described by the program for restoring competition developed by President Roosevelt in the message to Congress of April 1938, which, in the president's words, is based on the thesis "not that the system of free private enterprise for profit has failed in this generation, but that it has not yet been tried."10 Of Great Britain, on the other hand, it could be rightly said about the same time that "there are many signs that British leaders are growing accustomed to thinking in terms of national development by controlled monopolies."11 This means that we are following the paths on which Germany has led and which the United States is abandoning because, as states the report on the "Concentration of Economic Power" to which the president's message gave rise, "the rise of political centralism is largely the result of economic centralism."12 The alternative is, of course, not laissez-faire, as this misleading and vague term is usually understood. Much needs to be done to ensure the effectiveness of competition; and a great deal can be done outside the market to supplement the results. But by the attempts to supplant it we deprive ourselves not only of an instrument which we cannot replace, but also of an institution without which there can be no freedom for the individual. Nothing in this situation deserves to be studied and pondered so much as the intellectual history of Germany during the last two generations. What has to be realized is that the features which made her what she is are largely the same as those which made her admired and which still exert their fascination; and that the corruption of the German mind came largely from the top, the intellectual and scientific leaders. Men, undoubtedly great in their way, made Germany an artificially constructed state — "organized through and through," as the Germans prided themselves. This provided the soil in which Nazism grew and in which representatives of state-organized science were found among its most enthusiastic supporters. It was the "scientific" organization of industry which deliberately created the giant monopolies and represented them as inevitable growths 50 years before it happened in Great Britain. The very type of social doctrine which is now so popular among some British men of science began to be preached by their German counterparts in the '70s and '80s of last century. The subservience of the men of science to whatever became official doctrine began with the great development of state-organized science which is: the subject of so much eulogy in Great Britain. It was the state in which everyone tended to become a state employee and in which all pursuits for profit were held in contempt which produced the disregard and final destruction of liberty which we now witness. I shall conclude with an illustration of what I have said about the role of some of the great men of science of Imperial Germany. The famous physiologist Emil du Bois-Reymond was one of the leaders of the movement anxious to extend the methods of natural sciences to social phenomena and one of the first and most effective advocates of the now so fashionable view that "the history of natural science is the real history of mankind."13 It was also he who uttered what is perhaps the most shameful statement ever made by a man of science on behalf of his fellows. "We, the University of Berlin," he proclaimed in 1870 in a public oration as rector of the University, "quartered opposite the King's palace, are, by the deed of our foundation, the intellectual bodyguard of the house of Hohenzollern."14 The allegiance of the German scientist-politicians has since changed, but their respect for freedom has not increased. And the phenomenon is not confined to Germany. Has not Mr. J.G. Crowther recently, in a book which develops views so similar to du Bois-Reymond's, undertaken to defend even inquisition because, in his view, it "is beneficial to science when it protects a rising class"?15 On this view clearly all the persecutions of men of science by the Nazis after they came to power could be justified — for were not the latter then a "rising class"? - 1. P.M.S. Blackett and others, "The Frustration of Science," Allen and Unwin (1935), p. 142. - 2. H.D. Dickinson, "Economics of Socialism," Oxford University Press (1939); O. Lange and F.M. Taylor, "On the Economic Theory of Socialism," University of Minnesota Press (1938); F.A. Hayek, Economica, N.S., 7 (1940). - 3. Final Report of the Temporary National Economic Committee ("TNEC"), USA, 77th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Document No. 35, 89. - 4. L. Hogben, "Education for an Age of Plenty," British Institute of Adult Education (1937), p. 10. - 5. R. Bain, Social Philosophy, 230 (April 1939). - 6. F.B. Jewett and W.R. King, Nature, 146, 826 (1940). - 7. W. Lippmann, "The Good Society," Little, Brown and Co. (1937); M. Polanyi, "The Contempt of Freedom," Watts and Co. (1940); W. Sulzbach, Ethics, 50 (April, 1940); F.A. Hayek, "Freedom and the Economic System," University of Chicago Press (1939). - 8. L. Robbins, "Economic Planning and International Order," Macmillan (1937). - 9. F. Mackenzie (ed.), "Planned Society," Prentice Hall (1937), p. xx. - 10. Final Report of the TNEC, p. 20. - 11. Spectator, 337 (March 3, 1939). - 12. Final Report of the TNEC, p. 5. - 13. Emil du Bois-Reymond, "Kulturwissenschaft und Naturwissenschaft," (1879). - 14. "A Speech on the German War," Delivered on August 3, 1870, before the University of Berlin, by Emil du Bois-Reymond, at that time Rector. London, Rd. Bentley (1870), p. 31. - 15. J.G. Crowther, "The Social Relations of Science." Macmillan (1940), p. 333. Note: The views expressed on Mises.org are not necessarily those of the Mises Institute.	8
It is no secret that recessions have numerous negative impacts on the health of the people who live through them. In the Great Recession, over five million Americans lost their health insurance, either though employers terminating benefits or job loss. As a consequence, people are reluctant to obtain preventative care or go for screenings to identify illnesses early in their progression, according to data collected by the Kaiser Family Foundation. Then among those who keep their jobs the perception of employment insecurity can erode health and increased depression. A study by researchers at the University of Michigan found that "persistent perceived job insecurity is a significant ... predictor of poorer self-rated health." Despite these harms, it is also true that during recession death rates fall and people live longer. For example a study from the University of Michigan found that between 1900 and 1996 the death rates rise and fall with economic growth, with the lowest mortality rates occurring during the sharpest downturns. By one estimate, a one percent decrease in employment positively correlates with a 0.54 percent decrease in mortality which translates to about 13,000 averted deaths per year. So why do people live longer during a recession? One suggestion is that during times of economic progress the use of tobacco and alcohol as well as obesity increase, while hours of nightly sleep and exercise decrease. During an economic downturn people have more time to engage in healthy activities that decrease mortality such as preparing fresh meals and exercising. Another possibility is that a decrease in economic activity reduces the total level of particulate air pollution because fewer people are commuting to jobs. While this has little impact on adults, improved air quality during recessions markedly improves infant mortality rates, according to a study by the National Bureau of Economic Research. Neal Emrey of the Atlantic Wire believes the trend is explained by elder care. "Nursing homes are chronically understaffed in times of economic prosperity. But, when the job market tightens, a 1 percent increase in unemployment sees full time employment in nursing facilities rise three times as fast," he said. "After a recession, when the economy picks back up and jobs become available again, low-skilled workers abandon nursing homes jobs' low pay and even fewer accolades for better prospects. The shift of workers in and out of nursing jobs drives the swings in the national death rate and underscores the importance of these under-appreciated jobs." Copyright 2015, Deseret News Publishing Company	8
The Legal Office Secretary certificate is designed to prepare students for entry-level secretarial positions in law offices. ACC 121. Introductory Accounting (3). General ledger bookkeeping and preparing financial statements. Three lecture. 1. Analyzing and recording transactions: general journal and general ledger 2. Trial balance and adjusting entries 3. Financial statements 4. Closing entries and post-closing trial balance 5. The accounting cycle for a merchandising concern – periodic inventory method 6. Cash accounting and banking procedures 7. Sales and cash receipts 8. Purchases and cash payments 9. Ethics in accounting 1. Use generally accepted accounting principles to perform general ledger bookkeeping for a service business. (1, 2, 4, 6) 2. Analyze and record financial transactions into a general ledger bookkeeping system for a merchandising concern. (5-8) 3. Prepare general-purpose financial statements for service and merchandising concerns. (3, 5) 4. Prepare a bank reconciliation report. (6) 5. Appraise financial scenarios for ethical concerns. (9) BSA 105. Business English (3). Developing or reviewing good language skills for occupational purposes. Covers spelling, punctuation, capitalization, sentence structure and word usage. Utilizes business-oriented materials. Prerequisite: Reading Proficiency. Three lecture. 1. Basic language skills c. Word usage d. Numbers in business 2. Business vocabulary 3. Business correspondence b. Parts of a business letter 1. Define more than 100 business terms. 2. Master a spelling list emphasizing business terms. 3. Demonstrate basic grammar and punctuation skills. 4. Identify the parts of a business letter and envelope. 5. Select appropriate salutations and closings. 6. Demonstrate techniques of paragraphing a business letter. BSA 111. Creative Leadership (1). Lead, motivate and inspire your team with creative leadership. One lecture. 1. Motivate and recognize employees. 2. Benefits of humor in the workplace. 3. Create a work atmosphere that stimulates innovation. 4. Positive and negative thinking. 1. Identify ways to motivate and recognize employees. (1) 2. Discuss the benefits of humor in the workplace. (2) 3. Identify ways to create a work atmosphere that stimulates innovation. (3) 4. Create an action plan to recognize negative and promote positive thinking in the workplace. (4) \|\|Lead: Juggling Mult Priorities BSA 112. Leadership: Juggling Multiple Priorities (1). Basic techniques to increase team collaboration. How effective leaders spend their time. One lecture. 1. Leadership principles. 2. How leaders increase collaboration among their team. 3. Time management 4. Urgency addiction 1. Identify skills of effective leaders. (1) 2. Apply team-building strategies. (2) 3. Apply time management strategies. (3) 4. Explain urgency addiction. (4) \|\|Leading Out Loud BSA 113. Leadership Communication: Leading Out Loud (1). Speaking skills and communication techniques for leaders. One lecture. 1. Speaking skills of leader/communicator. 2. Oral communication delivery techniques. 1. Identify skills of leaders/communicators. (1) 2. Analyze and discuss communication delivery techniques to enhance leadership development. (2) 3. Apply oral communication delivery and presentation techniques. (2) BSA 233. Business Communication (3). Communication theory, writing for the workplace, business letters and reports, electronic communication, professional presentations and communicating for employment. Prerequisite: Reading Proficiency. Three lecture. 1. Communication foundations a. process of communication b. verbal and nonverbal communication c. using words effectively 2. Written communication in the workplace a. positive and negative messages b. persuasive writing 3. Letters and reports a. business letter formats b. short reports 4. Electronic media and communication a. email messages b. communicating with new technology c. social networking in the workplace 5. Professional presentations a. oral presentations b. public speaking skills c. presentation software 6. Communicating for employment a. resume and cover letter b. interview preparation 1. Identify the elements of effective communication. (1) 2. Create purposeful written messages to a specific business audience. (2) 3. Compose business letters and short reports to communicate information or data. (3) 4. Identify methods of communication using the latest technology. (4) 5. Prepare and deliver an oral presentation. (5) 6. Compose a professional resume and employment cover letter. (6) \|\|Keyboarding Skill Building CSA 112. Keyboarding Skill Building (1). Improving keyboarding speed and accuracy. Emphasis on techniques and strategies for job-related keyboarding proficiency. Prerequisite: CSA 111. One lecture. 1. Diagnostic testing 2. Keyboarding kill building techniques 3. Speed drills 4. Accuracy drills 5. Timed writings 1. Show a minimum of 15% improvement in key stroking rate and accuracy. (1-5) CSA 140. Microsoft Word (2). Practical application of Microsoft Office Word. Practical application of Microsoft Office Word. Emphasis on creating and formatting content, working with visual content, and organizing documents. Two lecture. 2. Graphics and Watermarks 3. Headers and Footers 4. Merged Documents 5. Tables and Charts 6. Footnotes and Endnotes 7. Tables of Content and Figures 12. Web Pages 13. Links and Embeds Between Applications 14. Text and Paragraph Formatting 15. Page Setup 1. Create office documents using basic and advanced formatting features. (1-17) 2. Create templates. (10) 3. Create merged documents. (4) 4. Create forms. (11) 5. Create web pages. (12) 6. Create linked or embedded documents. (13) CSA 172. Microsoft Windows (2). Personal computer operations using the Microsoft Windows operating environment. Customizing, optimizing and maintenance of desktops, folders, and documents. One lecture. Two lab. 1. Introduction to personal computers and operating systems 2. Window components 3. The Start button 4. My Computer and Help 5. File, document and folder naming conventions 6. Creating documents 7. Modifying and editing documents 8. Printing documents and using the Managing the Print queue and spool 9. Using the taskbar 10. Working with multiple windows 11. Cutting, copying and pasting 12. Object moving, copying and shortcuts 13. Sorting and finding documents 14. Using the Recycle Bin 15. Using system tools such as defrag and scandisk 16. Explorer Window 17. System shut down 1. Identify fundamental personal computing concepts and terminology. 2. Identify components of the Windows screen; select items with the mouse pointer; access Windows features by using the Start button; and work with windows by using buttons and dragging techniques. 3. Observe the contents of a disk by using the My Computer icon; and access a disk quickly by creating a desktop shortcut. 4. Work with multiple programs by using the taskbar to switch between windows. 5. Share data between applications using the Edit Copy and Edit Paste commands. 6. Display the contents of a disk by using the Windows Explorer; create a folder by using a shortcut menu; copy and move documents and folders by dragging them; and sort and locate documents. 7. Prepare a disk for use with the Format command; copy and move groups of documents; delete and restore documents by using the Recycle Bin; and exit Windows. 8. Create a custom user interface by changing properties of the taskbar, the desktop, and other components. 9. Create subfolders and modify file attributes. 10. Manipulate the print queue; set up a printer to print. \|\|Intro to Paralegal Studies LAW 100. Introduction to Paralegal Studies (3). Introduction to the role of the paralegal in the legal system, including the federal and state court systems, ethics, regulation and professional responsibility, legal analysis, research and basic legal concepts. Includes professional development and job search strategies. Three lecture. 1. Introduction to the paralegal profession 2. Careers in the legal community 3. The regulation of legal professionals 4. Ethics and professional responsibility 5. Introduction to law b. Court system and alternative dispute resolution c. Fundamental legal concepts 6. Civil and criminal litigation and procedures 7. Legal analysis and writing 8. Legal research 1. Describe the American judicial system and the responsibilities of the various court systems. 2. Distinguish between civil and criminal litigation, and describe the stages of litigation. 3. Describe and explain basic concepts of law. 4. Apply legal analysis to the briefing of cases and problem solving. 5. Define the issues of the paralegal profession, and discuss professional development and job search strategies. 6. Apply principles of ethics and professional responsibility to specific scenarios. \|\|Legal Ethics & Prof Respnsblty LAW 101. Legal Ethics and Professional Responsibility (1). State and national ethical codes and rules of professional responsibility, ethical dilemmas and methods for researching answers, professionalism, and the unauthorized practice of law. One lecture. 1. Codes of ethics and rules of professional responsibility 2. Regulation of lawyers and non-lawyers 3. Ethical dilemmas 4. Methods for researching answers to ethical dilemmas 6. Unauthorized practice of law 1. Identify state and national codes of ethics and rules of professional responsibility. 2 Delineate regulations pertaining to lawyers and non-lawyers. 3. Describe ethical dilemmas. 4. Research answers to ethical dilemmas. 5. Identify best practices representing professionalism. 6. Analyze statutes and rules relating to the unauthorized practice of law. \|\|Legal Computer Apps LAW 105. Legal Computer Applications (2). Introduction to computer software and software applications used in a law office and the business community. Includes computer research tools, e-mail, application of general office management software to the legal environment, ethical considerations, and law office practice concepts. Prerequisite: LAW 100 (may be taken concurrently) and CSA 140. Two lecture. 1. Computer hardware and software; concepts of law office management 2. Software programs for law office management including computer research, e-mail, and application of general office management software to the legal environment 3. WESTLAW and Internet research 4. Complex legal documents 5. The law office and law practice of the 21st century 6. Ethical considerations and basic law office practice concepts 7. Electronic presentation software 1. Explain the use of technology in the practice of law and in the management of the law office. (1-5,7) 2. Identify a variety of computer tools available to assist the legal professional in the performance of daily tasks. (1-3,5,7) 3. Identify research strategies in the use of WESTLAW and Internet research. (3) 4. Describe the application of general office management software packages to the legal environment (ex: word processing, database management, spreadsheets, and presentation software) and prepare complex legal documents. (2,4,7) 5. Use legal software applications packages: a. Standard Internet browser to conduct Internet research. (2,3) b. WESTLAW (legal research). (2,3). c. General office management software (ex: word processing, database management, spreadsheets, presentation software. (1,2,4,5,7) d. Other legal-specific software as appropriate and available. (2,3,4,5) 6. Find, evaluate and summarize new and emerging software and hardware technologies for the law office. (2,3,5) 7. Identify and explain ethical concerns relating to technology and the practice of law. (6) 8. Design an electronic slideshow using presentation software. (7) \|\|Law Office Management LAW 107. Law Office Management (3). Processes and standards of law office management including record keeping, timekeeping, billing, calendaring and docket control. Emphasis on the principles and practices of law office management for manual and automated systems. LAW 100 (may be taken concurrently) and CSA 140 (may be taken concurrently). Three lecture. 1. The field of law office management, standard office practices, time management and professionalism 2. Filing systems 3. Records management, classification, storage, retention, transfer and retrieval 4. Law office letters, memos, reports, table and legal documents 5. Filing legal documents with the courts 6. Timekeeping and billing 7. Calendaring and docket control 9. Harvard Law Review Association Bluebook uniform system of legal citations 1. Employ principles of law office communication, time management, multi-tasking and initiative. (1) 2. Use filing systems as they pertain to the law office. (2) 3. Create, store, retrieve, retain and dispose of law office records using paper and paperless techniques. (3) 4. Select and use equipment and supplies for various records systems. (3) 5. Create, proofread, punctuate, format, revise and print law office letters, memos, reports, tables and legal documents. (4) 6. File legal documents with the courts. (5) 7. Carry out the mechanics of timekeeping and billing. (6) 8. Manage calendars and perform docket control procedures. (7) 9. Maintain law office confidentiality. (8) 10. Use the Harvard Law Review Association Bluebook uniform system of legal citations. (9)	8
