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These forms range from nearly square or triangular (boxfishes), globose (pufferfishes) to laterally compressed (filefishes and triggerfishes). They range in size from Rudarius excelsus (a filefish), measuring just in length, to the ocean sunfish, the largest of all bony fishes at up to in length and weighing over 2 tonnes. Most members of this order — except for the family Balistidae — are ostraciiform swimmers, meaning the body is rigid and incapable of lateral flexure. Because of this, they are slow-moving and rely on their pectoral, dorsal, anal, and caudal fins for propulsion rather than body undulation. However, movement is usually quite precise; dorsal and anal fins aid in manoeuvring and stabilizing.
In most species, all fins are simple, small, and rounded, except for the pelvic fins which, if present, are fused and buried. Again, in most members, the gill plates are covered over with skin, the only gill opening a small slit above the pectoral fin. The tetraodontiform strategy seems to be defense at the expense of speed, with all species fortified with scales modified into strong plates or spines — or with tough, leathery skin (the filefishes and ocean sunfish). Another striking defensive attribute found in the pufferfishes and porcupinefishes is the ability to inflate their bodies to greatly increase their normal diameter; this is accomplished by sucking water into a diverticulum of the stomach.
Many species of the Tetraodontidae, Triodontidae, and Diodontidae are further protected from predation by tetrodotoxin, a powerful neurotoxin concentrated in the animals' internal organs. Tetraodontiforms have highly modified skeletons, with no nasal, parietal, infraorbital, or (usually) lower rib bones. The bones of the jaw are modified and fused into a sort of "beak"; visible sutures divide the beaks into "teeth". This is alluded to in their name, derived from the Greek words meaning "four" and meaning "tooth" and the Latin forma meaning "shape". Counting these teeth-like bones is a way of distinguishing similar families, for example, the Tetraodontidae ("four-toothed"), Triodontidae ("three-toothed"), and Diodontidae ("two-toothed").
Their jaws are aided by powerful muscles, and many species also have pharyngeal teeth to further process prey items, because the Tetraodontiformes prey mostly on hard-shelled invertebrates, such as crustaceans and shellfish. The Molidae are conspicuous even within this oddball order; they lack swim bladders and spines, and are propelled by their very tall dorsal and anal fins. The caudal peduncle is absent and the caudal fin is reduced to a stiff rudder-like structure. Molids are pelagic rather than reef-associated and feed on soft-bodied invertebrates, especially jellyfish.
Families Aracanidae — deepwater boxfishes Balistidae — triggerfishes Diodontidae — porcupinefishes Molidae — ocean sunfishes Monacanthidae — filefishes Ostraciidae — boxfishes Tetraodontidae — pufferfishes Triacanthidae — triplespines Triacanthodidae — spikefishes Triodontidae — threetooth puffer Fossil families Superfamily †Plectocretacicoidea Tyler & Sorbini, 1996 †Cretatriacanthidae Tyler & Sorbini, 1996 †Plectocretacicidae Tyler & Sorbini, 1996 †Protriacanthidae Tyler & Sorbini, 1996 †Bolcabalistidae Santini & Tyler, 2003 †Eoplectidae †Moclaybalistidae Santini & Tyler, 2003 †Spinacanthidae Timeline of genera References Tree of Life: Tetraodontiformes * Category:Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances
Crocodile oil is extracted from the fatty tissues of crocodiles and has been used both as preventive and a treatment for a number of human ailments and conditions for many years and across numerous cultures, including Ancient Egypt. It is somewhat red in color, and less viscous than alligator oil. Both were used in the tanning industry. See also Emu oil Snake oil List of topics characterized as pseudoscience References Category:Dietary supplements Category:Animal fats
Demonstration effects are effects on the behavior of individuals caused by observation of the actions of others and their consequences. The term is particularly used in political science and sociology to describe the fact that developments in one place will often act as a catalyst in another place. Examples Parents may take care of their parents to create a demonstration effect by which their children later care for them. Countries and local governments may adopt laws and economic policies similar to those that appear to demonstrate success elsewhere. The proven success of the policies provides a demonstration effect that leads other governments to attempt to emulate that success.
Tourism The demonstration effect has been observed as a natural consequence of tourism. One study argues that the demonstration effect can be broken down into four forms: exact imitation, deliberately inexact imitation, accidental inexact imitation, and social learning. Economics In economics, demonstration effects may help explain the spread of financial or economic crises like the Asian financial crisis. Investors do not know everything about the economic situation of countries where they invest. When investors see a country's economy collapse, however, they may question the safety of investments in other countries with similar economic policies. Some heterodox economists such as James Duesenberry and Robert H. Frank, following the original insights of Thorstein Veblen (1899), have argued that awareness of the consumption habits of others tends to inspire emulation of these practices.
Duesenberry (1949) gave the name "demonstration effect" to this phenomenon, arguing that it promoted unhappiness with current levels of consumption, which impacted savings rates and consequently opportunities for macroeconomic growth. Similarly, Ragnar Nurkse (1953) argued that the exposure of a society to new goods or ways of living creates unhappiness with what had previously been acceptable consumption practices; he dubbed it the "international demonstration effect." He claimed that in developing nations, pressure to increase access to material goods rapidly increases, primarily because people "come into contact with superior goods or superior patterns of consumption, with new articles or new ways of meeting old wants."
As a result, he argued, these people are "apt to feel after a while a certain restlessness and dissatisfaction. Their knowledge is extended, their imagination stimulated; new desires are aroused". Democracy In the late 18th century, the successful American Revolution may have provided a demonstration effect that sparked the subsequent French Revolution. Political movements may be given a boost from the observed success of similar movements in other countries. The domino effect thesis relates to this idea; it argued that communist revolutions in some countries would spread to other countries. References Bibliography Duesenberry, J.S. 1949, Income, Saving and the Theory of Consumer Behavior, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Nurkse, R. 1953, Problems of Capital Formation in Underdeveloped Countries, Blackwell, Oxford. Category:Sociological terminology
The President George Bush Turnpike (PGBT) is a toll road running through the northern, northeastern and western suburbs, forming a partial loop around Dallas, Texas, United States. It is named for the late George H. W. Bush, the 41st President of the United States. At its west end near Belt Line Road in Irving, State Highway 161 (SH 161) continues southwest to Interstate 20 (I-20) in Grand Prairie. The discontinuous free frontage roads along the turnpike from I-35E in Carrollton east to its end at I-30 in Garland are assigned the State Highway 190 (SH 190) designation. SH 190 signage appears only along the Rowlett, Garland, Richardson, Plano, and Carrollton sections of the frontage road with the undersign "frontage road only".
At intersections with city streets, only the Bush Turnpike signs are displayed, not the SH 190 signage. Prior to the construction of the main lanes as a tollway, SH 190 was used as the name of the planned main lanes too. Similarly, the part west of I-35E was planned as part of SH 161. Bush Turnpike is signed as a north–south road from I-20 to I-35E (the "Western Extension"), an east–west road from I-35E to the Merritt Main Lane Gantry (the original sections) and as a north–south road from the Merritt Main Lane Gantry to I-30 (the "Eastern Extension"), as Bush Turnpike makes a nearly 90-degree curve in both places.
