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= = = 19th and early 20th century = = =

with the new synagogue an organ was introduced into religious service the small minority of orthodox jews found this change to be intolerable and they began to hold their services separately in rented rooms
in the 1880 earthquake the synagogue suffered minor damage and was repaired the following year
largely due to immigration from hungary bohemia and moravia the jewish population of zagreb quickly grew in size from 1 @@ 285 members in 1887 to 3 @@ 237 members in 1900 and then to 5 @@ 970 members in 1921 the synagogue became too small to accommodate the needs of the ever @@ growing community in 1921 a renovation was undertaken to increase the number of available seats a 1931 plan to increase the capacity to 944 seats was ultimately abandoned a central heating system was installed in 1933

= = = demolition during world war ii = = =

during the 1941 collapse of the kingdom of yugoslavia under the axis invasion in the april war the independent state of croatia was created it was ruled by the extreme nationalist ustaša regime the ustaša quickly started with the systematic persecution of the jews modeled after the nazi germany approach and at times even more brutal racial laws were introduced jewish property was confiscated and the jews were subjected to mass arrests and deportations to death camps in croatia and abroad
in october 1941 the newly installed mayor of zagreb ivan werner issued a decree ordering the demolition of the praška street synagogue ostensibly because it did not fit into the city 's master plan the demolition began on october 10 1941 proceeding slowly so as not to damage the adjacent buildings it was finished by april 1942 the whole process was photographed for propaganda purposes and the photographs were shown to the public at an antisemitic exhibition first held in zagreb it was also shown in dubrovnik karlovac sarajevo vukovar and zemun as an illustration of the solution of the jewish question in croatia
a fragment of the film footage of the demolition was discovered five decades later by the film director <unk> <unk> during research for his 1993 documentary feature decline of the century testimony of l z 41 seconds of the film survives this footage was also shown in mira wolf 's documentary the zagreb synagogue 1867 @@ 1942 ( 1996 ) produced by croatian radiotelevision
the synagogue 's eight valuable torah scrolls were saved due to an intervention by leonardo grivičić an entrepreneur and industrialist who lived next door from mile budak a minister in the ustaša government he was also close to poglavnik ante pavelić and the third reich 's ambassador to croatia edmund glaise @@ horstenau although grivičić did not have a significant political role in the independent state of croatia he was considered trustworthy on october 9 1941 he learned about the regime 's plan to start the demolition of the synagogue on the following morning by that evening grivičić secretly relayed the information to the synagogue 's chief cantor grüner and during the night the torah scrolls were moved to safety
shortly after the destruction of the synagogue the catholic archbishop of zagreb aloysius stepinac delivered a homily in which he said a house of god of any faith is a holy thing and whoever harms it will pay with their lives in this world and the next they will be punished
the only surviving fragments of the building the wash @@ basin and two memorial tables from the forecourt as well as some parts of a column were saved by ivo kraus he pulled them from the rubble shortly after the end of world war ii the wash @@ basin and the memorial tables are now in the zagreb city museum the column fragments are kept by the jewish community of zagreb

= = reconstruction efforts = =


= = = 1945 1990 = = =

only one in five croatian jews survived the holocaust of world war ii between 1948 and 1952 nearly one half of the surviving members of jewish community of zagreb opted for emigration to israel and the community dropped to one @@ tenth of its pre @@ war membership the yugoslav communist regime nationalized virtually all real estate owned by the jewish community of zagreb including the plot in praška street all this combined with the new regime 's general hostility toward religion made reconstruction of the synagogue nearly impossible
after world war ii the vacant site of the former synagogue was used as a makeshift volleyball court the volleyball court made way for a prefabricated department store building constructed in 1959 the department store was completely destroyed in a fire on december 31 1980 and was subsequently dismantled despite some earlier ideas about a permanent department store building on the same spot and a 1977 architecture competition for its design no construction took place instead the parcel was turned into a parking lot which it remains to this day
after 1986 the jewish community of zagreb began to consider a jewish cultural center and a memorial synagogue two architects branko <unk> and boris <unk> both of whom participated in the failed 1977 department store competition came forward on their own accord and contributed their ideas for a new jewish center in praška street <unk> 's vision was ultimately not accepted by the jewish community instead plans were being made for the construction of the cultural center and a synagogue following an international architecture competition however despite support for the project both within yugoslavia and abroad the issuance of necessary permits was either stalled or denied by the municipal government the project was not developed

