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Prior to the extensive leveeing of the Mississippi River that began in the 1930s, the river avulsed its course in search of a shorter route to the Gulf of Mexico approximately every 1,000–1,500 years. The prehistoric and historic delta lobes of the Mississippi River Delta have influenced the formation of the Louisiana coastline and led to the creation of over of coastal wetlands. As the river changed course, the natural flow of freshwater and sediment changed as well, resulting in periods of land building and land loss in different areas of the delta. This process by which the river changes course is known as avulsion, or delta-switching, and forms the variety of landscapes that make up the Mississippi River Delta.
The Atchafalaya River is the largest distributary of the Mississippi River and is also considered to be an influential part of the continual land-building processes within the Mississippi River Delta. The river's tributary channel was formed approximately 500 years ago and the Atchafalaya and Wax Lake deltas emerged around the middle of the twentieth century. Starting with the earliest European settlement, people have struggled with the delta's natural cycle of floods, progradation, and transgression. Increased economic development and human habitation in the region created a desire to protect society from the threats posed by this mighty waterway. Beginning in the 20th century, advances in technology and engineering allowed humans to alter the river in fundamental ways.
Although these changes successfully shielded many people from danger and enabled significant economic development in the region, they have proven to have profoundly negative effects on the downstream delta. Geologic history The formation of the Mississippi River Delta can be traced back to the late Cretaceous Period, approximately 100 million years ago, with the creation of the Mississippi embayment. The embayment began focusing sediment into the Gulf of Mexico, which facilitated the deltaic land-building processes for the future. During the Paleogene Period (approx. 65.5 to 23 million years ago), a series of smaller scale, regional rivers entered present-day southern Louisiana allowing an increase in dispersion of sediment deposition into the delta region.
The Mississippi embayment then became a primary focus of sediment deposition during the Miocene Epoch (approx. 23 to 5.3 million years ago), which built the foundation of the modern delta region. The modern day Mississippi River Delta plain began to evolve during the Holocene Epoch (around 7,500 to 8,000 years ago) due to the deceleration of sea level rise and the natural shifting of the river's course every 1,000–1,500 years. The delta cycle refers to a dynamic process whereby the river deposits sediment at its outfall, growing a delta lobe, then eventually, seeking a shorter path to the sea, abandons its previous course and associated delta.
After the river changes course and abandons the delta headland, the region experiences land loss due to the processes of subsidence, erosion of the marsh shoreline, and the natural redistribution of sands deposited along the delta that create the barrier islands. The delta cycle contains the natural process of land loss and land gain, due to the directionality and discharge of the river. This process formed the bays, bayous, coastal wetlands, and barrier islands that make up the coastline of Louisiana. The Mississippi River major deltaic cycle began over 7,000 years ago, eventually forming six delta complexes which are major depositional elements of a delta plain.
The Mississippi River Delta complexes consist of smaller areas known as delta lobes, which contain the basins and other natural landscapes of the coastline. The six Mississippi River Delta complexes are as follows: 1. The Maringouin delta formed 7,500 to 5,500 years ago when relative sea level rapidly rose. 2. The Teche delta formed 5,500 to 3,500 years ago after relative sea level rise decelerated. 3. The St. Bernard delta formed 4,000 to 2,000 years ago following an avulsion that caused the river's relocation to the east of present-day New Orleans. 4. The Lafourche delta formed 2,500 to 500 years ago from a second avulsion that caused the river to relocate to the west of present-day New Orleans.
5. Modern day development (over the past 1,500 years) formed the Plaquemines-Balize delta, also known as Bird's Foot Delta, between the St. Bernard and Lafourche delta. 6. Diversion to the Atchafalaya began 500 years ago with the Atchafalaya and Wax Lake Outlet deltas emerging in the mid-20th century. More recent influences created the most recent land building processes in the Wax Lake Outlet when the Wax Lake Outlet channel was created in 1942 to reduce water levels at Morgan City. Social, economic and cultural history History The history and culture that is linked to the Mississippi River Delta is as unique as its geologic landscape.
The mouth of the Mississippi River was found in 1519 by Alvarez de Pineda of Spain. Robert Cavelier de La Salle claimed the territory around the mouth of the Mississippi River for France in 1682, and the region grew with importance with its strategic location for trade and security. In 1699 the French built their first crude fort at La Balize, on the Southeast Pass in Pass á Loutre, to control passage on the Mississippi. By 1721, they had built the wooden lighthouse-type structure (la balise means seamark in French) that gave the settlement its name. Built in the marshes, the village was vulnerable to hurricane damage.
In addition, ships had to deal with the shifting conditions of tides, currents and mudflats through the mouth of the river. From 1700 to 1888, the main shipping channel was changed four times in response to shifting sandbars, mudflats and hurricanes. In 1803, the United States purchased Louisiana from Napoleon. During this period, the economic and political significance of New Orleans and the mouth of the Mississippi River increased, and it became an integral part of the nation's farming industries. Due to the influx of nutrient-rich soil from the Mississippi River, the delta is a prime area for farming sugar cane, cotton and indigo, crops that were introduced into Louisiana farmlands during the pre-Civil War era.
Many of these processes are important resources that the delta still provides today. The importance of navigation and trade on the Mississippi only increased after the Civil War, and like the river itself, this economic development eventually flowed into the delta. In the 1870s, former delta swamplands were being transformed, via levee construction, into fertile farmland. Timber companies began harvesting lucrative forests and planters followed, taking advantage of the new agricultural opportunities. More railroads entered the area, replacing steamboats as the primary means of transporting the delta's rich natural bounty. With the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914, the Mississippi River Delta became an even more important transportation artery.
In addition to shipping, local and commercial fisheries continued to expand. The discovery of vast oil and gas deposits brought further economic and environmental changes to the delta. Despite these profound changes, the delta today remains very much rooted in the vibrant cultural and social traditions of its residents. People The Mississippi River Delta is home to more than two million people. The location of the delta at the mouth of the Mississippi River allowed for the area to be a cultural gateway into the United States, and influenced the mix of nationalities which settled in the area over time, forming the diversity of the region.
Louisiana's first 18th century colonists were French, but they were soon joined by Spanish and Acadian settlers. The region has been home to other European-immigrant ethnic groups, beginning in the 19th century, including German, Sicilian, and Irish. There are also the Africans, West Indians, and Native Americans in the mix. The combination of these groups over time has created the special culture found in the Mississippi River Delta. Two unique groups are the Creoles and the Cajuns. In general terms, Creole refers to a black, white, or mixed-race native of Louisiana. Creoles descended from the union of various ethnic groups in Louisiana, and they are often categorized according to their heritage.
Creole populations before 1803 were typically born of French and/or Spanish parents; as such, they kept their European characteristics and cultures. A sub-group is known as the "Creoles of color," born of the mingling of African, European, and Native American identities. During the colonial period, the mixed-race Creoles were usually free from bondage, obtained an education, and often owned businesses and property. The Cajuns are another ethnic group in southern Louisiana; they primarily consider themselves to be descendants of the Acadian settlers who were expelled from Nova Scotia by the British after the French and Indian War, when France lost its North American colonies.
The Cajuns have intermarried with all ethnicities, profoundly influencing the culture of Louisiana. The Creole and Cajun cultures possessed distinct identities and remain strong influences in the Mississippi River Delta. They continue to shape preferences of food, music, and art, as well as to maintain the unique identities existing in the southernmost parts of the region. Both cultures speak a form of French; but they are considered to be autonomous and distinct dialects. Culture From 1910 to 1920, New Orleans became the birthplace of jazz and since has continued its legacy of being home to budding musicians and new musical experiences, tying music directly to its unique culture and diverse heritage.
