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the side or direction away from the mouth. Also referred to as adapical
Microscopic isopores (B) (less than 100 microns) found in Clypeasteroida often forming dense fields (A, C). Each connects a tube-foot to the interior of the test.
The basal surface of a spine that rests directly on its associated tubercle.
acrosaleniid plate compounding
A compound ambulacral plate composed of three elements of which only two are united by an overlying tubercle: the third element is simple. This is also known as a semicompound plate.
at or towards the apical disc (direction). Also known as aboral.
at or towards the boundary betwseen ambulacral and interambulacral zones (direction)
The line separating ambulacral and interambulacral columns of plates.
At or towards the ambitus
The point of widest circumference on the test
pleural of ambulacrum
The zone of plates associated with the water vascular system and tube-feet and usually biserially arranged. There are five ambulacral zones in the corona of extant echinoids.
An interambulacrum in which the first (primordial) plate (red) is in contact with the succeeding plates (purple) from both columns.
Referring to echinoids with an amphiplacous plastron.
Internal bulbose or leaf-shaped organ that is part of the water vascular system and directly underlies tube-feet. It acts as a fluid resevoir for expansion and constraction of the associated tube-foot.
A fasciole band that runs vertically from the subanal fasciole passing on either side of the periproct (ppt).
A lunule that pierces interambulacrum 5 and which, on the adoral face, is closely associated with the periproct.
A groove on the aboral surface running towards the posterior of the test from the periproct.
A single or double cone of spines that projects from the rear of the test beneath the anus. These spines are used in constructing the subanal funnel and are surrounded by a subanal fasciole.
The connection between tube-foot and internal water vessel where there are a pair of pores of markedly unequal size.
at or towards the apical disc (direction)
The small area of plates forming the aboral surface of the test at the apex of the ambulacral and interambulacral zones. Composed of ocular and genital plates, which (in regulars) surround the periproct.
Interambulacral element of the perignathic girdle. An internal flange (ap) that originates from the most adoral interambulacral plates. Lantern protractor muscles attach to these. [Picture shows the interior of the oral region.]
arbaciid plate compounding
A compound ambulacral plate composed of three (rarely four) elements of which the middle is always the largest. Upper and lower elements are always small and do not reach the perradius.
A flat platform of fine stereom surrounding the boss and marking the attachment site of spine muscle on a tubercle. Can be depressed in cidaroids
The complex jaw apparatus found in regular echinoids.
Ambulacral element of the perignathic girdle. An internal flange (au) originating from the most adoral ambulacral plates. Lantern retractor muscles attach to these. [Picture shows the interior of the oral region.] | <urn:uuid:71ae5a70-7d48-48fb-8a98-9b8fe525dc01> | {
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On Feb 20, 5:38 pm, [email protected] (Steve Willner) wrote: > In article <[email protected]>, > Robert Clark <[email protected]> writes: > > > First though, note there are many ways a fragment could be separated > > from the main asteroid. > > As I understand it, about 1/3 of near-Earth asteroids have moons. > > > depending on the direction the fragment is sent, once the asteroid > > comes around to the Earth or Moon or other planet on a close approach, > > that fragment could be much closer to that large gravitating body than > > the asteroid and therefore be sent on a different orbit. > > In which case it's an independent object following its own orbit, no > longer a companion of the first object. > > > Then on subsequent orbits it could impact the gravitating body. > > Yes, it would on average have just as much or as little chance of > impacting as any other NEO. For a specific object, one would have to > know the orbit. > > > Indeed it could even be captured by the gravitating body, such as the > > Earth, > > Only if it comes close enough to lose energy in the atmosphere. > That's a tiny probability but not zero. > > > For instance asteroid 2012 DA14 was traveling at 18,641 mph, > > about 8.3 km/s on closest approach. At the distance it passed the > > Earth at 17,000 miles this is greater than escape velocity. But it's > > less than escape velocity at the Earth's surface. > > If it had come closer to Earth, it would have been going faster > because Earth's gravity would have accelerated it more. > > --
Thanks for the info. On this page it says the orbits "cross" at two locations, or more precisely, which body is on the outside orbit changes twice per orbit:
La Sagra Observatory discovers very near-Earth asteroid 2012 DA14. Posted By Jaime Nomen 2012/03/27 05:20 CDT "The preliminary orbit shows that 2012 DA14 has a very Earth-Like orbit with a period of 366.24 days, just one more day than our terrestrial year. The orbit is nearly circular but just elliptical enough to jump inside and outside of the path of Earth two times per year. Because objects move faster when they are closer to the Sun, the relative motion is similar to some sports races: when the Earth is on the outer track, it is overtaken by 2012 DA14, but when the asteroid crosses Earth's orbit, Earth overtakes it and passes by. It is during the orbit crossings when the closest encounters occur, and when there is potential for a future impact." http://www.planetary.org/blogs/guest-blogs/3418.html
Does this mean there are two close approaches per orbit? It doesn't necessarily have to be since where the two orbits "cross" does not mean the two bodies have to be there at the same time. On the other hand because they have similar orbits and therefor similar speeds, if they are close at one "crossing" point, they should be relatively close at the other. | <urn:uuid:9b351d63-ce38-4034-aeb3-46f76e2ee284> | {
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Recently, a colleague drew my attention to the “Bristol Pound“, an example of a “local currency“. Ah yes, I said, that’s been around for a few years now. Embarrassingly, I later realised I was thinking about the “Brixton Pound“. Having attended many concerts at the legendary Brixton Academy (Nick Cave, Ministry and the Sugarcubes among them), I really should have known the difference between Bristol and Brixton!
There are now a number of local currencies in Britain. The first to appear in recent years was the ”Totnes Pound“, launched in March 2007. According to their website, the benefits of the Totnes Pound are:
- To build resilience in the local economy by keeping money circulating in the community and building new relationships
- To get people thinking and talking about how they spend their money
- To encourage more local trade and thus reduce food and trade miles
- To encourage tourists to use local businesses
The aims of the Brixton Pound, the Bristol Pound and the other local currencies are essentially the same. As far as I can tell, the take up of these currencies to date has been modest, but the Bristol Pound represents an interesting new development. Not only does it have a far slicker website, but it also offers payment by mobile phone. Perhaps most significantly, according to the FAQ, ”Business members that pay business rates to Bristol City Council will be able to pay in Bristol Pounds.”
A key tenet of “Modern Monetary Theory” is that the value of fiat money is not underpinned by gold or any other commodity; rather its value derives from the government levying tax in that currency. Since almost everyone has to pay tax at some point, this creates a base level of demand for the currency. So, perhaps the fact that the Bristol City Council is supporting the Bristol Pound will enhance its take-up prospects. It would be even more interesting if the council decided that they would only accept Bristol Pounds as payment for rates. | <urn:uuid:142470d1-c382-4f9d-8365-4d90a56b3974> | {
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8 Wintry Words to Defrost Your Vocabulary
late 14c., "having no companion, solitary," shortening of alone (q.v.) by weakening of stress or else by misdivision of what is properly all one. The Lone Star in reference to "Texas" is first recorded 1843, from its flag. Lone wolf in the figurative sense is 1909, American English. | <urn:uuid:aaf7e993-a472-424e-b73b-6c5e3196c8a2> | {
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aging(redirected from Aging of Accounts Receivable)
Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus, Financial, Encyclopedia.
- Hearing, which declines especially in relation to the highest pitched tones.
- The proportion of fat to muscle, which may increase by as much as 30%. Typically, the total padding of body fat directly under the skin thins out and accumulates around the stomach. The ability to excrete fats is impaired, and therefore the storage of fats increases, including cholesterol and fat-soluble nutrients.
- The amount of water in the body decreases, which therefore decreases the absorption of water-soluble nutrients. Also, there is less saliva and other lubricating fluids.
- The liver and the kidneys cannot function as efficiently, thus affecting the elimination of wastes.
- A decrease in the ease of digestion, with a decrease in stomach acid production.
- A loss of muscle strength and coordination, with an accompanying loss of mobility, agility, and flexibility.
- A decline in sexual hormones and sexual functioning.
- A decrease in the sensations of taste and smell.
- Changes in the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, leading to decreased oxygen and nutrients throughout the body.
- Decreased functioning of the nervous system so that nerve impulses are not transmitted as efficiently, reflexes are not as sharp, and memory and learning are diminished.
- A decrease in bone strength and density.
- Hormone levels, which gradually decline. The thyroid and sexual hormones are particularly affected.
- Declining visual abilities. Age-related changes may lead to diseases such as macular degeneration.
- A compromised ability to produce vitamin D from sunlight.
- A reduction in protein formation leading to shrinkage in muscle mass and decreased bone formation, possibly leading to osteoporosis.
Causes and symptoms
- Programmed senescence, or aging clock, theory. The aging of the cells of each individual is programmed into the genes, and there is a preset number of possible rejuvenations in the life of a given cell. When cells die at a rate faster than they are replaced, organs do not function properly, and they are soon unable to maintain the functions necessary for life.
- Genetic theory. Human cells maintain their own seed of destruction at the level of the chromosomes.
- Connective tissue, or cross-linking theory. Changes in the make-up of the connective tissue alter the stability of body structures, causing a loss of elasticity and functioning, and leading to symptoms of aging.
- Free-radical theory. The most commonly held theory of aging, it is based on the fact that ongoing chemical reactions of the cells produce free radicals. In the presence of oxygen, these free radicals cause the cells of the body to break down. As time goes on, more cells die or lose the ability to function, and the body soon ceases to function as a whole.
- Immunological theory. There are changes in the immune system as it begins to wear out, and the body is more prone to infections and tissue damage, which may finally cause death. Also, as the system breaks down, the body is more apt to have autoimmune reactions, in which the body's own cells are mistaken for foreign material and are destroyed or damaged by the immune system.
- diminished or lack of desire for food
- increasing confusion
- failure to thrive
- urinary incontinence
- weight loss
- Vitamin E, 400-1,000 IUs daily. Protects cell membranes against damage. It shows promise in prevention against heart disease, and Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.
- Selenium, 50 mg taken twice daily. Research suggests that selenium may play a role in reducing the risk of cancer.
- Beta-carotene, 25,000-40,000 IUs daily. May help in treating cancer, colds and flu, arthritis, and immune support.
- Vitamin C, 1,000-2,000 mg per day. It may cause diarrhea in large doses. If this occurs, however, all that is needed is a decrease in the dosage.
- B12/B-complex vitamins, studies show that B12 may help reduce mental symptoms, such as confusion, memory loss, and depression.
- Coenzyme Q10 may be helpful in treating heart disease, as up to three-quarters cardiac patients have been found to be lacking in this heart enzyme.
aging/ag·ing/ (āj´ing) the gradual structural changes that occur with the passage of time, that are not due to disease or accident, and that eventually lead to death.
AgeingDermatology Changes in the skin and subcutaneous tissues associated with growing older. Ageing effects (e.g., patchy hyperpigmentation, fine wrinkles, telangiectasias) result from intrinsic and extrinsic processes and reflect the physicaleffects of the passage of time. Ageing skin is usually associated with a sagging face, in which deeper tissues (i.e., subjacent soft tissue) and structural landmarks lose their resiliency.
Geriatrics A multifaceted process in which bodily structures and functions undergo a negative deviation from the optimum. Ageing phenomena include decreases in memory, muscle strength, muscle mass, manual dexterity, cardiac output, and auditory and visual acuity, as well as loss or thinning of hair. Other ageing phenomena include increased body fat, and increased risk of cancer, diabetes, infections, osteoarthritis, and osteoporosis accompanied by a decrease in height due to decreased intervertebral space.
Intrinsic ageing The immutable effects of chronologic ageing, e.g., atrophy-attenuation of epidermis, retraction of rete pegs, decreased number of Langerhans’ cells and melanocytes, general decay of structural dermal and epidermal components
Extrinsic ageing Effects of external factors, e.g., sunlight, smoking, gravity and gravidity, keratinocytic dysplasia, solar elastosis, and possibly carcinogenesis; intrinsic & extrinsic ageing are intimately linked and thus not divided
Inevitable & immutable Cataracts, decreased skin elasticity, farsightedness, fibrous replacement of muscle, greying, poor recall, slowed intestinal transit, prostatic hypertrophy, wrinkling
Inevitable but modifiable Baldness, cancer, reduced cardiac reserve, slow erection and ejaculation, decreased hearing, immunity, and vision, increased weight, liver spots (age spots), osteoporosis, decreased short-term memory, decreased stamina
agingA multifaceted process in which bodily structures and functions undergo a negative deviation from the optimum; aging phenomena include ↓ memory, muscle strength and mass, manual dexterity, cardiac output, auditory and visual acuity, loss or thinning of hair, ↑ body fat, ↑ risk of CA, DM, infections, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis accompanied by ↓ in height due to ↓ intervertebral space. See Geriatrics, Life-extending diet Dermatology Changes in the skin and subcutaneous tissues of those whose future is shorter than their past; aging effects result from intrinsic and extrinsic processes See Aging, Aging skin, Sagging face.
Patient discussion about aging
Q. I would like to know the best age for pregnancy? Hi I am Deontae; I got married before 1 year. I and my wife planned to have a baby after 3 years. But now she is 25. I would like to know the best age for pregnancy? Which will help us to change our plan?
so if your wife is now 25, i think you guys still have another 5-10 years to "accomplish" your family plan, hehehe...
Good luck, and stay healthy always..
Q. when is the most common age to get any kind of cancer? is there is such age?
Q. Does eyesight always decrease with age? I am 45 years old and never had glasses. All my friends are starting to wear reading glasses. Should I expect this too? | <urn:uuid:c17edd97-7be6-4da0-b663-8456362c5d93> | {
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- The word "depression" is commonly understood as feelings of sadness, disappointment, hopelessness, grief, and fatigue. These experiences may be felt by many college students and all of those emotions vary in some degrees from student to student. This can provide important information about how we are reacting to what is happening around us. For example, you received a low grade on a test for which you had diligently prepared. The difference is when someone experiences these feelings most days for several weeks. Consistent depressive feelings can become significantly problematic in such areas such as interpersonal relationships, school, and/or work.
- Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day
- Considerably less interest in activities that were once enjoyable
- Significant change in weight
- Inability to sleep, or sleeping too much
- Visibly accelerated or slowed movements and speech
- Fatigue and/or loss of energy
- Feelings of worthlessness
- Excessive and/or inappropriate guilt
- Trouble thinking, concentrating, or making decisions
- Recurring thoughts of death and/or thoughts of suicide
One does not have to experience all of these symptoms to be depressed and there may be some differences in how people experience depression. But, if you are experiencing a few of these symptoms, it may be beneficial to take some action.
What can I do about it?
- Depression is one of the most common reasons for seeking mental health treatment. Depression is treatable and individuals with such symptoms are usually able to find relief from their symptoms.
- Counseling and Wellness Services (CWS) is here to help. Often you may find that there are not simple answers to your problems, however talking to a therapist can result in finding new ways to look at problems as well as identifying suggestions and possible solutions. Therapy and/or psychological assessment are available to Wright State University students. | <urn:uuid:420dd67a-b156-4fb4-94f4-689307dda476> | {
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To "win the future," we don't need to be more like Finland, or Germany, or the next flavor-of-the-month country. Instead, we need to recognize and leverage our own unique strengths.
When asked how to boost America's educational competitiveness, a staple response is the emphatic assertion that we need to be more like Nation X. It can be South Korea, Finland, or wherever country the guru has visited most recently. But, just for a moment, let's entertain the radical proposition that a better course is to tap into uniquely American strengths like federalism, entrepreneurial dynamism, and size and heterogeneity.
Those besotted with international envy find it hard to accept that America's "handicaps" are the inevitable flip side of its unique strengths. Rather than figuring out how to undo them, we would be better served figuring out to leverage them.
American federalism frustrates "Nation Xers," who see states not as laboratories of innovation but as unruly children that need to be firmly brought into line. Thus, they champion national policies for teacher recruitment, preparation, and evaluation. Yet, as with welfare reform, our federal system offers invaluable opportunities to explore different approaches to incentives, monitoring, and delivery. Since the "right" model of teacher evaluation or preparation is hardly self-evident, much less the "best" way to help teachers use new technologies like computer-assisted tutoring or online instruction, this natural variation provides an invaluable asset.
American growth and prosperity have long been fueled by a dynamic private sector supported by sensible public investments in research, transportation, and ensuring honest and open markets. In automobiles, air travel, appliances, media, personal technology, software, and any number of venues, entrepreneurs have lit our path.
America is a really big country. By population, it's the third largest in the world, and it boasts the most racially and culturally diverse society in history. This is a huge impediment for those who dream of mimicking national policies suited to tiny islands of homogeneity, like Finland. However, this makes the U.S. capable of embracing and supporting many models of teaching and schooling, with each still able to reach critical mass.
The idea that America has unique competitive advantages in K-12 is a radical one. More prevalent are grandiloquent international best practice reports, from the likes of the National Center on Education and the Economy or McKinsey Consulting, in which the authors identify a couple of homogenous nations the size of Minnesota that produce good test scores, cherry-pick a few of their educational practices, and then draw broad prescriptions.
Such reports represent a triumph of the bureaucratic mindset and a disdain for America's historic strengths. Earlier this year, the Washington Post's Charles Lane eviscerated the fascination with Germany's economic "miracle" as a case of latching onto a "foreign flavor of the month." He recalled the awe that the smart set once evinced for the economies of "Japan, Inc." and the Soviet Union, and noted that Germany's current success benefits from liberalization "that made the country a little bit more like...the United States." Lane wisely advised, "[While] there's plenty we can learn from the Germans, Japanese, Chinese, [and everyone else]...Americans need to identify our comparative advantages--social, cultural, political and economic-- and exploit them, instead of worrying about copying the competition."
Embracing America's comparative advantages requires appreciating that, when the world changes, the challenges, as well as the tools, talent, and technology at our disposal, also change. Seeking to provide high-quality instruction to every child in the 21st century is a sea change from our agenda a century ago--when we only expected one student in ten to finish high school and when it was impossible to instruct a child who was 1,000 feet away. Today, we can meet new demands by drawing upon a talent pool and tools unimaginable in 1911.
American K-12 schooling is a hotbed of dynamic problem-solving on this front. Non-profits like Teach For America, Florida Virtual School, The New Teacher Project, Carpe Diem, and Citizen Schools are showing new ways to recruit and utilize educators. For-profits like Wireless Generation, Tutor.com, Pearson, Discovery, and Rosetta Stone are offering up a range of ways to harness new tools and technology to support teaching and learning. Figuring out how to leverage these new problem-solvers is a place where our state systems, districts, and schools have fumbled badly. This is an area where would-be reformers have devoted far too little attention. Meanwhile, not only have the "best" performing nations not done any better on this count, but the schemes promoted by those covetously eyeing Finland inevitably entail oodles of regulations and rule-writing calculated to stifle such providers.
Indeed, if we look to nations that are gearing up to lead the pack in 2052, rather than 2012, we see that countries like Qatar and India are busy spying on these American ventures to help them make the leap. We would be well-advised to take the hint, and to push forward by drawing on what the U.S. has always done best. | <urn:uuid:0386ba54-9a1d-477a-8319-8ad34e5a401f> | {
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2009 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - Afghanistan
|Publisher||United States Department of State|
|Author||Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor|
|Publication Date||11 March 2010|
|Cite as||United States Department of State, 2009 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - Afghanistan, 11 March 2010, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/4b9e531a82.html [accessed 13 March 2014]|
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
March 11, 2010
Afghanistan is an Islamic republic; population estimates range from 24 to 33 million. In August citizens voted in their second presidential and first-ever contested election; after his challenger withdrew from a run-off election, the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC) declared Hamid Karzai president for a second term. Citizens who participated in the election faced threats of insurgent violence; at least 31 persons were killed on August 20, election day, including 11 IEC members. The elections were marked by serious allegations of widespread fraud; a Taliban offensive to disrupt the elections through public threats, fear-mongering, and violence; low turnout; and insufficient conditions for participation by women.
The country's human rights record remained poor. Human rights problems included extrajudicial killings, torture, poor prison conditions, official impunity, prolonged pretrial detention, restrictions on freedom of the press, restrictions on freedom of religion, violence and societal discrimination against women, restrictions on religious conversions, abuses against minorities, sexual abuse of children, trafficking in persons, abuse of worker rights, the use of child soldiers in armed conflict, and child labor.
The security situation in the country deteriorated significantly during the year because of increased insurgent attacks, with civilians continuing to bear the brunt of the violence. Armed conflict spread to almost one-third of the country, including previously unaffected areas in the north and northeast. The marked deterioration in security posed a major challenge for the central government, hindering its ability to govern effectively, extend its influence, and deliver services, especially in rural areas. The security environment also had an extremely negative effect on the ability of humanitarian organizations to operate freely in many parts of the country, particularly in providing life-saving care. Insurgents deliberately targeted government employees and aid workers. Efforts to contain the insurgency by military and nonmilitary means continued. Reports of human rights violations were actively exploited and sometimes manufactured by the Taliban and other insurgent groups for propaganda purposes.
According to the Ministry of Interior (MOI), 1,448 Afghan military personnel and 1,954 government employees, primarily police, died as a result of the insurgency, including deaths by suicide attacks, roadside bombs, small-arms attacks, and targeted assassinations.
Civilian casualties increased sharply due to insurgent actions. According to the UN Assistance Mission to Afghanistan's (UNAMA) Annual Report on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict, the year was the deadliest for civilians since 2001, with 2,412 civilian casualties, compared with 2,118 in 2008, an increase of 14 percent. Taliban and antigovernment elements were responsible for 67 percent of civilian casualties, killing 1,630 civilians, compared with 1,160 in 2008, an increase of 41 percent since 2008. The MOI reported 2,590 civilians killed and 3,646 injured during the year. Taliban and antigovernment elements continued to threaten, rob, attack, and kill villagers, foreigners, and nongovernmental organization (NGO) workers. As in 2008, suicide and improvised explosive device (IED) attacks killed more Afghan civilians than any other tactic.
Progovernment forces also bore responsibility for civilian casualties. Airstrikes, whether seeking high-value targets or providing close air support on battles located in areas with high concentrations of civilians, remained responsible for the largest percentage of civilian deaths by progovernment forces; during the year UNAMA recorded 65 incidents of International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) airstrikes in which reportedly more than 359 civilians were killed, down 28 percent from 552 killed in 2008.
RESPECT FOR HUMAN RIGHTS
Section 1 Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From:
a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life
There were reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. In addition, insurgents killed civilians during conflict, and insurgent groups increased politically targeted killings during the year (see section 1.g.).
Taliban and insurgent attacks escalated in both number and complexity during the year. According to the June report of the UN Secretary General, in the first half of the year, security incidents in Kandahar city and the airport district of Damam increased by 80 percent compared with 2008. On February 17, a suicide bombing in Kandahar killed 80 men and boys and injured 90 individuals. On August 25, in Kandahar, a truck bomb killed at least 65 and injured more than 100 persons, mostly civilians; although Taliban spokesmen denied involvement, it was widely believed the Taliban were responsible for the attack, which may have targeted a foreign business.
Kabul became a key terrorist target during the year. On August 15, five days before the presidential elections, a suicide car bomb exploded outside the main gate of NATO headquarters and the Ministry of Transportation, killing seven and wounding 91 persons; Taliban spokesman Zabiullah Mojahed claimed the Taliban was responsible for the blast. On September 6, two rockets landed in Kabul, killing four civilians, including one woman and two children, and wounding three others. On September 17, Taliban killed 20 persons with a suicide car bomb at a major intersection. On October 8, Taliban killed 17 individuals in a bomb attack on the Indian Embassy. On October 28, insurgents killed 11 persons, including five UN staffers, and injured at least nine others, in an attack on a Kabul UN guesthouse. On November 16, Taliban fired rockets into a bazaar northeast of Kabul, killing 16 and wounding 37. Insurgents staged a total of 36 suicide and IED attacks and fired 19 rockets in Kabul during the year.
Violence occurred in many parts of the country, escalating in the last quarter of the year. On August 31, according to Ariana Television, an IED in Kunduz province killed two children and injured four others. On September 1, in Jowzjan province, a bomb killed one child. On September 2, in Laghman province, a suicide bomb exploded outside a mosque, killing 23, including National Directorate of Security (NDS) Deputy Director Abdullah Laghmani, and wounding 54 others, including women and children. On the same day, Taliban insurgents hanged a man in Baghlan province on suspicion of spying for foreign forces and the government. On September 7, an explosion in Uruzgan province killed four and injured 20 persons, including four Afghan National Police (ANP) officers. On September 29, a crowded intercity bus traveling from Herat to Kandahar struck a roadside bomb in Maiwand, Kandahar, killing 30 and injuring 39; no group claimed responsibility for the attack. On November 16, Taliban raided a police station in the Arghandab district near Kandahar, killing eight officers and wounding three.
On November 27, gunmen attacked and killed Makhdoum Abdullah, the provincial head of Afghanistan's Red Crescent Society in Takhar, as he was walking home. President Karzai ordered an investigation into the attack.
There were other insurgent attacks that targeted civilians or injured or killed them during attacks on coalition or Afghan security and/or government targets.
On December 27, Taliban attacked the town of Langar, Badghis province, burning the girls' school and looting the health clinic. Three police officers were killed in the attack.
On September 15, construction workers discovered a mass grave in Kunduz province containing the remains of at least 26 bodies believed to date from the Soviet-backed government era. According to UNAMA's local human rights officer, provincial authorities marked the sites but did not conduct an investigation.
In July a foreign government began an investigation of a mass grave site in Jowzjan province that allegedly contained remains of 2,000 Taliban fighters killed in conflict in 2001. In December 2008 Physicians for Human Rights (PHR) reported that most of the evidence from the Jowzjan site had been removed.
According to PHR, there were 84 known mass grave sites in the country. There were no new developments regarding the April and June 2008 discoveries of mass graves.
There were no updates regarding the August and September 2008 insurgent killings (see section 1.g.).
There were no developments regarding the investigation of a May 2007 killing of 10 persons by police in Jowzjan province or in the October 2007 case of 15 prisoners executed at Pol-e-Charkhi prison under executive order amid allegations of lack of due process.
There were reports of insurgent groups and criminals perpetrating disappearances and abductions during the year in connection with the ongoing insurgency (see section 1.g.).
c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
The constitution prohibits such practices; however, there were reports of abuses by government officials, local prison authorities, police chiefs, and tribal leaders. NGOs reported that security forces continued to use excessive force, including beating and torturing civilians.
Human rights organizations reported local authorities tortured and abused detainees. Torture and abuse methods included, but were not limited to, beating by stick, scorching bar, or iron bar; flogging by cable; battering by rod; electric shock; deprivation of sleep, water, and food; abusive language; sexual humiliation; and rape. An April Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission (AIHRC) report stated that torture was commonplace among the majority of law enforcement institutions, especially the police, and that officials used torture when a victim refused to confess to elicit bribes or because of personal enmity. Observers report that some police failed to understand the laws regarding torture.
In May the local media widely reported that local officials in the Chora district in Uruzgan arbitrarily arrested and reportedly tortured five individuals. Officials released the individuals after three days of detention in exchange for money and weapons.
The Ministry of Women's Affairs (MOWA) and NGOs reported that police frequently raped female detainees and prisoners. For example, on September 15, Radio Arman reported that authorities had arrested three police officers in Dai Kundi province for the rape of a 13-year-old girl. An Afghan National Army (ANA) soldier was sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment for the September 2008 rape of an 11-year-old girl in Jowzjan province; UNAMA confirmed that the soldier remained in custody at year's end.
There were reports of torture and other abuses by Taliban and other insurgent groups. Media reports and firsthand accounts accused Taliban of employing torture in interrogations of persons they accused of supporting coalition forces and the central government. The Taliban contacted newspapers and television stations in such cases to claim responsibility.
According to the AIHRC, many of the children in detention centers and orphanages were exposed to physical abuse. According to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), cases of authorities threatening and mistreating juvenile detainees occurred throughout the year.
Prison and Detention Center Conditions
Prison conditions remained poor; however, the government took some steps to improve conditions within the Ministry of Justice (MOJ) prisons and detention centers. Most prisons and detention centers, particularly MOI detention centers, were decrepit, severely overcrowded, and unsanitary and fell well short of international standards. The AIHRC, ICRC, and other observers continued to report that inadequate food and water, poor sanitation facilities, insufficient blankets, and infectious diseases were common conditions in the country's prisons. Infirmaries, where they existed, were underequipped. Prisoners with contagious diseases and prisoners with mental illness rarely were separated from other prisoners. However, UNAMA observed significant operational improvements in conjunction with international support to train and mentor prison staff in the provinces. International observers noted that the MOJ and Central Prison Directorate (CPD) leadership were actively striving to improve staff working conditions and prisoner living conditions with the goal of meeting the UN minimum standards for prisoners and detainees.
The government reported 34 provincial prisons and 203 district detention centers. The government also reported 30 juvenile rehabilitation centers. No official information was available on the number of prisoners the NDS held or the number of facilities the NDS ran. The CPD reported 109 female detainees and 356 female prisoners in 23 detention centers and provincial prisons.
Children younger than six whose mothers had been convicted of a crime often lived in prison with their mothers, particularly if they had no other relatives. This practice was dramatically reduced under the direction of the CPD and in conjunction with the opening of the Children's Center Home in Kabul, operated by local NGO Women for Afghan Women. Women were not imprisoned with men. Authorities generally did not separate prisoners awaiting trial from the rest of the inmate population. Juveniles awaiting trial in rehabilitation centers were not usually separated from those convicted, nor were they separated in terms of age, nature of the charge against them, or other criteria.
The ANP sometimes lacked sufficient detention facilities. For example, in Lashkar Gah, Helmand province, ANP authorities detained 16 boys and two girls in a prison at a rented property of cave-type structures that lacked adequate ventilation, running water, or sanitation. They were reportedly adequately fed, and the boys received some education.
On August 18, on the 90th anniversary of the country's independence, President Karzai released 700 prisoners, including 23 women, and reduced the sentences of 239 prisoners. Their violations ranged from drug and alcohol abuse to adultery, rape, theft, robbery, fraud, forgery, manslaughter, and murder; sentences ranged from six months' to 10 years' imprisonment.
The MOI and the MOJ permitted the AIHRC, the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and the ICRC to visit all prisons the MOI and the MOJ operated. In November the ICRC was permitted access to a Taliban prison for the first time since 2001; they visited three members of the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) detained in Badghis province. Security constraints occasionally prevented ICRC delegates from visiting some places of detention. NGOs reported powerful local leaders and insurgents, including Taliban, continued to operate private prisons. In some cases tribal leaders may have held persons accused of crimes in private detention. The ICRC and the AIHRC did not have access to prisoners and hostages detained by insurgents.
d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention
The law prohibits arbitrary arrest or detention; however, both remained serious problems. According to a January UN report, many citizens were detained without enjoying essential procedural protections.
Role of the Police and Security Apparatus
Three ministries have responsibility both in law and in practice for providing security in the country. The ANP, under the MOI, has primary responsibility for internal order but increasingly was engaged in fighting the insurgency. The ANA, under the Ministry of Defense (MOD), is responsible for external security. The NDS had responsibility for investigating cases of national security and also functioned as an intelligence agency. In some areas certain individuals, some of whom reportedly were linked to the insurgency, maintained considerable power as a result of the government's failure to assert control. NATO remained in control of ISAF, which worked closely with the national security forces.
Official impunity was pervasive. Many observers believed ANP personnel were largely unaware of their responsibilities and defendants' rights under the law. Credible sources, including detainees, reported local police in many parts of the country extorted a "tax" at checkpoints and inflicted violence (including sexual violence against boys) at police checkpoints. Police also reportedly extorted bribes from civilians in exchange for release from prison or to avoid arrest. Police abuses generally have declined following international police training efforts. Observers alleged that the high acquittal rate in courts reflected the lack of training of judges, poor investigations, lack of evidence, and possible bribes to legal officials. Lack of formal education and low literacy rates among the ANSF and the judiciary hampered the consistent delivery of justice.
International support for recruiting and training new ANP personnel continued, with the goal of professionalizing the police force, including the ongoing implementation of the CPD staff prison reform and restructuring program. The international community worked with the government to develop awareness and training programs as well as internal investigation mechanisms to curb security force corruption and abuses. Training programs for police emphasize law enforcement, the constitution, police values and ethics, professional development, the prevention of domestic violence, and fundamental standards of human rights, in addition to core policing skills. The MOI reported that during the year, every new police officer received training in human rights. In every province two officers were responsible for human rights reporting. In Kabul 50 officers were responsible for human rights reporting, including internal police matters. Nevertheless, human rights problems persisted.
In October the government implemented a criminal case management system to ensure that suspects were appropriately charged, that evidence was appropriately passed from police investigators to prosecutors to courts, and that prisoners were not held past the duration of their sentence.
The Helmand Huquq (Human Rights) Department of the MOJ expressed willingness to train community leaders and justice providers with information about the constitution and its provisions against discrimination (including violence), but Helmand Huquq officials were unable to travel throughout the country due to the poor security situation.
NGOs and human rights activists noted that societal violence, especially against women, was widespread; in many cases the ANP did not prevent or respond to the violence.
Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention
Arbitrary arrest and detention remained problems.
The law provides for access to legal counsel and the use of warrants, and it limits how long detainees may be held without charge. Authorities often did not inform detainees of charges against them. Police have the right to detain a suspect as long as 72 hours to complete a preliminary investigation. If they decide to pursue a case, the file is transferred to the Prosecutor's Office, which must interrogate the suspect within 48 hours. The investigating prosecutor can continue to detain a suspect without formal charges for 15 days from the time of arrest while continuing the investigation. With court approval, the investigating prosecutor may detain a suspect for an additional 15 days. The prosecutor must file an indictment or release the suspect within 30 days of arrest. Investigation may continue even if an indictment cannot be completed within the 30 days. In practice many detainees did not benefit from any or all of these provisions. The media and human rights organizations reported arbitrary arrest in most provinces. Observers reported that prosecutors and police detained individuals on average for nine months without charging them, sometimes for actions that were not crimes under the law, in part because the judicial system was inadequate to process detainees in a timely fashion. UNAMA reported that police detained individuals for "moral crimes," breaches of contractual obligation, family disputes, and to extract a confession. There was little consistency in the length of time detainees were held before trial or arraignment. Postsentence detention also was reportedly common. According to a UNAMA report, in cases in which a prison sentence and a fine were handed down, impoverished prisoners sometimes remained in prison after their sentence had been completed. The AIHRC in Paktya province reported that it petitioned monthly for the release of approximately 50 to 60 persons detained because of lack of follow-up on their cases.
According to the MOJ, 20 to 30 children were detained on national security-related charges in juvenile rehabilitation centers during the year; all were male, eight younger than 15. Observers reported 11 more children detained in Baghlan, Herat, Helmand, and Kunduz not reflected in the MOJ data. The juvenile code presumes children should not be held to the same standard as adults.
Detained children were typically denied their basic rights and many aspects of due process, including presumption of innocence, the right to be informed of charges, access to defense lawyers, and the right not to be forced to confess. Some of the children in the criminal justice system were victims rather than perpetrators of crime; particularly in cases of sexual exploitation, perpetrators were seldom imprisoned as cases were seldom prosecuted, and some victims were perceived as shameful and in need of punishment, having brought shame on their family by reporting the abuse. Some children were allegedly imprisoned as a family proxy for the actual perpetrator, presumably a bread-winner.
"Zina," a criminal act under the penal code, defined as heterosexual penetration between persons not married to one another, technically means adultery or fornication. In practice police and legal officials often invoked zina to justify the arrest and incarceration of women for social offenses such as running away from home, defying family wishes on the choice of a spouse, fleeing domestic violence or rape, or eloping. Police often detained women for zina at the request of family members. UNAMA reported cases of zina in nearly every province. Authorities imprisoned some women for reporting crimes perpetrated against them and some as "proxies," serving as substitutes for their husbands or male relatives convicted of crimes. Authorities placed some women in protective custody to prevent violent retaliation by family members.
Authorities frequently did not rearrest defendants even after an appellate court convicted them in absentia. There was no bond system; authorities justified posttrial detentions because defendants released pending appeal often disappeared.
There were 963 practicing prosecutors; many of them lacked any formal legal training. More than 850 defense lawyers, 80 of whom were women, were registered and licensed in the country's independent bar association. The MOJ had 50 legal aid providers in 13 provinces. According to the MOJ, 14,857 persons were detained in correctional facilities nationwide, of whom 10,593 had been tried and convicted; the remaining 4,264 were awaiting trial.
The Criminal Law Reform Working Group, which included local legal experts and international rule of law advisors, completed its revision of the criminal procedure code and submitted it to the Taqnin, the legislative drafting department of the MOJ, for further consideration. At year's end the Taqnin had not taken steps to respond to the Criminal Law Reform Working Group's recommendations.
The criminal procedure code sets limits on pretrial detention, but authorities did not respect such limits, and lengthy pretrial detention remained a problem, in part because the overburdened system could not process detainees in a timely fashion. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), ICRC, AIHRC, and other observers reported that arbitrary and prolonged detentions frequently occurred throughout the country.
According to Radio Free Europe, in September President Karzai pardoned Sayed Perwiz Kambakhsh, a 24-year-old former journalism student serving a 20-year sentence for blasphemy for downloading and distributing material from the Internet that the courts deemed anti-Islamic. At year's end he was living outside the country in an undisclosed location. International media and human rights groups had widely criticized this conviction as a violation of freedom of speech and freedom of religion.
The Law on National Reconciliation and Amnesty, which was published in December 2008, grants amnesty to persons engaged in conflict during the past 25 years.
e. Denial of Fair Public Trial
The law provides for an independent judiciary, but in practice the judiciary was often underfunded, understaffed, and subject to political influence and pervasive corruption. Bribery, corruption, and pressure from public officials, tribal leaders, families of accused persons, and individuals associated with the insurgency threatened judicial impartiality. The Counter Narcotics Tribunal in Kabul, whose member salaries the international community supplemented and who worked within a secure compound, was an exception, and international organizations reported no evidence of corruption or political influence involving its officials. Other courts administered justice unevenly, according to a mixture of codified law, Shari'a (Islamic law), and local custom.
The formal justice system was relatively strong in the urban centers, where the central government was strongest, and weaker in the rural areas, where approximately 72 percent of the population lives. Nationwide, fully functioning courts, police forces, and prisons were rare. The judicial system lacked the capacity to handle the large volume of new and amended legislation. A lack of qualified judicial personnel hindered the courts. Municipal and provincial authorities, including judges, had minimal training and often based their judgments on their personal understanding of Shari'a, tribal codes of honor, or local custom. Lack of access to legal codes and statutes hindered judges and prosecutors.
The Supreme Court has overall responsibility for the national court system. The president appoints Supreme Court members with the approval of the lower body of the House of Representatives (Wolesi Jirga). Judges for the primary and appellate courts are appointed by recommendation of the Supreme Court and approval of the president. There were widespread shortages of judges; the Supreme Court reported there were 77 judges, including seven women. A national security court tried terrorists and other cases, although details on its procedures were limited.
In areas not under government control, the Taliban enforced a parallel judicial system. The Taliban issued punishments including cutting off fingers, beheadings, beatings, and hangings. On May 9, Taliban leader Mullah Omar issued "The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan's Rules for Mujahideen," which stated that beheadings were an explicit violation of the rules, possibly a response to ISAF's commitment to reducing civilian casualties. Nevertheless, on December 6, Radio Salam Watandar reported that the bodies of two police officers were found beheaded in Lashkar Gah, Helmand province. According to the report, Taliban had abducted the police officers in November in Helmand province. The code also called for a reduction in the number of suicide attacks; however, the Taliban more than doubled the number of IED attacks during the year.
Courts primarily decided criminal cases in major cities, as mandated by law, although civil cases often were resolved in the informal system. Because of the unreliable formal legal system, in rural areas local elders and shuras (consultative gatherings, usually of men selected by the community) were the primary means of settling both criminal matters and civil disputes; they also levied unsanctioned punishments. Some estimates suggested 80 percent of all cases went through shuras, which did not adhere to the constitutional rights of citizens and often violated the rights of women and minorities.
Trial procedures rarely met internationally accepted standards. The administration and implementation of justice varied in different areas of the country. By law all citizens are entitled to a presumption of innocence. In practice the courts typically convicted defendants after sessions that lasted only a few minutes. Defendants have the right to be present at trial and to appeal; however, these rights were not always applied. Trials were usually public. All criminal trials are decided by judges, as there is no right to a jury trial under the constitution. A defendant also has the right to consult with an advocate or counsel at public expense when resources allow. This right was inconsistently applied, in part due to a severe shortage of defense counsel. Defendants frequently were not allowed to confront or question witnesses. Citizens often were unaware of their constitutional rights. Defendants and attorneys were entitled to examine the physical evidence and the documents related to their case before trial; however, observers noted that in practice court documents often were not available for review before cases went to trial.
When the accused is held in custody, the primary court must hear the trial within two months. The appellate court has two months to review the case of an incarcerated person. Either side may appeal; the accused defendant who is found innocent may remain detained in the legal system until the case moves through all three levels of the judiciary: first court, appeals, and the Supreme Court. The decision of the primary court becomes final if an appeal is not filed within 20 days. Any second appeal must be filed within 30 days, after which the case moves to the Supreme Court, which must decide the case of the defendant within five months. If the appellate deadlines are not met, the law requires that the accused be released from custody. In many cases courts did not meet these deadlines.
Under Shari'a relatives of victims can pursue a case against a suspected offender. A judge can offer restitution or, in the case of murder, execution, which the relatives can carry out only if a member of the family consents. Under Shari'a, if the family of the victim forgives the perpetrator, the judge must issue a pardon.
In cases lacking a clearly defined legal statute, or cases in which judges, prosecutors, or elders were unaware of the law, judges and informal shuras enforced customary law; this practice often resulted in outcomes that discriminated against women. This included the practice of ordering the defendant to provide compensation in the form of a young girl to be married to a man whose family the defendant had wronged.
Political Prisoners and Detainees
There were no reports that the government held political prisoners or detainees. There were reports that a number of tribal leaders, sometimes affiliated with the government, held prisoners and detainees. There were no reliable estimates of the numbers involved.
Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies
Citizens had limited access to justice for constitutional and human rights violations, and interpretations of religious doctrine often took precedence over human rights or constitutional rights. The judiciary did not play a significant role in civil matters due to corruption and lack of capacity. Land disputes remained the most common civil dispute and were most often resolved through the informal justice system.
f. Arbitrary Interference with Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence
The law prohibits arbitrary interference in matters of privacy; however, the government did not respect these prohibitions in practice, and there were no legal protections for victims.
Government officials forcibly entered homes and businesses of civilians without judicial authorization. UNAMA reported that community members alleged theft of possessions during home searches the military conducted. UNAMA also reported that searches by members of the military or security officials involved conduct toward women that contravened local customs and angered local communities.
The law provides for wiretapping in certain cases, but there was no reported government abuse; wiretapping was permitted to track money laundering and narcotics trafficking.
The government's willingness to recognize the right to marry varied according to nationality, gender, and religion. The family court could register a marriage between a Jewish or Christian woman and a Muslim man, but the court required the couple to accept a Muslim ceremony. A non-Muslim woman had to convert to Islam before marrying a Muslim man. The court could not register a marriage between a Muslim woman and a non-Muslim man. These situations rarely occurred, however, as more than 99 percent of the population was Muslim. The courts registered marriages between non-Muslims, however.
g. Use of Excessive Force and Other Abuses in Internal Conflicts
Ongoing internal conflict caused civilian deaths, abductions, prisoner abuse, property damage, and the displacement of residents.
The security situation in the country deteriorated significantly during the year, and civilian casualties rose accordingly. Increases in coalition operations and insurgent attacks caused civilian casualties to rise. Persistent Taliban and antigovernment activity, interfactional fighting between regional warlords, and criminal activity resulted in hundreds of unlawful killings and civilian casualties.
UNAMA reported that Taliban and antigovernment forces killed 1,630 civilians, progovernment forces killed 596 civilians, and unknown actors killed 186 civilians, for a total of 2,412 civilian casualties, an increase of 14 percent over the 2,118 civilian deaths recorded in 2008. Taliban and antigovernment elements remained responsible for 67 percent of civilian casualties.
Insurgent suicide attacks increased significantly, with 281 suicide attacks during the year, compared with 138 suicide attacks in 2008. UNAMA recorded 773 IED attacks during the year, which insurgents used extensively and increasingly; suicide and IED attacks combined caused 1,054 civilian deaths, or 44 percent of the total civilian causalities. The Taliban and other insurgent groups were responsible for nearly three times as many casualties as progovernment forces.
Insurgents targeted national and government officials, foreigners, and local NGO employees.
Insurgents targeted and killed government officials during the year. The MOI reported 964 police were killed and 1,787 were injured as a result of insurgent attacks. On August 27, in Kunduz, an IED killed Qari Jan Gir, the head of the Justice Department of Kunduz, and on August 30, in six separate incidents in four provinces, insurgents killed 11 police officers and at least six civilians. Targeted killings included an attack on May 4 that killed the mayor of Mehterlam city in Laghman as well as six civilians; and on June 21, a series of attacks on government buildings in Jalalabad and Gardez that killed nine persons. On December 15, a remotely detonated roadside IED killed Koshk District police chief Colonel Abdul Karim and three other police near the district headquarters. Karim was the second Koshk district police chief and the fourth district police chief in Herat province to be killed during the year. The Taliban claimed responsibility. The ANP arrested seven persons in connection with the case.
On July 19, in the period before the election, gunmen killed Jan Mohammad, a candidate for provincial council in Kunduz, while he was campaigning. This was the first time a provincial council candidate had been assassinated in Kunduz Province.
According to the International Crisis Group, at least 31 persons were killed on election day. Security officials reported that 11 civilians and 20 police and soldiers were killed in election-related violence.
During the year antigovernment elements continued to attack progovernment religious leaders. According to the MOI, the Taliban killed at least 71 clerics and committed at least 17 acts of violence inside mosques and other religious facilities. Tolo TV reported that on September 9, insurgents killed a mullah in a mosque in Ghazni province after he spoke out against insurgent forces.
According to UNICEF, from January to June, there were 470 confirmed targeted attacks on education (schools, teachers, staff, and pupils), resulting in 30 deaths and 186 injuries to schoolchildren, teachers, and other school employees. According to data from the Ministry of Education (MOE) referenced by Human Rights Watch, from April to August, insurgents attacked 102 schools using explosives or arson and killed 105 students and teachers. There were no updates on the May or June 2008 killings of teachers (see section 6).
ISAF airstrikes remained responsible for the largest percentage of civilian deaths by progovernment forces; during the year UNAMA recorded 65 airstrikes in which reportedly more than 359 civilians were killed, a 28 percent decrease from 2008. The decline in civilian casualties reflected ISAF's changed tactics as part of a major commitment to minimize civilian casualties in the armed conflict. Nevertheless, during the year there were several high-profile incidents. On May 4, in Bala Baluk, Farah province, a coalition airstrike targeting the Taliban reportedly killed more than 60 women and children; following its investigations into the event, the U.S. military acknowledged that it had failed to comply with guidelines for protecting civilians. On September 4, a coalition airstrike targeting insurgents who had hijacked two fuel trucks south of Kunduz killed more than 30 civilians and injured nine who were offloading fuel from the trucks. On December 26, a coalition attack allegedly killed 10 civilians in Nanreng district in Kunar province; credible reports indicated that the civilians were armed and possibly underage. No further information was available at year's end.
The MOI reported 368 abductions during the year, at least one of which resulted in the death of a hostage. The Afghanistan NGO Safety Office (ANSO) reported insurgents and others kidnapped 20 aid workers during the year, a decline from 38 in 2008; all abductees were local staff. ANSO reported that most abductions were temporary and most abductees were released unharmed, usually due to the efforts of community elders. One person was reportedly killed while resisting an abduction attempt. Observers alleged that noninsurgency-related kidnapping was a form of dispute resolution.
Security officials arrested six suspects in the 2008 kidnapping of Humayun Shah Asifi, a relative of the late King Zahir Shah; the investigation continued at year's end.
Physical Abuse, Punishment, and Torture
Land mines and unexploded ordnance continued to cause deaths and injuries, restricted areas available for farming, and impeded the return of refugees. The United Nations Mine Action Center for Afghanistan (UNMACA) reported that land mines and unexploded ordnance killed or injured an average of 40 persons each month, a significant decline from 57 per month in 2008.
Numerous groups including UNMACA and Halo Trust organized and trained mine detection and clearance teams that operated throughout the country. UN agencies and NGOs conducted educational programs and mine awareness campaigns for more than 1.5 million persons, primarily women and children, in various parts of the country. At year's end land mines and unexploded ordnance imperiled approximately 2,000 communities.
The legal recruitment age for members of the armed forces is 18. There continued to be unconfirmed reports that children younger than 18 falsified identification records to join the national security forces and the ANP. There were no reports of forced child conscription by the government into the national security forces.
The government, with international assistance, vetted all recruits into the armed forces and police, rejecting applicants under the age of 18.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that insurgent recruitment of underage soldiers was on the rise. There were numerous credible reports that the Taliban and other insurgent forces recruited children younger than 18, in some cases as suicide bombers and in other cases to assist with their work. For example, in Uruzgan the Taliban reportedly used children to dig hiding places for IEDs. There were many reports of insurgents using minor teenage boys as combatants in Paktya province. In July in Helmand province, authorities apprehended a child before he allegedly would have been equipped to become a suicide bomber. NDS officials held several children in the juvenile detention facility in Helmand on insurgency-related charges. Although most of the children were 15 or 16 years old, reports from Ghazni province indicated that insurgents recruited children as young as 12, particularly if they already owned motorbikes and weapons. NGOs and UN agencies reported that the Taliban tricked, promised money to children, or forced them to become suicide bombers.
Sexual abuse of boys by members of the ANP and the ANA was widely alleged but unconfirmed.
Other Conflict-related Abuses
The December report of the UN Secretary-General stated that attacks against the aid community slightly increased during the year, becoming a nearly daily occurrence in the last quarter. On October 29, in an attack on a Kabul UN guesthouse, the Taliban killed 11 persons, including five UN staffers. The Taliban, tribal leaders, and other insurgents abducted security forces, civilians, and journalists.
As in 2008, suspected Taliban members fired on NGO vehicles and attacked NGO offices. Violence and instability hampered development, relief, and reconstruction efforts. In a study of 25 provinces, ANSO reported 114 security incidents involving NGOs and aid workers between January 1 and September 30. NGOs reported that insurgents, powerful local individuals, and militia leaders demanded bribes to allow groups to bring relief supplies into the country and distribute them. The difficulties in moving relief goods overland due to insurgent threats limited assistance efforts. Tribal leaders and low-level members of insurgent groups reportedly extorted bribes at illegal border and other checkpoints. Due to the increasing violence, the UN considered many parts of the country inaccessible.
As in recent years, the Taliban distributed threatening messages in attempts to curtail government and development activities. Ten jurists from Laghman province reported that judges and prosecutors routinely faced death threats and other forms of intimidation in their jobs. In addition to threats against persons working for the government or NGOs, the Taliban distributed "night letters" (death threats) and text messages warning citizens not to vote in the August 20 elections, including messages to an entire village in Uruzgan.
Insurgents regularly used civilians as "human shields," either by forcing them into the line of fire or by basing operations in civilian settings. UNAMA documented how insurgent forces deliberately deployed their forces in populated villages, with the intent of embarrassing international coalition forces and the government and increasing civilian casualties from airstrikes.
In the south and east, the Taliban and other antigovernment elements frequently forced local residents to provide food and shelter to their fighters. The Taliban also continued to attack schools, radio stations, and government offices.
Section 2 Respect for Civil Liberties, Including:
a. Freedom of Speech and Press
The law provides for freedom of speech and of the press; however, journalists increasingly were vulnerable to physical harm and reported numerous instances of pressure from multiple sources to influence reporting, including national and provincial governments, warlords, the drug mafia, foreign governments and individuals, and Taliban insurgents. Some media observers contended that individuals could not criticize the government publicly without fear of reprisal.
On June 14, the government detained two Al Jazeera journalists – a producer for the station's Arabic service and a senior producer at the English language channel – after Al Jazeera broadcast a report on Taliban strength in Kunduz province. Authorities released the journalists without charge after holding them for three days at NDS headquarters in Kabul.
On August 19, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the MOD issued decrees barring journalists from reporting on election day violence and ordering them to stay away from the scenes of terrorist attacks. Most journalists ignored the ban, but NDS agents beat and briefly detained 15 journalists who ignored the directive. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, security forces obstructed, assaulted, and detained Afghan and foreign journalists in Kabul and elsewhere on election day.
At year's end member of parliament (MP) Malalai Joya remained suspended from parliament for her 2007 criticism of her fellow MPs during a televised interview. Other members of parliament expressed criticism of government policies without incident.
Independent media were active and reflected differing political views. Although some independent journalists and writers published magazines and newsletters, circulation largely was confined to Kabul, and many publications exercised a degree of self-censorship. The freedom of speech law covered foreign media; however, they were restricted from commenting negatively on Islam and from publishing materials considered a threat to the president.
Violence against journalists increased during the year. According to independent media and observers, a combination of government repression, armed groups, and manipulation by foreign groups and individuals prevented the media from operating freely. Journalists were subject to pressure from government officials, foreign governments, and the Taliban and other insurgents, who harassed, intimidated, and threatened to commit violence against them.
Governmental officials intimidated journalists in an effort to influence their reporting. Media sources reported instances of provincial officials attempting to regulate the media based on their personal interests. Local officials asked the director of Uruzgan Radio and Television to obtain content approval before broadcasting television and radio programs.
Media sources reported that police detained journalists without cause. According to Media Watch, there were 85 reported cases of violence against journalists, including three killings, nine kidnappings, 35 cases of arrest, 12 cases of intimidation, 22 cases of beating, and four cases of injury. The Media Watch annual report noted government involvement in 57 of the 85 cases of violence against journalists.
According to many media sources, private Iranians, Pakistanis, and Gulf state citizens actively influenced Afghan media, shaping the media through both ownership and threats. According to media sources, Iranian sources funded approximately five radio stations and three television stations. Media sources indicated that the Iranian consulate in Herat threatened and rewarded journalists. Some reporters stated that Iranian embassy staff in Kabul called them to prevent the publication of articles criticizing Iran. There were also rumors that Iran paid secret salaries to a number of Afghan journalists in Kabul as well as in the western provinces, and allegations that Iran intimidated reporters in the western provinces to increase antigovernment reporting and decrease anti-Iranian articles. Media sources and analysts contended that many of the other private television stations and newspapers were bankrolled by, and produced content loyal to, various political factions, leaders, and warlords.