The turnpike is operated by the North Texas Tollway Authority (NTTA). Currently, all maintenance is done under a five-year total routine maintenance (TRM) contract with Roy Jorgensen Associates, Inc. based in Buckeystown, Maryland, that started in November 2011. The turnpike passes through three Texas counties (Dallas, Collin and Denton) and ten Dallas suburbs (Rowlett, Sachse, Garland, Richardson, Plano, Carrollton, Farmers Branch, Irving, and Grand Prairie). Originally the PGBT was equipped with traditional toll plazas for cash payment as well as RFID-based TollTag express lanes. However, on July 1, 2009 the cash plazas were closed and replaced with "ZipCash", an OCR-based camera system which reads the license plate and bills the owner by mail.
This made the turnpike the first in the United States to transition to all-electronic toll collection. The ZipCash rates, however, come at a premium being significantly higher than both the TollTag rate and the earlier cash prices. History The corridor of SH 161 and the Turnpike was first proposed as an outer loop within Dallas County in 1957. The 1964 plan was the first to designate it as a freeway, and in 1969 the full loop was added to the state highway system as Loop 9. The loop would begin at Interstate 20 just east of the Tarrant County line and head north (along a corridor still planned as an extension of SH 161).
From State Highway 183 it would run roughly along present SH 161, turning north on Belt Line Road and east just south of the Denton County line, crossing Interstate 35E near the present junction. Rather than cross into Denton and Tarrant Counties, the loop would stay in Dallas County, running roughly where Campbell Road is now. It would rejoin the present Turnpike alignment and head southeast to Interstate 30 west of Lake Ray Hubbard. The south part of the loop would continue in a roughly circular route to end at the junction of Interstate 20 and Spur 408, several miles east of the beginning of the loop.
The short Spur 484, designated in 1970, would run from Loop 9 at Belt Line Road northeast along the present Turnpike alignment to Interstate 635. Some of the opposition to the loop came from the city of Richardson, which was already divided by the Central Expressway. In conjunction with Plano, the city acquired empty right-of-way about two miles (3 km) to the north, where the Turnpike now runs, and set the centerline of the right-of-way to the border between Richardson and Plano. Loop 9 was cancelled on October 1, 1977, and the western and northern section was split between two new designations: State Highway 161 from Interstate 20 to State Highway 114 (at Belt Line Road) and State Highway 190 from Interstate 35E to State Highway 78.
(The piece between SH 114 and IH 35E was removed from the state highway system.) Spur 484 was absorbed into SH 161 on October 31, 1979, making its northern terminus Interstate 635 (at Valley View Lane). The connection between I-635 and I-35E was added to SH 161 on August 30, 1988. Construction on service roads began in late 1988 in north Garland and Richardson. A stack interchange was constructed in 1990 at U.S. Highway 75 in Richardson, which quickly became a white elephant as the structure remained abandoned for several years. On January 29, 1991, SH 190 was extended to I-20.
In 1995 following a revision in federal laws, authorities agreed to shift to a toll financing scheme, providing an infusion of cash and new construction. The SH 190 designation was removed from the plans for the not-yet-constructed main lanes on October 26, 1995, and SH 190 was truncated to SH 78. and on April 30, 1998 SH 161 was removed from the piece between Belt Line Road and I-635 (Segment V). On April 26, 2007, SH 190 extended to I-30. SH 161 was also the name of a route designated on March 19, 1930 from Clairemont southeastward to SH 70 near Rotan as a renumbering of SH 84A.
That route was transferred to SH 70 on December 1, 1930, but was not cancelled until January 22, 1931. SH 190 was also the name of a route designated on November 30, 1932 from Cuero southwestward to SH 119. That route was transferred to SH 29 on March 13, 1934. At Dallas North Tollway, the interchange had been built in 1994 ready for the turnpike to be built in 1998. In late December of 2015, the PGBT and the I-30 interchange was directly hit by a large, EF4 tornado with winds of up to 180mph while at peak strength at around 6:52pm CDT.
The tornado lofted several cars driving on the interchange bridges and threw them several hundred yards, with some of the cars being found in Lake Ray Hubbard in the following weeks. Multiple cars were mangled beyond recognition and several fatalities occurred on the interchange. Description Since the initial construction began in 1988, the turnpike was completed in a number of phases, as described here: Segment I (North Dallas). Extends from Campbell Road to Midway Road, and includes the Dallas North Tollway and U.S. Highway 75 (Central Expressway) interchanges. Opened in December 1998 (Midway Road to Preston Road) and December 1999 (Preston Road to Campbell Road).
Segment II (Garland/Richardson). Extends from Campbell Road to State Highway 78. Opened in 2000. Segment III (Carrollton). Extends from Midway Road in north Dallas to Interstate 35E. Opened July 2001. Segment IV ("PGBT Superconnector"). Connects I-35E to the I-635 airport extension. It covers and was built at the cost of $339 million. Much of the expense is because the segment is built within the Trinity River wetland and comprises many miles of bridges. Construction began in January 2003 and was completed in October 2005. Segment V (Irving). A segment connecting the I-635 airport extension to the SH 161 freeway near Belt Line Road.
It opened in December 2001. Unstable clay soil was a significant problem in this segment, requiring contractors to use concentrated liquid stabilizers and geosynthetic reinforcement. A part of President George Bush Turnpike was extended from SH 183 to Conflans Road in 2006. Segment VI ("Western Extension", Irving/Grand Prairie). A extension south from SH-183 in Irving to I-30 in Grand Prairie. A portion of the Western Extension, from SH-183 to I-30 in Grand Prairie, opened in August 2009. The remaining of the Western Extension, from I-30 to I-20 in Grand Prairie, opened in October 2012. Segment VII ("Eastern Extension", Garland/Sachse/Rowlett). A extension from SH-78 in Garland, through Rowlett and Sachse, and back into Garland at I-30.
The project, with a price tag of $1.04 billion, included construction of a 1-mile bridge at Lake Ray Hubbard. Construction began in October 2008, and the Eastern Extension opened to traffic on December 21, 2011. Segment VIII ("East Branch", Garland/Mesquite). A proposed extension from I-30 in Garland to I-20 in Mesquite, with an estimated cost of $730 million. In December 2015 an Environmental Impact Statement for the East Branch had been prepared but the review process was restarted in 2017. Construction is not expected until 2026. Expansion plans The next PGBT segment, the East Branch extension, is planned to begin at the PGBT Lake Ray Hubbard Interchange at I-30, extending south-southeast to near Duck Creek Way, then southward near Mesquite Metro Airport, terminating at I-20 near Rory Galloway Day Camp.
The project is well into the planning stages, and an Environmental Impact Statement was under preparation . In May 2017 at a Dallas city council meeting it was stated TxDOT had restarted the environmental impact statement review process. Construction is not expected until 2026. In the longer term, the North Central Texas Council of Governments is studying a very broad outer loop around the entire Dallas-Fort Worth metroplex. Assuming it receives environmental clearance, funding, and political support, much of it would be completed in the 2020s or 2030s. The PGBT is not part of this outer loop, but the PGBT East Branch alignment was closely coordinated with the loop's master plan.