The origins of jazz and blues music in the region is closely connected to the Mississippi River and the delta, as the location allowed for an influx of cultural influences, including blues and bluegrass music from upriver, to the African and Latin folk hymns and music from the Caribbean islands. The delta is still synonymous with the sounds of jazz, funk and zydeco and remains to be an important cultural hub for new sounds and music, bringing thousands to the area every year to experience the lifestyle and participate in the natural rhythms of the area. The region is also home to a unique and renowned culinary tradition.
Cajun food is defined by its use of ingredients widely available from the delta. Spices, shellfish, and grains, all provided by the delta's naturally rich environment, define many of these aromatic and flavorful dishes. Cajun culinary techniques and recipes continue to draw thousands of tourists to the region each year and have been exported around the world. The Delta today The Mississippi River Delta provides an array of natural habitats and resources that benefit not only the state of Louisiana and coastal region, but also the entire nation. The coastal wetlands have a number of diverse landscapes that connect a variety of habitats to both the land and water.
Louisiana's wetlands are one of the nation's most productive and important natural assets. Consisting of natural levees, barrier islands, forests, swamps, and fresh, brackish and saline marshes, the region is home to complex ecosystems and habitats that are necessary for sustaining its unique and vibrant nature. In addition to the environmental factors, the Mississippi River Delta also provides numerous economic resources and benefits that are unique to the region. These vital resources are at constant risk of being lost with the continual land loss and the decreasing size of the natural coastal area. Economy The Mississippi River Delta has a strong economy which relies heavily on tourism and recreational activities such as fishing, hunting and wildlife watching as well as commercial fishing, oil, gas, and shipping industries.
There are a number of major industries in the Mississippi River Delta that drive the local and national economy, including: Oil and gas: About one-sixth of the Louisiana workforce is employed in the oil and gas industry. Additionally, Louisiana is an important gateway for the nation's oil and gas supply, and in 2013 was surpassed only by Texas in total and operating refinery capacity. Port Fourchon in southern Louisiana services 90% of the offshore oil rigs in the Gulf of Mexico providing 16-18% of the country's oil supply. Natural gas is another commodity that provides a strong economic industry for the Mississippi River Delta.
The first natural gas field was discovered in Louisiana in 1823 and has maintained an important role in the industry. Today, Louisiana produces over one-tenth of US natural gas supplies, contains almost of pipelines, and delivers gas to the entire nation from the Gulf of Mexico. Shipping and ports: The Mississippi River Delta's ports are some of the most active and economically busy ports in the entire nation. Being at the mouth of the Mississippi River makes Louisiana's ports major entry points to the rest of the United States. Five of the U.S.'s largest ports are located in Louisiana, including Baton Rouge and New Orleans.
The Port of South Louisiana is the largest port in the U.S. by tonnage and the fourth largest in the world, exporting more than 52 million tons a year of which more than half are agricultural products. It is estimated that Louisiana's river ports supply around 270,000 jobs and bring over $32.9 billion annually to the state's economy. In total, the Mississippi River moves about 500 million tons of cargo each year, which includes over 60% of the nation's grain exports. Louisiana's ports are an integral part of the United States' domestic and international shipping industry, sending and receiving over $100 billion per year in agricultural goods, machinery and other products including chemicals, coal, timber and steel, making Louisiana connected to a number of international destinations such as China, Japan and Mexico.
Fisheries: Both commercial and recreational fisheries are economically, culturally and historically important for the Louisiana coast. Fisheries provide a way of life for many who live on the southern coast of Louisiana. Louisiana has the second largest commercial fishery in the United States by weight, second only to Alaska. The Mississippi River Delta contains seven of the top 50 seafood landing ports in the United States, three of which (Empire-Venice, Intracoastal City and Cameron) are in the top six for seafood landing ports nationwide. The gulf region provides 33% of the nation's seafood harvest, and commercial fishing is a $2.4 billion industry in the Gulf of Mexico with about 75% of the fish landed coming through Louisiana ports.
Tourism: Louisiana is rich in resources that provide opportunities for tourists to enjoy the Mississippi River Delta – from eco-tourism activities like recreational fishing, hunting and swamp tours, as well as traditional tourism activities such as eating at Gulf Coast restaurants that feature local seafood. Outside of outdoor recreational activities, thousands of tourists come every year to participate in the diversity of culturally unique events in the region. In total, the five Gulf Coast states generate around $34billion annually in tourism. The recreational wildlife tourism industry is an important component of the tourism sector for the Mississippi River Delta and the Gulf Coast.
The report, "Wildlife Tourism and the Gulf Coast Economy," shows how wildlife tourism is a vital industry, bringing in more than $19billion in annual spending by tourists and generating more than $5billion in federal, state and local tax revenue. Ecology The Mississippi River Delta has an extremely diverse ecological landscape, consisting of a number of wildlife habitats and vegetation. The coastal landscape of the Mississippi River Delta is rich in resources and contains some of the most unusual areas in the United States. In addition to providing habitats for wildlife living in the region, the Mississippi River Delta's wetlands, marshes and barrier islands also provide the vital protection for coastal residents and communities from storm surge and flooding.
Landscapes – Below is a list of the variation of landscapes that comprise the Mississippi River Delta: 1. Fresh, intermediate, brackish and saline marshlands make up more than of Louisiana's coastline, or 13% of the state's total landmass. 2. Barrier islands are home to a number of birds and provide the first buffer of protection for Louisiana residents from hurricane storm surge. 3. Swamps are forested wetlands. The biggest swamp along the Mississippi River Delta is 1 million acres and located in the Atchafalaya Basin. 4. Bottomland hardwood forests and maritime forests 5. Beaches 6. Coastal flatwoods 7. Louisiana's ecosystem originally consisted of of Coastal tallgrass prairie habitat, but much of it has been replaced by cattle ranching and farming.
Wildlife – The variation of landscapes in the Mississippi River Delta provides the habitats, living conditions and migratory locations for hundreds of species of animals, birds and other wildlife. Many of these species are unique to the Mississippi River Delta and rely on the mix of wetland, marsh and forest ecosystems within the region. A variety of mammals rely on the habitats that the delta provides, from forests to swamps to estuaries. These areas are home to Louisiana black bears, bottlenose dolphins, minks, beavers, armadillos, foxes, coyotes and bobcats. The region also supports a number of invasive mammals, such as nutria and feral hogs, which destroy native ecosystems – including coastal wetlands – and cause trouble for native species.
The delta is a vital stopping point along the Mississippi Flyway. The flyway stretches from southern Ontario to the mouth of the Mississippi River, and contains one of the longest migration routes in the Western Hemisphere. About 460 bird species have been recorded in Louisiana, with 90% (300 species) found within the coastal wetlands. Many diverse and rare species including indigo buntings, scarlet tanagers, yellow-crowned night herons and bald eagles call Louisiana home. Also found in the Mississippi River Delta are great egrets, glossy ibises, roseate spoonbills, wintering hummingbirds, birds of prey and wood storks. Fish – Delta wetlands provide fish habitats and act as nurseries for a number of important juvenile fish species.
Ninety-seven percent of the gulf's commercial fish and shellfish species spend some portion of their lives in coastal wetlands, like those found in coastal Louisiana. A few examples of fish found in the delta are speckled trout, redfish, flounder, blue crabs, shrimp, catfish and bass. Endangered and threatened species – The Mississippi River Delta is home to a number of species that are listed as endangered or threatened according to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Delta National Wildlife Refuge. Continuous land loss and wetland erosion poses a serious risk to the habitats and the survival of these species, including the: Piping plover (Charadrius melodus) Kemp's Ridley Turtle (Lepidochelys kempii) Louisiana black bear Threats to the Delta Throughout its geological history, the Mississippi River Delta experienced natural processes of growth and retraction as a result of sediment deposition from the river.