On October 5, police reportedly assaulted Wahkt News Agency (WNA) cameraman and photographer Mohammad Naeem while he was documenting the killing of a businessman and two security personnel by unidentified gunmen wearing military uniforms. The police confiscated Naeem's camera, beat him, and held him in detention for almost an hour. Police officers released Naeem and returned the camera to him after Afghan Independent Journalists' Association and WNA representatives intervened.
On October 20, multiple media sources reported that the MOI arrested editors Nazari Paryani of Mandagar Daily and Hashmatullah Raadfar of Nukhost Daily for publishing allegedly imbalanced information about the MOI after the newspapers had reprinted an article from the Internet. The editors were released after three hours through the mediation of Nai Media Watch and IEC Media Commission Chairman Sidiqullah Tawhidi. The Ministry of Information and Culture (MoIC) described MOI's actions as illegal. The case was referred to the government commission on media oversight.
Muhammed Naseer Fayez, news anchor and host of the political program Haqeeqat ("Truth"), arrested in July 2008 by NDS agents, returned to work on January 2 for Ariana Television.
The 2008 media law, published in July, is intended to protect freedom of thought and expression and legally protect journalists as they carry out their work; however, it contains content restrictions. Article 45 restricts works and materials contrary to the principles of Islam or other religions and sects; works that publicize religions other than Islam; works and materials considered defamatory, insulting, offensive, or libelous or that may cause damage to a person's personality or credibility; works and materials that are contrary to the constitution and penal code; disclosure of the identity and pictures of victims of violence and rape in a manner that damages their social dignity; and works and material that harm the psychological security and moral wellbeing of individuals, especially children and adolescents. Nai Media and the Afghan National Journalists Union reported that the MoIC failed to implement the law by year's end.
Media sources claimed that the independent media prospered despite the efforts of the MoIC to actively undermine an open and free media environment. The MoIC and some provincial governors exercised control over news content to varying degrees during the year. According to media sources, the MoIC maintained cumbersome licensing procedures. Before the election the MoIC complained that several new print outlets were operating without licenses. Factional authorities controlled media in some parts of the country. The Institute for War and Peace Reporting (IWPR) noted tight controls, especially in the provinces of Balkh, Jowzjan, Faryab, Sar-i Pul, Kandahar, Herat, and Nangarhar. According to journalists, many reporters exercised self-censorship by not asking substantive questions of government officials and by ignoring certain investigative stories. Powerful figures largely avoided media scrutiny. Members of the media reported they did not interview Taliban commanders or leaders due to government pressure; police in Helmand province jailed journalists for speaking to the Taliban. Some media observers considered it more difficult for journalists to operate in the areas of the country the government controlled than in Taliban-controlled areas.
On August 26, in Kandahar city, police severely beat a local journalist of Radio Azadi, the in-country service of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, and took his notebooks and sound recorder when he visited the site of a bombing.
On July 30, in Herat, police officers and plainclothes NDS personnel reportedly attacked four journalists as they attempted to cover a public demonstration against the police killing of a fruit seller. The International Federation of Journalists reported that MOI officials investigated the attack.
On December 3, gunmen from the Islamic Revolution Movement party (Hezb-e Harakat Inqelab-e Eslami) held Sepehr TV journalist Nasir Ahmad and cameraman Sefatollah for four hours in Kabul. The gunmen beat, insulted, and humiliated the men and destroyed camera equipment. Tolo TV reported that the assailants were possibly security guards working for a former government official.
On August 18, the government issued a statement requiring all news agencies to refrain from covering incidents of "terrorist activities or movements" between 6 a.m. and 8 p.m. on election day. Informed observers believed the order was intended to minimize public knowledge of polling place violence. NDS officials enforced the ban. The government also required journalists covering the election to sign a code of conduct specifying that the journalists could not publish "scandalous advertisements and disgrace reports about [a] candidate's personality or behavior that could affect the election results." According to news reports, on August 20, police briefly detained at least three foreign journalists and at least 12 local journalists. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, on August 20, authorities detained and interrogated a Japanese television correspondent for several hours, and also detained Dutch photojournalist Ruben Terlo and Rohulla Samadi, an interpreter with independent Afghan media organization Killid Media, for 30 minutes, after they covered a gun battle between the Taliban and police. Multiple accounts reported police beating journalists, threatening them with guns and confiscating equipment, but no serious injuries were reported. Almost all the reported incidents occurred at the scene of attacks by insurgent groups.
At least two journalists were killed during the year. On March 10, in Kandahar, two persons shot and killed Jawed (Jojo) Ahmad, a reporter working for Canadian television. Authorities had held Ahmad in military custody for 11 months at Bagram Theater Internment Facility, allegedly for having contacts with the Taliban; he was released in September 2008.
On September 9, journalist Sultan Ahmad Munadi died in a firefight between NATO soldiers and militants during the rescue of Munadi and New York Times reporter Stephen Farrell, whom the Taliban had abducted in the vicinity of a coalition airstrike in Kunduz. There were no updates regarding the 2008 killing of a Norwegian journalist or the killings of Abdul Samad Rohani, Ajmal Naqshbandi, Shakiba Sanga Amaj, or Zakia Zaki.
The Taliban abducted at least six journalists during the year. Nai Media reported that on July 10, the Taliban abducted Ariana Television Chief Ehsanullah Arianzai in Wardak province and held him for two days. On July 12, the Taliban kidnapped a journalist for Al-Jazeera English news in Kunar province before releasing him after several hours. On November 6, the Taliban kidnapped Norwegian freelance journalist Paal Refsdal and an Afghan colleague (who was not named in local or international reports about the incident) in Kunar province; they were released November 12.
On June 19, New York Times reporter David Rohde and his translator, Tahir Ludin, escaped their Taliban captors after seven months in captivity.
On August 11, in Kandahar, an IED seriously injured Associated Press photographer Emilio Morenatti and videographer Andi Jatmiko, who were traveling in a military vehicle.
The Taliban manipulated the media, especially print journalism, both directly and indirectly, by threatening to physically harm some journalists and by directly feeding news to others. Some sources asserted that the media underreported reconstruction efforts, for example, as a result of Taliban pressure to shape local opinion. Journalists reported receiving threats of harm if they did not publish stories released on Taliban Web sites, if they published anti-Taliban stories, or if they published stories favorable to the government.
The Taliban increased efforts to influence and control radio, which reaches more persons in remote areas than other media. In Kunduz two radio stations reported threats from the Taliban. One of the stations shut down as a result of Taliban pressure. Taliban spokesman Zabiullah Mojahed rejected Taliban responsibility.
Despite these obstacles, media sources and observers asserted that the country's independent media continued to expand and became increasingly sophisticated. Numerous international and local organizations provided regular training and mentoring for journalists.
The IWPR stated that broadcast media operated somewhat more freely than print media and that commercially viable stations received less government control than others. Nai Media stated that FM radio stations broadcast in many remote regions throughout the year.
Television broadcasts appeared to avoid some of the restrictions imposed on print journalism. Satirical programming was widespread; every private television station had at least one comedy-satire program that openly criticized government officials.
Prior to the August 20 elections, radio and television stations ran unprecedented candidate debates, forums, and interviews, widening the content and quality of information available to the public. Several stations ran live coverage on election day. Reporters Without Borders, Internews, and other news groups noted that equal time protections were not in place and many candidates could not afford to pay for messages, so unequal access to airtime for the more than 40 presidential candidates hindered impartiality. The Media Commission of the IEC did not find significant problems with candidate access to the media, although it stated that state media aired biased reports in favor of the incumbent president.
On September 8, Sokhan-e-Jadid, a conservative weekly newspaper, threatened the lives of Hasht-e-Sob employees based on their reporting of the elections. The same day, Tolo TV reported that IEC Media Commission Chairman Tawhidi warned several media outlets that they would be subject to legal action for slander of an Afghan national.
According to the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), print media did not adequately cover female candidates. Tolo TV showed a presidential debate focused on women's issues. Shahala Atta, one of two women running for president, participated in the debate.
The number of female journalists remained low. According to the IWPR, only 15 of the 54 recent female journalism graduates from Herat University worked in media. Mazar, Herat, Kunduz, and Faryab provinces each had women's radio stations. With International Organization for Migration (IOM) funding, Radio Television Afghanistan upgraded its AM radio facilities in Badghis, opening a media production center for female journalists. Women ran two private radio stations in Kunduz city, but the deteriorating security situation hindered their reporting.
Free Muse reported that on March 24, the MoIC arrested Fahim Kohdamani, manager of Emrooz TV, for broadcasting music programs allegedly "against Islam values and Afghan culture." Observers considered the arrest politically motivated because of the selective application of such rulings.
There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including e-mail messages. Tolo TV reported that the MoIC ordered four election-related Web sites to close, claiming they were "undermining the personality of presidential candidates" they favored or opposed.
Sayed Perwiz Kambakhsh's case involved government sanction against distributing information downloaded from the Internet; however, media observers believed his case was unlikely to function as a deterrent for seeking culturally or politically taboo information. Internet access was unavailable to most citizens; computer literacy and ownership rates were estimated at less than 10 percent of the population.
Academic Freedom and Cultural Events
The government restricted academic freedom by forbidding course content it deemed un-Islamic. Article 10 of the 2008 Mass Media Law states that academic research "shall be subject to prior approval of concerned ministries and institutions." Educators at public universities stated that they censored themselves when discussing questions of ethnicity; it was not clear whether the self-censorship was from fear of official or university sanctions or from societal pressure.
The MoIC tried to ban Indian and Western television shows and films. The IWPR stated that a former attorney general raided Tolo TV offices and detained journalists and administrators to intimidate broadcasters to stop broadcasting soap operas. Station owners spoke to members of parliament and reached an agreement that allowed the showing of shows censored for local sensibilities.
b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association
The constitution provides for freedom of assembly and association; however, security conditions and, in some cases, local officials restricted this right in practice.
Freedom of Assembly
A lack of physical security as well as interference from local authorities and security forces inhibited freedom of assembly in areas of the country where security was poor.
Pajhwok news agency reported on January 1 that police severely injured a demonstrator at an impromptu demonstration at a madrassa in Kunduz city. The demonstrator was hospitalized. On April 15, in Kabul, more than 300 women, most of them students, held a protest against the Shia Personal Status Law (SPSL). Five times as a many counterprotesters retaliated, some throwing stones at the protesters. On August 31, a spontaneous protest occurred in Kandahar city, when 40 burqa-clad women marched to the site of the August 25 bombing in a public display of mourning for the dozens killed and injured. On September 10, journalists, civil society, and human rights organizations in Kabul demonstrated to condemn the killing of journalist Sultan Ahmad Monadi in Kunduz province and demanded a full investigation. On September 12, civil society organizations and tribal councils gathered in Khost to protest provincial administration incompetence. On September 23, 1,000 individuals gathered at the Babur Gardens in Kabul to mark the International Day of Peace. On September 27, more than 5,000 supporters of presidential candidate Abdullah Abdullah gathered in Kabul to "stand against fraud." Also in September, nearly 60 citizens of Chora district in Uruzgan province protested in front of the provincial reconstruction team headquarters without incident. On October 25, women's rights representatives from 10 provinces gathered in Kabul to express concern over increasing insecurity and rising violence, and on November 30, religious scholars in Kunar spoke out against violence against women, saying women should be respected as equals to men.
Mass protests took place across the country after insurgents spread rumors that Western troops burned a Koran during a house search in Wardak province on October 15; the rumors, reportedly spread by the Taliban, took nearly a week to gain public attention. On October 23, students at Khost University gathered to protest the alleged desecration of the Koran, burning a U.S. flag and a picture of President Obama. On October 25, hundreds of secondary school students in Pul-i-Alam, Logar province, peacefully protested the desecrations. On October 25, hundreds of students turned out in two separate demonstrations in Kabul, one in front of the parliament building and another at Kabul University. An estimated 1,000 demonstrators burned an effigy of U.S. President Obama and hurled stones at police; police responded by firing into the air to disperse the crowd. Later, hundreds of students gathered at Kabul University to protest; at least three persons were injured, including two parliament security guards, and several students were arrested on charges of attacking the police and throwing rocks in public places. On October 27, in Kabul, Afghan police opened fire and turned a water cannon on approximately 300 persons who marched on the parliament to protest the alleged incident; at least 12 were injured. Also on October 27, 800 to 1,000 students staged a peaceful demonstration in Balkh province; students chanted anti-U.S., anti-British, and anti-Israel slogans.
On December 8, approximately 50 supporters of defeated provincial council incumbent Ohliya Amoor, including Amoor himself, staged an unruly protest in front of the provincial IEC office in Panjshir, throwing stones and breaking windows. The ANP made no arrests.
On December 8, numerous media outlets reported that hundreds of angry residents of Mehtarlam, the capital city of Laghman province, staged a protest against what they claimed was the killing of 15 civilians, including women and children, by U.S. forces in Laghman province that day. ANA soldiers fired into the air as the demonstrators neared the entrance to the governor's house; eyewitnesses alleged the rounds killed a man and seriously injured a child. On December 9, 2,000 students of Nangahar University staged a protest condemning the deaths of civilians during the raid in Laghman province. On the same day, more than 400 university students in Jalalabad protested, blocking a main highway. On December 26, hundreds of Nangarhar University students and faculty members blocked main roads in Jalalabad city, Nangarhar province, to protest the alleged deaths of 10 civilians as a result of the coalition military operation in Nanreng district in Kunar province. The protesters demanded the intervention of government officials to stop escalated attacks against civilians and chanted slogans against the coalition forces.
On December 27, approximately 300 tribal elders and Khogyani tribesmen demonstrated in front of the Nangarhar governor's palace to protest the recently released Provincial Council results. The demonstrators objected to the exclusion of several Khogyani provincial council (PC) candidates who had been included in the initial PC election results but omitted from the final list of PC members distributed by the IEC. The demonstrators also announced plans to coordinate with the Shinwari and Mohmand tribes of Nangarhar to organize several large protests over the next few days in Jalalabad, possibly blocking the main entrances to the city.
On December 31, in the wake of television and press reports detailing the arrest of four suspects in the September 2 assassination of NDS Deputy Director Abdullah Laghmani, more than 100 protesters gathered in Mehtarlam to demand justice. Although the demonstration was by all accounts peaceful, the protesters reportedly called for the immediate deaths of the four suspects. Locals speculated that the demonstration was organized by the Laghmani family. After congregating in central Mehtarlam, the protesters moved south to continue their activities at the intersection of the provincial highway with National Highway 7, which connects Kabul with Jalalabad.
There were no updates on the March 2008 protests or the May 2008 civilian killings.
Freedom of Association
The law on political parties obliges parties to register with the MOJ and requires them to pursue objectives consistent with Islam. Political parties based on ethnicity, language, Islamic school of thought, and religion were not allowed. Anti-government violence affected the ability of provincial council candidates and political parties to conduct activities in many areas of the country.
c. Freedom of Religion
The constitution proclaims Islam is the "religion of the state" but allows non-Muslim citizens the freedom to perform their rituals within the limits determined by laws for public decency and peace. This right was not respected in practice. The constitution also declares that no law can be "contrary to the beliefs and provisions of Islam." The penal code permits the courts to defer to Shari'a in cases involving matters that the penal code or constitution do not explicitly address, such as apostasy. The SPSL, which was amended in the summer to remove the most controversial phrases, went into effect for Shias in July. The Sunni Hanafi-based civil code governs the family courts for Sunnis and those the SPSL does not cover; this civil code also applies to non-Muslims.
Licensing and registering religious groups is not required; the government assumes all native-born citizens to be Muslim. In practice non-Muslims faced harassment and social oppression and opted to practice their faith discreetly. According to Islamic law, conversion from Islam is punishable by death.
There was no progress in the case of journalists Ahmed Ghous Zalmai and Mullah Qari Mushtaq, sentenced to 20 years in prison in 2008 for publishing a Dari translation of the Koran that allegedly contained errors and without the legally required Arabic version alongside for comparison.
Societal pressure forced Christians to remain underground, not openly practicing their religion or revealing their identity. During the year there were sporadic reports of harassment and threats against Christians. There was one known Christian church in the country. Citizens wishing to practice Christianity did so in private locations. However, a Christian television program called "Afghan Television" broadcast weekly by satellite into the country, and several Christian radio stations were on the air.
Public school curricula continued to include Islamic content, in accordance with article 45 of the constitution. Non-Muslims were not required to study Islam, and there were no restrictions on parental religious teaching. The Ministry of Education opened special primary schools for Hindu and Sikh children in Ghazni, Jalalabad, and Helmand.
Laws forbid proselytizing as contrary to the beliefs of Islam, and authorities could punish blasphemy and apostasy with death under Shari'a. Foreigners caught proselytizing were arrested and sometimes deported.
During the year antigovernment elements continued to attack progovernment religious leaders for supporting the government or for stating that activities conducted by terrorist organizations were against the tenets of Islam. There were no updates regarding the March 2008 attacks against clerics in Nimroz province.
Societal Abuses and Discrimination
Social discrimination against Shia Hazaras continued along class, race, and religious lines. Ethnic Hazaras reported occasionally being asked to pay additional bribes at border crossings where Pashtuns were allowed to pass freely.
Sikhs and Hindus were allowed to practice their faith publicly, although they reportedly continued to face discrimination, including intimidation; unequal access to government jobs; and verbal and physical abuse in public places. Kabul government officials bulldozed sections of the Sikh neighborhood in Kart-e-Parwan to build new roads, damaging numerous homes. The government stated it would pay restitution to homeowners, but by year's end it had not done so. The new road in front of the gurdwara (the Sikh house of worship) threatened the building's structural integrity. In November the government bulldozed the gurdwara's boundary wall to build a sidewalk and promised to pay restitution for the damage, but it had not done so by year's end.
Non-Muslims faced discrimination in schools. The AIHRC continued to receive reports that students belonging to the Sikh and Hindu faiths were prevented from enrolling in some schools, and others stopped attending due to harassment from both teachers and students. Hindus and Sikhs had recourse to dispute resolution mechanisms such as the Special Land and Property Court, but in practice the community felt unprotected. Sikhs and Hindus reported being harassed by neighbors in their communities and schools.
There were no reports of anti-Semitic acts. There was only one known Jewish resident in the country, caretaker of the one remaining synagogue in Kabul.
For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report.
d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons
The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation; however, social custom limited many women's freedom of movement without male consent or chaperone, and the government limited citizens' movement due to security interests. The greatest restriction to movement in some parts of the country was the lack of security. In many areas insurgent violence, banditry, land mines, and IEDs made travel extremely dangerous, especially at night. The government cooperated with the UNHCR, the IOM, and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to internally displaced persons, refugees, returning refugees, and other persons of concern.
Taxi, truck, and bus drivers reported that security forces and armed insurgents operated illegal checkpoints and extorted money and goods. The number of such checkpoints increased at night, especially in the border provinces. Residents reported having to pay bribes to ANP and border police officials at checkpoints and the Khyber Pass border crossing between Jalalabad and Pakistan. The Taliban imposed nightly curfews on the local populace in regions where it exercised authority, mostly in the southeast.
The law prohibits forced exile, and the government generally did not use it in practice.
According to the AIHRC and the UNHCR, women deported from Iran were referred to a safe house until their families guaranteed their safety. The UNHCR referred 17 Afghan women to safe houses from March to November.
Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs)
Afghanistan continued to experience high levels of internal population movements, triggered by irregular labor conditions, large numbers of returnees, poor service infrastructure in rural areas, military operations, and the volatile security situation in some parts of the country. During the year severe flooding in several provinces rendered families homeless. Authorities estimated there were more than 275,000 IDPs in the country at year's end, two-thirds of whom depended on assistance, including food. More than half of the IDPs were in the south. Many were among the more than one million IDPs who left their places of origin because of drought in 1995, insecurity and drought in 2002, and human rights violations and ethnic-based conflict linked to land and property matters between 2003 and 2004. These individuals resided in camp-like circumstances, primarily in the south, but officially organized and spontaneous settlements have sprung up on the outskirts of major cities, including Kabul, Herat, and Jalalabad.
Authorities estimated approximately 62,000 individuals were newly displaced within the country during the year, including some 45,000 individuals due to insecurity and violence linked to armed conflict in their region of origin; approximately 6,600 persons newly affected by drought; and approximately 9,900 affected by tribal, ethnic, or land disputes. Local governments provided housing assistance and, in some cases, food aid to conflict-affected IDPs through provincial emergency commissions consisting of the Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development, Afghan Red Crescent Society, UNHCR, IOM, UNAMA, and UNICEF. UNAMA reported restricted access due to insecurity limited efforts to assess the numbers of displaced persons and made it difficult to provide assistance.
On April 17, two earthquakes struck Nangarhar province, killing 22, injuring 59, and leaving 650 families homeless. Local authorities, the Afghan National Disaster Management Authority, the Ministry of Public Health, and the UN provided emergency assistance.
Returnees and other migrants faced high health risks, including HIV infection and drug addiction. HIV incidence in the camps increased fivefold in five years. The spread of HIV in part reflected increasing rates of injectable drug use, particularly among 15- to 25-year-old individuals, the largest age cohort in the country; they were also the largest group of drug users and the largest cohort among returnees who had not returned to their places of origin.
Protection of Refugees
The country is a party to the 1951 Convention on the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. Laws do not provide for granting asylum or refugee status, and the government has not established a system for providing protection to refugees.
In October approximately 500 Pakistani families fled to Kunar province as military activity increased in Pakistani-Afghan border areas. Local residents gave shelter to most of the refugees. The government did not provide free services to refugees. Refugees had access to primary education and other public services if they could afford to pay for them.
In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular group, or political opinion.
The country continued to focus on providing services for returning refugees, but the government's capacity to absorb returnees, often in conflict settings, remained low. The continuing insurgency and related security concerns, as well as economic difficulties, discouraged numerous refugees from returning to the country. Many refugees needed humanitarian assistance upon arrival. Common types of extreme vulnerability, as defined by the UNHCR, included minors unaccompanied by adult family members, drug addiction, mental illness, and severe physical illness.
In accordance with the Tripartite Agreement among the government, the Pakistan government, and the UNHCR, repatriation must be voluntary. During the year 48,320 documented refugees voluntarily repatriated from Pakistan with UNHCR assistance, a significant decrease from the 274,200 refugees repatriated in 2008.
In August the UNHCR suspended repatriation of local citizens from Pakistan due to insecurity in the country and in the processing areas in Pakistan. Pakistan abandoned its unilateral December 31 deadline to repatriate all refugees, and the Pakistan government's commitment to permit registered Afghan refugees to remain in Pakistan through 2012 was not formalized by year's end. In Pakistan three of the four refugee camps scheduled for closure during the year remained open. There were an estimated 1.7 million registered refugees in Pakistan, an estimated 180,000 unregistered individuals eligible for refugee status, and an estimated 230,000 individuals who may have been eligible for refugee status but who had not come forward to register.
The situation of the country's refugees in Iran – mostly non-Pashtuns – contrasted markedly with life for refugees in Pakistan. Fewer than 2.5 percent of local citizens settled in refugee camps in Iran; the majority resided in urban areas. During the year 5,801 documented refugees voluntarily returned from Iran with assistance from the UNHCR, compared with 3,656 in 2008. The UNHCR estimated that approximately 900,000 documented refugees, 43 percent of whom were Hazara, remained in Iran. The World Refugee Survey reported more than one million unregistered Afghans lived in Iran.
Iran continued to deport undocumented economic migrants. Iranian migration was mostly temporary and cyclical, with more than 400,000 adult male individuals staying on average for 3.5 years without their families. According to the UN, remittances from Iran exceeded 25 billion Afghanis ($500 million) annually. From October 15 to November 22, Iran deported 17,894 undocumented Afghans through the border points at Islam Qala, Herat province, and Zaranj, Nimroz province. Single males accounted for more than 96 percent of the deportations; many cycled back repeatedly. During the year Iran deported 292,229 persons, compared with 356,027 in 2008. The average number of Afghans deported daily during the year was 896, compared with a daily average of 1,089 in 2008.
The IOM worked to renew a Memorandum of Understanding with the Government of Iran to offer advance notification of mass deportations in order to avoid overwhelming destination cities such as Herat. It was reportedly less expensive to be smuggled across the border than to pay for a temporary working visa – approximately 25,000 Afghanis ($500) versus 40,000 Afghanis ($800). Despite shared religious beliefs for Shia followers, Afghans were reportedly subject to ethnic discrimination and were shunted into low-skill manual labor. There were also reports that the Mahdi Army, an Iraqi Shiite insurgency force, paid high recruitment fees to young men.
Section 3 Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government
The constitution provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in the August presidential and provincial council elections.
Elections and Political Parties
During the year approximately five million citizens voted in presidential and provincial council elections, and the first competitive presidential election in the country's history. Hamid Karzai was declared the winner. Elections were held amid significant security, geographic, and logistical challenges, including a prolonged intimidation campaign waged by insurgents. Nevertheless, more polling stations opened than in previous elections, the media and the public debated political alternatives, and the election followed the constitutional process.
Incumbent President Hamid Karzai and his main challenger, Abdullah Abdullah, both claimed victory ahead of the official verdict. After completing an audit and recount process that affected more than 3,300 polling stations nationwide, the Electoral Complaints Commission (ECC) invalidated nearly one million votes from the first-round election held in August, leaving incumbent Karzai with a final tally of 48.3 percent, just short of the constitutionally mandated 50 percent. Election officials scheduled a run-off for November 7. On November 1, Abdullah withdrew from the race, demanding major changes to guard against repetition of the reported widespread fraud in the August vote. Election officials declared President Karzai the winner.
International observers and civil society groups documented widespread instances of fraud, including ballot stuffing, ghost polling stations, and interference by staff of the IEC; fraud was especially notable in areas with high levels of insecurity, and insufficient female electoral staff and female election observers. Security arrangements were inadequate in many locations, and numerous irregularities occurred, including pervasive intimidation of voters and candidates, especially women. From August 20 through October 25, the ECC received approximately 2,800 complaints of electoral irregularities, of which 850 had the potential to affect the results of the presidential election, and 650 had a potential effect on provincial council elections. After conducting initial investigations, on September 8, the ECC ordered a nationwide audit and recount. Using a sampling method agreed upon by the ECC and the IEC, the IEC audited a sample of 300 polling stations nationwide and found that 58 to 96 percent of votes were invalid. After analyzing the complaints related to the presidential election, the ECC invalidated the results of 3,400 voting stations and found clear and convincing evidence of fraud at 1,900 other stations. According to the ECC, final numbers for voter turnout could only be estimated; approximately 1.2 million votes were invalidated from 4.5 million votes cast.
Two women ran for president and seven for vice president; 328 women ran for the 124 provincial council seats reserved for women, more than ever before. In some provinces open seats remained for women because not enough female candidates contested the election.
According to UNIFEM, of the 4.5 million newly registered voters, approximately 38 percent were female, although percentages could not be confirmed because there was no voter list. Both under- and over-registration of women were reported. Insecure access to registration stations and the lack of female staff led to underregistration. In some provinces local IEC officials ignored the physical presence requirement, issuing voter identity cards for women whose male family members registered them in absentia; 13 provinces where this practice was widespread showed higher-than-average rates of female registration. Women voted in separate polling stations from men, yet the lack of sufficient numbers of female election workers hindered women's participation. At some voting sites, women were turned away for lack of available female workers. There was evidence that men also proxy-voted on behalf of women in many cases, as occurred in 2004 and 2005.
Insurgents targeted civilians and election officials in a campaign to disrupt national elections. Insurgents killed 31 civilians, including 11 IEC officials, and injured 50, in at least 135 separate incidents of IEDs, small-arms clashes, and rocket and mortar attacks on election day. The UN reported there were as many as 300 such incidents. Night letters and direct threats were reported countrywide, including the threat to cut off fingers marked with voting ink. Some schools identified as polling places received threatening letters. Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN), of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, reported that on election day, Taliban insurgents attacked at least 26 schools used as polling places. Insurgents attacked a school in Paktya province the night before the elections as well as a secondary school in the Zormat district in Paktya on election day because it was used as a polling site. Also in Paktya, insurgents fired rockets at two madrassas serving as polling centers. In addition, insurgents fired two missiles at a school being used as a polling center. There were with no casualties.
The MOJ recognized 84 accredited political parties. Political parties were not always able to conduct activities throughout the country, particularly in regions where antigovernment violence affected overall security.
Women active in public life faced disproportionate levels of threats and violence. Many female MPs and provincial council members reported death threats. Women were also the targets of attacks by the Taliban and other insurgent groups. Women who received threats often moved throughout the country to evade those harassing them. According to UNIFEM, a female candidate's Kabul office was ransacked and tarred. A female candidate in Takhar province received night letters and multiple death threats targeting her and her children; her office was also vandalized. Armed men attacked the house of a provincial election candidate in Jalalabad. According to a Human Rights Watch report, the number of women in the civil service decreased to 21.4 percent, from a high of 31 percent in 2006. Most female MPs reportedly experienced some kind of threat or intimidation; most believed that the state could not or would not protect them. Some female MPs stated that unless the security situation improved, they were unlikely to run in parliamentary elections scheduled for 2010.
On August 4, female activists launched the "5 Million Women Campaign" to support female political participation, to encourage women to run as candidates, and to urge them to vote in the 2009 and 2010 elections.
In 2005 citizens elected 249 members of the Wolesi Jirga, the lower house of the National Assembly, in an election the majority of citizens viewed as credible. The president and provincial councils selected members of the Meshrano Jirga, the upper house of the National Assembly.
As required by law, there were 68 women in the 249-seat Wolesi Jirga; 30 percent of seats are reserved for women. UNIFEM expressed concern that the quota was interpreted as a ceiling rather than a floor, limiting the number of women to 30 percent. There were 23 women in the Meshrano Jirga. One woman served in the cabinet. No women served on the Supreme Court Council. There were 203 female judges.
There were no laws preventing minorities from participating in political life; however, different ethnic groups complained they did not have equal access to local government jobs in provinces where they were in the minority. The law requires that 10 seats of the Wolesi Jirga be allocated to Kuchi nomads. Some members of parliament disagreed with this allotment, arguing that under the constitution all groups were to be treated equally.
Section 4 Official Corruption and Government Transparency
The law provides for criminal penalties for official corruption; however, the government did not always implement the law effectively, and officials frequently engaged in corrupt practices with impunity.
Corruption was endemic throughout society. For example, in Helmand the ANP human rights director reported that promotion, job retention, and other rewards often were based on financial payment and nepotism. Prisoners and local NGOs reported that corruption was widespread across the justice system, particularly in relation to the prosecution of criminal cases and "buying" release from prison. Provincial police benefited financially from corruption at police checkpoints and from the narcotics industry.
A lack of political accountability and low salaries exacerbated government corruption. The international community worked with the national and provincial governance structures to address the issue of low salaries. Police mentors addressed problems of corruption among police and justice officials at provincial and district levels.
The government made efforts to combat corruption in the security apparatus. On April 18, the Attorney General's Office established an Anti-Corruption Unit. Before the August 20 elections, the MOI trained and deployed more than 100 officers as provincial Inspectors General (IGs). Although their role was initially to investigate election-related claims against the police, they remained on duty after the election as general purpose IG officers. The MOI removed 12 senior officers for alleged corruption, along with 14 others. Merit-based promotion boards became functional during the year, with at least three candidates competing for each job; the process of instituting pay reform and electronic funds transfer for police salaries continued. The MOI continued to obtain training for its IG office.
On June 21, the MOI implemented an anticorruption program based on a 17-point action plan approved in March. The program included mentoring and development, tracking and reporting mechanisms for incidents of corruption and abuse, and support for merit-based promotion and asset declaration systems.
As in 2008, the government electronically direct deposited police and military salaries, making pay a more transparent and accountable process and less subject to corruption.
Observers alleged governors with reported involvement in the drug trade or past records of human rights violations received executive appointments and served with relative impunity.
The constitution provides citizens the right to access government information, except when access might violate the rights of others. The government generally provided access in practice, but officials at the local level were less cooperative to requests for information. Lack of government capacity also severely restricted access to information.
Section 5 Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights
A wide variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Hundreds of local human rights NGOs operated independently and included groups focusing on women's rights, media freedom, and rights of persons with disabilities. Government officials were generally cooperative and responsive to organization views. The government cooperated with international governmental organizations and permitted them to visit the country.
The lack of security and instability in parts of the country severely reduced NGO activities. Insurgent groups and the Taliban directly targeted NGOs during the year.
The constitutionally mandated AIHRC continued to address human rights problems and operated without government interference or funding. The AIHRC was effective in drawing attention to major human rights problems, publishing numerous reports on a range of topics.
President Karzai signed the Action Plan for Peace, Justice, and Reconciliation in 2006; however, the government did not take any affirmative action in support of transitional justice.
Three parliamentary committees deal with human rights in the Wolesi Jirga: the Gender, Civil Society, and Human Rights Committee; the Counternarcotics, Intoxicating Items, and Ethical Abuse Committee; and the Judicial, Administrative Reform, and Anticorruption Committee. In the Meshrano Jirga, the Committee for Gender and Civil Society addresses human rights concerns. During the year these committees vetted several draft laws that went before the parliament and conducted confirmation hearings on several presidential appointees.
Section 6 Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons
The constitution prohibits discrimination between citizens and provides for the equal rights of men and women; however, local customs and practices that discriminated against women prevailed in much of the country. The constitution does not explicitly address equal rights based on race, disability, language, or social status. There were reports of discrimination based on race, ethnicity, religion, and gender.
On July 19, President Karzai signed the SPSL, a civil law governing family and marital issues. The law applies only to the 20 percent of the population who are Shia. Some Shia groups hailed the law for officially recognizing the Shiite minority; however, the law was controversial both domestically and internationally for to its failure to promote gender equality. Articles in the law of particular concern include minimum age of marriage, polygamy, inheritance rights, right of self-determination, freedom of movement, sexual obligations, and guardianship.
On July 19, President Karzai signed the Elimination of Violence Against Women (EVAW) law, criminalizing violence against women, including rape, battery or beating; forced or underage marriage; "baahd" (the giving of a female relative to another family to settle a debt or dispute); humiliation; intimidation; and the refusal of food. Penalties include prison terms of less than six months to the death penalty. Victims have the right to prosecute abusers, seek shelter in a safe house, and receive medical and legal aid, but the law was seen as only a small positive step for women, as implementation was a concern.
Article 17 of the EVAW law specifically punishes rape with life imprisonment, and if the act results in death of the victim, the perpetrator shall be sentenced to death. The law punishes the "violation of chastity of a woman ... that does not result in adultery (such as touching)" with imprisonment of up to seven years. Rape does not include spousal rape. Shari'a law, as interpreted in the local context and influenced by tribal customs, although uncodified, impeded successful prosecution of rape cases. The Koran does not specifically mention a punishment for rape, but under one interpretation of Shari'a, local tribal elders or religious leaders may treat rape as a form of adultery, punishable by stoning to death or 100 lashes of the whip, although there were no reports of such cases during the year. Under some interpretations of Shari'a, a woman who brings a charge of rape sometimes must produce four witnesses to prove that the rape occurred as a result of force. Accused men often claimed the victim agreed to consensual sex, which resulted in an adultery charge against the victim. The MOI reported 30 cases of rape in the country during the year, and the AIHRC reported 44 cases between January and September; the actual number of cases was probably much higher. The MOI reported 52 arrests in connection with rape cases. Statistics on convictions were unavailable. Rapes were difficult to document due to social stigma. Male victims seldom came forward. Peer sexual abuse was allegedly common; UNAMA Herat documented two rape cases in which the victims were three and four years old and the perpetrators were 14 and 20 years old. Female victims faced stringent societal reprisal, from being deemed unfit for marriage to being imprisoned. According to NGOs, authorities frequently raped women in prison.
The penal code criminalizes assault, and courts entered judgments against domestic abusers under this provision. According to NGO reports, hundreds of thousands of women continued to suffer abuse at the hands of their husbands, fathers, brothers, armed individuals, parallel legal systems, and institutions of state such as the police and justice systems. UNAMA reported a slight decline in cases of violence against women active in public life. A total of 1,708 cases were reported from January to September, compared with 2,322 for the same period in 2008; however, the number of incidents was believed to be underreported. Human Rights Watch reported that 87.2 percent of women had experienced at least one form of physical, sexual, or psychological violence or forced marriage in their lifetimes. Many elements of society tolerated and practiced violence against women. Killing and assault against women commonly involved family members as suspects. Women widely reported that they were victims of violence, especially sexual violence. Police response to domestic violence was limited, whether because of the crimes never being reported, sympathetic attitudes towards perpetrators, or limited protection for victims, even as witnesses to a serious crime.
Two NGOs that ran women's shelters in Kabul reported an increase in referrals from police; however, an increase in referrals possibly reflected improved ANP training and awareness. Authorities rarely prosecuted abusers and only occasionally investigated complaints of violent attacks, rape, killings, or suicides of women. If cases came to court, the accused were often exonerated or punished lightly. NGOs confirmed that domestic violence occurred in most homes but went largely unreported due to societal acceptance of the practice. Most domestic violence cases involved beating women and children. In some cases men burned their wives in an attempt to mimic self-immolation.
During the year 27 domestic violence prosecutions resulted in convictions in Herat. According to the MOJ, neither Ghor, Badghis, nor Farah provinces had domestic violence prosecutors; the penal code does not differentiate between domestic violence and battery and laceration cases. Most provinces reported only one or two domestic violence prosecutions per year. Women occasionally resorted to self-immolation when they believed there was no escape from their situations. During the first nine months of the year, the AIHRC documented 86 cases of self-immolation, in contrast to 72 cases in 2008. Other organizations reported an overall increase during the past two years. The burn unit of the Herat Regional Hospital, which draws patients from Farah and Ghor as well, reported receiving eight to 10 cases of self-immolation per quarter; 95 percent of the cases were female.
There were 11 women's shelters across the country, some run by MOWA and some by NGOs. MOWA and other agencies referred women to the centers, which provided protection, accommodation, food, training, and health care to women escaping violence in the home or seeking legal support due to family feuds. MOWA reported receiving two to three new domestic violence victims a month; however, space at the specialized shelters was limited. Women in need of shelter who could not find a place in the Kabul shelters often ended up in prison.
According to a UN High Commission on Human Rights (UNHCHR) report, "unaccompanied" women were not accepted in society, so women who could not be reunified with their family had nowhere to go. The difficulty of finding durable solutions for women who ended up in a shelter was compounded by the societal attitude toward shelters, linked to the perception of "running away from home" as a serious violation of social mores. The misapprehension that safe houses were a "safe haven" for immoral women forced them to operate nearly clandestinely and in a precarious security situation. In lieu of relying on shelters, girls who sought to escape violence at home were reportedly sometimes "married" or "engaged" to older men as a means of providing them with safety; observers noted that officials across the justice sector promoted and accepted this practice.
Policewomen trained to help victims of domestic violence complained they were instructed not to reach out to victims but to wait for victims to come to police stations. This significantly hindered their work, as reporting domestic violence was not socially accepted, and many women could not travel to police stations alone. UNAMA reported police leadership often did not provide female officers with equipment or vehicles to do outside investigations. The 42 Family Response Units (29 in Kabul, seven in Mazar, four in Kunduz, two in Bamiyan, and three opening in Jalalabad) were staffed primarily by female police officers who addressed violence and crimes against women, children, and families. The 897 women serving in civilian and ANP positions in the MOI (including 94 officers and 225 patrol officers) offered mediation and resources to prevent future domestic violence.
Women continued to face pervasive human rights violations and remained largely uninformed about their rights under the law. Discrimination was particularly acute in rural areas and villages.
Denial of educational opportunities, limited employment options, and ongoing security threats continued to impede the ability of many women to improve their situation, despite the progress women in urban areas made toward access to public life, education, health care, and employment. According to UNAMA, there was an increase of violence against women working in the public sphere. On April 12, Sitara Achakzai, an outspoken human rights defender and local councilor in Kandahar, was killed; the Taliban claimed responsibility, but those close to her believe the killing may not have been related to the insurgency and instead could have been motivated by other personal or political factors. She had received threats for weeks before her death and had informed government officials of the risk she faced. By year's end no arrests had been made for her killing.
Societal discrimination against women persisted, including domestic abuse, rape, forced marriages, forced prostitution, exchange of girls to settle disputes, kidnappings, and honor killings. Despite the constitutionally protected right to travel freely, many women were forbidden to leave the home except in the company of a male relative. Such cultural prohibitions meant that many women could not work outside the home, and often could not receive access to education, health care, police protection, and other social services.
In September, in Uruzgan province, a man maimed his 16-year-old wife, cutting off her nose and ears, allegedly because she had brought shame to the family by running away after years of domestic violence; she was rescued by U.S. military forces, who found her abandoned in the mountains.
Ariana TV reported 39 cases of violence against women in Nimroz province from January to November. The Department of Women's Affairs in Baghlan province reported 74 cases of violence against women from January to November, compared to 67 cases in 2008, including six killings, three suicides, 10 runaways, 10 cases of food deprivation, eight forced marriages, seven broken engagements, and other cases of physical abuse. The head of the provincial appellate court in Baghlan province reported one case of female violence against another female. Extended family violence was reportedly widespread. On November 4, in Laghman, a mother-in-law reportedly poured gasoline on her 16-year-old daughter – in-law; the girl's clothes caught fire from the cooking stove. The U.S. military provided treatment for first-, second-, and third-degree burns from her chin to her waist and financial assistance to the family.
Although police, prosecutors, and judges discriminated against women in criminal and civil legal proceedings stemming from violence and forced marriages, increasing numbers of female attorneys successfully represented female clients in these types of cases in both formal courts.
According to Human Rights Watch and UNIFEM, more than 70 percent of marriages were forced and despite laws banning the practice, a majority of brides were younger than the legal marriage age of 16; the practice cuts across social, ethnic, religious, tribal, and economic lines. According to the UNHCHR, only 5 percent of marriages were registered, leaving forced marriages outside legal control. The AIHRC recorded 28 cases from January to September of women given to another family for "baahd," to settle disputes or as a debt settlement, although a presidential decree outlaws baahd. The unreported number was likely to be much higher. IRIN reported that drug smugglers often demanded young brides when farmers failed to produce opium and lacked other means to repay their loans. In a practice known as "badal," a brother and a sister are married to another pair of siblings to avoid any payment having to be made.
Local officials occasionally imprisoned women at the request of family members for opposing the family's choice of a marriage partner or being charged with adultery or bigamy. Women also faced bigamy charges from husbands who had deserted them and then reappeared after the woman had remarried. Local officials imprisoned women in place of a family member who had committed a crime but could not be located. Some women resided in detention facilities because they had run away from home to escape domestic violence or the prospect of forced marriage. Several girls between the ages of 17 and 21 remained detained in Pol-e-Charkhi prison after fleeing abusive forced marriages.
Given the early marriage age, some women become widows in their 20s and 30s. Since widows were perceived as their in-laws' property, they could be forced to marry a brother-in-law, who may already have a wife; the late husband's family seized any property he left.
The AIHRC documented 51 honor killings throughout the year; however, the unreported number was believed to be much higher.
Prostitution existed, although it is illegal. Many observers considered "temporary marriages" a form of prostitution. Temporary marriages lasted from one day to a few months, in exchange for a dowry.
There is no law specifically prohibiting sexual harassment.
Couples were free from government discrimination, coercion, and violence to decide the number, spacing, and timing of their children, but family and community pressures to reproduce, the high prevalence of child marriages, and lack of accurate biological knowledge limited their ability to do so. Oral contraceptives, intrauterine devices, injectables, and condoms were available commercially and through provincial hospitals. Men and women were equally diagnosed and treated for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, when health care was available. NGOs reported that sexually transmitted diseases were widespread and typically went undiagnosed since most persons suffered from numerous untreated medical conditions.
Women who reported cases of abuse or who sought legal redress for other matters reported pervasive discrimination within the judicial system. Local practices were discriminatory toward women, and in parts of the country where courts were not functional or knowledge of the law was minimal, elders relied on an interpretation of Shari'a and tribal customs, which generally were discriminatory toward women. Most women reported limited access to justice in tribal shuras, where all presiding elders were men; women in some villages were not allowed any access for dispute resolution. Women's advocacy groups reported that the government intervened informally with local courts to encourage them to interpret laws in ways favorable to women.
MOWA and NGOs continued to promote women's rights and freedoms. According to UNIFEM, women made up 26 percent of government employees. The MOWA, the primary government agency responsible for addressing the needs of women, had provincial offices, but the organization suffered from a lack of capacity and resources. The provincial offices assisted hundreds of women by providing legal and family counseling and referring women they could not directly assist to relevant organizations.
Women and children were overwhelmingly the victims of preventable deaths due to illness. Of the 25,000 citizens who died from tuberculosis annually, 16,000 were women. Many households could afford neither the cost of health care nor transport to health-care facilities, and many women were not permitted to travel to health facilities on their own. Observers reported that 68 percent of the population had access to primary health-care centers within two hours' walking distance from their homes, an increase from 9 percent in 2002.
According to Save the Children and UNIFEM, the country had the second highest maternal mortality rate in the world. Only 14 percent of births had skilled attendants present, and only 12 percent of women received professional prenatal care. Early marriage and early pregnancy put girls at greater risk for premature labor, complications during delivery, and death in childbirth. Lack of skilled attendance during childbirth and lack of obstetric and postpartum care were key causes of maternal mortality. The number of trained midwives increased from 467 in 2002 to 2,500 during the year.
According to reports in the British medical journal The Lancet, both adults and children suffered from a broad spectrum of mental health problems, including depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress related to widespread social suffering and domestic violence as well as acts of war. Residents of Kabul were at greater risk, possibly stemming from social and economic stressors in the capital, including overcrowding, high living costs, widening inequalities, pressure on resources, and declining security.
According to Save the Children, although there was some diversity in household decision-making practices throughout the country, women generally exercised little decision making regarding marriage, timing of pregnancies, birthing practices, and child education. Informal social and familial pressure led the majority of women in rural areas to wear burqas, and most women wore head covering.
Citizenship is derived by birth within the country's territory and from one's parents.
Education is mandatory up to the secondary level (four years for primary school and three years for secondary), and the law provides for free education up to the college level.
According to UNAMA and the AIHRC, 6,139,101 students were enrolled in primary and secondary school. Boys made up nearly two-thirds of the school population. In most regions boys and girls attended primary classes together but were separated for intermediate and secondary-level education. Although the rate of secondary school for boys was 10 times the rate for girls, boys were legally identifiable as "heads of household" as young as age 15, and many boys were forced to leave school to work.
Due to insecurity, inadequate facilities, poor quality of education, severe shortages of female teachers, early and forced marriages, the perceived need for girls to work at home, and cultural pressures, the status of girls and women in education remained a matter of concern. According to Save the Children, only 5 percent of girls attended secondary school. In many families girls stopped attending school at age 11 or 12 because parents would not permit their teenage girls to be taught by adult men. Nearly 29 percent of all educational districts lacked girls' schools. Nearly 80 percent of educational districts and several provinces lacked secondary schools for girls due to lack of female teachers; the AIHRC reported there were only 216 girls' high schools in the country, most of them situated in the provincial centers. Girls' enrollment was as low as 9 percent in some areas. Since 2001 most girls enrolled in schools were the first generation in their family to receive formal education.
Violence impeded access to education in increasing sections of the country from 2008 through year's end, as the Taliban and other extremists, as well as criminal gangs, threatened or attacked schools, especially girls' schools, as well as school officials, teachers, and students. Where schools remained open, parents were often afraid to send their children, particularly girls. The MOE reported that approximately 40 percent of children were deprived of access to education; the AIHRC reported 26 percent. The AIHRC reported that half of schools did not have adequate, safe, and appropriate space for learning. Many new schools in rural parts of Khost province were burned or destroyed; some communities hired their own security guards to protect their schools. In Kunduz province, according to the director of education, seven girls' schools closed, all in areas of high insurgent infiltration; the director stated that Taliban "policy" regarding girls' schools differed from place to place, and in some places the Taliban allowed schools to remain open. UNICEF reported from January to June there were 470 confirmed targeted attacks on education (schools, teachers, staff, and pupils), resulting in 30 deaths and 186 injuries to schoolchildren, teachers, and other school employees. The MOE reported to Human Rights Watch that unknown assailants poisoned 200 students; 196 were female. On July 9, in Logar province, a Taliban bomb near a school killed 25 persons, including 12 students.
According to a report by CARE, many schools were attacked repeatedly. Girls' schools were targeted more frequently than boys' or mixed-gender schools. Government schools were more frequently attacked than schools run by NGOs. Helmand, Kandahar, and Zabul provinces reported the highest number of closed schools. In Helmand province, for example, 180 schools, or 71 percent of the total, were inactive from March to July, but the MOE reopened 100 schools over the same period; by December only 58 percent of schools in Helmand were closed. Only one school in Helmand was attacked during the year.
In Uruzgan province, education officials stated that state schools were open but many unofficial schools were also in operation. Individuals opened schools inside their homes and recruited local mullahs as teachers. In the Khus Uruzgan district of Uruzgan province, official schools were closed after insurgents abducted and beat the teachers. There were no updates to the November 2008 acid attacks against female students in Kandahar. NGOs and aid agencies reported that insecurity, conservative attitudes, and poverty denied education to millions of school-age children, mainly in the southern and southeastern provinces.
Child abuse was endemic throughout the country, based on cultural beliefs about child-rearing, and included general neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse, abandonment, and confined forced labor to pay off family debts. The Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, Martyrs, and Disabled (MoLSA) stated that police frequently beat children. MOLSA reported that more than five million children lived in need of humanitarian assistance, and it recognized 23 categories of "Children Facing Threats," including forced marriage, trafficking, drug addiction, and neglect. During the year drought and food shortages forced many families to send their children onto the streets to beg for food and money. Police regularly beat and incarcerated children they took off the streets. NGOs reported a predominantly punitive and retributive approach to juvenile justice throughout the country. Although it was against the law, corporal punishment in schools, rehabilitation centers, and other public institutions remained common.
The legal age for marriage was 16 for girls and 18 for boys. International and local observers estimated that approximately 60 percent of girls were married younger than 16. Under the EVAW, those who arrange forced or underage marriages may be sentenced to imprisonment of not less than two years. Article 99 of the Law on Marriage states marriage of a minor may be conducted by a guardian. By law the marriage contract requires verification that the bride is 16 years of age; however, less than 10 percent of the population had birth certificates.
The custom of bride money may have motivated families facing poverty, indebtedness, and economic crisis to pledge daughters as young as six or seven, with the understanding that the actual marriage would be delayed until the child reached puberty. However, reports indicated that this delay was rarely observed, and that young girls were sexually violated not only by the groom but also by older men in the family, particularly if the groom was also a child.
Sexual abuse of children remained pervasive. NGOs noted that most child victims were abused by extended family members. A UNHCR report noted tribal leaders also abused boys. During the year the MOI recorded 17 cases of child rape; the unreported number was believed to be much higher. In January and February, the ANP arrested men in three separate cases of the rape of boys in Jowzjan province. According to the AIHRC, most child sexual abusers were not arrested. Numerous reports alleged that harems of young boys were cloistered for "bacha baazi" (boy-play) for sexual and social entertainment; although credible statistics were difficult to acquire, as the subject was a source of shame and "dancing boys" was a widespread culturally sanctioned form of male rape.
In extreme examples of child abuse, observers reported several instances of deliberately burned children in Paktya; the children sustained burns after their parents submerged them in boiling water.
The AIHRC reported the following incidents: in January in Mazar-Sharif, three men raped and killed a nine-year-old boy; the ANP later arrested the men. Also in January in Jowzjan province, three adults raped a 15-year-old boy; the ANP arrested the men. In February in Jowzjan province, police made arrests in the rape cases of a four-year-old boy and a seven-year-old boy; police arrested the adult. In August in the Dihdadi district of Balkh province, a 28-year-old man raped a seven-year-old girl; police arrested the man.
Child pornography, reportedly widespread, is not specifically prohibited by law.
Children were used in armed conflict (see section 1.g.)
Children were displaced due to the conflict. NGOs estimated as many as one-third of all refugees were children.
NGOs estimated there were 60,000 street children in urban areas. Street children had little or no access to government services, although several NGOs provided access to basic needs such as shelter and food.
Living conditions for children in orphanages were unsatisfactory. The MoLSA operated 34 residential orphanages and 22 day-care centers, designed to provide vocational training to children from destitute families. There were 18 private orphanages in the country. NGOs reported that 60 to 80 percent of 4- to 18-year-old children in the orphanages were not orphans, but children whose families could not provide food, shelter, or schooling. Children in orphanages reported mental, physical, and sexual abuse; were sometimes trafficked; and did not always have access to running water, winter heating, indoor plumbing, health services, recreational facilities, or education.
Trafficking in Persons
The 2008 antitrafficking law was published on July 15. There were reports that persons were trafficked to, from, through, and within the country. The country was a source for women and children trafficked predominantly to Iran and Pakistan for forced labor and commercial sexual exploitation. Children were trafficked internally for forced labor as beggars or for debt bondage in the brick kiln and carpet industries. Women and girls were kidnapped, lured by fraudulent marriage or job proposals, or sold into marriage or commercial sexual exploitation within the country and elsewhere. Boys as well as girls were victims of trafficking. Men were trafficked to Iran and Pakistan for forced labor and debt bondage, as well as to Greece for forced labor in the agriculture or construction sectors. The country was also a destination for women and girls from Iran, Tajikistan, and possibly China for forced prostitution. Sexual exploitation of boys, reportedly more widespread than sexual exploitation of girls, occurred in every region of the country, and internal trafficking was more widespread than cross-border trafficking. The MOI reported 75 cases of trafficking during the year.
The government took steps during the year regarding legislation, prosecution, prevention, and protection. In April the IOM and MOI signed an agreement establishing a cooperative framework to combat trafficking and assist victims of trafficking and other vulnerable migrants, expanding activities to six provinces: Nangahar, Helmand, Nimroz, Herat, Balkh, and Kunduz.
The IOM provided the MOI with countertrafficking technical support and capacity building, as well as help for victims. The IOM trained multiple law enforcement sectors, including the MOI, MOJ, ANA, ANP, border police, security agents, and the special unit for combating trafficking. The IOM assisted the MOI in developing a database on trafficking and organized crime and trained MOJ officials and judges, including members of the Supreme Court, in prosecution protocols in the six provinces.
The MOWA cooperated with NGOs that provide counseling and shelter to victims of trafficking. The IOM, in partnership with local NGOs, established the only shelter for victims of trafficking, providing reintegration assistance, including education and income-generating training.