= = = 1990 present = = =

by the autumn of 1990 after the first democratic elections in croatia the municipal government finally approved the project an architectural competition was planned for january 1991 political turmoil in the country followed by the breakup of yugoslavia and the croatian war of independence ( 1991 1995 ) caused the project to be put on hold again in 1994 president of croatia franjo tuđman said to jakov <unk> council member of the zagreb jewish community that they should build the new synagogue at the site of the former synagogue which will be funded by the croatian government <unk> declined the offer believing to be inappropriate when 1800 catholic churches are left destroyed at the time during croatian war of independence
in the meantime the jewish community of zagreb sought to legally reacquire its property the croatian <unk> law was enacted in 1996 and the praška street parcel was finally returned to the community on december 31 1999 by 2000 reconstruction activities were invigorated again an investment study was submitted to the government of croatia and the city of zagreb in july 2004 and revised in october 2004 the architecture competition was planned for 2005 however a 2005 rift in the jewish community of zagreb resulted in formation of a splinter jewish community bet israel led by ivo and slavko goldstein
in september 2006 the government of croatia formed a construction workgroup it was decided that the project estimated at the time at hrk 173 million ( us $ 30 million ) would be partially financed by the government of croatia and the city of zagreb and that both jewish organizations should be represented in the workgroup however the involvement of bet israel was deemed unacceptable by the jewish community of zagreb which is the sole owner of the praška street property and which also sees itself as the sole legal representative of the zagreb jewish community as a consequence the community and its president <unk> kraus refused further participation in the project under the set conditions
further disagreements existed about the design and character of the new building facsimile reconstruction while feasible was not seriously contemplated there was a general agreement that the new building should also have a cultural as well as commercial purpose while the jewish community of zagreb envisioned a modern design reminiscent of the original synagogue the bet israel advocated building a replica of the original synagogue 's facade perceiving it as having a powerful symbolism opinions of architects urban planners and art historians were also divided along similar lines
in 2014 and 2015 the jewish community of zagreb presented new plans for a 10 @@ 600 m2 ( 114 @@ 000 sq ft ) multi @@ purpose jewish center and synagogue in praška street


= 1806 great coastal hurricane =

the 1806 great coastal hurricane was a severe and damaging storm along the east coast of the united states which produced upwards of 36 in ( 91 cm ) of rainfall in parts of massachusetts first observed east of the lesser antilles on 17 august the hurricane arrived at the bahamas by 19 august the disturbance continued to drift northward and made landfall at the mouth of the cape fear river in north carolina on 22 august the storm soon moved out to sea as a category 2 @@ equivalent hurricane on the saffir simpson hurricane wind scale persisting off of new england before dissipating south of nova scotia on 25 august as a markedly weaker storm several french and british military ships were damaged out at sea in the carolinas salt sugar rice and lumber industries suffered considerably and several individuals were killed wharves and vessels endured moderate damage with many ships wrecked on north <unk> barrier islands a majority of the deaths caused by the hurricane occurred aboard the rose @@ in @@ bloom offshore of barnegat inlet new jersey with 21 of the ship 's 48 passengers killed and $ 171 @@ 000 ( 1806 usd ) in damage to its cargo upon arriving in new england reports indicated extreme rainfall though no deaths were reported in all the hurricane killed more than 24 individuals along the entirety of its track

= = meteorological history = =

the great coastal hurricane of 1806 was first noted far east of the lesser antilles on 17 august weather historian david m ludlum followed the disturbance 's track to the bahamas by 19 august intense winds persisted until 21 august however approximately 150 mi ( 240 km ) east of the bahamian island of eleuthera steering currents brought the storm northward and it approached charleston south carolina on 22 august where a generally easterly flow preceded the storm indicated its passage far east of the city the hurricane made landfall at the mouth of the cape fear river in north carolina later that day though the earliest impacts from the storm started several days earlier with gusts initially toward the northeast but later curving southwestward reports of similar wind shifts throughout the region suggested that the gale persisted stationary for several hours it eventually moved back out to sea while south of norfolk virginia departing the region on 24 august the hurricane maintained 1 @@ minute maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) while offshore equivalent to a category 2 system on the saffir simpson hurricane wind scale while offshore new england the gale featured a swath of winds 90 mi ( 150 km ) wide and was last observed just south of nova scotia on 25 august slightly weaker with sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h )

