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Azeezia Medical College Hospital, is a well-acclaimed health enterprise and one of the leading healthcare systems in Kerala. It is a 540-bed multi-specialty hospital. The hospital provides treatment in various specialties, such as Medicine, Surgery, Obstetrics and Gynecology, Dermatology, Psychiatry, Paediatrics, Orthopaedics, Ophthalmology, ENT, Anaesthesiology, Radiology and Emergency Services, laparoscopic surgery. Super-specialty departments include Cardiothoracic, Neurology, Nephrology, Pulmonology, Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Neurosurgery. The Medical College includes super-specialty units and colleges for medical, Dental and nursing courses. The campus is in a rural area eight kilometers from NH-47 (Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram portion). History At Azeezia, it is firmly believed that we, as a group of medical institutions, have to contribute towards the growth and welfare of the nation.
It is only possible by imparting higher education to its students so that they become competent, professional and liberal minded individuals. A golden thread running through the ethos of the Azeezia Group of Medical Institutions is social responsibility. The institutions are fully committed to rendering qualitative medical education and cost effective modern treatment to the rural population without profit motive and this is expected to blaze a trail of Corporate Social Responsibility in the field of "Rural Health Care " in the years to come. Location Azeezia group of Medical Educational Institutions is located at Meeyannoor village, 18 km from Kollam city.
Departments The 540-bedded multi-specialty hospital is renowned for its excellent medical expertise, nursing care and quality diagnostic services.The hospital provides treatment on various specialties such as Medicine, Surgery, Obstetrics & Gynecology, Dermatology, Psychiatry, Paediatrics, Orthopaedics, Ophthalmology, ENT, Anaesthesiology, Radiology and Emergency Services, laparoscopic surgery. Super-specialty departments include Cardiothoracic, Neurology, Nephrology, Pulmonology, Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Neurosurgery. The Medical College is provided with a most advanced level for all super-specialty units and colleges for medical, Dental and nursing courses. The campus is 8 kilometer away from NH-47 (Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram portion).
Cardiology INTERVENTIONAL CARDIOLOGY / CARDIAC SURGERY UNIT Azeezia Cardiology Comprehensive Chest Pain Assessment Center 24x7 Advanced Cardiac Care for Acute Coronory Syndromes 24x7 24x7 New State of art Cardiac Catheterization Laborotary Coronory Angiography Elective Angioplasty Primary Angioplasty Arrhythmia Management Temporary and Permanent Cardiac Pacing ICD Implantation Azeezia Cardiac Surgery Coronary Bypass Surgery Valve Replacements Surgery Surgery for Cardiac Tumor Surgery Septal Defect Closure Surgery Aorto - Femorol & Femoro Popliteal Bypass Surgery Embolectomy Procedures Surgery Dermatology AZEEZIA LASER CLINIC Unwanted Hair Removal Mole Removal Tattoo Removal Scars Acne Scars Chickenpox Scars Stretch Marks Skin Tightening Skin Whitening Facial Rejuvenation VITILIGO SURGERY Melanocyte Grafting Punch Grafting Tattoo PROCEDURES Electrocautery Chemical Peeling Cryotherapy Dermaroller Microdermabrasion PRP Intralesional Injections Botox and Fillers DIAGNOSTIC TESTS Skin Biopsy Food Allergy Test Patch Test Azeezia Medical College is sanctioned with MD General medicine 4 seats, MD Dermatology 1 seat, MS Surgery 2 seat, MD Anesthesiology 2 seats, MS Orthopaedic 2 seats, MS Ophthalmology 1 seat, MD Pharmacology 1 seat for the academic year 2015 - 16.
Azeezia Medical College Hospital Azeezia Medical College Hospital is a 500-bed tertiary care teaching hospital with multi-speciality and super speciality disciplines of the ever-expanding medical horizon Students chairman-Dr.Sakib Akther P. See also List of medical colleges in India AIIMS JIPMER PGIMER Chandigarh CMC Vellore Government Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram References External links Official web site Category:Medical colleges in Kollam Category:Colleges affiliated with the Kerala University of Health Sciences Category:2008 establishments in India Category:Private medical colleges in India Category:Educational institutions established in 2008
Geologic modelling, geological modelling or geomodelling is the applied science of creating computerized representations of portions of the Earth's crust based on geophysical and geological observations made on and below the Earth surface. A geomodel is the numerical equivalent of a three-dimensional geological map complemented by a description of physical quantities in the domain of interest. Geomodelling is related to the concept of Shared Earth Model; which is a multidisciplinary, interoperable and updatable knowledge base about the subsurface. Geomodelling is commonly used for managing natural resources, identifying natural hazards, and quantifying geological processes, with main applications to oil and gas fields, groundwater aquifers and ore deposits.
For example, in the oil and gas industry, realistic geologic models are required as input to reservoir simulator programs, which predict the behavior of the rocks under various hydrocarbon recovery scenarios. A reservoir can only be developed and produced once; therefore, making a mistake by selecting a site with poor conditions for development is tragic and wasteful. Using geological models and reservoir simulation allows reservoir engineers to identify which recovery options offer the safest and most economic, efficient, and effective development plan for a particular reservoir. Geologic modelling is a relatively recent subdiscipline of geology which integrates structural geology, sedimentology, stratigraphy, paleoclimatology, and diagenesis; In 2-dimensions (2D), a geologic formation or unit is represented by a polygon, which can be bounded by faults, unconformities or by its lateral extent, or crop.
In geological models a geological unit is bounded by 3-dimensional (3D) triangulated or gridded surfaces. The equivalent to the mapped polygon is the fully enclosed geological unit, using a triangulated mesh. For the purpose of property or fluid modelling these volumes can be separated further into an array of cells, often referred to as voxels (volumetric elements). These 3D grids are the equivalent to 2D grids used to express properties of single surfaces. Geomodelling generally involves the following steps: Preliminary analysis of geological context of the domain of study. Interpretation of available data and observations as point sets or polygonal lines (e.g.
"fault sticks" corresponding to faults on a vertical seismic section). Construction of a structural model describing the main rock boundaries (horizons, unconformities, intrusions, faults) Definition of a three-dimensional mesh honoring the structural model to support volumetric representation of heterogeneity (see Geostatistics) and solving the Partial Differential Equations which govern physical processes in the subsurface (e.g. seismic wave propagation, fluid transport in porous media). Geologic modelling components Structural framework Incorporating the spatial positions of the major formation boundaries, including the effects of faulting, folding, and erosion (unconformities). The major stratigraphic divisions are further subdivided into layers of cells with differing geometries with relation to the bounding surfaces (parallel to top, parallel to base, proportional).
Maximum cell dimensions are dictated by the minimum sizes of the features to be resolved (everyday example: On a digital map of a city, the location of a city park might be adequately resolved by one big green pixel, but to define the locations of the basketball court, the baseball field, and the pool, much smaller pixels – higher resolution – need to be used). Rock type Each cell in the model is assigned a rock type. In a coastal clastic environment, these might be beach sand, high water energy marine upper shoreface sand, intermediate water energy marine lower shoreface sand, and deeper low energy marine silt and shale.
The distribution of these rock types within the model is controlled by several methods, including map boundary polygons, rock type probability maps, or statistically emplaced based on sufficiently closely spaced well data. Reservoir quality Reservoir quality parameters almost always include porosity and permeability, but may include measures of clay content, cementation factors, and other factors that affect the storage and deliverability of fluids contained in the pores of those rocks. Geostatistical techniques are most often used to populate the cells with porosity and permeability values that are appropriate for the rock type of each cell. Fluid saturation Most rock is completely saturated with groundwater.