Selling of children internally reportedly continued to occur. NGOs reported cases of false marriage, in which a girl was exchanged for a bride price to a buyer who intended to sell her. The Balkh Department of Labor and Social Affairs reported to the Child Protection Action Network that it was aware of several cases of unmarried women selling their newborns to health workers to avoid the social stigma of a giving birth outside of marriage or as a means of providing a stable future for the child. In July provincial authorities arrested one person in Tarin Kot bazaar in Uruzgan for selling a child. There were unconfirmed reports of similar cases in Kabul and in Kunduz province. There were no updates regarding the 2008 cases of child-selling.
The IOM was actively involved with the government in all aspects of countertrafficking, including protection, prevention, and prosecution. Adult victims were sometimes jailed.
See also the State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report.
Persons with Disabilities
The constitution prohibits any kind of discrimination against citizens and requires the state to assist persons who have disabilities and to protect their rights, including health care and financial protection. The constitution also requires the state to adopt measures to reintegrate and ensure the active participation in society of persons with disabilities.
The ICRC reported that accurate figures on the disabled population were not available, but estimated 800,000 mobility-impaired persons, of whom approximately 40,000 were limb amputees. MOLSA provided financial support to 88,000 persons with war-related disabilities. Fewer than 90 percent of persons with physical and mental disabilities had jobs. The AIHRC reported that of the nearly 200,000 school-age children with disabilities, only 22.4 percent attended school.
In the Meshrano Jirga, two seats for presidential advisors were reserved for persons with disabilities.
There were no updates regarding the June 2008 violence between Hazara and the Kuchi nomads in Wardak province; however, ethnic tensions between the groups were reported in Ghazni province, fueled by conflicts over grazing rights, especially in the high passes in Jaghato, Nawur, and Kwaja Omari.
On September 22, the Shia Turi-Sunni Bushara tribes on Paktya's Pakistan border reached a negotiated settlement, but ongoing low-level violence threatened to reignite the two-year conflict. The Bushara villages were surrounded by Turi tribal lands, and the Turi people were frequent victims of insurgent attacks.
Ethnic tensions between Pashtun and non-Pashtun groups, particularly in the Moqur and Qadis districts, resulted in conflict and occasional killings. In February members of a Pashtun group killed Hafizollah, a prominent non-Pashtun, and several of his family members. In retaliation, members of the non-Pashtun group killed several Pashtuns. In September, non-Pashtuns assassinated a Pashtun leader, Mowin Gholan, in retaliation for the killing of Hafizollah.
Claims of social discrimination against Hazaras and other Shias continued.
On September 6, Deputy Minister of Defense Akram acknowledged to the parliament that linguistic and ethnic discrimination occurred in the ANA. Observers claimed that soldiers with former Northern Alliance affiliation actively discriminated against soldiers from the southern provinces. Soldiers also reportedly discriminated along ethnic lines when harassing drivers at checkpoints.
Confiscation and illegal occupation of land by powerful individuals, in some cases tied to the insurgency, caused displacement in some situations. Discrimination continued in some areas, in the form of extortion of money through illegal taxation, forced recruitment and forced labor, physical abuse, and detention.
Ethnic minorities continued to face oppression, including economic oppression. Dasht-i Barchi, one of Kabul's poorest neighborhoods, was home to a large Hazara population. Average earnings per day were 13 Afghanis (25 cents) per person, although the minimum wage was 63 Afghanis ($1.25) per day; average household size was nine to 10 persons. In Dasht-i Barchi, 60 percent of all families rented their homes and were therefore subject to landlord exploitation; 50 percent of families' income went to cover rent, and families moved frequently.
Observers noted that groups of migrant workers in Paktya province were regularly attacked and robbed just after receiving their salaries and prior to their departure from the province. Labor violations against migrant workers were also common; many companies allegedly did not pay local laborers for months at a time.
NGOs reported that although Ismailis (a minority Shia Muslim group who follow the Aga Khan) were not generally targeted or seriously discriminated against, they continued to be exposed to risks.
Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
The law criminalizes homosexual activity; however, authorities only sporadically enforced the prohibition. Organizations devoted to the protection or exercise of freedom of sexual orientation remained underground. There were no reported instances of discrimination or violence based on sexual orientation, but social taboos remained strong.
Other Societal Violence or Discrimination
There were no known instances of discrimination or violence against persons with HIV/AIDS, but there was reportedly high social stigma against persons with AIDS.
Section 7 Worker Rights
a. The Right of Association
The 1987 Labor Code allows workers to join and form unions. The government allowed several unions, including Central Council National Union Afghanistan Employees, the largest, and several smaller unions to operate without interference. Implementation of labor laws remained a problem due to lack of funding, personnel, political will, and central enforcement authority. Workers were not aware of their rights.
b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively
The law allows workers to join independent trade unions. The country lacked a tradition of genuine labor-management bargaining. Articles 137-146 of the labor law identify the Labor Dispute Settlement Commission as the body investigating labor disputes.
There are no export processing zones.
c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor
The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor; however, there were reports that such practices occurred. There were reports that women and girls were given away as household laborers to another family to settle disputes and debts. Many employers subjected child laborers to sexual exploitation and forced labor.
d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment
In July the 2008 labor code went into effect, setting the minimum age for employment at 18 years but permitting children 15 years and older to do "light work." Children between ages 16 and 18 may work only 35 hours per week. Children 14 years and older may work as apprentices. Children younger than 13 were prohibited from work under any circumstances, although this law was not observed in practice. There was no evidence that authorities in any part of the country enforced child labor laws.
Child labor remained a pervasive problem. According to UNICEF estimates, at least 30 percent of primary school-age children undertook some form of work and there were more than one million child laborers younger than 14. The AIHRC reported that 43 percent of child laborers were younger than 12 and 35 percent were between 12 and 15. Many child laborers worked as domestic servants, street vendors, peddlers, or shopkeepers. Children worked in the worst forms of child labor in several sectors, including carpet weaving, brick making, and poppy harvesting. Children were also heavily employed in agriculture, mining (especially family-owned gem mines), and organized begging rings. Some sectors of child labor exposed children to land mines. According to the AIHRC, 85 percent of child laborers were boys, but this figure did not include the uncounted number of girls who perform domestic work in their homes. Many families stated that they needed the income their children provided, but many reportedly also believed that work was useful for children. MOLSA and the Aschiana Foundation reported approximately 60,000 child laborers in Kabul alone, the majority of whom migrated to the city from other provinces. Children faced numerous health and safety risks at work, and some of them sustained serious injuries such as broken bones.
Carpet weaving was especially dangerous for children, particularly in urban settings, as the enclosed spaces where they lived and worked exposed them to upper respiratory diseases, eyestrain, and spinal and muscular damage. Parents sometimes administered narcotics to their children to ease their physical pain. Children were considered suitable to learn carpet weaving at age five, and many children began working in this sector at an early age; families typically worked together weaving carpets, earning 1,500 Afghanis ($30) per month for their efforts, well below the minimum wage.
In August the Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs launched its first report on the Convention of the Rights of the Child. The report recommended judicial and legal system reforms to ensure national compliance with international standards of child rights. The international community lauded the report as a milestone for children's rights in Afghanistan.
e. Acceptable Conditions of Work
In July President Karzai signed a law doubling the minimum wage to 4,000 Afghanis ($80) for government workers. The minimum wage was 2,000 Afghanis per month ($40) in the private sector, but in practice wages were not protected. The minimum wage did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Wages were determined by market forces, informal negotiation, or, in the case of government workers, dictated by the government. Many workers were hired as day laborers.
The law defines the standard workweek as 40 hours: eight hours per day with one hour for lunch and noon prayers. Reduced standard workweeks were stipulated for youth, pregnant women, nursing mothers, and miners and other occupations that present health risks. The law provides workers the right to receive wages, annual vacation time in addition to national holidays, compensation for injuries suffered in the line of work, overtime pay, health insurance for the employee and immediate family members, per diem for official trips, daily transportation, food allowances, night shift differentials, retirement rights, and compensation for funeral expenses in case of death while performing official duties. These standards were not effectively enforced, and citizens generally were not aware of the full extent of their labor rights under the law.
There were no occupational health and safety standards and no enforcement mechanism. Employment was at will, and MOLSA did not enforce the existing legal protections for workers. Workers did not have the right to remove themselves from situations that endangered their health or safety without jeopardizing their employment, as all employment could be terminated without cause. | <urn:uuid:b69e3d23-e02c-4d52-ab0b-b9bf4454d44f> | {
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Office - (404) 633-3777
GLUCOSAMINE NOT SHOWN TO BENEFIT OSTEOARTHRITIS OF THE KNEE
PHILADELPHIA – Glucosamine may not help to prevent joint damage in osteoarthritis of the knee, according to research presented this week at the American College of Rheumatology Annual Scientific Meeting in Philadelphia, Pa.
Osteoarthritis, or OA as it is commonly called, is the most common joint disease affecting middle-aged and older people. It is characterized by progressive damage to the joint cartilage—the slippery material at the end of long bones—and causes changes in the structures around the joint. These changes can include fluid accumulation, bony overgrowth, and loosening and weakness of muscles and tendons, all of which may limit movement and cause pain and swelling.
Most commonly affected are the weight-bearing joints—the knees, hips and spine. Osteoarthritis in the knee and hip areas can generate chronic pain or discomfort during standing or walking.
Prior studies of glucosamine and its role in the prevention of joint damage in knee OA, as assessed by X-ray, have produced conflicting results. Researchers recently set out to determine the short-term effectiveness of glucosamine in preventing of the worsening of cartilage damage in knee OA in a 24-week study.
The study included 201 participants—49 percent were women—with a mean age of 52 years old—who had mild to moderate knee pain. Participants were randomly placed into two groups with 98 participants receiving glucosamine and 103 receiving placebo.
Each participant had an MRI and knee X-rays performed on both knees at the beginning of the study and again at 24 weeks into the study. Researchers factored in things like age, sex, body mass index and joint space narrowing to determine the odds of developing cartilage damage, bone marrow lesions and synovitis in both groups.
Researchers found that the odds of worsening cartilage damage in the glucosamine group were the same as for those patients in the placebo group. The odds of worsening bone lesions were also found to be the same for both groups. In addition, when using a urine biomarker as a basis for comparison, no difference in cartilage synthesis was found between the two groups,
“In this six-month study using state-of-the-art MR imaging we were not able to demonstrate any benefit of glucosamine on the prevention of worsening joint damage in individuals with mild to moderate knee pain,” explains C. Kent Kwoh, MD; professor of medicine and epidemiology, division of rheumatology and clinical immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pa., and lead investigator in the study.
The ACR is an organization of and for physicians, health professionals, and scientists that advances rheumatology through programs of education, research, advocacy and practice support that foster excellence in the care of people with or at risk for arthritis and rheumatic and musculoskeletal diseases. For more information on the ACR’s annual meeting, see www.rheumatology.org/annual.
Editor’s Notes: Dr. Kwoh will present this research during the ACR Annual Scientific Meeting at the Pennsylvania Convention Center at 5:00 pm on Tuesday, October 20 in Room 108 B. Dr. Kwoh will be available for media questions and briefing at 1:30 pm on Monday, October 19 in the on-site press conference room, 109 A.
Presentation Number: 1942
The Joints On Glucosamine (JOG) Study: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial to Assess the Structural Benefit of Glucosamine in Knee Osteoarthritis Based On 3T MRI
C. Kent Kwoh, MD , Rheum & Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, PA
Frank W. Roemer, M.D., Department of Radiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA
Michael J. Hannon, MA, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
Carolyn E. Moore, Texas Woman's University, Houston, TX
John M. Jakicic, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
Ali Guermazi, M.D. , Department of Radiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA
Stephanie M. Green, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
Robert M. Boudreau, PhD, Epidemiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
Purpose: Prior studies of the structural benefit of glucosamine in knee osteoarthritis (KOA) as assessed by radiographs have yielded conflicting results. The aim of this study was to determine the short-term efficacy of glucosamine based on decreased worsening of structural lesions in KOA as assessed using 3T MRI.
Method: The Joints on Glucosamine (JOG) study was a 24-week double-blind placebo controlled trial of 1500 mg glucosamine hydrochloride once daily in beverage form compared to placebo. The primary outcome was decreased development of cartilage damage. Eligible participants had mild to moderate knee pain (WOMAC score > = 125). 3T MRI of both knees was performed at baseline and at 24 weeks on a Siemens Trio using the same pulse sequences used in the Osteoarthritis Initiative (OAI): sagittal fat-suppressed (FS) 2D TSE intermediate-weighted (IW); sagittal 3D dual-echo steady state (DESS) WE; and axial and coronal reformations of sagittal 3D DESS WE. Cartilage damage, bone marrow lesions (BMLs) and synovitis in each knee were scored according to the WORMS system. Baseline fixed-flexion knee x-rays were read for Kellgren-Lawrence (K-L) grade and radiographic features such as joint space narrowing using the OARSI grading system. All MRIs and x-rays were read masked to treatment assignment but not to baseline vs. follow-up order. Urinary excretion of C-terminal cross linking telopeptide of type II collagen (uCTX-II) as a biomarker of cartilage synthesis was also assessed. An Intent-to-Treat analysis with last event carried forward was performed. Negative binomial regression for cartilage defects and multivariate logistic regression for worsening BML, taking into account clustering of knees within an individual and adjusted for gender, age, BMI, baseline WOMAC, and K-L grade, were performed to determine the odds (aOR) of worsening based on treatment group assignment. These covariates were used in a linear regression model for uCTX-II.
Results: There were a total of 201 participants (49% women) with a mean age of 52, 98 were block randomized to the treatment group and 103 to the control group. The aOR of worsening cartilage defects in the glucosamine group compared to the control group was 0.9 (95% CI 0.55-1.58). The aOR for worsening in BMLs was 0.73 (95% CI 0.50-1.07).
There also was no indication that glucosamine improved uCTX-II (beta = -0.10, 95% CI -0.21-.001). There was a difference in the proportion of drop-outs by group (i.e., 16.5% in the placebo group vs. 5.1% from the glucosamine group, p <>
Conclusion: This short-term study provided no evidence that glucosamine results in structural benefit in knee OA as assessed using 3T MRI or uCTX.
Disclosure: C. K. Kwoh, The Beverage Institute, 2 ; F. W. Roemer, Boston Imaging Core Lab, LLC, 4 ; M. J. Hannon, None; C. E. Moore, None; J. M. Jakicic, The Beverage Institute, 2, The Beverage Institute, 5 ; A. Guermazi, Synarc, Inc., 1, Boston Imaging Core Lab, LLC, 4, MerckSerono; Facet Solutions , 5, GE HealthCare, 2 ; S. M. Green, None; R. M. Boudreau, None. | <urn:uuid:343af26a-597d-4b35-9615-c05c601d7415> | {
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When you think of privacy protection, chances are Facebook does not immediately spring to mind. But anonymity researchers are suggesting that social networks may hold the key to better anonymous online interactions.
Existing anonymity tools, such as Tor, work by routing a user's internet traffic through a random chain of other computers called a circuit. Any one individual computer in this circuit can only ever see information about the machine one place ahead of it or one place behind it. This mechanism keeps the originator of the request anonymous: online activities very quickly become divorced from their source. Information that was put into the circuit from one machine comes out into the internet from an entirely different machine, with no way to trace a path back to the originator. That's the theory, anyway.
In reality, however, tracing the originator is fairly simple. To reverse-engineer the identity of a person through the anonymisation network, all an interested organisation needs to do is place a large number of its own machines into the anonymisation chain. The data then can then be pieced together to reveal the source. This is known as a Sybil attack.
That's a problem because while Tor is often used for illegal file sharing, online anonymity has been crucial — for example, in allowing secure communication during the Arab Spring.
To thwart eavesdroppers, researchers from the University of Texas, the University of California, Berkeley, and the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign took advantage of a unique property of Facebook: its ability to connect you to friends. Their system, called Pisces, uses graphs of social network connections to make sure that only trusted nodes are used to make the random circuit, providing a safe route to the internet that excludes snooper nodes.
Pisces's reliance on social connections does confer some disadvantages. First, it won't work for users without a reasonably wide social network. It also requires users' social contacts to participate, although the researchers are trying to use friends-of-friends in the trust network to improve both of these issues.
"The incorporation of social trust will likely be an important consideration in the design of the next generation of deployed anonymity systems," the researchers say. [arXiv]
Image by KeystoneUSA-ZUMA/Rex Features | <urn:uuid:a8349fbd-5db7-46cc-bb3f-8fe88631b1f1> | {
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Module documentation for 1.0.2
HsLua – Bindings to Lua, an embeddable scripting language
HsLua provides bindings, wrappers, types, and helper functions to bridge Haskell and Lua.
Lua is a small, well-designed, embeddable scripting language. It has become the de-facto default to make programs extensible and is widely used everywhere from servers over games and desktop applications up to security software and embedded devices. This package provides Haskell bindings to Lua, enable coders to embed the language into their programs, making them scriptable.
HsLua ships with batteries included and includes the most recent Lua version (i.e., Lua 5.3.5). Cabal flags make it easy to compile against a system-wide Lua installation.
Interacting with Lua
HsLua provides the
Lua type to define Lua operations. The operations are
executed by calling
run. A simple “Hello, World” program, using the Lua
import Foreign.Lua as Lua main :: IO () main = Lua.run prog where prog :: Lua () prog = do Lua.openlibs -- load Lua libraries so we can use 'print' Lua.callFunc "print" "Hello, World!"
The Lua stack
Lua’s API is stack-centered: most operations involve pushing values to the stack
or receiving items from the stack. E.g., calling a function is performed by
pushing the function onto the stack, followed by the function arguments in the
order they should be passed to the function. The API function
invokes the function with given numbers of arguments, pops the function and
parameters of the stack, and pushes the results.
,----------. | arg 3 | +----------+ | arg 2 | +----------+ | arg 1 | +----------+ ,----------. | function | call 3 1 | result 1 | +----------+ ===========> +----------+ | | | | | stack | | stack | | | | |
Manually pushing and pulling arguments can become tiresome, so HsLua makes
function calling simple by providing
callFunc. It uses type-magic to allow
different numbers of arguments. Think about it as having the signature
callFunc :: String -> a1 -> a2 -> … -> res
where the arguments
a1, a2, … must be of a type which can be pushed to the Lua
stack, and the result-type
res must be constructable from a value on the Lua
Getting values from and to the Lua stack
Conversion between Haskell and Lua values is governed by two type classes:
-- | A value that can be read from the Lua stack. class Peekable a where -- | Check if at index @n@ there is a convertible Lua value and -- if so return it. Throws a @'LuaException'@ otherwise. peek :: StackIndex -> Lua a
-- | A value that can be pushed to the Lua stack. class Pushable a where -- | Pushes a value onto Lua stack, casting it into meaningfully -- nearest Lua type. push :: a -> Lua ()
Many basic data types (except for numeric types, see the FAQ) have instances for
these type classes. New instances can be defined for custom types using the
Foreign.Lua.Core (also exported in
The following cabal build flags are supported:
system-lua: Use the locally installed Lua version instead of the version shipped as part of HsLua.
pkg-config: Use pkg-config to discover library and include paths. Setting this flag implies
allow-unsafe-gc: Allow optimizations which make Lua’s garbage collection potentially unsafe; haskell finalizers must be handled with extreme care. This is enabled per default, as this is rarely a problem in practice.
apicheck: Compile Lua with its API checks enabled.
lua_32bits: Compile Lua for a 32-bits system (e.g., i386, PowerPC G4).
export-dynamic: Add all symbols to dynamic symbol table; disabling this will make it possible to create fully static binaries, but renders loading of dynamic C libraries impossible.
Example: using a different lua version
To use a system-wide installed Lua when linking hslua as a dependency,
build/install your package using
--constraint="hslua +system-lua". For
example, you can install Pandoc with hslua that uses system-wide Lua like
cabal install pandoc --constraint="hslua +system-lua"
or with stack:
stack install pandoc --flag=hslua:system-lua
Can I see some examples? Basic examples are available in the hslua-examples repository.
A big project build with hslua is Pandoc, the universal document converter. It is written in Haskell and includes a Lua interpreter, enabling programmatic modifications of documents via Lua. Furthermore, custom output formats can be defined via Lua scripts.
Where are the coroutine related functions? Yielding from a coroutine works via
longjmp, which plays very badly with Haskell’s RTS. Tests to get coroutines working with HsLua were unsuccessful. No coroutine related functions are exported from the default module for that reason. Pull requests intended to fix this are very welcome.
Fixed cross-compilation: placement of C import declarations were fixed, thereby resolving issues with cross-compilation. (Vanessa McHale and Faraz Maleknia)
Added .gitattributes file, fixing the wrong language classification of the GitHub repository. (Vanessa McHale)
toHaskellFunctiondocumentation. The documentation is now more specific on which Haskell exceptions are caught and which will lead to crashes.
Exposed more functions from Lua’s
getsubtableis a reimplementation instead of a wrapper to the C function for simplicity (thereby avoiding additional C wrappers).
Fixed tests for GHC 8.6 by no longer depending on failable pattern matching.
Error handling at language borders has been vastly improved and is now mostly automatic. Haskell’s
Foreign.Lua.Exceptions are transformed into Lua errors and vice versa. Lua-side wrappers are no longer necessary.
Haskell functions are no longer pushed as userdata by
pushHaskellFunction, but as C functions. This simplifies tasks where Lua expects true function objects object (for example when looking for module loaders).
Added stack instance for
- Float, and
Instances for numbers fall back to strings when the representation as a Lua number would cause a loss of precision.
Haskell functions pushed with
pushHaskellFunctioncan now be garbage collected by Lua without having to call back into Haskell. The callback into Haskell by the GC had previously caused programs to hang in some situations.
Bindings to more Lua C API functions and macros:
Any Haskell value can be pushed to the Lua stack as userdata via
pushAnyand retrieved via
peekAny. Additional functions are provided to setup the userdata metatable.
The C preprocessor constants
LUA_PRELOAD_TABLEare made available as
Additional small helper functions:
peekRead– read value from a string.
popValue– peek value at the top of the Lua stack, then remove it from the stack regardless of whether peeking was successful or not.
The Lua prefix was removed from types (
Exception) and the respective infix from functions (
runEither). HsLua should be imported qualified to avoid name collisions.
Terminology now consistently uses exception to refer to Haskell exceptions, and error for Lua errors; function names changed accordingly (
Module Foreign.Lua.Api was renamed to Foreign.Lua.Core.
Foreign.Lua.lerror was renamed to Foreign.Lua.error.
Typeclass ToLuaStack was renamed to Pushable.
Typeclass FromLuaStack was renamed to Peekable.
Cabal flag use-pkgconfig was renamed to pkg-config (which is the flag name used by other projects such a zlib).
The return value of
lua_newuserdatais CSize (was CInt).
Table index parameter in
rawsetimust be of type LuaInteger, but were of type Int.
The number of upvalues passed to
pushcclosuremust be of type NumArgs.
Lua.errorhas type Lua NumResults, simplifying its use in HaskellFunctions.
Retrieval functions which can fail, i.e.
touserdata, use the Maybe type to indicate success or failure, avoiding the need to perform additional checks.
Support for Lua versions before 5.3 has been dropped.
Support for GHC 7.8 has been dropped.
wrapHaskellFunctionhas been made internal and is no longer exported.
Peekable instances for numbers and strings became more forgiving. Peeking of basic types now follows Lua’s default conversion rules:
- numbers can be given as strings, and vice versa;
- any value can be converted into a boolean – only
falseare peeked as
False, all other as
- Many internal improvements and additions such as a benchmarking suite, code cleanups, better tests, etc.
- Relaxed upper bound on exceptions.
- Provide Optional as a replacement for OrNil. Exports of the latter have been fixed.
- Provide utility function
raiseError: Its argument will be thrown as an error in Lua.
modifyLuaError: The function lives in Foreign.Lua.Error and allows to alter error messages. This is most useful for amending errors with additional information.
- Fixed a bug in
toListwhich left a element on the stack if deserializing that element lead to an error. This also affected the FromLuaStack instance for lists.
- Fixed a bug in
pairsFromTablewhich left a key-value pair on the stack if either of them could not be read into the expected type. This also affected the FromLuaStack instance for Map.
- Make Lua an instance of MonadMask: MonadMask from Control.Monad.Catch allows to mask asynchronous exceptions. This allows to define a finalizer for Lua operations.
- Add functions and constants to refer to stack indices: The functions
nthFromTopas well as the constants
stackBottomhave been introduced. Numeric constants are less clear, and named constants can aid readability.
- Add type OrNil: This type can be used when dealing with optional arguments to Lua functions.
- Add function absindex: it converts the acceptable index
idxinto an equivalent absolute index (that is, one that does not depend on the stack top). The function calls
lua_absindexwhen compiled with Lua 5.2 or later; for Lua 5.1, it is reimplemented in Haskell.
- Functions in
tastywhich have been deprecated have been replaced with non-deprecated alternatives.
- Re-export more FunctionCalling helpers in
Foreign.Lua: The typeclass
ToHaskellFunctionand the helper function
toHaskellFunctionare useful when working with functions. Importing them separately from
Foreign.Lua.FunctionCallingwas an unnecessary burden; they are therefor now re-exported by the main module.
- Export registry-relatd constants
noref: The constants are related to Lua’s registry functions (
- Add helper to convert functions into CFunction: A new helper
wrapHaskellFunctionis provided. It expects a HaskellImportedFunction userdata (as produced by
pushHaskellFunction) on top of the stack and replaces it with a C function. The new function converts error values generated with
lerrorinto Lua errors, i.e. it calls
- Add utility function
setglobal': It works like
setglobal, but works with packages and nested tables (dot-notation only).
- Add cabal flag ‘export-dynamic’: Default behavior is to include all symbols in the dynamic symbol table, as this enables users to load dynamic lua libraries. However, it is sometimes desirable to disable, e.g., when compiling a fully static binary. See jgm/pandoc#3986.
- Increase user-friendlyness of error messages: The error message returned by
toHaskellFunctionhinted at the fact that the failing function is a Haskell function. This is mostly unnecessary information and might have confused users.
- Added cabal flag to allow fully safe garbage collection: Lua garbage
collection can occur in most of the API functions, even in those usually not
calling back into haskell and hence marked as optimizable. The effect of this
is that finalizers which call Haskell functions will cause the program to
hang. A new flag
allow-unsafe-gcis introduced and enabled by default. Disabling this flag will mark more C API functions as potentially calling back into Haskell. This has a serious performance impact.
ToLuaStackinstances for lazy ByteStrings are added.
- None-string error messages are handled properly: Lua allows error messages to be of any type, but the haskell error handlers expected string values. Tables, booleans, and other non-string values are now handled as well and converted to strings.
- Use newtype definitions instead of type aliases for LuaNumber and LuaInteger. This makes it easier to ensure the correct numeric instances in situations where Lua might have been compiled with 32-bit numbers.
- Instances of
Intare removed. The correctness of these instances cannot be guaranteed if Lua was compiled with a non-standard integer type.
- The flag
lua_32bitswas added to allow users to compile Lua for 32-bit systems.
- When reading a list, throw an error if the lua value isn’t a table instead of silently returning an empty list.
- Tuples from pairs to octuples have been made instances of
- New functions
dofileare provided to load and run strings and files in a single step.
LuaStatuswas renamed to
Status, the Lua prefix was removed from its type constructors.
- The constructor
ErrFilewas added to
Status. It is returned by
loadfileif the file cannot be read.
- Remove unused FFI bindings and unused types, including all functions unsafe to use from within Haskell and the library functions added with 0.5.0. Users with special requirements should define their own wrappers and raw bindings.
- The module Foreign.Lua.Api.SafeBindings was merge into Foreign.Lua.Api.RawBindings.
- FFI bindings are changed to use newtypes where sensible, most notably
NumResults, but also the newly introduced newtypes
- Add functions
tonumberxwhich can be used to get and check values from the stack in a single step.
- The signature of
concatwas changed from
Int -> Lua ()to
NumArgs -> Lua ().
- The signature of
loadfilewas changed from
String -> Lua Intto
String -> Lua Status.
- The type
LTYPEwas renamed to
Type, its constructors were renamed to follow the pattern
LuaRelationwas renamed to
RelationalOperator, the Lua prefix was removed from its constructors.
- Add function
tolistto allow getting a generic list from the stack without having to worry about the overlapping instance with
- Supported Lua Versions now include Lua 5.2 and Lua 5.3. LuaJIT and Lua 5.1 remain supported as well.
use-pkgconfigwas added to allow discovery of library and include paths via pkg-config. Setting a specific Lua version flag now implies
system-lua. (Sean Proctor)
- The module was renamed from
Foreign.Lua. The code is now split over multiple sub-modules. Files processed with hsc2hs are restricted to Foreign.Lua.Api.
Luamonad (reader monad over LuaState) is introduced. Functions which took a LuaState as their first argument are changed into monadic functions within that monad.
- Error handling has been redesigned completely. A new LuaException was
introduced and is thrown in unexpected situations. Errors in lua which are
leading to a
longjmpare now caught with the help of additional C wrapper functions. Those no longer lead to uncontrolled program termination but are converted into a LuaException.
peekno longer returns
Maybe abut just
a. A LuaException is thrown if an error occurs (i.e. in situtations where Nothing would have been returned previously).
StackValuetypeclass has been split into
ToLuaStack. Instances not satisfying the law
x == push x *> peek (-1)have been dropped.
- Documentation of API functions was improved. Most docstrings have been copied from the official Lua manual, enriched with proper markup and links, and changed to properly describe hslua specifics when necessary.
- Example programs have been moved to a separate repository.
- Unused files were removed. (Sean Proctor)
- New raw functions for
luaopen_debugand their high-level wrappers (with names
- Remove custom versions of
- Drop support for GHC versions < 7.8, avoid compiler warnings.
- Ensure no symbols are stripped when linking the bundled lua interpreter.
tostringfunction definition. (Sean Proctor)
- Explicitly deprecate
strlen. (Sean Proctor)
- Add links to lua documentation for functions wrapping the official lua C API. (Sean Proctor).
tolistwasn’t popping elements of the list from stack.
StackValue [Char]instance is removed,
StackValue ByteStringis added.
StackValue a => StackValue [a]instance is added. It pushes a Lua array to the stack.
tolistfunctions are added.
- Type errors in Haskell functions now propagated differently. See the
Scripting.Luadocumentation for detailed explanation. This should fix segfaults reported several times.
lua_errorfunction is removed, it’s never safe to call in Haskell.
Related issues and pull requests: #12, #26, #24, #23, #18.
- Pkgconf-based setup removed. Cabal is now using
extra-librariesto link with Lua.
luajitflag is added to link hslua with LuaJIT.
- Small bugfix related with GHCi running under Windows.
registerrawhsfunctionfunctions are added.
apicheckflag is added to Cabal package to enable Lua API checking. (useful for debugging)
luaL_unreffunctions are added. | <urn:uuid:b4cf4464-b977-4586-9bdf-e9f3ff12f4a3> | {
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How seasonal shifts in light and darkness affect moods, weight gain, and fertility
Living in a northern city like Edmonton, it’s impossible not to notice the wild swings in daylight from season to season. At the summer Solstice in June, we have just over 17 hours of daylight, whereas at the winter Solstice in December, it dwindles to a mere seven and a half hours.
Many cultures have a tradition of gathering with family and friends to eat, drink and celebrate with bright lights as the days grow shorter. Diwali, the Hindu festival of lights, involves decorating homes with lights and candles, and Hanukkah features the lighting of candles on the Menorah for 8 days.
Decorating with strings of lights is a marker of the Christmas season, but what really sets it off for me is when it’s fully dark at 5 pm, and I see the glowing red lights of the cars ahead of me lighting up the traffic as I head home from work. At this time of year, the days are so short that many people are heading to and from work or school in complete darkness, missing the daylight entirely.
As the darkness sets in, the changing light levels affect us in different ways. Some people suffer from seasonal affective disorder, a form of depression triggered during the winter months. To help relieve their symptoms, there are specially designed lamps for use each morning to mimic the intensity of sunlight. These lamps can make a big difference in improving the moods of SAD sufferers, as can taking extra vitamin D when the body is not getting enough sunlight exposure to produce its own.
Many people succumb to the temptation to eat carbs in the depths of winter, and it’s no coincidence that a number of the traditional seasonal treats are sweets. According to the authors of Lights Out: Sleep, Sugar and Survival, these cravings have a great deal to do with the body’s reaction to light – and particularly, the fact that we spend hours every night bathed in artificial light after the sun sets.
Foods with a high sugar or carbohydrate content are mainly available in nature in late summer, when the days are long, and when it makes sense to put on a little extra weight to prepare for the coming winter. The authors say that artificially extending the day with electric lights in the winter months tricks the body into thinking it’s late summer, and therefore, time to consume carbohydrates and gain weight. In our modern lifestyle, high sugar foods are constantly available, making it easy to satisfy these cravings.
There are a few ways to get around this, such as by making sure to eat balanced meals containing protein, vegetables and healthy fats in order to stabilize blood sugar and reduce carbohydrate cravings. This also has the added benefit of keeping moods stable throughout the day, particularly for those who are susceptible to hypoglycemia.
Going to bed earlier makes a difference, especially if you are able to arrange your schedule in order to get nine to nine and a half hours of sleep a night. Getting some extra sleep in the winter months helps the body heal and repair, and is beneficial for the immune system and the endocrine system.
It can also help to dim the lights in the hour or so before you actually go to bed. Turn off screens and devices and glaring overhead lighting, and wind down with softer lighting. This kind of transition mimics the natural gradation of twilight and can make it easier to relax and fall asleep.
There is also evidence that women’s menstrual cycles respond to light exposure at night. Women who are experiencing cycle irregularities often see improvements by sleeping in a completely darkened room. To get results, the room has to be totally blacked out, with no light whatsoever, not even a tiny crack of light from the window or the glow of a clock radio. It should be so dark you can’t see your hand in front of your face.
Eliminating nightly light exposure in this manner can help regulate menstrual cycles, balance a woman’s hormones, and improve her chances of getting pregnant. Through cycle charting (recording daily observations of cervical mucus and temperature), a woman can assess the health of her cycles and determine whether sleeping in total darkness may be of benefit to her.
The authors of Lights Out also make the intriguing suggestion that humans may have at one point been seasonal breeders like other animals, before exposure to firelight at night stimulated our hormones to allow for reproduction year-round.
There is some contemporary evidence for this, since more Canadian babies are born in early spring and summer, with comparatively fewer births between November and February. It is difficult to say whether this is due to seasonal shifts in fertility, or to the preference of would-be parents for summer births. However, there is often a spike in births in September that can be attributed to holiday conceptions, which is certainly one way to celebrate the long, dark nights.
This article was previously published in Wellness Alberta Magazine. | <urn:uuid:75d16257-ba7a-48d9-a5b0-93632b113f7f> | {
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On March 22, the global day of water, thousands participated in the Plurinational March for Water, Life, and Dignity to protest the Ecuadorian government’s promotion of large-scale mining—Correa’s government is the first to open up the country to large-scale mining.
Communities that suffered through the civil wars of the 1980s and 1990s are once again faced with violence as they defend their land against international interests. This article was published in the Spring 2012 issue of the NACLA Report on the Americas, "Central America: Legacies of War."
William Brownfield, U.S. assistant secretary of state for the Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL), toured Central America last week to quell the growing opposition to U.S. drug war policies that have failed to reduce demand for drugs in the United States or disrupt supply routes from producer countries.
Even to many who paid attention to the rest of Latin America, Central America was terra incognita into the 1970s. I distinctly remember one night in the late 1970s when I pulled out the atlas and located the Central American countries in the very small area that they occupied on the continental map. This was the beginning of my intense engagement with Central America, and there was much more to learn.
Thirty years ago, today, on March 23, 1982, Guatemalan general Efraín Ríos Montt overthrew President Romeo Lucas García. The new military junta suspended the Constitution, closed the legislature, and installed one of the bloodiest military regimes in Guatemalan history. Three decades later, for the first issue of our 45th anniversary volume, we look to the legacies of war in Central America.
Over the weekend of February 18 and 19, in Tocoa, Honduras, more than 1,400 campesinos, indigenous people and their allies met to continue their fight against repression. Activists organized the international gathering in solidarity with Honduras to expose the rampant violations of human rights and the systematic killing of campesinos.
The complexities of the armed conflict in Colombia's drug-producing region of Catatumbo are set to garner greater attention from both the Colombian military and the media. This is underscored by the fact that in addition to the presence of the EPL, FARC, and ELN guerrilla forces, the region is also host to the neo-paramilitary organizations Los Rastrojos and Los Urabeños.
On December 9, Santos decreed Law 4635, ostensibly creating the means for the Colombian government to compensate and assist Afro-Colombian victims that have been kicked off their land. However Santos failed to consult Afro-Colombians prior to the decree—a right protected in the constitution. Without such consultation this is just another piece of legislation that has made a mockery of the rights of Afro-descendants.
Protestors in Cajamarca, Peru, are anxiously awaiting a ruling by the Peruvian constitutional court. The court is expected to decide this week if the Cajamarca regional council overstepped its constitutional authority when it unanimously approved a law on December 28 banning the construction of the new multibillion-dollar Minas Conga gold and copper mine.
On Monday morning, crowds gathered in the community of El Mozote to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the signing of the Peace Accords that ended El Salvador´s 12-year-long civil war. At the solemn event, El Salvador’s first leftist president, Mauricio Funes, apologized for the state role in the 1981 El Mozote massacre and announced reparations for the victims and their families. | <urn:uuid:65cca281-e6f4-453b-8aed-8590c97b9bbf> | {
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Another unexpected and significant event has taken place! The udumbara flower has blossomed on the earth. According to a Buddhist legend, it blossoms once in 3,000 years. They say the last time it blossomed before Gautama Buddha’s birth, while during the last 20 years its flowering has been observed all over the globe. It is also said the udumbara blossoming foreshadows the advent of a great man of wisdom or enlightened sage.
This tiny fragrant flower has a thin, but extremely strong stem. It is asserted that udumbara does not fade for a long time and even strangely straightens up after being bended. It was first discovered in 1997, supposedly on a Buddha statue in a South Korean temple. In 2010 Chinese mass media reported the flower emergence in China and called it heavenly. Such reaction was quite unusual for Chinese media, because it is well-known the country’s communist government adheres to atheistic views and would hardly believe in the arrival of a great spiritual leader to the Earth. So, there was no surprise that soon after such publications all relevant articles were removed from state-owned media, although the information can still be traced on the internet.
Since then, the government asserts udumbara are eggs of Chrysopidae. Though there is a certain likeness between Chrysopidae eggs and udumbara, but the eggs deteriorate soon after the larva hatches, whereas the flowers remain for a long time and emit aroma. The word udumbara itself originates from Sanskrit and means “an auspicious flower from heaven”.
According to the Buddhist legend, udumbara flowering betokens the advent of the Holy King “Who Turns the Wheel, rectifying the Dharma in the world”. He will accept people of any religion, mercifully offering salvation to everyone. The eighth volume of Buddhist scripture Phonetics and Interpretation of Huylin says:
The udumbara flower is a product of supernatural forces; celestial flower which does not exist in the earthly world. When the Tathagata or King with the Golden Wheel arrives in the human world, the udumbara flower will blossom owing to his great virtue and benediction. | <urn:uuid:bc38ca19-6ca4-4c2a-9b79-0ea41c676286> | {
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Definition of bolly gum
1 : an Australian tree (Litsea reticulata) of the family Lauraceae with scaly bark, alternate oval leaves, and racemose flowers
2 : the wood of bolly gum
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Origin and Etymology of bolly gum
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up bolly gum? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible). | <urn:uuid:6ccde31d-7bce-431a-a34d-33f856b5ae0d> | {
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The theme of this module is the link between winning the war and winning the peace, and how and why one does not always lead to the other.
What does it mean to win a war? How would one know if victory is achieved? What does victory signify? How should an army that is victorious in battle treat those that it has just vanquished? And what does that same army owe to the society whose army it has just defeated? The introduction to this module will address these questions.
The principal framework for engaging with the normative aspect of the question "what does it mean to win a war?" is an area of the Just War Tradition known as the jus post bellum - justice after war. The purpose of this sub module is to introduce the main features of this framework.
What moral responsibilities do the victors have toward the defeated society once their war is over?
One would think that as a war is nearing the end, and one side is ‘losing’ in the traditional sense of the word, that the fighting would tail off. This is often not the case. This section looks at the ending of the American Civil War and the arguments for and against different ways of bringing the war to conclusion.
The decision by the United States government to use atomic weapons against Japan to end the Second World War might be the most discussed end of war debate in human history. The impact of the US decision crossed ethical, strategic and political thresholds and ushered in a new era in warfare. The decision also shaped the post-war settlement in ways that continue to have resonance to this day.
The 1991 Gulf War was waged by an international coalition against Saddam Hussein’s Iraq. This section provides an overview of the kind of issues that arise in actual post-war situations.
This section will look at the practical and ethical dilemmas soldiers will confront in the course of their dealings with occupied populations, and local partners.
What does a victorious army owe to the society whose army it has just defeated? This last section looks at how local populations should be treated, and what sorts of dilemmas this involves for the victorious side. | <urn:uuid:20d08842-af60-4da8-b19c-17694fe8f8f7> | {
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Occasionally an idiomatic expression passes into the language that reflects a much higher perception of truth than common usage would imply. “Just who do you think you are?” is an example.
The presumed intention of the speaker is to communicate to someone that they have somehow become confused and aren’t who they think they are. “Just who do you think you are?” It is not so much a question as it is a statement. It is often followed by an unkindly appraisal such as, “I’ll tell you who you are…”
Abusive intent aside, the speaker has at least a dim comprehension that identity has more to do with thoughts and ideas than with events or physical appearances. And in that respect, he or she has communicated an important truth.
There are at least two categories of identity. The first is the deliberate identity, which exists exactly as one creates it and for only as long as one continues to create it. This is the role. The second is the persistent identity, which exists with only slight modification exactly as it was created at some past moment in time and continues to persist seemingly independent of one’s volitional control. This is the self.
Whether a persistent reactive self or a deliberately practiced role, the identity serves to filter, stimulate and interpret the experiences of life. It judges what is right or wrong, what is good or bad, what comprises satisfaction or suffering. It (the identity) decides what meaning to place upon others’ actions and life’s events. It determines what, if any, the emotional response to stimuli will be. It determines what impressions are called real and what impressions are called illusion. It determines what can be perceived and what remains invisible. It determines the possible. It determines achievement. It determines the structure of the physical body and the degree of ease or dis-ease.
The deliberate role-identity is the total of thoughts, memories and imaginings that beings create in any “now” moment of time. It’s like a snapshot of a mental fingerprint. Beings need to create these identities only when, or if, they wish to be identified. The identity created may be exactly like one in some past moment, giving the impression of continuity of identity and allowing recognition and prediction by other beings. Or an entirely new identity may be created from their thoughts, memories and imaginings of a new moment, thus sending the message that these beings have changed – which is likely to elicit the response: “Just who do you think you are!” This is really another way of saying: “Will you please go back to creating yourself the way I was creating you?”
The persistent self-identity is also a snapshot of a mental fingerprint, but it seems etched in steel and, at least prior to Avatar, unchangeable.
When people are in good shape, free of persistent identities and outside the sphere where they need to present a role, they are remarkably happy, naturally non-descript and interested in life. Things are the way they are. Nothing is compulsively asserted or resisted. This is innocence, selflessness, bliss.
To a far greater extent than common knowledge would lead anyone to believe, people’s happiness, health and success are not determined by the thoughts, ideas and imaginings they have of themselves, but are determined by the ability to change these things. When you put these thoughts, ideas and imaginings under a being’s deliberate control with a technology like Avatar, miracles of life start to occur.
The persistent identity-self is the source of a person’s unwelcome experiences. It is always the interpretation of an experience that determines whether a person will welcome or resist it, and the interpretation is determined by the identity that filters the impressions of the event. The same experience may be welcomed by a being in one identity and resisted by the same being in a different identity. Have you ever come to like something you once detested?
Before Avatar appeared on the scene, there was a great variance from person to person and from technique to technique as to how much, if any, the persistent identity-self could be modified. Many systems of self-development, religion and therapy understood the stakes: change the persistent identity and the person’s life will change. Some systems worked on occasion; some systems only made matters worse by implanting a new persistent identity-self over the old. Sometimes there were pretended modifications. Socially, for approval or advantage, a person would pretend to assign new interpretations to experiences, but privately nothing really changed. There is a folksy expression that goes like this: “You can put a saddle on a cow, but don’t try to ride ‘em in the Kentucky Derby.”
In truth, one has to get past one’s persistent identity-selves before deliberate identities can be created. How difficult this job is depends upon just two things: one, how much one’s persistent identity-self will permit or entertain the possibility of change; two, how well one can weather-without-changing other people’s assertion of: “Just who do you think you are?”
An identity is an unusual structure in that it can be modified successfully only by its builder. No amount of hammering or persuasion by another will produce any lasting result. You have to have the cooperation of the builder. This becomes quite a trick when the builder is convinced that he or she is really the suffering tenant of a wrong construction over which he or she has no control. Every effort to forcibly insist that the tenant is really the builder only adds to the misery.
But there is a way out: teach the tenant how to build! That is the entry point. Those are the lessons taught in Section II of the Avatar course. They are really very successful.
Reprinted with permission from Star’s Edge International. This article appeared in the Avatar journal August 1995 Volume IX, Issue 3. Avatar is a registered trademark of Star’s Edge International.
For more information on Avatar visit: Star’s Edge International®
It will look like this: How to Change Your Identity to Experience A New You | <urn:uuid:a6fc011f-356f-49a9-b904-3f69de9cf3b3> | {
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Why NCLB Needs Fundamental Change
The No Child Left Behind Act Needs To Be Fundamentally Overhauled
In the six years since the enactment of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), which is the current version of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), its many policy flaws, false assumptions, unintended consequences, and botched implementation have become all too apparent. The Congress needs to make fundamental changes to the law as articulated in NEA's principles for ESEA reauthorization.
NCLB has failed in its own fundamental purpose - to raise student test scores and close achievement gaps.
- Reading and math test scores on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) demonstrate that there was a faster rate of improvement in student achievement before NCLB than since its enactment.
- According to a July 2007 article in the Educational Researcher, "progress in raising test scores was stronger before No Child Left Behind was approved in 2002, compared with the four years following enactment of the law."
- A new book by the Civil Rights Project at UCLA, Holding NCLB Accountable, finds that "the No Child Left Behind Act's current accountability system provides insufficient evidence that the law has succeeded in raising student achievement levels or closing the nation's racial achievement gap.…"
NCLB is narrowing the curriculum.
- According to a July 2007 Center on Education Policy report, 44 percent of school districts reported cutting time from one or more other subjects or activities (social studies, science, art and music, physical education, lunch and/or recess) at the elementary level to devote more time to reading and math.
NCLB is too focused on standardized tests.
- Schools are measured and held accountable solely on the results of the statewide reading and math tests. New research by a University of Maryland professor finds that NCLB's focus on high-stakes testing "has actually undermined the quality of teaching in reading and math." The research further found, "There were declines in teaching higher-order thinking, in the amount of time spent on complex assignments, and in the actual amount of high cognitive content in the curriculum. We believe these declines are related to the pressure teachers were feeling to 'teach to the test.'"
NCLB is a severely underfunded mandate that is shortchanging our students and public schools.
- In the seven years of funding provided for NCLB (Fiscal Years 2002-2008), the cumulative funding gap between actual funding and the amounts authorized in the law has grown to a staggering $70.9 billion. President Bush's proposed FY 09 budget would increase that gap to $85.7 billion.
- In terms of the single largest NCLB program, Title I, for example, in the current school year, 59 percent of all Title I school districts will receive less funding than they did the previous year.
- With districts and states denied federal funding and support for schools to follow the mandates of NCLB, NEA filed suit over the issue. In January of this year, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals found that the Secretary of Education's interpretation of the law violates the Spending Clause of the Constitution.
NCLB will eventually result in almost all schools failing.
- Independent studies by highly qualified researchers in 11 states conclude that under NCLB's label-and-punish structure, most schools will fail to make Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) by 2014, based on the law's requirement that 100 percent of students achieve proficiency in both reading and math.
- There is a growing chorus of voices calling for fundamental changes to the law.
" There are now 142 national organizations that have signed the Joint Organizational Statement on NCLB that calls for significant reforms to the law.
The American public and educators agree with the need for changes.
According to an August 2007 PDK/Gallup poll, 7 in 10 Americans believe the current emphasis on testing encourages teachers to teach to the test. Of those that believe this, 8 in 10 feel that teaching to the test is a bad thing. In addition, "One in two Americans believes that NCLB's focus on reading and math has reduced instructional time on other subjects."
Educators hold similar views. A June 2006 poll of NEA members found that 69 percent disapprove of NCLB and 85 percent believe there is too much reliance on standardized testing. | <urn:uuid:5957aee8-aecf-4880-b93a-2a554f425672> | {
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Pythagoras © Galilea
One of the great attractions on Samos is the cave where Pythagoras lived and worked as a philosopher, mathematician, astrologer, doctor and musician. Very little is actually known for sure about Pythagoras but legend has it that he used the caves as a refuge from the tyranny of Polycrates. We know his teachings were mystical as well as mathematical as he was the founder of an esoteric religious movement known as Pythagoreanism. Although some tenets of this religious and philosophical movement are known, for the most part it too is somewhat shrouded in secrecy. Most of the caves are now open to the public. The site is made up of two caves and two chapels, with 'holy water' dripping from their stalactites, and was used for prayer and teaching as well as shelter. The cave is located on Mount Kerkis, an extinct volcano that forms the second-highest peak in the East Aegean, and although it is located near the base the climb may still be a bit difficult for some. The views from the cave are beautiful and there are some great photo opportunities. It is advisable to bring a bottle of water and sensible shoes for the rather steep walk.
Address: Mt Kerkes, two miles (3km) from Kambos Marathokambou | <urn:uuid:24007b67-0c08-4976-8192-b6f1ee546b69> | {
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Dorkbot Bristol members David Henshall and John Honniballmade this robot that makes crafts: wire snowflakes!
Machine Craft Experiment: Generative Manipulated Wire Forming to make unique snow flakes
Machine processes are commonly additive or subtractive, while manipulating materials is more commonly associated with hand crafts such as weaving or basket making.
This experiment is intended to explore the boundaries between open source methods of working using the Arduino platform, machine production and craft.
The software generates unique shapes each time it makes an object, this is formed by bending the wire to produce a decorative object. The intention is to suggest that machine made objects can acquire a sense of producing machine craft rather than machine production. | <urn:uuid:4de982b5-4cce-4215-88dd-521247dbfedb> | {
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Everybody loves money!
The stage size version of the popular money making trick! Now you can perform this wonderful trick for a large audience! It's so deceptive, though, that you can STILL use this up close!
Change a plain blank piece of paper into a real dollar bill! It's simple! Just feed the blank paper into the machine, give the rollers a turn, and out comes real money!
Other ideas: change a regular dollar bill into a ten...a twenty...a one hundred dollar bill! Borrow a real bill from a spectator, place it into the Money Maker- and change it to a different bill! Change their dollar into a dollar with a message on it! Borrow a ten and change it to a one! The possibilities are endless. This one is surprising and incredible.
Of course, this is an illusion. You are only making it look like you are printing money from paper. But it's quite an illusion! | <urn:uuid:d91d6f82-ba59-4764-b04f-484685402f93> | {
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Ducks, Geese and Swans (Anatidae)
The ANSERIFORMES (pronounced an-ser-ih-FOR-meez), one of the oldest avian orders, is composed of three families and includes the bizarre and noisy screamers of South America, the odd Magpie Goose of Australia, and the globally distributed swans, geese and ducks.
The swans, geese and ducks are grouped in the Anatidae (pronounced ah-NAH-tih-dee); a bird family with one hundred sixty-four species in forty-eight genera, various members of which can be found on all continents.
The Anatidae are represented in North America by sixty-nine species in twenty-three genera (including the extinct Labrador Duck). Members of this well known bird family include the graceful, long-necked swans, familiar geese of farm fields and golf courses, and the many species of ducks.
While all species are known for their association with aquatic habitats, Canada Geese are also known for their aggressive behavior when guarding their nests and young. After the breeding season, Canada Geese become better known for the "V" shaped flocks they form during migration.
Swans, geese, and ducks are large birds with long necks (longest in swans, shortest in ducks) and short tails. All species have webbed feet suited to their aquatic environments and distinctive flat bills - except for the mergansers with their thin, serrated bills ideally suited for catching fish.
Although swans and geese are mostly white, brown, and black, many ducks showcase several shades of grays, browns, and blacks combined with fine barring and streaking to result in a variety of beautifully patterned plumages for which females of the species are well known. Males in breeding plumage are more boldly patterned and often have iridescent blue or green on the head. Both sexes usually show a spot of color in the wing known as a "speculum".
Swans, geese, and ducks occur throughout North America wherever aquatic habitats are found. While geese and some ducks are often found along the shoreline, species that feed on underwater vegetation such as swans and dabbling ducks prefer calm water with depths suited to the length of their necks. In deeper waters, the mergansers, scoters, and diving ducks occur. Boldly-patterned Harlequin Ducks swim in the swift rivers and turbulent seashores of the Pacific Northwest and some areas of the northeastern U.S. and Canada.
A highly migratory family, most species migrate to open, ice-free water in sheltered bays and marshes of the southern United States with some reaching Mexico and Central America.
Members of the Anatidae flock together after breeding in large, multi-species groups at sites with good, safe foraging. At such sites, scoters, Canvasbacks, and other diving ducks dive for mussels in the deep sections while dabblers such as Gadwall and Northern Shovelers forage on the surface and in the shallows. On the shore, grazers such as geese and the American Widgeon forage on grass.
Populations of two Alaskan diving ducks, the Steller's and Spectacled Eiders, are threatened for reasons unknown; possible causes include changes in their habitats, nest predation by ravens and gulls, hunting, and the on-going effects of lead poisoning. The reasons why the Hawaiian Goose, and the Laysan and Hawaiian Ducks are endangered are much better understood; however after nearly going extinct, populations have stabilized but unfortunately don't have much room for growth in the limited amount of available habitat.