However, in recent history, the processes of land loss have far surpassed the river's land-building properties due to a number of factors. Some of the causes of delta land loss stem from natural causes, like hurricanes and other effects of climate change. However, the Mississippi River Delta also suffers from a lack of sedimentation due to the levee systems, navigation canals and other man-made structures within the region. These structures have proven to be detrimental to the natural land-building power of the river as many of the structures slow or eliminate the river's flow into certain areas, increasing salt-water intrusion from the Gulf of Mexico into freshwater wetlands.
The salt water weakens these freshwater ecosystems, making them more vulnerable to destruction by hurricanes and unable to withstand heavy storm surge. Natural threats Subsidence: In the absence of riverine sediment inputs to counteract it, net subsidence in the Mississippi River Delta occurs at a much faster rate than in other areas of the United States. Researchers suggest that subsidence may be further exacerbated through fluid extraction by the gas and oil industry. Hurricanes and storms: Coastal wetlands and barrier islands are the first line of protection for Louisiana communities and cities from hurricanes and storm surge. However, as these landscapes are weakened, they become more vulnerable to strong winds and flooding.
For example, following Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005, approximately of wetlands became open water, demonstrating permanent wetland loss. Sea level rise: It is a combination of subsidence, hurricanes and storms and sea level rise that leads to increases in marsh and wetlands loss. Climate change also has effects on the strength of the coastline. As global sea levels rise, the areas within the Mississippi River Delta that experience subsidence may permanently flood and become open water. Additionally, the lack of sediment into these flooded areas also exacerbates the rate at which sea level rise affects the region. Man-made threats 1.
Levees: Levees were primarily built along the river for flood protection and to provide stabilization of the shoreline, allowing for more reliable navigation. Levees were built prior to 1927, but a majority came after the 1927 river flood when the Flood Control Act of 1928 authorized the Mississippi River and Tributaries Project. Through this project, a system of levees, floodways, and basin and channel improvement were built to improve flood protection for residents and communities from the river's overspill, and has been largely successful in preventing flood damage over the decades. This system has mitigated extensive flooding and has saved the region billions in potential damage.
As such, it is regarded as "the most successful and cost-effective public works projects in the history of the United States." This success, however, has come at a high cost for the region's natural landscapes and ecosystems, as the levees sever the connection between the river and surrounding wetlands. The freshwater and sediment carried by the river is the fuel needed for land growth within the delta, but the levees block this process, cutting off the deposition of sediment in most areas of the delta. 2. Navigation, gas and oil canals: Throughout the 1960s and 1980s, activity for oil and gas exploration in the Gulf of Mexico and along the Louisiana coastline increased.
Dredging canals was seen as a necessity for these companies to create deeper channels for easier navigation and the laying of pipelines. Over time, 10 major navigation canals and more than 9,300 miles of pipelines were placed throughout coastal Louisiana, which currently serve around 50,000 oil and gas production facilities. The impact of dredging and pipeline placement results in the direct loss of wetlands, and according to a report filed by the Department of the Interior, these actions accounted for 30 to 59% of wetland loss in Louisiana from 1956-1978. The process of dredging also contributes to more serious damage occurring over longer term periods of time through the disruption of the natural hydrology of the region.
Although these canals and pipelines serve a vital resource to the entire nation, they have increased the erosion and degradation of the Mississippi River Delta by facilitating the creation of open water areas that allow for salt water penetration into freshwater wetlands. The dredging and oil and gas developments in the region affect the quality of water and drastically change the hydrology of the wetlands, depleting nutrients and sediments necessary for the survival and vitality of these areas. The Mississippi River Gulf Outlet (MRGO) is an example of wetland loss caused by a navigation channel. Built in the 1960s between the Gulf of Mexico and the Port of New Orleans, it has contributed to the destruction of 27,000 acres of wetlands, allowing for salt water to enter freshwater ecosystems.
It is also believed to have served as a "funnel" for Hurricane Katrina storm surge and contributed to a drastic increase of flooding in St. Bernard and the Lower Ninth Ward in New Orleans. 3. Upriver dams: Dams and reservoirs in the upper drainage basin of the river, primarily on the sediment-rich Missouri river, have decreased the sediment load of the lower Mississippi River. These structures block and trap the river's land-building sediment, cutting the replenishing nutrients and minerals needed for the stability and survival of the delta's unique ecosystems. Since the 1950s, these structures have reduced the sediment load by almost half.
Mississippi River Delta restoration The Mississippi River took thousands of years to build its delta, but land loss is occurring at a much faster pace. A number of steps have been taken over the past decade to increase the resiliency of coastal Louisiana. Research has been conducted in order to find the most feasible and effective restoration projects to mitigate further land loss and to implement rebuilding processes for the delta. Studies have conservatively estimated that without sediment input, of the Mississippi Delta may be submerged by 2100, indicating a need for directed restoration efforts. Projects to counteract this include: Louisiana Coastal Area (LCA) 6 These projects are authorized through the Water Resources Development Act of 2007 (WRDA 2007), which authorizes flood control, navigation, and environmental projects and studies by the Army Corps of Engineers.
Some of the important LCA Projects include: 1. The Mississippi River Gulf Outlet (MRGO) Ecosystem Restoration Plan: After Hurricane Katrina, the damage caused and directly related to the Mississippi River–Gulf Outlet Canal prompted the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to develop an ecosystem restoration plan that included closing the channel. The plan guidelines fell under WRDA 2007 and include habitat rebuilding through marsh, swamp and oyster reef restorations, as well as wetland ecosystem restorations using freshwater diversions and the construction of other structures designed to strengthen the coastline. 2. River diversions: These projects undergo significant amounts of research and are specifically engineered, designed and strategically constructed to achieve their intended purpose, be it to convey sediment to adjacent marshes or to increase freshwater flow to marshes.
Sediment diversions can be located, constructed and operated in such a way that they maximize the sediment carried through the diversion to the sediment starved wetlands of the receiving basin. The diversions can create new land and strengthen the existing wetlands. A few examples in the Mississippi River Delta are the West Bay and Mid-Barataria diversions. 3. Redirecting sediment: The Atchafalaya River Basin is a river swamp that has an overabundance of sediment. This basin contains the largest tract of naturally built new marsh in the state. It has been proposed that sediment from the Atchafalaya River could be used to sustain the Louisiana coast.
Delta growth in this basin occurred from 1952-1962, and then again in the 1973 Mississippi River flood. The 1973 growth is known as the Wax Lake Outlet. This specific area has grown each year since 1973 to its present size of 11.3 square miles. 2012 Louisiana Coastal Master Plan for a Sustainable Coast The state's Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority (CPRA) brought together national and international scientists and engineers to create a $50-billion, 50-year plan to save Louisiana's coast. The plan was unanimously approved by the legislature in May 2012 and outlines 109 projects that intends to bring long-term benefits, resiliency and sustainability to the communities and ecosystems along the coast.
Within the plan there are projects that vary in size and impact, including, hydrologic restoration, sediment diversions, barrier island restoration and marsh creation projects. Some of the projects are already underway, but many of them still need further approval and funding authorization. River Diversions: These projects are specifically characterized for their ability to reconnect the river to the delta and are designed to mimic the natural processes of sediment dispersion and delta growth. Examples of these types of projects are already underway including the Mid-Barataria Sediment Diversion. Located in Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana, this is identified as a critical restoration project by the LCA and would combine a "medium diversion with dedicated dredging" to achieve its intended results.