Sometimes, under the right conditions, some of the pore space in the rock is occupied by other liquids or gases. In the energy industry, oil and natural gas are the fluids most commonly being modelled. The preferred methods for calculating hydrocarbon saturations in a geologic model incorporate an estimate of pore throat size, the densities of the fluids, and the height of the cell above the water contact, since these factors exert the strongest influence on capillary action, which ultimately controls fluid saturations. Geostatistics An important part of geologic modelling is related to geostatistics. In order to represent the observed data, often not on regular grids, we have to use certain interpolation techniques.
The most widely used technique is kriging which uses the spatial correlation among data and intends to construct the interpolation via semi-variograms. To reproduce more realistic spatial variability and help assess spatial uncertainty between data, geostatistical simulation based on variograms, training images, or parametric geological objects is often used. Mineral Deposits Geologists involved in mining and mineral exploration use geologic modelling to determine the geometry and placement of mineral deposits in the subsurface of the earth. Geologic models help define the volume and concentration of minerals, to which economic constraints are applied to determine the economic value of the mineralization.
Mineral deposits that are deemed to be economic may be developed into a mine. Technology Geomodelling and CAD share a lot of common technologies. Software is usually implemented using object-oriented programming technologies in C++, Java or C# on one or multiple computer platforms. The graphical user interface generally consists of one or several 3D and 2D graphics windows to visualize spatial data, interpretations and modelling output. Such visualization is generally achieved by exploiting graphics hardware. User interaction is mostly performed through mouse and keyboard, although 3D pointing devices and immersive environments may be used in some specific cases. GIS (Geographic Information System) is also a widely used tool to manipulate geological data.
Geometric objects are represented with parametric curves and surfaces or discrete models such as polygonal meshes. Research in Geomodelling Problems pertaining to Geomodelling cover: Defining an appropriate Ontology to describe geological objects at various scales of interest, Integrating diverse types of observations into 3D geomodels: geological mapping data, borehole data and interpretations, seismic images and interpretations, potential field data, well test data, etc., Better accounting for geological processes during model building, Characterizing uncertainty about the geomodels to help assess risk. Therefore, Geomodelling has a close connection to Geostatistics and Inverse problem theory, Applying of the recent developed Multiple Point Geostatistical Simulations (MPS) for integrating different data sources, Automated geometry optimization and topology conservation History In the 70's, geomodelling mainly consisted of automatic 2D cartographic techniques such as contouring, implemented as FORTRAN routines communicating directly with plotting hardware.
The advent of workstations with 3D graphics capabilities during the 80's gave birth to a new generation of geomodelling software with graphical user interface which became mature during the 90's. Since its inception, geomodelling has been mainly motivated and supported by oil and gas industry. Geologic modelling software Software developers have built several packages for geologic modelling purposes. Such software can display, edit, digitise and automatically calculate the parameters required by engineers, geologists and surveyors. Current software is mainly developed and commercialized by oil and gas or mining industry software vendors: Geologic modelling and visualisation IRAP RMS Suite GeoticMine Geomodeller3D DecisionSpace Geosciences Suite Dassault Systèmes GEOVIA provides Surpac, GEMS and Minex for geologic modeling GSI3D Seequent provides Leapfrog 3D geological modeling & Geosoft GM-SYS and VOXI 3D modelling software.
Maptek provides Vulcan, 3D modular software visualisation for geological modelling and mine planning Micromine is a comprehensive and easy to use exploration and mine design solution, which offers integrated tools for modelling, estimation, design, optimisation and scheduling. Promine Petrel Rockworks SGS Genesis Move SKUA-GOCAD Datamine Software provides Studio EM and Studio RM for geological modelling BGS Groundhog Desktop free-to-use software developed by the GeoAnalytics and Modelling directorate of British Geological Survey. Groundwater modelling FEFLOW FEHM MODFLOW GMS Visual MODFLOW ZOOMQ3D Moreover, industry Consortia or companies are specifically working at improving standardization and interoperability of earth science databases and geomodelling software: Standardization: GeoSciML by the Commission for the Management and Application of Geoscience Information, of the International Union of Geological Sciences.
Standardization: RESQML(tm) by Energistics Interoperability: OpenSpirit, by TIBCO(r) See also Numerical modeling (geology) Petroleum engineering Seismic to simulation References Bolduc, A.M., Riverin, M-N., Lefebvre, R., Fallara, F. et Paradis, S.J., 2006. Eskers: À la recherche de l'or bleu. La Science au Québec : http://www.sciencepresse.qc.ca/archives/quebec/capque0606f.html Faure, Stéphane, Godey, Stéphanie, Fallara, Francine and Trépanier, Sylvain. (2011). Seismic Architecture of the Archean North American Mantle and Its Relationship to Diamondiferous Kimberlite Fields. Economic Geology, March–April 2011, v. 106, p. 223–240. http://econgeol.geoscienceworld.org/content/106/2/223.abstract Fallara, Francine, Legault, Marc and Rabeau, Olivier (2006). 3-D Integrated Geological Modeling in the Abitibi Subprovince (Québec, Canada): Techniques and Applications. Exploration and Mining Geology, Vol.
15, Nos. 1–2, pp. 27–41. http://web.cim.org/geosoc/docs/pdf/EMG15_3_Fallara_etal.pdf Berg, R.C., Mathers, S.J., Kessler, H., and Keefer, D. A., 2011. Synopsis of Current Three-dimensional Geological Mapping and Modeling in Geological Survey Organization, Champaign, Illinois: Illinois State Geological Survey, Circular 578. https://web.archive.org/web/20111009122101/http://library.isgs.uiuc.edu/Pubs/pdfs/circulars/c578.pdf (GSA Denver Annual Meeting. Poster) Kevin B. Sprague & Eric A. de Kemp. (2005) Interpretive Tools for 3-D Structural Geological Modelling Part II: Surface Design from Sparse Spatial Data http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1046957.1046969&coll=&dl=ACM de Kemp, E.A. (2007). 3-D geological modelling supporting mineral exploration. In: Goodfellow, W.D., ed., Mineral Deposits of Canada: A Synthesis of Major Deposit Types, District Metallogeny, the Evolution of Geological Provinces, and Exploration Methods: Geological Association of Canada, Mineral Deposits Division, Special Publication 5, p. 1051–1061.
https://web.archive.org/web/20081217170553/http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/mindep/method/3d/pdf/dekemp_3dgis.pdf Footnotes External links Geological Modelling at the British Geological Survey Category:Economic geology Category:Petroleum geology Category:Geology software Category:Scientific modeling
Scylla serrata (often called mud crab or mangrove crab, although both terms are highly ambiguous, as well as black crab) is an ecologically important species of crab found in the estuaries and mangroves of Africa, Australasia and Asia. In their most common form, the shell colour varies from a deep, mottled green to very dark brown. Distribution The natural range of Scylla serrata is in the Indo-Pacific. It is found from South Africa, around the coast of the Indian Ocean to the Southeast Asian Archipelago, as well as from southern Japan to south-eastern Australia, northern New Zealand, and as far east as Fiji and Samoa.
The species has also been introduced to Hawaii and Florida. In Hawai'i, mud crabs are colloquially known as Samoan crabs as they were originally imported from American Samoa. As these crabs are known for their robust size and dense meat content, they have been greatly sought after over the years. As a result of over-crabbing, local government efforts have restricted harvesting of crabs smaller than 6 inches (width across back) and it is illegal to harvest females of any size. Ecology A study on tidal flats in Deception Bay in Queensland found juvenile crabs ( carapace width) were resident in the mangrove zone, remaining there during low tide, while subadults () migrated into the intertidal zone to feed at high tide and retreated to subtidal waters at low tide.