The segment of the proposed outer loop through southern Dallas County would be known as Loop 9 and would likely be the first segment to be built. Exit list References External links North Texas Tollway Authority Texas Department of Transportation - SH 161 (southern extension) Texas Freeways: State Highway 190 Section 32 Web site | Before and after images of SH 190 Eastern Extension construction Bush Category:Toll roads in Texas Category:Transportation in Dallas County, Texas Category:Transportation in Denton County, Texas Category:Transportation in Collin County, Texas
Curare ( or ; or ) is a common name for various plant extract alkaloid arrow poisons originating from Central and South America. These poisons function by competitively and reversibly inhibiting the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), which is a subtype of acetylcholine receptor found at the neuromuscular junction. This causes weakness of the skeletal muscles and, when administered in a sufficient dose, eventual death by asphyxiation due to paralysis of the diaphragm. According to pharmacologist Rudolf Boehm's 1895 classification scheme, the three main types of curare are: tube or bamboo curare: so named because of its packing into hollow bamboo tubes—of which the main toxin is D-tubocurarine—derived from Chondrodendron and other genera in the Menispermaceae.
pot curare: originally packed in terra cotta pots—of which the main alkaloid components are protocurarine, protocurine, and protocuridine (but see below re: inaccuracy/ambiguity of early analyses)(Protocurarine being the active ingredient; protocurine only weakly toxic, and protocuridine non-toxic) comprising extracts from both Menispermaceae and Loganiaceae/Strychnaceae. calabash or gourd curare: originally packed into hollow gourds, of which the main toxin is C toxiferine I, comprising extracts from Loganiaceae/Strychnaceae alone. Of these three types, some formulae referable to tube curare are the most toxic, relative to their values. Although this tripartite classification of curares into 'tube', 'pot' and 'calabash' was initially useful, it rapidly became outmoded: Gill found that Boehm's classification became invalid shortly after his investigations, because the Indians began to use various types of containers for their preparations [i.e.
were not consistent in their use of the three types of container for three distinct types of poison]. Manske also observed in his 1955 The Alkaloids: The results of the early [pre-1900] work were very inaccurate because of the complexity and variation of the composition of the mixtures of alkaloids involved ... these were impure, non-crystalline alkaloids ... Almost all curare preparations were and are complex mixtures, and many of the physiological actions attributed to the early curarizing preparations were undoubtedly due to impurities, particularly to other alkaloids present. The curare preparations are now considered to be of two main types, those from Chondrodendron or other members of the Menispermaceae family and those from Strychnos, a genus of the Loganiaceae [ now Strychnaceae ] family.
Some preparations may contain alkaloids from both ... and the majority have other secondary ingredients. History Curare was used as a paralyzing poison by South American indigenous people. The prey was shot by arrows or blowgun darts dipped in curare, leading to asphyxiation owing to the inability of the victim's respiratory muscles to contract. The word 'curare' is derived from wurari, from the Carib language of the Macusi Indians of Guyana. Curare is also known among indigenous peoples as Ampi, Woorari, Woorara, Woorali, Wourali, Wouralia, Ourare, Ourari, Urare, Urari, and Uirary. Curare was used by the Island Caribs, indigenous people of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean, on the tips of their arrows.
In 1596, Sir Walter Raleigh mentioned the arrow poison in his book Discovery of the Large, Rich, and Beautiful Empire of Guiana (which relates to his travels in Trinidad and Guayana), though the poison he described possibly was not curare. In 1780, Abbe Felix Fontana discovered that it acted on the voluntary muscles rather than the nerves and the heart. In 1832, Alexander von Humboldt gave the first western account of how the toxin was prepared from plants by Orinoco River natives. During 1811–1812, Sir Benjamin Collins Brody experimented with curare (woorara). He was the first to show that curare does not kill the animal and the recovery is complete if the animal's respiration is maintained artificially.
In 1825, Charles Waterton described a classical experiment in which he kept a curarized female donkey alive by artificial respiration with a bellows through a tracheostomy. Waterton is also credited with bringing curare to Europe. Robert Hermann Schomburgk, who was a trained botanist, identified the vine as one of the genus Strychnos and gave it the now accepted name Strychnos toxifera. George Harley (1829–1896) showed in 1850 that curare (wourali) was effective for the treatment of tetanus and strychnine poisoning. In 1857, Claude Bernard (1813–1878) published the results of his experiments in which he demonstrated that the mechanism of action of curare was a result of interference in the conduction of nerve impulses from the motor nerve to the skeletal muscle, and that this interference occurred at the neuromuscular junction.
From 1887, the Burroughs Wellcome catalogue listed under its 'Tabloids' brand name, tablets of curare at grain (price 8 shillings) for use in preparing a solution for hypodermic injection. In 1914, Henry Hallett Dale (1875–1968) described the physiological actions of acetylcholine. After 25 years, he showed that acetylcholine is responsible for neuromuscular transmission, which can be blocked by curare. The best known and historically most important (because of its medical applications) toxin is d-tubocurarine. It was isolated from the crude drug – from a museum sample of curare – in 1935 by Harold King of London, working in Sir Henry Dale's laboratory.
King also established its chemical structure. Pascual Scannone, a Venezuelan anesthesiologist who trained and specialized in New York City, USA, did extensive research on curare as a possible paralyzing agent for patients during surgical procedures. In 1942, he became the first person in all of Latin America to use curare during a medical procedure when he successfully performed a tracheal intubation in a patient to whom he administered curare for muscle paralysis at the El Algodonal Hospital in Caracas, Venezuela. After its introduction in 1942, curare/curare-derivatives became a widely used paralyzing agent during medical and surgical procedures. In medicine, curare has been superseded by a number of curare-like agents, such as pancuronium, which have a similar pharmacodynamic profile, but fewer side effects.
Curare is active – toxic or muscle-relaxing depending on the intended use – only by an injection or a direct wound contamination by poisoned dart or arrow. It is harmless if taken orally because curare compounds are too large and highly charged to pass through the lining of the digestive tract to be absorbed into the blood. For this reason, people can safely eat curare-poisoned prey. Classification and chemical structure The various components of curare are organic compounds classified as either isoquinoline or indole alkaloids. Tubocurarine is the major active component in the South American dart poison. As an alkaloid, tubocurarine is a naturally occurring compound that consists of nitrogenous bases, although the chemical structure of alkaloids is highly variable.
Like most alkaloids, tubocurarine consists of a cyclic system with a nitrogen atom in an amine group. Because of this structure, tubocurarine can bind readily to the receptors for acetylcholine (ACh) at the neuromuscular junction, which blocks nerve impulses from being sent to the skeletal muscles, effectively paralyzing the muscles of the body. Since tubocurarine binds reversibly to the ACh receptors, treatment for curare poisoning involves adding an acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor, which will stop the destruction of acetylcholine so that it can compete with curare. Pharmacological properties Curare is an example of a non-depolarizing muscle relaxant that blocks the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), one of the two types of acetylcholine (ACh) receptors, at the neuromuscular junction.