= = impact = =

the hurricane damaged several vessels while still drifting at sea dispersing and damaging jérôme bonaparte 's fleet and dismasting the 74 @@ gun french ship of the line impétueux which later landed near cape henry
in charleston south carolina the hurricane washed aground several ships and uprooted numerous trees though damage to the city harbor was minimal the lighthouse on north island flanking winyah bay collapsed under high winds and in georgetown proper the hurricane was considered to be the worst since the 1804 antigua charleston hurricane despite its storm surge being of a lesser size a cotton field covering 94 acres was ruined nearby at smithville north carolina numerous ships experienced damage while considerable destruction to structures was observed with many wharves wrecked meanwhile at wilmington the hurricane inflicted widespread damage with many wharves severely damaged and significant losses sustained by salt sugar rice and lumber industries the gable sections of three masonry houses were destroyed by wind or water and wooden houses suffered especially badly with many obliterated and those under construction flattened one individual died after a wall collapsed and several slaves were killed one by drowning at local plantations at bald head island the united states revenue cutter service vessel governor williams was stripped of its foremast and subsequently ran ashore before being repaired and continuing on its journey a second boat owned by the agency the diligence was tethered at port in wilmington and endured no damage similarly little impact occurred at new bern throughout the storm several vessels and supplies of stranded sailors were driven aground along the north <unk> coast on the bogue banks the remains of the adolphus and atlantic were discovered and at the core banks a dead body was washed ashore partially eaten by fish
moderate damage occurred upon the hurricane 's arrival in norfolk virginia winds toppled a number of newly built structures and chimneys uprooted trees and fences and washed two watercraft aground after the storm alterations to the shoreline around the chesapeake bay permitted the full establishment of a town at willoughby spit the rose @@ in @@ bloom was caught in the hurricane while offshore of barnegat inlet new jersey en route to new york city from charleston but was struck by a large wave which overturned the ship resulting in the deaths of 21 of its 48 passengers and the loss of $ 171 @@ 000 of its $ 180 @@ 000 ( 1806 usd ) cargo the vessel only barely stayed afloat with 30 bales of cotton preventing it from sinking entirely survivors were ferried to new york by the british brig swift which had then been traveling toward st john 's newfoundland the hurricane produced strong gusts within the vicinity of new york city and at belleville new jersey several peach trees were defoliated and uprooted cape cod massachusetts was struck by heavy rain and observed minor damage to its port at edgartown meanwhile an individual witnessed torrential rainfall recording that a barrel was filled with 30 in ( 76 cm ) of water and estimating total rainfall reached 36 in ( 91 cm ) there where the storm devastated local crops and beached five cargo ships at brewster meanwhile severe damage to crops and <unk> was noted and 18 in ( 46 cm ) of rainfall was recorded reports in boston however indicate more modest rainfall amounts with a precipitation rate of 0 @@ 40 in ( 1 @@ 0 cm ) per hour noted


= forward intelligence team =

forward intelligence teams ( fits ) are two or more police officers who are deployed by uk police forces to gather intelligence on the ground and in some circumstances to disrupt activists and deter anti @@ social behaviour they use cameras camcorders and audio recorders to conduct overt surveillance of the public an unsuccessful legal challenge has been made against their use of overt surveillance but in 2009 the court of appeal ruled that they must justify retention of photographs on a case @@ by @@ case basis any retained information is recorded on the crimint database
political activists have criticised fits and said that they feel the aim of fit deployment during protests is to prevent legal protests journalists have also complained that fits attempt to stop them photographing protests and that they conduct surveillance of journalists a campaign group fitwatch formed in 2007 that aim to obstruct fits and conduct sousveillance on the officers two members of the group were arrested at the 2008 climate camp on obstruction charges a similar police surveillance unit the video intelligence unit is operated by greater manchester police in june 2010 the home office announced it would review the use of fits during public order policing

= = history and purpose = =

fits were first formed in the early 1990s as part of the public order intelligence unit ( <unk> ) a section of the public order branch of the metropolitan police they initially targeted football fans hunt saboteurs and political protesters ( since at least 1996 ) using cameras camcorders and audio recorders to conduct overt surveillance of the public the police officers wear full uniform and are intended to be a highly visible presence their uniform is sometimes different from normal police officers in that the upper half of their yellow fluorescent jackets is blue civilian photographers are also employed by the police to work alongside fits according to scotland yard the aim of fit teams at protests is to record evidence of protesters in case disorder occurs later on at a protest
more recently the teams ' purpose has been extended to routine police work on low @@ level crime and anti @@ social behaviour and police forces throughout the uk now have their own fits despite the implication in their name that their function is to merely gather intelligence they are also intended to have a deterrent effect this approach has been reported to work in reducing reports of anti @@ social behaviour at times when fits are deployed in specific neighbourhoods jacqui smith then home secretary praised operation leopard that used fits to target youths in <unk> essex stating
operation leopard is exactly the sort of intensive policing that can bring persistent offenders to their senses relentless filming of them and their associates throughout the day and night
linda catt an activist has suggested that their tactics are designed to intimidate people and prevent lawful dissent this view is echoed by a police debriefing of their operations at the 2008 camp for climate action which praised fits at the event for disrupting activists
in june 2010 the home office announced it would review the use of fits during public order policing the move was influenced by the discovery that information collected by fits included that which was unrelated to suspected crimes for example recording who made speeches at demonstrations
in october 2010 fit officers in plain clothes were spotted by a press photographer at a protest against companies avoiding tax despite commander bob broadhurst telling a parliamentary committee in may 2009 that only uniformed officers distinguishable by their blue and yellow jackets were involved in gathering intelligence at protests the metropolitan police told the guardian that it was necessary to deploy plain @@ clothed officers to gather information to provide us with a relevant and up @@ to @@ date intelligence picture of what to expect it was the first time that fits are known to have been deployed in plain clothes