Adults ( and larger) were caught mainly below the low tide mark, with small numbers captured in the intertidal zone at high tide. These crabs are highly cannibalistic in nature; when crabs undergo molting, other hard-shelled ones sometimes attack the molting crabs and devour them. The females can give birth to a million offspring which can grow up to in size and have a shell width of up to wide. Aquaculture and consumption Interest in the aquaculture of this species has been high due to the high demand/price for them, high flesh content, and rapid growth rates in captivity. In addition, they have a high tolerance to both nitrate and ammonia (twice that of the similar sized Portunus pelagicus), which is beneficial because ammonia-N is often the most limiting factor on closed aquaculture systems.
Their high ammonia-N tolerance may be attributed to various unique physiological responses which may have arisen due to their habitat preferences. However, their aquaculture has been limited due to the often low and unpredictable larval survival. This may be due to inadequate nutrition, disease, "moult death syndrome" (due to their highly cannibalistic behaviour during the megalopa stage), inadequate protocols (e.g. suboptimal environmental conditions), or a combination of all. S. Serrata can be kept easily in home aquaria when smaller but will outgrow small setups. They are very active and will eat almost any conventional sinking pellets; they also consume some small fish pieces and vegetable matter.
They are tolerant of most water conditions and are generally a very hardy and entertaining species. Generally cooked with their shells on, when they molt their shells, they can be served as one of many types of soft-shell crab. Mud crabs can be killed by placing them in a freezer for up to two hours before cooking. References External links Australia: Queensland government page on mangrove crab aquaculture Cycle of the mud crab Life Cycle of the Mud Crab – Fishnote No.11 March 2007, Northern Territory Category:Portunoidea Category:Edible crustaceans Category:Commercial crustaceans Category:Crustaceans described in 1775 Category:Australian cuisine
Authoritarianism is a form of government characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms. Political scientists have created many typologies describing variations of authoritarian forms of government. Authoritarian regimes may be either autocratic or oligarchic in nature, and may be based upon the rule of a party or the military. In an influential 1964 work, the political scientist Juan Linz defined authoritarianism as possessing four qualities: Limited political pluralism, realized with constraints on the legislature, political parties, and interest groups; Political legitimacy based upon appeals to emotion, and identification of the regime as a necessary evil to combat "easily recognizable societal problems, such as underdevelopment, and insurgency"; Minimal political mobilization and suppression of anti-regime activities; Ill-defined executive powers, often vague and shifting, which extends the power of the executive.
Minimally defined, an authoritarian government lacks free and competitive direct elections to legislatures, free and competitive direct or indirect elections for executives, or both. Broadly defined, authoritarian states include countries that lack the civil liberties such as freedom of religion, or countries in which the government and the opposition do not alternate in power at least once following free elections. Authoritarian states might contain nominally democratic institutions, such as political parties, legislatures and elections, which are managed to entrench authoritarian rule; thus, a dictatorship can feature fraudulent, non-competitive elections. Since 1946, the share of authoritarian states in the international political system increased until the mid-1970s, but declined from then until the year 2000.
Characteristics In general Authoritarianism is characterized by highly concentrated and centralized power maintained by political repression and the exclusion of potential challengers. It uses political parties and mass organizations to mobilize people around the goals of the regime. Adam Przeworski has theorized that "authoritarian equilibrium rests mainly on lies, fear and economic prosperity". Authoritarianism also tends to embrace the informal and unregulated exercise of political power, a leadership that is "self-appointed and even if elected cannot be displaced by citizens' free choice among competitors", the arbitrary deprivation of civil liberties and little tolerance for meaningful opposition. A range of social controls also attempt to stifle civil society, while political stability is maintained by control over and support of the armed forces, a bureaucracy staffed by the regime and creation of allegiance through various means of socialization and indoctrination.
Authoritarianism is marked by "indefinite political tenure" of the ruler or ruling party (often in a one-party state) or other authority. The transition from an authoritarian system to a more democratic form of government is referred to as democratization. Systemic weakness and resilience Andrew J. Nathan notes that "regime theory holds that authoritarian systems are inherently fragile because of weak legitimacy, overreliance on coercion, overcentralization of decision making, and the predominance of personal power over institutional norms....Few authoritarian regimes—be they communist, fascist, corporatist, or personalist—have managed to conduct orderly, peaceful, timely, and stable successions". Political scientist Theodore M. Vestal writes that authoritarian political systems may be weakened through inadequate responsiveness to either popular or elite demands, and that the authoritarian tendency to respond to challenges by exerting tighter control, instead of by adapting, may compromise the legitimacy of an authoritarian state and lead to its collapse.
One exception to this general trend is the endurance of the authoritarian rule of the Chinese Communist Party, which has been unusually resilient among authoritarian regimes. Nathan posits that this can be attributed to four factors: (1) "the increasingly norm-bound nature of its succession politics"; (2) "the increase in meritocratic as opposed to factional considerations in the promotion of political elites"; (3) "the differentiation and functional specialization of institutions within the regime"; and (4) "the establishment of institutions for political participation and appeal that strengthen the CCP's legitimacy among the public at large". Institutions Within authoritarian systems, there may be nominally democratic institutions such as political parties, legislatures and elections, but they are managed in a way so as to entrench authoritarian regimes.
Within democracies, parties serve to coordinate the pursuit of interests for like-minded citizens, whereas in authoritarian systems, they are a way for authoritarian leaders to find capable elites for the regime. In a democracy, a legislature is intended to represent the diversity of interests among citizens, whereas authoritarians use legislatures to signal their own restraint towards other elites, as well as to monitor other elites who pose a challenge to the regime. Fraudulent elections may serve the role of signaling the strength of the regime, as well as force other elites to demonstrate their loyalty to the regime, whereas in democracies, free and fair elections are used to select representatives who represent the will of the citizens.
Constitutions in authoritarian regimes Authoritarian regimes often adopt "the institutional trappings" of democracies, such as constitutions. Constitutions in authoritarian states may serve a variety of roles, including "operating manual" (describing how the government is to function); "billboard" (signal of regime's intent), "blueprint" (outline of future regime plans), and "window dressing" (material designed to obfuscate, such as provisions setting forth freedoms that are not honored in practice). Authoritarian constitutions may help legitimize, strengthen, and consolidate regimes. For example, an authoritarian constitution "that successfully coordinates government action and defines popular expectations can also help consolidate the regime's grip on power by inhibiting re coordination on a different set of arrangements."
Unlike democratic constitutions, authoritarian constitutions do not set direct limits on executive authority; however, in some cases such documents may function as ways for elites to protect their own property rights or constrain autocrats' behavior. The concept of "authoritarian constitutionalism" has been developed by legal scholar Mark Tushnet. Tushnet distinguishes authoritarian constitutionalist regimes from "liberal constitutionalist" regimes ("the sort familiar in the modern West, with core commitments to human rights and self-governance implemented by means of varying institutional devices") and from purely authoritarian regimes (which reject the idea of human rights or constraints on leaders' power).
He describes authoritarian constitutionalist regimes as (1) authoritarian dominant-party states that (2) impose sanctions (such as libel judgments) against, but do not arbitrarily arrest, political dissidents; (3) permits "reasonably open discussion and criticism of its policies"; (4) hold "reasonably free and fair elections," without systemic intimidation, but "with close attention to such matters as the drawing of election districts and the creation of party lists to ensure as best it can that it will prevail—and by a substantial margin"; (4) reflect at least occasional responsiveness to public opinion; and (5) create "mechanisms to ensure that the amount of dissent does not exceed the level it regards as desirable."
Tushnet cites Singapore as an example of an authoritarian constitutionalism state, and connects the concept to that of hybrid regimes. Violence Yale University political scientist Milan Svolik argues that violence is a common characteristic of authoritarian systems. Violence tends to be common in authoritarian states because of a lack of independent third parties empowered to settle disputes between the dictator, regime allies, regime soldiers and the masses. Authoritarians may resort to measures referred to as "coup-proofing" – structures that make it hard for any small group to seize power. These coup-proofing strategies may include the strategic placing of family, ethnic, and religious groups in the military; creation of an armed force parallel to the regular military; and development of multiple internal security agencies with overlapping jurisdiction that constantly monitor one another.