The project would address the land loss in the Barataria Basin and bring sustainability and strength to the wetlands, preventing future loss and preserving critical ecosystems in the region. RESTORE Act The Resources and Ecosystems Sustainability, Tourist Opportunities and Revived Economies of the Gulf Coast States Act (RESTORE Act) was passed by Congress as part of the Transportation Reauthorization Act on June 29, 2012 and was signed into law by the President on July 7, 2012. This law followed the BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill of 2010 and ensures that 80 percent of the civil Clean Water Act fines paid by BP and the other responsible parties are directed to the Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Council and five Gulf Coast states to use for environmental and economic restoration.
See also Mississippi Valley Division of the United States Army Corps of Engineers References Specific General (PDF, 6.86MB) LA Coast / USGS – Mississippi River Delta Basin Emporia State University – The Mississippi Embayment, Quaternary Geology USGS, Status and Trends – Coastal Louisiana Detrital Depositional Sequences of the Mississippi River Deltaic Plain, George F. Hart, Ph. D. USGS – Geologic History of the Lake Pontchartrain Basin Louisiana State University – Wetlands: Impacts of Energy Development in the Mississippi Delta USGS – Louisiana Coastal Area - Ecosystem Restoration Plan External links Google Maps - satellite imagery US Army Corps of Engineers, New Orleans District U.S. Geological Survey - Mississippi Delta, Changes Over Time U.S. Geological Survey - Causes of hot-spot wetland loss in the Mississippi delta plain Category:Mississippi River Category:River deltas of the United States Category:Wetlands and bayous of Louisiana Category:Estuaries of Louisiana
Federally funded research and development centers (FFRDCs) are public-private partnerships which conduct research for the United States Government. They are administered in accordance with U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 48, Part 35, Section 35.017 by universities and corporations. There are currently 42 recognized FFRDCs that are sponsored by the U.S. government. FFRDCs are similar to the University Affiliated Research Centers run by the United States Department of Defense. History During World War II scientists, engineers, mathematicians, and other specialists became part of the United States massive war effort—leading to evolutions in radar, aircraft, computing and, most famously, the development of nuclear weapons through the Manhattan Project.
The end of armed conflict did not end the need for organized research and development in support of the government. As the Cold War became the new reality, government officials and their scientific advisors advanced the idea of a systematic approach to research, development, and acquisitions, one independent of the ups and downs of the marketplace and free of the restrictions on civil service. From this idea arose the concept of FFRDCs—private entities that would work almost exclusively on behalf of the government, be free of organizational conflicts of interest, and maintain a stable workforce composed of highly trained technical talent.
The U.S. Air Force created the first FFRDC, the RAND Corporation, in 1947. Others grew directly out of their wartime roles. For example, MIT Lincoln Laboratory, founded in 1951, originated as the Radiation Laboratory at MIT, and the Navy's Operation Research Group evolved into the Center for Naval Analyses. The first FFRDCs served the Department of Defense. Since then, other government organizations have sponsored FFRDCs to meet their specific needs. In 1969, the number of FFRDCs peaked at 74. List The following list includes all current FFRDCs: References Further reading Gallo, Marcy E., Federally Funded Research and Development Centers (FFRDCs): Background and Issues for Congress, December 1, 2017, Congressional Research Service.
Hruby, Jill M., et al., "The Evolution of Federally Funded Research & Development Centers", Public Interest Report, SPRING 2011, Federation of American Scientists. Kosar, Kevin R., The Quasi Government: Hybrid Organizations with Both Government and Private Sector Legal Characteristics, June 22, 2011, Congressional Research Service. External links US Research Grant Awards Database 2015 list of FFRDCs 2005 list of FFRDCs NSF Master List of FFRDCs Category:United States science-related lists
Copper(II) fluoride is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula CuF2. It is a white crystalline, hygroscopic solid with a rutile-type crystal structure, similar to other fluorides of chemical formulae MF2 (where M is a metal). Structure Copper(II) fluoride has a monoclinic crystal structure and cannot achieve a higher-symmetry structure. It forms rectangular prisms with a parallelogram base. Uses Copper (II) fluoride can be used to make fluorinated aromatic hydrocarbons by reacting with aromatic hydrocarbons in an oxygen-containing atmosphere at temperatures above 450 °C (842 °F). This reaction is simpler than the Sandmeyer reaction, but is only effective in making compounds that can survive at the temperature used.
A coupled reaction using oxygen and 2 HF regenerates the copper(II) fluoride, producing water. This method has been proposed as a "greener" method of producing fluoroaromatics since it avoids producing toxic waste products such as NaF and NH4F salts. Chemistry Copper(II) fluoride can be synthesized from copper and fluorine at temperatures of 400 °C (752 °F). It occurs as a direct reaction. Cu + F2 → CuF2 It loses fluorine in the molten stage at temperatures above 950 °C (1742 °F). 2CuF2 → 2CuF + F2 2CuF → CuF2 + Cu The complex anions of CuF3−, CuF42− and CuF64− are formed if CuF2 is exposed to substances containing fluoride ions F−.
Solubility Copper(II) fluoride is slightly soluble in water, but starts to decompose when it is in hot water, producing basic F− and Cu(OH) ions. [reference needed] Toxicity There is little specific information on the toxicity of Copper(II) fluoride. However, copper and fluoride can both be toxic individually when consumed. Copper toxicity can affect the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract. Serious conditions include metal fume fever, and hemolysis of red blood cells. Copper can also cause damage to the liver and other major organs. Fluoride is safe at low levels and is added to water in many countries to protect against tooth decay.
At higher levels it can cause toxic effects ranging from nausea and vomiting to tremors, breathing problems, serious convulsions and even coma. Brain and kidney damage can result. Chronic exposure can cause losses in bone density, weight loss and anorexia. Hazards Experiments using copper(II) fluoride should be conducted in a fume hood because metal oxide fumes can occur. The combination of acids with copper(II) fluoride may lead to the production of hydrogen fluoride, which is highly toxic and corrosive. References Dierks, S. "Copper Fluoride". http://www.espimetals.com/index.php/msds/537-copper-fluoride (accessed October 9). External links National Pollutant Inventory - Copper and compounds fact sheet National Pollutant Inventory - Fluoride and compounds fact sheet Category:Fluorides Category:Metal halides Category:Copper(II) compounds
The 1600s ran from January 1, 1600, to December 31, 1609. References
Corynebacterium renale is a pathogenic bacterium that causes cystitis and pyelonephritis in cattle. C. renale is a facultatively anaerobic Gram-positive organism, characterized by nonencapsulated, nonsporulated, immobile, straight or curved rods with a length of 1 to 8 µm and width of 0.3 to 0.8 µm, which forms ramified aggregations in culture (looking like "Chinese characters"). The bacterium is sensitive to the majority of antibiotics, such as the penicillins, ampicillin, cephalosporins, quinolones, chloramphenicol, tetracyclines, cefuroxime, and trimethoprim. References Further reading External links Type strain of Corynebacterium renale at BacDive - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase Category:Corynebacterineae Category:Gram-positive bacteria Category:Bacteria described in 1906 Category:Animal bacterial diseases Category:Bovine diseases
The All India Pre-Medical test/ Pre-Dental Entrance Test (AIPMT is now replaced by NEET-UG) was an annual medical entrance examination in India. The exam was conducted by the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) but is now conducted by NTA ( National Testing Agency), Delhi for admission to MBBS and BDS courses in several medical colleges across the country. 15% of the total seats in all medical and dental colleges run by the Union of India, state governments, municipal or other local authorities in India, except in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Jammu and Kashmir, were reserved for candidates who qualified this examination.