Learn something new every day More Info... by email Retail industry analysis is a process used to assess the financial impact of the retail industry. This field includes brick-and-mortar stores, as well as Internet retailers, who buy and resell items rather than manufacture them. By gathering information about this industry and analyzing how it compares to certain benchmarks, those in the retail field can make important decisions regarding prices, staffing, investment, and other factors. Retail industry analysis also provides key information about the state of the economy as a whole, and how consumers feel about spending and saving. This type of retail industry analysis may be carried out by large financial or investment firms, who are paid to provide these analyses. They may also be performed by the stores themselves, or by economists in other fields. These parties start by issuing market surveys to gather information about the retail industry. They also include publicly available sales figures, such as those found in an annual report issued by a business. By combining all of this information, these parties are able to issue a retail industry analysis report, which includes key facts and statistics about this field. A retail industry report may include a wide variety of information, and may focus on a single segment of retail or the industry as a whole. The report includes annual sales figures, as well as profit and inventory data. It may include information on changes in same store sales, or the number of stores that have opened or closed each year. Many retail industry analysis reports also include data on how many employees or jobs were added, as well as what types of goods were the best sellers for the year. Store owners or company financial consultants rely on this information to make critical decisions about the business. These reports allow the business to determine how it is performing compared to the competition, or to the market as a whole. It also helps the business spot key opportunities, such as an increased demand for a specific product. Based on these reports, a business may plan to hire or fire staff, or open new stores. They may also introduce new products, or sell off unpopular product lines. Retail industry analysis also provides important information about the state of the global economy. Retail sales have historically been closely linked to consumer confidence and disposable income levels. When sales are increasing, consumers generally feel confident about money and the economy. When sales are shrinking, consumers are holding on to money, or have less disposable income, which may point to a recessionary period. One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!	8
19 FAQs people ask about joint ventures. The term joint venture is most commonly used to describe an arrangement where two (or more) businesses create a separate joint venture business. But any kind of collaboration with another company could be described as a joint venture. Joint ventures generally involve some sharing of resources and risks. A common and flexible solution is to form a separate limited company for the joint venture. Among other advantages, this allows you to insulate yourself from liability should the joint venture become insolvent, because your liability as a shareholder is limited to the amount you have agreed to pay for your shares. However, this is not always the best solution. If you will be transferring significant assets into the joint venture, forming a separate company can have unwanted tax consequences (see 11). An alternative can be to form a partnership or a limited liability partnership. An appropriate partnership structure may minimise potential tax liabilities. If you do not require management involvement in the joint venture, it may be best to use contractual arrangements rather than to create a separate joint venture entity. For example, an inventor could simply license their intellectual property rights in their invention to another business to exploit. Normally, you will be looking for a partner with complementary strengths. For example, you might want to find a company with a distribution network through which you can market your product or with financial resources to invest in developing your intellectual property, such as an invention, a copyright work such as a film or book or a design. As well as your own requirements, think about what your partner will be hoping to get from the venture. You will need to be able to agree objectives that suit both of you. You will also need to reach agreement on a whole range of other issues (see 4). Bear in mind that, sooner or later, the joint venture may come to an end. This can make it difficult to collaborate with a competitor or with a business that is likely to compete with you in the future. Issues to be considered include: All the key issues need to be covered by appropriate agreements (see 10). In general, no. However, a joint venture may raise competition issues, if, for example, the joint venture will have a significant market share. In circumstances such as this, the joint venture may be subject to review by the Competition and Markets Authority and it can be a good idea to seek guidance from the outset. Competition law aims to prevent collaborations that reduce competition. In most cases, this only applies if you and your joint venture partner have a combined market share of more than 25%. Some forms of collaboration are strictly prohibited in any circumstances, for example, agreements to fix prices or to share markets. On the other hand, there are some limited exceptions that can, for example, allow collaboration on research and development. Competition law is complex. If in any doubt, take legal advice. In general, and to the extent that the agreement is directly necessary to the joint venture, collaborators in a joint venture can agree not to compete with it. This does not, however, cover agreements that include elements such as price fixing or sharing markets. As with other aspects of competition law, take advice if you are in any doubt. Normally, each party signs a confidentiality agreement. This requires them not to disclose any of your confidential information they learn in the course of negotiations, nor use it to your detriment. It can also be a good idea to sign a memorandum of understanding at an early stage in the negotiations. This represents a commitment to the deal and agreement in principle on the main points. Due diligence will include checking your joint venture partner’s legal status, that they have the right to enter the joint venture, that they own assets they will be putting into the joint venture and so on. More broadly, due diligence aims to ensure any agreements (see 10) you enter into are valid and to minimise risk of future legal problems. If you are forming a new joint venture company, a shareholders’ agreement and the new company’s articles of association are crucial. Points that may be covered in these or in separate agreements include: The transfer of assets may be subject to stamp duty and capital gains tax liability if the asset has increased in value since it was originally acquired. It may be possible to structure the transaction in a way that reduces the tax consequences, for example, by giving the joint venture the right to use the assets rather than transferring ownership. This is a complex area. If you will be transferring assets of any significant value, take specialist tax advice. It depends on how the employees are transferred and what their existing employment contracts say. Employees could continue to be employed by you, but be seconded to the venture. Employees may be able to claim constructive unfair dismissal if, for example, they are required to relocate and do not wish to do so. Alternatively, a business — including the employees working in it — might be transferred into the joint venture. The employees’ existing contractual rights will be protected. Again, employees might be able to claim unfair dismissal depending upon the circumstances of transfer. The Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of Employees) Regulations, which are designed to protect employees if the business they work in is acquired by a new owner, must be considered at all times and specialist employment advice should be taken. Thirdly, an employee could be offered the opportunity to resign and take up a new job with the joint venture. Depending on the ownership of the joint venture, some of the employee’s rights (such as continuous service) under the existing employment contract might be protected. As with most employment matters, you can minimise the likelihood of any dispute by discussing and negotiating your plans with the employees involved. A joint venture may need to use intellectual property owned by one or more of the collaborators setting up the joint venture, such as brands, inventions, database rights, designs or copyright works such as plans, blueprints, manuals, etc. Usually you would grant (or sell) the joint venture a licence to use your intellectual property. The licence will specify what rights and restrictions there are, for example, if the joint venture is only allowed to use your intellectual property within a certain territory. A licence, as opposed to a sale, may be more suitable to protect the ownership of intellectual property if the joint venture is not successful. You will also need to ensure there is clear agreement on the ownership of any new intellectual property created by the joint venture. Care needs to be taken over what will happen if the joint venture modifies your intellectual property, for example, by developing an improved version of a patented product. Otherwise, over time you could lose ownership of the modified intellectual property to the joint venture. There may be various indicators that guide you in valuing your contribution, for example, the replacement cost of assets you contribute, but, ultimately, it is a matter for negotiation. Your degree of control depends on what has been agreed. When a new joint venture company is formed, it is common practice for the shareholders’ agreement to include clauses relating to each party’s rights to appoint directors, how decisions will be taken and so on. A similar agreement can be put in place if the joint venture is structured in some other way, such as a partnership. Often joint venture partners want deadlock, with each having the right to veto the actions of the joint venture. You will need to agree how you will escape from the deadlock if it goes on too long. For example, you might decide you will wind the joint venture up if there is a deadlock or that one party will buy the other out at a fair price. You will usually want to receive the same sort of information as you do within your own company: management accounts; copies of board briefings; minutes of board meetings; and so on. If you or one of your colleagues is a director of the joint venture company, you would normally have easy access to the information you require. In any case, your rights to information should be specified in the shareholders’ agreement. Profits from joint venture companies are commonly distributed through dividends. Of course, the ability of the joint venture to pay dividends will depend on its cashflow position. Depending on the circumstances, there may also be other more tax-effective ways of realising part of the value of your investment in the joint venture. Where a joint venture is structured as a partnership, profits are automatically shared between the partners as specified in the partnership agreement. The partnership agreement should also specify what cash payments partners can take from the partnership. If there is no separate joint venture entity, there will be no need to ‘take’ profits from the joint venture – the profits will in any case arise within your (or your joint venture partner’s) business. Usually, one partner will buy out the other. The key is to plan for the termination of the joint venture from the outset. For example, the original agreement can include provisions that allow you to force your partner either to sell you their stake or to purchase your stake from you. If the joint venture that becomes insolvent is a limited company, you will not normally be liable as a shareholder, because your liability for its debts is limited to the amount you have agreed to pay for your shares in the joint venture company. You will, however, be liable if you have personally guaranteed the joint venture company’s debts. If the joint venture is structured as a partnership, your liability will depend on exactly how this has been done. Even where you are not liable, there can be indirect effects on your business. For example, your image may be affected if you are associated with the joint venture.	8
Immigrants To Be Largest Driver Of U.S. Population Growth New immigrants will be the main driver of population growth in the U.S. by as early as 2027, according to new Census Bureau projections. This would be the first time in almost two centuries that new births will not be the largest source of U.S. population growth. The Census Bureau says its projections show a combination of declining fertility rates, aging baby boomers and ongoing immigration to the United States. This trend stems less from more immigrants coming into the country than from Americans having fewer babies, explains Douglas Massey, who studies immigration patterns at Princeton University. "This is something that's common throughout the developed world," Massey says. "Other countries have already reached this state, where immigration is the prime source of population growth." A relatively high fertility rate, he adds, has made the U.S. unique among developed countries. But that rate has been slowly declining — a trend that will shift the American population growth dynamics as early as 2027 or as late as 2038. The exact year will depend on actual levels of immigration flows over the next few decades.	8
Learn something new every day More Info... by email Public deficit, also known as government deficit, is the difference between revenues and expenditures over a given period of time. Public deficit is the opposite of public surplus, which occurs when a government takes in more money in revenues than it spends. Measuring public deficit is one way to get an idea of a country's fiscal health, though many other factors may contribute to this analysis. Reducing public deficit is a goal of most governments, and can be achieved both by increasing revenues and reducing expenditures. Public deficit is distinct from public debt, though the terms are sometimes mistakenly used interchangeably. Public debt refers to all money and services owed by the government to internal and external organizations, including financial institutions and other governments, and through unpaid contracts. Deficit is debt in a more specific time frame; it refers to the difference revenues and expenditures over a specific period of time. A policy of deficit spending, or spending in excess of yearly revenues, can add to the total public debt over time. In nearly every government, public deficit exists on a regular basis. Many government economies use a policy known as deficit spending, which allows expenditures even when revenues will not balance out the budget. Deficit spending usually involves the issuing of government bonds, which are offered to investors to raise revenues in order to help reduce the deficit. Other tactics for deficit spending involve borrowing money from other government funds, a complex issue that runs the serious risk of endangering some protected funding systems. Running a country with a constant public deficit is nearly universal in the 21st century. In general, the need for deficit spending is compounded by the conflicting desires of the public to keep taxes low and services high. Since taxes make up the majority of government revenue, these opposing wishes create a political climate that makes it nearly impossible to avoid deficit spending. In an attempt to keep taxpayers happy, governments may create a deeper deficit by providing both lowered taxes and increased expenditures, but this strategy may drive a country closer to insolvency over the long term. Though the management of the deficit is an important area of government, not all deficit rises occur as a result of government policy. If a country experiences a large recession and subsequent unemployment crisis, tax revenues may drop significantly, as people are making less money. Similarly, a boom in economic prosperity may lead to a reduced deficit, as taxpayers are pushed into higher tax brackets.	8