Research shows that some coup-proofing strategies reduce the risk of coups occurring. However, coup-proofing reduces military effectiveness, and limits the rents that an incumbent can extract. A 2016 study shows that the implementation of succession rules reduce the occurrence of coup attempts. Succession rules are believed to hamper coordination efforts among coup plotters by assuaging elites who have more to gain by patience than by plotting. According to political scientists Curtis Bell and Jonathan Powell, coup attempts in neighbouring countries lead to greater coup-proofing and coup-related repression in a region. A 2017 study finds that countries' coup-proofing strategies are heavily influenced by other countries with similar histories.
A 2018 study in the Journal of Peace Research found that leaders who survive coup attempts and respond by purging known and potential rivals are likely to have longer tenures as leaders. A 2019 study in Conflict Management and Peace Science found that personalist dictatorships are more likely to take coup-proofing measures than other authoritarian regimes; the authors argue that this is because "personalists are characterized by weak institutions and narrow support bases, a lack of unifying ideologies and informal links to the ruler." According to a 2019 study, personalist dictatorships are more repressive than other forms of dictatorship. Manipulation of information According to a 2019 study by Sergei Guriev and Daniel Treisman, authoritarian regimes have over time become less reliant on violence and mass repression to maintain control.
The study shows instead that authoritarians have increasingly resorted to manipulation of information as a means of control. Authoritarians increasingly seek to create an appearance of good performance, conceal state repression, and imitate democracy. Interactions with other elites and the masses The foundations of stable authoritarian rule are that the authoritarian prevents contestation from the masses and other elites. The authoritarian regime may use co-optation or repression (or carrots and sticks) to prevent revolts. Economy Scholars such as Seymour Lipset, Carles Boix, Susan Stokes, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Stephens, and John Stephens argue that economic development increases the likelihood of democratization.
Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi argue that while economic development makes democracies less likely to turn authoritarian, there is insufficient evidence to conclude that development causes democratization (turning an authoritarian state into a democracy). Eva Bellin argues that under certain circumstances, the bourgeoise and labor are more likely to favor democratization, but less so under other circumstances. Economic development can boost public support for authoritarian regimes in the short-to-medium term. Typologies Several subtypes of authoritarian regimes have been identified by Linz and others. Linz identified the two most basic subtypes as traditional authoritarian regimes and bureaucratic-military authoritarian regimes: Traditional authoritarian regimes are those "in which the ruling authority (generally a single person)" is maintained in power "through a combination of appeals to traditional legitimacy, patron-client ties and repression, which is carried out by an apparatus bound to the ruling authority through personal loyalties".
An example is Ethiopia under Haile Selassie I. Bureaucratic-military authoritarian regimes are those "governed by a coalition of military officers and technocrats who act pragmatically (rather than ideologically) within the limits of their bureaucratic mentality." Mark J. Gasiorowski suggests that it is best to distinguish "simple military authoritarian regimes" from "bureaucratic authoritarian regimes" in which "a powerful group of technocrats uses the state apparatus to try to rationalize and develop the economy" such as South Korea under Park Chung-hee. Subtypes of authoritarian regime identified by Linz are: corporatist or organic-statistic, racial and ethnic "democracy" and post-totalitarian. Corporatist authoritarian regimes "are those in which corporatism institutions are used extensively by the state to coopt and demobilize powerful interest groups".
This type has been studied most extensively in Latin America. Racial and ethnic "democracies" are those in which "certain racial or ethnic groups enjoy full democratic rights while others are largely or entirely denied those rights", such as in South Africa under apartheid. Post-totalitarian authoritarian regimes are those in which totalitarian institutions (such as the party, secret police and state-controlled mass media) remain, but where "ideological orthodoxy has declined in favor of routinization, repression has declined, the state's top leadership is less personalized and more secure, and the level of mass mobilization has declined substantially". Examples include the Russian Federation and Soviet Eastern bloc states in the mid-1980s.
The post-Mao People's Republic of China was viewed as post-totalitarian in the 1990s and early 2000s, with a limited degree of increase in pluralism and civil society. however, in the 2010s, particularly after Xi Jinping succeeded as General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and rose to power in 2012, Chinese state repression sharply increased, aided by digital control and mass surveillance. Authoritarian regimes are also sometimes subcategorized by whether they are personalistic or populist. Personalistic authoritarian regimes are characterized by arbitrary rule and authority exercised "mainly through patronage networks and coercion rather than through institutions and formal rules".
Personalistic authoritarian regimes have been seen in post-colonial Africa. By contrast, populist authoritarian regimes "are mobilizational regimes in which a strong, charismatic, manipulative leader rules through a coalition involving key lower-class groups". Examples include Argentina under Perón, Egypt under Nasser and Venezuela under Chávez and Maduro. A typology of authoritarian regimes by political scientists Brian Lai and Dan Slater includes four categories: machine (oligarchic party dictatorships); bossism (autocratic party dictatorships); juntas (oligarchic military dictatorships); and strongman (autocratic military dictatorships). Lai and Slater argue that single‐party regimes are better than military regimes at developing institutions (e.g., mass mobilization, patronage networks, coordination of elites) that are effective at continuing the regime's incumbency and diminishing domestic challengers; Lai and Slater also argue that military regimes more often initiate military conflicts or undertake other "desperate measures" to maintain control, as compared to single‐party regimes.
John Duckitt suggests a link between authoritarianism and collectivism, asserting that both stand in opposition to individualism. Duckitt writes that both authoritarianism and collectivism submerge individual rights and goals to group goals, expectations and conformities. Authoritarianism and totalitarianism Linz distinguished new forms of authoritarianism from personalistic dictatorships and totalitarian states, taking Francoist Spain as an example. Unlike personalistic dictatorships, new forms of authoritarianism have institutionalized representation of a variety of actors (in Spain's case, including the military, the Catholic Church, Falange, monarchists, technocrats and others). Unlike totalitarian states, the regime relies on passive mass acceptance rather than popular support. Totalitarianism is an extreme version of authoritarianism.
Authoritarianism primarily differs from totalitarianism in that social and economic institutions exist that are not under governmental control. Building on the work of Yale political scientist Juan Linz, Paul C. Sondrol of the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs has examined the characteristics of authoritarian and totalitarian dictators and organized them in a chart: Sondrol argues that while both authoritarianism and totalitarianism are forms of autocracy, they differ in "key dichotomies": Compared to totalitarianism, "the authoritarian state still maintains a certain distinction between state and society. It is only concerned with political power and as long as that is not contested it gives society a certain degree of liberty.
Totalitarianism, on the other hand, invades private life and asphyxiates it". Another distinction is that "authoritarianism is not animated by utopian ideals in the way totalitarianism is. It does not attempt to change the world and human nature". Carl Joachim Friedrich writes that "a totalist ideology, a party reinforced by a secret police, and monopoly control of ... industrial mass society" are the three features of totalitarian regimes that distinguish them from other autocracies. Competitive authoritarian regimes Another type of authoritarian regime is the competitive authoritarian regime, a type of civilian regime that arose in the post-Cold War era. In a competitive authoritarian regime, "formal democratic institutions exist and are widely viewed as the primary means of gaining power, but ... incumbents' abuse of the state places them at a significant advantage vis-à-vis their opponents."