= = legal issues = =

liberty brought a judicial review of the overt surveillance practices in may 2008 which was decided in favour of the police however the police were asked to clarify their evidence to the court of appeal following an investigation by the guardian newspaper
in may 2009 the court of appeal ruled that photographs collected by fits of people who have not committed a criminal offence can no longer be kept the ruling was made after andrew wood an arms trade activist was photographed after challenging the management of reed elsevier at their agm over them organising arms trade exhibitions wood argued that police had harassed him and infringed his right to privacy by photographing him lord collins of <unk> said that the police presence had a chilling effect on people who were protesting lawfully fits have not been banned but they must now justify the retention of photographs on a case @@ by @@ case basis as a result of the ruling the metropolitan police 's public order unit <unk> was forced to delete 40 of the photos of protesters that it held
in a report about the policing of the 2009 g @@ 20 london summit protests denis o 'connor the chief inspector of constabulary stated that the routine use of fits at protests raises fundamental privacy issues and should be reviewed he also said that there was confusion over the role of fits and advised that the home office should issue guidance over the legality of the surveillance of protesters and the retention of images

= = information processing = =

the information that fits collect is stored on the crimint database which is used daily by police officers to catalogue criminal intelligence people are listed by name allowing police to determine which events individuals have attended photographs obtained by fits are used to produce spotter cards consisting of people 's photographs which allows officers to identify people at future events that they attend for £ 10 people are able to obtain a list of protests that they have attended from the data held on crimint under laws in the data protection act 1998

= = academic response = =

a 2006 report the economics of mass surveillance calculated that the use of fits at mass gatherings involves gathering intelligence on roughly 1 @@ 200 people to record the actions of one person the report also noted that most of the people on spotter cards used by the police photographers were those involved in the organisation of protests and that fits also attend meetings where demonstrations are organised

= = criticism = =

fitwatch ( formed in early 2007 ) campaign against fits by actively obstructing their operations and by passively opposing their operations by photographing units ( a form of sousveillance )
in june 2009 the guardian released video evidence recorded by a fit at the 2008 climate camp of alleged police brutality against two female members of fitwatch the women had asked police officers to reveal their shoulder numbers as at least four officers had not displayed them the women attempted to photograph the police officers for evidence but were forced to the ground restrained with handcuffs and had their legs bound with straps they were then placed in restraint positions arrested charged and held in custody for four days including three days in hmp <unk> before they were released on bail the police later retracted all the charges against the women the women lodged a complaint with the ipcc over the incident the journalist george monbiot commented on this case saying that the police are turning activism into a crime and that the fits ' methods appear to have been lifted from a stasi training manual he claimed that anybody who is politically active is filmed identified monitored logged and cross @@ checked a police debrief into the operation at kingsnorth praised the deployment of fits saying that they were highly effective and gained good intelligence and disruption
three members of fitwatch were convicted for obstructing fit officers in june 2008 as they attempted to photograph those attending a no borders meeting in london in july 2010 the inner london crown court overturned the men 's convictions with the judge stating that the protesters ' human rights may have been violated by the fit officers
on 15 november 2010 the hosts of the fitwatch blog were asked by the police national e @@ crime unit to take down the website due to it being used to undertake criminal activities the request came after a post on the blog after the 2010 student protest in london which advised students of actions they should take if they were concerned that they were photographed at the demonstration such as cutting their hair and disposing of clothing they were wearing emily apple one of the founders of the site told the guardian nothing in that post [ giving guidance to student protesters ] has not been said before on our blog or on other sites on 17 november 2010 the fitwatch website returned hosted on a web server outside of the uk
the national union of journalists ( nuj ) has criticised fits for their surveillance and sometimes violent harassment of working journalists marc vallee who was hospitalised by police after documenting a protest has said that the teams limit freedom of the press and called on the home office to confirm that the police had no right to restrict the work of photojournalists bob broadhurst who is in charge of public order policing at the metropolitan police said in a statement to the nuj in 2008 that journalists on the production of a valid form of accreditation will be able to continue with their work the nuj are to make a formal complaint to the information commissioner due to the metropolitan police failing to provide details on the surveillance of journalists under the freedom of information act bob broadhurst told photographers at an nuj conference that he had no faith in the national press card ( a form of press pass ) despite journalists needing to prove that they are bona @@ fide <unk> to an independent authority before they are issued
the bbc tv series panorama produced an episode entitled what ever happened to people power in july 2009 which discussed the use of fits in targeting activists and journalists