UNDP puts forward eight-point action agenda to reduce poverty and achieve sustainable development Based on evidence from 50 countries, the MDGs can be achieved, says Report New York — The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) launched, today, an extensive assessment of what must be done to advance sustainable development and reduce global poverty. The report, titled What Will It Take To Achieve The Millennium Development Goals? An International Assessment, identifies a concrete action agenda to inform the outcome of the World leaders’ MDG Summit in New York, this September. "For the many people living in poverty, the Millennium Development Goals are not abstract and aspirational targets; they offer a means to a better life, and overall a more just and peaceful world,” said UNDP Administrator Helen Clark at the launch. “Our hope is that this evidence of tried and tested policies, and this agenda for accelerating the pace of success, informs a positive outcome at the world leaders summit on the MDGs in September,” Helen Clark added. The MDGs are eight internationally-agreed targets which aim to reduce poverty, hunger, maternal and child deaths, disease, inadequate shelter, gender inequality and environmental degradation by 2015. Drawing on evidence of what has worked in 50 countries, UNDP’s report provides an eight-point MDG action agenda to accelerate and sustain development progress over the next five years. The eight points focus on supporting nationally-owned and participatory development; pro-poor, job-rich inclusive growth including the private sector; government investments in social services like health and education; expanding opportunities for women and girls; access to low carbon energy; domestic resource mobilization; and delivery on Official Development Assistance commitments. From the abolition of primary school fees leading to a surge in enrolment in Ethiopia to innovative health servicing options in Afghanistan reducing under-five child mortality, the report brings forward concrete examples that have worked and can be replicated, even in the poorest countries, to make real progress across the Goals. Rapid improvements in both education and health, the report illustrates, have occurred in countries where there were adequate public expenditures and strong new partnerships. Evidence found in the Assessment also suggests that reductions in poverty and hunger occur when economic growth is job-rich and boosts agricultural production. Ghana’s nationwide fertilizer subsidy programme, for instance, increased food production by 40 percent and reduced hunger by nine percent between 2003 and 2005. Other examples include a national rural employment initiative in India which has benefited some 46 million households. The programme guarantees a minimum of 100 days of work for landless labourers and marginal farmers, with almost half being women. Such robust social protection and employment programmes, the report affirms, reduce poverty and reverse inequality. Albania was praised for adopting a ninth MDG, reforming public administration, legislation and policies to promote accountability and enhance development results. Country-led development and effective government, argues the report, are at the root of achieving the MDGs. The Assessment also denotes the linkages between many of the Goals. For example, improving opportunities for women and girls and expanding access to energy, both, have a multiplier effect on MDG progress. The provision of generators in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali and Senegal, has helped to free up an average of two to four hours per day for women, which they have been able to spend on education, improving their health and generating additional sources of revenue. This Assessment finds that well-targeted and predictable aid is a critical catalyst for meeting the MDGs and has produced significant results in Burkina Faso, Mozambique, Rwanda, Uganda and Vietnam by making more resources available for service delivery. Evidence, however, also suggests that countries need to expand their own domestic resource mobilization and to adjust their budgets to ensure maximum return on their investment. The report, which will be shared with Member States as they prepare the outcome document for the September MDG Summit, also singles out the failure to conclude the World Trade Organization’s Doha Development Round of trade negotiations as the most significant gap in formulating a global partnership for development. In addition, market access for developing countries is little improved and domestic agricultural subsidies by rich countries continue to overshadow policy coherence needed to accelerate MDG progress. To work in tandem with this report, UNDP is also piloting an MDG acceleration toolkit. It is a framework designed to help governments, the UN at the country level and other development partners identify where the real bottlenecks to progress lie and, in tackling them, which policies can have the most impact on achieving the MDGs. For a copy of the International Assessment, visit www.undp.org For more on the Millennium Development Goals, visit www.undp.org/mdg or www.kickoutpoverty.org UNDP is the UN’s global development network, advocating for change and connecting countries to knowledge, experience and resources to help people build a better life. We are on the ground in 166 countries, working with them on their own solutions to global and national development challenges. As they develop local capacity, they draw on the people of UNDP and our wide range of partners. http://www.undp.org New York: Sandra Macharia, Tel.: +1 212 906 5377, [email protected] or +1 212 906 5382, [email protected]	8
It might be summer, but flu season is less than a month away. The flu shot is the absolute best way to protect yourself from the influenza vaccine — and now, some researchers are giving you a new reason to get vaccinated. Receiving a flu shot could lower your heart attack risk, Australian researchers wrote after a epidemiological study that's published in the journal Heart. Researchers studied nearly 600 people — half who had had heart attacks and half who had not. The half with heart attacks were twice as likely to get the flu — and half as likely to get flu vaccinations — prompting researchers to conclude that there's a link between the flu vaccine and cardiovascular health. But that's an unreasonable conclusion based on the evidence and design of the study, Steven Nissen, MD, MACC, the chairman of the department of cardiovascular medicine at the Cleveland Clinic said in an interview to Weather.com. "People who choose to be vaccinated [against influenza] are very different from people who choose not to," he said. "They are much more health conscious; it's likely they participate in other healthy behaviors, so it's not at all surprising that they would be healthier [and therefore less likely to have a heart attack]."Nissen said that past studies that have found like results are similarly flawed. "The only real way to test how the flu vaccine impacts heart health would be through a randomized controlled trial," he said. "Researchers would have to randomly assign half of study participants to get vaccinated, half to not, and then to follow them and see." Still, Nissen said, there are plenty of reasons to get a flu shot. Although the vaccine is not 100-percent effective (and its effectiveness varies from year to year), it can prevent illness and improve disease outcome if you do contract the flu. In fact, the vaccine prevented 13 million illnesses and 110,000 hospitalizations from 2005 to 2011, according to a CDC report published earlier this summer. The CDC and the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends flu shots for anyone over the age of six months. Yearly flu vaccination should begin in September, or as soon as vaccine is available, and continue throughout the flu season which can last as late as May, according to CDC experts. MORE ON WEATHER.COM: The Deadliest Flu Outbreak in History	9
Free Newsletters - Space News - Defense Alert - Environment Report - Energy Monitor by Staff Writers Houston TX (SPX) Apr 30, 2013 Individual freedom and social responsibility may sound like humanistic concepts, but an investigation of the genetic circuitry of bacteria suggests that even the simplest creatures can make difficult choices that strike a balance between selflessness and selfishness. In a new study the journal Scientific Reports, researchers from Rice University's Center for Theoretical Biological Physics (CTBP) and colleagues from Tel Aviv University and Harvard Medical School show how sophisticated genetic circuits allow an individual bacterium within a colony to act on its own while also ensuring that the colony pulls together in hard times. "Our findings suggest new principles for collective decisions that allow both random behavior by individuals and nonrandom outcomes for the population as a whole," said study co-author Eshel Ben-Jacob, a senior investigator at CTBP and adjunct professor of biochemistry and cell biology at Rice. "These new principles could be broadly applicable, from the study of cancer metastasis to the study of collective decisions by humans during times of stress." Some species of bacteria live in complex colonies that can contain millions of individual cells. An increasing body of research on bacterial colonies has found that members often cooperate - even to the point of sacrificing their lives - for the survival of their colony. For example, in response to extreme stress, such as starvation, most of the individual cells in a colony of the bacteria Bacillus subtilis will form spores. Spore formation is a drastic choice because it requires the cell to kill itself to encase a copy of its genetic code in a tough, impervious shell. Though the living cell dies, the spore acts as a kind of time capsule that allows the organism to re-emerge into the world of the living when conditions improve. "This time-travel strategy of waiting and safeguarding a copy of the DNA in the spore ensures the survival of the colony," Ben-Jacob said. "But there are other, less desperate options that B. subtilis can take to respond to stress. Some of these cells turn into highly mobile food seekers. Others turn cannibalistic, and about 10 percent enter a state called 'competence' in which they bide their time and bet on present conditions to improve." Scientists have long been curious about how bacteria decide which of these paths to pursue. Years of studies have determined that each individual constantly senses its environment and continuously sends out chemical signals to communicate with its neighbors about the choices it is making. Experimental studies have revealed dozens of regulatory genes, signaling proteins and other genetic tools that cells use to gather information and communicate with one another. "Bacteria don't hide their intentions from their peers in the colony," said study co-author Jose Onuchic, co-director of CTBP, Rice's Harry C. and Olga K. Wiess Professor of Physics and Astronomy and professor of chemistry and biochemistry and cell biology. "They don't evade or lie, but rather communicate their intentions by sending chemical messages among themselves." Individual bacteria weigh their decisions carefully, taking into account the stress they are facing, the situation of their peers, the statistics of how many cells are sporulating and how many are choosing competence, Onuchic said. Each bacterium in the colony communicates via chemical "tweets" and performs a sophisticated decision-making process using a specialized complex gene network comprised of many genes connected via complex circuitry. Taking a physics approach, Onuchic, Ben-Jacob and study co-authors Mingyang Lu, Daniel Schultz and Trevor Stavropoulos investigated the interplay between two components of the circuitry - a timer that determines when sporulation occurs and a two-way switch that causes the cell to choose competence over sporulation. "We found that the sporulation timer and the competence switch work in a coordinated fashion, but the interplay is complex because the two circuits are affected very differently by noise," said Schultz, a postdoctoral fellow at Harvard Medical School and a former graduate student at CTBP. Noise results from random fluctuations in a signal; every circuit - whether genetic or electronic - responds to noise in its own way. In the case of B. subtilis, noise is undesirable in the sporulation timer but is a necessity for the proper function of the competence switch, the researchers said. "Our study explains how the two opposite noise requirements can be satisfied in the decision circuitry in B. subtilis," Onuchic said. "The circuits have a special capacity for noise management that allows each individual bacterium to determine its fate by 'playing dice with controlled odds.'" Ben-Jacob said the timer has an internal clock that is controlled by cell stress. The noise-intolerant timer typically keeps the competence switch closed, but when the cell is exposed to stress over a long period of time, the timer activates a decision gate that opens brief "windows of opportunity" in which the competence switch can be flipped. Thanks to its architecture, the gate oscillates during the window of opportunity, he said. At each oscillation, the switch opens for a short time and grants the cell a short window in which it can use noise as a "roll of the dice" to decide whether to escape into competence. "The ingenuity is that at each oscillation the cell also sends 'chemical tweets' to inform the other cells about its stress and attempt to escape," said Ben-Jacob, the Maguy-Glass Professor in Physics of Complex Systems and professor of physics and astronomy at Tel Aviv University. "The tweets sent by others help regulate the circuits of their neighbors and guarantee that no more than a specific fraction of cells within the colony will enter into competence." Onuchic said the decision-making principles revealed in the study could have implications for synthetic biologists who wish to incorporate sophisticated decision systems as well as for cancer researchers who are interested in exploring the decision-making processes that cancer cells use in choosing to become dormant or to metastasize. "This represents a real fusion of ideas from statistical physics and biology," he said. Lu is a postdoctoral research fellow at CTBP and Stavropoulos is a former graduate student and CTBP fellow at the University of California, San Diego. The research was funded by the National Science Foundation, the Cancer Prevention and Research Institute of Texas and the Tauber Family Foundation. The reports is available here. All About Human Beings and How We Got To Be Here \|The content herein, unless otherwise known to be public domain, are Copyright 1995-2014 - Space Media Network. AFP, UPI and IANS news wire stories are copyright Agence France-Presse, United Press International and Indo-Asia News Service. ESA Portal Reports are copyright European Space Agency. All NASA sourced material is public domain. Additional copyrights may apply in whole or part to other bona fide parties. 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What is oral allergy syndrome? Oral allergy syndrome, or OAS, is an allergic reaction that usually happens only in the mouth and throat. People with OAS can react to specific foods, such as certain fruits, vegetables, peanuts, or tree nuts. When they eat the food they're allergic to, they may notice itching, tingling, swelling, and redness of the lips, mouth, or throat — often within minutes. People who are allergic to pollen are more likely to have OAS. In fact, OAS is also called pollen-food allergy syndrome. The immune system gets confused and thinks that the foods being eaten are similar to pollen that the person is allergic to. Many people with OAS can eat these same foods if they are cooked, not raw. That's because cooking changes the food enough that the immune system no longer thinks it is a threat. OAS usually only involves the mouth and throat. But, rarely, the reaction also can affect other parts of the body. If there's a concern that your child is at risk of a more serious reaction, your doctor might prescribe emergency medication to always have available. If the doctor thinks your child has OAS, he or she may give you a list of foods to avoid or to be careful with. The doctor also can give you other tips to make a reaction less likely, such as peeling or cooking the food before offering it to your child. Reviewed by: Larissa Hirsch, MD Date reviewed: September 2012 \|American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology The American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology offers up-to-date information and a find-an-allergist search tool.\| \|American College of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology The ACAAI is an organization of allergists-immunologists and health professionals dedicated to quality patient care. Contact them at: American College of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology\| 85 W. Algonquin Road Suite 550 Arlington Heights, IL 60005 \|Allergy and Asthma Network/Mothers of Asthmatics (AAN-MA) Through education, advocacy, community outreach, and research, AAN-MA hopes to eliminate suffering and fatalities due to asthma and allergies. AAN-MA offers news, drug recall information, tips, and more for treating allergies and asthma. Call: (800) 878-4403\| \|The Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network (FAAN) The FAAN mession is to raise public awareness, provide advocacy and education and to advance research on behavior for all of those affected by food allergies and anaphylaxis.\| \|What Is Skin Testing for Allergies? A scratch or skin prick test is a common way doctors find out more about a person's allergies.\| \|Seasonal Allergies (Hay Fever) At various times of the year, pollen and mold spores trigger the cold-like symptoms associated with seasonal allergies. Most kids find relief through reduced exposure to allergens or with medications.\| \|Allergies Your eyes itch, your nose is running, you're sneezing, and you're covered in hives. The enemy known as allergies has struck again.\| \|Food Allergies Struggling with strawberries? Petrified of peanuts? Sorry you ate shellfish? Maybe you have a food allergy. Find out more in this article for kids.\| \|Learning About Allergies During an allergic reaction, your body's immune system goes into overdrive. Find out more in this article for kids.\| \|Serious Allergic Reactions (Anaphylaxis) Kids with severe allergies can be at risk for a sudden, serious allergic reaction called anaphylaxis. The good news is it can be prevented and treated.\| \|If My Child Has Food Allergies, What Should I Look for When Reading Food Labels? Food labels can help you spot allergens your child must avoid. Find out more.\| \|Food Allergies and Travel Taking precautions and carrying meds are just part of normal life for someone who has a food allergy. Here are some tips on how to make travel feel perfectly routine also.\| \|Serious Allergic Reactions (Anaphylaxis) A person with severe allergies can be at risk for a sudden, serious allergic reaction called anaphylaxis. This reaction can seem scary, but the good news is it can be treated.\| \|5 Ways to Be Prepared for an Allergy Emergency Quick action is essential during a serious allergic reaction. It helps to remind yourself of action steps so they become second nature if there's an emergency. Here's what to do.\| \|Food Allergies Food allergies can cause serious and even deadly reactions in kids, so it's important to know how to feed a child with food allergies and to prevent reactions.\| \|Hives (Urticaria) Has your child broken out in welts? It could be a case of the hives. Learn how to soothe itchy bumps and help your child feel better.\| \|Allergy Shots Many kids battle allergies year-round, and some can't control their symptoms with medications. For them, allergy shots (or allergen immunotherapy) can be beneficial.\| \|Allergy Testing Doctors use several different types of allergy tests, depending on what a person may be allergic to. Find out what to expect from allergy tests.\| \|Nut and Peanut Allergy A growing number of kids are allergic to nuts and peanuts. Find out more about this problem and how allergic kids can stay healthy.\| \|Nut and Peanut Allergy Peanuts are one of the most common allergy-causing foods, and they often find their way into things you wouldn't imagine. Learn the facts on living with a nut or peanut allergy.\| \|Egg Allergy Living with an egg allergy means you have to be aware of what you're eating and read food labels carefully. Here are some tips for teens who have an egg allergy.\| \|Egg Allergy Babies sometimes have an allergic reaction to eggs. If that happens, they can't eat eggs for a while. But the good news is that most kids outgrow this allergy by age 5.\| \|Nut and Peanut Allergy If your child is allergic to nuts or peanuts, it's essential to learn what foods might contain them and how to avoid them.\| What to expect when coming to Akron Children's For healthcare providers and nurses Residency & Fellowships, Medical Students, Nursing and Allied Health For prospective employees and career-seekers Our online community that provides inspirational stories and helpful information.	9