Conduct The primary aim of this test, which was standardized all over India, was to make medical education available on an equitable basis to all regions of the nation and to foster inter-regional exchange. Every Year AIPMT was conducted on first Sunday in the month of May. In 2016, AIPMT/NEET Phase-1 was conducted on 1 May 2016 and NEET Phase-2 was conducted on 24 July 2016. Timeline How AIPMT is Scrapped - On 2012 - The Medical Council of India (MCI) and Dental Council of India (DCI) conducted NEET for the admissions in UG and PG programmes in government and Private colleges in India.
This exam is delayed by a year due to several reasons. On 18 July 2013 - NEET Exam is scrapped by the Supreme court in favor of 115 petitions. They also announced that private medical colleges should not conduct their own UG and PG exams on the basis of NEET. Academic Session 2016-17 On 11 April - The Supreme court decided to hear the Medical Council of India. On 28 April 2016 the court announced that their will only one common entrance test just before the 2 days of AIPMT which is called as NEET Phase 1 exam. On 18 April - In the session on 2016-17 the SC agreed to hold the NEET in 2 phase.
Those candidates who did not appear in the phase 1 exam, AIPMT will be considered as phase 2. On 1 May - CBSE conducted NEET phase 1 and almost 6 lakhs of the candidates appeared in the exam. On 25 May - The SC cleared all the confusions that private colleges would no longer be conducted their separate exam for medical admissions. On 9 May - The SC rejected the plea filed by the state governments and minority institutions to take the separate entrance exam for MBBS and BDS courses for the current year as well. On 20 May - The National Defence Agency came out in order to keep state govt.
exam out of the field of the common test. On 23 May - The Delhi govt finally made the decision to make NEET the only exam for the admission to medical colleges. On 24 May - President of India finally signed an order the common medical entrance exam on hold for a year. Exam pattern Exam changes In 2010, the pattern of AIPMT was changed. The examination was replaced by a two-tier or two-stage test – The AIPMT Prelims and the AIPMT Mains, in which the AIPMT Prelims was used to be objective exam and AIPMT Mains was used to be subjective exam.
The candidates who could qualify the AIPMT Prelims were eligible to give the AIPMT Mains test. Finally, those who scored good in the AIPMT Mains were selected for admission based purely on the merit of the candidate in the AIPMT Mains. Admission was done rank-wise In 2013, the pattern changed again - The two-tier examination was replaced by the National Eligibility cum Entrance Test (NEET-UG). It was a nationwide test through which admissions were to be done for all seats of MBBS and BDS in all the colleges which were covered by previous exam. From 2014 onwards, the exam was named AIPMT again, and done for 15% seats only, as was done earlier to National Eligibility cum Entrance Test (NEET-UG).
See current exam pattern below for more details. Current exam pattern The exam was conducted in a single stage that usually occurred on the first Sunday of May. The examination consisted of one paper containing 180 objective type questions from Physics, Chemistry and Biology (Botany & Zoology), having 45 questions from each subject. The exam duration was 3 hours. Each question carried 4 marks. For each incorrect response, one mark used to be deducted from the total score. However, no deduction from the total score was made if no response was indicated for an item. Indication of more than one answer for a question was deemed an incorrect response and negatively marked.
AIPMT registration over time The approximate number of registrations in the past two years are shown by the following graph: Number of Candidates for AIPMT over time The approximate number of candidates appearing in the past two years are shown by the following graph: AIPMT participating states and institutions In 2015, 9 states and 4 medical institutions participated in AIPMT for filling their MBBS and BDS seats. The list of AIPMT 2015 participating states and institutions are: Participating states Andaman & Nicobar Arunachal Pradesh Haryana Himachal Pradesh [[Maharasht ra]] Manipur Meghalaya Odisha Rajasthan In 2016, 8 states were initially participating in AIPMT but later AIPMT was converted into NEET-UG by the Supreme Court.
Subsequently, many other states opted for the test. Bihar, Uttarakhand later opted for the test to fill their state seats in medical colleges. Haryana Himachal Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Manipur Meghalaya (subject to confirmation) Odisha Rajasthan Chandigarh (UT) Participating institutes Armed Force Medical Services (Armed Forces Medical College (India)) Banaras Hindu University Jamia Hamdard University University of Delhi Reservation (a) 15% seats are reserved for SC candidates, (b) 8% seats are reserved for ST candidates, (c) 27% seats are reserved for non-creamy layer OBC candidates Criticism AIPMT is criticized for being conducted only in English and Hindi, making it harder for students where vernacular languages such as Tamil, Telugu, Marathi or Gujarati are more prominent.
As an example, in September 2011, the Gujarat High Court acted on Public Interest Litigation by the Gujarati Sahitya Parishad for conducting the exams in Gujarati. A second petition was made in October 2011. AIPMT 2015, 2016 : The banning of scarfs' controversy The AIPMT in 2015 had listed scarfs in banned items' list, creating controversy and outrage especially in the state of Kerala, where in a nun was refused to appear for the test as she refused to remove her headgear. This comes after the Supreme Court upheld the CBSE's banning. The Kerala HC had permitted two Muslim girls to wear a headscarf and a full-sleeve dress on the condition that they be frisked had the invigilator deemed necessary.
However, in the case of Sister Seba, the official had disallowed even while she ready for any frisking. The AIPMT kept the same norm in its 2016 instructions, sparking protests by the Campus Front of India in front of the CBSE office in Kerala on 13 April. The subsequent protest led to the detention of several girl protesters.
Thus CBSE challenged a Kerala High Court single bench order and granted permission to Muslim girls to wear the Hijab for All India Pre-Medical Test 2016 Justice Muhammed Mushtaq had permitted all candidates who want to wear headscarf and full sleeved length dress to appear for the examination but on a condition that they would be present at the hall half an hour before the exam for frisking, if necessary by women invigilators The order was issued while hearing a petition for changing the dress code AIPMT 2015 paper leak In AIPMT 2015 (3 May 2015), Haryana (Rohtak) police caught four people, including two dentists and an MBBS student, from Rohtak for allegedly passing on answer keys of AIPMT 2015 Exam to candidates during the exam, using vests with SIM card units and Bluetooth enabled earpieces.
According to the CBSE, the Examination results were earlier scheduled to be declared on 5 June 2015, but due to Supreme Court's stay order on declaration, the results were not announced. The Supreme Court had asked Haryana Police to investigate the matter and identify the beneficiaries as soon as possible. Approximately 6.3 lakh students had appeared for the examination which was conducted on 3 May 2015. Later, the results were rescheduled to be declared on June 12, 2015. On 15 June 2015 the Supreme Court asked CBSE to re-conduct the AIPMT 2015 Exam within 4 weeks (by 12 July 2015).
After a hearing on the pleas of CBSE, Supreme Court had decided to re-conduct exam on 25 July 2015. The exam was conducted safely and successfully across the country on the scheduled date (25 July 2015). The result of Re-AIPMT was declared on 17 August 2015. See also The National Council for Human Resource in Health in India Health in India References External links Official website Category:Standardised tests in India Category:Medical education in India Category:Educational assessment and evaluation
The visa policy of Lebanon deals with the requirements which a foreign national wishing to enter the Republic of Lebanon must meet to be permitted to travel to, enter and remain in the country. Lebanese visas are documents issued by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and its subsequent diplomatic missions abroad with the stated goal of regulating and facilitating migratory flows. Visitors to the Republic of Lebanon must obtain a visa from one of the Diplomatic missions of the Republic of Lebanon unless they come from one of the 7 visa-exempt countries and territories or one of the 81 other countries and territories whose citizens are eligible for a visa on arrival.