The main toxin of curare, d-tubocurarine, occupies the same position on the receptor as ACh with an equal or greater affinity, and elicits no response, making it a competitive antagonist. The antidote for curare poisoning is an acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor (anti-cholinesterase), such as physostigmine or neostigmine. By blocking ACh degradation, AChE inhibitors raise the amount of ACh in the neuromuscular junction; the accumulated ACh will then correct for the effect of the curare by activating the receptors not blocked by toxin at a higher rate. The time of onset varies from within one minute (for tubocurarine in intravenous administration, penetrating a larger vein), to between 15 and 25 minutes (for intramuscular administration, where the substance is applied in muscle tissue).
Curare has no effect if ingested so the meat of an animal killed by curare does not become poisonous, and it has no effect on its flavor. Anesthesia Isolated attempts to use curare during anesthesia date back to 1912 by Arthur Lawen of Leipzig, but curare came to anesthesia via psychiatry (electroplexy). In 1939 Abram Elting Bennett used it to modify metrazol induced convulsive therapy. Muscle relaxants are used in modern anesthesia for many reasons, such as providing optimal operating conditions and facilitating intubation of the trachea. Before muscle relaxants, anesthesiologists needed to use larger doses of the anesthetic agent, such as ether, chloroform or cyclopropane to achieve these aims.
Such deep anesthesia risked killing patients who were elderly or had heart conditions. The source of curare in the Amazon was first researched by Richard Evans Schultes in 1941. Since the 1930s, it was being used in hospitals as a muscle relaxant. He discovered that different types of curare called for as many as 15 ingredients, and in time helped to identify more than 70 species that produced the drug. In the 1940s, it was used on a few occasions during surgery as it was mistakenly thought to be an analgesic or anesthetic. The patients reported feeling the full intensity of the pain though they were not able to do anything about it since they were essentially paralyzed.
On January 23, 1942, Harold Griffith and Enid Johnson gave a synthetic preparation of curare (Intercostrin/Intocostrin) to a patient undergoing an appendectomy (to supplement conventional anesthesia). Safer curare derivatives, such as rocuronium and pancuronium, have superseded d-tubocurarine for anesthesia during surgery. When used with halothane d-tubocurarine can cause a profound fall in blood pressure in some patients as both the drugs are ganglion blockers. However, it is safer to use d-tubocurarine with ether. In 1954, an article was published by Beecher and Todd suggesting that the use of muscle relaxants (drugs similar to curare) increased death due to anesthesia nearly sixfold.
This was refuted in 1956. Modern anesthetists have at their disposal a variety of muscle relaxants for use in anesthesia. The ability to produce muscle relaxation irrespective of sedation has permitted anesthetists to adjust the two effects independently and on the fly to ensure that their patients are safely unconscious and sufficiently relaxed to permit surgery. The use of neuromuscular blocking drugs carries with it the risk of anesthesia awareness. Plant sources There are dozens of plants from which isoquinoline and indole alkaloids with curarizing effects can be isolated, and which were utilized by indigenous tribes of Central and South America for the production of arrow poisons.
Among them are: In family Menispermaceae: Genus Chondrodendron notably C. tomentosum Genus Curarea, species toxicofera and tecunarum Genus Sciadotenia toxifera Genus Telitoxicum Genus Abuta Genus Caryomene Genus Anomospermum Genus Orthomene Genus Cissampelos, section L. (Cocculeae) of genus Other families: several species of the genus Strychnos of family Loganiaceae including toxifera, guianensis, castelnaei, usambarensis a plant in the subfamily Aroideae of family Araceae called taja at least three members of the genus Artanthe of family Piperaceae Paullinia cururu in the family Sapindaceae Some plants in the family Aristolochiaceae have also been reported as sources. Alkaloids with curare-like activity are present in plants belonging to the fabaceous genus Erythrina''.
Toxicity The toxicity of curare alkaloids in humans has not been established. Administration must be parenterally, as gastro-intestinal absorption is ineffective. LD50 (mg/kg) human: 0.735 est. (form and method of administration not indicated) mouse: pot: 0.8–25; tubo: 5-10; calabash: 2–15. Preparation Traditionally prepared curare is a dark, heavy, viscid paste with a very bitter taste. In 1938, Richard Gill and his expedition collected samples of processed curare and described its method of traditional preparation; one of the plant species used at that time was Chondrodendron tomentosum. Adjuvants It is known that the final preparation is often more potent than the concentrated principal active ingredient.
Various irritating herbs, stinging insects, poisonous worms, and various parts of amphibians and reptiles are added to the preparation. Some of these accelerate the onset of action or increase the toxicity; others prevent the wound from healing or blood from coagulating. Diagnosis and management of curare poisoning Curare poisoning can be indicated by typical signs of neuromuscular-blocking drugs such as paralysis including respiration but not directly affecting the heart. Curare poisoning can be managed by artificial respiration such as mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. In a study of 29 army volunteers that were paralyzed with curare, artificial respiration managed to keep an oxygen saturation of always above 85%, a level at which there is no evidence of altered state of consciousness.
Yet, curare poisoning mimics the total locked-in syndrome in that there is paralysis of every voluntarily controlled muscle in the body (including the eyes), making it practically impossible for the victim to confirm consciousness while paralyzed. Spontaneous breathing is resumed after the end of the duration of action of curare, which is generally between 30 minutes and 8 hours, depending on the variant of the toxin and dosage. Cardiac muscle is not directly affected by curare, but if more than four to six minutes has passed since respiratory cessation the cardiac muscle may stop functioning by oxygen-deprivation, making cardiopulmonary resuscitation including chest compressions necessary.
Antidote Muscle paralysis can be reversed by administration of a cholinesterase inhibitor such as pyridostigmine, neostigmine and edrophonium. These can be termed "anticurare" drugs. Gallery See also Arrow poison, what curare was originally used for Poison dart frog, another source of arrow poison Strychnine, a related alkaloid poison that occurs in some of the same plants as curare Notes References Further reading – contains papers and records pertaining to Griffith's introduction of curare into anesthesiology Category:Muscle relaxants Category:Neuromuscular blockers Category:Neurotoxins Category:Nicotinic antagonists Category:Plant toxins
Ulnar collateral ligament can refer to: Ulnar collateral ligament of elbow joint Ulnar collateral ligament of wrist joint Ulnar collateral ligament of thumb
Anisomycin, also known as flagecidin, is an antibiotic produced by Streptomyces griseolus which inhibits eukaryotic protein synthesis. Partial inhibition of DNA synthesis occurs at anisomycin concentrations that effect 95% inhibition of protein synthesis. Anisomycin can activate stress-activated protein kinases, MAP kinase and other signal transduction pathways. Pharmacology Anisomycin interferes with protein and DNA synthesis by inhibiting peptidyl transferase or the 80S ribosome system. Anisomycin is also mentioned as a potential psychiatric drug, as it may inhibit the consolidation of new context-specific long-term memories, as well as long time consolidated memories rendered labile through reactivation. Injection of anisomycin into the hippocampus has been proposed for selective removal of memories.