The white plumage of Snow Geese and Tundra Swans sometimes takes on a dirty, rusty-brown appearance. The birds aren't actually dirty but do show rust-colored highlights from foraging in the iron rich environments of the far north. Regarding the well-known description of the sound made by a duck as a "quack," duck species in North America also variously whistle, squeak, click, and grunt. | <urn:uuid:2906e9bc-efda-493f-b184-96ad241c89d7> | {
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Diabetes Mortality Data Trends for 2000-2008 DS 10-10001
Race/Ethnic Group Differences
Diabetes affects race/ethnic groups differently, and the rank of diabetes as a leading cause of death varied among groups. In 2008, diabetes was the:
• Fourth leading cause of death among Asians, Blacks, and Pacific Islanders.
• Fifth leading cause of death among Hispanics.
• Sixth leading cause of death for Two or More Races.
• Seventh leading cause of death among American Indians.
• Eighth leading cause of death for Whites.
The chart below displays age-adjusted death rates by race/ethnicity for the years 2000 to 2008.
The diabetes age-adjusted death rate was consistently higher for Blacks than all other race/ethnic groups. Whites and Asians had the lowest age-adjusted death rates for diabetes over the period, while the rates for American Indians and Hispanics were in the middle. Between 2000 and 2008, the age-adjusted diabetes death rates ranged from 22.0 to 37.1 for American Indians, 16.6 to 19.0 for Asians, 44.1 to 49.9 for Blacks, 30.1 to 36.5 for Hispanics, and 16.7 to 18.6 for Whites.
Hispanics were the only race/ethnic group that exhibited a statistically significant trend during the period, a slight downward trend.
Annual diabetes age-adjusted death rates are shown in Table 3 (PDF). Rates for Pacific Islanders and Two or More Races were unreliable during one or more years in the study, so their rates are not discussed here. However, the rates are displayed in Table 3 (PDF).
There were differences in the average age of diabetes death among race/ethnic groups. For example, Pacific Islanders died an average of more than 10 years earlier from diabetes than Asians. The average age of death due to diabetes between 2000 and 2008 was:
• 64.6 years for Pacific Islanders.
• 65.1 years for Two or More Races.
• 67.1 years for American Indians.
• 68.2 years for Blacks.
• 69.6 years for Hispanics.
• 73.8 years for Whites.
• 74.7 years for Asians.
More than half of diabetes deaths between 2000 and 2008 occurred to persons over age 65 in all race/ethnic groups. However, the percentage of deaths that occurred to people under age 65 varied by race/ethnicity, and some groups experienced more deaths at younger ages than other groups. Specifically, the proportion of diabetes deaths before age 65 was:
• More than 40 percent among Pacific Islanders and Two or More Races.
• Between 30 and 40 percent among American Indians, Blacks, and Hispanics.
• Less than 30 percent among Asians and Whites.
The chart below shows the age distribution of diabetes deaths by race/ethnicity.
The risk of dying from diabetes increases with age. Age-specific death rates for all race/ethnic groups were higher in older age groups. Annual age-specific diabetes death rates by race/ethnic group are displayed in Table 2a (PDF).
During the period, the actual risk of dying per 100,000 population, or crude death rate, ranged for race/ethnic/groups were as follows:
• American Indians, 18.9 to 29.4
• Asians, 12.0 to 16.6
• Blacks, 31.5 to 38.6
• Hispanics, 13.1 to 15.7
• Whites, 21.7 to 24.2
Pacific Islanders and Two or More Races had unreliable crude death rates during one or more years of the study period and, therefore, are not included above. Annual diabetes crude death rates by race/ethnic group are displayed in Table 2a (PDF) under the “All Ages” column.
See the Technical Notes for information about rate calculation and trend analysis. | <urn:uuid:de54c725-faab-4400-a84c-cb56e8b2fd52> | {
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Only collective inventions have any real value, Xul Solar once told his close friend and fellow Porteño Jorge Luis Borges, trying to convince him (unsuccessfully) to write in Neo-Criollo, one of the two languages he had invented and the one he himself preferred to use for writing and conversation. Such was the importance to Solar of friendship, sodalities esoteric and otherwise, and cooperation. These days the artist, who died 50 years ago this month and whose close friendship with Borges is at the heart of an ongoing exhibition at the Americas Society in New York, is remembered less for his hermetic, often illegibly coded mystical watercolor paintings than for the collective séance that he made of his particular corner of Buenos Aires' cosmopolitan avant-garde of the 1920s and the decades that followed. But this emphasis on the collective nature of invention also acts as a connecting thread—an axis around which to organize Xul's otherwise deeply idiosyncratic mundus. His diverse ideas and projects—his "Pan-Chess," an antipodean Glasperlenspiel that combined language, numerology and astrology; his invented languages and religions and piano keyboards and mathematics; his cosmic vision of the American future, floating somewhere between the pre-Columbian and the post-Sputnik—all point to the irresoluble paradox at the heart of the artist's techno-utopian vision, at once impossibly scaled and communal, and yet at the same time deeply, even inaccessibly idiosyncratic.
Sometime around 1957 Solar, who was born Óscar Agustín Alejandro Schulz Solari, proposed to do a series of articles for a Buenos Aires-based magazine called Mirador: Panorama de la Civilización Industrial. These would mark the culmination of a body of technological research he had pursued since the early 1940s, delineating a vision of the future at once utopian, post-human and profoundly unsettling. One text, "Autómatas en la historia chica" ("Automata in the little history"), presented an eccentric history of robotics, tracing its evolution from the steam-powered mechanical pigeon described by ancient Greek philosopher Archytas in the fourth century BC, through the brazen heads of medieval wizards, to Solar's own post-war present and the advent of what he called the “new Prometheus.” This latter stage was characterized by factory machines with “pincher-fingers” “that feed on electricity,” destined to free mankind from the necessity of labor.
In his article for Mirador, the author provided an autobiographical note, calling himself, among other things, a "painter, writer and little else.…Re-creator, not inventor, and world champion of Pan-chess and other serious games that almost nobody plays; father of a Pan-language that is meant to be perfect and almost nobody speaks and godfather of another, vulgar tongue without a vulgus; the author of useful grafías that almost no one reads, exegete of twelve (plus one universal) religions and philosophies that almost no one listens to."
If he sounds a bit disillusioned, one can hardly blame him: in the end, "Automata in the little history" was the only article of his proposed series that Mirador agreed to publish. But two others survive from the same period, and together they comprise an unusual, if fragmentary, glimpse into Solar's vision of possible futures. As the Second World War raged and then the Cold War simmered, Solar was contemplating cyborgs and celestial cities.
"Proposals for a future life. Something semi-technical on anatomical improvements and new beings," published in Lyra magazine in 1957—and illustrated with three of Solar’s visionary watercolor paintings from 1935-1936—imagines a post-human world of hybrids, mestizos—to use Solar's word—at once whimsical and disturbing: communal wet-nurses with tremendous breasts branching "into multiple tubes or natural tentacles (…) some longer than others, up to several meters, in order to accommodate even the most distant sucklings of the numerous brood;" men endowed with "a muscular tail of some kind (…) long and prehensile, capable of supporting the body like a third arm"; or the development, through careful breeding and technological enhancement, of arms like "parachute cords, or better yet wings."
Two Mestizos of Airplane and Human (1935)
One of the three illustrations for "Proposals for a future life" is a painting from 1935 called Two Mestizos of Airplane and Human—another is one from 1936 titled, in Solar’s own Neo-Criollo language, Vuelvilla, or The Flying City. The latter painting also gave Solar the title for the third of his texts from the late 1950s, in which he imagines a liberated, airborne metropolis, a techno-utopia held aloft by enormous gas-filled balloons and moving with the wind, its inhabitants beyond race, creed and national border. Solar described them as "just below the zenith, as in the book of Revelation, chapter 21, verse 2: 'And I, John, saw the holy city, the New Jerusalem, coming down from heaven, from God, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband.’"
The artist's interest in new technologies and their implications may seem to be at odds with the way he is usually understood: as avant-garde occultist and proto-New Age demiurge playing the enigmatic gadfly and cosmic prankster to Buenos Aires' potent generación martinfierrista. But Solar’s techno-utopianism combined a destabilizing Rabelaisian grotesquerie with pulp sci-fi speculation and a post-religious mystical reconstitution of the world, making it very much synthetic and of a piece with his broader ludic metaphysics.
A. Xul Solar. “Propuestas para más vida futura. Algo semitécnico sobre mejoras anatómicas y entes nuevos”. Lyra . Buenos Aires, a. 15, n. 5, 1957, p. 31-33.
Alejandro Xul Solar. “Autómatas en la historia chica”. Mirador . Buenos Aires, n. 2, junio 1957, p. 37. | <urn:uuid:738be3cf-9bdd-4cf4-bb71-ca949df72d69> | {
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When members of Congress introduce a bill for legislation, it goes through committee and subcommittee reviews, amendments, subcommittee reporting, and voting to approve the proposed amendments. The Senate or House passes the bill to the other chamber to undergo a similar process, after which a joint committee reconciles the differences. When both chambers approve the bill, they send it to the president who signs it to become law, states the National Human Genome Research Institute.Continue Reading
Although any person can draft a bill, only members of Congress can introduce and sponsor a bill, claims the National Human Genome Research Institute. When a member of Congress introduces the bill, it is referred to a committee that examines its contents. A subcommittee is usually formed to incorporate views of experts, opponents of the legislation, members of the executive branch and other officials. The subcommittee amends the bill and recommends it to the committee, which approves and sends it to the floor.
The committee reports and recommends the bill to the House or Senate, which votes to approve or disapprove the amendments, notes the National Human Genome Research Institute. The House or Senate passes the bill to the other chamber which forms its committee to review and amend the bill. Both chambers form a conference committee which reconciles the amendments and reports the bill to both chambers for approval. When both chambers approve the bill, they pass it to the president who may veto it or sign it to law.Learn more about Law | <urn:uuid:b57dbdc3-1b15-49c9-8d50-1e432f8b0e46> | {
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By Nikki Phipps
(Author of The Bulb-o-licious Garden)
In addition to support, pruning grapes is a vital part of their overall health. Regular pruning is essential for controlling grape canes and producing quality fruit yields. Let’s look at how to prune grapes.
How and When to Prune a Grapevine
Grapes should be pruned during their dormancy, usually in late winter. When it comes to pruning grapes, the most common mistake people make is not pruning hard enough. Light pruning doesn’t promote adequate fruiting whereas heavy pruning provides the greatest quality of grapes.
Knowing how to prune grapes can make the difference between a good crop and a bad one. When pruning grapes, you’ll want to cut off as much of the old wood as possible. This will encourage the growth of new wood, which is where the fruit is produced.
How to Trim Grape Vines Requiring Winter Protection
While there are several ways you can trim a grapevine, all share the same basic steps for managing varieties that require winter protection. These grape varieties should be pruned into one horizontal trunk that can be easily removed from the trellis or support structure.
Prune old, neglected vines in stages. These should be pruned each year, removing all growth with exception to new fruiting canes and renewal spurs. Renewal spurs will supply the new fruit canes for the next year’s growing season.
Select a sturdy cane and cut this back 3-4 feet, leaving at least a two-bud renewal spur. This cane should be tied to a wire support or trellis. Be sure to remove all other canes. As the vine completes each growing season, you’ll cut off the old trunk just below the renewal cane.
How to Trim Grapevines Using the Kniffen Method
The easiest way to prune grape varieties that don’t require winter protection is by using the four-arm Kniffen method. This method involves using two horizontal wires to support the vine, rather than one. The bottom one is usually about 3 foot from the ground while the other about five feet.
As the grapevine grows, it is trained onto the wire(s), removing all shoots between the wires and cutting back the shoots along the lower one to only two buds. Mature vines will have about 4-6 canes with anywhere from 5-10 buds on each and 4-6 renewal spurs with two buds each.
Basic pruning of grapes is simple. If you require more extensive knowledge of pruning grapes, then further research may be needed. However, for most home gardeners, simply pruning off the old wood and making way for new fruiting wood is all that is needed for how and when to prune a grapevine. | <urn:uuid:e3faec6b-c71f-48dd-91ef-3a4e8eb89c3c> | {
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Garching – astronomers have for the first time watched as the gigantic black hole ripping a gas cloud in the center of the Milky Way
black holes can arise from large collapsed Stars. They have such a wide appeal that neither material nor light can escape from them.
Photo: ESO / S. Gillessen
“This is unique. That a gas cloud will disappear in a black hole. This has never been seen before, “says Lars Lindberg Christensen, spokesman for the European Southern Observatory (ESO) in Garching, told Bild.
2011 astronomers had discovered using the Very large Telescope (VLT) at ESO Chile into a gas cloud that accelerates towards black holes in the galaxy is moving toward center then.
in spaceResearchers Discover Black Mega-hole »/ span>
American astronomers have identified perhaps the biggest ever discovered black hole in a distant galaxy. Read more …
new VLT observations show now how this cloud is being substantially delayed in the strong gravitational field of the black hole in the length.
“You can see exactly how the cloud changes into a regular spaghetti,” said the head of the ESO observation team, Stefan Gillessen.
At a minimum distance of 25 billion kilometers to the gravitational monster it creates the cloud “just now so, not directly into the black hole falling into it,” said Gillessen further that at the Max Planck institute of Extraterrestrial Physics conducts research in Garching.
By stretching the cloud is weaker and more difficult to observe. Nevertheless, the astronomers were able to measure the speeds of the different cloud components in the immediate vicinity of the black hole.
“The exciting thing to new measurements is that we currently see the front part of the cloud has come back to us – and this at a web speed of more than ten million kilometers per hour, or about one percent the speed of light”, explains the scientist Genzel, Reinhard.
the forecast of the research teams.’m completely torn in the cloud over the next year
A virtual tour of the European Southern Observatory (ESO), Chile.
source: European Southern Observatory
PS: Are you on Facebook? Become a fan of BILD.de news! | <urn:uuid:762fbd41-b365-4abc-9435-453db2699aa8> | {
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Dove Information ... Index of Dove Species ... Photos of the Different Dove Species for Identification
The Mourning Doves (Zenaida macroura) - also known as Western Turtle Doves, Rain Doves or Carolina Pigeons - are medium-sized, greyish-brown wild doves that were named for their mournful woo-oo-oo-oo calls.
In folklore, it was believed that if one heard their calls around the house, someone in the house would die unless one tied a knot into each corner of one's apron, after which the mourning dove would stop mourning and disappear.
These swift-flying doves occur naturally in North and Middle America and are sometimes referred to as American Mourning Doves to distinguish them from the distantly related African Mourning Doves (Streptopelia decipiens).
They are amongst the most abundant of all North American birds; and one of the most common- backyard birds. They have well adapted to human-altered habitats; readily taking advantage of garden feeders; and nesting in artificial structures, such as hanging flower pots, on porch lights and under roofs. They are also popular game birds. It is estimated that up to 70 million of them are shot annually in the United States.
They are closely related to the extinct Passenger Pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius), which perished in the early 1900s due to hunting. Because of their close genetic relationship, the possibility of cloning the extinct Passenger Pigeon through the Mourning Dove is considered a possibility. Other close relatives of these doves are the Eared Doves (Zenaida auriculata) and the Socorro Doves (Zenaida graysoni). Mourning Doves are sometimes lumped together with the Socorro Doves (as one species), but differences in behavior, vocalizations and physical characteristics justify treating them as separate species.
Distribution / Habitat
The range of the Mourning Doves stretches from southern Canada, throughout all of the lower 48 states of the United States, through much of Mexico and Central American to Panama.
These doves are also found on the islands of the West Indies is the Atlantic Ocean, as well as the Caribbean island of Cuba.
They are vagrants in northern Canada, Alaska and South America. They have been reported as far away as the British Isles, the Azores and Iceland.
These doves have been introduced to Hawaii and Pakistan.
Both migratory and resident populations exist.
Mourning Doves are resident (non-migratory) in the southern parts of their range. Those found in the north are completely migratory. They breed up north and move south for the winter; specifically south from Canada. They spend the winters in southern United States through Mexico to Panama in Central America, or the West Indies.
Those breeding in the Canadian prairies move south for the winter. Populations in southern Central America only remain there in the winter and move back north for the breeding season.
The migration south usually takes place between September to November and they return north to their breeding territories in the spring – typically from March to May. Migrating birds may fly over 1000 miles or ~ 1,600 km to reach their breeding or wintering areas. These strong fliers are capable of speeds up to 55 mph (88 km/h).
Mourning Doves inhabit a number of habitats across this species’ wide range, including
Mourning Doves live in a wide range of open and semi-open habitats, including:
- urban areas, farms
- prairie, grassland, fields, meadows, scrubland
- lightly wooded areas.
They generally avoid
- deep forests
Subspecies, Ranges and ID:
- Caribbean Mourning Dove (Zenaida macroura macroura - Linnaeus, 1758) - West Indian race
- Historically only found on the islands of Cuba and Pines, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Jamaica
- Recently also recorded in the Florida Keys, USA
- One of three species that occur in the United States
- ID: Shorter wings, darker and more buff-colored than what is considered "average"
- Eastern Mourning Dove (Zenaida macroura carolinensis - Linnaeus, 1766) - Eastern race
- Range: Eastern United States - east of the Mississippi River - from Wisconsin, Michigan and southern Ontario to central New York, southern Maine, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, and south to the Gulf coast of Florida, the Bahamas and Bermuda.
- The Eastern race is Wisconsin's official symbol of peace and Michigan's state bird of peace.
- One of three species that occur in the United States
- ID: Slightly larger than the western race; and darker plumage; longer wings and toes, shorter beak
- Western Mourning Dove (Zenaida macroura marginella - Woodhouse, 1852) - Western race found in the western two-thirds of the United States
- Range: Western North America - from British Columbia, Saskatchewan and Manitoba south to Baja California, Oklahoma and western Arkansas, and on to south central Mexico.
- One of three species that occur in the United States
- ID: Longer wings, longer beak, shorter toes, and plumage more muted and lighter
- Mourning Dove (clarionensis) (Zenaida macroura clarionensis - Townsend, CH, 1890) - Clarion Island subspecies
- Range: Isla Clarión in the Revillagigedo Archipelago off the Pacific coast of Mexico.
- ID: Larger feet, larger beak and darker brown plumage
- Mourning Dove (turturilla) (Zenaida macroura turturilla - Wetmore, 1956) - Panamanian race
- Range: Central America - in Costa Rica south to western Panama
- ID: Shorter wings and legs, longer beak, and greyer plumage
- A slender, medium-sized dove
- Body length: between 8.9 - 14.2 inches (22.5 - 36 cm); average of about 12 inches or 31 cm
- Weight: between 3.4 - 6 oz (96 - 170 g)
Plumage Details / Adults
- light grey-tan or greyish-blue body; paler below
- speckled back
- black “ear” patch behind each eye
- black spots on their darker wings
- black-bordered white tips on the outer tail feathers that contrast with the black inner feathers
- purple-pink patches on the sides of the neck (male)
- bluish-grey crown (male)
Other Physical Details
- relatively small, rounded head
- dark eyes with light bare rings surrounding them
- long, pointed tail
- broad wings
- short, dark beak - typically between brown-black hue.
- short, reddish legs
- three toes forward and one reversed
- Males and females look alike; except males tend to be a little larger and colorful. Males have a bluish-grey crown and a rosy chest. Males typically have vivid iridescent feather patches on the neck above the shoulders, which are nearly absent in females. Females are more brownish overall.
- darker plumage with pale edges on the feathers of the folded wings, giving it a scaly appearance
- a patterned face
- faintly spotted chest
The similar White-winged Dove (Zenaida asiatica) can be identified by the blue eye-stripes, rounded tail and white wing patches
Diet / Feeding
- 95% of their diet consists of a wide range of seeds (millet, safflower, sunflower, sweet gum, canary, sesame, etc), grains (wheat, corn, rye, barley, oats) and plant matter. Seeds are typically picked off the ground
- They take some fruits
- They supplement their diet with snails and insects, including grasshoppers, ants and bettles
- They drink by suction
- They also swallow fine gravel, sand or other grit to aid with digestion
- Chicks are fed crop milk by their parents.
Breeding / Nesting
Breeding season: varies by region; in southern areas may commence as early as February and go on until October.
The male performs a courtship dance in front of the female that consists of a noisy flight followed by a circular glide with outstretched wings and his head lowered. Upon landing, he approaches the female noisily with his chest puffed up and bobbing head. Once she accepts him, they are observed preening each other.
These pigeons form strong monogamous pair bonds (only one mate) and typically remain in the same breeding territory. Some pairs stay together throughout the winter.
On the onset of the breeding season, the male leads the female to potential nest sites for her to choose from. Most nests are placed in trees, shrubs or vines. However, these doves are known to take advantage of artificial constructs, such as buildings, under bridges, or in hanging flower pots. They may even nest on the ground.
Once a location has been decided, the male will gather the nesting material and bring it to the female for her to build the nest with. The flimsy open cup nest is constructed of twigs, conifer needles and grass blades. Sometimes, they may reuse abandoned nests of other birds or squirrels.
The average clutch consists of two small, white eggs. Occasionally, a female will lay her eggs in the nest of another pair, in which case 3 - 4 eggs can be found in one nest. Both male and female share the incubation of the eggs for about 14 to 15 days until hatching. Typically, the male incubates during the mornings into the afternoons, and the female the rest of the day and at night. The young are referred to as "squabs." These devoted parents rarely leave the nest or their young unattended. If danger is detected near them, they will perform nest-distraction displays, such as a broken-wing display, during which they flutter on the ground pretending to be injured and easy prey - to draw the predator's attention to them.
Both parents feed and protect the young. Initially - for about the first 3 or 4 days, the young are fed only crop milk - a substance produced in the crops of the parents. After that, the parents start adding seeds to the regurgitated food, slowly increasing the amount of seeds. The squabs leave the nest when they are about 12 - 15 days old. Soon after, the parents may get started on a new brood. In warm areas with ample food supplies, these prolific breeders are known to have produced five or six broods in a season. This may be essential to the survival of this species, as their mortality is high. Each year, adult mortality can reach 58% a year and only 69% of the young survive.
Calls / Vocalizations / Sounds
Contact call: cooOOoo-woo-woo-woooo, may be preceded by a grating or throat-rattling sound
Greeting call: a soft ork
Nest call: cooOOoo
Alarm call: a short roo-oo
In Flight: Wings make unusual fluttery whistling sounds - most noticeable upon take-off and landingblockquote>
Alternate (Global) Names
Chinese: ?? ... Czech: Hrdlicka karolinská ... Dutch: Treurduif ... Danish: Sørgedue ... Estonian: händ-ruugetuvi ... Finnish: Vaikertajakyyhky ... French: Colombe de Caroline, Colombe de la Caroline, Tourterelle triste ... German: Carolinataube, Trauertaube ... Icelandic: Tregadúfa ... Italian: Tortora lamentosa / piangente americana ... Japanese: nagekibato ... Polish: Go??b karoli?ski ... Portuguese: Rola-carpideira ... Russian: ??????????? ???????? ??????, ???????? ??????? ... Slovak: Hrdli?ka / nachovka smúto?ná ... Slovenian: žalobna grlica ... Spanish: Paloma Huilota, Paloma llanera, Paloma Lúgubre, Paloma Rabiche, Paloma Rabuda, Torcaza Plañidera, Tortola, Tórtola, Tórtola Rabiche, Tórtola Rabilarga, Tórtola Rabuda, Zenaida Huilota ... Swedish: Spetsstjärtad duva ... Turkish: uzun kuyruklu kumru, Uzun-kuyruklu Kumru ... Welsh: Turtur alarus
Their maximum lifespan in the wild is about 19.3 years; their average lifespan is 1.5 years. Their major threats are hunting in states where hunting of mourning doves is legal. In those areas, these doves tend to perish sooner.
Adults are also preyed upon by birds of prey such as falcons and hawks; their eggs and nestlings are often taken by black birds (corvids, grackles), domestic cats and snakes.
Mourning Doves reach reproductive age when they are about 85 days old.
Species Research by Sibylle Johnson | <urn:uuid:23b89d44-5966-4012-a37e-4e3b73408afb> | {
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Someone asked us:
If I am on the pill, and I had to take a pregnancy test, would the hormones in the pill affect the result of the test?
Nope — pregnancy tests are 99 percent accurate, whether or not you’re on the pill or any other form of birth control. The hormone that a pregnancy test detects in your urine is called human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), and it’s only produced during pregnancy. It’s not found in hormonal birth control (which contains the hormones progestin and estrogen).
Taking a pregnancy test correctly usually means waiting to take it after your missed period, although some brands can be taken a few days before. You can read the label on the box to see when it becomes effective.
-Nina at Planned Parenthood | <urn:uuid:a97b1e39-bcf9-45be-b25f-d2e0a8275d7b> | {
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A new study says that four healthy lifestyle factors can help keep the most common and deadly chronic diseases at bay.
The four healthy lifestyle factors are never smoking, maintaining a healthy weight, exercising regularly and following a healthy diet.
The study has been reported in the August 10/24 issue of Archives of Internal Medicine, one of the JAMA/Archives journals.
"An impressive body of research has implicated modifiable lifestyle factors such as smoking, physical activity, diet and body weight in the causes of these diseases," the authors write.
To reach the conclusion, Earl S. Ford, M.D., M.P.H., of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, and colleagues assessed data from 23,513 German adults age 35 to 65. At the beginning of the European Prospective Investigation Into Cancer and Nutrition-Potsdam (EPIC-Potsdam) study-between 1994 and 1998-participants completed an assessment of their body weight and height, a personal interview that included questions about diseases, a questionnaire on sociodemographic and lifestyle characteristics and a food frequency questionnaire.
Their responses were assessed for adherence to four healthy lifestyle factors: never smoking, having a body mass index lower than 30, exercising for at least three and a half hours per week and following healthy dietary principles (for example, having a diet with high consumption of fruits and vegetables while limiting meat consumption).
Follow-up questionnaires were administered every two to three years.
Most participants had one to three of these health factors, fewer than 4 percent had zero healthy factors and 9 percent had all four factors. Over an average of 7.8 years of follow-up, 2,006 participants developed new cases of diabetes (3.7 percent), heart attack (0.9 percent), stroke (0.8 percent) or cancer (3.8 percent).
After adjusting for age, sex, education level and occupation, individuals with more healthy lifestyle factors were less likely to develop chronic diseases.
Participants who had all four factors at the beginning of the study had a 78 percent lower risk of developing any of the chronic diseases during the follow-up period than those who had none of the healthy factors. The four factors were associated with a 93 percent reduced risk of diabetes, 81 percent reduced risk of heart attack, 50 percent reduced risk of stroke and 36 percent reduced risk of cancer.
The largest reduction in risk was associated with having a BMI lower than 30, followed by never smoking, at least 3.5 hours of physical activity and then adhering to good dietary principles. | <urn:uuid:abd13758-1d2d-44ed-a473-7b3bdef05dd1> | {
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Date: July 16, 2009
Creator: Dagne, Ted
Description: Sudan, geographically the largest country in Africa, has been ravaged by civil war intermittently for four decades. More than 2 million people have died in Southern Sudan over the past two decades due to war-related causes and famine, and millions have been displaced from their homes. The crisis in Darfur began in February 2003, when two rebel groups emerged to challenge the National Congress Party (NCP) government in Darfur. The crisis in Darfur in western Sudan has led to a major humanitarian disaster, with an estimated 2.45 million people displaced, more than 240,000 people forced into neighboring Chad, and an estimated 450,000 people killed. This report discusses this situation in detail and also discusses U.S. and international efforts to aid in resolving the crisis.
Contributing Partner: UNT Libraries Government Documents Department | <urn:uuid:04416604-2849-468f-bc6c-8f21e5d95ecd> | {
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An electric motor that does not need expensive rare-earth magnets
DYSPROSIUM and neodymium are not exactly the best-known elements in the periodic table, but for makers of high-end electric motors they have become vital. Both are strongly magnetic and thus crucial to the construction of powerful motors of the sort used, for example, in electric cars. Unfortunately, they lurk in the part of the table known as the rare-earth metals and, as that name suggests, workable deposits of them are scarce. At the moment, the main source of supply is in China, whose government has used its near-monopoly to restrict availability and push up the price. So there is a lot of interest in inventing motors that can do without them. And several groups of researchers think they have come up with one.
The device in question is known as a switched reluctance motor. The idea behind it is over 100 years old, but making a practical high-performance version suitable for vehicles has not been possible until recently. A combination of new motor designs and the advent of powerful, fast-switching semiconductor chips, which can be used to build more sophisticated versions of the electronic control systems required to operate a reluctance motor, is giving those motors a new spin.
One of the leading contenders is Inverto, a research and development company based in Ghent, Belgium. Inverto’s engineers, led by John De Clercq, the firm’s research director, are collaborating with the University of Ghent and the University of Surrey, in Britain, and also with an unnamed carmaker. They already have a motor running in a car. At Newcastle University, also in Britain, researchers are working with several companies to produce reluctance motors for both cars and lorries. And studies are being carried out in America and Japan too. A team led by Nobukazu Hoshi of the Tokyo University of Science, for example, has experimented with a reluctance motor in a Mazda sports car.
Let’s twist again
The main practical difference between a reluctance motor and a normal one is that the reluctance motor has no permanent magnets. A normal motor (one that runs on direct current, at least) has two parts. One, the rotor, moves. The other, the stator, does not. The stator usually forms the casing and houses a set of permanent magnets. The rotor, which turns inside that casing, is surrounded by copper windings that act as electromagnets. The motor works by the periodic reversal of the current running through these windings. That reverses the polarity of the electromagnets and causes the rotor to be pulled around by attraction and repulsion between the electromagnets and the permanent magnets.
Traditionally, this current reversal was achieved with a rotary switch known as a commutator, which transmitted electricity to the windings through brushes that made contact with conductive strips which passed under them as the rotor turned. Modern motors use electronic control systems rather than a commutator, but the principle is the same.
A switched reluctance motor is like a normal modern motor in this respect—it is also brushless. But unlike a normal motor it has no need of permanent magnets, rare-earth or otherwise, for it works on a different principle: least magnetic reluctance.
Reluctance in magnetism is analogous to resistance in electricity. Just as a current travels along the path of least resistance, so the flux of a magnetic field (the “lines of force”, for those who remember childhood experiments with bar-magnets, sheets of paper and iron filings) takes the path of least reluctance. And iron, a material that is nice and cheap, has very low reluctance.
Inverto’s reluctance motor has a rotor made of iron sheets, while the inside of the stator is covered with copper windings. Current is fed to these windings on the say-so of the control system, generating flux. That flux then follows the path of least reluctance—ie, through the sheet-iron rotor. The rotor attempts to align itself to the flux in a way that reduces reluctance to a minimum, and that causes it to turn.
The control system, however, constantly anticipates the rotor’s movement and switches the current between windings so as to stop the rotor settling into its preferred alignment. As a result, it keeps on turning.
Reluctance motors still have disadvantages, even now that the control problem has been solved. For example, to deliver a given amount of twisting force—or torque—a reluctance motor has to be larger than an equivalent permanent-magnet motor. But the materials needed to build them are significantly cheaper. Moreover, according to Dr De Clercq, the motors’ torque characteristics make them particularly suitable for cars.
At high speeds, for example, they do not lose torque as quickly as a permanent-magnet motor would. That helps during overtaking. They are also safer when they fail. If a permanent-magnet motor loses power suddenly it slows down rapidly, creating an unexpected braking effect. That might also damage the motor. A reluctance motor, by contrast, freewheels if the power is cut off. Despite that, it can still act as a generator when slowing down, as permanent-magnet motors do in electric cars. (Generators are, basically, electric motors in reverse. They convert motion into electricity instead of electricity into motion. A slowing motor can thus be used to top up a car’s batteries with energy that would otherwise be lost in braking.)
The researchers at Newcastle are working with Tata Steel, part of an Indian conglomerate, on using special steels to exploit the magnetic flux more effectively and hence extract more power. They are also collaborating with a local firm, Sevcon, which makes power electronics, and Cummins Generator Technologies, part of an American group which builds engines, on reluctance motors for hybrid trucks. James Widmer, who leads the Centre for Advanced Electrical Drives, one of the reluctance-engine-research groups at Newcastle, says that by running their new motors at high speeds it should be possible to outperform the best fixed-magnet motors, and to do so at lower cost.
The chances are good, therefore, that powerful switched reluctance motors will emerge. That does not automatically mean they will be commercialised, but if the price of rare earths remains high, there is a strong chance that will happen. And if it does, the need for dysprosium and neodymium will diminish quite a lot. China may thus find that, like the farmer in the fable who killed the goose that laid golden eggs, its desire for short-term advantage brings long-term regret. | <urn:uuid:969ed0a0-3e0a-4fcd-81a8-93e5f0b11bed> | {
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Yosemite is one of the most well known national parks in the world. With over 3.7 million visitors every year, this California park is an incredibly popular nature destination in the United States. Yosemite National Park is known for its awe-inspiring granite cliffs, cascading waterfalls, and over 800 miles (1,300 km) of hiking trails. Half Dome, a massive granite cliff jutting out of the earth, is one of the famous icons of the park, along with Cathedral Peak and El Capitan. Most of Yosemite’s iconic peaks, lakes, and waterfalls are located in the tourist-heavy 7 square mile (18 sq. km) area of Yosemite Valley, but the entire park actually encompasses an area of 1,189 square miles (3,080 sq. km). Yosemite has the honor of being the first national park ever designated, thanks in large part to conservationists like John Muir and Galen Clark. These men and others worked hard to protect the park both for the impressive diversity of plants and animals that lived there, and also for the enjoyment of future generations. Today, the park is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and is a favorite destination for hikers, rock climbers, campers, and nature lovers of all kinds.
Great Sand Dunes National Park, located in the state of Colorado in the United States, encompasses an area of 340 square kilometers (130 square miles, or 85,000 acres) of magnificent sand dunes. The 12,000 year old sand dunes include the tallest dunes in North America, rising 230 meters (750 feet) above the valley floor. The park contains other landscape features found in the high desert, such as alpine lakes, tundra, forests, grasslands, and wetlands, all of which provide habitats for many kinds of wildlife. Visitors to the park can enjoy hiking over the dunes, though it is wise to either keep the visitor center in sight, or bring a compass, as there are no marked trails on the ever-changing dunes. The closest town with accommodation is Alamosa, 30 miles southwest of the park. There is also tent camping available within the park. The nearest international airport is located in Denver, the capital of Colorado, which is a 4 1/2 hour drive from the park.
The picturesque Jasper National Park in Alberta, Canada is known for its breathtaking mountain scenery with calm clear lakes framed by jagged snow covered peaks. The national park is the largest of its kind in the Canadian Rockies, covering a total area of over 10,878 square kilometers (4,200 square miles). Within Jasper National Park lies an amazing collection of lakes, waterfalls, hot springs, glaciers, and massive mountains. Visitors to the park can enjoy a vast array of activities, including hiking and mountain biking on extensive trails, skiing at Marmot Basin, fishing, swimming, kayaking, whitewater rafting and boating on many of the lakes and rivers, plus camping in numerous areas. For those looking for some quiet relaxation, Miette Hot Springs is the perfect place to go. Tourists can visit the park via car or motorcycle, or by train. The closest international airport is in Edmonton, the capital of Alberta. Also nearby is Lake Louise in Banff National Park.
The famously beautiful Glacier National Park is located in the US state of Montana. The park is massively large, encompassing over 1,000,000 acres (4,000 square km). In the mid 1800s the park was named for its roughly 150 glaciers, though only 25 remain today and it’s estimated that all the glaciers will have melted by 2030. With over 130 lakes, two mountain ranges, over 700 miles of hiking trails, and many miles of scenic road, the park is a popular hiking, camping, and scenic driving destination for all manner of tourist. The nearest airport is in Kalispell, Montana, and the Amtrak train line stops at East and West Glacier, but most visitors choose to drive to the park. The park is also home to historic chalets and hotels if you’re looking for a more relaxed than rugged experience.
Utah is known for its impossible canyons and rock formations. Arches National Park in Eastern Utah is one of the most impressive. Here, natural sandstone arches, formed over millions of years when salt beds covered the area, create an amazing orange brown landscape. The area has a rich history as well as fascinating geology, it was home to the Ute and Paiute tribes. Ute petroglyphs from around 250 years ago can still be seen today. Bryce Canyon, also in Utah, should not be overlooked as a destination if beautiful rock formations captivate you. | <urn:uuid:13cfc933-595b-4360-85ee-3d08b7dd6d97> | {
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Description from Flora of China
Trees semievergreen, monoecious; winter buds small; branchlets dimorphic: perennial and annual; perennial branchlets remaining green for several years, with white lines of stomatal dots, becoming ridged and grooved with decurrent leaf bases; annual branchlets deciduous, short, never developing scars or buds. Leaves spirally arranged, sessile, trimorphic: leaves on main branches, perennial branchlets (after 1st year), and fertile branchlets radially spreading, scalelike, relatively thick (resembling leaves of Cupressus but spirally arranged), persistent for 2 or 3 years; leaves on annual branchlets of mature trees in 3 rows, radially spreading, subulate, quadrangular in cross section (resembling leaves of Cryptomeria), deciduous with branchlet as a unit; leaves of annual branchlets of young trees and seedlings often 2-ranked, sessile, linear, flat, thin, deciduous (resembling leaves of Taxodium). Pollen cones terminal on short, erect branchlets bearing scalelike leaves, solitary, ellipsoid; microsporophylls 15-20, spirally arranged, sessile; pollen sacs (2-)5-7(-9). Seed cones terminal, shortly pedunculate, erect when mature, ± pyriform; bracts of mature cones ± completely connate with cone scales (free only at apex), triangular, recurved, borne on central or middle distal part of abaxial side of cone scales; ovules 2 per bract axil; cone scales 20-22, spirally arranged, sessile, woody, basal scales sterile, median scales 2-seeded, with 6-10 triangular, acute teeth at distal margin, distal scales ligulate, multiangular, sterile. Seeds ellipsoid, slightly flattened, small, with a single, terminal, recurved wing. Cotyledons 4 or 5. Germination epigeal. 2n = 22*.
One species: China, extinct in the wild in N Vietnam.
A Tertiary relict species, the only surviving member of a genus formerly widespread prior to the Quaternary glaciations. Resembling the American genus Taxodium (which is introduced in China) in its vegetative characters, and occurring in similar habitats. | <urn:uuid:e7b3f116-0b97-446d-a729-a27bf03054b5> | {
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- Find Attorney
A death penalty is the sentence of execution for murder and some other capital crimes (serious crimes, especially murder, which are punishable by death). The death penalty, or capital punishment, may be prescribed by Congress or any state legislature for murder and other capital crimes. The Supreme Court has ruled that the death penalty is not a per se violation of the Eighth Amendment's ban on cruel and unusual punishment. Furthermore, the Sixth Amendment does not require a jury trial in capital crime cases.
A majority, but not all states provide for the death penalty. Most states that do allow capital punishment have an age requirement, although it is permissible to impose a death penalty on a minor in certain cases. Recently, challenges to death penalties have arisen based upon the mental capacity of the convicted to understand the wrongfulness of their actions.In addition to the death penalty laws in many states, the federal government has also employed capital punishment for certain federal offenses, such as murder of a government official, kidnapping resulting in death, running a large-scale drug enterprise, and treason.
In April 1999, the United Nations Human Rights Commission passed the Resolution Supporting Worldwide Moratorium On Executions. The resolution calls on countries which have not abolished the death penalty to restrict its use of the death penalty, including not imposing it on juvenile offenders and limiting the number of offenses for which it can be imposed. Ten countries, including the United States, China, Pakistan, Rwanda and Sudan voted against the resolution. | <urn:uuid:3d1ad33e-82b0-4699-b462-3b581a8ed8c9> | {
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Luis Anchordoqui, a physicist at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee (UWM), has received an Early Career Development (CAREER) Award, which will support his work in detecting the most basic building blocks of matter.
CAREER grants are the National Science Foundation’s (NSF) most prestigious grants for younger researchers. They support the career development of teacher-scholars who are most likely to become the academic leaders of this century. Anchordoqui is the ninth member of UWM’s Department of Physics to receive the grant. All but one were named in the last decade and all are active faculty members.
Using the most powerful particle accelerator in the world – the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in Switzerland – he will apply a still unproven theory that replaces the traditional view of subatomic particles as “points” with the notion that they are tiny vibrating strings.
Anchordoqui hopes measuring these small-scale vibrations will allow an opportunity to glimpse the structure and behaviors of subatomic units.
The LHC first creates a high-energy head-on collision of two beams of protons. The collision brings subatomic particles close together; only at such short distances can their structure be determined. If strings exist, the collision would also excite them, allowing Anchordoqui to determine whether the variations in their oscillations indicate that the strings’ behaviors corresponds to the behaviors of traditional particles.
It requires huge amounts of energy to image this way – more, in fact, than the LHC can currently generate – unless some strings are not quite as small as once thought. New research indicates that some might be as large as a millimeter. Anchordoqui says the LHC’s smallest detection capability is around 10-15 of a centimeter (that’s a decimal point followed by 14 zeros and a 1), which is needed to image a proton’s structure.
If string theory is correct, it would unify all the known forces in nature and the building blocks of matter into one model – a feat that eluded even Albert Einstein.
Anchordoqui, an associate professor, was a research scientist at Northeastern University before joining the UWM faculty in 2006. He earned his Ph.D. in physics from the National University of La Plata (Argentina). | <urn:uuid:6c626156-17bb-432c-b08c-fde7a6acff22> | {
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Question: One pound coffee cans are filled by a machine sealed and
One-pound coffee cans are filled by a machine, sealed, and then weighed by a local coffee store. After adjusting for the weight of the can, any package that weighs less than 16 oz is cut out of the conveyor. The weights of 25 successive cans are shown in Table 5E.8. Set up a moving range control chart and a control chart for individuals. Estimate the mean and standard deviation of the amount of coffee packed in each can. Is it reasonable to assume that weight is normally distributed? If the process remains in statistical control at this level, what percentage of cans will be underfilled?
Answer to relevant QuestionsFifteen successive heats of a steel alloy are tested for hardness. The resulting data are shown in Table 5E.9. Set up a control chart for the moving range and a control chart for individual hardness measurements. Is it ...In exercise What is meant by the statement that a process is in a state of statistical control? The height of the disk used in a computer disk drive assembly is a critical quality characteristic. Table 5E.15 gives the heights (in mm) of 25 disks randomly selected from the manufacturing process. Prepare a normal ...The data in Table 6E.1 give the number of nonconforming bearing and seal assemblies in samples of size 100. Construct a fraction nonconforming control chart for these data. If any points plot out of control, assume that ...
Post your question | <urn:uuid:1f876f7e-397f-42a2-8a71-91a66fb71a62> | {
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Quilt warmth expressed as the number of blankets
A common question in the Australian retail market is: What is the blanket warmth of this quilt?
It's a quaint expression used uniquely in the Australian bedding retail sector. The question is asking bedding manufacturers to provide an indication of a quilt's warmth by comparing their various quilts to the number of equivalent wool blankets needed to provide the same warmth.
The problem with such a measure is that nobody knows what the average warmth is of any blanket. The term is thought to originate from the relative warmth of a World War II army blanket, however, no one then or now knows what the actual warmth rating is.
The term is thought to be a scale from one-cool to four-very warm, but this is still a very subjective term without empirical evidence.
Despite the above, the term is still commonly used by both retailers and consumers in Australia even though it is meaningless. The above explanation is merely provided as an informed explanation rather than proposing its continued use.
A far more accurate way of assessing what a particular quilt weight or warmth suits your sleeping needs is to use the Kelly & Windsor BMI Quilt Selector tool. This correlates the thermal performance of a quilt, to your personal body and to your sleeping environment. We believe this is a much more accurate basis to select the right quilt that suits you. Read more
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Now in its 19th year, Wednesday the 22nd of May is National Simultaneous Storytime (NSS) across Australia. The picture story book selected for 2019 is Alpacas with Maracas by Matt Cosgrove. Alex the baby alpaca and his fleece flew to Queensland last week and will be helping children learn about alpacas. | <urn:uuid:46e98df9-1157-4163-b113-94202fe1a902> | {
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Advanced Internet Searching – how to search the internet quicker and more effectively
Download the print version
Web Search Engines
A web search engine is a web based service that searches for information on the web. It searches documents for key words and phrases that it has been asked to look for. When a person enters their query or key words the search engine searches through its index and displays all the results that may be matched with that query.
For example if you were looking for information on green tree frogs you would type “Green tree Frogs” into your search engine. The search engine will then display links to all the pages with information on Green Tree Frogs with ones most likely to match your search listed at the top.
There are a number of search engines you can use such as;
Multiple or meta search tools
A multiple or meta search tool is a tool that searches the internet using several search engines at the same time. You use them in the same way as a search engine by typing your request into the search box. The only difference is that instead of the search engine searching its records, the meta tool uses multiple search engines and their records and displays all the results giving you a fast and comprehensive way to cast a wide internet search.
Examples of meta search tools include:
There are also search engines that are specific to a particular field of study or work such as medical and legal search engines.
Conducting a search and refining your results
Here are some tips which will save you time and give you better results.
- To conduct a search you type key words into the Search Box.
Let’s say you want to buy books in Adelaide.
- Use more precise words—Instead of just typing ‘books’, try ‘bookshops Adelaide’.
- Use quotation marks to search for a specific phrase
If you are looking for an exact phrase you may not get good results by typing only the phrase into your search engine. A good tool for exact phrases is quotation marks. If you want to search for an exact phrase such as Pulitzer Prize winner you can enclose it in quotation marks and the search engine will only bring up pages that have that exact phrase in the exact order in which you typed it. That way you will not get hundreds of listing on Pulitzer Prizes or the nominees, you will only get Pulitzer Prize winners.
- Don’t use too many words—avoid typing in full questions, as every word will be searched for. Just use the key words.
If you are looking for a smaller or less known item such as a small bookshop it can be helpful to weed out the larger businesses. This can be done using a minus – sign in your search. Put a minus sign in front of terms you don’t want to search for. If you want to leave out shops owned by the Lola Bookshop Company, you could put ‘-Lola’ in your search terms so it reads “bookshops –Lola”.
If you’re only looking for pictures, click on the ‘Images’ link at the top or left of the search engine page and type your topic into the search field.
Remember that images you find on the Internet are usually copyright, meaning you can't use them in your own work unless you seek permission from the copyright holder.There are a number of websites where you can buy access to stock photography images such as www.bigstockphoto.com. You are able to use the stock photos in your own work.
Assessing a search—be careful what you read
- With so much information available, it’s important to think about search results and the quality of the information in them.
- Let’s say you want to find out about treatments for back pain and you search for ‘medicine back pain’. The results may contain articles by doctors, advertisements from pharmacology companies, personal opinions by sufferers and wild claims about untested miracle cures. How can you tell which information is useful to you?
An excellent approach is to think about:
- Currency—is the information up to date?
- Reliability—is the information mostly opinion? Is it balanced? Are there references and sources for any claims made?
- Authority—who wrote the information? What are their credentials? Are they reputable? Are there advertisements on the website?
- Purpose/point of view—is the information intended as opinion, fact or advertising?
Search tools and advanced search features
There are tools available to assist with more detailed and specific searches and some of these are identified below:
What is a Boolean Search?
- Boolean searches allow you to combine words and phrases using the words AND, OR, NOT and NEAR (known as Operators) to limit, widen, or define your search. Most Internet search engines default to a Boolean AND search, but its handy for you to know how to do a basic Boolean search.
- Boolean logic is just the term used to describe certain logical operations that are used to combine search terms in many search engine databases and directories on the Net.
Basic Boolean Search Operator - AND
Using AND narrows a search by combining terms; it will retrieve documents that use both the search terms that you specify, as in this example:
Adelaide AND South Australia
Basic Boolean Search Operator - OR
Using OR broadens a search to include results that contain either of the words you type in. OR is a good tool to use when there are several common spellings or synonyms of a word, as in this example:
computer OR pc
Basic Boolean Search Operator - NOT
- Using NOT will narrow a search by excluding certain search terms. NOT retrieves documents that contain one, but not the other, of the search terms you enter, as in this example:
Adelaide NOT travel.
Keep in mind that not all search engines and directories support Boolean terms. However, most do, and you can easily find out if the one you want to use supports this technique by consulting the FAQ's (Frequently Asked Questions) on a search engine or directory's home page.
Further Search Operators include:
- NEAR means you want all the words in that specific order or the actual phrase.
- NAND means a combination of NOT and AND
- NOR means a combination of NOT and OR
Conduct a search with domain names to refine the search:
If you know the website you are looking for is specific type of website, for example a website for a government agency or a school can be identified by the last part of its web address.
- .com = a commercial business
- .edu = an educational institution
- .gov = a governmental institution
- .org = a non-profit organization
- .biz = a business
Example: to search for a South Australian Government website you would type “South Australia site:.sa.gov.au” into your search engine.
You can also select to search for websites from a specific country.
- .au = Australia
- .fr = France
- .co.uk = England
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Carrying too much weight puts stress on your body which can lead to a variety of health issues.
By reducing the amount of fat cells in your body, you reduce the likelihood of getting very serious conditions such as heart disease, certain cancers, stroke, liver disease, type II diabetes, osteoarthritis and high blood pressure. Being overweight also affects the respiratory system, with side effects such as sleep apnoea and asthma.
If you are overweight or clinically obese then you may suffer from low self-esteem or lack self-confidence and therefore losing weight can help you to regain confidence, increase your self-esteem and lower the risk of depression.
It also helps improve the ratio of good to bad cholesterol; reduce blood pressure and inhibit the progression to type II diabetes.
Weight loss can be a difficult and daunting prospect, however clinical studies have shown that those who use Xenical / Orlistat alongside dieting are much more likely to lose weight.
Some Handy Tips for a Successful Weight Loss Journey
Try to eat three regular meals a day.
Try using a smaller plate and putting your knife and fork down between mouthfuls to encourage you to eat more slowly.
Don't buy tempting foods- if it's not in the cupboard, you can't eat it!
Fill at least half your plate with vegetables and salad, eat smaller portions of meat and starchy food like potatoes and bread. This will reduce your calories but keep you feeling full.
Prepare healthy snacks in advance and keep in the fridge to prevent you being tempted by other unhealthy, ready available snacks like crisps, biscuits and chocolate. You can chop up vegetables such as carrots, celery and peppers to be used with a tasty low calorie dip like salsa (tomato with onion, chilli, lime and coriander) or tzatziki (yoghurt with cucumber, garlic and mint).
If you have a sweet tooth, perhaps some fresh fruit with sugar free jelly or yoghurt.
Have a clear goal of weight loss like a clothing size to work towards or to lose weight for a specific event and it will help your motivation.
Plan meals in advance by deciding what you will have, write a list and then shop for the ingredients.
Batch cooking can help you stay on track and avoid poor choices when busy.
Drink lots of water as this helps metabolism.
Move more each day by simply walking or participate in any form of exercise that you enjoy.
Above all, don't give up. If you blow it one day, put it behind you as tomorrow is another day! Your weight loss may stop and start but keep going and the outcome will be well worth it. | <urn:uuid:5bcf7fb6-4d80-48ba-8205-cccca4f78f24> | {
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Indybay FeatureRelated Categories: Iraq | International | Environment & Forest Defense
Record temperatures in Kuwait and Iraq as heatwave spikes pose increasing health risk
As the US swelters through the current dog-days of summer heatwaves, spare a thought for people in southern Iraq, Iran and Kuwait who had to endure maximum temperatures of 129°F (54C) last week. Increasing temperatures and extreme heat events pose increasing health risk and enormous challenges for acclimatization and adaptation. Reducing emissions is vital for limiting this risk for future generations, but adaptation will also be now essential for human survival.
Last week Kuwait and the city of Basra in Iraq sweltered in 129 degree Fahrenheit (54C) heat, reported Dr Jeff Masters on the Weather Underground blog. At these temperatures, a major heat hazard is posed to human health.
The heat danger to human health was outlined by Steven Sherwood and Matthew Huber (2010) in the study: An adaptability limit to climate change due to heat stress which I reported on in May 2010: Scientists outline health limits of heat stress with Climate Change.
Here is how the Independent from the UK reported the event:
A weather station in Mitribah, a remote featureless area of north-west Kuwait, took the temperature last week during an intense heatwave that continues in parts of the Middle East. The mercury in neighbouring Iraq on the same day soared to 53.9C (129F) in the ancient city of Basra.
The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) is investigating the report. If found valid and verified, they will almost certainly be the two highest temperatures ever recorded on the planet. The WMO media release explained:
Large parts of the Middle East and North Africa were gripped by heatwaves since last week. Temperatures exceeding by a large margin the seasonal averages, and over a sustained period. This affected, in particular, the northern part of countries in the Arabian Gulf and North Africa.
The low humidity during these scorching temperatures is a saving grace, allowing for evaporative cooling as long as people stay in shaded areas and keep well hydrated.
Last year in Iran the city of Bandar Mahshahr clocked an air temperature of 46°C (115°F) and a dewpoint temperature of 32°C (90°F), creating a heat index of 165°F, according to Andrew Freedman in Mashable. Dewpoint temperature is an indication of the level of humidity. High humidity combined with high temperatures pose a significant health hazard as our human skin cannot cool by evaporation, resulting in greater danger of heat stress and heat strike.
We need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to meet the "well below 2 degrees C" target of the Paris Climate Agreement, but we also need to incorporate climate adaptation and acclimatization strategies to minimise impact of extreme heat events on population health.
Rising temperatures pose a human health risk
A study published in 2015 in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health highlighted the problems in human adaptation or acclimatization to extreme heat events we are now seeing in such places as the Middle-east and South Asia. Liz Hanna and Peter Tait in Limitations to Thermoregulation and Acclimatization Challenge Human Adaptation to Global Warming run through the human limitations of our thermo-regulatory system and assess the health risks and possibilities for climate adaptation.
The authors highlight the long term temperature and heat trend:
The rapid recent rise in heat extremes underscores our central claim that adaptation to protect human health, and indeed planned mitigation strategies, dangerously underestimate the real health threat of warming in the coming decades, and most critically, in the longer term future, when today’s children turn 50. Turning now to extreme heat events, heat records and prolonged heat waves have increased by more than a factor of ten in some continental regions, including parts of Europe, and the worldwide average is fivefold (Coumou et al 2013).
The paper goes into detail about the thermoregulation model for the human body, and on limits to physiological acclimatization to extreme heat events.
"The capacity to significantly upscale acclimatization diminishes among those in hot regions, where acclimatization is already approaching thermal maxima for human tolerance. Survival will require capacity to lessen extreme heat exposures through expansion of existing technical and behavioral adaptations, where possible. These hot nations are at extreme heat risk. That many megacities are situated in hot regions means that billions of people currently have restricted capacity to substantially boost their acclimatization capacity sufficiently to ensure their future health and well-being in a hotter climate. The high humidity endured by many of these megacities will further escalate the risk." Hanna and Tait argue.