Citizens of member nations of the Gulf Cooperation Council and Jordan may travel to Republic of Lebanon without visa limits for a maximum stay of 6 months per year. An identity document is accepted in lieu of a passport for Jordanian citizens. Citizens of Turkey are granted a multiple entry visa valid for a maximum stay of 3 months per 6 months while citizens of the 81 other countries and territories are granted a visa on arrival for a maximum stay of 1 months, extendable for 2 additional months at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if they are holding a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport.
All visitors must hold a passport valid for 6 months beyond the period of intended stay and with two blank pages. Visa runs are not allowed, meaning that if foreigners wish to re-enter the Republic of Lebanon after their visa-free or VoA period has expired they should obtain a visa. Admission and transit is refused to holders of passports issued by and .. Travelers who hold passports that contain stamps, visas, or seals for Israel will be denied entry into the Republic of Lebanon and may be subject to arrest or detention. Even if their travel documents currently do not have Israeli stamps or visas, persons seeking entry into the Republic of Lebanon who have previously traveled to Israel may still face arrest and/or detention if this travel is disclosed.
The Government of the Republic of Lebanon has the authority to refuse admission to other country's citizens and to detain them for further inspection. Visitors who have recently been to Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone are refused entry due to Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa. Children under 15 years of age, of all nationalities travelling on their parents' passports must be accompanied by the passport holder, otherwise they must hold their own passport.
Visa policy map As of right The following citizens do not require a visa to enter, reside, study, and work indefinitely in the Republic of Lebanon without any immigration requirements: 1 – May enter with a national identity card, individual civil status record, expired passport or civil extract issued by the Republic of Lebanon to passengers of Lebanese descent holding a foreign passport 2 – A law passed in 1995 prevents Palestinian Stateless persons and refugees in the Republic of Lebanon from working in over 70 jobs, including professional, mercantile and administrative jobshttp://www.anera.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/LEBRefugeeReport.pdf Visa exemption Holders of passports of the following 7 countries and territories do not require a visa to visit the Republic of Lebanon through Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if they are holding a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport.
An identity document is accepted in lieu of a passport for Jordanian citizens: Other Visa Exemptions Visa is not required for travelers of Lebanese origins traveling with any foreign passport and with a valid Lebanese national identity card, an expired Lebanese passport or a Lebanese civil document are exempted from visa requirements and admitted as citizens of the Republic of Lebanon Visa is not required for holders of diplomatic, official, or service passports issued by Colombia for a maximum stay of 90 days if they are holding a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa is not required for holders of diplomatic or official passports issued by Paraguay for a maximum stay of 6 months and 1 month respectively if they are holding a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa is not required for holders of diplomatic or service passports issued by Venezuela for a maximum stay of 6 months and 1 month respectively if they are holding a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa is not required for all Merchant Seamen who are citizens of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates but must hold a Seaman Book and Letter of Employment or Letter or Guarantee from the shipping company if arriving by air in order to board a ship, or if arriving by ship in order to board an aircraft and are holding a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa is not required for a maximum stay of 24 hours for holders of a travel document (Titre de Voyage) issued by Syria to stateless persons and refugees holding a residence permit issued by a third country, continuing to Syria, and have previously traveled out of Beirut Visa is not required for United Nations' staff provided holding a diplomatic card issued by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Lebanon for a maximum stay of 6 months per year, and are holding a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa is not required for holders of a Laissez-Passer issued by the United Nations and are travelling on duty if they are holding a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa is not required for Members of the Deterrent, Emergency, UN Interim (UNIFIL) and UN Security Forces provided holding Military Identity Cards for a maximum stay of 6 months per year if they are holding a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa On Arrival (VOA) Holders of the passports issued by the following 81 countries and territories are granted visa on arrival for a maximum stay of 1 months, extendable for 2 additional months at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if they are holding a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport: Visa is granted on arrival for holders of service or special passports issued by Philippines for a maximum stay of 1 month, extendable for 2 additional months at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if they are holding a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa on arrival for diplomatic passport holders issued by any country with formal relations with the Republic of Lebanon if they are holding a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Conditional Visa On Arrival (VOA) Citizens of the following 15 countries and territories can obtain a visa on arrival at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if they are holding a copy of a reservation in a 3 to 5 star hotel or private residential address with telephone number in the Republic of Lebanon, at least 2,000 USD in cash, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport.
Visa is granted on arrival for spouses and children is they are travelling on a foreign passport and are accompanied by at least one Lebanese spouse or parent holding a Lebanese Passport or a Lebanese ID card. This however, does not apply for Palestinian refugees born to Lebanese mothers Visa is granted on arrival for a maximum stay of 11 months for Businessmen, Directors, General Managers, Employers, Physicians, Engineers and Lawyers possessing a valid residence permit in any of the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries, if that the term of the granted visa doesn’t exceed the validity of the concerned person's passport and residence.
The airlines companies are in charge of checking the residence's validity prior to boarding.
As for the wives and children of this category, they are granted visas according to the conditions concerning the entry of individuals of same nationalities in case that they do not possess a valid residence in the one of the Gulf Countries and are telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa is granted on arrival for tourist groups composed of a minimum of 8 people for stays of more than 3 days if being sponsored by a registered tour operator in the Republic of Lebanon having sent their application at least two days prior to arrival for a maximum stay of 6 months at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if they are holding a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa is granted on arrival for holders of a written confirmation issued by the General Directorate of General Security that the visa has been approved before departure at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if they are holding a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa is granted on arrival for maids of those accredited to citizens of the Republic of the Republic of Lebanon for a maximum stay of 6 months at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if they are travelling with their sponsor, and are holding a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa is granted on arrival for holders of passports issued by Syria for a maximum stay of 48 hours at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if passing through the Republic of Lebanon on their way to Syria and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa is granted on arrival for holders of passports issued by Syria for a maximum stay of the duration of the pre-arranged hotel accommodation Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if they are holding a cash amount equivalent to the sum of one thousand US Dollars or an authentic cheque of the same value from a recognized bank, a proof of pre-arranged hotel accommodation, a family book if accompanied by family members, a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa is granted on arrival for holders of passports issued by Syria for a maximum stay of 1 month at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if they are holding a proof of business or occupation, a letter of invitation/guarantee issued by an inviting party, a family book if accompanied by family members, a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa is granted on arrival for holders of passports issued by Syria for a maximum stay of 6 month at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if they are holding a proof of property, a family book if accompanied by family members, a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa is granted on arrival for holders of passports issued by Syria for a maximum stay of 72 hours at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry, if they are travelling on business and are holding medical reports/certificates of treatment/condition, a family book if accompanied by family members, a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa is granted on arrival for holders of passports issued by Syria for a maximum stay of 48 hours at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry, if they are visiting a foreign embassy and are holding proof of scheduled appointment, a family book if accompanied by family members, a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Visa is granted on arrival for holders of passports issued by Syria for a maximum stay of 7 days at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if they are travelling to study in an accredited school or university and are holding a letter of acceptance issued by College/University or College/University ID, an applicable diplomas/certificates, a copy of their passport, a family book if accompanied by family members, a telephone number, an address in the Republic of Lebanon, a non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and there are no Israeli stamps, visas, or seals on their passport Approval requirement from the Lebanese Immigration General Directorate for General Security The following are required to obtain a pre-approval from the General Directorate of General Security in addition to a visa: GDGS Immigration Pre-Approval Documents Exemptions The following cases are exempted from all the conditions concerning the address, the non-refundable return or circle trip ticket, and the pre-approval from the General Directorate of General Security: The wife of a citizen of the Republic of Lebanon, who did not work previously as an artist or a masseuse, after presenting a document asserting the marriage.