Biosynthesis Despite anisomycin's wide usage as a protein synthesis inhibitor, there have been a lot of studies centered on the biosynthesis of anisomycin. One study by Butler in 1674 proposed possible precursors to this natural product. Fermentation of Streptomyces with labeled amino acids was followed by a degradation of the radioactive anisomycin and deacetylanisomycin products to determine the locations of the labeled carbons. Although its pyrrolidine-based structure suggests that it is derived from proline, the results from the experiments indicated that tyrosine, glycine, methionine, and acetate are the primary precursors for the biosynthesis of anisomycin. Tyrosine and, to a limited degree, phenylalanine, contribute to C-2 of the pyrrolidine ring.
Methionine is likely responsible for the methylation of the hydroxyl group on the aromatic ring as S-adenosylmethionine (SAM). Glycine or acetate account for C-4 and C-5 on the pyrrolidine ring. It was noted that deacetylanisomycin was a prominent product in the first few days of fermentation, suggesting that acetylation of the C-3 hydroxyl group by acetyl Co-A is the final step in the biosynthesis of anisomycin. The source of the nitrogen within the ring and C-3 were undetermined. However, C-3 is not likely to be provided by the carboxylic acid group of tyrosine because tracking of radioactivity indicated that tyrosine undergoes decarboxylation during fermentation.
Other uses Anisomycin is used as a component of Martin Lewis agar, an in vitro diagnostic product which is used extensively in the United States for the selective isolation of Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Neisseria meningitidis. The antimicrobial can also be used in buffered charcoal yeast extract media for the selective isolation of Legionella species. See also Cycloheximide References Category:Pyrrolidines Category:Gene expression Category:Secondary alcohols Category:Acetate esters Category:Phenol ethers Category:Protein synthesis inhibitors
This article lists goals which have been considered among the fastest ever scored in association football matches. The records concerning the fastest goals are disputed for a number of reasons. Ray Spiller of the Association of Football Statisticians has argued that as there is no official system for recognizing the timing of goals there are always going to be disputes concerning these records. In addition, many of the goals listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as being among the fasted were not filmed preventing the precise timing of goals from being assessed. The status of Nawaf Al Abed's goal which is credited as being scored after two seconds is also disputed given that the match was later declared void due to ineligible players, when several players over the age of 23 were found to have played in the age restricted game.
Marc Burrows' goal has also been considered the fastest ever but it was scored in an amateur reserve game. As there is no standard size for a football pitch some of the goals listed benefit from being played on smaller pitches that require the ball to travel a shorter distance before reaching the goal. Furthermore, many of the records listed come from English language publications and reflect a bias towards English football within the sources. Under The Laws of the Game, specifically Law 8, goals may be scored directly from the kick-off. Some of the fastest goals on the list below are shots taken directly kick-off.
Goals The following is a list of goals scored by any kind of players, including juniors, amateurs, semi-professionals, professionals, women football, in any football league, cup or other competition around the world. See also Football records and statistics in Spain Football records and statistics in England References Category:Association football records and statistics Category:Scoring (sport)
The voiced uvular fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , an inverted small uppercase letter , or in broad transcription if rhotic. This consonant is one of several collectively called guttural R when found in European languages. The voiced uvular approximant is also found interchangeably with the fricative, and may also be transcribed as . Because the IPA symbol stands for the uvular fricative, the approximant may be specified by adding the downtack: , though some writings use a superscript , which is not an official IPA practice.
For a voiced pre-uvular fricative (also called post-velar), see voiced velar fricative. Features Features of the voiced uvular fricative: In many languages it is closer to an approximant, however, and no language distinguishes the two at the uvular articulation. Occurrence In Western Europe, a uvular trill pronunciation of rhotic consonants spread from northern French to several dialects and registers of Basque, Catalan, Danish, Dutch, German, Judaeo-Spanish, Norwegian, Occitan, Portuguese, Swedish, and Yiddish. However, not all of them remain a uvular trill today. In Brazilian Portuguese, it is usually a velar fricative (, ), voiceless uvular fricative , or glottal transition (, ), except in southern Brazil, where alveolar, velar and uvular trills as well as the voiced uvular fricative predominate.
Because such uvular rhotics often do not contrast with alveolar ones, IPA transcriptions may often use to represent them for ease of typesetting. For more information, see guttural R. note, "There is... a complication in the case of uvular fricatives in that the shape of the vocal tract may be such that the uvula vibrates." See also Index of phonetics articles Guttural Notes References External links Category:Approximant-fricative consonants Category:Uvular consonants Category:Pulmonic consonants Category:Voiced oral consonants Category:Central consonants
The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) is a charity operating in England and Wales that promotes animal welfare. In 2017, the RSPCA investigated 141,760 cruelty complaints and secured 1,492 convictions. The charity also rescued and collected 114,584 animals, carried out 222,664 microchippings and rehomed 44,611 animals. Founded in 1824, it is the oldest and largest animal welfare organisation in the world and is one of the largest charities in the UK. The organisation also does international outreach work across Europe, Africa and Asia.
The charity's work has inspired the creation of similar groups in other jurisdictions, starting with the Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (founded in 1836), and including the Scottish Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (1839), the Dublin Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (1840), the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (1866), the Royal New Zealand Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (1882), and various groups which eventually came together as the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Australia (1981), the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Hong Kong) (1997) — formerly known as the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Hong Kong) (1903–1997).
The RSPCA is funded primarily by voluntary donations. In 2017, RSPCA total income was £140,900,000 and total expenditure was £129,400,000. Its patron is Queen Elizabeth II. History The emergence of the RSPCA has its roots in the intellectual climate of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century in Britain where opposing views were exchanged in print concerning the use of animals. The harsh use and maltreatment of animals in hauling carriages, scientific experiments (including vivisection), and cultural amusements of fox-hunting, bull-baiting and cock fighting were among some of the matters that were debated by social reformers, clergy, and parliamentarians. At the beginning of the nineteenth century there was an unsuccessful attempt by William Johnstone Pulteney on 18 April 1800 to pass legislation through England's Parliament to ban the practice of bull-baiting.
In 1809 Lord Erskine (1750–1823) introduced an anti-cruelty bill which was passed in the House of Lords but was defeated in a vote in the House of Commons. Erskine in his parliamentary speech combined the vocabulary of animal rights and trusteeship with a theological appeal to biblical passages opposing cruelty. A later attempt to pass anti-cruelty legislation was spearheaded by the Irish parliamentarian Richard Martin and in 1822 an anti-cruelty to cattle bill (sometimes called Martin's Act) became law. Martin's Act was supported by various social reformers who were not parliamentarians and an informal network had gathered around the efforts of Reverend Arthur Broome (1779–1837) to create a voluntary organisation that would promote kindness toward animals.
Broome canvassed opinions in letters that were published or summarised in various periodicals in 1821. Broome organised a meeting and extended invitations to various reformers that included parliamentarians, clergy and lawyers. The meeting was held on Wednesday 16 June 1824 in Old Slaughter's Coffee House, London. The meeting was chaired by Thomas Fowell Buxton MP (1786–1845) and the resolution to establish the society was voted on. Among the others who were present as founding members were Sir James Mackintosh MP, Richard Martin, William Wilberforce, Basil Montagu, John Ashley Warre, Rev. George Bonner, Rev. George Avery Hatch, Sir James Graham, John Gilbert Meymott, William Mudford, and Lewis Gompertz.