Shelby Gray takes comfort from her dad while receiving school vaccinations from Pat Morrison at the Kenai Public Health Nursing Offices several years ago. Students must have current vacines before attending school. There are several specific required shots that students must have. Contact the school district if you have any questions. Clarion file photo Prior to school entry, a child must be immunized as required by Alaska state law against the following diseases: diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, polio, measles, mumps, rubella, hepatitis A and B, and any other immunizations as required by law. Specific booster doses for some immunizations are required for some students during the school year. Kenai Peninsula Borough School District will comply with state law in all matters involving immunization compliance. Any student who does not provide evidence of each required immunization, or a religious or medical exemption as allowed within Alaska state law, will be excluded from school until such time as the appropriate documentation has been received by the school. Where regular weekly medical services are not available, the superintendent or designee may grant provisional admission to students in exceptional circumstances for up to 90 days. There is a basic childhood immunization schedule. These vaccinations are required by the state of Alaska for school and childcare entry. At this age: 2 months old DTP (1st), OVP (1st) 4 months old DTP (2nd), OVP (2nd) 6 months old DTP (3rd) 15 months old DTP (4th), OVP (3rd), MMR 4-6 years (before school) DTP (5th), OVP (4th) 14-16 years and every 10 years throughout life Td booster Vaccine descriptions: DTP Diphtheria-Tetanus-Pertussis vaccine; OPV Oral Polio Vaccine; MMR Measles-Mumps-Rubella Vaccine; and Td Tetanus-diphtheria Vaccine. Other recommended childhood immunizations include: Hib: Hib vaccination is strongly recommended 4 doses, beginning at 2 months of age; and Hepatitis B is recommended for children at risk of of hepatitis B infection. (It is given in a series of 3 doses.) Homer Public Heath Center will hold immunization clinics on the following dates and times: from 9 to 11:30 a.m. and from 1 to 3:30 p.m. Monday through Friday, now until Aug. 23. Parents or guardians are reminded to bring shots records with them. The Kenai Public Health Center at 630 Barnacle Way, Suite A, will hold extended hours for its back-to-school immunization clinics on the following dates only; from 9 to 11:30 a.m. and from 1:30 to to 4 p.m. Monday, Tuesday, Wed-nesday, Friday; and from 1:30 to 6 p.m. Aug. 22. All shots will be provided at the center at 630 Barnacle Way, Suite A. It will hold an extended clinic from 9 to 11:30 a.m. and from 1:30 to 4 p.m. Thursday at the Cottonwood Health Center at 170 E. Corral St., Suite 1, in Soldotna. The center also will hold its regular immunization clinic hours. Parents or guardians are reminded to bring shots records with them. For more information, call 335-3400. Peninsula Clarion © 2015. All Rights Reserved. \| Contact Us	9
Microbiology: Influenza is a family of RNA enveloped viruses that affect birds and mammals. There are three Influenza types: A, B and C. A is the most important in human infection. Influenza is a huge public health concern that occurs in seasonal epidemics and has caused pandemic level infections as recently as 2009 with Influenza A strain H1N1 (Monto, 2010). Microbiology:Streptococcus pneumoniae is a Gram-positive coccus that commonly exists as chains of cells. S. pneumoniae produces haemolysin, a compound that breaks down the haemoglobin present in red blood cells. When S. pneumoniae is grown on blood agar the effect of haemolysin can be visualised. The haemolysin released by S. pneumoniae oxidises the red blood cells in the media leaving haemolysed regions a “greenish” colour; this process is known as -haemolysis (Mitchell and Mitchell, 2010) Also known as:S. aureus, Staph, Methicillin-susceptibleStaphylococcus aureus (MSSA) Industry of Interest: Healthcare Microbiology:Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive coccus that forms “grape-like” clusters of cells. It is also known for the “golden” appearance of its colonies, which is produced by a protective carotenoid pigment called Staphyloxanthin (Clanditz et al., 2006). S. aureus is an opportunistic pathogen with many toxins and virulence factors at its disposal. Microbiology: Salmonella enterica is a Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic rod and a member of the Enterobacteriaceae (Crum-Cianflone, 2008). There are currently more than 2500 serovars of S. enterica (Andrews-Polymenis et al., 2010). S. enterica is an important cause of foodborne illness in the developing world and causes sporadic outbreaks of Salmonellosis in the developed world. Ricostruzione stereochimica della molecola di Taq polimerasi (in celeste) mentre sta replicando un tratto di DNA (linee verdi ed elementi giallo-viola). Il sito attivo dell’enzima è indicato dalle palline colorate. Questo enzima è ampiamente sfruttato nelle biotecnologie… James D. Watson and Francis Crick were the two co-discoverers of the structure of DNA in 1953. They used x-ray diffraction data collected by Rosalind Franklin and proposed thedouble helix or spiral staircase structure of the DNA molecule. Their article, Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid, is celebrated for its treatment of the B form of DNA (B-DNA), and as the source of Watson-Crick base pairing of nucleotides. They were, with Maurice Wilkins, awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962. Apparently, as they walked into the Eagle pub in Cambridge, Crick announced, “We have found the secret of life.” Also known as: Klebsiella pneumoniae, K. pneumoniae Industry of interest: Healthcare Klebsiella is a genus of non-motile, Gram-negative, oxidase-negative, rod shaped bacteria. It belongs to the Enterobacteriaceae family which includes important human pathogens such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli.Klebsiellacan cause a wide range of infections, notably pneumonia, urinary tract infections, septicemia, and soft tissue infections (Podschun and Ullmann 1998). As opportunistic pathogens,Klebsiella spp. primarily infect immunocompromised individuals who are hospitalized and suffer from severe underlying diseases. Nosocomial Klebsiella infections are caused mainly by K. pneumoniae, the medically most important species of the genus. To a much lesser degree, K. oxytoca has been isolated from human clinical specimens (Podschun and Ullmann 1998). Also known as: C.diff, C difficile, CDAD (Clostridium difficile-associated disease) Industry of interest: Healthcare Microbiology: Clostridium difficile is an anaerobic, Gram-positive, spore-forming rod, which can colonize the human gut and cause toxin-mediated, usually antibiotic-associated disease (Bartlett et al. 1978). C. difficile is closely related toC. botulinum, which causes Botulism and produces the so-called “Botox” toxin used for cosmetic purposes, C. tetani, which causes Tetanus and C. perfringens, which causes Gangrene (Gurtler et al. 1991). C. difficile can produce toxin A or toxin B, both of which lead to inflammation and injury of the colon, which manifests as mild to severe diarrhoea. These toxins are encoded by separate genes (tcdA and tcdB) which are controlled by several regulatory genes including positive (tcdD) and negative (tcdC) regulators all of which are part of the Pathogenicity Locus (PaLoc) of the genome (Warny et al. 2005). Variations in the sequence of PaLoc can be detected by toxinotyping, which is used in combination with a variety of other techniques to differentiate distinct strains of C. difficile. Un batterio di Escherichia coli in falsi colori, trattato con un enzima in modo da far fuoriuscire il suo DNA. Questo tipo di batteri normalmente presenti nel nostro intestino, sono largamente usati nelle biotecnologie e rappresentano uno dei più importanti organismi di studio, usati in laboratorio…	9
\|Systematic (IUPAC) name\| \|(what is this?)\| Cefepime (INN, AAN, BAN, USAN) (// or //) is a fourth-generation cephalosporin antibiotic developed in 1994. Cefepime has an extended spectrum of activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, with greater activity against both types of organism than third-generation agents. Cefepime hydrochloride was developed by Bristol-Myers Squibb and marketed beginning in 1994. It is now available as a generic drug and sold under a variety of trade names worldwide. A 2007 meta-analysis suggested when data of trials were combined, mortality was increased in patients treated with cefepime compared with other β-lactam antibiotics. In response, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration performed their own meta-analysis which found no mortality difference. Cefepime is usually reserved to treat moderate to severe nosocomial pneumonia, infections caused by multiple drug-resistant microorganisms (e.g. Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and empirical treatment of febrile neutropenia. Cefepime has good activity against important pathogens including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and multiple drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. A particular strength is its activity against Enterobacteriaceae. Whereas other cephalosporins are degraded by many plasmid- and chromosome-mediated beta-lactamases, cefepime is stable and is a front-line agent when infection with Enterobacteriaceae is known or suspected. Spectrum of bacterial susceptibility Cefepime is a broad-spectrum cephalosporin antibiotic and has been used to treat bacteria responsible for causing pneumonia and infections of the skin and urinary tract. Some of these bacteria include Pseudomonas, Escherichia, and Streptoccus species. The following represents MIC susceptibility data for a few medically significant microorganisms. - Escherichia coli: ≤0.007 - 128 μg/ml - Pseudomonas aeruginosa: 0.06 - >256 μg/ml - Streptococcus pneumoniae: ≤0.007 - >8 μg/ml The combination of the syn-configuration of the methoxyimino moiety and the aminothiazolyl moiety confers extra stability to β-lactamase enzymes produced by many bacteria. The N-methylpyrrolidine moiety increases penetration into Gram-negative bacteria. These factors increase the activity of cefepime against otherwise resistant organisms including Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Following expiration of the Bristol-Myers Squibb patent, cefepime became available as a generic and is now marketed by numerous companies worldwide under tradenames including Neopime (Neomed), Maxipime. Cepimax, Cepimex, and Axepim. - Barbhaiya RH, Forgue ST, Gleason CR, Knupp CA, Pittman KA, Weidler DJ et al. (1990). "Safety, tolerance, and pharmacokinetic evaluation of cefepime after administration of single intravenous doses". Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 34 (6): 1118–22. doi:10.1128/aac.34.6.1118. PMC 171768. PMID 2203303. - Yahav D, Paul M, Fraser A, Sarid N, Leibovici L (2007). "Efficacy and safety of cefepime: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Lancet Infect Dis 7 (5): 338–48. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(07)70109-3. PMID 17448937. - "Information for Healthcare Professionals: Cefepime (marketed as Maxipime)". Retrieved 2009-08-02. - Chapman TM, Perry CM (2003). "Cefepime: a review of its use in the management of hospitalized patients with pneumonia". Am J Respir Med 2 (1): 75–107. doi:10.1007/bf03256641. PMID 14720024.	9
[Haemophilus meningitis in properly vaccinated children: Report of three cases.] ABSTRACT The 1993 introduction in France of the vaccine against the serotype b of Haemophilus influenzae (Hib) resulted in a fast reduction of invasive infections caused by this species. However, despite the introduction of a booster dose, cases of Hib meningitis can still be observed, even if they are exceptional. We report here on 3 cases of Hib meningitis observed at Rennes University Hospital, which occurred during the winter seasons between 2007 and 2010, in properly vaccinated infants and children aged 9, 14, and 29 months. Progression after treatment was satisfactory in all 3 cases, and no immune deficiency was detected. After 18 years of the vaccination policy in France, these observations demonstrate that a risk, although much lower, of Hib meningitis persists in infants and children, including in vaccinated patients, and that strains still are circulating within the general population. SourceAvailable from: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Vaccination against Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) diseases began a quarter of a century ago with a polysaccharide vaccine; this vaccine was followed by four different conjugates 10 years later. In this review, the burden of global Hib disease is quantified following this 25-year period of vaccine availability to determine the potential impact of conjugate vaccines. This task was accomplished by analysis of data available in 10 languages in 75 geographical regions of over 50 countries. All severe Hib diseases, not only meningitis, were characterized, and special attention was paid to the most vulnerable age group, i.e., children aged 0 to 4 years. Prior to vaccination, the weighted worldwide incidence of meningitis in patients younger than 5 years was 57/100,000, and for all Hib diseases except nonbacteremic pneumonia, it was 71/100,000, indicating 357,000 and 445,000 cases per year, respectively. At least 108,500 of these children died. For all age groups combined, there were 486,000 cases of Hib disease, excluding pneumonia, with 114,200 deaths and probably an equal number of sequelae per annum. If the figures for nonbacteremic pneumonia are included, a conservative estimate is that over 2.2 million cases of infection and 520,000 deaths from Hib disease occurred worldwide, but the true numbers might have been greater. Despite these large numbers and availability of safe and efficacious vaccines, only 38,000 cases annually are prevented-a meager 8% or less than a 2% reduction in cases, depending on whether nonbacteremic pneumonia is included in the calculations. Although vaccination has had great success in some affluent countries, the current level of activity has had a very small impact globally. The use of conjugates, preferably with a reduced number of doses and in combination with other vaccines or perhaps in fractional doses, should be extended to less privileged countries, where most Hib disease occurs.Clinical Microbiology Reviews 05/2000; 13(2):302-17. DOI:10.1128/CMR.13.2.302-317.2000 · 16.00 Impact Factor [Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: A child with recurrent infections represents a challenge to the pediatrician who must identify, among a large number of repeatedly infected but nevertheless healthy children whose parents need to be reassured, the rare cases of potentially severe immune deficiency. This can be most successfully achieved through the measurement of IgA, IgG, and antibody titers to vaccine (tetanus, diphtheria, Haemophilus influenzae B) and exposure (pneumococcus) antigens. The presence of normal antibody responses makes it possible to rule out underlying immune deficiency in a sensitive and specific manner. Conversely, abnormally weak antibody responses identify the children who have to be referred without delay for further investigation of a potential immune defect. This article indicates for which pediatric patients an immunodeficiency screening should be considered, and how to analyze its results.Archives de Pédiatrie 03/2001; 8(2):205-10. · 0.41 Impact Factor [Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) conjugate vaccines are extremely effective in protecting infants and children from invasive Hib infections; however, vaccine failures do occur. The anti-Hib antibody production was studied both quantitatively and qualitatively in 12 patients who experienced Hib failure, all of whom had normal serum immunoglobulin concentrations and all of whom were without clinical risk factors for invasive Hib disease. Both anti-Hib antibody concentration and immunoglobulin-G2 anti-Hib antibody avidity were significantly lower in patients who experienced Hib failure, at onset of disease and after reconvalescence, when compared with controls. This finding suggests that the patients who developed invasive Hib disease--despite having received 3-4 Hib conjugate vaccinations--were inadequately primed by these vaccinations.Clinical Infectious Diseases 02/2002; 34(2):191-7. DOI:10.1086/338259 · 9.42 Impact Factor	9
Immune system in a bottle could help prevent flu vaccine shortage ANN ARBOR, Mich.---Picture a honeycomb and each compartment in the honeycomb is coated with living cells from a person's mouth, skin or a piece of bone. University of Michigan associate professor Nicholas Kotov believes that one day, the cells in those honeycombs can be used to grow spare parts for our bodies, or even an entire artificial immune system in a bottle. An immune system in a bottle would allow faster and easier production of a flu vaccine, thus preventing another shortage, he said. In addition, the immune system in a bottle will give scientists clues how to design vaccines that activate an immune response to the unchanging part of a flu virus, making yearly vaccinations, quite possibly, unnecessary, Kotov said. In the paper "Inverted Colloidal Crystals as 3-D Cell Scaffolds," published last month in the journal Langmuir, Kotov's lab in the chemical engineering department and other collaborators introduced a way to build those cell-incubating honeycombs---called scaffolds---so that even though the cells occupy different compartments in the honeycomb, they share the same conditions, just as they would share the same conditions if growing in the body. Collaborators on the paper include researchers from Oklahoma State University, University of Texas Medial Branch and Stillwater Oklahoma-based Nomadics Inc. Kotov has appointments in the biomedical, materials science and chemical engineering departments. The research is so important that the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) has funded a consortium of research institutions for $10 million to grow the immune system in a bottle. Scientists can study the artificial immune system to see how it reacts to biological hazards and their countermeasures, and use the data to make more effective countermeasures, said Jan Walker, DARPA spokesman. The birthplace of this artificial immune system is Kotov's three dimensional scaffold, which is comprised of inverted colloidal crystals, also called photonic crystals. Colloidal crystals are hexagonally ordered lattices of highly uniform spherical particles that are packed together. They have a wide range of diameters, from nanometers to micrometers and this versatility is critical for controlling the life cycle of cells and how they change (i.e. differentiation). Kotov's team didn't use robotics or complicated computer set-ups to make the scaffolds. Instead, they used heat and gel to make a simple mold. First, they infiltrated the crystal with sol gel. When the gel hardened in the channels between the spheres, scientists heated the crystal to burn away all but the walls left by the hardened gel. What's left is an inverted replica, or a mold, of the crystal. Historically, scientists cultured cells in plates or dishes where they grow in two-dimensional colonies. But because cells proliferate three dimensionally in the body, it's critical that scientists develop a three-dimensional scaffold for cell cultures so the cells' development can mimic what happens inside us. This is particularly important for differentiation of stem cells into different lineages of immune cells. The inverted colloidal crystal scaffold could stimulate differentiation of human stem cells from blood of adults to functional T and B cells. T and B cells help target and kill foreign invaders. "The uniformity of the environment affects the way the cells are developing," Kotov said. "This is particularly relevant for stem cells and other cells that can differentiate. These scaffolds offer a very good control over the environment." The final goal of the DARPA project will be replication of the function of the human bone marrow and thymus. Besides University of Texas Medical Branch and Nomadics Inc., it also includes Harvard University, Massachusetts General Hospital, Scientific Research Laboratory Inc, and Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center. Later, the artificial bone marrow and thymus will be integrated with other elements of the human immune system being developed in the multiuniversity team lead by VaxDesign Inc. The ability of the inverted colloidal crystal scaffolds to control the differentiation process of the cells also opens possibilities in using for treatment of leukemia and other forms of cancer. Source: Eurekalert & othersLast reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 21 Feb 2009 Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved.	9