Marital status must be officially registered for more than one year The wife of a Palestinian refugee in the Republic of Lebanon or a holder of a valid identity card under consideration and who did not work previously as an artist or a masseuse, after presenting a document asserting the marriage. Marital status must be officially registered for more than one year The wife of a Syrian citizen accompanying him and who did not work previously as an artist or masseuse in the Republic of Lebanon, provided that the marriage is registered on the husband’s family register or by presenting a document proving the marriage.
Marital status must be officially registered for more than one year Women who did not work previously as artists or masseuses in the Republic of Lebanon, accompanying their husband, their child, one of their parents, brothers The mother in law of a citizen of the Republic of Lebanon after presenting a document asserting the kinship Women coming among official delegations, or those holding private, special or diplomatic passports The wife of a citizen of the Republic of Lebanon who has previously worked as an artist or a masseuse and left the Republic of Lebanon for a period of more than one year, if she is accompanied by one or more of her children from this marriage after presenting the documents proving the marriage The wife of a foreigner non Arabic man who has previously worked as an artist or a masseuse and had left the Republic of Lebanon for a period more than one year, provided that she is in his company and that she holds a document proving the marriage Future changes On March 6, 2015, following his diplomatic trip to Latin America, Minister of Foreign Affairs and Emigrants of the Republic of Lebanon, Gebran Bassil announced in a press conference a proposal to introduce visa on arrival regime for citizens of the following 15 countries however it is still pending ratification or implementation: Applying For A Visa All visitors must apply in person at an Embassy or a General Consulate of the Republic of Lebanon, fill in the application form and pay the application processing fee at a visa application center.
Citizens of the 7 visa-exempt countries and territories or the 81 countries and territories whose citizens are eligible for a visa on arrival can obtain the visa before travel but are exempted from submitting proof documents but will still be required to pay a processing fee The visa application will be sent to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the Republic of Lebanon by the diplomatic pouch. One should apply one month before travel date.
Head of Missions outside the Republic of Lebanon have the right to issue visas to the Republic of Lebanon given that the visa grant is "under the responsibility of the Head of Mission" , except in the cases of Palestinian refugees or holders of passports issued by the Palestinian Authority or Jordan without a national ID number A visitor's visa for a single entry costs $35 and for a multiple entry costs $70 for stays up to 3 months.
For applicants holding a managerial or a more senior position the visa is processed at the Embassy or General Consulate of the Republic of Lebanon within 2-3 working days, for applicants holding a non-managerial position, the visa is processed between 6 and 8 weeks if approved by the Directorate General of General Security in the Republic of Lebanon Visa Types and Requirements Tourist visa Eligibility Tourists People visiting relatives or friends People wishing to visit Lebanon for a short period for the purpose of making or meeting with businesses, contacts, attending trade fairs, speaking at conferences etc. Unpaid participation in athletic or artistic event or competition.
An invitation letter from the sponsoring organization in the Republic of Lebanon is required Unpaid participation in a scientific/academic seminar or conference sponsored by a research or academic institution. An invitation letter from the sponsoring organization in the Republic of Lebanon is required Temporary & permanent residence visa Foreigners wishing to live and work in the Republic of Lebanon are required to apply for a temporary residence visa. To obtain a temporary visa for employment purposes, the worker needs to secure a job offer from a company based in the Republic of Lebanon or government department, or a foreign company based in the Republic of Lebanon, and the company is required to apply to the Immigration Division of the Ministry of Labor on the worker's behalf.
The criteria for approval of an employment visa include suitable educational qualifications or work experience, a secured employment contract in the Republic of Lebanon, proof of adequate means of subsistence in the Republic of Lebanon, police confirmation that the worker has no criminal record, and a satisfactory medical examination. All official documents must be translated into Arabic, French, or English and 'legalized' by the embassy or general consulate of the Republic of Lebanon abroad. The application processing period is normally around 1-3 weeks. Employment visas are issued for a specific job, and are not transferable between employers in the Republic of Lebanon without permission.
Visas are also issued to the employment visa holder's spouse and children Foreign citizens aged over 50 can apply for a permanent visa if they have a pension of at least 3,000,000 Lebanese Lira (US$2,000) per month and will transfer it to the Republic of Lebanon every month. Visas may also issued to he visa holder's spouse and children.
Applicants for permanent residence visas are required to submit their passport, birth certificate, marriage certificate if applicable, documentary proof of the pension and a bank declaration authorizing he monthly transfer to the Republic of Lebanon, and a police certificate of no criminal record, issued within the last 90 days Transit visa A Transit Without Visa (TWOV) applies if the traveler is passing through an international transit area of at Beirut International Airport in order to board a connecting or to proceed by the same flight to an international destination, without entering the Republic of Lebanon or Clearing Immigration.
This however does not apply to: Travelers holding stand-by or refundable tickets Citizens of the following 18 countries: This visa must be applied for at least 2 days before the trip, provided submitting a copy of a visa or residence permit related to the country of destination and the airline ticket Courtesy visa It is granted for VIPs by Embassies or General Consulates of the Republic of Lebanon abroad or by the General Director of General Security free of charge provided they present a letter from their mission or the ministry of foreign affairs or the employer explaining the purpose of the travel Collective visa It is granted for groups, and the fee is collected from each member of the groups Work visa It is granted for 3 months costs 200.000 LP based on a pre-approval from the Ministry of Labor.
All of the documents for a tourist visa are needed, as well as an invitation letter from sponsor or trade partner in the Republic of Lebanon and their contact information (showing period of stay and name, address and phone number of sponsor), a proof that the trade partner is certified in the Republic of Lebanon, and a proof that there is a relationship between applicant and the trade partner by means of a commercial announcement Visitor Statistics Most visitors arriving to Lebanon were from the following countries of nationality: See also Constitution of Lebanon Driving licence in Lebanon Foreign relations of Lebanon History of Lebanon Lebanese diaspora Lebanese identity card Lebanese passport Politics of Lebanon Vehicle registration plates of Lebanon Visa requirements for Lebanese citizens References External links Lebanese General Directorate for General Security-Entry Visas Lebanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs-Consular Information Lebanon Category:Foreign relations of Lebanon
Kiambu County is a county in the former Central Province of Kenya. Its capital is Kiambu and its largest town is Thika. The county is adjacent to the northern border of Nairobi County and has a population of 2,417,735. The county is 40% rural and 60% urban owing to Nairobi's consistent growth Northwards. Kikuyu are the dominant tribe in the county. In 2007, Kiambu District was subdivided in two: Kiambu East and Kiambu West. Kiambu West district took Limuru, Lari and Kikuyu divisions, with Limuru as its district capital. Government and administration Executive Dr James Nyoro is the governor of kiambu county following impeachment of Ferdinand Waititu (elected for a five-year term during 2017 general election) over misuse of public office and corruption on 19 December 2019.
Although the capital is Kiambu town, the executive conducts business from Thika town. Legislature The legislature of Kiambu County is a unicameral County Assembly. It is composed of 60 elected Members of County Assembly (MCA) from the sixty wards of the county and 27 nominated members. The members hold office for a five-year term each, renewable during the general election. The speaker and deputy speaker of the assembly are elected by the MCAs. The county Assembly is located at Kiambu town. Judiciary Kiambu High Court was established on 20 June 2016. As of 2017, it consists of a one-judge bench.
It is temporarily located at Thika waiting for a permanent building to be constructed at Kiambu, the capital. County Administration The county has a county administrator who is appointed by the President of Kenya. He is not part of the county government but is a representative of the President to assist with matters of administration in the county with regards to the national government. Local authorities Administrative divisions Constituencies/Sub Counties The county has twelve constituencies/Sub-counties: 1. Githunguri Githunguri Ward Githiga Ward Ikinu Ward Ngewa Ward Komothai 3 Ward 2. Kiambaa Cianda Ward Karuri Ward Ndenderu Ward Muchatha Ward Kihara Ward 3.