Heat stress risk has substantially been addressed at an individual level, Hanna and Tail argue, with the population health threat glossed over briefly if at all. "Medical and nursing curricula have largely overlooked heat exposure as a population health threat, and instead focused on managing hyperthermia in individuals."
Part of the reason for this is that there is "considerable variation in heat tolerance ... between regionally dispersed human populations, and both between and within sub groups within each population." Although global patterning shows there is disproportionate vulnerability among certain population subgroups, including in particular "the aged, cardiac compromised and otherwise unwell, the obese and very young, and people with multiple health risks."
The authors found a lack of population health studies focusing on ambient temperature. "We found no population level studies on human tolerance of ambient temperatures. However there is a growing literature highlighting reduced worker performance in the heat. To date, our understanding of human heat generation and thermal tolerances is primarily derived from studies measuring the responses of athletes, university students, and military personnel, who are relatively fit and young. Hence caution must be applied when translating findings to the general population..."
While some population climatization is possible, and indeed already happens with seasonal change in temperatures, it will be limited to varying extents in the various population subgroups.
"Increasing population level acclimatization, and physical fitness, will assist heat tolerance, to a point. Climate projections suggest there will be temperature – humidity combinations which will make movement dangerous even for the fully acclimatized. Many parts of the world are already at or beyond, this threshold where sustained physical exercise outdoors is not possible without potentially fatal hyperthermia. If collective mitigation efforts fail to restrict warming to under 2 °C, as is becoming increasingly more likely, all people on Earth will become vulnerable to heat extremes. Even the highly acclimatized will be subject to thermal environments that can overwhelm their thermoregulatory system capacity, when heat gain and heat storage exceed cooling potential. Therefore, temperature induced limitations in capacity for humans to engage in normal daily physical activity, for domestic, commuting, recreational or professional purposes, will become progressively more common, in a warming world."
Most cities this century will experience a new climate range of temperatures. Climate departure is already happening, and indeed Oceans are already outside historical variability as cities and ecosystems follow.
It is clear that no matter whether we can limit global average temperatures to well below 2 degrees C as the Paris Agreement states, we will need to acclimatize and adapt to much higher temperatures and extreme heat events in a warmer world. Hanna and Tait make this abundantly clear as part of their study conclusion, which states in part:
"Acclimatization to a hotter world is a necessity for survival. However there are limitations. Adaptation to this new world can only partly be achieved through physiological responses. The remainder must derive from orchestrated strategies to reduce exposures via alterations to social, cultural technological and behavioral patterns. Shifts in housing and urban design, clothing, socially accepted behaviors and working hours will be required, as well as reorientations in industry, infrastructure and transport. Such major transformational changes will require decades to achieve, especially in the realm of infrastructure, housing and urban design. The complexity and embedded character of existing systems throughout the socio-political and economic fabric of society, coupled with propensity for inaction suggest that a coordinated multi-frontal approach is essential. This is necessary for human survival and sustained societal functioning in an increasingly hot climate.
Record temperature spike in First 6 months of 2016
The global average temperature data is in for the first six months of 2016. It is blowing away the records of past years. We have had 14 consecutive record setting months, with 2016 now likely to be the hottest year on record after the record setting 2015.
El Nino has now abated, but it only provided a very small proportion of these extreme temperature anomalies.
June was 0.90°C above the 20th century average according to NOAA and 0.79°C above the 1951-1980 average.
According to NOAA’s records, we have had an unprecedented 14 consecutive record-hot months.
Deke Arndt, the head of the climate monitoring division at NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Information, said that the long-term warming trend is still clear, in an email to Climate Central.
"It's important to keep perspective here. Even if we aren't setting records, we are in a neighborhood beyond anything we had seen before early 2015," Arndt said. "We've left the 20th century far behind. This is a big deal."
Gavin Schmidt, head of NASA GISS said on twitter: "Record for last 6 mon partly due to El Niño (which has just finished), but would still have been a record w/o it."
If we compare June's temperature anomaly to the 1880-1910 base period, then the temperature anomaly was 1.18C according to NASA GISS data. | <urn:uuid:250f5180-707e-44db-859c-3223896b4f4d> | {
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Inverness Castle - Built between 1834 and 1846
For years there have been calls for 'something to be done’ with Inverness Castle. It is the town’s most iconic landmark, rising high above the River Ness, yet public access is forbidden.
It must be admitted that it is not the most elegant of structures having served both as courthouse and prison and built at a time when mass outweighed elegance. However, plans are afoot to turn it into a 'centerpiece for visitors to learn more about the city and showcase the Highlands as a tourist destination.'
"Plans are afoot to turn it into a centrepiece for visitors to learn more about the city and showcase the Highlands as a tourist destination"
The Scottish government and Highland Council have set up a working group and it will work with other bodes to achieve this end.
Old print detail of the original Inverness Castle
There has been a castle on Castlehill since the 12th century. Major building work took place in the early 16th century but it suffered severe damage during the civil wars and during the ‘Glorious Revolution’ of 1688 when the garrison ‘defaced the paintings tore down the wainscot, pulled up the flooring and broke down the great stair with iron hammers’. No doubt the Catholic sympathies of the Marquis of Huntly, whose castle this was, played a part.
After the Jacobite Rebellion on 1719 the government converted the castle to a modern fortification but retained old tower house as officer accommodation. In 1746 the castle surrendered when the Jacobites mined the walls whereupon they blew it up by powder.
It lay in ruin and despite numerous attempts to arrest further decay due to stone robbing by the locals these ultimately ended in failure.
The remnants were cleared away when the present red sandstone edifice was built between 1834 and 1846. All that remains of the old castle is a well. | <urn:uuid:67e53a22-f4c0-4f08-91d1-807dc523f441> | {
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It is important to know that this poem personifies a lot. Cruelty is a person. Humility, Mercy, and Mystery are, too. The line that you are asking about says "he sits down with holy fears."
Okay, who is he? If a reader reads only that stanza (stanza 3), there isn't an answer. A reader must look to the previous stanza's second couplet.
"Then Cruelty knits a snare,
And spreads his baits with care."
Now we're getting somewhere. "He" and "Cruelty" are the same person. In this case, Cruelty is part of human nature. At this point Blake is beginning to describe the planting and growing of a metaphorical tree. Cruelty is sitting down to water the tree. He waters it with his tears that came from holy fears. And out sprouts humility.
"Then Humility takes its root
Underneath his foot."
What Blake is saying is that he believes the only reason that people attempt to be humble and merciful is because they have "holy fears." They fear eternal damnation if they do not act with humble kindness. It's an interesting thought, because what Blake is saying is that without the tears of holy fear to water humility, Cruelty would rule alone. That would be a scary world to live in.
William Blake's poem The Human Abstract explores the concepts of virtues and vices and breaks down our preconceived ideas of good qualities and bad qualities by suggesting that every virtue, for example Peace (line 5) is bought about by something less favorable - in these case we only have peace because of mutual fear - in essence people are too scared to get up and doing anything or voice opinions.
Personification is key to the poem - as demonstrated by the fact each virtue or vice is given a capital letter (Mercy etc), thus humanizing them perhaps as a means to represent the fact that these ideals are man made entities.
The line in question "He sits down with Holy fears" is an interesting one as this is the first time in the poem where we see a human figure, the rest of the poems focus is not on people but on abstract ideas. He can be viewed as an every man figure representative of humanity who has Holy Fears of the repercussion of actions - the idea of heaven versus hell & eternal damnation was a way to keep the behavior of the masses in line . Alternatively He can be seen as referring to Cruelty who we met in the previous stanza . This is significant as cruelty is a major feature of the poem, viewed as the hidden virtue behind the church. The use of the word "Holy" reinforces this idea of cruelty being part of the make up of organised religion. The tears used by Cruelty to plant a tree of Established Religion. The “Humility that takes its root” symbolizes the humility of the priests and religious figures that are being exploited in the poem. Further
It is worth comparing this idea to other poems within Songs of Innocence and Experience and how they present religion and religious ideals. For example in Holy Thursday or the Blackn'd churches in London which suggest a corruption. You could even look at The Poison Tree and the idea of Christian Forbearance, which suggests that some christian ideals can have sinister undertones or consequences. | <urn:uuid:62fd6ce7-c17e-4c66-a8db-e614e0c00040> | {
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As an example of the use of regression analysis for forecasting, let's consider the possibility of using another macroeconomic variable such as personal income to help us forecast auto sales. Personal income is chosen here as a predictor variable for two reasons: (i) it was advocated as a predictor of auto sales in a textbook previously used in this course, and (ii) it has been popular as a predictor variable for all kinds of things in student projects in this course in the past. The intuition behind using income as a predictor variable is obvious: the more income that consumers have to spend, the more money they will spend on automobiles and everything else--right? So let's see how well we can do with it.
As we have already seen, auto sales is a strongly seasonal variable, whereas personal income is not. We are by now familiar with the use of seasonal adjustment to account for seasonality in a forecasting model, so we will work with seasonally adjusted auto sales. We can use the Seasonal Decomposition procedure in Statgraphics to compute and store the seasonally adjusted values of AUTOSALE under another name--say, AUTOADJ. Meanwhile, personal income has been stored under the name INCOME. The first step in our analysis of the effect of INCOME on AUTOADJ should be to draw some plots. Here is a time series plot of both variables, as drawn by the Multiple XY Plot procedure:
The trend in INCOME is seen to match the trend in AUTOADJ very closely, although AUTOADJ seems to have a more pronounced cyclical pattern. But wait--both these variables are measured in nominal dollars. Perhaps inflation was responsible for much of the common trend. Let's deflate both series by the Consumer Price Index (1983=1.0) to see what happened in real terms:
We now see evidence of cyclical behavior in both series, although it is still somewhat stronger in the AUTOADJ series. Next let's ask: is there a significant linear relationship between these two variables? A scatter plot (i.e., a plot of AUTOADJ/CPI versus INCOME/CPI, drawn with the X-Y Plot procedure) will shed light on this question:
Clearly there is strong evidence of a linear relationship. Let's proceed, then, to fit a linear regression model...
There are a number of different procedures which we could use in Statgraphics to fit a simple regression model: Simple Regression, Multiple Regression, Advanced Regression (in version 2.1), or the Forecasting procedure. Let's try the usual all-purpose workhorse, namely the Multiple Regression procedure. Now, the available data extends from January 1970 through February 1996. In all of our subsequent analysis, we will hold out the last 26 observations--i.e., everything from January 1994 onward--for purposes of validation. (We have already used all the data to estimate seasonal indices, but never mind that complication.) In the Multiple Regression procedure, we can hold out the 1994-96 data by entering YEAR<1994 in the "Select" field on the Data Input panel.
Upon specifying AUTOADJ/CPI as the dependent variable and INCOME as the independent variable, the Analysis Summary report (click here) gives us the standard summary statistics for a regression model. (In Statgraphics version 2, it also includes comments from the StatAdvisor.) Note that the R-squared value appears quite satisfactory: 72.7254%. In other words, by using INCOME/CPI as a predictor, we have explained nearly 73% of the variance in AUTOADJ/CPI. And as we would expect with such a high R-squared, the estimated coefficient of INCOME/CPI is very significantly different from zero: its t-statistic is greater than 27, whereas anything greater than 2 in magnitude is normally considered significant. The estimated coefficient is 0.0782192, whereas the standard error of the coefficient is only 0.0028257. The t-statistic is equal to the estimated coefficient divided by its standard error, and hence represents the "number of standard errors from zero."
The "Interval Plot" option gives us a plot of the fitted regression line superimposed on the scatter plot, which visually confirms the strong linear relationship:
So, is this a good model for forecasting? There are a few more things we should look at before concluding that it is, if we are careful. For example, the Durbin-Watson statistic in the Analysis Summary report is 0.449251. The DW statistic tests for the presence of significant autocorrelation--also known as serial correlation--at lag 1, and a "good" value for the DW statistic is something close to 2.0. I have no idea why this statistic is ubiquitous in regression software: the program could just as well report the lag-1 autocorrelation coefficient, or even better, show you a graph of the residual autocorrelation function! The DW stat is roughly equal to 2(1-a), where a is the lag-1 autocorrelation coefficient. As a very rough rule of thumb, you should be suspicious of a DW stat that is less than 1.4 (corresponding to a lag-1 autocorrelation greater than 0.3) or a DW stat that is greater than 2.6 (corresponding to a lag-1 autocorrelation less than -0.3.) There is nothing magical about these values--in fact, smaller tolerances should be used for samples sizes larger than 50, as we have here. The StatAdvisor has already sounded an alarm, commenting that "The Durbin-Watson (DW) statistic tests the residuals to determine if there is any significant correlation based on the order in which they occur in your data file. Since the DW value is less than 1.4, there may be some indication of serial correlation. Plot the residuals versus row order to see if there is any pattern which can be seen." Plotting residuals versus row number (i.e., versus time) is always a good idea when you are dealing with time series data, and here is what the plot looks like in this case:
Yike! There is a rather serious problem here: the residuals clearly have a very strong pattern of positive autocorrelation--notice the long runs of errors with the same sign--which is perhaps a result of the INCOME variable not fully explaining the cyclical variations in AUTOADJ that we commented upon at the outset.
We might have noticed this problem earlier, and been in a better position to deal with it, if we had used the Forecasting procedure instead. The forecasting procedure includes many more tools for manipulating and analyzing time series data. To fit a regression model in the Forecasting procedure, set the Model Type to "Mean" and then hit the "Regression" button. You then have an opportunity to specify independent variables to be added to the forecasting equation (in addition to a constant term). One thing to watch out for: if you are going to use regressor (independent) variables, you cannot request any forecasts for the future to be generated unless values for the regressors are available for those periods. In this case, we do not have any future data on INCOME/CPI (a minor problem to which we shall return later), so we will not generate any forecasts into the future. However, we will hold out 26 values for validation, so that only data prior to 1994 is used to fit the model, as in the Multiple Regression procedure. The Analysis Summary report (click here) shows many of the same summary statistics that we saw before, with the notable exception of R-squared--which is no great loss! Of course, the estimated coefficients and error statistics in the estimation period are exactly the same as before.
One thing that this report includes which we did not see before is a comparison of the model's performance in the estimation and validation periods: the Mean Absolute Error in the estimation period is 1.64644, whereas it rises to 3.05438 in the validation period. The truth about the model's performance in the validation period is even worse, as we see when we look at a plot of the actual values and forecasts:
Not only are the errors bigger, on average, in the validation period than in the forecast period, but in fact every single forecast in the validation period (1994 and beyond) is significantly below the actual value, and getting farther away as time goes on. This is serial correlation with a vengeance! (By the way, you may notice that this plot looks an awful lot like the Multiple XY plot of the two input variables that we drew earlier. In fact, it is exactly the same as the earlier plot except that the INCOME/CPI variable has merely been rescaled and labeled as the "forecast" for AUTOADJ/CPI: this is precisely what goes in a simple regression model.)
The Forecasting procedure of course includes an autocorrelation plot of the residuals, so we can see the full dimension of the problem:
This is as bad a residual autocorrelation plot as you would ever hope to see!
As if we haven't heaped enough abuse on this poor model, there is one more unflattering comparison we can make: let's compare it to some of the "boring" time-series models we have considered previously: the random walk (with and without growth), simple exponential smoothing, and linear exponential smoothing models. The Model Comparison Report (click here) shows something remarkable: all of the simple time series models dramatically outperform the regression model, despite the latter's impressive R-squared! The two best models appear to be the exponential smoothing models: the simple exponential smoothing model does slightly better in the estimation period, while the linear exponential smoothing model does slightly better in the validation period, perhaps because of the consistent upward trend in the latter period. (The growth term does not appear to add much to the random walk model, although presumably it would be better for longer-horizon forecasts.) For example, the MAE for the linear exponential smoothing in the validation period is only 0.84, versus 3.05 for the regression model. Here is a plot of the forecasts for the linear exponential smoothing model:
...and here are the residual autocorrelations--rather more satisfactory than those of the regression model!
The morals of this story (so far) are:
What went wrong with the regression model? A variety of excuses might be found to explain its poor performance. For example, we noticed at the very beginning that the INCOME variable did not seem to have the same kind of cyclical behavior as the AUTOSALE variable--perhaps there are other economic indicator variables that could be added to the regression model to better capture the cyclicality. This is the "omitted variable" explanation which is frequently invoked to explain poor regression model performance.
But there are some deeper lessons here. One is that it is often perilous to regress one nonstationary time series on another nonstationary time series, particularly if both have significant trends. No doubt you will obtain a high R-squared, but this does not necessarily mean anything in such a case. Recall that R-squared represents the "percent of variance explained" in the dependent variable. Now, a variable which is nonstationary--e.g., a variable which is a true random walk and/or has a persistent trend--does not have a "true" variance. The sample variance merely grows as the sample size grows, and if the sample size went to infinity (e.g., if we considered the "asymptotic" properties of the model), the variance would also go to infinity. Since the whole concept of a well-defined variance is questionable for such a series, the concept of "percent of variance explained" is questionable as well.
For example, take any two series with strong upward trends, say, U.S. retail sales of automobiles (in nominal dollars) and the population of Pakistan. If you compute their coefficient of correlation (i.e., "r"), it may be greater than 0.95. And if you regress one on the other, you may get an R-squared greater than 90%. Does this mean one is a good predictor of the other? Obviously not--the high R-squared merely means that one series with a trend is much better predicted by another series with a trend than by a "constant" model. (Remember that R-squared essentially measures the reduction in variance compared with the constant model.) But, in such a case, you could probably do even better--perhaps very much better--by using a model that predicted the series from its own history, such as a random walk, exponential smoothing, or ARIMA model.
Does this mean that regression is not a useful forecasting technique? Not at all! It just means that when you working with time series data, you need to be aware that a regression model may fail to exploit the "time dimension" unless the variables are carefully chosen. In particular, you may wish to consider using lagged and/or differenced variables in the forecasting equation, so that some of the history of the dependent and/or independent variables, as well as their current values, is used in the forecast. | <urn:uuid:0fc710bf-8eae-4b9d-87d0-b47b417456cd> | {
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“Music goes on forever.” -Bob Marley
I carefully consider the music I bring into my classroom. I have found it to be a great tool that aides me in my teaching. It is a community builder, an atmosphere changer, a memory device, and soothing to some of my most agitated students. Here are some of the musical tips I’ve picked up along the way.
Entrance Music – I like to be proactive in setting the mood for my classes. Music is one way that I try to do this. I select entrance music based on the day’s lesson, the time of day and corresponding energy level, or individual class or student preferences. Sometimes I’ll find a music video on YouTube that uses the kind of music I’m looking for and images related to our content. Examples: While studying India I may select a video that incorporates Indian pop music with pictures of the Indian countryside. While studying the U.S. in the 1980s, I may put on some early MTV music videos.
Classroom Playlist – At the start of the semester, one of the pieces of information I try to gather from my students are their musical preferences. With these in hand, I have a better idea of what music I can use to motivate them and what kinds of music will drive them crazy (so I can try to avoid it). When my personal resources allow, I will use my own collection and iTunes to create a personalized classroom playlist. I shoot for one song per student. Some students will often have similar tastes so it doesn’t really involve buying a new song for each student. I often reuse a lot of what I already have. If a student likes something I don’t have on hand, I have fun going through and discovering new things. It helps to keep me more aware of their personal preferences. I then incorporate the playlist into class as appropriate.
Changing State – Teaching teenagers before 8am can feel like a waste of time unless you can change their energy level. First thing in the morning, I play very upbeat music and do my best to get them moving and awake. I’ve had people ask why my 1st block isn’t a bunch of zombies. It can be as simples as some oldies songs and getting my students up and out of their seats during a warm-up activity or class discussions.
The last block of the day is the other big challenge. By then, kids can be bouncing off the walls. Especially if it is a Friday or the day before vacation. Using music that has 60-80 beats per minute (or about the speed of a resting heartbeat) can help to alter that sometimes frenzied energy. This is where people often mention baroque music. While I do make use of classical music and certain instrumental movie soundtracks in class, my favorite is music for this purpose is that of Dr. Steven Halpern. Among other things, Dr. Halpern has done research on the impact of his music on learning and ADHD students. He has found that non-predictive music has the most positive impact on learning. Non-predictive music allows the brain to stop anticipating what comes next in the song and focus on the task at hand. This is another reason to use music without words. As a result of Dr. Halpern’s research, he has been able to compose music designed to optimize concentration and focus. Just a note on Dr. Halpern’s music: While he does produce music with positive subliminal messages, I choose music that does not contain these messages for use in the public school setting.
I stumbled across the effectiveness of this music one beautiful, sunny Friday afternoon. It that happened to be my seniors’ last Friday before graduating the next week. It was a 90 minute block. The class absolutely couldn’t concentrate. So we went outside for about 5 minutes and played a quick game of triangle tag (a good outlet for excess energy). When we came back in, I dimmed the lights and hit play on the Halpern. I was amazed at how well the class was able to concentrate on individual work and even they remarked on how much they accomplished that day.
Musical Choice – The type of music you use in your classroom can have a profound effect at times. I’ve found that oldies are often a great choice and recieve the least amount of complaints from my students. Other discoveries along the way is that Marvin Gaye can have a calming effect, while Irish jigs can really energize students. I also try to make musical choices related to the historical content we are studying in class.
Anchor Songs – This is a concept I’ve just recently begun to think about. An anchor song is a piece of music that you use as a signal for students. Some routine activities you may use anchor songs for include getting into groups, time to clean up, journal writing, activity transitions, and more. Use the same song each time to trigger the awareness in students that it is time to do something different. This is an obvious cue that tells students what they should be doing and, once learned, will save you time in the classroom.
Signal – Similar to anchor songs, any music can be used as a quick and simple signal that it is time to transition. At the beginning of class, during group discussions, or other activities, you can have music playing. When it is time to move on to a different activity, simply turn the music off. This is an automatic signal to students that something new is coming.
Timer – Do you have an activity that you only want students to spend a few minutes on? Select a song that fits the appropriate mood and activity length. When the song is over, time is up!
Memory Device – Music is a strong memory device. How many things as a child did you memorize set to song? ABCs, anyone? My favorite song to use in my U.S. History classes is the Presidents Song by the Animaniacs.
Discussion Enabler – Have you been in one of those situations where you have asked your class to have group discussions and no one seems to be talking? I have found that music is a useful tool to help promote discussion. “With music playing in the background, it is as if permission has unconsciously been given for people to speak to each other.” (Allen 2002) In a quiet room, it can be a risk to speak first. With music to help mask your voice at least a little, people are more willing to strike up conversations. I encourage you to experiment with this.
Personal music players (iPods, mp3 players, etc.) can be a contentious issue in the classroom. Personally, I welcome students to use them in my classes as long as they are used appropriately. I have found that personal music players with headphones can provide students with the ability to block out unwanted auditory stimuli. This can be very beneficial when students are trying to concentrate on individual work. I have found this to be especially true for my ADHD students. I make sure to lay the ground rules for personal music players in my classroom and explicitly teach when it is appropriate to use them and what appropriate use looks and sounds like.
- Allen, Richard Howell. 2002. Impact Teaching: Ideas and Strategies for Teachers to Maximize Student Learning. Boston: Allyn and Bacon (84-90).
Workshops that address the use of music in the classroom:
Edit: Updated links on 3/12/13
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The Amazon rainforest puts on its biggest growth spurt during the dry season, according to new research.
The finding surprised the researchers.
"Most of the vegetation around the world follows a general pattern in which plants get green and lush during the rainy season and then during the dry season, leaves fall because there's not enough water in the soil to support plant growth," said lead researcher Alfredo R. Huete of The University of Arizona in Tucson.
"What we found for a large section of the Amazon is the opposite. As soon as the rains stop and you start to enter a dry period, the Amazon becomes alive. New leaves spring out, there's a flush of green growth and the greening continues as the dry season progresses."
The finding holds true only for the undisturbed portion of the rainforest. Areas where the primary forest has been converted to other uses or disturbed, "brown down" in the dry season, said Huete, a UA professor of soil, water and environmental science.
Huete suggests the deep roots of trees in the undisturbed forest can reach water even in the dry season, allowing the trees to flourish during the sunnier, drier part of the year. In contrast, plants in areas that have been logged or converted to other uses cannot reach deep water in the dry season and therefore either go dormant or die.
Figuring out the metabolism of the Amazon rainforest, the largest old-growth rainforest on the planet, is crucial for understanding how rainforests and other tropical biomes function and how deforestation affects biodiversity and sustainable land use in the tropics. It will also help scientists better understand the global carbon cycle, which affects the natural sequestration and release of carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas.
The finding that converted forests grow differently from undisturbed forests has implications for understanding fire regimes in the tropics, including the fires that sometimes rage in tropical areas during El Nino years, which bring drought to many tropical areas, including the Amazon.
The research team figured out when the intact forest grows by analyzing five years of satellite images from the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) instrument mounted on NASA's Terra satellite and by cross-checking with information from local sites on the ground. The research was funded by NASA and is part of the Brazilian-led Large Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment in Amazônia (LBA).
The paper by Huete, Scott Saleska, UA assistant professor of ecology and evolutionary biology, and their colleagues, "Amazon Rainforests Green-Up with Sunlight in Dry Season," is scheduled for the March 22 issue of Geophysical Research Letters. NASA funded the research. A complete list of authors can be found at the end of this release.
The MODIS instrument began collecting data in 2000. Once a day, MODIS takes a picture of each spot on the Earth. Each pixel in the images represents a square of about 820 feet (250 meters) on a side. If it's too cloudy at one spot one day, the next day's picture may be fine. Five years' worth of pictures means the scientists have at least one good image of every spot for every month of the year.
To be able to figure out when the Amazon rainforest is growing, Huete's lab used a new measure, called Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), for detecting greenness in MODIS images of very highly vegetated rainforests. Greenness is an indicator of active plant growth.
Plants are green because they contain the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll. Growing plants generate more chlorophyll and therefore look greener.
The greenness can also be translated to a measure of plant growth called "gross primary productivity." Ecosystems with higher gross primary productivity take up and store more carbon in the form of carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas.
"We can look at this increase in greenness as a measure of Amazon health, because in the disturbed areas we don't see the greenness increase during the dry season," Huete said. " A lot of people are interested in the rainforest because of the humongous amount of carbon it stores. A very slight change in the forest's activity will make a tremendous change in the global carbon cycle."
Saleska and his colleagues and other research teams had conducted studies at local sites in the Amazon that suggested the intact rainforest grows more during the dry season. Those studies analyzed data from flux towers, which measure the seasonal gas exchange by vegetation. The new research confirms the local studies and indicates that the greener-in-the-dry-season pattern is basin-wide.
"With the satellite, we can say the whole Amazon basin is doing something," Huete said.
The team's next step, Huete said, is to see if other tropical rainforests behave the same way and how the rainforests behave in El Niño years. He added, "We also want to look harder at the transition zones at the edge of the rainforest to see whether different kinds of disturbance cause different growth patterns."
Alfredo Huete, 520-621-3228 (office), 520-241-0958 (cell) [email protected]
Scott Saleska, 520-626-1500 (office), 617-680-6430 (cell) [email protected]
Ramakrishna Nemani, 650-604-6185, [email protected]
Related Web sites:
UA Terrestrial Biophysics and Remote Sensing Lab
The Large Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment in Amazônia
Huete's co-authors on the Geophysical Research Letters paper are Kamel Didan, Piyachat Ratana and Scott R. Saleska of The University of Arizona; Yosio E. Shimabukuro of the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, São José de Campos, Brazil; Lucy R. Hutyra of Harvard University; Wenze Yang and Ranga Myneni of Boston University; and Ramakrishna R. Nemani of NASA Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, Calif.
AAAS and EurekAlert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to EurekAlert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the EurekAlert! system. | <urn:uuid:15f2a5ae-b9e0-4f8e-835a-c1e133321449> | {
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Vast stretches of uninterrupted sand are only one kind of Saharan landscape. This true-color MODIS image from November 9, 2001, reveals a diversity of land surface features, including ancient lava flows and volcanoes. Beginning at upper left and moving clockwise are the countries of Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Chad, and Niger.
Evidence of previous volcanic activity in the Sahara can be found in northeastern Chad, in particular, in a region knows as Tibesti. Reaching up out of the surrounding desert, the dark rock of the Tibesti Plateau stands out in dark brown against the sand. Scattered throughout the region are the circular cones and calderas of several volcanoes. The dark remains of a lava flow mark the location of the Tousside volcano. North of Tibesti, in Libya, more dark-colored lava beds leave their mark on the landscape.
Variety exists in Algeria, where the Grand Erg Oriental desert (far upper left) is hemmed in to the south by the Tinrhert Plateau. South of the Plateau, desert resumes briefly, only to give way to a mountainous region traced with impermanent rivers.
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For Some Skin Cancers, Targeted Drug Hits the Mark
Adapted from the NCI Cancer Bulletin.
In January, the Food and Drug Administration approved a drug called vismodegib (Erivedge™) for treating advanced cases of basal cell carcinoma (BCC). The vast majority of BCCs, the most common form of skin cancer, can be treated surgically, but patients with locally advanced or metastatic disease have had no effective treatments until this year.
Final results from the trial that led to the approval of vismodegib appeared in the New England Journal of Medicine on June 7, 2012. A companion report describes how vismodegib, which is taken as a pill, prevented and shrank tumors in people with basal cell nevus syndrome (BCNS), an inherited condition that can cause a person to develop hundreds to thousands of BCCs.
“It is a landmark day for patients with basal cell carcinoma and all those involved in their care—the greatest advance in therapy yet seen for this disease,” noted John T. Lear, M.B., Ch.B., of University of Manchester in an accompanying editorial. But continuous administration of the drug can cause “considerable and frequent” side effects, including muscle cramps, hair loss, and loss of the sense of taste.
These side effects led some patients to stop taking the drug, he noted. One-quarter of the patients experienced serious adverse events, and seven died. "The relationship between the study drug and the deaths is unknown," the researchers wrote.
Modified dosing schedules may limit the side effects and are being investigated, noted Aleksandar Sekulic, M.D., Ph.D., of the Mayo Clinic, who led the BCC study. In the phase II trial, 30 percent of patients with metastatic disease had a partial response, and 43 percent of patients with locally advanced disease had a complete or partial response. The study included 104 patients.
The BCNS study was a randomized trial involving 41 patients. Patients who received vismodegib developed, on average, two new BCCs that warranted surgery per year, compared with 29 new BCCs among those who received a placebo. However, more than half of the patients taking vismodegib discontinued treatment because of side effects. Once patients stopped taking the drug, tumors began to slowly reappear.
“We still feel that this medicine is a life-changing therapy for these patients,” said Jean Tang, M.D., Ph.D., of Stanford University, the first author of the study. “But patients cannot take the drug every day.” Her team has initiated a second trial to investigate the best way to give the drug.
The drug is designed to block signals that drive the growth of cancer cells though the Hedgehog signaling pathway. This pathway is silent in adult tissues, except in certain parts of the body, such as hair follicles. By shutting down the pathway in normal cells, the drug may cause hair loss and other side effects.
Although unpleasant, the side effects are an indication that the drug is hitting its target, noted Dr. Sekulic. These studies are “an important step forward,” he continued, adding that “the vast majority of BCCs can be prevented with good sun protection.” | <urn:uuid:ddc7ff21-d368-48af-bcfe-d8c4dca30278> | {
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Sine is the ordinate of the endpoint of an arc of a unit circle centered at the origin of a Cartesian coordinate system, the arc being of length x and measured counterclockwise from the point (1, 0) if x is positive or clockwise if x is negative.
In a right triangle, the ratio of the length of the side opposite an acute angle to the length of the hypotenuse. Yeah yeah, I know...what's hypotenuse mean? It's The side of a right triangle opposite the right angle.
There...now, did that answer your question? IS it all becoming clear again for you now?
Mind if I ask why you are asking of Sine? Is it because you have heard people say "sining the kite"? If so, I'm sure by now we have you clear and straight.
<font size=-1>[ This Message was edited by: Johnny TBKS on 2002-10-26 16:48 ]</font> | <urn:uuid:84840787-168c-464a-92b5-6946e8ffd9f1> | {
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Researchers have created an interactive web tool to estimate the amount of energy that could be generated by wind or solar farms at any location.
The tool, called Renewables.ninja, aims to make the task of predicting renewable output easier for both academics and industry.
To test the model, Dr Iain Staffell, from the Centre for Environmental Policy at Imperial, and Dr Stefan Pfenninger, who is now at ETH Zürich, have used Renewables.ninja to estimate the productivity of all wind farms planned or under construction in Europe for the next 20 years. Their results are published today in the journal Energy.
They found that wind farms in Europe current have an average ‘capacity factor’ of around 24 per cent, which means they produce around a quarter of the energy that they could if the wind blew solidly all day every day.
This number is a factor of how much wind is available to each turbine. The study found that because new farms are being built using taller turbines placed further out to sea, where wind speeds are higher, the average capacity factor for Europe should rise by nearly a third to around 31 percent.
This would allow three times as much energy to be produced by wind power in Europe compared to today, not only because there are more farms, but because those farms can take advantage of better wind conditions.
In another research paper also published today in Energy, the pair modelled the hourly output of solar panels across Europe. They found that even though Britain is not the sunniest country, on the best summer days solar power now produces more energy than nuclear power. However, the pattern of this solar output through the year substantially changes how the rest of the power system will have to operate.
Wind and solar energies have a strong dependence on weather conditions, and these can be difficult to integrate into national power systems that requires consistency. If there is excess power generated by all energy sources, then some supplies have to be turned off.
Currently, wind and solar power generators are the easiest to switch on and off, so they are often the first to go, meaning the power they generate can be wasted.
Making use of a larger capacity for solar energy generation relies on changes to the national energy system, such as adding new types of electricity storage or small and flexible generators to balance the variable output from solar panels.
Renewables.ninja uses 30 years of observed and modelled weather data from organisations such as NASA to predict the wind speed likely to influence turbines and the sunlight likely to strike solar panels at any point on the Earth during the year.
These figures are combined with manufacturer’s specifications for wind turbines and solar panels to give an estimate of the power output that could be generated by a farm placed at any location.
Dr Staffell said he spent two years crunching the data for his own research and thought that creating this tool would make it quicker for others to answer important questions: “Modelling wind and solar power is very difficult because they depend on complex weather systems. Getting data, building a model and checking that it works well takes a lot of time and effort.
“If every researcher has to create their own model when they start to investigate a question about renewable energy, a lot of time is wasted. So we built our models so they can be easily used by other researchers online, allowing them to answer their questions faster, and hopefully to start asking new ones.”
He and Dr Pfenninger have been beta testing Renewables.ninja for six months and now have users from 54 institutions across 22 countries, including the European Commission and the International Energy Agency.
Dr Pfenninger said: “Renewables.ninja has already allowed us to answer important questions about the current and future renewable energy infrastructure across Europe and in the UK, and we hope others will use it to further examine the opportunities and challenges for renewables in the future.” | <urn:uuid:6da91731-8dc3-427d-9d1b-87344bd0bac7> | {
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“BELIEVING in heaven is the ultimate rebellion against the idea that this world is all there is” (Paula Gooder, Heaven). Our reading from Revelation reminds us that “heaven” is not a synonym for “the afterlife”.
As Gooder explains, God creates the heavens in Genesis 1 so that he can dwell close to his creatures. Revelation 21 promises a re-creation of both heaven and earth in which the two are “intertwined”. God will now make his home among mortals. In the words of John, “He will dwell with them; they will be his peoples, and God himself will be with them.”
Revelation shows the struggles of the persecuted saints to be part of a cosmic battle in this current age. Events in heaven are already intertwined with those on earth. Joseph Mangina observes that “much of modern theology and piety can be reduced to saying ‘God loves us’ in various forms and tropes.” While this is true, when it is “divorced from any context allowing us to identify which God is meant, it is also utterly banal” (Brazos Theological Commentary on the Bible: Revelation).
In our own times, as a naïve progressivism looks increasingly implausible, Revelation offers some much-needed realism. It unmasks the radical nature of evil, and the consequent struggle between the death-dealing regime of “Babylon” and those who bear witness to the Lord of life. Against the impulse to anxious self-improvement, Revelation reminds us that “the new Jerusalem” is not built by human hands. It must be received as grace, as a gift “coming down out of heaven from God”.
Our Old Testament reading speaks of both the struggle of the saints — as they are “tested” like “gold in the furnace” — and their eternal destiny. Although “in the eyes of the foolish, the righteous seem to have been ‘punished’ and to have died, they are in fact in the hands of God and abide with him in love.” The saints in heaven now offer praise and intercession before God’s throne (Revelation 7.9-12).
For the New Testament, the saints do not only mediate God’s love during their earthly lives: they are a “cloud of witnesses” who “surround” the earthly Church (Hebrews 12.1) and cry out to God for him to come in justice and deliverance (Revelation 6.10).
Far from obstructing the relationship between the individual believer and Christ, the saints in heaven (along with those on earth who encourage, support, and pray for us) are mediators of his love and grace. In the words of our collect, we are all “knit together” in “one communion” in his “mystical body”.
The story of Lazarus shows the connection between the hope of eternal life and the conviction that God’s love is faithful. Elsewhere in John’s Gospel, Jesus tells the disciples that they are not simply servants but friends (15.5). Here we see what it means to be a friend of God, as Jesus is “greatly disturbed” and moved to tears at the death of Lazarus.
Lazarus is one of the many holy ones whose friendship with Christ was not a matter of dramatic deeds or words. As Jean Vanier reminds us, Lazarus’s story is largely untold: “In this Gospel, Lazarus is present but he never speaks and is never described. In Luke’s Gospel, when Jesus visits this family in Bethany, the home is described as ‘the home of Martha’, not the home of Lazarus.” The man “seems to be a ‘nobody’ except to his sisters and Jesus, who love him deeply” (Drawn into the Mystery of Jesus by the Gospel of John). He stands among the innumerable company whose story is forgotten by humans but remembered by God. Today is no less a feast for such saints as this.
In the raising of Lazarus, Jesus’s resurrection breaks into the world of mortality and death. Like every saint, Lazarus is a witness to the new Jerusalem in the midst of Babylon. Precisely because they bear witness to the victory that is to come, the saints attract hostility and persecution. In one of John’s darkly ironic twists, Lazarus’s raising generates such interest in Jesus that the religious leaders plot to kill him (John 12.10).
The lives of all the saints are eucharistic; for they receive and mediate the sacrifice of Christ — bearing witness to the victory that he has won, and anticipating the life of the city that is to come.
See also a commentary by Rosalind Brown from 2012 on the alternative readings for the 4th Sunday before Advent here. | <urn:uuid:d345781b-b45c-4f84-a1fb-dd2c271b27a9> | {
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- with respect to learners current and prior knowledge, skill and understanding: authentic to the person now
- with respect to the epistemology of the discipline/field: authentic to the accepted canons and methodological protocols of the discipline, laws, theorems, etc
- with respect to the practice of professionals in the discipline/field: authentic to the messy reality of practice, which at times confounds authenticity
These ideas are informed by a number of strands. Fullick (2004) refers to three aspects of authenticity: creativity, activity, language. Tatsuki (2006), following Taylor (1994) speaks of language, task and situation. Both these three-part typologies are quite similar to mine and I wonder if I have unconsciously paraphrased or adapted Fullick?In these cases:
- "language" aligns with my concept of authenticity 1): to where the learners are now: don't buffalo them with jargon too early, etc
- "task" (Tatsuki) and "activity" (Fullick) correspond (I think) with my authenticity 2): to the canons of the discipline
- Fullick's "creativity" corresponds, I think, with my authenticity 3) and may correspond with Tatsuki's "situation"
Kreber et al (2007) did a thorough lit review of authenticity, but do not reproduce this three-part structure. They cite another 3-part approach to authenticity in teaching where:
The three pedagogical principles … are (a) learners are validated as "knowers," (b) learning is situated within their experience, and (c) learning itself is conceptualized as mutually constructing knowledge. (Taylor 1991)
(i) creation and construction as well as discovery, (ii) originality, and frequently (iii) opposition to the rules of society and even potentially to what we recognize as morality.
This all seems to align with my authenticity 3.Can anyone shed light on this for me? Thank you References Fullick, Patrick Leslie. 2004. Knowledge Building among School
Students Working in a Networked Computer Supported Learning
Environment. University of Southampton, Faculty of Law, Arts and
Social Sciences, School of Education. Kreber, Carolin, Monika Klampfleitner, Velda McCune, Sian Bayne, and
Miesbeth Knottenbelt. 2007. “What do you mean by ‘authentic’? A
comparative review of the literature on conceptions of authenticity in
teaching.” Adult Education Quarterly 58 (1) (November): 22-43.
doi:Article. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=27329878&site=ehost-live. Tatsuki, Donna. 2006. What is authenticity? In Authentic
communication: Proceedings, 1-15. Shizuoka, Japan: Tokai University
College of Marine Science.
http://jalt.org/pansig/2006/HTML/Tatsuki.htm. Taylor, C. 1991. The ethics of authenticity Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Taylor, D. 1994. Inauthentic authenticity or authentic inauthenticity? TESL-EJ, 1 (2) A-1
- (auto) biography
- the literature, theory
Dyke (2006) observes we need to do more of this. Evaluation informed by interdisciplinary social science in the critical theoretical tradition. Evaluation has to address:
By all means have a plan, but every moment is an opportunity for reflection. Reflect in practice on the things that can be managed or which are placed in our way to be dealt with: teaching space, time, curriculum. It is best to do so mindfully.
Every programme event or intervention is an opportunity for evaluation.
Evaluation is, itself, directed towards aims, These may or may not be aligned with the aims of whatever the subject of the evaluation is. Evaluators have perspectives. They should reflect on these and be committed to openness and transparency about them. Openness, itself needs to be bounded, but the boundaries want to be quite permeable (1000 mile question). Boundaries may be necessary for creative turbulence layers. Bringing together diverse peoples to learn from one-another. How does the enterprise address equality and diversity issues? Progress, development and hierarchy may be necessary to create movement. Communities may embrace, among others: discipline, profession, locale, domestic, global. Professional practitioners in graduate occupations and/or disciplines must be current with tools and practices, methods and methodologies, grounded in knowledge, history, language, epistemology.
- Objective oriented
Structure is provided by course intended learning outcomes or objectives. The lectures, workshops, activities and assessment strive for alignment as well as dynamic instability and points of harmony.
- semi-systematic and structured
Alongside an opportunistic outlook, having tools to hand helps. Start with course aims and outcomes. Use a questionnaire several times over; even if not perfect, comparisons are where the discoveries are made.
Ongoing, no end: hasta la lucha continua. But, there may be many review points, annual planning cycles: major and minor, etc
Course cycles, professional cycles, conference cycles, university bureaucratic cycles all run to different periods. Activity is mixed and multi-modal. Evaluation needs to be multi-purposed and reusable.
Because of all the above, impacts are going to be emergent as well as planned. An evaluator would expect to see new structures emerge and to see mechanisms in place to encourage this: enquiry-based learning, action learning, learner-led curricula, user-centred design.
Shares in the myth of modernism and the enlightenment, that there is progress and that this is modelled and trained through a ranked education system with levels of attainment, informed by human development psychology. Facilitates learner progression as defined in the plan.
Do differently and better, not necessarily more (Daly 2008). Fail. Fail again, better (Beckett cited in Žižek 2009). | <urn:uuid:9a1b7eed-ec22-4fd4-876d-e7f1093cbd5a> | {
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During a meeting with leaders of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1976, Syrian President Hafiz al-Asad referred to Palestine as a region of Syria, as Southern Syria. He then went on to tell the Palestinians: "You do not represent Palestine as much as we do. Do not forget one thing: there is no Palestinian people, no Palestinian entity, there is only Syria! You are an integral part of the Syrian people and Palestine is an integral part of Syria. Therefore it is we, the Syrian authorities, who are the real representatives of the Palestinian people."
Although unusually candid, this outburst exemplifies a long tradition of Syrian politics, and one that has gained increasing importance in recent years. The Asad government presents itself as not just an Arab state protecting the rights of the Palestinians but as the rightful ruler of the land that Israel controls. According to this view, the existing republic of Syria is but a truncated part of the Syrian lands; accordingly, the government in Damascus has a duty to unite all Syrian regions, including Palestine, under its control.
The growth in Syrian military capabilities in recent years makes these ambitions a major source of instability throughout the Levant. Indeed, the Syrian claim to "Southern Syria" has become central to the Arab-Israeli conflict; Syrian has become not only Israel's principal opponent, but also the PLO's. Damascus is likely to retain this role for many years, certainly as long as Hafiz al-Asad lives, and probably longer.
When Asad uses the term Southern Syria, he implicitly harks back to the old meaning of the name "Syria." Historically, "Syria" (Suriya or Sham in Arabic) refers to a region far larger than the Syrian Arab Republic of today. At a minimum, historic Syria stretches from Anatolia to Egypt, and from Iraq to the Mediterranean Sea. In terms of today's political geography, it comprises all of four states-Syria, Jordan, Israel, and Lebanon-as well as the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and substantial portions of southeastern Turkey. To distinguish this territory from the present Syrian state, it is known as Greater Syria.
Until 1920, Syria meant Greater Syria to everyone, European and Middle Easterner alike; For example, an early nineteenth-century Egyptian historian, 'Abd ar-Rahman al-Jabarti, referred to the inhabitants of El Arish in the Sinai Peninsula as Syrians. Palestine was called Southern Syria first in French, then in other languages, including Arabic. The 1840 Convention of London called the area around Akko "the southern part of Syria" and the 11th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (published in 1911) explains that Palestine "may be said generally to denote the southern third of the province of Syria." These examples could be multiplied a thousand-fold.
Greater Syria conjured up a geographic unit, not a political entity. Like Scandinavia or New England, Greater Syria was an abstraction, an ecological and cultural unit. It had never assumed political form; indeed, no one had even tried to establish a Greater Syrian state as such. The last time the whole area had been ruled from Damascus was during the Umayyad Dynasty, which fell in the year 750. But when the British conquered Greater Syria during World War I, aided by the Arab forces of the Hashemite Prince Faysal, the possibility of achieving Syrian unity came to the fore.
Indeed, from the moment Prince Faysal set up a government in Damascus in October 1918, he stressed that Palestine was a part of Syria. At the Paris Peace Conference, where the British, French and Americans sorted out their interests after the war, Faysal called Palestine his "right hand" and promised to work for it as he would for Syria and Iraq. "I assure you, according to the wishes of its people, Palestine will be a part of Syria." Three months later, Faysal wrote General Edmund Allenby that Palestine "is an inseperable [sic] part of Syria."
Faysal was hardly alone in this view. His rival Shukri Ghanim, an advocate of French rule in Syria, declared Palestine "incontestably the Southern portion of our country." Two General Syrian Congresses identified Palestine by name as an integral part of Syria. The first called for "no separation of the southern part of Syria, known as Palestine;" the second unanimously proclaimed "the complete and unconditional independence of our country Syria, including Palestine, within its natural boundaries." Faysal sent agents to Palestine to boost his standing and Damascus became a major center of anti- Zionist rhetoric and activity.
Significantly, the view of Palestine as Southern Syria was not limited to Syrians; from the end of 1918, almost all the Arabs of Palestine agreed on this point. Their enthusiasm for union with Syria greatly enhanced the legitimacy of this concept and did much to make it endure.
The three main political organizations in Palestine-the Arab Club, the Literary Club, and the Muslim-Christian Association (the lack of mention of Palestine in their names is revealing) -- all worked for union with Syria. The first two went farthest, calling outright for rule by Prince Faysal. Amin al-Husayni was president of the Arab Club; the extremism which later made him notorious as the leader of Palestinian separatism (and an ally of Hitler) already showed itself in 1920, when he instigated riots for union with Syria. A member of the Arab Club, Kamil al-Budayri, co-edited from September 1919 the newspaper Suriya al-Janubiya ("Southern Syria") which advocated Palestine's incorporation into Greater Syria.
Even the Muslim-Christian Association, an organization of traditional leaders-men who expected to rule if Palestine became independent-demanded incorporation in Greater Syria. Its president insisted that "Palestine or Southern Syria-an integral part of the one and indivisible Syria-must not in any case or for any pretext be detached." The Muslim-Christian Association held a Congress in early 1919 to draw up demands for the Paris Peace Conference. It declared that Palestine, a "part of Arab Syria," is permanently connected to Syria through "national, religious, linguistic, natural, economic, and geographical bonds," and resolved that "Southern Syria or Palestine should not be separated from the independent Arab Syrian government." Musa Kazim al-Husayni, Head of the Jerusalem Town Council (in effect, mayor) told a Zionist interlocutor in October 1919: "We demand no separation from Syria." The slogan heard everywhere in 1918-19 was "Unity, Unity, From the Taurus [Mountains in Turkey] to Rafah [in Gaza], Unity, Unity."
The same appeal echoed from distant corners too; from San Salvador, of all places, a protest in 1919 went out from "Syrian Palestinians" to international leaders calling for "no separation between Syria and Palestine."
Palestinian interest in Pan-Syrian unity peaked during the early months of 1920. One speaker at the General Palestinian Congress suggested that Palestine stood in relation to Syria as Alsace-Lorraine to France. The Congress passed four resolutions. The first of them noted that "it never occurred to the peoples of Northern and Coastal Syria that Southern Syria (or Palestine) is anything but a part of Syria." The second called for an economic boycott of the Zionists in "all three parts of Syria" (meaning French Syria, Mt. Lebanon, and the Palestine mandate). The third and fourth resolutions called for Palestine "not to be divided from Syria" and for "the independence of Syria within its natural borders."
The crowning of Faysal as King of Syria in March 1920 elicited great enthusiasm among the Arabs of Palestine. Participants in a mass demonstration in Jerusalem carried pictures of Faysal and called for unity with Syria. Amin al-Husayni, just back from Damascus, incited the crowds with (false) news that the British government recognized Faysal as ruler of Palestine as well as Syria.
Why did Palestinians accept Southern Syria and submission to Damascus? In large part because this was their traditional identity; also because they thought they would gain from connections to Damascus. The Palestinians regarded Faysal as the only Arab leader capable of resisting the Jewish influx into Palestine; as a group of Palestinian expatriates observed, "If Syria and Palestine remain united, we will never be enslaved by the Jewish yoke."
But Britain and France disregarded these sentiments and divided Greater Syria between them in April 1920. Then they subdivided their territories: the British part became Palestine and Transjordan; the French part became Lebanon, Syria, and several smaller units.
Although the advocates of Greater Syria had lost, they did not give up. Interest in union between Syria and Palestine remained strong on both sides for years to come. Indeed, there was hardly any reduction in interest on the Syrian side. During the 1920s, the most prominent nationalist organization, the Syro-Palestinian Congress, regarded Palestine as Southern Syria. But Syrian nationalists had to contend with their new French masters and could do little about their South Syria ambition. Activity abated for some time, to emerge again only in 1936-39, with the Arab revolt in Palestine.
The revolt captured the imagination of Syrians. Damascus sponsored "The General Command of the Arab Revolt in Southern Syria (Palestine)." Led by a Syrian army officer, Fawzi al-Qawuqji, this 300-man unit fought alongside Palestinians in 1936. In return for Syrian backing, a leader of the revolt, 'Arif 'Abd ar-Raziq called himself "Commander-in-Chief of the Rebels in Southern Syria." Under Syrian pressure in 1938, the "Bureau of the Arab Revolt in Palestine" changed the "Palestine" in its name to "Southern Syria."
Although Syrian interest in Palestine survived the imposition of European control without reduction, Palestinian interest in Syria diminished markedly. When news of the British and French agreement to split Palestine from Syria reached Palestine, it prompted a flood of protests calling for a united Syria from Turkey to the Sinai Peninsula. But after the French took Damascus in July 1920, the attraction of a Syrian connection disappeared. Why be joined to Damascus if that meant being tied to a French mandate? Palestinian leaders recognized that they were on their own against the British and the Zionists. Musa Kazim al-Husayni made this point only days after Faysal fell: "After the recent events in Damascus, we have to effect a complete change in our plans here. Southern Syria no longer exists. We must defend Palestine." As this remarkably candid statement indicates, tactical considerations had much to do with the rapid collapse of Pan-Syrian sentiment and its replacement by a nascent Palestinian separatism. Making Palestine a political unit had limited appeal among the residents of Palestine at the time but it did serve a purpose; it allowed Palestinian leaders to present themselves to the British as equals of the Zionists.
Still, many years were to pass before Palestine meant as much as Southern Syria to most people. Continued reference to Greater Syria-even in appeals to the West-confirms this point. Two Palestinian legations meeting with Winston Churchill in 1921 called for Palestine not be separated from her Arab- neighboring sister-states and the Fourth Arab Palestine Congress called for a Palestinian delegate to be sent to demand Syrian unity from the League of Nations. The Fifth Congress heard that "the inhabitants of Southern Syria see themselves and their land as an inseparable part of the rest of Syria," and a report by the Executive Committee of the Palestine Arab Congress in 1924 refers to "the one country of Syria" and calls Palestine "Southern Syria."
The memory of Faysal and his dream of being king of Greater Syria retained its impact in Palestine for years. Palestinians mourned Faysal's death in September 1933 and took the occasion to recall their hopes for his kingdom; similarly, the first anniversary of his death prompted many expressions of grief. Even afterwards, the goal of Greater Syria continued to find a wide audience; Palestinian exile groups, for example, still portrayed Palestine as Southern Syria. The Palestine National League of New York asserted in 1922 that "the Palestinians ask only to be left alone with their fellow Syrians to develop the resources of their province which has been an integral part of Syria for two thousand years." Even George Antonius, the leading Palestinian theorist of Pan-Arab nationalism, accepted this formulation. Meeting with David Ben-Gurion in 1936, he argued that "there was no natural barrier between Palestine and Syria, and there was no difference between their inhabitants." Antonius denied the existence of a Palestinian unit, stressing instead Greater Syria from the Taurus Mountains to the Sinai Desert. Ben- Gurion concluded that Antonius' true interest was in the fate of Syria, not Palestine. Such support among Palestinians helped legitimate Syrian claims.
As the European exit from Syria and Palestine grew near in the 1940s, Syrian hopes of absorbing "Southern Syria" increased. The Syrian premier, Sa'dallah al-Jabiri, declared in September 1944 that "the Syrian problem concerns four regions: Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Transjordan." Faris al-Khuri, Syria's delegate to the United Nations, called for Palestine's union with his country on the grounds of racial, cultural, and historical ties. A spokesman for the Syrian Legation in Washington stated in 1946, that "Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Jordan are separated by artificial borders." Again, such examples could be multiplied many times.