NetWellness is a global, community service providing quality, unbiased health information from our partner university faculty. NetWellness is commercial-free and does not accept advertising. Thursday, March 26, 2015 Hai Doctor, I want to ask something about MMR vaccine. As we know, ACIP recommended that every children between 12-15 months should receive first shot of MMR vaccine. They also said that if our child has received the first dose before 12 month, it is not counted as the first one. I don`t understand that statement. And my another question is: Why MMR vaccine is given at 12-15 month? Those are good questions! I am sure many parents have wondered about the same thing. Here are the answers. "Most infants born in the United States will receive passive protection against measles, mumps, and rubella in the form of antibodies from their mothers. These antibodies can destroy the vaccine virus if they are present when the vaccine is given and, thus, can cause the vaccine to be ineffective. By 12 months of age, almost all infants have lost this passive protection." Taken from: The MMR vaccine given earlier may be inactivated by antibodies the child received from the mother. The blood test to see if the immunization given at an earlier age was effective costs more than the vaccine and, if a good immune response is not present, the child will need another dose of vaccine. So the cost for the test and possibly an extra dose of vaccine is just not a good use of health care dollars. We know from many high quality studies that 95% of all 12-month-olds will successfully produce immune antibodies and 98% of all 15-month-olds will do so. It just makes sense to have one clear rule that prevents wasteful use of vaccines and assures that children receive the vaccine when it is most likely to benefit the child. Thank you for your questions. Mary M Gottesman, PhD, RN, CPNP, FAAN Professor of Clinical Nursing College of Nursing The Ohio State University	9
"What are allergies? Allergies occur when the body's immune system responds to a substance it considers an "invader." Substances that provoke the immune system into an allergic response are known as allergens. There is no such thing as a"... Caution patients against engaging in hazardous occupations requiring complete mental alertness, and motor coordination such as operating machinery or driving a motor vehicle after ingestion of XYZAL. Concomitant Use of Alcohol and other Central Nervous System Depressants Instruct patients to avoid concurrent use of XYZAL with alcohol or other central nervous system depressants because additional reduction in mental alertness may occur. Dosing of XYZAL Do not exceed the recommended daily dose in adults and adolescents 12 years of age and older of 5 mg once daily in the evening. In children 6 to 11 years of age the recommended dose is 2.5 mg once daily in the evening. In children 6 months to 5 years of age, the recommended dose is 1.25 mg once daily in the evening. Advise patients to not ingest more than the recommended dose of XYZAL because of the increased risk of somnolence at higher doses. Last reviewed on RxList: 11/22/2013 This monograph has been modified to include the generic and brand name in many instances. Additional Xyzal Information Xyzal - User Reviews Xyzal User Reviews Now you can gain knowledge and insight about a drug treatment with Patient Discussions. Report Problems to the Food and Drug Administration Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks.	9
Am Fam Physician. 2005 Feb 1;71(3):583. Concerns have been raised about a possible association between childhood vaccinations and the development of type 1 diabetes. In mouse models, some vaccines have been demonstrated to prevent type 1 diabetes, while others appear to induce it. Rates of type 1 diabetes are higher in developed countries, where childhood immunizations are widespread. Hviid and co-investigators present population-based data regarding the incidence of type 1 diabetes and childhood vaccinations. The authors used government data from the Danish Civil Registration System for all children born in Denmark between 1990 and 2000. During that period, general immunization schedules included vaccinations for diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, Haemophilus influenza type B, polio, measles, mumps, and rubella. A total of 739,694 children were originally included in the data analysis, of whom 16,421 (2.2 percent) had incomplete follow-up information because of emigration, death, or other factors. The incidence of type 1 diabetes was not statistically different based on receipt of any number of doses of any of the vaccines recorded. The analysis adjusted for possible confounding factors, including the child's weight and place of birth, and the mother's country of birth and age at childbirth. Type 1 diabetes was 40 times more likely to occur in children with at least one sibling with type 1 diabetes. The investigators also looked for any delayed clustering of type 1 diabetes cases years after vaccination but found no significant association. The authors conclude that population-based data on more than 739,000 children indicate no association between type 1 diabetes and routine childhood vaccinations. BILL ZEPF, M.D. Hviid A, et al. Childhood vaccination and type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med. April 1, 2004;350:1398–404. Copyright © 2005 by the American Academy of Family Physicians. This content is owned by the AAFP. A person viewing it online may make one printout of the material and may use that printout only for his or her personal, non-commercial reference. This material may not otherwise be downloaded, copied, printed, stored, transmitted or reproduced in any medium, whether now known or later invented, except as authorized in writing by the AAFP. Contact [email protected] for copyright questions and/or permission requests. Want to use this article elsewhere? Get Permissions	9
Week 10 2015 Week 09 2015 Week 08 2015 Week 07 2015 Chinese National Influenza Centre is officia... Chinese National Influenza Centre is officially designated as a WHO Collaborating Centre for Refer... China's new WHO flu monitoring center se... Chinese National Influenza Centre is off... Scheme & SOPs Manual for the laboratory diagnosis and... Collection of Technical Documents for C... Imported pigs may have introduced the first classical swine influenza viruses into Mainland C... Infectivity, Transmission, and Pathology of Human-Isolated H7N9 Influenza Virus in Ferrets an... Biological features of novel avian influenza A (H7N9) virus Characteristics of hospitalized cases with influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 infection during first win... Neuraminidase inhibitor susceptibility testing of influenza type B viruses in China during 20... Oseltamivir inhibits both viral entry and release but enhances apoptosis of cells infected wi... Human infection with a novel avian-origin influenza A (H7N9) virus Serologic study for influenza A (H7N9) among high-risk groups in China Mutations in polymerase genes enhanced the virulence of 2009 pandemic H1N1 influenza virus i... Epidemiological and Virological Characteristics of Pandemic Influenza A (H1N1) School Outbrea... Identification of dual receptor-binding specific strains of human H5N1 viruses in China Mapping of H3N2 influenza antigenic evolution in China reveals a strategy for vaccine strain ... Grants & Supports What is influenza? How serious is influenza? How is influenza diagnosed? Are there other viruses th... Why do people usually get ... What is the treatment? How many people suffer fro... Epidemic and Pandemic © 2009 CNIC 100 Yingxin Street, Xuanwu District, Beijing, China 100052	9
Posted on: September 22, 2014 Managing Childhood Asthma by Lynne Quittell, MD The soft wheeze or whistle as a child breathes. The chin tucked and chest pinched as he coughs incessantly. These are signs of childhood asthma, a maddening, frightening condition for kids and parents — and a leading cause of ER visits for children. While in the past asthma has been difficult to treat and manage, advancements in medications and methods have allowed doctors and families to tame this potentially dangerous condition in children. The reasons why a child develops asthma can be murky. Potential triggers can be allergies, exposure to secondhand smoke, or a family history of asthma. Premature babies who spend time on a ventilator appear to be at higher risk. Posted on: January 17, 2014 Take Steps to Avoid the Flu, Especially if You Have Asthma By Harlan Weinberg, MD Medical Director, Pulmonary Medicine & Critical Care Medicine, Northern Westchester Hospital Patients who have a diagnosis of asthma, as well as other clinical conditions, such as COPD, Cystic Fibrosis, Congestive Heart Failure, Diabetes Mellitus, and Cancer, are all at increased risk of developing flu-related complications. Asthma is a disorder of the lungs characterized by chronic inflammation of the airways. Acute influenza may lead to worsening of asthma/asthmatic exacerbation, pneumonia and ultimately, respiratory failure, for both children and adults. Posted on: June 20, 2013 Are Asthma Attacks Rising With the Temperature This Summer? By Dr. Harlan Weinberg, Medical Director of Pulmonary Medicine, Northern Westchester Hospital If it seems like asthma is on the rise, it is. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention report that doctors diagnosed 4.3 million more Americans with the condition over the last ten years. Unfortunately, no one really knows why asthma is increasing. In spring and summer, the increase in temperature, pollen, and humidity can make asthma attacks more likely. Luckily, there are plenty of ways to protect yourself or loved ones. Asthma is characterized by inflammation in the airways. This inflammation can lead to shortness of breath, a tight feeling in the chest, and wheezing. The condition can limit your ability to exercise or partake in activities of daily living. The inflammation can be caused by a number of triggers, such as allergies, dust mites, pollen, infections, certain foods, and environmental factors like pollution or mold. The full list is substantial, which means it may take a while to find a patient’s trigger. Blood tests for allergies can help narrow down the candidates. Patients may also want to keep a journal to jot down the places and times when breathing gets worse.	9
Diphtheria and tetanus are serious diseases caused by bacteria. Diphtheria causes a thick coating in the nose, throat, and airways. It can lead to breathing problems, paralysis, heart failure, or death. Tetanus (lockjaw) causes painful tightening of the muscles, usually all over the body. It can lead to "locking" of the jaw so the victim cannot open the mouth or swallow. Tetanus leads to death in about 1 out of 10 cases. Diphtheria is spread from person to person. Tetanus enters the body through a cut or wound. The tetanus and diphtheria toxoids vaccine (also called Td) is used to help prevent these diseases in adults and children who are at least 7 years old. This vaccine works by exposing you to a small dose of the bacteria or a protein from the bacteria, which causes the body to develop immunity to the disease. This vaccine will not treat an active infection that has already developed in the body. Like any vaccine, the tetanus and diphtheria toxoids vaccine may not provide protection from disease in every person. You should not receive this vaccine if you have ever had a life-threatening allergic reaction to any vaccine containing diphtheria or tetanus, if you have an uncontrolled seizure disorder, or if you have received a cancer treatment in the past 3 months. You should not receive this vaccine if you have ever had a life-threatening allergic reaction to any vaccine containing diphtheria or tetanus, or if you have: You may not be able to receive this vaccine if you have ever received a similar vaccine that caused any of the following: If you have any of these other conditions, your vaccine may need to be postponed or not given at all: You can still receive a vaccine if you have a minor cold. In the case of a more severe illness with a fever or any type of infection, wait until you get better before receiving this vaccine. Vaccines may be harmful to an unborn baby and generally should not be given to a pregnant woman. However, not vaccinating the mother could be more harmful to the baby if the mother becomes infected with a disease that this vaccine could prevent. Your doctor will decide whether you should receive this vaccine, especially if you have a high risk of infection with diphtheria or tetanus. It is not known whether this vaccine passes into breast milk or if it could harm a nursing baby. Tell your doctor if you are breast-feeding a baby. The adult version of this vaccine (Td) should not be given to anyone under the age of 7 years old. Another vaccine is available for use in younger children and infants. You should not receive a booster vaccine if you had a life threatening allergic reaction after the first shot. Keep track of any and all side effects you have after receiving this vaccine. When you receive a booster dose, you will need to tell the doctor if the previous shot caused any side effects. Becoming infected with tetanus or diphtheria is much more dangerous to your health than receiving this vaccine. However, like any medicine, this vaccine can cause side effects but the risk of serious side effects is extremely low. Get emergency medical help if you have any of these signs of an allergic reaction: hives; difficult breathing; swelling of your face, lips, tongue, or throat. Call your doctor at once if you have any of these serious side effects: Common side effects include: This is not a complete list of side effects and others may occur. Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report vaccine side effects to the US Department of Health and Human Services at 1-800-822-7967. Follow your doctor's instructions about any restrictions on food, beverages, or activity. Before receiving this vaccine, tell your doctor about all other vaccines you have recently received. Also tell the doctor if you have recently received drugs or treatments that can weaken the immune system, including: If you are using any of these medications, you may not be able to receive the vaccine, or may need to wait until the other treatments are finished. This list is not complete. Other drugs may interact with tetanus and diphtheria toxoids vaccine, including prescription and over-the-counter medicines, vitamins, and herbal products. Not all possible interactions are listed in this medication guide. This vaccine is injected into a muscle. You will receive this injection in a doctor's office or clinic setting. This vaccine is given in a series of shots. The first shot is usually given to a person who is at least 7 years old. The booster shots are then given 4 to 8 weeks after the first shot, and 6 to 12 months after the second shot. After the initial series, a booster dose is given every 10 years. A booster shot is also recommended in children who are 11 or 12 years old if more than 5 years have passed since the child's last tetanus and diphtheria vaccine. If it has been longer than 5 years since your last booster, you may need an emergency booster shot if you have been exposed to tetanus through a skin wound. Your booster schedule may be different from these guidelines. Follow your doctor's instructions or the schedule recommended by your local health department. Your doctor may recommend treating fever and pain with an aspirin free pain reliever such as acetaminophen (Tylenol) or ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil, and others) when the shot is given and for the next 24 hours. Follow the label directions or your doctor's instructions about how much of this medicine to use. It is especially important to prevent fever from occurring if you have a seizure disorder such as epilepsy. An overdose of this vaccine is unlikely to occur. Contact your doctor if you miss a booster dose or if you get behind schedule. The next dose should be given as soon as possible. There is no need to start over. Be sure to receive all recommended doses of this vaccine. You may not be fully protected if you do not receive the full series. Copyright 1996-2015 Cerner Multum, Inc. Latest Update: 3/18/2015, Version: 3.01 This Site and third parties who place advertisements on this Site may collect and use information about your visits to this Site and other websites in order to provide advertisements about goods and services of interest to you. If you would like to obtain more information about these advertising practices and to make choices about online behavioral advertising, please click here.	9
Pharmaceutical fermenter used in the development of semisynthetic penicillins, England, 1957 How many antibiotic tablets get swallowed every year? Too many to count: together the world’s antibiotic consumption exceeds 30,000 tons. So manufacturing this drug treatment is big business. Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928, when a mould on his petri dish destroyed the surrounding bacteria. But even in 1940 only tiny amounts of penicillin could be extracted from the mould, Penicillium notatum. So how did mass production become possible? One method was to build enormous tanks for growing the mould. The first commercial facility opened in February 1944, with fourteen tanks. Each vessel was about the size of a tanker lorry and held 34,000 litres of nutrient-rich broth. Why is this fermenter smaller? It was used for research, but has all the same features – temperature control, a good seal to prevent contamination, and stirrers for keeping the broth mixed and in motion. Growing loads of mould seemed slow and inefficient – was there another way to mass produce penicillin? Was it possible to make synthetic penicillin, from chemical rather than biological processes? Scientists at Beechams Pharmaceuticals used this fermenter for experiments with semi-synthetic penicillin. This was based on making a root compound by fermentation and then adding selected branches chemically. The vessel was designed under the direction of Ernst Chain, who with Howard Florey and Norman Heatley, had made that first extract of penicillin in 1940. Was Beechams’ research successful? In collaboration with American company Bristol-Meyers, they launched the first semi-synthetic penicillin in October 1959. Although always limited by bacteria becoming drug-resistant, mass production has enabled antibiotic pills to be popped by the millions. Related Themes and Topics Techniques and Technologies: The first antibiotic drug to treat infections which is made from the mould penicillium. Its discovery is attributed to Alexander Fleming in 1928. a substance that is prepared synthetically but derives from a naturally occurring material Micro-organisms which can cause disease but have an important role in global ecology. A substance that is used to treat infections. Glossary: industrial fermenter Large stainless steel tank used to grow micro-organisms for the industrial production of enzymes and other chemicals.	9