The term was coined by Steven Levitsky and Lucan A. Way in their 2010 book of the same name to discuss a type of hybrid regime that emerged during and after the Cold War. Competitive authoritarian regimes differ from fully authoritarian regimes in that elections are regularly held, the opposition can openly operate without a high risk of exile or imprisonment, and "democratic procedures are sufficiently meaningful for opposition groups to take them seriously as arenas through which to contest for power." However, competitive authoritarian regimes lack one or more of the three characteristics of democracies: free elections (i.e., elections untainted by substantial fraud or voter intimidation); protection of civil liberties (i.e., the freedom of speech, press, and association), and an even playing field (in terms of access to resources, the media, and legal recourse).
Authoritarianism and democracy Authoritarianism and democracy are not necessarily fundamental opposites, as it is possible for some democracies to possess authoritarian elements, and for an authoritarian system to have democratic elements. An illiberal democracy (or procedural democracy) is distinguished from liberal democracy (or substantive democracy) in that illiberal democracies lack features such as the rule of law, protections for minority groups and an independent judiciary. A further distinction that liberal democracies have rarely made war with one another; research has extended the theory and finds that more democratic countries tend to have few wars (sometimes called militarized interstate disputes) causing fewer battle deaths with one another and that democracies have far fewer civil wars.
Research shows that the democratic nations have much less democide or murder by government. Those were also moderately developed nations before applying liberal democratic policies. Research by the World Bank suggests that political institutions are extremely important in determining the prevalence of corruption and that parliamentary systems, political stability and freedom of the press are all associated with lower corruption. A 2006 study by economist Alberto Abadie has concluded that terrorism is most common in nations with intermediate political freedom. The nations with the least amount of terrorism are the most and least democratic nations, and that "transitions from an authoritarian regime to a democracy may be accompanied by temporary increases in terrorism."
Studies in 2013 and 2017 similarly found a nonlinear relationship between political freedom and terrorism, with the most terrorist attacks occurring in partial democracies and the fewest in "strict autocracies and full-fledged democracies." A 2018 study by Amichai Magen demonstrated that liberal democracies and polyarchies not only suffer fewer terrorist attacks as compared to other regime types, but also suffer fewer casualties in terrorist attacks as compared to other regime types, which may be attributed to higher-quality democracies' responsiveness to their citizens' demands, including "the desire for physical safety," resulting in "investment in intelligence, infrastructure protection, first responders, social resilience, and specialized medical care," which averts casualties.
Magen also noted that terrorism in closed autocracies sharply increased starting in 2013. Effect on development Some commentators, such as Seymour Martin Lipset, argue that low-income authoritarian regimes have certain technocratic "efficiency-enhancing advantages" over low-income democracies that gives authoritarian regimes an advantage in economic development. By contrast, Morton H. Halperin, Joseph T. Siegle and Michael M. Weinstein (2005) argue that democracies "realize superior development performance" over authoritarianism, pointing out that poor democracies are more likely to have steadier economic growth and less likely to experience economic and humanitarian catastrophes (such as refugee crises) than authoritarian regimes; that civil liberties in democracies act as a curb on corruption and misuse of resources; and that democracies are more adaptable than authoritarian regimes.
Studies suggest that several health indicators (life expectancy and infant and maternal mortality) have a stronger and more significant association with democracy than they have with GDP per capita, size of the public sector or income inequality. Prominent economist Amartya Sen has theorized that no functioning liberal democracy has ever suffered a large-scale famine. Examples There is no one consensus definition of authoritarianism, but several annual measurements are attempted, including Freedom House's annual Freedom in the World report. Current The following is a non-exhaustive list of examples of states which are currently (or frequently) characterized as authoritarian: Historical Examples of states which were historically authoritarian include the following: Historical trends Anti-authoritarianism Both World War II (ending in 1945) and the Cold War (ending in 1991) resulted in the replacement of authoritarian regimes by either democratic regimes or regimes that were less authoritarian.
World War II saw the defeat of the Axis powers by the Allied powers. All the Axis powers — Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan — had totalitarian or authoritarian governments, and two of the three were replaced by governments based on democratic constitutions. The Allied powers were an alliance of Democratic states and (later) the Communist Soviet Union. At least in Western Europe the initial post-war era embraced pluralism and freedom of expression in areas that had been under control of authoritarian regimes. The memory of fascism and Nazism was denigrated. The new Federal Republic of Germany banned its expression.
In reaction to the centralism of the Nazi state, for example, the new constitution of West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany) exercised "separation of powers" and placed "law enforcement firmly in the hands" of the sixteen Länder or states of the republic, not with the federal German government (at least not at first). Culturally there was also a strong sense of anti-authoritarianism based on anti-fascism in Western Europe. This was attributed to the active resistance from occupation and to fears arising from the development of superpowers. Anti-authoritarianism also became associated with countercultural and bohemian movements such as the Beat Generation in the 1950s, the hippies in the 1960s and punks in the 1970s.
In South America, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Chile and Uruguay moved away from dictatorships to democracy between 1982 and 1990. With the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the Soviet Union in 1991, the other authoritarian/totalitarian "half" of the Allied Powers of World War II collapsed. This led not so much to revolt against authority in general, but to the belief that authoritarian states (and state control of economies) were outdated. The idea that "liberal democracy was the final form toward which all political striving was directed", became very popular in Western countries and was celebrated in Francis Fukuyama's book The End of History and the Last Man.
According to Charles H. Fairbanks, Jr., "all the new states that stumbled out of the ruins of the Soviet bloc, except Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, seemed indeed to be moving toward democracy in the early 1990s," as where the countries of East Central Europe and the Balkans. In late 2010, the "Arab Spring" arose in response to unrest over economic stagnation but also in opposition to oppressive authoritarian regimes, first in Tunisia and spreading to Libya, Egypt, Yemen, Syria and Bahrain, and elsewhere. Regimes were toppled in Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, and partially in Yemen, and other countries saw riots, civil wars or insurgencies.
Authoritarian revival From 2005 to 2015 observers noted what some called a "democratic recession" (although some — Steven Levitsky and Lucan Way — have disputed this theory). In 2018 Freedom House declared that from 2006 to 2018, "113 countries" around the world showed "a net decline" in "political rights and civil liberties" while "only 62" experienced "a net improvement." Writing in 2018, U.S. political journalist David Frum stated: The hopeful world of the very late 20th century—the world of NAFTA and an expanding NATO; of the World Wide Web 1.0 and liberal interventionism; of the global spread of democracy under leaders such as Václav Havel and Nelson Mandela—now looks battered and delusive."
Michael Ignatieff wrote that Fukuyama's idea of liberalism vanquishing authoritarianism "now looks like a quaint artifact of a vanished unipolar moment", and Fukuyama himself expressed concern. By 2018 only one Arab Spring uprising — in Tunisia — resulted in a transition to constitutional democratic governance, and a "resurgence of authoritarianism and Islamic extremism" in the region was dubbed the "Arab Winter". Various explanations have been offered for the new spread of authoritarianism, including the downside of globalization, and the success of the Beijing Consensus, i.e. the authoritarian model of the People's Republic of China.
In at least one country, (the U.S.) factors blamed for the growth of authoritarianism include the Financial crisis of 2007–2008 and slower real wage growth; and social media's elimination of "gatekeepers" of knowledge, so that a large fraction of the population considers to be opinion what were once "viewed as verifiable facts” – everything from the danger of global warming to the preventing the spread of disease through vaccination. See also Authoritarian capitalism Anti-democratic thought Autocracy Centralisation Illiberal democracy Criticism of liberal democracy Managed democracy Totalitarianism Notes Works cited Juan J. Linz, "An Authoritarian Regime: The Case of Spain", in Cleavages, Ideologies and Party Systems (eds.