The United Nations decision of November 1947 to partition Palestine led to riots in Damascus and Aleppo. Soon thereafter, Syrians organized volunteer forces to fight the Zionists. Fawzi al-Qawuqji again lead the Syrian troops. His forces began infiltrating Palestine in January 1948, five months before the British left, and quickly took control of territory in northern Palestine. When the British finally left and the State of Israel was declared in May 1948, regular Syrian forces invaded. Syrian forces won small areas in the territory allotted to Israel. Revealingly, these were quickly incorporated into Syria itself-not administered as part of Palestine (which was how Egypt administered its Gaza conquests from 1948 to 1967).
The failure to destroy Israel was a blow to Greater Syrian aspirations, but it did not eliminate them. The Syrian attitude that Palestine belonged to them reemerged during the Armistice Conference of 1949, when Syria and Israel were making arrangements to end hostilities. A Syrian delegate announced that "there is no international border between Israel and Syria. There was a political border between Syria and Palestine. We have to sign an armistice agreement not on the basis of a political border, but on the basis of an armistice line." To this day, indeed, maps of the Syrian armed forces show no international border between Syria and Israel, only a "temporary" border separating Syria from a region called Palestine.
Nevertheless, notions of joining Palestine to Greater Syria were muted after Israel's creation. This resulted from three factors: Syrian regimes were exceptionally unstable and weak between 1949 and 1970 and so in no position to pursue irredentist claims; during these years, Damascus was the prey of expansionary efforts, not the hunter. Second, Israel's strength of arms discouraged military confrontation. Third, the period between 1956 and 1967 marked the heyday of Pan-Arabism, a time when all eyes were on Jamal 'Abd an-Nasir and the program of Arab unification; the more modest aims of Greater Syria were nearly forgotten.
Even during those years, however, Syrian claims to its southern region were vented from time to time, particularly at the United Nations. In 1956, the General Assembly was told "that Palestine is nothing but southern Syria." During the Six Day War of June 1967, Syria's delegate to the Security Council declared that it was Syria "from which Palestine was severed and from the territory of which Israel was created. . . . When the world persecuted the Jews, they found a homeland in my country, Syria." These assertions were also heard in more private discussions. But they were ineffectual posturings; the claim to Southern Syria appeared dead.
Among Palestinians, too, the view of Palestine as a region of Greater Syria weakened. Palestine came to be seen either as an independent polity or as a province of a united Arab world; the intermediary level of Greater Syria seemed to have disappeared for good.
* * *
But it did not. Hafiz al-Asad rose to power in 1970. Coming from a despised minority sect, he needed to keep the conflict with Israel going to shore up his domestic position. Of the three factors that had weakened the Syrian claim to Palestine after 1949, two had passed. Asad established a powerful police state, ending the era of domestic instability and foreign weakness. Under Asad, Syria become a predator. Second, Asad had room to experiment ideologically, for Pan-Arabism had been discredited by events: the failure of Syria's 1958-61 union with Egypt, the war in Yemen, and the Arabs' 1967 military debacle at the hands of Israel.
The third factor-Israel's strength-remained unchanged after Asad came to power in 1970. So he developed a new approach: knowing full well that Israel was not going to be destroyed, the Syrian leader targeted the fractured Palestinian movement instead. Southern Syria became a tool to be employed against the PLO. To be sure, Asad does on occasion bellow directly against Israel; earlier this year he threatened that if Israel annexes the Golan Heights, "we will work to put the Golan in the middle of Syria and not on its borders," raising the possibility that he would extend Syria to the Red Sea.
For the most part, however, the Syrian regime does not use Greater Syria as a way to confront Israel; instead, it uses this claim to assert its right to control those parts of Palestine not under Israeli rule. This places Damascus in direct conflict with the PLO (as well as the Jordanian government). Asad's persistent attacks on the PLO are the heart of his strategy to stay in the conflict with Israel. His attacks take two complementary forms: verbal claims and financial and military manipulation. Words justify Syrian expansion; force backs up the rhetoric.
The claim to Palestine has two parts. It begins with a rejection of the PLO's right to lead the Arabs to Palestine. Asad broached an argument in 1976 that he still uses: the PLO no longer acts in the best interests of the Palestinian people. The Syrian government ascribes PLO deviance to a variety of problems: loss of purpose ("I cannot imagine what the connection is between the fighting of Palestinians in the highest mountains of Lebanon and the liberation of Palestine"), treachery ("'Arafat acceded to becoming a U.S. tool against Palestine and Palestinian rights"), and cowardice ("Arafat and his supporters actually wanted to leave Beirut on the first days of the war. We told them we were against their departure and advised them to stay and resist"). Due to its misbehavior, the argument goes, the PLO forfeited its right to lead the Palestinian cause or to claim Palestine.
The latter part of the argument shows why Syria-rather than Jordan, Egypt, or some other state-deserves to inherit the PLO role. The Asad government offers three complementary reasons to support this claim: devotion to Palestine, correct strategy, and geographic ties.
First, as the self-proclaimed "heart, mind, shield, and sword" of Palestine and "the main state of confrontation," Syria is the natural leader of the struggle against Israel. Radio Damascus can wax poetic on this subject, calling Syria "the defender of the Palestinian issue, the shelter of the Palestinian revolution, the refuge of the Palestinian strugglers, the lungs with which the Palestinian resistance breathes, and the arena which lovingly opens its doors, heart, and capabilities to the sons of the Palestinian people." It declares that "Syria will do everything possible to protect its self- defense, because to a great extent its self-defense embodies the entire Arab defense." Past, present, and anticipated sacrifices entitle Syria to a decisive role. Asad asked: "How can the Palestine question not be ours, even though we are placing all of this country's human, military, economic, and political resources at the service of this question?"
Second, alone of the front-line states, Syria has the right strategy. While other states have one by one betrayed the cause by accepting Israel's existence, Syria has remained resolute. Asad takes credit for preventing the PLO from going this route: "Had it not been for Syria, the PLO would have agreed to the Camp David plan."
Third, and most important, Syrian leaders and (the state-run) media hold that Palestine is geographically part of Syria. Asad likes to startle Western visitors by telling them that "Jesus Christ was a Syrian Jew." In a major speech in March 1974, he re-launched the "Palestine is Southern Syria" campaign, stating that "Palestine is not only a part of the Arab nation, but a principal part of Southern Syria." (Jordan is clearly the less principal part.)
This claim has been expressed many times since. A Damascus newspaper noted on the eve of a visit by the Lebanese president to Damascus later in 1976 that the two presidents would "examine new ties between Lebanon and its sister Syria, both those states' ties with Jordan, as well as the ties of all these with Palestine." The paper also suggested the creation of a federal state for all four, with one army and one cabinet. A few months later, another newspaper included the Turkish region of Hatay, formerly Alexandretta, in Greater Syria as well: "the southern portion, that is Palestine, was severed from this steadfast country: it has lost Alexandretta, and Lebanon, and Jordan." A Ba'th Party official stated in May 1978 that "the question of Palestine is strictly a Syrian issue and [only secondly] an Arab security issue." In March 1980, the Syrian prime minister declared in an interview that "to Syria, the Palestine question is not just the issue of a fraternal people but a Syrian issue." And so on, and on.
Syrian leaders like to recall the history of Greater Syria and its divisions-often when addressing a foreign audience. Just before President Francois Mitterrand arrived in Syria in November 1984, Hafiz al-Asad bitterly recalled that "when France entered our countries they were united; when it left, they were disunited." American officials have gotten an earful too. Henry Kissinger recounts that when he visited Damascus as Secretary of State in February 1974, 'Abd al-Halim Khaddam "could not forgo the opportunity to explain that historically Palestine had been part of Syria."
Operationally, the claim to Palestine affects Syrian relations with both Jordan and the PLO. According to Jordanian sources, in July 1980, the Syrian foreign minister insisted that his government be included, along with Jordan and the PLO, on a committee dealing with the affairs of the "occupied homeland" in Palestine.
Most of the time, Syria is in conflict with the PLO and their debate is conducted in code. The PLO asserts a right to "independent decisionmaking" on the basis of its national autonomy, Damascus denies this right on the basis of Syrian or Arab national rights; in fact, they are arguing over the PLO's right to act contrary to Syrian wishes. Thus, Khalil al-Wazir, a leading PLO official, stated in August 1985 that "the Syrian regime wants to seize the independent Palestinian decisionmaking power. This is Syria's main obsession because we refuse to be under its control and hegemony and because we say no to it." PLO leaders only occasionally say what is really on their mind. 'Arafat claims that Damascus "stabbed the Palestinian revolution in the back, tried to confiscate its arms and offices, and is trying to confiscate the revolution itself." A pro-PLO writer observed, accurately: "Some say that the Syrian leaders want to revive the Greater Syria plan, provided it is 'made in Damascus'-having always rejected it in the past when it was 'made in Amman' or 'made in Baghdad.'"
For his part, Asad has accused the PLO of "concocting a plot through the slogan of independent Palestinian decision making" and a Damascus newspaper editor threatened to "amputate the fingers of whoever exercises decisionmaking contrary to [the Syrian] course. We will not tolerate freedom to commit treason or to sell out the cause. Palestine is Southern Syria."
* * *
This barrage of words is supported by ambitious efforts by Damascus to control the Palestinian organizations. The PLO is weak and fractured, and Asad takes full advantage of the opportunities this creates.
To keep a finger in the budding Palestinian separatist movement in the mid-1960s, Damascus aided Yasir 'Arafat's Fatah. When 'Arafat reduced his dependence on Syria by winning support from Egypt, Damascus countered by helping the Palestine Liberation Front, led by a former engineering officer in the Syrian army, Ahmad Jibril. This small organization, which later became the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command (PFLP-GC), has continued to work closely with the Syrian government. Asad has also sponsored parts of the Palestine Liberation Army (PLA) since its establishment in 1964. Ostensibly the conventional military wing of the PLO, the PLA's three brigades have actually been directly controlled by Arab governments. The Syrian Ministry of Defense has run the Hittin Brigade since its founding in 1964. The Qadisiya Brigade began as an Iraqi tool and passed under Syrian control in 1971. (The 'Ayn Jalut Brigade remains under Egyptian control.)
But As-Sa'iqa, founded in December 1968, has been Syria's main Palestinian vehicle. Established to amalgamate the Palestinian organizations sponsored by Syria, it soon became the second largest group in the PLO. From 1970 until his assassination in 1979, Sa'iqa was run by Zuhayr Muhsin, a long- term member of the Syrian Ba'th Party and ally of Hafiz al-Asad. Muhsin's takeover coincided with Asad's purge of Sa'iqa and the imposition of his direct control over the organization.
To assure complete control over Sa'iqa, Damascus staffed it with members of the Syrian Ba'th Party. Many of Sa'iqa's troops were Syrian citizens who signed up with Sa'iqa after finishing their regular tour of duty. Indeed, Syrians make up about 50 percent of the soldiers and 75 percent of the officers. Some of Sa'iqa's training takes place at the Political Officers' Training School; Syrian army instructors teach them guerilla tactics and how to handle antiaircraft equipment. Further, Sa'iqa's equipment is almost all provided by the Syrian army; needless to say, the Syrian government foots the whole of Sa'iqa's expenses. Sa'iqa acts as Syria's agent within the Palestinian movement, and its aims are identical with those of Syria. Sa'iqa's activities in the Middle East and Western Europe were authorized, and probably planned, by Syrian military intelligence units.
In March 1975 Asad proposed "to establish a single Syrian-Palestinian political leadership [and] military command;" 'Arafat refused this offer, rightly understanding it as a veiled attempt to dominate the PLO. A similar offer in 1982 was again turned down. Asad sent troops against the PLO in Lebanon in 1976 to this same end. On several occasions, Asad tried to replace Yasir 'Arafat as head of the PLO with Zuhayr Muhsin. One reason for the Syrian invasion of Lebanon in 1976 -- as well as for all the subsequent interventions-was a desire to reduce the PLO's stature.
The total obedience of the PFLP-GC, the PLA brigades, and Sa'iqa to the Syrian government became apparent in 1976 when they fought with Syria against 'Arafat's PLO. The PLA played an especially prominent role in this fighting; in effect, the ostensible military arm of the PLO was at war with the rest of the organization.
The Syrian government has often manhandled Palestinian leaders who defied its wishes. When a 1966 effort to subject Fatah to Syrian control failed, 'Arafat and the entire Fatah leadership were thrown in a Syrian jail for over a month. George Habash was jailed for seven months in 1968. Soon after coming to power, Asad had Sa'iqa leaders arrested to bring the organization under his control. 'Arafat was taken to the Damascus airport and forcibly put on a plane in 1983.
'Arafat's wing of the PLO has been attacked on a number of occasions. Activities of Black June during the summer of 1981 were designed to bring the PLO under the Syrian thumb. With greater success, Asad caused a split in Fatah in May 1983 when 'Arafat insisted on pursuing policies of which he disapproved. Asad dominated the anti-Arafat faction that was organized in Damascus in 1985 as the Palestinian National Salvation Front. Either Abu Nidal or the Palestine National Salvation Front (PNSF), an alliance of anti-'Arafat Palestinian groups based in Damascus, assassinated a number of 'Arafat's men in Europe, including Na'im Khadir in Brussels, Majid Abu Sharar in Rome, and 'Isam Sartawi in Lisbon. A Palestinian with close ties to 'Arafat who edited an anti- Syrian weekly in Athens was shot three times from three feet away as he left his apartment building in September 1985. Two Palestinian groups based in Damascus claimed responsibility for the March 1986 assassination of Zafir al- Masri, the newly-appointed mayor of Nablus; in the West Bank itself, however, many residents accused Syrian operatives directly for the crime.
The shooting of a former mayor of Hebron and current member of the PLO Executive Committee, Fahd al-Qawasma, prompted a revealing comment from 'Arafat. Addressing the dead man at his burial, he said: "The Zionists in the occupied territories tried to kill you, and when they failed, they deported you. However, the Arab Zionists represented by the rulers of Damascus thought this was insufficient, so you fell as a martyr."
Damascus also does everything possible to foil Palestinian acceptance of a mini-state on the West Bank. The reason is obvious; such a polity, surrounded by Jordan and Israel, would be beyond Syria's reach and could not easily be dominated by it. The more the PLO shows interest in the West Bank, the greater the competition between the Syrian regime and 'Arafat's PLO become.
Damascus' efforts to arrogate the claim to Palestine for itself mostly takes rhetorical and military forms. But in one case at least, it also takes a legal form. A Syrian decree of October 1984 specified that provisions which allow Syrian nationals to pay a cash substitute for military service also "shall be applied to Palestinian Arabs who, under the laws in force, are considered as Syrians." Syrian law permits cash substitute only to Syrians living outside Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Iraq. Thus, a Palestinian living in Jordan is legally considered to be a Syrian and therefore must serve in the Syrian armed forces unless he pays his way out.
Palestinian leaders dependent on Syria must endorse the Greater Syria idea. Zuhayr Muhsin of Sa'iqa did so without reservation: "There are no differences between Jordanians, Palestinians, Syrians and Lebanese. . . . We are one people. Only for political reasons do we underline our Palestinian identity. . . . Yes, the existence of a separate Palestinian identity is there only for tactical reasons." It is noteworthy that Sa'iqa does not mention Palestine in its name; it argues that Palestine should not be independent, but part of a larger Arab unit led by Syria. The Palestinian radio station in Damascus announced in June 1983 that Syria and Palestine share the same destiny because they are both part of Greater Syria, the one being Northern Syria, the other Southern Syria.
Most explicit and remarkable, however, are the statements by Sabri Khalil al-Banna, known as Abu Nidal, the extremist Palestinian leader who depends on Syrian support. Although ostensibly a Palestinian separatist, Banna repeatedly states that "Palestine belongs to Syria. Like Lebanon, it will be part and parcel of it." His reasoning goes as follows:
I am an ardent believer in the Greater Syrian state. . . . We [Palestinians] are Syrian citizens. For us, Syria is the mother nation, it is history, society, community, geography. Until recently, half of Lebanon was a region of Syria. As you see, we are true Syrian citizens. I myself have Syrian parents. . . . Greater Syria consists of Palestine, Iraq, Jordan, and Syria. A state like Jordan did not exist in Arab history prior to the twenties. Geographically seen, Greater Syria covers the territory from the Turkish border in the north to the whole of Palestine in the south. It is extremely unlikely that these views express Muhsin's or Banna's true feelings; all the more impressive, then, that the Syrian authorities succeed in making these men support their ambitions.
So great is Syrian pressure, even PLO leaders not living on Damascus' money sometimes proclaim Pan-Syrian views that they cannot possibly hold. Hani al-Hasan, an aide to Yasir 'Arafat, attributed the momentary improvement in Syrian-PLO relations in mid-1977 "to historic relationships between the Syrian group of nations, of which Palestine is the southern part." In July 1980, three deported West Bank figures arrived in Syria and declared that "Syria and Palestine form one state with one people."
Greater Syria is not the only basis for the Syrian government to involve itself in the affairs of Palestine. Pan-Arab nationalism (which holds that all Arabic-speaking people form a nation) is one alternative; Pan-Islamic solidarity is another; and some Syrians undoubtedly feel a genuine humanitarian interest in the Arabs of Palestine. These other motives have at times been more important than the urge to build Greater Syria, especially in the 1950s and 1960s. But the most enduring motive since World War I, and certainly the most powerful force in the Asad era, has been the view that Palestine is Southern Syria and rightfully belongs under Damascus' control.
Of what significance is this view? Does it amount to anything more than a futile dream? After all, military realities make it clear that Asad has little chance of destroying Israel. And even if he did, Jordan, Egypt, Iraq, and other the Arab states would then contest his victory, while the PLO would continue to agitate for Palestinian separatism. The claim to Southern Syria is likely to remain permanently unfulfilled. For this reason, some analysts conclude that the vision of Southern Syria has no importance.
But this conclusion overlooks the many ways it does influence Damascus' behavior. For one, Southern Syria explains the extremely bellicose tone that has marked Syrian relations with Zionism through the twentieth century. The irredentist desire to incorporate Palestine in Syria has deep roots; there is in Syria, therefore, a wider popular base of support for anti-Zionism than exists in any other Arab country. The Syrians' view of Palestine as part of their own country distinguishes them from other Arabic-speaking peoples (such as Egyptians) for whom Palestine is an important and closely related area, but nonetheless a foreign one. To put this in more familiar terms, Egyptians see Palestine as Germans see Austria, while Syrians see it as West Germans see East Germany. This difference accounts for the special Syrian animosity toward Israel, Syria's leading role in the Arab-Israeli conflict, and the intensity of so many individual Syrians' anti-Zionism.
The strength of Pan-Syrian sentiments explains Asad regime policy toward Israel. Asad, the self-appointed guardian of Arab militancy, has led efforts to block Arab peace efforts toward Israel. He has energetically committed Syria to a course of military challenge against Israel by stifling internal dissent, forming a tight alliance with the Soviet Union, and developing the most powerful military machine in the Arab Middle East. The current effort to attain "strategic parity" with Israel implies that Asad is ready to go it alone, if necessary, without relying on assistance from other Arab states.
As we have seen, the claim to Southern Syria also leads to bitter competition with the PLO. If, as Asad believes, Palestine should be under Damascus' control, there is no room for an independent Palestinian separatist movement. And, indeed, no other Arab state tries to dominate the PLO as does Syria.
One frequently overlooked implication of the claim to Southern Syria concerns the Golan Heights. The Jordanian and Egyptian governments have shown they are willing to live in peace with Israel once the lands they lost in 1967 are retrieved, but not so the Syrian regime. Asad had clearly stated that he will not quit the fight on getting back the Golan Heights. For example, he told the PLO in 1981 that "Syria wants Palestine as much as it wants the Golan. . . . We want Palestine first and the Golan second." Along similar lines, the Syrian foreign minister vowed not to forget the Golan "because for us it is like any part of Palestine." This attitude trips up all would-be negotiators between Syria and Israel.
Finally, the popularity of the campaign to control Southern Syria means that Asad does not find himself under the sort of pressure that caused Sadat, King Husayn, and other Arab leaders to seek accommodation with Israel. Again the German analogy fits; just as forty years of separation has not dimmed West German interest in East Germany, so does Syrian interest in Palestine burn strongly. Accordingly, the Syrian government is unlikely at any time in the foreseeable future to acknowledge the permanency of Israel's existence. And the great power of the Asad government enhances the importance of its irredentist claims on the land that Israel occupies. The simple fact is, Damascus is not ready for negotiations.
But Americans tend not to appreciate this fact. No matter how many times Asad declares his views on Southern Syria, these are too radical, too nakedly aggressive, and too out of line with our expectations to be accepted. Thus, most U.S. officials, journalists, and scholars are reluctant to acknowledge Asad's view of Palestine as Southern Syria. (Henry Kissinger is a notable exception, having concluded from his 1974 shuttle efforts that the "Syrians considered Palestine part of 'Greater Syria'"). Forthright statements and blunt actions make little impression; once an American consensus has been formed, it seems to make almost no difference what Syrian authorities say. The notion also persists among the American foreign policy elite that Asad seeks no more than the return of the Golan Heights, despite explicit denials by Asad and his chief aides.
Instead, the elite favors its own interpretation, that Asad is trying to extricate himself from the Palestine imbroglio. According to this line of reasoning, he has no long-term interest in fighting Israel but is merely intent on regaining the lands lost in 1967 (so that he can concentrate on economic development, political reconciliation, and the like). Asad's grandiose claims are dismissed as "Arab rhetoric"-which the cognoscente wink at and declare unimportant; his huge military build-up is deemed defensive in nature; and his ties to the Soviet Union are seen as transitory and weak. Such views are conducive to U.S. peace initiatives, to be sure; unfortunately, they happen to be wrong.
What do these discouraging words leave a would-be mediator? Not very much. U.S. diplomats can help by taking Syrian irredentism seriously and firmly stating their government's firm opposition to it. They can help establish confidence building measures between Syria and Israel and they can provide good offices when these are requested. But they cannot mitigate Syrian claims on Israel, much less bring about peace between the two countries.
The real help the United States can provide is military. To the extent that U.S. policy seeks to defuse Syrian-Israeli relations, it must aim at dissuading the Asad regime or its successors from using force; and this is done by raising the costs of aggression. Only if Damascus sees warfare against Israel as too unrewarding will it desist. The United States should keep reminding the Syrian leaders that the balance of forces will not be allowed to deteriorate and it should help maintain this equation. Vigilance and strength, not roseate interpretations, will cause Damascus to desist from pursuing the evil dream of Southern Syria. | <urn:uuid:96ee872d-5526-46f0-8536-c5dc3d2837c0> | {
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In this final lesson, we learned about the importance of applying formative and summative assessment with the use of ePortfolios. We discussed that these assessments need to provide specific and quality feedback for students to follow. It is also important for this feedback to be given in a timely manner so that students are able to make necessary alterations. In the resource, “Principles of Learning – Frequent Feedback”, the author states, “Because the brain wants to deal with the most pressing matters, it is necessary to practice those things that we wish to retain and to receive feedback that includes ‘explicit cues about how to do better’” (Seely, Brown, & Duguid, as cited in Ewell, 1997, p. 9). These “explicit cues” allow students to see areas of growth that they might not have seen themselves.
The questions asked in this lesson made me examine how I am assessing student learning with ePortoflios, which then made me contemplate the target of using ePortfolios and what I should expect from the students. The target of the implementation of ePortfolios in my video production classes is that students will have a place to showcase their work as well as a platform for reflection. The consistent reflections will serve as formative assessment and the video projects will be used for summative assessment. Both of these assignments will be posted on the students’ ePortfolios and allow a space for me to provide feedback.
The resources and rubrics from this lesson were very helpful as I considered the best approach to give formative and summative feedback and assessment. My expectations are that students will post videos and reflections on time and meet the criteria of each assignment. The students’ reflections will be graded on the timeliness of each post, follow up postings, content contribution, and clarity and mechanics. The implementation of ePortfolios in my video production classes will not only provide a platform to showcase their work, but also a space to reflect on their growth. | <urn:uuid:39d5bee3-7c93-4e4b-ba0d-740240cc58d4> | {
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The significance of school libraries in the educational development of students: the case of Novena University Staff School, Kwale, Delta State, Nigeria.
Children and their teachers need library resources and the expertise of a librarian (1) A person who works in the data library and keeps track of the tapes and disks that are stored and logged out for use. Also known as a "file librarian" or "media librarian." See data library.
(2) See CA-Librarian. to succeed. School libraries help teachers teach children (Keith Keith may refer to:
People with the given name Keith:
- Keith (given name)
- Keith (surname)
- The Barony of Keith in East Lothian Scotland, its caput being Keith Marischal.
School libraries help children to discover for themselves by independent study and learning how to ask questions. This study assesses the educational development of students and library use by students and the problems encountered. The population for the study is students from the Novena novena (nōvē`nə) [Lat.,=a group of nine], in the Roman Catholic Church, primarily a series of public or private prayers extending over nine consecutive days, especially nine days preceding a feast. They often carry an indulgence. University staff school. Novena University is a private university in Novena University Ogume, Delta State Delta State is a state in Nigeria, named for the Niger Delta. The state borders Edo State, Ondo State , Imo State, Anambra State and Bayelsa State. In the south west and south it has approximately 122 kilometres of coastline bounded by the Bight of Benin on the Atlantic ocean. , Nigeria Nigeria (nījĭr`ēə), officially Federal Republic of Nigeria, republic (2006 provisional pop. 140,003,542), 356,667 sq mi (923,768 sq km), W Africa. , which was opened in 2005. Secondary students in the university's staff school were surveyed to find their experience with and views on library service.
A questionnaire was used to gather data for this study. Questionnaires were administered to 200 students of Novena University staff school, with 198 returned.
Findings and Discussion
Responses were fairly evenly divided by gender, with males having a slight majority.
The largest number of respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. were aged between 15 and 16.
A majority of respondents were from Senior Secondary 2 at 126 (63%). This could be the result of availability of students at the time of the study.
The vast majority of students (81%) say that they use the library.
Less than one quarter of respondents use the library frequently, with nearly three quarters using it occasionally.
A clear majority feel that using the school library helps students be academically better.
More than 80 percent of respondents find the library's resources inadequate.
Response to this question is mixed, with nearly one-third undecided, and a quarter thinking it "false."
Most respondents feel that the library does not provide materials that augment aug·ment
v. aug·ment·ed, aug·ment·ing, aug·ments
1. To make (something already developed or well under way) greater, as in size, extent, or quantity: teaching.
Nearly 80 percent of respondents find that the library does not satisfy their educational needs.
Nearly all respondents are not provided audiovisual See A/V. materials by the library.
A similar large majority find that there is not enough reading room in the library.
More than three quarters of respondents say that there is not professional librarian.
Distance to the library is not a problem for almost 90 percent of respondents.
Only 14 percent of respondents always get the information they need at the library.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The survey shows that most students who responded are not satisfied with the services and collections of their school library. The literature demonstrates the importance of a good school library in students' academic achievement. Based on the importance and the benefits of the school library to both staff and the students, the author has the following recommendations:
* The school library should have a professional librarian to render (1) To make visible; to draw. The term comes from the graphics world where a rendering is an artist's drawing of what a new structure would look like. In computer-aided design (CAD), a rendering is a particular view of a 3D model that has been converted into a realistic image. effective services to staff and students
* The teacher/librarian should organize orientation, films, exhibitions, and displays to create awareness of the library service to users.
* The library should take steps to enhance its collections and resources with material for both staff and students that meets their educational needs and developments and augments classroom teachings.
* Students need audiovisual materials as well as print and other formats.
* The library should provide adequate recreational and information materials to arouse student interest
* The library should provide adequate reading and study space.
Adomi, E.E. (2006). Collection development and management in context. Warri Warri (wô`rē), city (1991 est. pop. 111,000), S Nigeria, a port on the Warri River. It is a transshipment point where oceangoing vessels meet Niger River boats. : Etodick Publishers.
Clarke Clarke , Arthur Charles Born 1917.
British writer, scientist, and underwater explorer noted for his stories of space exploration. His works include 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968). , S.O. (1999). Fundamentals of library science. Lagos Lagos, city, Nigeria
Lagos (lā`gŏs, lä`gôs), city (1991 est. pop. 1,274,000), SW Nigeria, on the Gulf of Guinea. It comprises the island of Lagos. : Functional publishers.
Keith, C.L. (2004) the impact of school media centers on academic achievements. Available: http://www.news.66c.co.uk/2/hi/uk-news/educational/249463.stm.
Martin, B.A. (1996). The relationship of school library media center collections, expenditures, staffing, and services to student academic achievement. (Doctoral dissertation dis·ser·ta·tion
A lengthy, formal treatise, especially one written by a candidate for the doctoral degree at a university; a thesis.
1. , Auburn University Auburn University, main campus at Auburn, Ala.; land-grant and state supported; opened 1859 as East Alabama Male College, reorganized 1872 as the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Alabama; became coeducational 1892; renamed Alabama Polytechnic Institute 1899, ).
Novena University Library
Ogume, Delta State, Nigeria
Table I: Gender of respondents Sex No. of respondent % of respondents Male 108 55% Female 90 45% Total 198 100% Table II: Age of respondents Age No. of respondents % of respondents 10 - 12 - 0% 12 - 14 44 22% 15 - 16 124 63% 17 - 18 30 15% Total 198 100% Table III: Class Class No. of respondents % of respondents Senior Secondary 3 46 23% Senior Secondary 2 126 63% Senior Secondary 1 26 14% Total 198 100% Table IV: Do you use the library? User No. of respondent % of respondents Yes 160 81% No 36 18% Undecided 2 1% Total 196 100% Table V: How often do you use the library? frequency No. of respondents % of respondents Frequently 46 23% Occasionally 146 73% Not at all 6 4% Total 198 100% Table VI: Do you think that those who use the library are academically better or worst than those who do not? Response No. of respondents % of respondents Better 134 67% Worst 52 26% Undecided 12 7% Total 198 100% Table VII: Does the school library provide adequate recreational and information materials for students? Response No. of respondents % of respondents Yes 28% 14% No 162 81% Undecided 8 5% Total 198 100% Table VIII: True or False: The school library plays a very important role in the development of students' reading habits. Response No. of respondents % of respondents TRUE 84 42% FALSE 50 25% Undecided 64 33% Total 198 100% Table IX: Does the school library provide materials to augment classroom teaching? Response No. of respondents % of respondents Yes 24 12% No 128 64% Undecided 46 24% Total 198 100% Table X: Is the school library able to satisfy your educational needs? Response No. of respondents % of respondents Yes 38 19% No 158 80% Undecided 2 1% Total 198 100% Table XI: Does your school library provide audiovisual materials? Response No of respondents % of respondents Yes 8 5% No 188 94% Undecided 2 1% Total 198 100% Table XII: Do you have enough reading room? Response No. of respondents % of respondents Yes 8 5% No 190 95% Undecided 0 0% Total 190 100% Table XIII: Does your library have a professional as a librarian? Response No. of respondents % of respondents Yes 44 23% No 152 76% Undecided 2 1% Total 198 100% Table XIV: Does the distance affect your visit to the library? Response No. of respondents % of respondents Yes 20 11% No 178 89% Undecided 0 0% Total 198 100% Table XV: Do you always get the information you need in the library? Response No. of respondents % of respondents Yes 26% 14% No 172% 86% Undecided 0% 0% Total 198 100%
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|Publication:||Library Philosophy and Practice|
|Date:||Aug 1, 2008|
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Edward Coley Burne-Jones, - The Virgin Mary: A Cartoon for Stained Glass at Ashton-under-Lyne
William Morris executed three windows for Albion Congregational Church at Ashton-under-Lyne, Lancashire, in the 1890s. The chancel east window was the earliest (1893) and was made from existing cartoons, but for the two windows in the north and south transepts (1895-6) all the figures were specially designed by Burne-Jones. The present cartoon is for the fourth figure in the upper tier of the north transept window. According to Burne-Jones's account book (Fitzwilliam Museum), he designed the window in November 1892 for £300. It is not clear why there was a three-year delay before it was installed.
The cartoon is a beautiful example of Burne-Jones's later stained-glass style, based on tall, ethereal figures, with drapery falling in long, angular folds. Other cartoons for the window, or related drawings, are in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, the Whitworth Art Gallery, Manchester; the Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and elsewhere. For full details, see A.C. Sewter, The Stained Glass of William Morris and his Circle, Yale, vol. II, 1975, p. 11. | <urn:uuid:dff732f4-16c3-49b4-baea-a2e1ee29b2a2> | {
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Active RNA polymerase (RNAP) somehow remains both stable and mobile. In the 28 July Science Korzheva et al. combine the X-ray crystal structure of Thermus aquaticus (Taq) core RNAP with their own crosslinking data to derive a model of a functioning bacterial core RNAP (Science 2000, 289:619-625). At the front, a 20° hinged movement closes the RNAP "jaws" around the downstream DNA. At the back of the RNAP, the rudder region is positioned to separate the exiting RNA from the DNA template strand. Termination probably comes when an RNA hairpin disrupts interactions with the rudder, triggering collapse of the transcription bubble. | <urn:uuid:ffba1cfb-3e1a-45eb-a491-fe3036ab3deb> | {
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It is the ability to see how society is structured and how things such as societal orms influence people into performing certain actions. It involves observing outcomes from a different perspective in order to understand what influenced those outcomes. Growing up in one’s environment is likely to play as a factor in the way they go about things in the life. People cannot change their environment so they sometimes have to change themselves in order to become to fit in with their societies or to become successful person.
The sociological perspective better known as the sociological imagination helps individuals see through a broader scope of the society. Being a part of a general category like a working class youth or a student, you must learn how to view the world through by society. My agent of socialization belongs to my university and friends or peer who surrounded me recently because I believe the service-learning that we will be taking part in will help to expand our sociological imaginations.
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For myself, my parents are born into a certain environment and depending on how the utilized their sociological imagination, play a part in the environment we become a part of. As I’m coming from the working class family, there is an assumption that you have to go to the chool or university for your social status or prestige of your life in my society. My parents always wanted more for me so they enlisted me in a catholic elementary and private high school in my county.
So I saw how different was compared to my other friend’s not in intelligence but in wisdoms. I knew that I was capable of doing more and becoming more because not only I did believe in myself, my parents did too. It’s correct because when you are in private high school or catholic school, you have to pay tuition fees and a lot of people do not have money to spare with it. Instead of having the latest pairs of sneakers or shoes and throwing big parties for every holiday and your birthday, we can save some money for the future and my education.
From being in my current university student’s life, my entire life that I learn so much not only academically, but that I do not have to settle for what our social class or social location places us. After my private high school in my country, I went to my fist college in the United States. I encountered the language barriers and a lot of cultural differences in my first six months of college life here. I lso learned that no matter how good you do academically, you will always be stereotyped and looks at differently because you’re a minority who comes from different cultures in the society.
The sociological imagination is a capacity, ability, and a quality of mind that allows an individual to understand and connect her or his life with the forces and dynamics that impact it. It is about not blaming others for what they do, it is about judging ourselves before we judge others and understand people as if we understand ourselves for example if a student comes late to class there could be any reasons behind this student being late; there could have been traffic or an accident on the way that made him or her come late to class, so we should not judge but understand.
Although we should separate between personal trouble and public issue, for example a student could be coming to class late all the time because of his or her laziness this would be called a personal trouble but if all students are coming late to class than this is called a public issue, meaning there is something wrong with the class. Sociological imagination engages in, the minority status, gender, ocioeconomic status and the family structure. Sociological imagination is a social fact and empathy; social fact is the idea, feeling, behavior of individuals.
An example of social fact is when the sun is rising, this is a social fact that we cannot change whether we like it or not it will still rise. There are many sociological issues in society; one of the issues learned in this course is the race and racism issue. Race and racism are two different issues race is a social constructed aspect of identity in all cultures, race is not biological it is powerful; it is what makes s who we are for example what we are born with like hair texture and skin color.
Racism is an interlocking system of advantage based on race existing at individual and cultural symbolic. Racism comes from power, and culture. Racism happens when some social groups have more power over another social groups, but racism have changed even if it still exist it is not visible in which it is been described as dangerous or a hidden fact. Racism is racism that it can’t be better or worse in any country.
Even though being born with a specific skin color is a cause of geographic conditions, in which where the person is born for xample being born in a sunny place is different than being born in a place in which doesn’t have sun, so all humans are the same if we put skin color a side, also black people are born with more melanin in their skin and that protects them from getting cancer that’s why white skin colored people are more likely to get cancer than people with dark skin. So there are always advantages and disadvantages about what we have and what we don’t have.
Society will always look at you twice before becoming a consideration for different things in an adult life. It takes a great deal of my social imagination o attend college. Not many people in my country feel like they are capable of going to college because of their general categories or social locations. College has always been a big thing in my family. My parents did not want me to settle for just any job that they wanted me to have a career and one that I enjoy. They want me to do well in the life so no only I can get out of the middle social class but I can also take them with me in my success.
There is a limited amount of people in my immediate family who actually went to the college in here so going for me is a really big deal. I did not do really well in my past high school so that lead me to a selected few number of colleges to attend when I applied to school in here. I ended up choosing some universities close to my home town for my first student’s life. I decided to go to Webster Thailand campus because I did not want to branch to far away from my family. I know that if I continue to do good academically I can transfer to a college in the big city like Singapore and still be close to my family.
The sociological imagination distinguishes between two very distinct ends of reality, the “private troubles” and the “public issues”. To understand social reality, private troubles must be examined in the context of the larger issue. For example, a child who doing poor school work may be suffering from a private trouble but that issue is part of a larger picture. Is his trouble coming from a larger social problem that is also affecting his community? Is his trouble something which is common among his peer group?
All feelings and emotions are inter-related in order to understand one end of society you must understand the others. The sociological imagination, written by C. Wright Mills, is an insightful critique of the research taking place in sociology. Mills states that the sociological imagination is the quality of mind that allows one to understand “history and biography and the relations between the two within society” (p. 6). It allows one to switch from one perspective to another allowing for a comprehensive view of the “socio-cultural system”. Mills stated some very valid points in this analysis.
By defining troubles and issues, he points to each of the connections they have to each other. A good example is on Page 9, when Mills mentions marriage. He states that “inside a marriage a man and a woman may experience personal roubles, but when the divorce rate during the first four years of marriage is 250 out of 1000 attempt, this is an indication of a structural issue”. Education is a key into overcoming one social location or the class. Doing good academically we can branch into different fields in which we can utilize and expand our experiences.
Our social class will no longer be a fallback because we can get different types of scholarships. Social perspective plays a major part in one’s decision to go to the college because people want more in life not just what they were given. They want to learn more and they want to be more so getting a ollege education will get them there. People’s lives are shaped by society. They become accustomed to different things and try to stay in the trends in the society. One’s society plays a huge role in one’s personality and the way that they might live their lives.
Social Stratification is regarded quite differently by the principle perspectives of sociology. Proponents of structural-functional analysis suggest that since social stratification exists in most state of the societies, a hierarchy must therefore be beneficial in helping to stabilize their existence. Talcott Parsons, an American ociologist, asserted that stability and social order are achieved by means of a universal value consensus. Functionalists assert that stratification exists solely to satisfy the functional per requisites necessary for a functional proficiency in any society.
Conflict theorists consider the inaccessibility of resources and lack of social mobility n many stratified societies. They conclude, often working from the theories of Karl Marx, that stratification means that working class people are not likely to advance socioeconomically, while the wealthy may continue to exploit he proletariat generation after generation. Marx distinguished social classes by their connection to the means of production. Therefore the ruling class (the bourgeoisie) and the working class (the proletariat), identify their social positions by their relationship to the means of production.
The maintenance of status quo is achieved by various methods of social control employed by the bourgeoisie in the course of many aspects of social life, such as through ideologies of submission promoted through the institution of religion. In the conclusion, my sociological imagination leads me to where I am today. I id not let other stereotypes about my social location and my social class play a part in my decision making process. I took a stand and decided to go to college to better not only for myself but for my family.
The sociological imagination is an awareness of the relationship between an individual and wider society; a key element in this is the ability to view one’s society as an outsider’s would. As being humans, we can’t let our social location determine our abilities. We must explore beyond what we are given and what we are told is right. Humans must defeat their ordinary life by not setting themselves up for limited expectations in he society and we should also try to exceed our or everyone else’s expectations in our life. | <urn:uuid:3f8cb935-6678-40fc-b97e-f21df3258ad6> | {
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My earliest memories of Yiddish are as a child listening to my grandparents tell jokes that I could not understand. Later, my mother’s parents taught me a series of random Yiddish words – probably because I asked them to teach me random words – such as the words for “horse” and “goat” and “goose.” For some reason, my questions had this agrarian bent, and I would end up making sentences like “The geese are eating the snow in the field, and the dog would like hamburger for dinner Wednesday night.” Not so effective for communicating with Yiddish speakers perhaps, but amusing to me nonetheless. So even though I don’t really speak Yiddish, I do have a certain affection for the language, which is probably why I picked up a copy of Born to Kvetch, by Michael Wex while I was in the Brookline Booksmith the other day.
While I am just starting to delve into this book, one of the things I really like about it is that the author makes a serious effort to look back into the biblical, Talmudic and post-exilic roots not only of particular Yiddish words, but of the ideas and experiences behind these words as well as Yiddish itself. Wex writes of the origins of Yiddish that “Countries come and countries go, and until the Messiah puts an end to our exile, a Jew’s own brain is as close as he is ever going to come to a homeland. For centuries, the Jews’ only real home was a way of thinking designed to make their exile meaningful, a way of thinking designed to arm them against the threats and attractions of the people around them and make them prefer the danger and instability of their own homelessness to being at home with anyone else.”
For cultures around the world, and especially for cultures which have been uprooted or subject to persecution, language has been a vital tool for preserving a sense of identity and peoplehood, and for the Jewish people, this has certainly been the case. Even though many Jews today do not speak or understand Yiddish as a daily language, I would argue that Yiddish expressions and sensibilities have stayed with us. Although life is perhaps much safer and easier for Jews in the Diaspora today than it was a century or even fifty years ago, there are still threats to the continuity of Jewish life and culture. Yiddish – both speaking it and learning about it – remains for me one way to resist the assimilationist assault on Jewish identity, and as Michael Wex makes clear in his book, it offers a way to do it that not only connects us to the last thousand years of Jewish history and culture, but it does so with warmth and humor.
-Daniel E. Levenson
Publisher and Editor-in-Chief
This post has been contributed by a third party. The opinions, facts and any media content are presented solely by the author, and JewishBoston assumes no responsibility for them. Want to add your voice to the conversation? Publish your own post here. | <urn:uuid:eac44d03-ab22-4281-bef6-7a5c9052b24a> | {
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The Polwarth Thorn
The Polwarth Thorn is of significant local and historic importance. The two hawthorn trees are located on the former village green and are protected under a Tree Preservation Order administered by the Scottish Borders Council. During 2016, the landowner generously completed improvements to the Thorn and surroundings, and the Community Council donated funds for signage.
The public are welcome to visit the Thorn at reasonable hours. Car parking is available. Please respect the landowner’s privacy, and keep dogs on leads.
An anonymous verse of unknown date relates that:
Our forbears oft are seen
To dance about the thorn
When they got in their corn.
The original Polwarth Thorn had pride of place in the centre of the village green and the tradition arose of newly married couples dancing around it to bestow good fortune on their union. Allen Ramsey (1686-1758) wrote in ‘Polwarth, On The Green’:
At Polwarth on the Green,
If you’ll meet me in the morn,
Where lads and lasses do convene,
To dance around the thorn.
According to the Forestry Commission in ‘Heritage Trees of the Borders and Beyond’, Donald Rodger states that, over the centuries, the thorn has been replaced at intervals by its own saplings and there are, currently, two trees of unknown age, protected by law and iron railings, on the site. Others maintain that the present trees are over three hundred years old.
In the middle of the sloping village green there stood two very old thorn trees. It was the custom in times past, on the occasion of a marriage, as part of the celebrations, for all the villagers to dance around the trees. This old custom, which had prevailed for over 300 years, was discontinued during the 19th century. It would appear that the villagers celebrated the harvest in the same fashion. | <urn:uuid:ca3390a9-1965-47fc-8ff5-94ebb9ff9fa5> | {
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Wireless devices are notably visible and extremely present in our everyday lives. Smartphones and tablets with embedded Wi-Fi accompany people almost everywhere. We listen to the radio in our cars, watch free-to-air television programmes at home, travel safely in cities and around the globe, staying connected, thanks to terrestrial wireless communication systems.
Consumer demand for wireless services has increased exponentially in recent years, leading to an explosive growth of networks and devices and bringing great benefits for economies. According to ITU, active mobile broadband subscriptions reached 4.69 billion in 2017. In 2018, according to GSMA, the mobile industry made a total contribution of USD 3.9 trillion of economic value, equivalent to 4.6 per cent of global GDP. The Internet of Things (IoT) market is also growing very fast, with currently around 7 billion devices, according to data from IoT Analytics.
Wireless devices are notably visible and extremely present in our everyday lives.To adequately satisfy consumer demand, terrestrial radio technologies have evolved considerably over the past few decades, and new applications have emerged. They include advanced mobile broadband, intelligent transport systems and IoT devices. Frequencies and regulations for these technologies are on the agenda of the World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC-19) to be held in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt, in November 2019.
The amateur radio service was born more than 100 years ago and continues to be very valuable, bringing young people into a fascinating world of radio. A great variety of modern radio technologies have been developed and tested by radio amateurs. Today, the number of radio amateurs reaches 3 million, and national amateur radio societies operate in 167 countries, according to IARU. At WRC-19 the amateur community targets worldwide harmonization of the 50–54 MHz band to ensure reliable, middle-range communications everywhere in the world.
IMT-2020 (5G) — ENHANCED BROADBAND AND BEYOND
One of the most challenging WRC-19 issues is the spectrum and regulations for the next generation of International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT-2020 or 5G) in the millimeter bands. These bands above 24 GHz, having a huge capacity, are needed to enable superfast data rates and empower new services such as 3D video, augmented, virtual reality and others.
5G represents an evolution of IMT-Advanced/4G systems. These 4G systems have opened a new era for mobile Internet, serve a basis of many apps-based businesses, used for such services as m-Learning, m-Health, mobile money. They have become a powerful and reliable platform for broadband services — especially in developing countries — for bridging the digital divide.
IMT-2020/5G is also seen as the first mobile platform that supports not only mobile broadband, but a variety of applications, such as massive machine-type communications, autonomous cars, public safety, etc. Its characteristics could meet the communication requirements of transport, manufacturing, the health sector and other industries.
ITU News ITU’s contribution to 5G includes harmonized frequency bands and IMT-2020 standards to allow for a commercial IMT-2020/5G deployment starting from 2020.
RADIO LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (RLANs)
Wi-Fi or Radio Local Area Networks (RLANs) in ITU terminology has been widely used for Internet connectivity and data delivery. Wi-Fi has also been used for offloading mobile traffic, thus reducing the amount of data carried on cellular networks. The traditional 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands used for RLANs are heavily used and growing consumer demand requires additional capacity. WRC-19 will consider the additional spectrum needs of RLANs in their traditional 5 GHz band. This represents a challenging task due to the need for protection of several existing services.
HIGH-ALTITUDE PLATFORM SYSTEMS (HAPS)
High-altitude platform systems (HAPS) is another technology that can be used to provide broadband, directly to end users or as backhaul for stations of the mobile service. These applications would potentially enable wireless broadband in remote and rural areas. In some situations, they may be also rapidly deployed for disaster-recovery communications. Previous WRCs have already identified frequencies in the fixed service in the 6 GHz, 27/31 GHz and 47/48 GHz bands that can be used for HAPS.
However, the spectrum requirements of new broadband HAPS may not be fully accommodated within these current designations. Therefore, additional spectrum is being considered for HAPS systems in the millimetre bands above 21.4 GHz.
INTELLIGENT TRANSPORT ECOSYSTEMS
Wireless technologies are changing the shape of road transport, making cars smarter, driving more convenient, and roads safer. Radiocommunications serve various aspects of transportation networks, such as vehicle navigation, traffic control, road signs and automatic licence plate recognition, etc. forming what are now referred to as Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS). A variety of technologies can contribute to ITS, including cellular networks, wireless access systems, sensors and radars. WRC-19 will consider spectrum harmonization for ITS in different frequency bands, and particularly in the 5.8 GHz band.
Railway transportation is also an important user of radio technologies. WRC-19 will consider Railway Radiocommunication Systems between Train and Trackside (RSTT). They include wireless technologies used on-board trains, positioning information, train remote control and surveillance. WRC-19 will determine ways of harmonizing frequency bands for these applications to improve their interoperability and reduce investments.
HARMONIZATION, COEXISTENCE AND SPECTRAL EFFICIENCY
Finally, I would like to emphasize the important goals of the Union at WRCs: harmonization of frequency bands for wireless technologies, allocation of bands of the radio-frequency spectrum in order to avoid harmful interference between radio stations of different countries (No. 11 of the ITU Constitution), and limiting the number of frequencies and the spectrum used to the minimum essential to provide the necessary services in a satisfactory manner (No. 195 of the ITU Constitution).
The importance of these objectives grows from one WRC to the next and covers an increasing number of applications. For IMT and HAPS, intelligent transport and railway applications, amateur and RLAN harmonization, coexistence and spectral efficiency are crucial. They facilitate the deployment of regional and global networks, enable economies of scale, and make radio equipment and devices more affordable for all countries. Therefore, I expect the terms allocation, identification and harmonization to be the key words of the upcoming WRC-19.
*Mario Maniewicz - Director of the ITU Radiocommunication Bureau | <urn:uuid:57d7bc36-b18d-4636-ae3c-afb22b1d617c> | {
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Olefin metathesis nobel prize
Nobelprizeorg, the official web site of the nobel prize. Materia establishes olefin metathesis resource olefin metathesis is a process in which two carbon-carbon double as stated by the royal swedish academy of sciences when awarding the 2005 nobel prize, metathesis is an example of how important basic science has been applied for the. Catalysts for olefin metathesis in organic synthesis: spouse(s) helen o'kane-grubbs: awards: nobel prize in chemistry (with richard r schrock and yves chauvin) robert h grubbs - biographical the nobel prize in chemistry 2005. For creative, ingenious and skillful work in the field of olefin metathesis and organometallic chemistry, the nobel prize for chemistry in 2005 was awarded to yves chauvin (institut français du petrole), robert h grubbs (california institute of technology) and richard r schrock (massachusetts institute of. The bonding-partner switcheroo that happens in metathesis reactions has been a boon for molecule makers chemists who made crucial discoveries in olefin metathesis even won the nobel prize in chemistry back in 2005 but metathesis reactions in which the bonding partners on heteroatoms undergo a swap. Olefin metathesis is an organic reaction that entails the redistribution of fragments of alkenes (olefins) yves chauvin, robert h grubbs, and richard r schrock were collectively awarded the 2005 nobel prize in chemistry catalysts the.
Fg keyes professor richard royce schrock holds many titles, not the least of which is nobel laureate an organometallic chemistry pioneer, schrock received the nobel for his contributions to the development of the olefin metathesis reaction (now used for the efficient and more environmentally friendly production of important pharmaceuticals. 2005 nobel prize award winning metathesis catalyst and yves chauvin on their research achievements leading to the 2005 nobel prize award in chemistry metathesis catalyst technology a significant evolution in the development of olefin metathesis catalysts involves the utilization of. A technological revolution in 2005, dr robert grubbs, dr richard schrok and dr yves chauvin were awarded the nobel prize in chemistry for olefin metathesis.
Catalysis chemist unravelled how olefin metathesis reactions took place paving the way for more efficient syntheses but it was his work on olefin metathesis that would eventually win him the nobel prize in metathesis reactions - often likened to a 'dance' in which two couples swap. -nobel prizes -mechanisms • catalysts types -grubbs -schrock • industrial and synthetic organic applications metathesis • metathesis in the general sense is the formation of a product that has applications of olefin metathesis: natural products, macrocycles.
Olefin metathesis catalysts schrock and grubbs air sensitive both won 2005 nobel prize in chemistry for work in olefin metathesis, along with chauvin.
Olefin metathesis nobel prize
Robert grubbs was awarded the 2005 nobel prize in chemistry olefin metathesis is a chemical reaction where, in the presence of a catalyst, fragments of alkenes are exchanged via the scission and regeneration of carbon-carbon double bonds.
Caltech chemist robert grubbs wins nobel prize pasadena grubbs has worked on olefin metathesis according to the nobel citation, metathesis has already led to industrial and pharmaceutical methods that are more efficient and less wasteful. This year's nobel prize laureates in chemistry have made metathesis into one of organic chemistry's most important reactions fantastic opportunities have been created for producing many new molecules - pharmaceuticals, for example imagination will soon be the only limit to what molecules can be. Olefin metathesis olefin metathesis is (shown with one blue and one green carbon group per olefin) this year's nobel prize laureates in chemistry have made metathesis into one of organic chemistry's most important reactions. Platinum metals rev, 2006, 50, (1), 35-37 35 for creative, ingenious and skillful work in the field of olefin metathesis and organometallic chemistry, the nobel prize for chemistry in 2005. Olefin metathesis reaction olefin dance (the emperor waltz) chauvin mechanism- nobel prize in chemistry 2005.
Grubbs' inspired ruthenium catalysts for olefin metathesis-nobel prize winning chemistry references a shaw, a p ryland, b l norton the versatility that olefin metathesis provides for the synthesis of fine chemicals. For years, the chemistry community has recognized the importance and utility of olefin metathesis now, the royal swedish academy of sciences has chosen to recognize it, too: last week, the academy awarded the 2005 nobel prize in chemistry to three chemists who developed the reaction—yves chauvin of the french petroleum institute, rueil. Recent advances in selective olefin metathesis reactions jeffrey lipshultz group meeting macmillan group nobel-prize winning catalysts grubbs olefin metathesis nobel-prize winning catalysts. | <urn:uuid:04c65b71-d8ac-4c37-8c9b-7b7501fbf3d0> | {
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Illustrations of Ancient Humans Skew Facts
by Brian Thomas, M.S. *
Museums and textbooks often use artistic renderings to estimate what a fossilized animal or plant may have looked like when it was alive. These images by “paleoartists” put flesh and faces on skeletal structures, and they can influence public perception of early human history more than the actual science—particularly in regards to human evolution.
Paleoartist Viktor Deak contributed to the PBS NOVA series Becoming Human, which aired in November and depicted mankind as having emerged, Darwinian style, from a hairy, ape-like ancestor. Deak used software to create three-dimensional virtual models, which were then used to produce extremely realistic animations.