April 1, 2015, - Immunization Action Coalition - The National Immunization Program - Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System - National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program - The National Network for Immunization Information - Vaccine Education Center, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia - Institute for Vaccine Safety, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health - National Partnership for Immunization - Information on vaccinations - The Vaccine Page News & Features The nation's pediatricians, the foot soldiers in the campaign to vaccinate America's children, are starting to revolt. The soaring cost and rising number of new vaccines, doctors say, make it increasingly difficult for them to buy the shots they give their patients. They also complain that... Polio is stealing through a tiny Amish community in central Minnesota, spreading from an 8-month-old girl to four children. A day after the Chiron Corporation said it was delaying release of its influenza vaccine in this country because some lots were contaminated, the company confirmed that it was investigating possible problems with use of a different vaccine in Brazil. Brazilian health officials stopped the use of... Vaccination against chickenpox has been routine in the United States for nearly a decade. But outbreaks of the illness among children who have already been immunized have raised new concerns about the effectiveness of the vaccine and the age when it is given. He is blond and 3 years old, 33 pounds of compressed energy wrapped in OshKosh overalls. In an evaluation room at Yale's Child Study Center, he ignores Big Bird, pauses to watch the bubbles that a social worker blows through a wand, jumps up and down. But it is the two-way mirror that fascinates... The future of vaccines, infectious disease experts say, is teenagers. Parents are used to the idea of their babies getting up to 20 vaccinations by age 2 to prevent polio, measles, chickenpox and other diseases transmitted by coughing. The phrase ''it can't be done'' does not seem to be a part of the vocabulary of Dr. Janice E. Brunstrom. Born 40 years ago, she was three months premature and weighed just three pounds. She has cerebral palsy that cripples both legs. Her parents were told she would be mentally retarded, a... There is no evidence that the measles, mumps and rubella vaccine overloads children's immune systems or makes them more vulnerable to bacteria infections, researchers in Britain have found. The researchers, from the British Public Health Laboratory Service,said they undertook their study because... Kate Packard, the school nurse here, has a nightmare she sums up in five words: ''measles coming across the water.'' If measles did make the 20-minute ferry ride across Puget Sound from Seattle -- hardly unthinkable, since a case occurred last year near a ferry terminal in West Seattle -- public... States have begun rationing vaccines for children, including those for measles, rubella and chickenpox, and have reduced immunization requirements because of shortages, federal investigators said today. They also warned of future shortages. ''Our vaccine supply will continue to be vulnerable,''... MOST POPULAR - HEALTH - Well: Fish Oil Claims Not Supported by Research - Well: Nuts Are a Nutritional Powerhouse - Well: Endometriosis Is Often Ignored in Teenage Girls - The Doctor's World: Parsing Ronald Reagan’s Words for Early Signs of Alzheimer’s - The New Old Age: Learning to Say No to Dialysis - Well: An Upbeat Emotion That’s Surprisingly Good for You - Well: Profiling the Distracted Driver: Young, Female and Solo - Well: Exercise Beats Vitamin D for Injury Prevention - Well: Teenagers Face Early Death, on Their Terms - Well: Stubborn Pay Gap Is Found in Nursing	9
LMU researchers have shown that derivatives of a known drug inhibit the replication of a pathogenic coronavirus in cultured human cells. These compounds can now serve as a basis for the development of a novel, broad-range antiviral agent. A plaque titration carried out on cultured cells infected with a coronavirus (in this case SARS-CoV) in the presence of cyclosporin A is shown at different magnifications. Virus growth kills host cells, resulting in the appearance of holes (plaques) in the lawn of cells. The number of plaques produced is a measure of the number of infectious particles in the original innoculate. Note that as the inhibitor concentration is increased, the number of plaques formed decreases, and at the optimal concentration none appear at all. (Source: Albrecht von Brunn, Christian Drosten, Susanne Pfefferle) LMU researchers have taken an important step forward in their ongoing efforts to find drugs for the treatment of coronavirus infections. In collaboration with colleagues at Halle University and the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry in Göttingen, a team led by Privatdozent Dr. Albrecht von Brunn at LMU‘s Max von Pettenkofer Institute has succeeded in inhibiting the growth of the human coronavirus HCoV-NL63 in cell cultures. The results appear in the latest issue of the journal “Virus Research”. Several types of coronaviruses trigger respiratory diseases of widely varying severity in humans. Coronaviruses evolve rapidly, readily acquire the ability to be transmitted directly from animal hosts to humans, and tend to be highly infectious. The first members of this virus family were discovered in the 1960s, but coronaviruses first made headlines worldwide in 2002 and 2003, when the newly emerged and highly aggressive SARS-CoV caused an epidemic of severe respiratory illness in Asia. Only two years ago, MERS-CoV, the virus responsible for Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, was recognized to be circulating in human populations in Arabia. These infections can result in severe pneumonia causing lethal lung damage, and mortality rates are high. No antiviral agents have yet been approved for the treatment of coronavirus infections. Albrecht von Brunn and his colleagues are engaged in a search for drugs that are active against a broad range of human and animal viruses, including pathogenic coronaviruses. In 2011, they decided to pursue a novel approach to the inhibition of virus growth by identifying and targeting host factors that are essential for virus replication. Viruses can replicate only within the cells of their hosts, and make use of host proteins to mediate their uptake, facilitate replication of their genomes, and support the assembly of new virus particles. Functional blockade of these host factors should therefore prevent virus replication and propagation. “The unusual feature of this strategy lies in the fact that we block viral infection by disabling the function of a host protein. This promises to have a much more sustained effect than attacking the virus directly, as is usually done. Because we target a cellular function, the virus is far less likely to develop resistance,” von Brunn explains. Tweaking a known drug HCoV-NL63 was discovered in 2004 and infects the lower respiratory tract. Infection can result in severe bronchitis and pneumonia, particularly in young children. In the new study, the researchers demonstrate that replication of HCoV-NL63 can be potently inhibited in cell cultures by exposure to derivatives of the drug cyclosporin A. This compound has been in use as an immunosuppressant in transplant patients since the late 1970s. However, in the derivatives synthesized by Professor Gunter Fischer and Dr. Miroslaw Malesevic of the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry and Halle-Wittenberg University, respectively, the structure of cyclosporin A has been modified so as to inactivate its immunosuppressant function. Another cyclosporin relative, named alisporivir, was also found to be active against HCoV-NL63 in the study. Alisporivir is already in Phase III clinical trials, having been developed for a different application, and was made available to the researchers by Novartis. “Cyclosporin A itself is known to bind to the enzyme cyclophilin A. Cyclophilins are essential for the functions of many cellular and viral proteins, and play a significant role in a number of disease processes,” says von Brunn. This is because cyclophilins are involved in helping other proteins, both viral and cellular, to fold into the specific three-dimensional shapes on which their activities depend. “Binding of cyclosporin A inactivates this function,” von Brunn explains. In addition, the complex formed between cyclophilin and cyclosporin A interferes with processes required for adaptive immune responses, and this is what accounts for the immunosuppressive action of cyclosporin A. “But since there is no point in treating respiratory viruses with an immunosuppressive drug, we have inactivated this function,” von Brunn adds. The new study demonstrates for the first time that non-immunosuppressant derivatives of cyclosporin A inhibit the replication of HCoV-NL63 in cultured human cells. But, as von Brunn points out, “cyclosporin A itself inhibits the replication of several different coronaviruses,” which suggests that its new derivatives may well be active against other types of coronaviruses too. He and his team are now testing this hypothesis on, among others, coronaviruses isolated from cats and mice. “We are particularly interested in exploring the inhibitory effects on highly infectious coronaviruses such as SARS-CoV und MERS-CoV, because the new agents could enable us, for the first time, to prevent epidemics caused by these strains,” he says. Brunn is a member of the SARS Zoonosis Network, which is supported by the Federal Ministry for Education and Research. (Virus Research) nh	9
Flu vaccine will soon be available at local pharmacies and doctor's offices, and government officials are urging everyone over 6 months of age to receive it. This year's vaccine protects against H1N1 and two other strains of seasonal flu. The recommendation represents a break from past years, when the government focused on vaccinating people in certain "high-risk" groups and those in contact with people at high risk. "The message is simple now," said David Weber, MD, MPH, professor of medicine, pediatrics and epidemiology at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. "If you're more than 6 months of age, get the vaccine." "In an average year, there are more than 200,000 hospitalizations and more than 35,000 deaths from flu. Many of those would be preventable by simply getting the flu shot," said Weber. "Flu shots are far and away the best way for preventing flu." The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) advisory panel that set the recommendation for universal vaccination cited last year's H1N1 outbreak—which affected many young, healthy people not traditionally considered to be at high risk for complications from flu—as part of the reason for the change. In addition, the list of conditions that put a person at high risk has grown so much over the years that many people are unaware of their high-risk status. Universal vaccination is expected to better protect individuals and the population as a whole. People should receive the vaccine every year as soon as it becomes available, said Weber. "It's important every year. This year it may be more important because anybody who didn't get H1N1 last year is susceptible to it, and since that was the first year H1N1 was around, many people, if not most people, are susceptible." The vaccine is reformulated each year to provide protection against the virus strains that present the greatest public health threat for that year. People who contracted H1N1 last year may have a lower chance of contracting it again this year, but they should still receive the vaccine for protection against seasonal flu. Explore further: Study debunks common misconception that urine is sterile	9
Basics for Home Canning Home canning is an easy way to preserve and share the bounty of your home garden or farmer’s market finds. Sales of canning products increased 30 percent in 2009 with the renewed interest in backyard gardening. I will discuss boiling water canning in this program. Molds, bacteria and fungi are all around us and on every food surface. Many of them are beneficial while others can be harmful. During the canning process the food will be exposed to sufficient heat to destroy harmful microorganisms that may cause food spoilage. Do not use a jar of canned goods if they appear cloudy, foamy or have an ‘off’ color or odor. Canned goods may be stored up to a year in the cupboard. Follow recipes carefully to ensure good results. Do not adjust sugar, vinegar or salt amounts in recipes as this can lead to food spoilage. Use 5 percent acidity white vinegar unless otherwise specified. For best results, use a canning salt that is processed without caking agents or iodine as these can affect color and crispness of the finished products. Certain foods like okra, carrots, green beans and asparagus are considered ‘low acid foods’ and must be canned in a steam pressure canner at 240 degrees to avoid botulism contamination unless sufficient vinegar is added to the recipe (as in pickling) to avoid contamination. Pickled foods can be processed in the water bath canner at 212 degrees. Equipment you will need: Boiling water canner or a large enough stock pot to cover the jars with at least one inch of water. The canners you buy come with a jar rack to raise the jars off the bottom of the pan to allow water to thoroughly circulate under the jars. You may use a cake rack in a deep stock pot to get the same results. You will need a lid to tightly cover the container. Canning jars in half pint, pint or one quart sizes. These jars are made with special threads to seal properly with home canning screw bands and lids. The jars should have no nicks or chips in the necks which would inhibit a proper seal. Jars may be reused many times if they are in good condition. Jar lids and screw bands come in standard or wide mouth types. Screw bands may be reused if they are not worn or rusted but the lids should not be reused. Tools to make the job easier: - jar lifter - lid rack - magnetic lid wand - canning funnel - nonmetallic spatula - timer to ensure proper processing time Steps for Canning - Wash jars, lids and bands in hot, soapy water and rinse well. - Keep jars warm until ready to use to prevent breakage when filling with hot food. You can keep them in the dishwasher or heat them in simmering water. - Fill the canner half full with enough water to cover jars with at least one inch of water. - Fill jars with prepared food and allow the required head space from the rim to allow for food expansion. The Ball spatula has measurements for calculation of head space. - Remove any air bubble from the jar with a non metallic spatula. These can increase the airspace and impact canning effectiveness. - Wipe any food from the rim and center a new lid on the jar. Twist the band on fingertip tight. Ensure bands are not overly tight – air inside the jars must be able to escape during canning. - Place filled jars into canning rack and lower into simmering water. Jars should be covered with at least one inch of water. Cover with the lid and heat to a steady boil. Boil jars for the time specified in the recipe. - Turn off heat and let jars stand in water for 5 minutes. Remove the jars from the water and place on a towel covered counter-top or a cooling rack for at least 12 hours. (Do not re-tighten bands after processing as this might interfere with the sealing process.) - Press on the center of the cooled lid. If the jar is sealed the lid will not flex up or down. If the jar did not seal it may be refrigerated and used immediately. - Jars may be stored for up to one year. Bands should be removed to wipe the jars to make sure there is no water caught under the bands which may cause them to rust. Bands may be left off for storage. - Label your jars with the item and the date after they are cool. For more information on canning consult the Ball website: www.FreshPreserving.com.	9