The organisation was founded as the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. Broome was appointed as the society's first honorary secretary. The foundation is marked by a plaque on the modern day building at 77–78 St Martin's Lane. The society was the first animal welfare charity to be founded in the world. In 1824 it brought sixty three offenders before the courts. It was granted its royal status by Queen Victoria in 1840 to become the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, as it is today. The origins of the role of the RSPCA inspector stem from Broome's efforts in 1822 to personally bring to court some individuals against whom charges of cruelty were heard.
Broome employed and personally paid the salary for an inspector to monitor the abuse of animals at the Smithfield Market. The inspector hired by Broome, Charles Wheeler, served in the capacity of an inspector from 1824–1826 but his services were terminated when the society's revenue was exceeded by its debts. The accrued debts led to a suspension of operations when Broome as the society's guarantor for debts was imprisoned. When operations resumed there was some divided opinions in the Committees that steered the society about employing inspectors, which resulted in a resolution in 1832 to discontinue employing an inspector. The permanent appointment of a salaried inspector was settled in 1838, and the inspector is the image best known of the organisation today.
Broome's experience of bankruptcy and prison created difficulties for him afterwards and he stood aside as the society's first secretary in 1828 and was succeeded by the co-founding member Lewis Gompertz. Unlike the other founder members who were Christians, Gompertz was a Jew and despite his abilities in campaigning against cruelty, fund-raising and administrative skills, tensions emerged between him and other committee members, due to Gompertz's approach, considered very radical at the time, in opposition to hunting and other forms of using animals he regarded as abusive. The tensions led to the convening of a meeting in early 1832 which led to Gompertz resigning.
His resignation coincided with a resolution adopted in 1832 that "the proceedings of the Society were entirely based on the Christian faith and Christian principles." Alongside the society's early efforts to prosecute offenders who maltreated animals, there were efforts made to promote kindly attitudes toward animals through the publication of books and tracts as well as the fostering of annual sermons preached against cruelty on behalf of the society. The first annual anti-cruelty sermon that was preached on behalf of the society was delivered by Rev Dr Rudge in March 1827 at the Whitechapel Church. In 1865 the RSPCA looked for a way to consolidate and further influence public opinion on animal welfare by encouraging an annual "Animal Sunday" church service where clergy would preach sermons on anti-cruelty themes and the very first sermon was delivered in London on 9 July 1865 by Rev.
Arthur Penryhn Stanley (1815–1881), the Dean of Westminster. The "Animal Sunday" service became an annual event in different church gatherings in England, which was later adopted by churches in Australia and New Zealand in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, and it was the forerunner of the "pet blessing" services that emerged in the 1970s. In the twentieth century the RSPCA widened the horizons in the public domain by promoting an annual "animal welfare week." The RSPCA also had annual accounts published in newspapers, like The Londoner, where the secretary would discuss improvements, report cases, and remind the public to watch over their animals' health.
During the second half of 1837 the society sponsored an essay-writing competition with a benefactor offering a prize of one hundred pounds for the winning entry.
The terms of the competition stipulated:"The Essay required is one which shall morally illustrate, and religiously enforce, the obligation of man towards the inferior and dependent creatures--their protection and security from abuse, more especially as regards those engaged in service, and for the use and benefit of mankind-on the sin of cruelty--the infliction of wanton or unnecessary pain, taking the subject under its various denominations-exposing the specious defence of vivisection on the ground of its being for the interests of science--the supplying the infinite demands on the poor animal in aid of human speculations by exacting extreme labour, and thereby causing excessive suffering--humanity to the brute as harmonious with the spirit and doctrines of Christianity, and the duty of man as a rational and accountable creature."
There were thirty-four essays submitted and in December 1838 the prize was awarded to the Congregational minister Rev John Styles. Styles published his book-length work, The Animal Creation; its claims on our humanity stated and enforced, and all proceeds of sale were donated to the society. Other contestants, such as David Mushet and William Youatt, the society's veterinarian, also published their essays. One entrant whose work was submitted a few days after the competition deadline, and which was excluded from the competition was written by the Unitarian minister William Hamilton Drummond and he published his text in 1838, The Rights of Animals: And Man's Obligation to Treat Them with Humanity.
This competition set a precedent for subsequent RSPCA prize-winning competitions. The role of women in the society began shortly after the organisation was founded. At the society's first annual meeting in 1825, which was held at the Crown and Anchor Tavern on 29 June 1825, the public notice that announced the gathering specifically included appropriate accommodation for the presence of women members. Several women of social standing were listed as patronesses of the society, such as the Duchess of Buccleuch, Dowager Marchioness of Salisbury, Dowager Countess Harcourt, Lady Emily Pusey, Lady Eyre and Lady Mackintosh.
In 1837 the novelist Catherine Grace Godwin (1798–1845) described in her novel Louisa Seymour an incident where two leading female characters were aghast at the behaviour of a driver abusing a horse pulling a carriage that they subsequently discussed the problem of cruelty with other characters one of whom, called Sir Arthur Beauchamp, disclosed that he was a member of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. In 1839 another female supporter of the society, Sarah Burdett, a relative of the philanthropist Angela Burdett-Coutts and a poet, published her theological understanding of the rights of animals. However it was not until 12 July 1870 that the RSPCA Ladies' Committee was established.
Through the Ladies Committee various activities were sponsored including essay-prize competitions among children, and the formation of the Band of Mercy as a movement to encourage children to act kindly toward animals. In the nineteenth century the RSPCA fostered international relations on the problem of cruelty through the sponsoring of conferences and in providing basic advice on the establishment of similar welfare bodies in North America and in the colonies of the British Empire. The RSPCA celebrated its jubilee in June 1874 by holding an International Congress on Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and Queen Victoria delivered a letter of congratulations to the RSPCA on its anniversary.
Although the society was founded by people who were mostly Christian social reformers, and in 1832 presented itself as a Christian charity concerned with welfare as well as moral reform, the RSPCA gradually developed into a non-religious, non-sectarian animal welfare charity. The RSPCA lobbied Parliament throughout the nineteenth century, resulting in a number of new laws. The Cruelty to Animals Act 1835 amended Martin's Act and outlawed baiting. There was a public groundswell of opinions that were divided into opposing factions concerning vivisection, where Charles Darwin (1809–1882) campaigned on behalf of scientists to conduct experiments on animals while others, such as Frances Power Cobbe (1822–1904) formed an anti-vivisection lobby.
The stance adopted by the RSPCA was one of qualified support for legislation. This qualified support for experiments on animals was at odds with the stance taken by Society's founder Broome who had in 1825 sought medical opinions about vivisection and he published their anti-vivisection sentiments. It was also a departure from the 1837 essay-competition (discussed above) where the essayists were obliged to expose "the specious defence of vivisection on the ground of its being for the interests of science." In 1876 the Cruelty to Animals Act was passed to control animal experimentation. In 1911 Parliament passed Sir George Greenwood's Animal Protection Act.