Eric Allard & Yrjo Littunen) (Helsinki: Academic, 1964) External links Category:Authority Category:Communism Category:Fascism Category:Forms of government Category:Political culture Category:Political theories Category:Social theories Category:Sociological terminology
The gravity of Earth, denoted by , is the net acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the combined effect of gravitation (from mass distribution within Earth) and the centrifugal force (from the Earth's rotation). In SI units this acceleration is measured in metres per second squared (in symbols, m/s2 or m·s−2) or equivalently in newtons per kilogram (N/kg or N·kg−1). Near Earth's surface, gravitational acceleration is approximately 9.81 m/s2, which means that, ignoring the effects of air resistance, the speed of an object falling freely will increase by about 9.81 metres per second every second. This quantity is sometimes referred to informally as little (in contrast, the gravitational constant is referred to as big ).
The precise strength of Earth's gravity varies depending on location. The nominal "average" value at Earth's surface, known as is, by definition, 9.80665 m/s2. This quantity is denoted variously as , (though this sometimes means the normal equatorial value on Earth, 9.78033 m/s2), , gee, or simply (which is also used for the variable local value). The weight of an object on Earth's surface is the downwards force on that object, given by Newton's second law of motion, or (). Gravitational acceleration contributes to the total gravity acceleration, but other factors, such as the rotation of Earth, also contribute, and, therefore, affect the weight of the object.
Gravity does not normally include the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun, which are accounted for in terms of tidal effects. It is a vector (physics) quantity, whose direction coincides with a plumb bob. Variation in magnitude A non-rotating perfect sphere of uniform mass density, or whose density varies solely with distance from the centre (spherical symmetry), would produce a gravitational field of uniform magnitude at all points on its surface. The Earth is rotating and is also not spherically symmetric; rather, it is slightly flatter at the poles while bulging at the Equator: an oblate spheroid. There are consequently slight deviations in the magnitude of gravity across its surface.
Gravity on the Earth's surface varies by around 0.7%, from 9.7639 m/s2 on the Nevado Huascarán mountain in Peru to 9.8337 m/s2 at the surface of the Arctic Ocean. In large cities, it ranges from 9.7760 in Kuala Lumpur, Mexico City, and Singapore to 9.825 in Oslo and Helsinki. Conventional value In 1901 the third General Conference on Weights and Measures defined a standard gravitational acceleration for the surface of the Earth: gn = 9.80665 m/s2. It was based on measurements done at the Pavillon de Breteuil near Paris in 1888, with a theoretical correction applied in order to convert to a latitude of 45° at sea level.
This definition is thus not a value of any particular place or carefully worked out average, but an agreement for a value to use if a better actual local value is not known or not important. It is also used to define the units kilogram force and pound force. Latitude The surface of the Earth is rotating, so it is not an inertial frame of reference. At latitudes nearer the Equator, the outward centrifugal force produced by Earth's rotation is larger than at polar latitudes. This counteracts the Earth's gravity to a small degree – up to a maximum of 0.3% at the Equator – and reduces the apparent downward acceleration of falling objects.
The second major reason for the difference in gravity at different latitudes is that the Earth's equatorial bulge (itself also caused by centrifugal force from rotation) causes objects at the Equator to be farther from the planet's centre than objects at the poles. Because the force due to gravitational attraction between two bodies (the Earth and the object being weighed) varies inversely with the square of the distance between them, an object at the Equator experiences a weaker gravitational pull than an object at the poles. In combination, the equatorial bulge and the effects of the surface centrifugal force due to rotation mean that sea-level gravity increases from about 9.780 m/s2 at the Equator to about 9.832 m/s2 at the poles, so an object will weigh approximately 0.5% more at the poles than at the Equator.
Altitude Gravity decreases with altitude as one rises above the Earth's surface because greater altitude means greater distance from the Earth's centre. All other things being equal, an increase in altitude from sea level to causes a weight decrease of about 0.29%. (An additional factor affecting apparent weight is the decrease in air density at altitude, which lessens an object's buoyancy. This would increase a person's apparent weight at an altitude of 9,000 metres by about 0.08%) It is a common misconception that astronauts in orbit are weightless because they have flown high enough to escape the Earth's gravity. In fact, at an altitude of , equivalent to a typical orbit of the ISS, gravity is still nearly 90% as strong as at the Earth's surface.
Weightlessness actually occurs because orbiting objects are in free-fall. The effect of ground elevation depends on the density of the ground (see Slab correction section). A person flying at above sea level over mountains will feel more gravity than someone at the same elevation but over the sea. However, a person standing on the Earth's surface feels less gravity when the elevation is higher. The following formula approximates the Earth's gravity variation with altitude: Where is the gravitational acceleration at height above sea level. is the Earth's mean radius. is the standard gravitational acceleration. The formula treats the Earth as a perfect sphere with a radially symmetric distribution of mass; a more accurate mathematical treatment is discussed below.
Depth An approximate value for gravity at a distance from the center of the Earth can be obtained by assuming that the Earth's density is spherically symmetric. The gravity depends only on the mass inside the sphere of radius . All the contributions from outside cancel out as a consequence of the inverse-square law of gravitation. Another consequence is that the gravity is the same as if all the mass were concentrated at the center. Thus, the gravitational acceleration at this radius is where is the gravitational constant and is the total mass enclosed within radius . If the Earth had a constant density , the mass would be and the dependence of gravity on depth would be at depth is given by {{math|g'''g(1-d/R)}} where is acceleration due to gravity on surface of the Earth, is depth and is radius of Earth.
If the density decreased linearly with increasing radius from a density at the center to at the surface, then , and the dependence would be The actual depth dependence of density and gravity, inferred from seismic travel times (see Adams–Williamson equation), is shown in the graphs below. Local topography and geology Local differences in topography (such as the presence of mountains), geology (such as the density of rocks in the vicinity), and deeper tectonic structure cause local and regional differences in the Earth's gravitational field, known as gravitational anomalies. Some of these anomalies can be very extensive, resulting in bulges in sea level, and throwing pendulum clocks out of synchronisation.
The study of these anomalies forms the basis of gravitational geophysics. The fluctuations are measured with highly sensitive gravimeters, the effect of topography and other known factors is subtracted, and from the resulting data conclusions are drawn. Such techniques are now used by prospectors to find oil and mineral deposits. Denser rocks (often containing mineral ores) cause higher than normal local gravitational fields on the Earth's surface. Less dense sedimentary rocks cause the opposite. Other factors In air or water, objects experience a supporting buoyancy force which reduces the apparent strength of gravity (as measured by an object's weight). The magnitude of the effect depends on the air density (and hence air pressure) or the water density respectively; see Apparent weight for details.
The gravitational effects of the Moon and the Sun (also the cause of the tides) have a very small effect on the apparent strength of Earth's gravity, depending on their relative positions; typical variations are 2 µm/s2 (0.2 mGal) over the course of a day. Variation in direction Gravity acceleration is a vector quantity. In a spherically symmetric Earth, gravity would point directly towards the sphere's centre. As the Earth is slightly flatter, there are consequently slight deviations in the direction of gravity. This is the reason why modern prime meridian passes more than 100 m to the east of the historical astronomic prime meridian in Greenwich.
Comparative values worldwide Tools exist for calculating the strength of gravity at various cities around the world. The effect of latitude can be clearly seen with gravity in high-latitude cities: Anchorage (9.826 m/s2), Helsinki (9.825 m/s2), being about 0.5% greater than that in cities near the equator: Kuala Lumpur (9.776 m/s2), Manila (9.780 m/s2). The effect of altitude can be seen in Mexico City (9.776 m/s2; altitude ), and by comparing Denver (9.798 m/s2; ) with Washington, D.C. (9.801 m/s2; ), both of which are near 39° N. Measured values can be obtained from Physical and Mathematical Tables by T.M.