Deak told Wired Science that he is “an anthropologist who happens to do art…. I’ve taken it upon myself to be the voice of these fossils.”1 But that voice is sharing more than just the facts of these fossils—it is telling an evolutionary story along with them.
In this industry at “the edge of science and art,” there is ample room for interpretation. The Wired report stated that “even for scientists, fossils are heavily interpreted.”1 And if basic reconstructions of the structure and habitat of these forms require heavy interpretation, then the fully realistic-looking artists’ depictions require even more.
Deak’s images accompany the Wired article, showing semi-human faces that have distinctly human eyes. Deak thoroughly studied the skeletal features of the creatures he was rendering, and his reconstructions of Homo ergaster and Homo heidelbergensis appear to match known fossil skull proportions for those extinct varieties of man. But the soft parts are interpretive, since these were not preserved in fossilized form.
The clear message is conveyed, without a spoken word, that humans evolved from dark-skinned, hairy, wide-nosed creatures with sloped foreheads and jutting jowls. But the skin color, size of the nose and lips, and amount of hair are not supported by science, only assumed by evolution. And the images are so lifelike that careless or casual viewers might not distinguish between features based on observable science and those derived from unobservable assumptions.
In other words, if Deak had depicted these creatures with light skin, normal lips, human beard growth patterns, and Roman noses or Oriental eyes, they would have been just as valid, scientifically. But that wouldn’t fit with the evolutionary story.
Interestingly, both H. ergaster and H. heidelbergensis are considered big mysteries by many evolutionary anthropologists.2 By these scientists’ own admission, they were just extinct varieties of man, which is exactly the interpretation that follows from the biblical creation model.3
Deak told Wired Science, “Once I get the [animation] software down, then I can do the whole thing and create the vision of human evolution I have banging around in my brain.”1 But what’s in his brain is his own system of beliefs, while the evidence for the unique creation of man is in the rocks and in the world for all to see.4
- Keim, B. 3-D Renderings Bring Ancient Hominids to Life. Wired Science. Posted on wired.com November 25, 2009, accessed November 30, 2009.
- Specifically, “H. ergaster marks such a radical departure from previous forms of Homo (such as H. habilis) [an invalid, hodge-podge ‘taxon’] in its height, reduced sexual dimorphism, long limbs and modern body proportions that it is hard at present to identify its immediate ancestry in east Africa. Not for nothing has it been described as a hominin ‘without an ancestor, without a clear past.’” From Dennell, R. and W. Roebroeks. 2005. An Asian perspective on early human dispersal from Africa. Nature. 438 (7071): 1099-1104.
- Hoesch, W. A. 2006. Out of Ararat? Acts & Facts. 35 (9).
- Man Was Created by God. Posted on icr.org, accessed December 4, 2009.
* Mr. Thomas is Science Writer at the Institute for Creation Research.
Article posted on December 7, 2009. | <urn:uuid:a52c31b2-9d8a-4df4-9045-a1ecf24f03df> | {
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“Westfront 1918” (“Vier von der Infanterie”) is a German war film that came out the same year as “All Quiet on the Western Front”. It has been overshadowed by that behemoth, but they are both great war films. “Westfront” was directed by the renowned Georg Pabst. He was the leading practitioner of the New Objectivity style of filmmaking in Germany. The style was noted for its sober realism. Its bleak, down-to-earth take on trench warfare got the film labeled “cowardly defeatism” by Josef Goebbels and it was one of two dozen films banned by the Nazis. Another was “All Quiet”. The movie was an adaptation of the novel by Ernst Johannsen. The cast included several well-respected German actors including Gustav Diessl who was held prisoner for a year during the war.
“Westfront 1918” follows four soldiers in the closing days of WWI. They are the Student (Hans-Joachim Moebis), Karl (Gustav Diessl), Bayer (Fritz Kampers), and the Lieutenant (Claus Clausen). This is not a heterogeneous small unit movie. None of the four has a memorable personality or background. Pabst is profiling the war, not the soldiers. The movie is a series of episodes that could have happened to any soldiers, but specifically to these four. Only the Student and Karl get arcs and they are romances that cover the two extremes of male/female relationships in a war.
The movie opens with the core group in an inn enjoying some time away from the front. Note the tilted portrait of Jesus. There is a saucy serving girl named Jacqueline (Jackie Monnier). This is the first inkling that this movie established some standard tropes of WWI movies. One of the soldiers refers to coffee as “Negro sweat”! A character develops as the Student falls in love with Jacqueline. It is his first experience with love, so he is all in. They will get married after the war, if all goes well. All does not go well. Their rest is interrupted by orders to the front. There they undergo a bombardment that features Karl, Bayer, and the Lieutenant having to hold up the ceiling of their dugout with their heads and hands. The Student digs them out when the roof collapses. Ironically, they are being bombarded by their own artillery.
|So here is proof the old knife in the teeth came before|
the old pulling the grenade pin with the teeth
As is realistic for this war, combat is followed by down-time. The men attend a stage show that includes a girl leading a singalong to a risqué song, a comedy routine, and a brass band. (This scene has the only appearance of a xylophone that I have seen in a war movie.) The scene will influence the famous cabaret scene in “Paths of Glory”. Karl gets his first leave in eighteen months. On the home front, civilians are forced to wait in long lines for food. When his mother sees him, she decides not to lose her place in line. This is not the clueless home front that Paul Baumer returns to in “All Quiet”. Karl’s wife is not having to wait in line at the butcher shop because he catches her in bed with the butcher. Awkward! She begs forgiveness (“It’s not my fault”), but Karl is stoically unforgiving. There is a definite chill for the whole of his leave and he returns to his real home with his marriage on the rocks. The whole trip home is totally believable.
|Did I mention it is anti-war?|
It’s time to get some characters killed and the rest of the movie is bleak and bleaker. There is a great long combat scene that includes lots of grenade throwing, poison gas, and some really cool tanks lumbering toward the German lines. The movie has some of the best bombardment effects of any war movie. One character gets shell shock. 25% seems about right. Three of them end up in a charnel house of a hospital. An indelible image is of a damaged crucifix in the midst of the horrific wounds. Karl summarizes the theme of the film when he says “It’s everyone’s fault”.
This is an amazing movie. The film is a technical marvel for an early talkie. Pabst uses tracking shots (one of soldiers moving through the trench inspired a similar shot in “Paths of Glory”), but also allows the French soldiers to move across the face of a stationary camera for the big battle scene. The tanks come to the camera for a striking effect. It contrasts well with the modern style of making the camera part of the action. It is one of the great combat scenes in war movie lore. The action is realistic, as are the sets. No man’s land, the dugouts, and the trenches are well constructed. There are nice little touches that you will see in few if any WWI movies. For instance, a message is sent by a dog. Since the movie is not character driven, the acting does not stand out. In a sense that is a compliment because the actors do not overact like you see so often in the early talkies. There are no scene-chewing moments like in “All Quiet”. Even the shell-shocked Lieutenant is effectively played based on actual cases. Needless to say, the movie is strongly anti-war. There are no heroics in the film. The violence is not exhilarating like in other so-called anti-war movies.
|happy ending - not|
In comparison to “All Quiet”, “Westfront 1918” covers some of the same ground but in a more depressing way. Keep in mind that the time frame for the two are very different. Paul and his comrades go to war in the naïve early days and gradually learn that war is hell. The home front does not reach that point at all. In “Westfront”, the war is already lost and the home front is suffering as evidenced by Karl’s wife and mother. Another way to see the different perspectives is to compare the two hospital scenes. The hospital in “Westfront” is a horrific and not orderly with nice rows of cots. Also note that in “All Quiet”, the dugout roof does not collapse. On the other hand, “Westfront” has four songs including two in a row! Both movies have powerful scenes, but “All “Quiet” is more epic in scope. It has more of a flow to its plot and this is mainly due to it following the Baumer character. None of the characters in “Westfront” are memorable, but that was not Pabst’s goal.
“Westfront 1918” is probably the second best WWI movie. It is obviously a must see. I have to admit I am embarrassed to admit it took me this long to watch it. In my defense, it is not an easy movie to find and is criminally underappreciated. I found little information on it from my usual sources. At least the readers of this post will now know a bit about it. My work is done. | <urn:uuid:e97b0e00-3acb-4535-9bd5-190508931650> | {
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How to guess language in cyrillic script?
Thread poster: Jan Sundström
Is there any guide or smart overview how you distinguish between different languages, if you have a paper in your hand with cyrillic script?
Sometimes I get documents where I can't say whether it's Russian, Azeri, Mongolian, Macedonian or [insert exotic language here]...?
It would be very useful to have a quick reference chart, what to look for, to identify which language it is.
If we received the documents as files on the computer it would be easy to cut/paste a sentence and search on the internet, or use language guessing software.
But these are mostly diplomas or forms with handwritten entries, stamps, stickers etc, which makes it cumbersome to scan, OCR etc.
I found this extensive alphabet list:
But I'm looking for a set of hard and fast rules, that I can use on the spot. Like: "if you see the letter Y, you can be sure it's the language X".
Is there any website or guide for this, or am I wishing for the impossible?!
| | mjbjosh
Local time: 03:21
English to Latvian
| Depends on the writer || Jan 24, 2008 |
I am not familiar with all the languages that you named (also, I think Azeri is using a modified Latin alphabet), but I think it depends on the writer. For example, when I am writing in Russian, I tend to use a "t" that resembles the Greek "t" rather than the Cyrillic one that looks like a Latin "m". Or Greek "d" for that matter, which looks in Cyrillic rather like the Latin "g".
[Edited at 2008-01-24 21:44]
| | esperantisto
Local time: 04:21
English to Russian
| I doubt that simple hard rules can be derived. || Jan 25, 2008 |
a) Even for the same language, there may be huge differences in historical view: the pre-revolutionary Russian script drastically differs from the modern.
b) One matter are Slavic languages that use Cyrillic generically and developed it in their own ways each (although, of course, under great influence of Russian), and the other matter are non-Slavic languages of the ex-USSR + Mongolian: their scripts were developed from Russian and are more uniform on one hand but more complex on the other hand.
Well, learn languages, not scripts! It's just like for Latin.
However, many languages have specific letters. Just a couple of tips:
1. If your see Ўў, this may be Belarusian, Uzbek or some language of the Extreme North of the Russian Federation. I know nothing about the latter, but for the first two:
a) if you also see Ии, that's Uzbek;
b) otherwise, it's Belarusian.
Note: If it's a text from the 20s of the XXth century, Ў may be also in Ossetin, but I doubt you'll encounter it.
2. If Ӕӕ, Ossetin.
3. If Її, Ukrainian (or Ruthenian, but it's a minor language with no official status, not recognized as a separate language in Ukraine).
4. If Ӂӂ, Moldovan (Romanian).
| || || |
| F7 for texts in soft copy || Jan 26, 2008 |
If you received the text, say, in Word, select a word from the text, then press F7 and you will get a pop up message like this: "There is no Thesaurus available for (eg.) Macedonian"...
As for the table on wikipedia, it's also a very good source: it tells you, for example, that the Macedonian alphabet is the only alphabet that has the letters Ќ and Ѓ...
The same conclusion for Ћ and Ђ for Serbian...
1. Only Ukrainian and Belarussian use the letter I i.
2. If you find the letter Є є, it's Ukrainian. 100% sure, since no other language uses it(unless it's a text in Old Church Slavonic, but that would be very odd, and you would recognize it for the medieval look and the letter Ѣ ѣ). Also, only Ukrainian uses Ï ï, and it does NOT use Ъ ъ neither Ы ы.
Note: There's a small language called Rusyn, which some considere a dialect of Ukrainian. If you find Є є and Ï ï but also Ъ ъ and Ы ы, it must be Rusyn.
3. If you find a language with both I i and Ў ў, it's Belarussian. It does NOT use Ъ ъ neither Щ щ.
4. For Slavic languages, the letter J j is only used by Serbian and Macedonian. (There's a small dialect of Sami which also uses it, but you would recognize it for some letters with a comma-like symbol attached: Ӊ ӊ, Ҋ ҋ, Ӆ ӆ).
5. Besides J j, only Serbian and Macedonian have the distinctive letters Љ љ and Њ њ
6. If you find a text with Ћ ћ and Ђ ђ, you can be 100% sure it's Serbian.
7. If you find a text with J j plus Ѓ ѓ and Ќ ќ, you can be 100% sure it's Macedonian.
8. I don't know much about non-Slavic languages which use Cyrillic, but they are often characterized by 'unusual' letters like Ә ә or Ä ä, and by modifications like Ғ ғ, Ұ ұ (the latter found in Kazakh).
9. If there is not any distinctive letter of the mentioned above (I, Є, J, Ў, Љ, Ћ, Ќ, neither Ә, Ғ, Ұ), then most likely it's Russian or Bulgarian.
10. To tell Russian from Bulgarian: Bulgarian uses very often the letter Ъ ъ, while in Russian it's only used in some specific cases. Bulgarian does not use Ë ë, but the combination ьо instead, which is very unusual in Russian (I would say it is only possible with certain foreign words). Unfortunately, Ë ë in Russian is most often written as simply E e.
Hope it helps...
[Editado a las 2008-01-31 12:05]
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|1.||an old French verse form, rarely used in English, consisting of short lines arranged in stanzas having only two rhymes, and two opening lines recurring at intervals|
|2.||any of various similar forms|
|[C14: from Old French virelai, probably from vireli (associated with lai|
one of several formes fixes ("fixed forms") in French lyric poetry and song of the 14th and 15th centuries (compare ballade; rondeau). It probably did not originate in France, and it takes on several different forms even within the French tradition. Similar forms can be found in most of the literatures of medieval and early Renaissance Europe: in the Galician cantiga, the Arabic muwashshah, the Italian lauda and frottola, the Spanish villancico, and the English carol (qq.v.), as well as in the Arabic zajal and the Italian hallata.
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and Social History
| Franco-Prussian War.
John D. Rockefeller founds the Standard Oil Company.
Territory of Utah gives full suffrage to women; the first election in which they vote occurs on 1 August
Congress enacts the "Ku Klux Klan Act of 1870" or "Enforcement Act" to stop southern white resistance to the power African Americans have gained during Reconstruction.
22 June. Department of Justice is created.
5 December. When the 41st Congress meets, every state is represented, the first such Congress since 1860.
|| Birth of Frank Norris in Chicago (d. 1902)
Emerson, "Society and Solitude"
Scribner's Monthly (1870-81)
Bret Harte, The Luck of Roaring Camp and Other Sketches
| 3 March. The Indian Appropriation Act of 1871 marks a step backward as it makes tribal members wards of the state rather than preserving their rights as members of sovereign nations.
8 October. Chicago is almost destroyed by fire. See the "Great Chicago Fire" website (image courtesy of this source.)
Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man
8 July. Tweed Ring exposed in the New York Times and is overthrown.
|| Edward Eggleston, The Hoosier Schoolmaster
Henry James, Watch and Ward (in Atlantic; book form, 1878)
Birth of Stephen Crane and Theodore Dreiser
Howells, Their Wedding Journey; becomes editor of The Atlantic Monthly (1871-1881)
Whitman, Democratic Vistas and A Passage to India
Louisa May Alcott, Little Men
| 5-6 June. The Republican party meets in Philadelphia and nominates Grant for re-election to the presidency. Meeting in Baltimore on 9 July, the Democrats nominate Horace Greeley.
The Credit Mobilier Scandal erupts when the New York Sun reports news of events during the building of the transcontinental railway. Massachusetts congressman and shovel manufacturer Oakes Ames and the Union Pacific Railway had created a company called Credit Mobilier of America, which was awarded all construction work for building the Union Pacific line west of Nebraska. Ames sweetened the deal by giving shares in the company to many government officials, including both of U. S. Grant's vice-presidents. Congress ultimately pays $94 million to the company for work worth $44 million.
Grant wins the presidency by a landslide, gathering 3,597,132 votes to Greeley's 2,834,125.
|| Twain, Roughing It
Birth of Paul Laurence Dunbar (d. 1906)
| 3 March. Homesteaders willing to plant trees on their land are granted an additional quarter section (160 acres).
Congress votes itself a 50% salary increase and makes the increase retroactive for two years, an action that causes such an outcry that the raises are rescinded.
18 September. Financial Panic of 1873 begins with the failure of Jay Cooke and Company after years of inflation, speculation, and the overproduction of paper currency. The Stock Exchange closes for 10 days.
Herbert Spencer, The Study of Sociology.
|| Howells, A Chance Acquaintance
Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner, The Gilded Age
Birth of Willa Cather (d. 1947)
Louisa May Alcott, Work
The Delineator (1873-1937)
| Women's Christian Temperance Union founded in Cleveland.
8 May. Massachusetts limits women's working days to 10 hours, a significant reform.
First Impressionist exhibition in Paris.
Barbed wire becomes available, thus making possible the inexpensive enclosure of grazing lands in the west.
Featuring educational as well as religious lectures, the Chautauqua Movement begins at Lake Chautauqua, New York.
Samuel Tilden becomes governor of New York.
||Birth of Ellen Glasgow (d. 1945)
| Civil Rights Act states that no citizen can be denied equal use of public facilities.
Second Sioux War erupts after the Sioux refuse to sell lands north of the Platte to the federal government.
The Supreme Court decision of Minor v. Happersett allows states to set suffrage requirements and denies women voting rights.
|| Bret Harte, Tales of the Argonauts
Louisa May Alcott, Eight Cousins
Howells, A Foregone Conclusion
| Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone.
25 June. Ignoring warnings of a massed Sioux army of 2,000-4,000 men, Custer and 250 soldiers attack the forces of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse at the Little Big Horn. Custer and all of his men die in the attack. Sitting Bull escapes to Canada, returning to the United States in 1881 as a participant in wild west shows.
Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia.
In an election marred by fraud, Republican Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) is elected president over Democrat Samuel J. Tilden after compromising with southern Democrats over the restriction of Reconstruction. Tilden receives 4,284,020 popular votes and Hayes receives 4,036,572. (Visit the Harper's Weekly site for an overview of the election, political cartoons, and other information.)
|| Twain, Adventures of Tom Sawyer
Whitman, Leaves of Grass (Centennial Edition)
Melville, Clarel (poem)
James, Roderick Hudson
Louisa May Alcott, Silver Pitchers and Independence (containing "Transcendental Wild Oats"); Rose in Bloom
Birth of Jack London, Sherwood Anderson
| 29 January. The Electoral Commission Bill authorizes a committee of 15 to decide the election between Hayes and Tilden. The committee's votes split along party lines. On 3 March, Hayes is announced as President after House Republicans agree, among other concessions, to pull Federal troops from the South. On 5 March, Rutherford B. Hayes is inaugurated as President of the United States (1877-81).
Nez Perce war. After a battle between Nez Perce forces under Chief Joseph and those of Col. Miles in Idaho, Chief Joseph's band is sent to a reservation in Oklahoma
14 July. The Great Strike of 1877 begins with railroad workers walking out; later, workers from other industries will follow. (Accounts from Harper's Weekly)
Thomas Alva Edison patents the phonograph. He demonstrates the device on 7 December at the offices of the Scientific American in New York.
|| James,The American
December 17. Mark Twain gives his infamous "Whittier Birthday Dinner Speech" in front of an assembled multitude of literary dignitaries.
| 15 October. Although he has not yet perfected the incandescent light bulb, Edison establishes Edison Electric Light Company in New York City (Almanac of American History 338).
Women's Suffrage Amendment is introduced into Congress but fails.
The Timber and Stone Act permits the cutting of timber on public lands to increase the cleared acreage for farmers; timber lands are sold for as little as $2.50 an acre.
The Northern Cheyenne escape from their reservation in Oklahoma in an attempt to reach their lands in Montana Territory.
The first central switchboard for telephone service in New York City is opened.
||James, The Europeans; (Daisy Miller)
| Using first carbonized cotton and then carbonized bamboo for a filter, Edison invents a functioning light bulb.
A bill to restrict Chinese immigration is passed by Congress but vetoed by President Hayes.
Hearing rumors that Kansas had been set aside for settlement by former slaves, between 7,000 and 15,000 African Americans move to Kansas; they are called "exodusters" after their exodus into the dusty lands of Kansas.
|| James, Daisy Miller | <urn:uuid:3cf50020-1137-4cfa-807d-0f8070132b4a> | {
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The food pyramid is a model used to describe a diet and is currently designated as the basis for some foot regime. It can be seen as a set of rules to follow to feel better, not necessarily as a purely weight-loss pattern.
The food pyramid model use, as it says, a pyramid to indicate which food and in what proportion should be eaten during the week. It is possible to use the food pyramid to describe a range of nutritional rules which does not necessarily imply a quantitative indication (portions, calories, percentages of macronutrients) but more often are only qualitative (i.e. which foods privilege against others).
There are many food pyramids proposed in the literature, such as the pyramid of Mediterranean and Asian, to name two of the most famous. One of the best pyramid food ever is the italian one, in which is used a two-dimensional array of foods in spite of the classical three-dimensionality. The advantage of that refers to an easier use of the pyramid to better understand what is preferable to eat.
In the pyramid, foods are stacked and since the base is larger than the tip, foods inserted first are those favoured in the diet, so they can be taken in larger quantities. As you move up along the food pyramid, quantity decreases and, in parallel, also decreases the importance of that food in the diet itself. Foods at the top are the ones that you should consume more sparingly, because they are judged to be less important to the maintenance of an optimal weight or at least the preservation of a good state of health. | <urn:uuid:e9cbc01e-4086-4f85-8dc1-d44d55b82efc> | {
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The research work by University of Alberta pointed out that aggressive behavior in adults is linked to an individual's sensitivity to testosterone hormone.
"I looked at the gene that makes the body's testosterone detector to determine if variations in this detector's sensitivity to the chemical causes people to be more or less aggressive," said U of A Psychology researcher Peter Hurd.
"In our samples, less sensitive genes indicated more aggressive behavior, perhaps because the bodies of those people wound up producing more testosterone to compensate," he added.
Hurd believes that testosterone levels and sensitivity are particularly important during fetal development, particularly since testosterone acts to influence fetal brain development indirectly, through a different receptor after it has been converted to a slightly different chemical.
"More or less prenatal testosterone seems to have consequences throughout a person's entire lifetime," he said.
Hurd says the varying levels of testosterone sensitivity or exposure seen in the U of A volunteers is not related to extremely aggressive or criminal behavior.
In fact, the elevated aggression within this sample of students includes displays of aggression by one person against individuals through use of subtle, "gossip girl" styles of indirect aggression, he said.
"That kind of subtle aggression could involve getting back at a perceived enemy by talking to others about them behind their back," he said. | <urn:uuid:4a1023df-542d-4b4d-934d-e93f5dd19234> | {
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Frederick Starr (1858-1933), born in Auburn, New York, was a distinguished American anthropologist who visited Lake Chapala over the winter of 1895-1896.
Starr, whose primary scientific background was in geology, graduated from Lafayette College in 1882 and was appointed as a biology professor at Coe College.
In 1889, as his academic interests shifted towards ethnology and anthropology, he accepted a post at the American Museum of Natural History. A few years later he was asked to organize anthropological teaching at the University of Chicago. Starr was Associate Professor of Anthropology at the University of Chicago from 1892 until 1923, a decade before his death in Tokyo, Japan, on August 14, 1933.
A passionate anthropologist, with a particular enthusiasm for fieldwork, his research on several continents led to such diverse works as The Truth about the Congo (1907), In Indian Mexico, A narrative of Travel and Labor (1908) and Japanese proverbs and pictures (1910).
In Indian Mexico has extensive descriptions of Lake Pátzcuaro, Uruapan, Zamora and many smaller villages. A contemporary reviewer described this book as: “the work of a keen observer, whose description of the picturesque customs of the Mexican Indians has a deeper significance than a mere collection of interesting details. Combining the qualities of the trained ethnologist with a rare sense of the picturesque, he has given us an altogether admirable book.” American novelist Charles Embree (who wrote a novel set at Lake Chapala) wrote an appendix to In Indian Mexico.
Prior to In Indian Mexico, it had been assumed that traditional methods of making paper from tree bark were extinct in Mexico. Starr, however, discovered that the ancient craft was still practiced (as it is even today) in the Otomi village of San Pablito in the state of Hidalgo.
Prior to Starr’s three-month visit to Guadalajara and Lake Chapala over the winter of 1895-1896, he was quoted in The Salt Lake Herald as saying:
“I will first go to Guadalajara to study a submerged city in Lake Chapala, and “Mountain Idiots’ inhabiting the mountains nearby. This is a race of dwarfs which has been studied very little and my intention is to try to determine whether these people are racially small or have become so by disease. I will have the assistance of Archbishop Gillow, an authority on the dwarf races. In the interior of Guatemala the pigmies are said to live in caves and holes in the ground and speak languages not known to white men.”
This quote throws up various interesting sidebars. Rumors of a submerged city in Lake Chapala had been circulating for a while in the U.S., presumably mainly on the evidence of the large amount of pottery fragments recovered from the lake bed whenever the water level fell. Archbishop Gillow is a particularly interesting figure in Mexican history, whose story is told in chapter 22 of my Mexican Kaleidoscope: myths, mysteries and mystique.
Following his short visit to Lake Chapala over the winter of 1895-1896. Starr’s research paper, The Little Pottery Objects of Lake Chapala, Mexico described (with illustrations by M. K. Seralian) ollitas and other pottery items found near Jocotepec at the western end of the lake. He collected and studied 261 individual specimens and considered several alternative possibilities before concluding that they are likely to be “offerings made
to the lake itself or some spirit resident there-in?”
Starr recognized that changes in lake level might be common and more than sufficient to explain why the pieces were now found at some distance from the current shoreline:
“So far as their presence in the lake is concerned it is possible that the lake’s level may have risen, covering an original place of deposit on the dry land. The spot is almost within sight of the active volcano of Colima, and changes of level, through volcanic or other igneous agency, in the waters of the lake are not improbable. The old schoolmaster at Chapala insists that the town of Chapala has long been slowly sinking, and that half of it has already been engulfed by the lake. He also claims that the god formerly worshipped at Chapala was a little god, a child god, and that the little vessels were offerings to him.”
In December 1895, mid-way through his visit, Starr attended a performance of the Pastores (Shepherds), a Passion Play in Chapala . Starr included a detailed description of this event in an article published the following year in The Journal of American Folklore. Starr considered it to be “probably entirely foreign”, compared to Tastoanes and Conquista festivities which combined Indian and imported elements. According to Starr:
“The play is fairly recent at Chapala. Only a few years ago a young fellow from the village saw it at some other town; he learned it by heart and trained his band of actors. This illustrates the way in which dramas travel – even in Mexico – from town to town.”
Fifty years later, another anthropologist, George Barker, was to witness (and later write about) another unique aspect of Chapala’s Christmas-time celebrations.
This profile is based on an extract from chapter 40 of my Lake Chapala Through the Ages: an anthology of travelers’ tales.
Sources / References:
- The Salt Lake Herald: 16 November 1895.
- Starr Frederick. 1896. “Celebrations in Mexico.” The Journal of American Folklore, Vol 9 #34 (Jul-Sep 1896), pp 161-169.
- Starr, Frederick. 1897. “The Little Pottery Objects of Lake Chapala, Mexico.” Department of Anthropology Bulletin II. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
- Starr, Frederick. 1908. In Indian Mexico: A Narrative of Travel and Labor. Front Cover · Frederick Starr. Forbes & Company.
Sombrero Books welcomes comments, corrections or additional material related to any of the writers and artists featured in our series of mini-bios. Please use the comments feature at the bottom of individual posts, or email us. | <urn:uuid:4a87bd55-328b-423e-bf56-44cc0084ce83> | {
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Hume’s Determinism Refuted
by David R. Schneider
Abstract: Hume’s argument for assuming cause-and-effect is undermined by way of three empirical challenges. Further, the argument itself is shown to contain two critical flaws in logic. A new theory is presented to supercede determinism, in which causality and chance are relative. This theory is intended to help minimize obstructions to theory development, which can be traced to a historical bias towards seeing more causation and order in events than is objectively justified.
1.1 Philosopher David Hume developed an ingenious and historically important argument regarding cause-and-effect. In his book, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding , Hume showed that our belief in the existence of cause-and-effect is a direct result of observation, experience and inference. Our belief rests on empirical evidence; yet this belief can never be substantiated by a formal proof. We may be able to discern and express natural laws, but we cannot be sure they will be valid in the future (for example). Since we will never be able to deduce the existence of cause-and-effect (i.e. that the laws of nature are causal), Hume argued that we must assume its existence as a postulate of any scientific theory.
Determinism is the theory that causes lead to effects by mediation (in time) of laws of nature. Theories which assume that they are describing causal laws of nature are called deterministic theories. Since the publication of his book, Hume’s determinism has had a profound and significant influence on the progress of Western science. Determinism has been very useful. No fully effective challenge has ever been mounted against Hume’s determinism. Where is the repudiation of the empirical evidence in favor of determinism, or a counter-example to the theory itself?
Some philosophers have already taken stands against determinism. But as surveyed by Jeans , these arguments have not been persuasive, often because of complications in defining indeterminism. As an example, indeterminism is sometimes considered to be synonymous with uncertainty, although this seems to be a weak definition. Uncertainty is lack of knowledge of determinate conditions, and so it still assumes that the laws of nature are determinate.
1.2 The objective of this paper is to show that a bias exists in favor of determinism. Such bias seems to have historical roots. At any rate, I believe that determinism obstructs theory development in many situations. For this to be the case, determinism cannot always be useful as an assumption.
Hume’s determinism will be fully refuted in this paper. Three empirical challenges are presented in section 2. In section 3, the argument for determinism is shown to be based on circular reasoning; further, it leads to a logical absurdity. In section 4, it is shown that determinism can be replaced by a theory of natural laws in which both causality and chance are present, and are relative between observers.
2. Empirical Challenges to Determinism
2.1 When quantum theory was introduced in the late 1920’s, a surprising discovery was made: the success of the theory is dependent on the existence of statistical, non-causal forces. The behavior of individual atomic particles is completely indeterministic. As a group, particles act as part of a “deterministic ensemble.” The bigger the group, the more determinism which is seen. But detail analysis has demonstrated that all fundamental particles display completely random behavior at the atomic level. They appear, in some sense, to have “free will” when observed individually; their behavior is not “caused” by anything.
The so-called “Copenhagen interpretation” described above has been the subject of much controversy, scrutiny, debate and attack. Einstein believed until his dying day that an underlying cause for the observed indeterministic behavior of quantum particles would one day be discovered. In a famous quote , he said “God does not play with dice.” However, the following situation exists today: 1) empirical evidence supports the concept that nature is fundamentally comprised of microscopic particles which obey indeterministic, statistical laws; 2) a theory has been presented which ties such statistical laws to large-scale (macroscopic) patterns which otherwise appear causal; and 3) modern quantum theory is the most accurate of all scientific theories.
Based on the above, it is concluded that an empirical counter-example has been presented to the theory of cause-and-effect. A single such unanswered counter-example is sufficient to refute any theory.
2.2 The second challenge attacks the empirical evidence in favor of cause-and-effect itself. This is the backbone of Hume’s argument for determinism. Define a cause to be X; define an effect to be Y; and let L be the hypothesized causal law which relates X and Y. X must also precede Y in time. If we observe that X always leads to Y, then we normally infer L. X causes Y if and only if L is a causal law.
However, the following technical exception must be acknowledged. We have never actually observed two instances of X which led to two instances of Y. Every X - that is, every set of initial conditions - is different in some respect from every other X. Similarly, every Y is somewhat different from every other Y. Therefore, there is actually no empirical evidence for the existence of some causal law L which acts the same way (in all particulars) at all times.
It may be objected that L may be inferred when each X is approximately similar, since each Y will likewise be approximately similar. However, this situation would always be true by definition regardless of whether or not a causal law L actually existed. To the extent X’s and Y’s are defined by the experimenter as similar, they will automatically tend to support the experimenter’s causal “law” L. By the line of reasoning of this objection, empirical evidence is unnecessary to support the theory of cause-and-effect. Thus stated, we have a new definition of determinism: the similarity of X’s and Y’s is called cause-and-effect.
The quandary may be restated as follows: all empirical evidence can be considered as either supporting determinism, or as a counter-example to determinism, at the complete discretion of each individual observer. Unless you and I agree as to the boundary or definition of what we have observed, our conclusion as to the objective existence of empirical evidence supporting determinism is merely relative.
A specific example may help demonstrate this point. If I measure the force of the earth’s gravity on an object, I see the relation F=gm. However, magnets and gases exhibit a different relation with respect to the earth. Is gravity deterministic? F=gm contains no term regarding the make-up of the object, so the only way to explain the exception is to say that gravity obeys the relation F=gm unless something else causes it not to. We have bounded our causal law so that our hypothesis stands, but we now must postulate the existence of new phenomena to describe the other “causal” forces which are at work; and so on. How can this program be falsified? If it cannot be falsified (since we can always postulate additional “unknown” causes), isn’t the conclusion questionable?
2.3 The third challenge to determinism is not dependent on either of the prior two challenges. Strictly speaking, determinism postulates that there is, at least in principle, the possibility that an independent cause can be shown to lead to an independent effect. That is, there may be some attribute X(1) which always leads to some attribute Y(1) within a particular cause-and-effect sequence. In technical terms, this is known as the problem of identifying the independent variable. This has been shown to be an important criterion in developing psychological and sociological theories, for example. Specifically, the independent variable must be identified to insure that the hypothesized correlation is not “spurious.”
The challenge: where is the independent variable? No truly independent variable has ever, in the entire history of all science, been identified. If determinism is all it is said to be, why is identification of an independent variable so difficult - shouldn’t it be easy?
A review of the problem shows that we cannot, in principle, ever observe an independent variable. For it to be identified unambiguously as being independent, such variable can have no causal connection to other observables. (If there is any causal connection to another variable, then the cause cannot be narrowed to the hypothetical independent variable.) If it has no causal connection to other observables, then it cannot be observed! For all intents and purposes, it would not be part of the observable universe. If nothing else, the independent variable must be connected to time (so as to identify X as being antecedent to Y). But if it is connected to time, then it is also causally connected to space, and mass, and energy, etc. Therefore the attribute so measured would no longer be truly independent. Q.E.D.
2.4 In summary: 1) Evidence exists which contradicts determinism. 2) There are no pure empirical examples of cause-and-effect. 3) Determinism calls for the possible existence of at least one independent variable, yet none has ever been found. Based on these three points, it appears that the empirical argument for determinism is untenable. Of course, new information could be discovered in the future which would allow us to reconsider one or more of the above three challenges. However, such information must first be discovered.
3. Errors in Logic Exposed
3.1 Hume’s argument contains two errors in logic: 1) a tautology (circular reasoning; you assume that which you sought to deduce); and 2) a logical absurdity (an argument which gives rise to mutually contradictory deductions is a logical absurdity, and is automatically considered to be in error).
Hume’s determinism rests on the existence of empirical evidence in favor of cause-and-effect. Such evidence consists of those situations which tend to support theories of cause-and-effect. Situations which do not support the concept of cause-and-effect are deemed, by definition, to be different sets of circumstances (i.e. due to the fact that the causes are not similar). If the evidence for cause-and-effect is bounded in such a way as to include only supporting examples, and cannot by definition include non-confirming examples, then we can see that the evidence is no evidence at all. It is merely circular logic; definitional only. (This is discussed in section 2.2 also.)
3.2 Hume’s argument can be turned around and applied equally well to the theory that the laws of nature are indeterministic. We look out on our world, and note that chance events are commonplace. Numerous events transpire which are outside of our causal control, and are completely indeterministic by any objective standard. (If you question their status as indeterministic, then simply present a causal law which predicts such events. If you have assumed they could be explained by “undiscovered” causal laws, then you are not being objective.)
If we are injured while out in public (drunk driver, robber, etc.), then we cannot be held responsible since we did not “cause” the event. It was only a statistical possibility - a risk. (Note: it cannot be said that we were responsible by being out in the first place. Accidents can occur anywhere, and we have to be somewhere.) Reductionism won’t help restore determinism either, since we can decompose chance events into smaller chance events as easily as into deterministic ones (by our choice of definitions and subjective standards).
In addition, numerous laws of nature exist which appear to be tied to probabilities rather than cause-and-effect. The weather appears to be associated with temperature and humidity. Yet these are only measures of macroscopic phenomena, and do not “cause” rain. Human behavior is correlated to numerous phenomena which cannot possibly be reduced to anything remotely resembling causes or effects. What caused you to arrive at work this morning at a specific time? Nothing did; yet your arrival time may be statistically correlated to “office hours” or your first appointment. Doesn’t chance explain and describe at least as well as determinism?
Thus, there is certainly ample evidence for indeterminism. Events occur which are outside our causal control, and events occur which can best be described in terms of probabilities. Yet indeterminism can never be proved, since the statistical laws of nature could become causal at some point in the future. Thus, by Hume’s line of reasoning, we must assume indeterminism.
But Hume also showed that the laws of nature must be assumed to be deterministic (see section 1.1). Therefore, unless the laws of nature are both absolutely causal and absolutely statistical at the same time, a logical absurdity is demonstrated. Determinism describes our universe, and so does indeterminism. The order you see corresponds to the order you seek.
3.3 It may be objected that the human mind derives its success from deterministic inferences; therefore determinism occupies some sort of preferred status. However, recently discovered evidence by Nisbett and Ross provides conclusive proof that this is not so. The conclusions of the human mind are frequently based on statistical, rather than causal, connections. They call this the “availability heuristic.” If we see any correlation between similar X’s and Y’s (from our own definitions of similarity, of course), then a causal pattern is inferred. This statistical pattern is believed just as strongly as any causal pattern, even when it is demonstrated that the pattern cannot possibly be causal. We tend to see causal connections where there are none.
Consider the relationship between the height of a father and the height of his son. Most people believe that there is a causal connection between the two - “like father, like son” - if the father and son are both tall, for example. The father’s height is considered to “cause” the height of the son. But any biologist can confirm that this cannot possibly be so - it is physically impossible. The son’s height can, at best, be causally connected to the grandfather’s height. But the father’s height can, at best, be causally connected to his grandfather’s height (the son’s great-grandfather). There is absolutely no causal connection of a genetic nature between the height of a father and his son. But there is a very good statistical correlation.
It is the availability heuristic which leads us to see a connection, and we mistakenly identify it (by means of “rational” thought) as a causal relationship. There is a relationship, but it is one of chance. This same heuristic is responsible for many people’s strong belief in paranormal phenomena, even when analysis shows that their belief is based on erroneous identification of causal mechanisms.
A further review leads to an interesting speculation regarding the source of the deterministic bias mentioned in section 1.2 above. It seems that the availability heuristic is a subconscious tool. Rationality seems to be a conscious tool. Therefore, it is natural that we would be more aware of rational, deterministic relations and less aware of statistical, non-causal relations. Each could be present and accounted for in human behavior, while it is the causal influences which we see most clearly (because we are conscious of them).
4. The Relativity of Causality and Chance
4.1 From section 3 above, it becomes clear that different observers can always come to different conclusions regarding the existence of causal laws of nature. Such conclusions rest on the individual’s own experience, biases, etc. Individuals will not necessarily identify the same patterns, nor will they necessarily postulate the same causal laws to explain observed patterns. Further, where is the line to be drawn as to similarity of causes, and similarity of effects? These conclusions must necessarily be subjective.
Are natural laws deterministic or indeterministic? If they depend on the observer’s reference frame, then they must be relative - they cannot, by any method other than simple agreement, be said to be absolutely one or the other. This leads us to the theory of the relativity of causality and chance: causal relativity.
Specifically, it is postulated that we can never know - completely, finally and unambiguously - whether or not the laws of nature are causal, statistical or some unknown mixture of the two. We are stuck with simultaneously dealing with both determinism and indeterminism. Yet it is still possible to draw conclusions about the patterns and relationships we observe, as long as an absolute causal reference frame is not postulated . We do this every day.
It is important to note that within the theory of the relativity of causality and chance, no assumption is made regarding whether or the laws of nature are actually deterministic, indeterministic or some unknown mixture. All that is said is that they cannot be observed to be one or the other.
A determinate observer will see some indeterminism in an object system under study. An indeterminate observer will see determinism in the object system. Thus, when the laws of nature are considered for both the observer and the object system together, causal relativity will be seen. This is held to be true whether the system is physical or social.
4.2 In conclusion, we are now shown that our universe is neither deterministic nor indeterministic in any sense which we can hope to prove by way of empirical argument. This may disturb some because chance is elevated to a position not possible in purely deterministic theories. But the facts draw us to this conclusion, despite our personal philosophies.
I choose to view the situation in a positive light. After all, this certainly gives us a clever way out of the problem of free will, which is inherent in deterministic theories. How can we have true (rather than apparent) free will if our actions are predetermined? If we can never know if they are predetermined (due to causal relativity), then the problem is solved.
Hume’s argument for determinism cannot be maintained unless entire new classes of events are discovered. Despite its contributions in the past, determinism may be unwarranted in many disciplines. We must prepare for a re-evaluation of our direction of study with respect to our understanding of the laws of nature.
Deterministic bias, leftover from the time of Hume, may lead us to see more causation and order than is really present in our world. Perrow sees this as a major problem within the social sciences. Such bias may be negatively affecting theory development by tending to place unnecessary restrictions on theories (by requiring them to be deterministic). If it is impossible to observe absolutely causal laws of nature, then we could never hope to substantiate deterministic theories by way of experiment.
Determinism may have been a useful assumption in the past; it may be a useful tool in simple situations in the future. But at the present, it should not be used as a barrier to theory creation in realms in which deterministic theories appear to have reached a stopping point.
1. D. Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, (1748).
2. J. Jeans, Physics and Philosophy, (1942).
3. A.P. French, Einstein - A Centenary Volume, (1979).
4. R. Nisbett and L. Ross, Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings in Social Judgment, (1980).
5. D.R. Schneider, “The Relativity Of Causality and Chance”, (1987). Unpublished; causal relativity is applied to physical theory.
6. C. Perrow, “Disintegrating Social Sciences” (1982). Phi Deltan Kappan, Vol. 63, 684-688. | <urn:uuid:99f3e859-ddc6-4f2b-91e9-12d1e894a6ad> | {
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Miscarriage is a very difficult event to deal with. Many women not only have to deal with the physical issues that arise, but also the emotional issues. One of the most common emotional responses is "what did I do?". Self blame is not an unusual reaction and something that should be addressed rather than put aside. One of the numerous ways to positively walk through this traumatizing event is to find out what went wrong. I will attempt to share some information below, however, this is not to be substituted for medical advice from your doctor.
One of the many things a woman may hear is that miscarriage is just Allahs will and the bodies way of rejecting a deformed fetus. While it is true that over ½ of miscarriages do occur due to genetic abnormalities in the fetus. The question arises as to the other ½ and what causes the miscarriages?
If a woman does miscarry, it is very helpful if the passing tissue of the fetus is kept and presented to the hospital or doctor. Usually this tissue is recognized as a "blood clot", not uncommon in resemblance to uterine lining that is shed each month in a woman. This will, with the help of lab tests, determine if the fetus in fact had any genetic abnormalities that caused it to abort. Not all genetic abnormalities results in a miscarriage, many continue with a healthy pregnancy and results in physical as well as mental handicaps.
Genetic Problems With The Parents
Though a genetic problem may be ruled out with the fetus. The problem can lie with the parents themselves. A Blood test called "karyotyping" can easily, but not cheaply, be performed to determine this factor.
43% of women diagnosed with Endometriosis have had miscarriages. It is not exactly known how Endometriosis causes miscarriages but theories tend to attribute it to hormonal imbalances. Having Endometriosis myself I have heard the often quoted "pregnancy helps Endometriosis" unfortunately this is not the whole truth.
During the first two to three months of pregnancy, Endometriosis often gets worse before it gets any better. In order for pregnancy to help Endometriosis a woman must carry to full term. This is due to the increase of estrogen levels which causes Endometriosis to grow.
Luteal- Phase Defects
This is a common hormonal cause of spontaneous abortion. This happens when the corpus luteum, which forms on the ovaries after ovulation, does not produce the proper amount of progesterone. The progesterone is necessary for the fertilized egg to implant itself in the uterine lining. If the corpus luteum fails the uterine lining will not be able to carry the attached fetus and a miscarriage will occur. This happens in the early months of pregnancy for after the second month of pregnancy the placenta takes over the production of progesterone.
Malformations In The Uterus
There are several malformations of the uterus that can contribute to miscarriage, such as unicornuate uterus, septate uterus, and bicornuate uterus.
This is the name for a woman that has a half of uterus, which can be diagnosed with and HSG. There are many women who go on to carry and deliver babies with this condition. Just because one has this condition does NOT mean that they will miscarry, although their chances do increase. What is said to happen is that the uterus is smaller and weaker due to the malformation. Which leads to not only miscarriages but premature births.
This is when the womans uterus is partially or totally separated by a wall known as a "septum" Again this condition can be diagnosed with an HSG and many women go on to carry and deliver babies. When miscarriages do occur, it is usually attributed to the fertilized egg implanting itself on the septum. The septum has a very poor blood supply and the fetus aborts due to being undernourished.
A woman who has a uterus that looks like a heart, from the inside and out. And is attributed to higher rate of miscarriage, twice that of the general population.
Several of these conditions can be treated with a surgical procedure. And they can be easily diagnosed with an HSG. Most women with such conditions dont have any infertility problems, but may increase their chances of Endometriosis.
Adhesions are a common infertility problem, from the tubes to the ovaries. There are also problems with adhesions in the uterus itself, occurring from several different factors. Procedures such as a D&C can cause adhesions as well as the surgical procedure to remove fibroids. The adhesions themselves can be cut away from the uterine wall enabling women to carry to full term. Figures as high as 85 % success rate after such a surgical procedure
Fibroids are muscular tumors inside the uterine cavity, although benign, can interfere with conception as well as cause spontaneous abortion. If the fertilized egg implants itself over a fibroid, the food supply will be to low and the fetus will miscarry. Even fibroids that tend to be small before pregnancy can enlarge due to the increase of estrogen and progesterone.
There is a major medical procedure called myomectomy which can remove the fibroids from the uterus. Success figures as high as 41% miscarriage rate among women with non treated fibroids fell to 14% after surgical treatment, makes for a great option.
This is the term used to describe a woman whose cervix is incapable of holding together for a full term pregnancy. The baby literally falls out of a woman unless the problem is noted and dealt with. The doctors will generally sew the cervix together to hold the baby inside, and highly recommend bed rest.
There are other causes of miscarriages such as infections, chemical hazards in our daily lives. But these are some of the main reasons why women miscarry. Many doctors, inshallah this thought is changing, generally dont look into the reason why a woman miscarries until her third consecutive miscarriage. If you find that your doctor is not receptive to your concerns about your miscarriage, remember you are in control, simply find another doctor that will address your concerns.
What I find most upsetting, in an Islamic standpoint, is that women are blamed for miscarriages as a "play-back" of some evil thing she did or has within her. Being pregnant if have heard the sayings of the cultures, dont walk this way you will miscarry, dont get upset you will miscarry, dont eat this you will loose your baby, and the tales get wilder as they continue. What this tells me is that culturally women have been conditioned to believe and accept that it is strictly her fault, and something she can avoid. This ties in with the overwhelming worth that is placed an a woman as an individual by how many children she has. And, Allah forbid, a woman has repetitive miscarriages the cultural views are to blame the women for their evil fault which endued the miscarriage. This would, perhaps, not affect me as it does, if it were not passed off as an Islamicly sound view of miscarriage.
How many of our sisters have been made to feel bad for having a miscarriage. Something they could have possibly avoided by not doing certain daily things that do not cause miscarriage at all. A sister recently had a miscarriage, of course the normal stages of blaming herself, due to our normal feelings as well as mixed cultural thought. I reassured her as best I could that such things happen, that it was not some inherently evil thing from her. I saw the relief on her face when I reassured her, all to have it undone by a well meaning sister in the next room. I however, controlled myself from "flipping out", if you will, and realized I had to rid her of her cultural hang ups as well.
This lead me to find out exactly what our prophet s.a.w said concerning miscarriage, if anything at all. I found the following:
Abu Huraira reported that Allahs Messenger s.a.w said "The miscarried fetus that I send before me is dearer to me than a rider whom I leave behind." <Ibn Majah>
Muadh b. Jabal reported on the authority of Allahs Messenger s.a.w who said "By him in whose Hand is my life, the miscarried fetus will drag his mother towards the paradise, with his navel string if she had shown the patience for the sake of reward from Allah."
Miscarriage is very devastating to a woman, and should be treated with delicacy. As a sister to another it is best for us to give a shoulder to the sister, reassure her, educate her in what can cause miscarriage, and pray to Allah to give her strength. If you have gone through miscarriages and want to find out what went wrong, talk with your doctors and inshallah a cause can be found. And remember Allah does not put a burden on a soul that it can not bear. Pray to Allah for strength, and be patient.
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A Danish scientist captured a stunning shot of a sled dog team traveling over melting sea ice in North West Greenland to retrieve meteorological instruments before they sank into the sea.
@SteffenMalskaer got the difficult task of retrieving our oceanographic moorings and weather station on sea ice in North West Greenland this year. Rapid melt and sea ice with low permeability and few cracks leaves the melt water on top. pic.twitter.com/ytlBDTrVeD— Rasmus Tonboe (@RasmusTonboe) June 14, 2019
The sea ice melt started earlier than expected this year in April, instead of the normal time frame of June through August.
Climate scientist Zack Labe told USA Today the Arctic is experiencing above average temperatures this year and that they were 40 degrees above average last week in Greenland.
Researcher Rasmus Tonboe with the Danish Meteorological Institute said the phenomenon that makes it look like the dogs are walking on water has to do with the unusually warm weather.
“Rapid melt and sea ice with low permeability and few cracks leaves the melt water on top,” Tonboe said in a social media post.
The ice under the water was still stable at the time of the photo.
This year’s sea ice melt started April 30, the second earliest melt ever since record-keeping started in 1980.
© 2019 Cox Media Group. | <urn:uuid:69a6fe5a-a837-4e64-a6de-2517aa07be60> | {
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In 1751 Smith was appointed professor at Glasgow University. His first important work was The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), a study of the origin of morality in sentiment. The work was indebted to An Enquiry concerning the Principles of Morals by his friend, David Hume, and highly influential in the development of sentimentalism. As a foundational exploration of individual and social ethics for the late Enlightenment, The Theory of Moral Sentiments had a notable impact on English thinkers after Smith, particularly so in the case of Godwin, whose strong sense of individual duty in his Enquiry concerning Political Justice reveals his influence. Smith's treatment of duty in Part III of his discourse likewise resonates a generation later in the moral nuances and ambiguities of Frankenstein. In the first volume, for instance, we sense its relevance for both the father and son in the Frankenstein family, at once touching Alphonse's devotion to the common weal and Victor's contrasting lack of responsibility for the Creature he brings into being. In the second volume of the novel, Smith's treatise may bear an even greater weight on its conception, as the carefully balanced demarcation of the first two sections of Part II, "Of Merit and Demerit," appears to shadow the Creature's account of his coming to an awareness of himself as a sentient being and subsequently as an outcast and a monster. The very fact that Smith takes up the issue of how society constructs its notions of "deformity" in the first chapter of Part V suggests how relevant is this dispassionate ethical treatise to the deepest concerns of Mary Shelley's novel. | <urn:uuid:1a5e229f-cec6-48f5-bd05-4a96f1322578> | {
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Preparing teachers for use of impact activities: An exploratory study
The iMPaCT project team has developed three modules of activities that use programming on TI-83/84 calculators as a means to engage students to explore foundational concepts in Algebra I. The developers conducted a 3-day summer Professional Development Program (PDP) for teachers to become familiar with the objectives, pedagogy, assessments, and resources of the three modules of iMPaCT activities. I have collected and analyzed various forms of data such as videotapes of workshop sessions, teachers' written work and a pre-post assessment. The purpose of this study is to provide the program coordinators with information about the PDP for planning of future PDPs. In addition, findings from this study about teachers' knowledge of mathematics and computing and opinions about iMPaCT activities will be useful for improving the workshop to address the needs of the teachers.
Mathematics education|Teacher education
Ramirez, Jeremy Lee, "Preparing teachers for use of impact activities: An exploratory study" (2013). ETD Collection for University of Texas, El Paso. AAI1551244. | <urn:uuid:75d80966-af82-4569-80b1-20180278dd9f> | {
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Gardner Public Schools Vision Statement
For the children of Gardner Public Schools to benefit from an exemplary education, the school district must have a clear sense of its goals, the characteristics of its schools, and the contributions of the various stakeholders in the District to transform the goals into reality. The vision statement intends to provide the standards towards which the district should strive to achieve and maintain. These standards serve as both the blueprint for improvement efforts and the benchmarks by which we will evaluate our progress.
An exemplary school district requires effective leaders – leaders who are able to involve staff and community to build a vision that serves as a bridge between the district's present and the future that it desires. In Gardner, the leaders:
- Promote, protect and pursue the district's vision on a daily basis.
- Establish priorities and focus that provide a sense of direction for the district.
- Are committed to continuous improvement and provide the ongoing professional development essential to an improving (district and its schools).
- Facilitate teacher participation in the decision-making process.
- Facilitate positive relationship among community members, parents, students, staff and faculty.
An exemplary school district operates on the premise that a school is only as good as the people who work in it. Therefore, Gardner Public Schools is committed to recruiting and retaining outstanding educators who can advance the district's vision. In Gardner, all staff members:
- Are guided by shared goals and a sense of common purpose.
- Have high expectations for student achievement and accept responsibility to help students meet those expectations.
- Collaborate with one another on a regular basis on curriculum, instruction, individual students and school improvement initiatives.
- Model the importance of life long learning by their commitment to their personal professional growth.
III. Curriculum and Instruction
An exemplary school district provides curriculum that specifies the learning standards that all students are to attain. The district designs its educational programs to enable all students to acquire these outcomes through their Personal Education Plan. In Gardner:
- The learning standards are guided by specific, clearly stated goals for each grade level and course.
- The learning standards are aligned from grade to grade and subject to subject so that teachers understand the relationship of their teaching assignment to the rest of the curriculum.
- The academic progress of each student is closely monitored, and support is provided for those who require additional assistance and/or opportunities.
- Learning strategies and methods recognize individual learning styles, result in students who are actively engaged, and promote independent and cooperative learning.
- Systematic process of analysis, goal setting and implementation are in place to demonstrate the district's commitment to continuous improvement.