Since that time the RSPCA has continued to play an active role, both in the creation of animal welfare legislation and in its enforcement. An important recent new law has been the Animal Welfare Act 2006. During the First World War the RSPCA provided support for the Army Veterinary Corps in treating animals such as donkeys, horses, dogs and birds that were co-opted into military service as beasts of burden, messengers and so forth. However, the RSPCA estimates that 484,143 horses, mules, camels and bullocks were killed in British service during the war. The RSPCA's centenary in 1924 and its one hundred and fiftieth anniversary in 1974 were accompanied by books telling the society's story.
Since the end of the Second World War the development of intense agricultural farming practices has raised many questions for public debate concerning animal welfare legislation and the role of the RSPCA. This development has included debates both inside the RSPCA (e.g. the RSPCA Reform Group) as well as among ethicists, social activists and supporters of claims for animal rights outside of it concerning the society's role in ethical and legal issues involving the use of animals. Animal welfare establishments RSPCA centres, hospitals and branches operate throughout England and Wales. In 2012 RSPCA centres and branches assisted and rehomed 55,459 animals.
Hospitals In 2013 the society owned four animal hospitals, Birmingham, Greater Manchester, Putney (south London) and the Harmsworth Memorial Hospital in Finsbury Park (north London), and a number of clinics which provide treatments to those who could not otherwise afford it, neuter animals and accept animals from the RSPCA inspectorate. Centres RSPCA animal centres deal with a wide range of injured and rescued animals, working alongside its inspectorate, volunteers, and others to ensure that each animal is found a new home. There are currently 17 RSPCA animal centres across the UK and a further 42 centres ran independently by Branches.
In 2013 the society had four wildlife centres at East Winch (Norfolk), West Hatch (Somerset), Stapeley Grange (Cheshire) and Mallydams Wood (East Sussex), which provide treatment to sick, injured and orphaned wild animals to maximise their chances of a successful return to the wild. Organisation and structure National organisation At the national level, there is a 'National Control Centre', which receives all calls from members of the public, and tasks local Inspectors, some information AWOs or ACOs to respond to urgent calls. Additionally the £16 million 'National Headquarters' located at Southwater in West Sussex houses several general 'Departments', each with a departmental head, consistent with the needs of any major organisation.
The current Chief Executive Officer is Chris Sherwood. Regions There are five 'Regions' (North, East, Wales & West, South & South West, South East), each headed by a Regional Manager (responsible for all staff and RSPCA HQ facilities) assisted by a Regional Superintendent who has responsibility for the Chief Inspectors, Inspectors, AWOs and ACOs. The Regional Managers are expected to have a broad understanding of operations throughout their regions. Branches RSPCA branches operate locally across England and Wales. Branches are separately registered charities operating at a local level and are run by volunteers. Some RSPCA branches are self-funding and raise money locally to support the animal welfare work they do.
They find homes for about three-quarters of all animals taken in by the RSPCA. RSPCA branches also offer advice, microchipping, neutering and subsidised animal treatments. In 2013 there were also about 1000 RSPCA shops. Groups Each Region of the RSPCA contains 'Groups' of Inspectorate staff. A Group is headed by a Chief Inspector. Each Chief Inspector might typically be responsible for around 8 or more Inspectors, 3 Animals Welfare Officers (AWOs) and 2 Animal Collection Officers (ACOs), working with several local Branches. There are also a small number of Market Inspectors across the country. Inspectorate rank insignia Mission statement and charitable status The RSPCA is a registered charity (no.
219099) that relies on donations from the public. The RSPCA states that its mission as a charity is, by all lawful means, to prevent cruelty, promote kindness and to alleviate the suffering of animals. RSPCA inspectors respond to calls from the public to investigate alleged mistreatment of animals. They offer advice and assistance to improve animal welfare, and in some cases prosecute under laws such as the Animal Welfare Act 2006. Animals rescued by the RSPCA are treated, rehabilitated and rehomed or released wherever possible. The RSPCA brings private prosecution (a right available to any civilian) against those it believes, based on independent veterinary opinion, have caused neglect to an animal under laws such as the Animal Welfare Act 2006.
The society has its own legal department and veterinary surgeons amongst the resources which facilitate such private prosecutions. All prosecutions are brought via independent solicitors acting for the RSPCA, as the association has no legal enforcement powers or authority in its own right. In May 2012 the RSPCA launched their own mobile virtual network operator service, RSPCA Mobile in partnership with MVNO whitelabel service Shebang. RSPCA Mobile claimed to be the first charity mobile phone network in the UK. The agreement included provisions such that the RSPCA would receive up to 15% of top-ups made on the network and it was expected the network would raise £50,000 in the first year of operations.
RSPCA Mobile ceased service in October 2014. Legal standing In 1829 when the first recognisable police force was established in England, they adopted a similar uniform to that of RSPCA inspectors who had been wearing uniforms since the charity's beginning in 1824. This adoption has led to similarities in the RSPCA rank names and rank insignia with British police ranks, which has led some critics (such as Chris Newman, chairman of the Federation of Companion Animal Societies) to suggest an attempt to "adopt" police powers in the public imagination. An RSPCA inspector may also verbally caution a member of the public, similar to that used by the police, i.e.
"You do not have to say anything. But it may harm your defence if you do not mention when questioned something which you later rely on in court. Anything you do say may be given in evidence"; this may strengthen the perception that the RSPCA has statutory powers. When Richard Girling of The Times asked about their lack of powers, a spokesman for the RSPCA said "We would prefer you didn’t publish that, but of course it's up to you". Chris Newman claimed that the RSPCA "impersonate police officers and commit trespass. People do believe they have powers of entry"; however, he did not produce any evidence of such impersonation of police officers, and the society strongly deny the charge of impersonation.
Sally Case, former head of prosecutions, insisted that RSPCA inspectors are trained specifically to make clear to pet-owners that they have no such right. They act without an owner’s permission, she says, "only if an animal is suffering in a dire emergency. If the court feels evidence has been wrongly obtained, it can refuse to admit it". One recent trial was halted and charges relating to nine dogs were thrown out of court after District Judge Elsey ruled that they had been wrongly seized and that the police and RSPCA acted unlawfully when they entered private property and seized the animals.
While the Protection of Animals Act 1911 provided a power of arrest for police, the British courts determined that Parliament did not intend any other organisation, such as the RSPCA, to be empowered under the Act and that the RSPCA therefore does not possess police-like powers of arrest, of entry or of search (Line v RSPCA, 1902). Like any other person or organisation that the law deems to have a duty to investigate — such as HM Revenue and Customs and Local Authority Trading Standards — the RSPCA is expected to conform to the rules in the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 so far as they relate to matters of investigation.
RSPCA officers are trained to state, following giving the caution, that the person is "not under arrest and can leave at any time". The Animal Welfare Act 2006 has now replaced the Protection of Animals Act 1911, and it empowers the police and an inspector appointed by a local authority. Such inspectors are not to be confused with RSPCA Inspectors who are not appointed by local authorities. In cases where, for example, access to premises without the owner’s consent is sought, a local authority or Animal Health inspector or police officer may be accompanied by an RSPCA inspector if he or she is invited to do so, as was the case in previous law.