Kabete Gitaru Ward Muguga Ward Nyathuna Ward Kabete Ward Uthiru Ward 4. Limuru Bibirioni Ward Limuru Central Ward Ndeiya Ward Limuru East Ward Ngecha Tigoni Ward 5. Lari Kinale Ward Kijabe Ward Nyanduma Ward Kamburu Ward Lari/Kirenga Ward 6. Gatundu North Gituamba Ward Githobokoni Ward Chania Ward Mang’u Ward 7. Gatundu South Kiamwangi Ward Kiganjo Ward Ndarugo Ward Ngenda Ward 8. Ruiru Gitothua Ward Biashara Ward Gatongora Ward Kahawa/Sukari Ward Kahawa Wendani Ward Kiuu Ward Mwiki Ward Mwihoko 1 Ward 9. Kikuyu Karai Ward Nachu Ward Sigona Ward Kikuyu Ward Kinoo Ward 10.Juja Murera Ward Theta Ward Juja Ward Witeithie Ward Kalimoni Ward 11.
Thika Town Township Ward Kamenu Ward Hospita Ward Gatuanyaga Ward 12.Kiambu Ting’ang’a Ward Ndumberi 3 Ward Riabai Ward Township Ward Population Education PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN KIAMBU Muirigo primary school kangaita primary school kairi primary school wandui primary school Ndekei primary school Nguna primary school makwa primary school ng'ethu primary school Mang'u primary school igegania primary school nyamathumbi primary school karuri primary school Mutuma primary school Nyamang'ara primary school Kiambu primary school Thika school for the Blind Kamenu primary school kisiwa primary school Karibaribi primary school HIGH SCHOOLS IN KIAMBU Kairi Rumwe High school Chania ward patrick mwangi AKA PARTOH student 2010 kairi boys high school Gabriel wahinya student 2011 St joseph the worker mang'u E Muriuki AKA Mu CHAMPEZ student 2010 Igegenia Secondary school pamela aka njoroge student 2012 st Pauls Boys High School Gatuanyaga Kiambu High School St. Anne's Lioki Loreto Kiambu Thika High School Mang'u High School St. Francis Girls High School Alliance High School Alliance Girls High School Loreto Kiambu High school Loreto Limuru High School Limuru Girls High School Ruiru High School Kanunga High School Mirithu Girls High School Kijabe High School Muhoho High School Maryhill girls high school Mururia Secondary School Karinga Girls High Karuri High School Muthurwa Girls Secondary School Senior Chief Koinange Girls Secondary School Chania Boys High School 3 UNIVERSITIES COLLEGES in KIAMBU Jomo kenyatta university of science and technology Kenyatta university Mt Kenya university Gretsa University Umma university Gakeo College of Business Studies Jodan College of technology Thika institute of business studies Thika technical training institute kiambu institute of science and technology Kabete technical training institute uzuri institute Havard institute excel institute Nairobi Metro Kiambu County is within Greater Nairobi which consists of 4 out of 47 counties in Kenya but the area generates about 60% of the nations wealth.
The counties are: Source: NairobiMetro/ Kenya Census Stats Nairobi Metro Urbanisation Source: OpenDataKenya Wealth/Poverty Level Source: OpenDataKenya Worldbank Central Kenya Region Urbanisation Source: OpenDataKenya Wealth/Poverty Level Source: OpenDataKenya Worldbank See also Gitombo Kabete Kijabe Kiratina Wilfred Kiboro Nakuru County References Category:Counties of Kenya
ČT HD was the high-definition TV channel from Česká televize. ČT HD broadcast programming from ČT1, ČT2 and ČT4, via IPTV, digital terrestrial (in several areas only) and satellite (via Astra 1E – DVB-S standard, since spring 2010 via the new Astra 3B – DVB-S2 standard). External links Website (in Czech) Category:Television in the Czech Republic Category:Television channels and stations established in 2009 Category:Česká televize
This is a list of the current channels available on digital terrestrial television (DTT) in the United Kingdom, and those that have been removed. Almost all channels broadcast on DTT are free-to-air, with a limited number of subscription channels (requiring a subscription to a pay-TV package) and pay-per-view channels (requiring a one-off payment to view an event) also available. Most free-to-air channels are promoted as part of the Freeview line-up. All multiplexed H.222 transports for HDTV (1080i) channels use DVB-T2 256-QAM modulation. Local channels on the LTVmux use DVB-T QPSK modulation. All other transports for PAL (576i), radio and interactive channels use DVB-T 64-QAM modulation.
All HD channels are encoded in H.264 and subject to a MPEG-LA controlled transmission patent licensing tax which is included in the Freeview broadcaster cost and varies on viewership figures. This tax is currently paid via one of three registered licensees: the BBC, ITV and Sky plc. The SD channels continue to use H.262, which does not incur any additional transmission costs. The PSB1 transport (operating name BBC A) is used solely for the standard definition PSB (public service broadcasting) services of the BBC. The PSB2 transport (operating name D3&4) carries only standard definition versions of both the commercial broadcasters' PSB services and some of their commercial services.
The PSB3 transport (operating name BBC B) is used for HDTV versions of most of the BBC and commercial PSB services. The COM4 (operating name SDN), COM5 (operating name ARQ A) and COM6 (operating name ARQ B) transports, which are only transmitted from main transmission sites, carry only standard definition commercial services. The even less geographically available COM7 and COM8 transports, only broadcast from a few principal transmitting sites at significantly lower power than the other transports, carry both commercial HDTV and commercial standard definition services; SDTV channels on these multiplexes can only be received by HDTV-capable equipment. LTVmux is a series of localised transports at certain transmitter sites carrying local and nationwide channels.
Its availability is much less than that of the commercial COM transports. In addition to this, the NImux transport (operating name RNI_1) is only available in parts of Northern Ireland, and the GImux transport (operating name G_MAN) is only available in Greater Manchester. Channel sections General Entertainment General entertainment: Local TV variations These regional channels are licensed by Ofcom under the Local Digital Television Programme. High-definition Children's News Text services Streamed channels Interactive services for compatible receivers (Internet connection/compatible HD TV/box required). Interactive These are services that are not designed to be channels but do show up on the EPG of the majority of Freeview boxes.
Adult Radio stations Radio stations: BBC Local and Nations Radio variations In England and the Channel Islands, up to five BBC Local Radio stations are available over DTT. Availability of these stations varies, depending on how their FM and DAB broadcast areas align with locations of DTT transmitters. In Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, national radio services are broadcast in their respective nations. Channels removed from digital terrestrial television These are channels that have been removed from digital terrestrial television. This does not include rebranded channels or channels that have ceased broadcasting.
2001 2002 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 See also Digital terrestrial television in the United Kingdom Local television in the United Kingdom Freeview (UK) ITV Digital Top Up TV References External links Freeview – Channels Digital UK – Listings Ofcom – Current TV broadcast licensees: Digital terrestrial television Digital * *
NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase 3 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the CYB5R3 gene. Structure The CYB5R3 gene is located on the 22nd chromosome, with its specific location being 22q13.2. The gene contains 12 exons. CYB5R3 encodes a 34.2 kDa protein that is composed of 301 amino acids; 63 peptides have been observed through mass spectrometry data. The entire gene is about 31 kb in length. Exon 2 contains the junction of the membrane-binding domain and the catalytic domain of b5R, which shows that there are two forms of b5R: a soluble form and a membrane-bound form. The 5' portion of this gene does not have typical regulatory transcriptional elements, but has the sequence G-G-G-C-G-G a total of five times.