Diptheria and Tetanus "The U.S. Food and Drug Administration today approved Bexsero, a vaccine to prevent invasive meningococcal disease caused by Neisseria meningitidis serogroup B in individuals 10 through 25 years of age. Bexsero is the second vaccine approved"... Diphtheria and Tetanus Diphtheria and Tetanus Patient Information including If I Miss a Dose In this Article - What is diphtheria and tetanus toxoids vaccine (Diphtheria and Tetanus)? - What are the possible side effects of this vaccine (Diphtheria and Tetanus)? - What is the most important information I should know about this vaccine (Diphtheria and Tetanus)? - What should I discuss with my healthcare provider before receiving this vaccine (Diphtheria and Tetanus)? - How is this vaccine given (Diphtheria and Tetanus)? - What happens if I miss a dose (Diphtheria and Tetanus)? - What happens if I overdose (Diphtheria and Tetanus)? - What should I avoid before or after receiving this vaccine (Diphtheria and Tetanus)? - What other drugs will affect diphtheria and tetanus toxoids vaccine (Diphtheria and Tetanus)? - Where can I get more information? What happens if I miss a dose (Diphtheria and Tetanus)? Contact your doctor if you will miss a booster dose or if you get behind schedule. The next dose should be given as soon as possible. There is no need to start over. Be sure your child receives all recommended doses of this vaccine. Your child may not be fully protected against disease if he or she does not receive the full series. What happens if I overdose (Diphtheria and Tetanus)? An overdose of this vaccine is unlikely to occur. What should I avoid before or after receiving this vaccine (Diphtheria and Tetanus)? Follow your doctor's instructions about any restrictions on food, beverages, or activity. What other drugs will affect diphtheria and tetanus toxoids vaccine (Diphtheria and Tetanus)? Before receiving this vaccine, tell the doctor about all other vaccines your child has recently received. Also tell the doctor if your child has received drugs or treatments in the past 2 weeks that can weaken the immune system, including: - steroids (oral, nasal, inhaled, or injectable); - medications to treat psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, or other autoimmune disorders, such as azathioprine (Imuran), etanercept (Enbrel), leflunomide (Arava), and others; or - medicines to treat or prevent organ transplant rejection, such as basiliximab (Simulect), cyclosporine (Sandimmune, Neoral, Gengraf), muromonab-CD3 (Orthoclone), mycophenolate mofetil (CellCept), sirolimus (Rapamune), or tacrolimus (Prograf). If your child is using any of these medications, he or she may not be able to receive the vaccine, or may need to wait until the other treatments are finished. This list is not complete and other drugs may interact with this vaccine. Tell your doctor about all medications your child receives. This includes prescription, over-the-counter, vitamin, and herbal products. Do not start a new medication without telling your doctor. Where can I get more information? Your doctor or pharmacist can provide more information about this vaccine. Additional information is available from your local health department or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Remember, keep this and all other medicines out of the reach of children, never share your medicines with others, and use this medication only for the indication prescribed. Every effort has been made to ensure that the information provided by Cerner Multum, Inc. ('Multum') is accurate, up-to-date, and complete, but no guarantee is made to that effect. Drug information contained herein may be time sensitive. Multum information has been compiled for use by healthcare practitioners and consumers in the United States and therefore Multum does not warrant that uses outside of the United States are appropriate, unless specifically indicated otherwise. Multum's drug information does not endorse drugs, diagnose patients or recommend therapy. Multum's drug information is an informational resource designed to assist licensed healthcare practitioners in caring for their patients and/or to serve consumers viewing this service as a supplement to, and not a substitute for, the expertise, skill, knowledge and judgment of healthcare practitioners. The absence of a warning for a given drug or drug combination in no way should be construed to indicate that the drug or drug combination is safe, effective or appropriate for any given patient. Multum does not assume any responsibility for any aspect of healthcare administered with the aid of information Multum provides. The information contained herein is not intended to cover all possible uses, directions, precautions, warnings, drug interactions, allergic reactions, or adverse effects. If you have questions about the drugs you are taking, check with your doctor, nurse or pharmacist. Copyright 1996-2013 Cerner Multum, Inc. Version: 3.01. Revision date: 6/29/2011. Your use of the content provided in this service indicates that you have read,understood and agree to the End-User License Agreement,which can be accessed by clicking on this link. Additional Diphtheria and Tetanus Information Report Problems to the Food and Drug Administration You are encouraged to report negative side effects of prescription drugs to the FDA. Visit the FDA MedWatch website or call 1-800-FDA-1088. Find out what women really need.	9
Children with neurological and neuromuscular diseases at risk for flu-related respiratory failure Children with neurological and neuromuscular diseases should receive an annual influenza vaccination because of a higher risk of respiratory failure if they are hospitalized with influenza, according to a study in the November 2 issue of JAMA. Influenza is a common disease of childhood and is responsible for significant illness, according to background information in the article. Healthy young children are hospitalized for influenza-related illness at rates similar to those for elderly persons and adults with chronic medical conditions. Perhaps most concerning to parents and physicians is the potential for serious influenza-associated complications, including carditis (inflammation of the heart), encephalitis, myositis (inflammation of muscle tissue), pneumonia, respiratory failure, and death. Population-based studies suggest that individuals with certain chronic medical conditions are at increased risk of serious complications of influenza infection. The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) has identified 9 groups of chronic medical conditions for which annual influenza vaccination is recommended. They include asthma, chronic lung disease, cardiac disease, immunosuppression, hemoglobinopathies (a blood disease characterized by the presence of abnormal hemoglobins in the blood), chronic renal dysfunction, metabolic and endocrine conditions, long-term salicylate (aspirin and some other drugs) therapy, and pregnancy. Despite the frequency of influenza infection and the prevalence of these chronic medical conditions, little is known about their relative contribution to the development of serious influenza-associated complications. Ron Keren, M.D., M.P.H., of The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, and colleagues conducted a study to identify chronic medical conditions that were associated with respiratory failure in children hospitalized with influenza. In addition to the current ACIP-designated high-risk conditions, the researchers also examined three other categories of chronic medical conditions--neurological and neuromuscular disease (NNMD, such as muscular dystrophy), gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), and history of prematurity, that in recent studies have been associated with influenza hospitalization and severe influenza-related complications. The study included patients aged 21 years or younger hospitalized at The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, with community-acquired laboratory-confirmed influenza during 4 consecutive influenza seasons (June 2000 through May 2004). Of 745 children hospitalized with influenza, 322 (43 percent) had one or more ACIP-designated high-risk chronic medical conditions. NNMD, GERD, and history of prematurity were present in 12 percent, 14 percent, and 3 percent, of children, respectively. Thirty-two children (4.3 percent) developed respiratory failure. In further analyses, conditions associated with respiratory failure included NNMD (6 times increased risk), chronic pulmonary disease other than asthma (4.8 times increased risk), and cardiac disease (4 times increased risk). The predicted probabilities of respiratory failure derived from the multivariate model were 12 percent, 9 percent, and 8 percent for children with NNMD, chronic pulmonary disease, and cardiac disease, respectively. Children hospitalized with influenza who had 2 of these 3 chronic conditions had a 31 percent to 39 percent predicted probability of respiratory failure. "The significantly increased probability of respiratory failure in children with NNMD hospitalized with influenza supports the ACIP's recent decision to add NNMD that may compromise respiratory function to the list of chronic conditions that warrant annual influenza vaccination. Coordinated efforts are needed to educate parents, primary care pediatricians, and pediatric neurologists about the risks of serious influenza complications and the need for annual vaccination for children with NNMD. Future studies should determine the risk of hospitalization among children with NNMD, the number of additional children with NNMD who will require annual vaccination, as well as the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of the influenza vaccine in preventing hospitalizations and serious complications in these children," the authors conclude. Source: Eurekalert & othersLast reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 21 Feb 2009 Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved.	9
Wheezing is a high-pitched whistling sound during breathing. It occurs when air moves through narrowed breathing tubes in the lungs. Wheezing is a sign that a person may be having breathing problems. The sound of wheezing is most obvious when breathing out (exhaling). It may also be heard when breathing in (inhaling). Wheezing most often comes from the small breathing tubes (bronchial tubes) deep in the lungs. But it may be due to a blockage in larger airways or in persons with certain vocal cord problems. Causes of wheezing may include any of the following: Take all of your medications as directed. Sitting in an area where there is moist, heated air may help relieve some symptoms. This can be done by running a hot shower or using a vaporizer. When to Contact a Medical Professional: Call your health care provider if wheezing: If wheezing is severe or occurs with severe shortness of breath, you may have to go directly to the nearest emergency department. What to Expect at Your Office Visit: The doctor or nurse will perform a physical exam and ask about your medical history and symptoms. Questions about your wheezing may include when it started, how long it has lasted, when it is worse, and what might have caused it. The physical examination may include listening to the lung sounds (auscultation). If your child is the one with symptoms, the doctor will make sure he or she did not swallow a foreign object. Tests that may be done include: A hospital stay may be needed if: - Breathing is particularly difficult - Medicines need to be given through a vein (IV) - Supplemental oxygen is required - The person needs to be closely watched by medical personnel Lugogo N, Que LG, Fertel D, Kraft M. Asthma. In: Mason RJ, Murray JF, Broaddus VC, et al., eds. Murray and Nadel's Textbook of Respiratory Medicine. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2010:chap 38. Schraufnagel DE, Murray JF. History and physical examination. In: Mason RJ, Murray JF, Broaddus VC, et al., eds. Murray and Nadel's Textbook of Respiratory Medicine. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2010:chap 17. \|Review Date: 5/14/2014\| Reviewed By: Neil K. Kaneshiro, MD, MHA, Clinical Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Isla Ogilvie, PhD, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial Team. The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.	9
OUGH, WHEEZING (AND other respiratory noises),and dyspnea are common respiratory symptomsthat potentially have an extensive differential diagnosis. Because asthma is an exceedingly common disorder,such symptoms are often a result of this recurring andchronic respiratory disorder. Although there is demon-strable underdiagnosis of asthma, the purpose of thisreview is to increase awareness of common and uncom-mon entities that have resulted in inappropriate diag-noses of asthma. Asthma is a disease that is characterized by hyperrespon-siveness of the airways to various stimuli, which resultsin airway obstruction that is reversible either spontane-ously or as a result of treatment. The airway obstructionis from variable components of bronchial smooth musclespasm and inﬂammation that result in edema of therespiratory mucosa and mucous secretions. Althoughthe diagnosis of asthma is frequently readily apparent,we have encountered several clinical entities that have been misdiagnosed as asthma and consequently treatedinappropriately. In this review we describe these clinicalentities, identify how their clinical presentation is con-fused with asthma, and indicate the diagnostic methodsfor identifying these pseudo-asthma syndromes. Asthma is diagnosed clinically and is suspected whenthere is cough, wheezing, or dyspnea. However, thesame symptoms may be results of other causes. Al-though for some patients the presenting clinical picturecan readily identify the problem as being somethingother than asthma, there can also be legitimate diagnos-tic uncertainty with others. The distinguishing charac-teristic of asthma is the response to bronchodilator orcorticosteroids when the patient is symptomatic. Forpatients who are old enough to perform a pulmonary-function test, substantial improvement of airway ob-struction from an aerosol bronchodilator or a shortcourse of reasonably high-dose systemic corticosteroid, 2mg/kg twice daily to a maximum of 40 mg twice daily(reduced to once daily in the morning if insomnia orirritability becomes problematic), supports diagnosis ofasthma. Failure to observe substantial improvementwithin 5 to 7 days with complete relief of symptoms andsubstantial improvement in lung function after a maxi-mum of 10 days argues against asthma as the etiology,assuming, of course, that the patient has taken the med-ication. Asthma is the most common cause of chronic or recur-rent inﬂammatory airway disease and a major cause ofcough. Although there are causes of cough that areunlikely to be confused with asthma, there are severalthat characteristically are confused with asthma and re-sult in overdiagnosis of asthma with consequent inap-propriate treatment. Pertussis, known in the past as the100-day cough, causes a prolonged period of cough, andwe have seen several cases in which the primary carephysician prescribed antiasthmatic medication becausepertussis was not adequately considered. Characteristi-cally spasmodic and associated with posttussive gaggingor emesis, the classical clinical symptoms are often notpresent in an immunized population. However, thediagnosis is important to prevent spread to contacts, andpertussis should be suspected for any cough that persistsfor 2 weeks in those with no previous history ofasthma or other causes of chronic cough. Diagnosis ismade most readily by polymerase chain reaction from aproperly collected nasal swab to detect pertussis antigen. Cystic ﬁbrosis is the second most common chronic in-ﬂammatory airway disease, at least among the whitepopulation. It occurs in 1 in 2500 live births in popu-lations of northern European descent with variablelesser incidence in other ethnic groups and races. Al-though the mechanisms of airway inﬂammation are dif-ferent in these 2 diseases, both cause airway obstruction,cough, wheezing, and dyspnea. The classical clinical pre-sentation of malabsorption is not always present, andthe severity and progression of the airway disease ishighly variable. There is a variability in the extent towhich the 1500 mutations of the cystic ﬁbrosis trans-membrane regulator gene alters the chloride channeland results in clinical manifestations. Consequently,some people do not present with respiratory symptomsuntil adolescence or even adulthood. Some degree of bronchodilator response may even be present, althoughthe physiology of the airway responsiveness differs fromthat in asthma. Also, asthma can coexist with cysticﬁbrosis.Cystic ﬁbrosis should be suspected when symptomsand signs of airway inﬂammatory disease persist despitea short course of high-dose systemic corticosteroid. Thediagnosis of cystic ﬁbrosis is made most reliably by per-forming a sweat chloride measurement using the classi-cal quantitative pilocarpine iontophoresis method. Mostof the various screening methods that assess by theconductivity of sweat are unreliable, because they canhave both false-positive and false-negative results. Forthe test to be valid, duplicate collections of at least 75 mgare required for the ﬁlter-paper discs or gauze pads, andduplicate 15- L samples are sufﬁcient with the Macro-duct collection coil (Wescor, Logan, UT). Measurementof 60 mEq/L chloride with substantial agreement in bothsamples is generally diagnostic of cystic ﬁbrosis. Sweatchloride concentrations of 40 mEq/L are generally re-assuring that cystic ﬁbrosis is not the cause of the pa-tient’s airway inﬂammatory disease. Levels of 40 to 60	9
- Polio has been eradicated in most of the world - It is still endemic in Afghanistan, Pakistan and Nigeria - The disease can cause permanent paralysis A 3-year-old girl in Afghanistan has been diagnosed with the first case of polio in the country's capital in 13 years, the Afghan Health Ministry said. Ministry spokesman Kaneshka Turkistani this is Kabul's first polio case since 2001. He said the Health Ministry has started an anti-polio vaccine campaign in Kabul. So far this year, two polio cases have been registered nationwide with the Afghan Health Ministry. Last year, 14 polio cases were registered. Polio is a highly infectious viral disease that can cause permanent paralysis in just hours. It has been eradicated around the world except for just a handful of countries. In addition to Afghanistan, polio is still endemic in Pakistan and Nigeria.	9
Characteristics, Economic Importance And Harmful Activities Of Bacteria Bacteria are one of the most unique microorganisms. This article highlights some common characteristics of as well as their various economic importance. The article also highlights their harmful activities that cause a lot of problems. Bacteria are one of the most unique prokaryotic microorganisms in the world. They are found in almost every corner of the planet and in every habitat and even inside other organisms. They are unique in terms of both morphology and composition. Almost one-third of the total cells in our body are that of bacteria. Bacteria belong to the and they are broadly divided into many types depending upon various characteristics. Mainly, bacteria are grouped into two main categories that are archaebacteria and cynobacteria but in terms of their shape, they are divided into four categories: coccus (spherical), bacillus (rod shaped), vibrium (comma shaped) and spirillum (spiral). Important characteristics of bacteria There are various characteristic of the bacteria that make it one of the unique organisms in the planet. Some of the main and common characteristics of the bacteria are as follow Bacteria are moistly unicellular and a thin layer of mucilage covers their cell body. Their cell body is well protected by a thick cell wall which is mainly made up of special protein. Since bacteria are prokaryotic, they lack a well organized nucleus. The genetic material is scattered into the cytoplasm and it is known as Bacteria contain 70s type of ribosomes and they lack sap vacuoles, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, plastids and other cell organelles inside their cell body. Bacteria reproduce asexually through budding, fission and spore formation. There may arise some genetic variation in the progeny due to the present of gene recombination in reproduction. Bacteria store their food in the form of glycogen and they may have flagella, gliding and flexion for locomotion. Economic importance of bacteria Bacteria plays the most important parts as a decomposer of organic remains of the dead plants and animals. They revive the inorganic substances from the dead organisms back in to the nature and continue this cycle creating a balance in nature. Bacteria that live inside our body protects us from various minor diseases as well as infections and they also release various useful minerals and vitamins such as biotin, potassium, thiamine etc. They also release various enzymes and play an important part in the digestion system of our body and controlling the decaying of undigested food in our body. There are numbers of bacteria mostly belonging to the genus are uses as antibiotics to protect ourselves from various diseases. One of the best examples is penicillin which was also the first antibiotic in the world. Some other examples are subtilin made from , Terramycin made from Some bacteria are used as pollution controllers in nature. is a bacterium which is used to decompose petroleum waste in petroleum industry and various man-made organic wastes in different industries. is used to putrefy DDT pesticide. Bacteria are also used as bio-pesticide to control various insect pests. is sprayed to manage the population of mosquitoes whereas is used to controls the population of Japanese beetles. Methanogens (belong to archaebacteria) are used to convert biomass (manures) into bio-gas. At first, all the organic wastes including cow dung and human faces are decomposed by anaerobic bacteria in an airtight container and later methanogens convert it into methane gas which is used as fuel. Bacteria are used in genetic engineering for the production of synthetic insulin, various hormones, enzymes, proteins etc. is a widely used bacterium for the production of various protein and hormones and is used in the synthesize of B12 vitamin. Bacteria such as are widely used to provide particular smell and taste in coffee, caffeine, cocoa and tea in their respective industries and are also used to reduce their bitter taste. Bacteria plays an important role in the nitrogen fixation and in the nitrogen cycle. are nitrogen-fixing bacteria which directly converts atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia. convert ammonia into nitrite and further oxidizes nitrite into nitrate. Harmful activities of bacteria Bacteria live as pathogen in both plants and animals and cause a lot of diseases. causes cholera in human, causes anthrax in animals such as cattle and sheep and causes fire blight in plants like apple. Bacteria spoil most of the organic food and also causes food poisoning. Bacteria are present in the air and when they fall over food particle they start to decompose the food particles resulting in spoilage of the food particles. Many pathogenic bacteria are used as bio-weapon. Spores of pathogenic bacteria are widely used to spread various diseases in the populace. Various types of bacteria such as also causes water pollution. They multiply very rapidly in water where there is abundant of food causing water pollution and making it unfit for economic uses. Did you like this resource? Share it with your friends and show your love! Responses to "Characteristics, Economic Importance And Harmful Activities Of Bacteria" Guest Author: kailash padhi 07 Nov 2014 I am satisfied by this answer Notify me by email when others post comments to this article. Do not include your name, "with regards" etc in the comment. Write detailed comment, relevant to the topic. No HTML formatting and links to other web sites are allowed. This is a strictly moderated site. Absolutely no spam allowed. to fill automatically. (Will not be published, but to validate comment) Type the numbers and letters shown on the left. Subscribe to Email Get Jobs by Email Forum posts by Email Articles by Email Awards & Gifts Vijay Kumar ... Last 7 Days ISC Technologies, Kochi - India. © All Rights Reserved.	9