Following a series of Freedom of Information requests in 2011, to police constabularies throughout England and Wales it was revealed that the RSPCA has developed local information sharing protocols with a number of constabularies, allowing designated RSPCA workers access to confidential information held on the Police National Computer (PNC). Although RSPCA workers do not have direct access to the PNC, information is shared with them by the various police constabularies which would reveal any convictions, cautions, warnings, reprimands and impending prosecutions. Information regarding motor vehicles can also be accessed. The Association of Chief Police Officers released a statement clarifying that the RSPCA had no direct access to the PNC, and that in common with other prosecuting bodies, it may make a request for disclosure of records.
This indirect access does not include any information that the RSPCA does not need in order to prosecute a case at court. Controversy and criticism Governance The RSPCA has long been criticised for its governance with the Charity Commission describing its governance as below the standard expected of a large charity and in August 2018 issued the Society with an official warning. The RSPCA made significant changes to its governance in 2019 reducing the size of its Council from 28 trustees to a new board of trustees of 12 trustees with nine elected by the membership and three co-opted. The RSPCA also introduced term limits of nine years for its trustees and appointed its first independent Chair, Rene Olivieri, in its 196 years of history.
Political lobbying The RSPCA is an opponent of badger culling; in 2006 there was controversy about a "political" campaign against culling, with the Charity Commission being asked to consider claims that the charity had breached guidelines by being too overtly 'political'. The charity responded saying that it took "careful account of charity law and the guidance issued by the Charity Commission". Years later, an advertisement published by the RSPCA in the Metro newspaper said: "The UK Government wants to shoot England's badgers. We want to vaccinate them — and save their lives." But more than 100 people complained to the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA), saying the use of the term "exterminate" was misleading.
The advertising standards watchdog judged that the advert was likely to mislead the general public who had not taken an active interest in the badger cull saying, "The ad must not appear again in its current form. We told the RSPCA not to use language that implied the whole badger population in the cull areas would be culled in future advertising." An RSPCA spokesman said it "welcomed" the judgement of the ASA to dismiss three of the areas of complaint about their advert but "respectfully disagreed" with the complaint which had been upheld. In September 2013 the RSPCA deputy chairman Paul Draycott said that 'too political' campaigns threatened the charity's future and could deter donors.
Draycott said that the RSPCA could go insolvent "We have spent months discussing where we want to be in 10 years time, but unless we develop a strategy for now we won't be here then". In response the chairman Mike Tomlinson said "The trustee body continues to place its full support behind the RSPCA's chief executive, management and all our people who do such outstanding work". The accusations of politicization remain unsubstantiated. Paul Draycott also warned that the RSPCA fears an exodus of "disillusioned staff" with "poor or even non-existent management training and career paths" for employees. In response the RSPCA’s chief executive, Gavin Grant denied suggestions in the memo that there was "no strategy" in some areas, stating that there was no difficulty in attracting trustees or serious internal concerns about management.
In June 2014 RSPCA campaigner Peta Watson-Smith compared the conditions livestock are brought up in across the country to that of the Jews during the Holocaust. The comments were condemned by countryside campaigners and Jewish groups. In 2015 Peta Watson-Smith was elected to the RSPCA ruling council saying more money should be spent prosecuting farmers. At the same election the RSPCA members also voted to give a seat on the ruling council to Dan Lyons, who has previously called for pet owners to sit an exam. In 2016 the new head of the RSPCA, Jeremy Cooper, made a dramatic, public apology for the charity’s past mistakes and vowed to be less political and bring fewer prosecutions in the future.
The new Chief Executive admitted that RSPCA had become "too adversarial" and will now be "a lot less political". Mr Cooper said that the charity had alienated farmers in its aggressive campaign against the Government’s badger cull and disclosed that it would be “very unlikely” to ever bring another prosecution against a hunt. CEO Jeremy Cooper later resigned after just on year in charge. In April 2019 the RSPCA has faced a new fraud investigation held at south-east London branch over the alleged mishandling of funds by two men, who were arrested on suspicion of fraud. The suspected fraud was exposed during a financial audit of the south-east London branch.
Euthanasia controversies The RSPCA also state that whilst a few of their own branches operate "no kill" policies themselves, its policy on euthanasia is: There have been incidents where the RSPCA has apologised for decisions to euthanise animals. In 2008, the RSPCA was sued by Hindu monks over the killing of a sacred cow at the Bhaktivedanta Manor Hindu temple and 200 people protested at the RSPCA headquarters. On 13 December 2008, the RSPCA admitted culpability, apologised for the euthanising of the cow, and donated a pregnant cow to the temple as a symbol of reconciliation. The RSPCA admitted that in 2014 it had euthanised 205 healthy horses.
In one particular case 12 horses from a Lancashire farm that had been assessed by vets as being "bright, alert and responsive" and suffering no life-threatening issues were killed by the RSPCA. In a 2016 court case the RSPCA admitted that in 2015 it had illegally euthanised 11 healthy horses and attempted to charge the owner for 100 days of stabling fees for the period after the horses were already dead. The charge was overturned in a court decision. Prosecutions In May 2013 former RSPCA employee Dawn Aubrey-Ward was found hanged at her home when suffering from depression after leaving the animal charity.
Aubrey-Ward was described by The Daily Telegraph as a whistleblower for the RSPCA's prosecution practices. The RSPCA subsequently had a meeting with the Charity Commission over its approach to prosecutions. On 7 August 2013 the BBC Radio 4 Face the Facts radio programme broadcast an episode called "The RSPCA – A law unto itself?" The programme presented a number of cases of where the RSPCA has sought to hound vets and expert witnesses who had appeared in court for the defence in RSPCA prosecutions. In one case it sought to discredit the author of the RSPCA Complete Horse Care Manual (Vogel) after he appeared as an expert witness for the defence team in an RSPCA prosecution.
The RSPCA later released a statement saying that this is untrue and that they do not persecute vets and lawyers who appear for the defence and as defence experts. There have been thousands of lawyers taking defence cases against the RSPCA and they have only ever made a complaint about one. In November 2013 the RSPCA was accused of instigating police raids on small animal shelters with insufficient evidence that animals were being mistreated. The owners claimed that they were being persecuted because of their "no kill" policy of only putting animals down if they cannot be effectively treated. The RSPCA stated that their inspectors will offer advice and guidance to help people improve conditions for their animals, and it only seeks the help of the police where it considers there is no reasonable alternative to safeguard animal welfare.
Fund-raising in Scotland The RSPCA has been criticised by the Scottish SPCA for fund-raising in Scotland and thereby "stealing food from the mouths of animals north of the border by taking donations intended for Scotland." The RSPCA insists that it does not deliberately advertise in Scotland but that many satellite channels only enabled the organisation to purchase UK-wide advertising. In a statement, the RSPCA said it went "to great lengths" to ensure wherever possible that adverts were not distributed outside England and Wales, and "Every piece of printed literature, television advertising and internet banner advertising always features the wording 'The RSPCA is a charity registered in England and Wales.