= = similar police units = =

greater manchester police operate a video intelligence unit whose plainclothes officers confront and video certain freed prisoners as they leave prison after serving their sentences they also record footage of people involved in anti @@ social behaviour on the streets the aim is to give other police officers up to date information on the appearance of people who have broken the law video footage thus collected is constantly replayed on tv screens in rooms where officers complete their paperwork footage that they have recorded has also been uploaded onto youtube in an attempt to catch people they believe have <unk> this has resulted in several offenders being sent back to prison after breaching licence conditions since the unit was launched in 2006 more than 900 people have been filmed by the unit not all of these people are suspects in crime however people can be filmed if they are thought to associate with prolific offenders or if they have been stopped in an area of high crime under suspicious circumstances kieran walsh a civil liberties lawyer said the unit 's work could have implications for the force under article 8 of the european convention on human rights the right to privacy he believes that filming must be a proportionate and reasonable response to a crime and that this does not appear to be the case as people are being targeted over what they might do in the future it is uncertain as to how long data collected by the unit is to be kept but gmp currently anticipate it will be stored for 5 years


= trinsey v pennsylvania =

trinsey v pennsylvania 941 f2d 224 was a case decided by the united states court of appeals for the third circuit that confirmed the validity of special elections held without a primary under the fourteenth and seventeenth amendments to the united states constitution the case came about due to the death of h john heinz iii one of the us senators from pennsylvania in a plane crash on april 4 1991 under the seventeenth amendment state legislatures may give the governor the power to appoint officials to fill temporarily vacant senate seats until a special election can be held and pennsylvanian law contained a statute executing this and requiring no primaries for the special election instead both the democrats and republicans would each internally select their candidates john s trinsey jr a voter and potential candidate asked the united states district court for the eastern district of pennsylvania to declare the statute unconstitutional as a violation on the fourteenth and seventeenth amendments because the lack of a primary removed his right to properly vote for candidates and delegated that power to political parties
after deciding that the statute 's subject matter necessitated the strict scrutiny approach the district court decided on june 10 1991 that it was an unconstitutional violation of the right to vote for and select senate candidates this decision was appealed to the court of appeals for the third circuit who decided against the use of the strict scrutiny approach and in its absence ruled that the statute was not a violation of the fourteenth and seventeenth amendments academics have been critical of both the decision reached and the approach used with one suggesting that the substantial state interests test used in valenti v rockefeller would be more appropriate

= = background = =

on april 4 1991 h john heinz iii one of the us senators from pennsylvania was killed when his chartered plane collided with a helicopter inspecting its landing gear under the seventeenth amendment to the united states constitution the legislature of each state has the power to permit the governor to fill the vacant seat until a special election can be held in pennsylvania this power had been delegated and governor robert p casey signed a writ on may 13 1991 declaring november 5 the date for a special election and temporarily appointing harris wofford to fill heinz 's now @@ vacant seat under pennsylvanian law there was no need for a primary in such a situation instead both the democrats and republicans would each internally select their candidate who would run in the special election john s trinsey jr a member of the pennsylvanian electorate and potential candidate challenged the constitutionality of this law claiming that it violated his rights under the fourteenth and seventeenth amendments
trinsey argued that by failing to allow for primaries the state legislation prevented him from getting to select a candidate of his choice and that this violated the fourteenth amendment the terms of the statute ( and absence of a requirement for primaries ) also allegedly infringed the rights of the electorate under the seventeenth amendment which required the selection of senators by popular vote trinsey 's complaint was that the legislation had effectively delegated the power to choose candidates to political parties rather than the electorate accordingly trinsey filed a motion for a declaratory judgment to state that the statute was unconstitutional and also requested that wofford be removed from his seat counsel for the commonwealth of pennsylvania joined by the office of the governor argued that the constitution did not require the holding of primary elections to fill vacancies and that the statute protected valid and compelling state interests in protecting the validity of the electoral process and limiting the term of a [ <unk> ] appointed senator

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