" A: Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) is a viral respiratory illness. MERS is caused by a coronavirus called “Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus” (MERS-CoV)."... Serious Allergic Reactions, Including Anaphylaxis Serious and occasionally fatal hypersensitivity (anaphylactic) reactions have been reported in patients receiving AUGMENTIN XR. These reactions are more likely to occur in individuals with a history of penicillin hypersensitivity and/or a history of sensitivity to multiple allergens. Before initiating therapy with AUGMENTIN XR, careful inquiry should be made regarding previous hypersensitivity reactions to penicillins, cephalosporins, or other allergens. If an allergic reaction occurs, AUGMENTIN XR should be discontinued and appropriate therapy instituted. AUGMENTIN XR should be used with caution in patients with evidence of hepatic dysfunction. Hepatic toxicity associated with the use of amoxicillin/clavulanate potassium is usually reversible. Deaths have been reported (fewer than 1 death reported per estimated 4 million prescriptions worldwide). These have generally been cases associated with serious underlying diseases or concomitant medications [see CONTRAINDICATIONS and ADVERSE REACTIONS]. Clostridium Difficile-Associated Diarrhea Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea (CDAD) has been reported with use of nearly all antibacterial agents, including AUGMENTIN XR, and may range in severity from mild diarrhea to fatal colitis. Treatment with antibacterial agents alters the normal flora of the colon leading to overgrowth of C. difficile. C. difficile produces toxins A and B which contribute to the development of CDAD. Hypertoxin producing strains of C. difficile cause increased morbidity and mortality, as these infections can be refractory to antimicrobial therapy and may require colectomy. CDAD must be considered in all patients who present with diarrhea following antibiotic use. Careful medical history is necessary since CDAD has been reported to occur over two months after the administration of antibacterial agents. If CDAD is suspected or confirmed, ongoing antibiotic use not directed against C. difficile may need to be discontinued. Appropriate fluid and electrolyte management, protein supplementation, antibiotic treatment of C. difficile, and surgical evaluation should be instituted as clinically indicated. Skin Rash In Patients With Mononucleosis A high percentage of patients with mononucleosis who receive amoxicillin develop an erythematous skin rash. Thus, AUGMENTIN XR should not be administered to patients with mononucleosis. Potential For Microbial Overgrowth The possibility of superinfections with mycotic or bacterial pathogens should be kept in mind during therapy. If superinfections occur (usually involving Pseudomonas spp. or Candida spp.), the drug should be discontinued and/or appropriate therapy instituted. Development Of Drug-Resistant Bacteria Prescribing AUGMENTIN XR in the absence of a proven or strongly suspected bacterial infection is unlikely to provide benefit to the patient and increases the risk of the development of drug-resistant bacteria. Patient Counseling Information Advise the patient to read the FDA-approved patient labeling (PATIENT INFORMATION) Carcinogenesis, Mutagenesis, Impairment Of Fertility Long-term studies in animals have not been performed to evaluate carcinogenic potential. The mutagenic potential of AUGMENTIN was investigated in vitro with an Ames test, a human lymphocyte cytogenetic assay, a yeast test, and a mouse lymphoma forward mutation assay, and in vivo with mouse micronucleus tests and a dominant lethal test. All were negative apart from the in vitro mouse lymphoma assay, where weak activity was found at very high, cytotoxic concentrations. AUGMENTIN at oral doses of up to 1,200 mg/kg/day (1.9 times the maximum human dose of amoxicillin and 15 times the maximum human dose of clavulanate based on body surface area) was found to have no effect on fertility and reproductive performance in rats dosed with a 2:1 ratio formulation of amoxicillin:clavulanate. Use In Specific Populations Pregnancy Category B. Reproduction studies performed in pregnant rats and mice given AUGMENTIN at oral doses up to 1,200 mg/kg/day revealed no evidence of harm to the fetus due to AUGMENTIN. In terms of body surface area, the doses in rats were 1.6 times the maximum human oral dose of amoxicillin and 13 times the maximum human dose for clavulanate. For mice, these doses were 0.9 and 7.4 times the maximum human oral dose of amoxicillin and clavulanate, respectively. There are, however, no adequate and well controlled studies in pregnant women. Because animal reproduction studies are not always predictive of human response, this drug should be used during pregnancy only if clearly needed. Labor And Delivery Oral ampicillin is poorly absorbed during labor. Studies in guinea pigs have shown that intravenous administration of ampicillin decreased the uterine tone, frequency of contractions, height of contractions, and duration of contractions. However, it is not known whether the use of AUGMENTIN XR in humans during labor or delivery has immediate or delayed adverse effects on the fetus, prolongs the duration of labor, or increases the likelihood that forceps delivery or other obstetrical intervention or resuscitation of the newborn will be necessary. In a single study in women with premature rupture of fetal membranes, it was reported that prophylactic treatment with AUGMENTIN may be associated with an increased risk of necrotizing enterocolitis in neonates Amoxicillin has been shown to be excreted in human milk; therefore, caution should be exercised when AUGMENTIN XR is administered to a nursing woman. The safety and effectiveness of AUGMENTIN XR have been established for pediatric patients weighing ≥ 40 kg who are able to swallow tablets. Use of AUGMENTIN XR in these pediatric patients is supported by evidence from adequate and well-controlled trials of adults with acute bacterial sinusitis and community-acquired pneumonia with additional data from a pediatric pharmacokinetic study. A pharmacokinetic study in pediatric patients (7 to 15 years of age and weighing ≥ 40 kg) was conducted [see CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY]. The adverse event profile in 44 pediatric patients who received at least one dose of AUGMENTIN XR was consistent with the established adverse event profile for the product in adults. Of the total number of subjects in clinical studies of AUGMENTIN XR, 18% were 65 years or older and 7% were 75 years or older. No overall differences in safety and effectiveness were observed between these subjects and younger subjects, and other clinical experience has not reported differences in responses between the elderly and younger patients, but a greater sensitivity of some older individuals cannot be ruled out. This drug is known to be substantially excreted by the kidney, and the risk of dose dependent toxic reactions to this drug may be greater in patients with impaired renal function. Because elderly patients are more likely to have decreased renal function, it may be useful to monitor renal function. The pharmacokinetics of AUGMENTIN XR have not been studied in patients with renal impairment. AUGMENTIN XR is contraindicated in patients with a creatinine clearance of < 30 mL/min and in hemodialysis patients [see CONTRAINDICATIONS]. Hepatically impaired patients should be dosed with caution and hepatic function monitored at regular intervals [see CONTRAINDICATIONS and WARNINGS AND PRECAUTIONS]. Last reviewed on RxList: 4/25/2014 This monograph has been modified to include the generic and brand name in many instances. Additional Augmentin XR Information Augmentin XR - User Reviews Augmentin XR User Reviews Now you can gain knowledge and insight about a drug treatment with Patient Discussions. Report Problems to the Food and Drug Administration You are encouraged to report negative side effects of prescription drugs to the FDA. Visit the FDA MedWatch website or call 1-800-FDA-1088. Find out what women really need.	9
Looking for more effective cold medicine? While there are many cold medicines and treatments that soothe miserable cold symptoms, there is nothing that cures a cold. Still, some cold treatments can give you much-needed relief to help you wait it out until the cold is gone. Cold medicines and treatments attack the cold symptoms, not the specific cold viruses. They don't cure the cold, but they can bring relief, lighter symptoms, or maybe even shorten your cold. Also, there's no one "perfect" cold medicine. What works for your symptoms may not help your best friend's cold symptoms. You may have to try two or three cold treatments to find the one that works best. But be sure to read the labels carefully. Don’t take medicines at the same time that have the same ingredients or have ingredients that would interact. Is swine flu, or H1N1 flu, back on campus? What if it strikes you, your roommate, or someone in your class? Before you brush it off as hype, keep in mind that young adults, even healthy ones, are one of the high-risk groups for a bad case of swine flu. Although most cases haven't been severe, there have been deaths, affecting young adults more than you might expect. Here are 12 tips for dealing with swine flu on campus. 1. Sick? Just stay home. From classes. From games. From the parties that,... If you have a runny nose or sneezing, then an antihistamine may be helpful. Over-the-counter antihistamines that contain diphenhydramine may make people extremely drowsy. Non-sedating antihistamines are also available over the counter and do not appear to produce significant drowsiness. Dry mouth is another common side effect. When using an antihistamine, use caution in operating heavy machinery or driving. #2: Is it safe to take a decongestant if I have high blood pressure? Decongestants, such as pseudoephedrine and phenylephrine, can increase blood pressure and heart rate. In general, if your blood pressure is well controlled with medications, then a decongestant may not be a problem as long as you monitor your blood pressure. There are decongestant-free cold medicines available over-the-counter, such as Coricidin HBP. If you have high blood pressure, it's a good idea to check with your doctor or pharmacist to find out what's right for you.	9
Health Officials Tracking Salmonella Outbreak Linked to Pet Turtles FRIDAY Sept. 7, 2012 -- U.S. and state health officials said Friday that they are investigating six overlapping, multistate outbreaks of human salmonella infections linked to turtles or their environments. More than 160 illnesses have been reported in 30 states. Of those with salmonella infections, 64 percent are children aged 10 or younger, 27 percent are children aged 1 or younger, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention said. Fifty-six percent are Hispanic. "Many people don't know that turtles and other reptiles can carry harmful germs that can make people very sick. For this reason, turtles and other reptiles might not be the best pets for your family, especially if there are children 5 years old and younger or people with weakened immune systems living in your home," Casey Barton Behravesh, deputy branch chief in the CDC's Outbreak Response and Prevention Branch, said in a CDC news release. Contact with reptiles such as turtles, snakes and lizards and with amphibians such as frogs and toads can be a source of human salmonella infections. Salmonella germs are contained in both reptile and amphibian droppings, and can easily contaminate their bodies and the water in their tanks or aquariums. "Since 1975, it has been illegal in the United States to sell or distribute small turtles with shells that measure less than four inches in length. This ban, enforced by the [U.S. Food and Drug Administration], likely remains the most effective public health action to prevent salmonella infections associated with turtles," Dr. Tom Chiller, deputy branch chief of the Mycotic Diseases Branch at the CDC, said in the news release. Despite this ban, small turtles continue to cause salmonella infections in people, especially among small children. The CDC offers the following safety tips: - Don't buy small turtles from street vendors, websites, pet stores or any other sources. - Keep reptiles out of homes with young children or people with weakened immune systems. Do not keep reptiles in child care centers, nursery schools or other facilities with young children. - Always wash your hands thoroughly with soap and warm water immediately after touching reptiles or anything in the area where they live and roam. Adults should always supervise hand washing for young children. If soap and water are not readily available, use hand sanitizer. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has more about reptiles, amphibians and salmonella. Posted: September 2012 Recommended for you	9
Measles Cases Rise to Record Numbers This also is the largest number of measles cases that the country reported in the first five months of a year since 1994, according to the CDC. Health officials say there were 764 cases of measles at this time in May 20 years ago, and 963 by the end of that year. “We don’t want to break the record of 1994,” says Anne Schuchat, assistant surgeon general with the U.S. Public Health Service and director for the National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases. This is why she's describing the latest numbers as a “wake-up call,” urging people who are unsure about their vaccine status to get inoculated. Elimination means there is no continuous disease transmission for at least 12 months in a specific geographic area. Measles is not native to the United States anymore, but cases may arise as people bring the disease into the country from abroad. Of this year's measles cases, 52% are adults age 20 or older. Those infected so far this year range in age from 2 weeks to 65 years. “We often think of measles as a childhood disease; today’s report reminds us adults can get it, too,” says Schuchat. If you’re not sure about your vaccination status, it’s safe to get another measles shot, Schuchat said. The only people who shouldn’t get vaccinated are those who are immune-compromised, such as leukemia patients or pregnant women, because the vaccine contains a live virus. Serious complications and death may result from measles, which is highly contagious. The most common complication seen so far is pneumonia, says Schuchat. “Fortunately, there have been no deaths.” “Ninety percent of all measles cases in the United States were in people who were not vaccinated or whose vaccination status was unknown,” the CDC said in a news release. Schuchat said, “Clusters of people with like-minded beliefs (against vaccinations) can be susceptible to outbreaks when the disease is imported, and it’s one of the most contagious diseases.” The 288 cases were reported in 18 states from January 1 to May 23, the CDC said. Nearly all of this year’s cases (97%) were associated with importations from at least 18 countries. The source of infection could not be traced back in eight cases, according to the CDC. Half of the cases are in people who traveled back from the Philippines, where a large outbreak has been ongoing since October of last year. That country has reported 32,000 cases, including 41 deaths due to measles. The largest U.S. outbreak so far this year is in Ohio, with at least 138 cases, according to the CDC. The outbreak began with a group from Christian Aid Ministries, who went on a mission to the Philippines earlier this year. The next largest outbreaks occurred in California (60 cases), and New York City (26 cases). Schuchat advises that people think of the measles vaccine as a travel vaccine. She suggests putting the MMR (measles, mumps and rubella) vaccination on your to-do list before traveling. Infants normally get their first measles vaccine between 12 and 15 months followed by another shot between 4 and 6 years. However, the CDC recommends any baby as young as 6 months old that will be traveling internationally should get one shot before leaving and followed by two more shots later.	9
A pain reliever that parents often give to their kids may pose a surprising health threat. In the new issue of the journal Pediatrics, an expert on lung diseases in kids makes a bold recommendation: Kids with asthma should avoid acetaminophen, and so should kids who just have asthma in their families. Researchers haven’t proven that acetaminophen causes asthma in kids. However, the doctor points to several studies that help support his case. What’s more, the number of asthma cases in kids jumped around the time that more parents started using acetaminophen to treat pain and fever – instead of aspirin. Giving aspirin to kids with certain illnesses like the flu can lead to a condition called Reye Syndrome, which can be life-threatening. So where does this leave parents now? If you’re concerned that acetaminophen could lead to asthma problems for your child, talk to your child’s doctor about other ways to treat aches, pains and fevers. (courtesy; moms everyday.com) Viewers with disabilities can get assistance accessing this station's FCC Public Inspection File by contacting the station with the information listed below. Questions or concerns relating to the accessibility of the FCC's online public file system should be directed to the FCC at 888-225-5322, 888-835-5322 (TTY), or [email protected].	9

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