Yarwood and F. Castle, Macmillan, revised edition 1970. Mathematical models Latitude model If the terrain is at sea level, we can estimate , the acceleration at latitude : . This is the International Gravity Formula 1967, the 1967 Geodetic Reference System Formula, Helmert's equation or Clairaut's formula. An alternative formula for g as a function of latitude is the WGS (World Geodetic System) 84 Ellipsoidal Gravity Formula: where, are the equatorial and polar semi-axes, respectively; is the spheroid's eccentricity, squared; is the defined gravity at the equator and poles, respectively; (formula constant); then, where , . where the semi-axes of the earth are: The difference between the WGS-84 formula and Helmert's equation is less than 0.68 μm·s−2.
Free air correction The first correction to be applied to the model is the free air correction (FAC) that accounts for heights above sea level. Near the surface of the Earth (sea level), gravity decreases with height such that linear extrapolation would give zero gravity at a height of one half of the Earth's radius - (9.8 m·s−2 per 3,200 km.) Using the mass and radius of the Earth: The FAC correction factor (Δg) can be derived from the definition of the acceleration due to gravity in terms of G, the gravitational constant (see estimating g from the law of universal gravitation, below): At a height h above the nominal surface of the Earth gh is given by: So the FAC for a height h above the nominal Earth radius can be expressed: This expression can be readily used for programming or inclusion in a spreadsheet.
Collecting terms, simplifying and neglecting small terms (h<<rEarth), however yields the good approximation: Using the numerical values above and for a height h in metres: Grouping the latitude and FAC altitude factors the expression most commonly found in the literature is: where = acceleration in m·s−2 at latitude and altitude h in metres. Slab correction Note: The section uses the galileo (symbol: "Gal"), which is a cgs unit for acceleration of 1 centimetre/second2. For flat terrain above sea level a second term is added for the gravity due to the extra mass; for this purpose the extra mass can be approximated by an infinite horizontal slab, and we get 2πG times the mass per unit area, i.e.
4.2 m3·s−2·kg−1 (0.042 μGal·kg−1·m2) (the Bouguer correction). For a mean rock density of 2.67 g·cm−3 this gives 1.1 s−2 (0.11 mGal·m−1). Combined with the free-air correction this means a reduction of gravity at the surface of ca. 2 µm·s−2 (0.20 mGal) for every metre of elevation of the terrain. (The two effects would cancel at a surface rock density of 4/3 times the average density of the whole Earth. The density of the whole Earth is 5.515 g·cm−3, so standing on a slab of something like iron whose density is over 7.35 g·cm−3 would increase one's weight.) For the gravity below the surface we have to apply the free-air correction as well as a double Bouguer correction.
With the infinite slab model this is because moving the point of observation below the slab changes the gravity due to it to its opposite. Alternatively, we can consider a spherically symmetrical Earth and subtract from the mass of the Earth that of the shell outside the point of observation, because that does not cause gravity inside. This gives the same result. Estimating g from the law of universal gravitation From the law of universal gravitation, the force on a body acted upon by Earth's gravity is given by where r is the distance between the centre of the Earth and the body (see below), and here we take m1 to be the mass of the Earth and m2 to be the mass of the body.
Additionally, Newton's second law, F = ma, where m is mass and a is acceleration, here tells us that Comparing the two formulas it is seen that: So, to find the acceleration due to gravity at sea level, substitute the values of the gravitational constant, G, the Earth's mass (in kilograms), m1, and the Earth's radius (in metres), r, to obtain the value of g: This formula only works because of the mathematical fact that the gravity of a uniform spherical body, as measured on or above its surface, is the same as if all its mass were concentrated at a point at its centre.
This is what allows us to use the Earth's radius for r. The value obtained agrees approximately with the measured value of g. The difference may be attributed to several factors, mentioned above under "Variations": The Earth is not homogeneous The Earth is not a perfect sphere, and an average value must be used for its radius This calculated value of g only includes true gravity. It does not include the reduction of constraint force that we perceive as a reduction of gravity due to the rotation of Earth, and some of gravity being counteracted by centrifugal force. There are significant uncertainties in the values of r and m1 as used in this calculation, and the value of G is also rather difficult to measure precisely.
If G, g and r'' are known then a reverse calculation will give an estimate of the mass of the Earth. This method was used by Henry Cavendish. See also Figure of Earth Gravity (Gravitation) Gravimetry Geopotential Gravity anomaly, Bouguer anomaly Gravitation of the Moon Gravitational acceleration Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Newton's law of universal gravitation Vertical deflection References External links Altitude gravity calculator GRACE – Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment GGMplus high resolution data (2013) Geoid 2011 model Potsdam Gravity Potato Category:Gravimetry of objects Earth Category:Earth eo:Gravita akcelo
Alpha acids (α acids) are a class of chemical compounds primarily of importance to the production of beer. They are found in the resin glands of the flowers of the hop plant and are the source of hop bitterness. Alpha acids may be isomerized to form iso-alpha acids by the application of heat in solution. Iso-alpha acids (iso-α-acids) are typically produced in beer from the addition of hops to the boiling wort. The degree of isomerization and the amount of bitter flavor produced by the addition of hops is highly dependent on the length of time the hops are boiled.
Longer boil times will result in isomerization of more alpha acids and thus increased bitterness. Common alpha acids include humulone, adhumulone, cohumulone, posthumulone, and prehumulone. The most common iso-α-acids are cis- and trans-isohumulone. Bittering The alpha acid "rating" on hops indicates the amount of alpha acid as a percentage of total weight of the hop. Hops with a higher alpha acid content will contribute more bitterness than a lower alpha acid hop when using the same amount of hops. High alpha acid varieties of hops are more efficient for producing highly bitter beers. Alpha acid percentages vary within specific varieties depending on growing conditions, drying methods, age of the hop, and other factors.
For example, this list shows the typical range of alpha acids found in some common varieties (percentages are based on total dried weight). Cascade 4.5-8% Centennial 9-11.5% Chinook 12-14% East Kent Goldings 4.5-7% Hallertauer Hersbrucker 2.5-5% Mt. Hood 3.5-8% Saaz 2-5% Styrian Goldings 4.5-7% Willamette 4-7% Anti-bacterial properties Iso-α-acids have a bacteriostatic effect on many common Gram-positive bacteria found in beer. While the iso-α-acids are very effective at preventing serious contamination from Gram-positive bacteria such as the lactic acid bacteria, there are some strains that are quite resistant to the effects of the iso-α-acids. The iso-α-acids have no effect on Gram-negative bacteria, and therefore the brewer must rely on maintaining proper sanitiation and anaerobic conditions of the finished beer to ensure shelf stability.
References External links Category:Organic acids Category:Brewing Category:Bitter compounds
Mr. Nobody may refer to: A nickname for Sywald Skeid, a Romanian-born man Mr. Nobody (comics), a fictional character from the DC Comics universe Mr. Nobody (Mr. Men), part of the Mr. Men series of books, by Roger Hargreaves Mr. Nobody (film), a 2009 film starring Jared Leto and directed by Jaco Van Dormael Mr. Nobody (soundtrack), original score to the film "Mr Nobody" (Anžej Dežan song), a song by Anžej Dežan Mr. Nobody, a character from The Fast and the Furious film series
U Sports football is the highest level of amateur play of Canadian football and operates under the auspices of U Sports (formerly Canadian Interuniversity Sport). Twenty-seven teams from Canadian universities are divided into four athletic conferences, drawing from the four regional associations of U Sports: Canada West Universities Athletic Association, Ontario University Athletics, Réseau du sport étudiant du Québec, and Atlantic University Sport. At the end of every season, the champions of each conference advance to semifinal bowl games; the winners of these meet in the Vanier Cup national championship. The origins of North American football can be traced here, where the first documented game was played at University College at the University of Toronto in 1861.
A number of U Sports programs have been in existence since the origins of the sport. It is from these Canadian universities that the game now known as Canadian football began. In 1874, McGill University (Montreal) challenged Harvard University (Cambridge, Massachusetts) to a series of games. The Grey Cup, the championship trophy of the professional Canadian Football League (CFL) since its founding in the 1950s, was originally contested by teams from the University of Toronto and Queen's University and other amateur teams since 1909. Many U Sports players have gone on to professional careers in the CFL and elsewhere; a number are drafted annually in the Canadian College Draft.
In 2019, there were a record 208 U Sports alumni on CFL rosters, including at least one player from each of the 27 football programs. Season structure Regular season The regular season is nine to ten weeks long, depending on the conference, and, as of 2019, opens on the weekend before the Labour Day weekend. Teams play eight regular season games and regular season games are in-conference with exhibition (pre-season) games being played between conferences. Throughout the season, there are featured homecoming and rivalry games in most regions. Following the conclusion of the regular season, the Hec Crighton Trophy is awarded annually to the Most Valuable Player of U Sports football.
Playoffs After the regular season, single elimination playoff games are held between the top teams in each conference to determine conference champions. In the Atlantic conference, the top three teams qualify for the playoffs with the first place team receiving a bye. In the Canada West and Quebec conferences, the top four teams qualify for the playoffs. In Ontario, the top six teams qualify with the top two teams receiving playoff byes to the next round. Because the OUA teams have conference playoffs that last three weeks instead of two, the first round of the post-season in the OUA occurs during the same week that each of the other three conferences are playing their last regular season games.
Each conference has its own championship trophy; the Hardy Trophy in the West, the Yates Cup in Ontario, the Dunsmore Cup in Quebec and the Jewett Trophy in the Atlantic conference. The conference champions proceed to national semifinal bowl games: the Mitchell Bowl and the Uteck Bowl. The participant conferences of each bowl are determined several years in advance on a rotating basis. Vanier Cup The winners of each bowl game meet in the Vanier Cup national championship, first established in 1965 and named in honour of Governor General Georges Vanier. The game was held in Toronto every year through 2003 when host conference bids were first accepted, yielding a move to Hamilton for 2004 and 2005, followed by Saskatoon in 2006.
Quebec City, Vancouver, and Montreal have since hosted Vanier Cup games. Expansion There have been efforts at establishing new varsity football programs at institutions that currently do not have teams. A group of alumni from Carleton University in Ottawa successfully revived that school's program which returned in 2013. The team is a member of the Ontario University Athletics conference of U Sports, returning football to Carleton University after a 15-year absence. Because the AUS is the smallest conference in U Sports, there has been talk of adding more teams there, as well. There has been interest expressed in starting a team at the Université de Moncton, due to the recent construction of Moncton Stadium.
As of May 2011, the athletics department submitted a feasibility report to the school's president and are going to base a large part of their decision upon how the Uteck Bowl in 2011 is received by the fans in Moncton. Additionally, a club team league, the Atlantic Football League, features four universities in what some hope will lead to varsity teams featured at some of these schools. Following their successful application to become full-members of the Canada West Universities Athletic Association, the UBC Okanagan Heat are investigating the feasibility of starting their own football program, likely to be partnered with the existing CJFL's Okanagan Sun.
UBCO would host the Sun in much the same way that the University of Regina was paired with the Prairie Football Conference's Regina Rams. The University of Quebec at Trois-Rivières were also exploring the possibility of adding a football program with the launch planned for the 2017 season. The program would have been similar to Carleton University's in that there would be private funding from football alumni, but operated by shareholders. As of April 2015, $800,000 of the required $3 million had been raised in support of the varsity sport at UQTR. The capacity of the football stadium would then be increased from 2000 to 6270 seats.
The UQTR Patriotes previously fielded a senior varsity team from 1971 to 1973 and 1977 to 1979. Proposed interconference consortium In February 2015, businessman David Dube (an alumnus and supporter of the Saskatchewan Huskies) and Jim Mullin announced a proposal for a consortium known as the "Northern 8", which would organize interconference games between its member schools. Dube felt that this plan could help improve the prominence of CIS football on a national basis outside of the post-season (which, as of the 2014 season, was the only period of the season that featured nationally televised CIS games), as it would allow a nationally televised package of regular season games to be sold to a major broadcaster.
The Northern 8 would be structured as a non-profit corporation, and would subsidize production costs for its telecasts: profits would be distributed to non-member schools. It would start with 8 teams, but could expand to 10 in the future. The Canada West conference backed the proposal. The OUA, RSEQ and AUS showed concerns for the plan due to travel costs and its effects on standings and rejected the plan. Teams Awards and the annual All-Canadian Team There are post-season awards for on-the-field excellence. The players deemed to be the best at each position are named to the annual All-Canadian Football Team as first or second team players.
Additionally there are a number of individual awards for categories like "best defensive player". Professional advancement U Sports players in the CFL Many players from U Sports football have become professional athletes with most of them playing in the Canadian Football League. Opening Day of the 2015 CFL season saw a record 199 U Sports football players on rosters around the League. The most recent CFL season, 2019, featured 208 former U Sports football players on CFL teams' rosters on opening day. CFL Draft The following is a list of recent numbers from the CFL Draft, which is an annual eight-round event with a current maximum of 72 players drafted.
From 1997 to 2012 the CFL Draft had six rounds of selections and from 2013 to 2015 it had seven rounds. From 2002 to 2005, the CFL had nine teams, then reverted to eight teams from 2006 to 2013, and then was back to its current number of nine teams in 2014. The high-water mark of 59 players from the U Sports drafted was recorded in the 2014 CFL Draft, which was the most since 1978. U Sports players in the NFL As of 2019, U Sports had produced 36 players who have earned a spot on an NFL roster (including four who did not play a regular season game; players listed in chronological order by entry year in NFL): 1945 Joe Krol, Western Ontario, K/RB.
1947 Les Lear, Manitoba, OG/OT. 1960 Bill Crawford, UBC, OG. 1965 Jim Young, Queen's, RB/R. 1976 Brian Fryer, Alberta, R. 1979 Ken Clark, Saint Mary's, P. 1986 Mike Schad, Queen's, OG. 1987 Brian Belway, Calgary, DE. 1987 Dave Sparenberg, Western Ontario, OG. 1987 Brant Bengen, UBC and Idaho, WR. 1988 Dean Dorsey, Toronto, K. 1992 Tyrone Williams, Western Ontario, WR. 1995 Tim Tindale, Western Ontario, RB. 1995 Mark Montreuil, Concordia, CB. 1995 Mark Hatfield, Bishop's, OL. 1996 Grayson Shillingford, UBC, SB. 1998 Jerome Pathon, Acadia & U. of Washington, R. 2000 J. P. Darche, McGill, LS/LB. 2001 Randy Chevrier, McGill, LS/DE.
2003 Israel Idonije, Manitoba, DL. 2004 Steve Morley, Saint Mary's, OG/OT. 2006 Daniel Federkeil, Calgary, DE. 2006 Jon Ryan, Regina, K. 2008 Samuel Giguère, Sherbrooke, WR 2009 Vaughn Martin, Western Ontario, DL. 2010 Cory Greenwood, Concordia, LB 2010 Joel Reinders, Waterloo, OT 2011 Matt O'Donnell, Queen's OT 2012 Akiem Hicks, Regina, DT 2013 Stefan Charles, Regina, DT 2014 Henoc Muamba, St.FX, LB 2014 David Foucault, Montreal, OL 2014 Laurent Duvernay-Tardif, McGill, OL 2016 David Onyemata, Manitoba, DL 2017 Antony Auclair, Laval, TE 2019 Tevaughn Campbell, Regina, DB NFL Draft There have been 12 U Sports players drafted into the National Football League with David Onyemata being the most recent.