IV. School Climate
An exemplary school district ensures that all of its schools provide an orderly, yet inviting, climate that is conducive to learning and protects instructional time. In Gardner:
- Relationships are based upon mutual respect and consideration.
- There is a commitment to provide an emotionally and physically safe, supportive environment.
- School rules are based upon fundamental principles that provide clear guidelines for student behavior.
- The entire staff helps students understand the importance of school rules by consistently enforcing those rules.
- There is a conscious effort to recognize and celebrate the efforts and achievements of students and staff.
V. Community Support
An exemplary school district has created an effective partnership with its community. The district is committed to addressing the needs of the community and establishes effective two-way communication to keep residents informed of district policies and initiatives. The community provides the district with the support that is essential to an improving district. Within the Gardner Public Schools:
- The community has helped develop and has endorsed the district's vision of the schools it strives to provide.
- The community provides the resources – personnel, facilities, materials, equipment and time – that enable Gardner Public Schools to offer exemplary programs.
- The community has access to the schools' resources and facilities.
- Parents play an active role in the education of their children, monitor their children's academic performance and attendance, work with teachers to emphasize the importance of education and model a commitment to lifelong learning.
- Accomplishments of staff and students are communicated to the public regularly.
In the final analysis, the effectiveness of a school district is determined on the basis of the conduct, character and achievement of its students. In Gardner, students:
- Accept responsibility for their learning, decisions and actions.
- Set challenging goals and give their best effort to achieve them.
- Believe in themselves and take pride in their achievements.
- Demonstrate a desire to learn.
- Become actively involved in school activities.
- Conduct themselves in a way that contributes to a safe, orderly, positive school atmosphere and respect and ensure the rights of others.
- Form partnerships with their teachers in working to realize their goals. | <urn:uuid:3ad034e9-336f-4323-9c6e-c9296520f6ec> | {
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MADELEINE BRAND, host:
This is DAY TO DAY. I'm Madeleine Brand.
Researchers in Guatemala have found evidence of a 1,200-year-old massacre in an ancient city called Cancuen that's led to a unique murder investigation. Arthur Demarest is a Vanderbilt University anthropology professor. He led a team that uncovered dozens of skeletons buried in a reservoir in the ruins of the royal palace in Cancuen. Demarest and his co-workers have spent years digging there with the support of the National Geographic Society. They are searching for relics that help explain Maya culture. Two years ago, Demarest even helped to recover an elaborate altar that had been stolen from these ruins. In this National Geographic Radio Expeditions interview, my colleague Alex Chadwick asked Demarest what the research team found in their latest foray into Cancuen.
Professor ARTHUR DEMAREST (Vanderbilt University): When they started excavating it, the archaeologists started hitting bones and then more bones and then more bones. And scattered among the bones were ancient Maya jewelry and costume and spearheads.
ALEX CHADWICK, host:
So you got from this that this was a collection of nobles or the elite and they'd been murdered.
Prof. DEMAREST: That was a possibility we thought. So I then went and got the Forensic Foundation of Guatemala, two of the leaders of which are my ex-students. And these are the guys who go all over the world and started in Guatemala with the genocide, but they worked in Rwanda and Bosnia.
CHADWICK: These are investigators, indeed, who look at these terrible modern massacres, and now they're back being archaeologists looking at this killing that occurred--What?--1,200 years ago.
Prof. DEMAREST: Yeah, but they're not back doing archaeologists; they're doing war crime. They're doing forensics. They're doing cause of death.
CHADWICK: All right. Well, you have these bodies here--I guess you think there are really dozens of them. How do you interpret what happened? What does it mean?
Prof. DEMAREST: It's an absolutely critical historical moment that we've stumbled upon, just a photograph of a critical moment in the collapse of Mayan civilization. We have the specifics of history from the monuments that we recovered from the looters and the ones we found, and it tells us that at 800 AD, this great center of trade, very strategically placed to control all the trade in the western trade route, was attacked and the site was essentially destroyed. And so it's not the cause of the Maya collapse, but it is historically the beginning of the Maya collapse. So in many ways, it's like, you know, historically recording the assassination of the archduke or the sinking of the Lusitania or one of these events that really set off a series of disasters.
CHADWICK: Who were the attackers? Who were these people who came in and captured this city of Cancuen and killed everybody?
Prof. DEMAREST: That's the big mystery. We know how they were killed. We know it was murder and then dismemberment. What we don't know is who did it. And the hieroglyphs, the archaeological evidence, the osteological evidence and soon we're having done now DNA studies, we're hoping from all that to figure out who done it, literally. There are a whole bunch of suspects, but that's, you know, the next phase, the ongoing phase of investigation.
CHADWICK: Who would be a list of suspects?
Prof. DEMAREST: One of the other great Maya city-states down river who maybe did not like having this middleman controlling so much. That also seems likely because of the way that the victims were treated. To the Western eye, it sounds like a kind of brutal, angry killing.
CHADWICK: They were stabbed to death with spears. They...
Prof. DEMAREST: Well, they were killed with spear thrusts. I mean, the forensic team are experts on that, and they've identified the particular wounds.
CHADWICK: And this doesn't sound like a brutal, angry killing to you?
Prof. DEMAREST: What makes it seem like, `Gee, it's brutal,' is that most of the bodies were dismembered, but in fact, that's an indication of ritual treatment. The nobles in the cistern were dismembered, but then all of their treasures, all of the jewelry of jaguar canines and jade and precious things, were thrown in with them. And then some pots were thrown in as offerings.
CHADWICK: Professor Demarest, earlier you mentioned something else before we began recording this interview. These altars that you found earlier--they were taken by these grave robbers and traders in artifacts, people who went to jail. You told me, though, they'd just gotten out of jail and they said they were going to come kill you.
Prof. DEMAREST: A year and a half ago, we put these looters into prison and we hunted them down with some SIC agents, which is Guatemala's FBI. Well, people aren't happy about that when you send them to prison. They're out and they sort of very specifically told a number of people that they were going to kill some of the witnesses, who are Kekchi, but most importantly they were going to kill first me, then one of my right-hand men, Julio Lopez, who's an inspector with the Ministry of Culture here, and then my co-director, Tomas Barrientos. I mean, very specific death threats, and they're coming from all directions.
CHADWICK: Are these people really capable of murder?
Prof. DEMAREST: Oh, Lord, yes.
CHADWICK: You are in Guatemala City in a home that you have, and now there are some Israeli security guards you've hired who come in and they're putting up razor wire and cameras and motion detectors. Why don't you just go back to Vanderbilt?
Prof. DEMAREST: I can't do that. I don't do that. I mean, for one thing, if I--I do exploratory archeology. I've worked in the civil war in El Salvador. Every year I worked in the civil war in Guatemala. My speciality is to go into areas where nobody can work and work, and that's where these discoveries come from. I can't run away every time there's a problem.
But the other thing is I have eight Kekchi Maya witnesses, and they don't have Israeli security. And I have my co-director here, Julio Lopez, and others I have here who are also threatened. And I can't, you know, make the statement that, `Gee, I'm a gringo, so I can run away.' This is--my family's here. You know, we're giving everybody panic buttons. I look at it more as the captain, you know, can't leave the sinking ship. So I don't think we're sinking; I think we're going to be fine. You know, this is what I have to do.
CHADWICK: Arthur Demarest is a professor of anthropology at Vanderbilt University, studying now in Guatemala City, Guatemala.
Professor Demarest, thank you for speaking with us.
Prof. DEMAREST: Thank you very much.
BRAND: To see pictures from Cancuen and hear past reports about Demarest's work, go to our Web site, npr.org.
NPR's DAY TO DAY continues. I'm Madeleine Brand.
NPR transcripts are created on a rush deadline by a contractor for NPR, and accuracy and availability may vary. This text may not be in its final form and may be updated or revised in the future. Please be aware that the authoritative record of NPR's programming is the audio. | <urn:uuid:c119ce22-7568-4494-984c-0c37968c0aee> | {
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Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary
- The translations below need to be checked and inserted above into the appropriate translation tables, removing any numbers. Numbers do not necessarily match those in definitions. See instructions at Help:How to check translations.
humanoid (plural humanoids)
- A being having the appearance or characteristics of a human.
a being having the appearance or characteristics of a human | <urn:uuid:5635b81a-39ca-43fa-a547-1d0c80ab9248> | {
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Student's Guide to Michel Foucault/Life
Michel Foucault was one of the most remarkable and important figures of the 20th century. His life spanned seven decades, during which time he both experienced and exposed the workings of a complex world full of centuries-old contradictions and modern conflicts. It would be worthwhile if, one day, you were to invest in a detailed biography of Foucault; until then, you can read the following, which departs from the typical biographical sketch by specifically examining key aspects of Foucault's life that possibly influenced his thought.
Foucault was born on October 15, 1926 in the town of Poitiers, France. Poitiers is known for its medieval architecture, as seen most visibly in its churches. Of particular note is the Baptistère Saint-Jean, which dates back to the 4th century and is thus the oldest Christian church in France. Foucault's town also featured romantic cafés and beautiful gardens, which added excitement and colour to a country that had been recently devastated by the First World War. It is against this backdrop of old and new, tradition and change, that Foucault spent his earliest years.
Foucault's family was of the professional class, since both his grandfather and his father, Paul, were respected physicians. Foucalt's mother, Anne Malapert, was also the daughter of a physician. She and Paul originally named their son Paul-Michel, thus following the conventional custom of recognizing their child's lineage. Indeed, the young Foucault was encouraged to follow in his father's and grandfathers' distinguished footsteps, but he showed signs of resistance. For instance, his earliest years of schooling were not remarkable, and years of tension with his father might have led him to change his given name simply to Michel.
Conflict and success marked Foucault's adolescent years. World War II brought with it the German occupation of his hometown, and Foucault settled into his studies in Paris at both the Lycée Henri-IV and the prestigious École Normale Supérieure. He chose to study psychology and philosophy, earning a licence in the latter field under the tutelage of Maurice Merleau-Ponty. It was now 1948, and it was both a transformative and troubling time for Michel. Intellectually, he was embracing Communism, but he would reject that leftist world-view within several years. While gaining distinction as a student, his early 20s were subject to erratic behaviour, depression, and even suicide attempts. As he sought treatment for his troubled thoughts, Foucault became even more fascinated with psychology and psychopathology, and he pursued formal training in both fields by the time he turned 26 in 1952.
One could say that Foucault found himself at a crossroads in his life and career. Having acknowledged his own homosexuality at a personal level while establishing his professional reputation as a young, brilliant, and radical intellectual, he was now prepared to launch full-force into the career of ideas and political activism for which he is so celebrated today.
Foucault taught, published, and otherwise connected with the world in many ways. For one, he was a resident or visiting professor at universities in over a dozen countries, including Sweden, Germany, Tunisia, Brazil, Japan, Canada, the United States, and, of course, France. The Collège de France and the University of California at Berkeley were particularly significant posts for him, both in terms of prestige at the former and the opportunity for personal fulfillment at the latter, which offered him access to the vibrant gay subculture of San Fransisco. Foucault wrote nearly a dozen major book-length works, most of which are heavily represented in university syllabi in the humanities and social sciences. This is to say nothing of his other extensive writings and sayings: articles, letters, interviews, and even lecture notes that have gained both critical and popular attention. Last, but not least, was Foucault's bold and frequent involvement in political protest and activism. The student revolts of the late 1960s perhaps stood out most prominently for him, as they did for many of his contemporaries. Indeed, he spent much of the 1970s as a political activist, rallying against the injustices of the Vietnam War and the war in Algeria, among others.
Influence in Brief
An AIDS-related illness ended Foucault's life on June 25, 1984, but his influence continues to breathe life into dozens of political causes and academic disciplines. With regard to AIDS specifically, his long-time partner, Daniel Defert, started AIDES, the very first AIDS-awareness organization in France. More broadly, Foucault's writing has had tremendous repercussions in fields and institutions that are either plagued by ineffectiveness or otherwise negatively affected by the dominance of decades or centuries of conventional systems of thought. His History of Sexuality in particular has provided much of the theoretical foundation for Gay and Lesbian studies in both academia and popular activism. Those in favour of reform in institutions such as hospitals, psychiatric facilities, and jails have also drawn heavily on Foucault's work. Academics in areas such as literature, history, education, and the arts have borrowed Foucault's concepts as critical tools for research and interpretation. While some (mostly non-European) academics have criticized the relative obscurity of his research sources and his hostility to long-established (and thus, for some, well-respected) organizations, it is fair to say that Foucault has sparked a level of discussion and debate that his contemporaries have seldom been able to match. | <urn:uuid:f1a3f9f3-ce5f-4b49-a17b-713c18b24ecd> | {
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by Asaf Goldschmidt and Atsushi Akera
Department of History and Sociology of Science
University of Pennsylvania
|The year 1996 marks the fiftieth anniversary of the ENIAC computer, the first large-scale general-purpose electronic computer. Built at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering, ENIAC is an acronym for "Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer," but its birth lay in World War II as a classified military project known only as Project PX. The ENIAC is important historically, because it laid the foundations for the modern electronic computing industry. More than any other machine, the ENIAC demonstrated that high-speed digital computing was possible using the then-available vacuum tube technology.|
|We attempt in this exhibition to portray a history of the emergence of modern computing as seen through the eyes of one of its two principal inventors, John W. Mauchly (1907-1980), who worked at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering between 1941 and 1946. In focusing on Mauchly, we do not claim that he was the principal or sole inventor of this machine. At the very least, this credit would have to be shared with J. Presper Eckert (1919-1995), who at the time of the ENIAC's inception in 1942 had barely completed his Master's degree. If Mauchly had initially conceived of ENIAC's architecture, it was Eckert who possessed the engineering skills to bring the idea to life. We chose in this exhibit to focus on the career of John Mauchly, partly to reveal the historical complexities of the process of invention that can only be seen through close attention to a single individual. More pragmatically, we chose John Mauchly in order to introduce scholars to the John Mauchly Papers, held by the Department of Special Collections, Van Pelt Library, University of Pennsylvania.|
Recommended texts, currently in print, to learn more about ENIAC and the development of the personal computer:
Paul Freiberger & Michael Swaine. Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000.
Scott McCartney. ENIAC: The Triumphs and Tragedies of the World's First Computer. New York: Walker & Company, 1999.
Table of Contents:
|Early Years||College Years|
|World War II|
and the Legacy
of the ENIAC
Rare Book & Manuscript Homepage | Acknowledgements
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It’s nearly summer here in Northern California, which means summer gardening season! This month I would like to share with you some of my tips for a summer plentiful with fresh fruits and vegetables.
1. Start with rich, organic soil. Providing your roots with good nutrition makes all the difference. Good soil will help you maintain a balance of water absorption and airflow.
2. Track the sun. Determine which areas of your garden get the most direct sun and which areas are more shaded. Plants like tomatoes and corn prefer direct sun and other plants like lettuce and other leafy vegetables prefer more shaded areas.
3. Use a seed chart to track your progress. This seed chart is a great way to remember when it’s time to start indoors, plant into the ground and when to expect mature plants. For short crops, have a plan for what to plant next. I have a section of my garden for quick vegetables like lettuce, spinach, cilantro and beets.
4. Grow plants that compliment each other. Plant marigolds near your tomatoes. Marigolds are a natural tomato worm repellent. They also protect your garden from white flies and squash bugs. Click on the image below for more garden ecosystem tips.
5. Stay eco-friendly by recycling and reusing your containers from year to year. | <urn:uuid:d79917a2-2b9e-46a3-8dc9-51dcf9932528> | {
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Home > Health & Wellness > Health Library > Medicines During Pregnancy
Doctors usually tell women to avoid medicines during pregnancy, if
possible, especially during the first 3 months. That is when a baby's organs
form. But sometimes you have to take medicine to treat a health problem, such
high blood pressure or
Before prescribing any medicine, your doctor or nurse-midwife will
look at whether the risk of taking medicine is higher than the risk of not
treating your illness. If you or your baby would face worse problems without
treatment, then your doctor or nurse-midwife will prescribe medicine or
over-the-counter one. He or she will also look at
which medicine to give you. For example, some
antibiotics are safe for pregnant women, and some are
It can be hard to know if a medicine is safe for your baby. Most
medicines are not studied in pregnant women, because researchers worry about
how the medicines might affect the baby. But some medicines have been taken for
so long by so many women that doctors have a good idea of how safe they
In general, doctors say it is usually safe to take:
If you are planning a pregnancy, talk to your doctor or
nurse-midwife about any medicines you are taking, including over-the-counter
ones. Some of them may be safe during pregnancy. But others may not be safe.
Your doctor or nurse-midwife may have you stop taking a medicine or may switch
you to another one. Some medicines that aren't safe in the first trimester may
be safe to use later in the pregnancy.
Some medicines are known to increase the chance of birth defects
or other problems. But sometimes, stopping a medicine (such as one that
controls seizures) has greater risk to the mother and the baby than continuing
to take the medicine. Talk to your doctor about any medicines you take if you
are thinking about having a baby or if you are pregnant.
Among the medicines that increase the chances of birth defects
Talk to your doctor or nurse-midwife about any herbal supplements
that you have been taking. Don't take any vitamins or herbal or other supplements
unless you talk with your doctor or nurse-midwife first.
Women who are trying to get pregnant and those who are pregnant
should take a multivitamin that has folic acid. Folic acid is especially important prior to and in the
first few weeks of pregnancy, because it prevents some birth defects. You can
get folic acid in an over-the-counter multivitamin or in a multivitamin that
your doctor or nurse-midwife prescribes. Talk to your doctor or nurse-midwife
about which type of vitamin you should take. In some cases, doctors and
nurse-midwives prescribe extra iron or extra folic acid.
Other Works Consulted
Cunningham FG, et al. (2010). Teratology and medications that affect the fetus. In Williams Obstetrics, 23rd ed., pp. 312–333. New York: McGraw-Hill.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2015). FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA has reviewed possible risks of pain medicine use during pregnancy. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm429117.htm. Accessed March 24, 2015.
Yankowitz J (2008). Drugs in pregnancy. In RS Gibbs et al., eds., Danforth's Obstetrics and Gynecology, 10th ed., pp. 122–151. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
ByHealthwise StaffPrimary Medical ReviewerSarah Marshall, MD - Family MedicineKathleen Romito, MD - Family MedicineSpecialist Medical ReviewerKirtly Jones, MD - Obstetrics and Gynecology
Current as ofMay 22, 2015
Current as of:
May 22, 2015
Sarah Marshall, MD - Family Medicine & Kathleen Romito, MD - Family Medicine & Kirtly Jones, MD - Obstetrics and Gynecology
To learn more about Healthwise, visit Healthwise.org.
© 1995-2015 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.
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1111 Duff Avenue Ames, Iowa 50010
515-239-2011 Email us
Anywhere in Iowa 800-524-6877 | <urn:uuid:45af1156-e83b-46e3-b45c-ec24bf7d3862> | {
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Submarine Groundwater Discharge
Submarine groundwater discharge (SGD), i.e. any subsurface flow of water out across the shoreline is now recognized as a significant source of material input to the ocean influencing the coastal environment and the ocean’s chemical budget.
There are mainly three types of SGD (Fig. 1): a) freshwater discharge b) discharge associated with recirculation of seawater; and c) a mixture of both (a) and b)). Our knowledge on SGD is very limited.
|Fig. 1 Schematic description of SGD showing the flow of freshwater and recirculated seawater to the sea; because SGD has high dissolved solid content it effects the coastal environment.|
Estimates on the fluxes of SGD to the ocean vary considerably between 6 % of the river water flux on a global base and up to 80-160% of the river flux if only the Atlantic Ocean is considered. It’s not the volume which makes SGD important source but the relatively high dissolved matter content (e. g. nutrients, heavy metals, organic pollutants), thus even a small SGD flux may have considerable effects on the coastal environment. For instance, outbreaks of harmful algae blooms have been attributed to the nutrient supply associated with SGD. On the other hand, freshwater submarine groundwater discharges may be an important freshwater source for area where freshwater resources are scarce like e.g. islands and arid regions.
Nuclear techniques play a key role in the detection and quantification of SGD because these waters are tagged with the several isotopes (e.g. 222Rn, 223Ra, 224R, 228Ra, 226Ra, d18O, d2H). In a joint UNESCO-IAEA Coordinated Research Project different methods for investigating SGD have been compared and investigated (see IAEA-TECDOC-1595 “Nuclear and isotopic techniques for the characterization of submarine groundwater discharge in coastal zones”). As one result nuclear techniques are now well established in SGD studies. MEL further assists Member States by producing reference material for short-lived radium isotopes and conducting proficiency test radium isotopes. Future MEL activities will concentrate on the ecological consequences of SGD for the coastal environment. | <urn:uuid:4bd52ba6-93db-43ce-84e5-b2b1bea1351c> | {
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You have just installed an all clean and shiny stainless steel water system. You start up your process, confident that your contamination problems are over. But, after a few months, a water sample has a red, gelatinous substance in the sample flask. You open the system and the tank has a reddish deposit all over the inside. You open a pump and the impeller is red, the volute is red and the discharge is red. You look in the heat exchanger and see more red. The spray balls have red streaks around the orifices. What went wrong? Why is good stainless turning red? (reference 43)
|Rouging of stainless steel is the result of the formation of iron oxide, hydroxide or carbonate either from external sources or from destruction of the passive layer. Color variation is a result of the oxide/hydroxide/carbonate type and variations in the water of hydration associated with the corrosion products. These colors range from orange to red to black. |
Bright red streaks on the surface of stainless steel usually are the result of iron contamination from dragging carbon steel over the surface, from welding carbon steel to the stainless steel, from iron contaminated grinding wheels or steel wire brushes.
In untreated water the discoloration may be the result of oxidation of ferrous bicarbonate in the water forming a brownish red deposit. This oxidation may be from added chlorine or dissolved oxygen.
In high purity water systems the rouge may be of three types: Class I Rouge originating from external sources, usually by erosion or cavitation of pump surfaces. Class II Rouge originating from chloride induced corrosion of the stainless steel surfaces. Class III Rouge, either blue or black, found in high temperature steam systems.
Rouging can take place in pure water, ultra-pure water, steam, treated potable water or untreated process water. To date, five mechanisms have been identified:
Dragging stainless steel over carbon steel will smear iron onto the surface that will rust when placed in service. Welding temporary carbon steel braces to stainless steel, then grinding off the welds results in a low chromium area that will rust in service. Using carbon steel wire brushes or grinding wheels contaminated with carbon steel will result in rust. The mechanism for the red rust formation is simple:
Iron + Water = Rust
The best prevention of rust formation is common sense:
Rust can cause crevice corrosion or pitting of the stainless steel under the red oxide, therefore it must be removed. This is why passivation is necessary, not only to increase the chromium to iron ratio on the surface, but also to remove any iron contamination.
Both treated and untreated waters can rouge, even softened water. The culprit is what is in the water, primarily ferrous bicarbonate. Softening does not remove anions like carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfates, chlorides, etc., but only exchanges the cations like calcium and magnesium with sodium or potassium. Unlike ferric carbonate, ferrous bicarbonate is completely soluble, but is easily oxidized to ferric carbonate. Ferric carbonate is insoluble and reddish brown in color. It can be dissolved in strong acids.
Treated or potable (drinking) water normally is clarified to remove suspended solids, filtered to remove fines and disinfected with chlorine or chlorine dioxide to destroy most bacteria. This process has little or no effect on the bicarbonate ion as long as it is in equilibrium with the carbon steel piping and the oxygen content is low. Once the water is in an inert environment, like stainless steel or porcelain, the bicarbonate begins to oxidize:
2Fe(HCO3)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 +Cl2 --> 2Fe(OH)3 + CaCl2 + 6CO2
2Fe(OH)3 --> Fe2O3 .H2O + 2H2O
Ferric oxide, Fe2O3 .H2O, is red and when it occurs in nature it is called hematite. In untreated water the chemical reaction is similar, except no chlorine is present and oxygen, dissolved in the water, is the active agent:
6Fe(HCO3)2 + O2 --> 2Fe2(CO3)3 + 2Fe(OH)2 + 4H2O + 6CO2
4Fe(OH)2 + O2--> 2Fe2O3 .H2O + 2H2O
Ferric carbonate will precipitate and the ferrous hydroxide forms a gelatinous compound that precipitates as ferric oxide. There is a slight difference in color because the ferrous hydroxide is yellow. In large tanks the reddest deposits are usually at the top and decrease toward the bottom. It is not unusual for the bottom of a large tank to be relatively clean.
Pure water and high purity water are typically used in industries where impurities can have a detrimental effect, such as pharmaceutical or semiconductor manufacturing. In the pharmaceutical industry it is called water for injection (WFI). Typical treatments include filtration, softening, anion and cation ion exchange, reverse osmosis, ultraviolet and occasionally ozonation. Distillation may be used as final purification. The result is water with extremely low conductivity.
Type 316L stainless steel is the usual material of construction. Some of these systems remain clean, but others begin to rouge. Even electropolished systems with an average surface roughness less than 10 microinches (<10 m-in Ra) can rouge. In the presence of hot high purity steam these systems turn black, sometime glossy black, sometimes powdery black.
Sections of rouged stainless steel piping were obtained from a number of different pure water and steam systems. The rouge layers were examined using X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The SEM allows visual examination of the surface, EDS allows spot analyses of surface anomalies, and XPS allows layer-by-layer analyses of the rouge deposits and identification of the molecular species. Comprehensive reports of the findings are given elsewhere 1,2. This work allowed rouge in pure and high purity water and steam to be classified as Class I, Class II and Class III rouge depending on the mechanism of formation.
Class I rouge comes from an external source. Rouge particles are deposited on stainless steel surfaces, and in the early stages of deposition can be easily wiped clean. Surface composition of the stainless steel passive layer under the rouge is unchanged from that of the originally installed system. The rouge particles usually have the same composition as the material from which the particles came, certainly not that of corroding stainless steel. Rouge concentration is heaviest near the source and decreases with distance from the source. Color of the rouge may change with distance from the source, being orange to red-orange near the source and changing to magenta some distance away. The color comes from the presence of the various iron oxides and hydroxides. The orange oxide is the lowest valence state for iron hydroxide and forms when both oxygen and water are present:
2Fe0 + 2H2O --> 2FeO(OH) + H2
2FeO(OH) --> Fe2O3.H2O
External rouge can come from a number of sources. The most obvious is carbon steel in the system including tie rods, bolts, nuts, wrenches, staples, etc. The larger the source the more rouging that will occur.
Pumps are prime suspects in an otherwise clean system. Two mechanisms appear to be the cause of pump induced rouging: cavitation and erosion because of impeller velocity. Cavitation usually results from inadequate water supply to the pump, improper pump selection, operation or excessive throttling during operation. Bubbles impact on a pump surface and implode, resulting in a shock wave that removes a small particle of stainless steel. Once the particle is free in the water stream it eventually is attached to the stainless steel piping by electrostatic attraction. Because the particle surface is not passivated, it immediately begins to oxidize and turn red.
Erosion of the impeller is another possible mechanism. Every material has a critical velocity above which erosion accelerates3. For low alloy austenitic stainless steels this critical velocity appears to be around 100 fps. Erosion rate will vary with temperature. Type 304 Stainless Steel appears to have a constant erosion rate up to 600° F (300° C) then increases rapidly. Specific data in high purity water for the different alloys are not available.
The metallurgical condition of the impeller seems to have an influence on the rate of metal removal. When the austenitic family of stainless steel solidifies from the melt two metallurgical phases are present, austenite and delta ferrite. Delta ferrite formation is dependent on the composition of the alloy and if it is less than 8% it can be dissolved by heat treatment. Cast impellers generally have high delta ferrite because of higher silicon added to promote fluidity of the steel during casting. This means heat treatment may not dissolve all the delta ferrite. The reason delta ferrite is a problem is because it erodes more easily than the austenite and is higher in iron. An eroded surface of a cast impeller is illustrated in Figure 3 and rouged pump parts are illustrated in Figure 4.
This class of rouge occurs when chlorides or other halides are present. It is corrosion driven and forms on the surface of the stainless steel at the place where the passive layer is breached. Figure 5 illustrates this type of rouge which is integral with the surface. It appears more often on unpassivated and mechanically polished surfaces and may display tubercles. The stainless steel under these tubercles will be very shiny and may be pitted. When material from this rouge is analyzed, chlorides or other halides usually are present. The rouge cannot be removed by mechanically except by grinding or polishing, but most often using an acid solution. Citric acid is a good cleaning agent and will repassivate the stainless steel, but if chlorides are present the surface will rouge again.
Class II Rouge forms in a two stage reaction, the first is the dissolution of the chromium oxide passive layer, the second the oxidation of the iron in the substrate:
Cr2O3 + 6Cl- + 6H2O --> 2CrCl3(aq) + 6OH-
2Fe + 4H2O --> 2FeO(OH) + 3H2
This reaction is self-perpetuating by the chloride reacting with the chromium to form hypochlorous acid as a byproduct, and the hypochlorous acid oxidizing the iron and forming more chloride.
Increasing the molybdenum content of the stainless steel increases the resistance to chloride attack. Likewise, replacing the iron in stainless steel with nickel improves the corrosion resistance. This is the progression of alloys with increasing resistance to chloride attack: Type 304L (least), Type 316L, Type 317L, Type 317LM, Alloy 625, Alloys C-276 and C 22 (highest). Whenever a stainless steel system comes in contact with an acid chloride there is a potential for rouging. A pH > 7 solution will have less potential for rouging than pH < 7. Even momentary exposure to an acid chloride solution may set the stage for this type rouging reaction especially if the stainless steel surface is rough. Mechanically polished surfaces are worse than electropolished surfaces because of the microscopic crevices resulting from smeared metal from the polishing operation. Electropolishing removes these microscopic crevices and produces a passive layer with a higher Cr: Fe ratio. The crevices create concentration cells where the acid chloride solutions may be retained and continue to react, even if the system is given a high pH rinse. Use of a strong surfactant in the rinse will aid in removing the chloride.
This rouge is black, not red, and forms in the presence of high temperature steam. When it first forms it is blue, then turns black as it grows to a limiting thickness that prevents further diffusion of oxygen. It may be found in high purity steam systems that operate at elevated temperatures. On electropolished stainless steel the appearance is glossy black, and on unpassivated mechanically polished surfaces it may be powdery black. Figure 6 illustrates this class of rouge on an electropolished surface forming octahedral crystals that completely cover the surface. Analysis, using XPS, shows this film is iron sesquioxide, commonly called magnetite. It cannot be removed by simple cleaning but must be removed chemically or by grinding. If the rouge is glossy black, then it may be left alone as it is quite stable. The powdery black film may slough-off and may need cleaning. After chemically cleaning, usually with hot oxalic acid, the surface must be chemically passivated. Once the system is back in service it will turn black once again, but hopefully not forming the powdery black film.
This type of rouge is the high temperature reaction product of steam with the iron in the stainless steel forming magnetite. The reaction appears to take place in two steps:
3Fe0 + H2O --> FeO + Fe2O3 + H2
FeO + Fe2O3 --> Fe3O4
Some of the iron oxide may be replaced with nickel oxide, but the iron sesquioxide will control the color of the film.
Stainless Steel Information Center (Internet reference 54)
Consult the Nickel Development Institute (NI) Knowledge Base
Consult MatWeb, an excellent source of Materials Information
See also: Aluminum, Aluminum alloys, Brass, Bronze, Cadmium, Chromium, Cobalt, Copper, Gold, Iron, Lead, Magnesium, Molybdenum, Nickel, Nickel alloys, Silver, Stainless steels, Steel, Tantalum, Tin, Titanium, Zinc, Weathering steel | <urn:uuid:d24809b6-57a5-4bda-aae0-5529b8a2833e> | {
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You hear the term “nanotechnology,” and what do you think of? Sci-fi, maybe robots, something along those lines? In reality, nanotechnology is making life better for everyone. At its heart, nanotechnology is the science of working with matter on an atomic and molecular scale. The hope is that scientists can use nanotechnology to produce new materials and products that boast a wide range of purposes.
The practical side of nanotechnology
As an illustration, Science Daily ran a feature story about scientists creating a way to use nanotechnology to lessen the level of friction in car engines and machines. If this technology becomes widespread, it can help extend the lives of machines and engines and enable them to operate more effectively. According to the Science Daily story, a team of scientists created tiny polymer particles which were dispersed in automobile engine base oils. When tested under conditions that simulated those present in car engines, these tiny particles were found to have an amazing capability to reduce friction.
More efficient motors
Even when distributed at low concentrations they decreased friction considerably, even more so then the friction additives currently being used in many industries today. How much more do they lessen friction? By about 55 percent more! Nanotechnology is a growing industry so expect more findings like this. In fact it is growing so fast that the United States recently launched a national strategy to be sure that environmental, health, and safety research requirements are addressed in the field.
The emerging world of nanotechnology
If you feel, then, that nanotechnology is only good for Hollywood special effects blockbusters; just take a close look at your car’s engine. One day, nanotechnology could leave you with an engine that consumes less gas. That, obviously, can give you a fatter wallet, and you’ll be able to thank nanotechnology for this. | <urn:uuid:9fa40bf4-0675-4854-bcca-0806630c469b> | {
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Cohen examines the struggle leading to the creation of the state of Israel, placing British evacuation of Palestine in the context of Britain's postwar weakness. The author describes the policies and character of each of the major actors in his story--Bevin. Truman. Ben-Gurion, and the Mufti of Jerusalem.
Originally published in 1982.
The Princeton Legacy Library uses the latest print-on-demand technology to again make available previously out-of-print books from the distinguished backlist of Princeton University Press. These paperback editions preserve the original texts of these important books while presenting them in durable paperback editions. The goal of the Princeton Legacy Library is to vastly increase access to the rich scholarly heritage found in the thousands of books published by Princeton University Press since its founding in 1905. | <urn:uuid:23cbb788-0977-4147-9a70-37d7fd9faa16> | {
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Austin is the capital of Texas and the seat of Travis County. Located in Central Texas and the American Southwest, it is the 11th-largest city in the United States of America and the fourth-largest city in state of Texas. It was the third-fastest-growing large city in the nation from 2000 to 2006. Austin is also the second largest state capital in the United States. Austin has a population of 842,592 (2012 estimate). The city is the cultural and economic center of the five-county Austin–Round Rock metropolitan area, which had an estimated population 1,834,303 (2012 U.S. Census).
In the 1830s, pioneers began to settle the area in central Austin along the Colorado River. After Republic of Texas Vice President Mirabeau B. Lamar visited the area during a buffalo-hunting expedition between 1837 and 1838, he proposed that the republic's capital then located in Houston, Texas, be relocated to the area situated on the north bank of the Colorado River near the present-day Congress Avenue Bridge. In 1839, the site was officially chosen as the republic's new capital (the republic's seventh and final location) and was incorporated under the name Waterloo. Shortly thereafter, the name was changed to Austin in honor of Stephen F. Austin, the "Father of Texas" and the republic's first secretary of state. | <urn:uuid:8a2e13b4-725f-4a55-9191-8f501c3dad49> | {
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|This medal was awarded to all members of the armed forces, 1914-18, in recognition of their ardous services in bringing the war to a successful conclusion.
Battle of the Somme (July-November 1916) was fought between British and German forces in Northern France. On 24th June 1916 the British started a massive bambardment. British troops advanced from their trenches with the loss of 60,000 men, 19,000 of them dead. The Battle of the Somme ended on 18th November with the allies having gained only a few kilometres.
This reproduction British War Medal is made from lead-free pewter. It is supplied on a blue, black, white and gold ribbon attached to a card with an image of British troops ready to charge ‘over the top’ on the front and historical information on the reverse.
9 in stock | <urn:uuid:4086d093-d2d5-47e5-9af8-8ae3f1137a69> | {
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Frozen vegies contain more nutrients that fresh
Frozen vegetables can often contain more nutrients than fresh vegetables, a report has claimed. Up to 45 per cent of important nutrients are lost in fresh vegetable by the time they are consumed.
It can take up to two weeks for fresh produce to reach the table from being picked although the survey found that 80 per cent of shoppers thought the fresh vegetables in supermarkets were less than four days old.
Produce which is frozen soon after being picked with have more nutrients sealed in, scientists from the Institute of Food Research claimed.
Meanwhile after 16 days green beans have lost 45 per cent of nutrients, broccoli and cauliflower 25 per cent, garden peas up to 15 per cent and carrots 10 per cent.
The research was carried out by the Institute on behalf of Birds Eye the frozen food manufacturer.
Nutritionist Dr Sarah Schenker said: “The nutritional content of fresh vegetables begins to deteriorate from the minute they are picked. This means that by the time they end up on our plate, although we may think we’re reaping the vegetable’s full nutritionalb enefits, this is often not the case.” | <urn:uuid:4b4a0a72-4dc1-4d50-acd0-3ce3ea23b402> | {
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British Silver Coins
First introduced by Great Britain in 1997 the proof Britannia was struck with 95.8 percent purse silver and is one of the worlds heaviest silver coins. The British Royal Mint strike just 100,000 of these coins each year.
The name comes from he days of the Roman Empire when the Emperor Claudius, who had the title Britannicus, decided to inscribe his coins with, “De Britannis”. And so England was named Britain and the word Britannia has been association with Great Britain and the coins.
Acquiring a brilliant Uncirculated 2 pound silver bullion Britannia contains one full ounce of solid fine silver. This coin is a ‘must have” for collectors of the larger silver coins. Many will collect each year from 1997 onwards.
The 2006 edition of this coin is now available and will continue to attract keen interests from collectors world wide. The 2006 coin is issued in the same original design being 95.8 percent pure fine silver and with the usual 100,000 limited issue is sure to be snapped up by collectors and dealers alike.
Since 1582 all British silver coins have been made up of 925 parts of fine silver and 75 parts of copper. This gave the silver an additional hardness and has been known as Sterling Silver. Although Sterling silver is still used for silver objects in 1920 it was decided that the silver content of coins would be reduced and the British silver coins such as the half a crown, the florin and shilling would be struck as fifty percent silver alloyed with 5fifty percent copper.
From 1921 to 1946 therefore all silver coins were only half silver content. The silver content was further reduced to nothing and all silver coins were made with ‘cupro-nickel’.
Proof coins continued to be made even up to today for sale to collectors and to commemorate special occasions and the silver proof versions of the 1999 and the 2000 millennium crowns were struck in .99 fine silver.
British Silver Coins are considered some of the finest silver around and are always in demand and if you can add some British Silver Coins to your coin collector they will certainly enhance your collection. | <urn:uuid:20fa5fec-4e86-4bec-a426-c0cdb8fcc95d> | {
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Walking along cliffs that were cut by ocean waves or rivers have always made humans wonder how they were formed. The time required to create such majestic towers has created serious debate, both scientific and religious.
Geologic time was very difficult for scientists to "discover." It was not until the mid 18th century that James Hutton, a Scottish geologist, realized that the Earth was many millions of years old. This was an unimaginable idea because people in his day believed the Earth was only a few thousand years old. Hutton tried to develop scientific methods to determine the time required for every day geologic processes and compare with the past. For example he tried to calculate mud accumulating in the ocean today, to figure out how much time had passed since the formation of the Earth. He used the term "uniformitarism" to compare the present day rock cycle with the past rock cycle. From these comparisons you can interpret how rock layers or strata were formed but not the length of time. You can determine which stratum is younger or older, just by the position of the strata.
Since most rocks on the surface of the Earth are sedimentary, early geologists used them to look for answers to the age of the Earth. The birth of stratigraphy has its roots in scientists trying to determine the age of the Earth. They made simple predictions by looking at sedimentary processes going on today. | <urn:uuid:fee34e87-7bec-4c07-8d03-1791056265f6> | {
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ST. MEDARD, one of the most illustrious prelates of the Church of France in the sixth century, was born of a pious and noble family, at Salency, about the year 457. From his childhood he evinced the most tender compassion for the poor. On one occasion he gave his coat to a destitute blind man, and when asked why he had done so, he answered that the misery of a fellow-member in Christ so affected him that he could not help giving him part of his own clothes. Being promoted to the priesthood in the thirty-third year of his age, he became a bright ornament of that sacred order. He preached the word of God with an unction which touched the hearts of the most hardened; and the influence of his example, by which he enforced the precepts which he delivered from the pulpit, seemed irresistible. In 530, Alomer, the thirteenth bishop of that country, dying, St. Medard was unanimously chosen to fill the see, and was consecrated by St. Remigius, who had baptized King Clovis in 496, and was then exceeding old. Our Saint's new dignity did not make him abate anything of his austerities, and, though at that time seventy-two years old, he thought himself obliged to redouble his labors. Though his diocese was very wide, it seemed not to suffice for his zeal, which could not be confined; wherever he saw the opportunity of advancing the honor of God, and of abolishing the remains of idolatry, he overcame all obstacles, and by his zealous labors and miracles the rays of the Gospel dispelled the mists of idolatry throughout the whole extent of his diocese. What rendered this task more difficult and perilous was the savage and fierce disposition of the ancient inhabitants of Flanders, who were the most barbarous of all the nations of the Gauls and Franks. Our Saint, having completed this great work in Flanders, returned to Noyon, where he shortly after fell sick, and soon rested from his labors at an advanced age, in 545. The whole kingdom lamented his death as the loss of their common father and protector. His body was buried in his own cathedral, but the many miracles wrought at his tomb so moved King Clotaire that he translated the precious remains to Soissons.
(Taken from Lives of the Saints, by Alban Butler) | <urn:uuid:059da624-8b69-4ffb-8316-e9f87a9eaa81> | {
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Couples have something to be grateful for technology in this modern times. Family planning has relieved couples from the stress of having themselves in a situation of having so many children without planning to. Up to the 20th century, this has been the case. The only way they could effectively control the rate they had children was through abstinence. Family planning came to the benefit of couples and anybody who is sexually active but not ready to have children yet. Family planning come in many forms, which include sex education, contraceptives, and natural birth control techniques. Family planning has a lot of importance in any couple life. Take a look!
Contraceptives are the most advisable family planning method, especially among the youth. This is because they prevent one from sexually transmitted diseases which may be acquired from having unprotected sex. There are however different forms of contraceptives each having its benefit and disadvantages. However, people react differently, and so the side effects may be there for some people and not for others. On the advantage side, the contraceptives are used in preventing pregnancy, when you are not ready for kids.
The barrier method is used and trusted by many people. This is because they prevent sperms from reaching the uterus. Examples of this barriers include cervical caps, diaphragms, spermicides and both male and female condoms. These barriers work efficiently, but some people use condoms as an additional protection against Transmitted Diseases (STD) and HIV/AIDS. To ensure you are always safe, use condoms as a backup.
These hormones are introduced into the body through vaginal rings, injections, pills, transdermal gel and skin patches. These hormones are used to regulate ovulation and may at times stop ovulation. These hormones react differently in the body; some are used to thicken the cervical mucus while others are used for thinning the uterus wall. But work to achieve the same goal which is to prevent pregnancy.
This is common among married couples. This is advisable among couples who already have kids and don’t need addition population in the family. Sterilisation and vasectomy are done to the couple. Note that this is a long-term contraceptive and also not reversible. They prevent a man from releasing fertile sperms and also prevents the woman from conceiving. Family planning enables couples to raise a family they can manage effectively. Having the right number of children enables the family to upgrade to a good standard. This is by relieving to much burden on the breadwinner of the family Visit https://estrellawomenshealthcenter.com/ for more information. | <urn:uuid:8ad51cb9-a638-43af-bf55-f9ad11b9a048> | {
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How do you hide a building? It sounds like a rhetorical question, but it was the very real dilemma confronting the architects charged with building a new Maritime Museum of Denmark a few years ago. The museum, you see, is located a few hundred yards away from Kronborg Castle—which serves as the setting for Shakespeare's Hamlet and is protected by law.
To avoid disturbing the historical site with an 82,000 square foot museum, Bjarke Ingels Group devised another plan: Build it underground. Helsingor, the municipality where Kronborg and the museum are located, is situated between the Baltic and North Sea—so it’s long been a center for shipping and more importantly, ship-building.
Nearby the castle, an abandoned drydock—where ships were constructed for decades—offered the perfect site for a building that needed to remain incognito.
Construction began in 2008, with the excavation of hundreds of tons of soil surrounding the decommissioned dry dock. Because the architects wanted to preserve the dock itself as a courtyard, they built around it—reinforcing the 60-year-old concrete wall with new supports and series of galleries and exhibition spaces.
Image by seier+seier.
Finally, three pedestrian bridges punctured the drydock itself—creating connections between the ground level and the subterranean museum.
This isn't the first rehabbed drydock in existence—for example, there's a playground built on a former dock along NYC's East River—but it may be the first to use a drydock as part of a new building while preserving it.
It doesn't hurt that it also brings plenty of light and air down into the otherwise windowless exhibition spaces. The finished museum, which opened to the public earlier this month, is an incredibly interesting use of negative space—an “urban abyss,” as Ingels describes it.
As unlikely as it seems, it’s a deft solution to a whole host of design problems: From preserving the castle, to showing off a historic dry dock, to lighting an underground space and creating a public park.
To quote Lord Polonius (sorry): Though this be madness, yet there is method in 't. | <urn:uuid:658f4585-923e-4a98-956e-84e0aa8e5639> | {
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This project involves collecting and presenting network forensics information as an "expert witness" by investigating (simulated) real-world cyber-attack incidents that have affected a multi-million dollar corporation's E-business.
In July 2001, a cyber-attack called "Code-Red" infected more than 350,000 Microsoft IIS servers and brought down several web application infrastructures. In January 2003, another cyber-attack called "Slammer" disrupted services of nearly 75,000 computers. Figures 1 and 2 show the increasing number of cyber-crime incidents that are taking place on the Internet today, which are costing billions of dollars of business-losses. For investigating such cyber-crimes affecting computers in Industry and Government networks, Network Forensic Experts are called upon!
A network forensic expert uses his/her vast knowledge of cyber-attacks, legally justifiable methods and a set of network traffic monitoring tools to collect evidence for legal proceedings of a cyber-crime.
You will conduct a cyber-crime investigation as a network forensic expert. For this, you will use tools such as Wireshark packet capture tool and Snort Intrusion detection/prevention tool in a "Honeynet" that has been built at OSC. A Honeynet shown in Figure 3 is a network that includes computers that need to be protected. It appears to a hacker as a real-system while in fact, it carefully monitors the hacker attacks and collects clues to trace the hacker's location on the Internet. In addition, you will use open-source software such as Mysql database and the Ploticus graphing package.
The general steps of the project are as follows:
1. Study the setup of the OSC Honeynet,
2. Monitor the Honeynet's traffic for (randomly simulated) cyber-attacks,
3. Use the Snort and Wireshark tools to analyze the collected traffic-traces/Mysql-logs and detect the cyber-attacks,
4. Prepare legal evidence (text and graphs) that indicate: (i) times of occurrence and types of cyber-attacks detected, (ii) possible geographical locations of the hackers, and (iii) how these cyber-attacks could have been prevented. | <urn:uuid:1f770468-267e-4376-827c-c97d556e5508> | {
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Exploring Attitude in the Body Part 2- Splitting
The first article of this series began the exploration of holding patterns in our bodies and the attitudes they express. The next article, “The Body’s Learning Cycle” demonstrated how these unexpressed responses to situations in our life become trapped energy in the system, thus creating the muscle patterns that hold the energy and the situation in the body. This is eventually expressed via attitude or personality traits. The next several articles will explore how this process is impacted by a child’s developmental stage at the time of an intrusion.
An infant and that of a 5 year old would react differently to the same situation and the situation, or stimulus, would have a completely different meaning to each of them. Working in the field of body-psychotherapy requires a deep understanding of these differing reaction patterns. As the developmental stages unfold, the shape of the body that we form for ourselves has a particular function that is created through how we perceive and move in the environment around us. Of course it is also true there are many genetic, societal and cultural influences that must also be taken into consideration when looking at the body as well.
But as far as development is concerned the infant may have less coordination, soft bones or tense muscles which are impacted in certain ways by the environment. This process can even begin prenatally. Imagine an infant in a womb where the mother is fully relaxed. She has a healthy diet and limited toxic exposure. I can picture this womb as a warm nurturing place with free flow of blood and fluids from the mother to the placenta and to the fetus. Even though it is not a cognitive experience, the baby is held in this little bubble, floating freely and allowed to grow and move without restraint.
Now imagine a womb where the mother smokes. This constricts the blood vessels and restricts the flow to the fetus. A cup of coffee can do the same thing and also have an effect on the central nervous system. All mothers have times of tension, what does this do the infant? More important is what happens when this tension becomes chronic. This environment will provide less for the child. How do you feel when you imagine these two different scenarios? What happens in your own body? Do you experience a corresponding relaxation or constriction? How do you do this, what do you notice in your own body right now? Let yourself explore what kind of holding pattern and constriction the second environment could create.
Skip ahead to the first days after birth. Let’s say the baby is held close to the mother, skin to skin as they both rest in bed recuperating and enjoying exploring one another. The baby simply opens his mouth, called rooting, and the breast is right there for him. When he struggles with his bodily functions he is held and supported, he is not alone. Touch is an essential need for an infant. It allows him to relax and for the spirit to fully enter into the body. It gives us a sense of our boundaries, where our body ends and another’s begins. It allows for a sense of holding and support that is meaningful on many levels.
Compare this scenario to one where the baby is alone in his own bed. He must work harder to get food and other needs met. What posture does his body take during this effort? What effect does it have on you to imagine this? A baby exposed to ongoing stress is likely to develop inner tension. If I put myself in the compromised situation I feel a deep pulling in in the muscles around my abdomen and solar plexus. My spine and neck are held rigidly and in that posture I feel terror and not a little paranoid. From the cognitive ability that I have (unlike a baby) from that posture I can say that I wonder if I am welcome in this world, I don’t trust and feel safe with my caretaker. A baby with this deep pattern of fear may have stringy underdeveloped muscles. Since they have little muscle control from which to respond to the situation and little cognitive skills with which to rationalize or make sense of the situation, the primary defense mechanism is splitting. A person with this experience may feel that they are always working inside to holding it together.
I don’t want to make too many generalizations about the pattern because it most important that every person find what is true for themselves from their own experience. It is important for each of us to explore what is held or what needs attention in our own body. But for people with this deep early wounding common reactions are to split off from pain (or other sensations) in the body, and to split from emotions, often turning them against oneself in self-hatred. There may be many problems in connecting in relationships and difficulty with anxiety and the ability to self-soothe. And in the extreme a person with this background can have a tendency to split off from reality.
Each of us carries tensions and defenses from more than one stage of life and we all carry this pain of abandonment in our experience so it is sometimes difficult to categorize our responses and make generalizations about what happened to us. But for change to happen it can be very useful to trace the energy holdings and see what need to be nourished or to be released from the past that will challenge our old ways of reacting and perceiving and allow for relaxation, connection and contentment in our lives. Because this particular stage of development is pre-verbal and pre-memory, people with early wounding sometimes are not aware of the situations that led to their deep sense of estrangement and hurt. But there are hints of the experience demonstrated by what happens when the person is in distress. Sometimes the crying can sounds like that of a young infant, it may have a higher tone or a whimper in the sound.
Treatment over time must bring awareness to the patterns, the splits, and work to reconnect one to their feelings and sensations. It may require physical and emotional nurturing and a holding place for one to examine their fears and rage from the past and to develop trust in the other and in oneself.
In understanding and knowing how to respond to this reaction pattern, body-psychology has an advantage in meeting this person and changing the deep physiological responses to developmental stressors. It can be very effective for healing.
by Aylee Welch, LICSW | <urn:uuid:70c2e0d3-9c7c-4fa4-82c3-c271e61fece5> | {
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Amelia Earhart Day is on July 24th and coming up quick! Celebrate the achievements of this great aviator and open up discussions about taking on great challenges with your students when you help them create an awesome plane mobile. Join us below to grab the instructions and fly into history!
Students will use problem-solving skills to balance various planes on the mobile arms. Adding additional pieces of paper to a shape or making the thread longer or shorter combines both engineering and problem-solving. Students will learn about Amelia Earhart and her accomplishments throughout history.
Thread or Fishing Line
Ribbon or Yarn
Handheld Hole Puncher
- Die-cut the plane pieces from multiple colors of cardstock.
- Mix and match colors in order to complete five planes.
- Punch a small hole in the body of each plane and tie a 12” length of thread through the hole for hanging. Kids can experiment with thread placement in order for the plane to hang straight, then mark all of the planes and punch holes in all five planes. To do this requires assembling one plane first.
- Assemble all of the planes and attach a thread to each one for hanging.
- Die-cut the XL spiral from black or white card stock and trim off approximately 15 inches from the end.
- Punch one small hole in the center of the spiral, knot a 12” length of ribbon and poke it through the hole for hanging.
- Punch five small holes along the coil for hanging each of the assembled planes.
- Write some of Amelia Earhart’s major achievements along the coil, leaving space around each hole to allow room for the sticker that will hold each hanging plane.
- Hang each dangling plane along the coil, poking the thread through the hole and fastening it to the spiral with a small sticker. Trim off any excess thread.
Want to learn more about Amelia Earhart? Check out her awesome history here.
What an exciting time in History! What is your favorite day in history to celebrate? Let us know in the comments below and If you create this awesome, plane mobile, we'd love to see it! Make sure to stop by our Facebook, Pinterest or Instagram page and tag your pictures with #ellisonedu so we can see it and reshare! | <urn:uuid:10b35afb-349f-4dfa-a767-2a0cc86b2ca6> | {
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Most Viewed Stories
Farmworkers face special risks and health issues
Thanks to the agricultural workers that toil in the fields, millions of people are fed during the winter. But these farmworkers face different health issues and risks than the general population.
“They do a lot of repetitive work. There are a lot of back injuries,” noted Amanda Aguirre, CEO/president of the Regional Center for Border Health
It might be a challenge to keep their feet dry. “The fields are wet, muddy. If someone is diabetic, it might be a problem,” she said.
The same conditions increase their risk of getting fungus under their nails.
They have to protect themselves from the insecticides applied to the crops.
They are experts at using a knife to cut lettuce and broccoli, but they're still at risk of injuries, especially in cold weather, when fingers might be numb.
Tuberculosis, which spreads easily, is a concern because farmworkers spend a lot of time in small, confined spaces with large groups of people, either living together or traveling to job sites on buses.
Other concerns include sexually transmitted diseases, chronic diseases such as diabetes, lack of preventive care and continuity of care since migrant workers — and their families — move a lot.
“They follow the crops. Today they're here and tomorrow in Salinas,” Aguirre noted.
These migrant farmworkers are the reason the Sunset Community Health Clinic exists. Sunset began receiving federal funding through a Public Health Service grant to the Yuma County Migrant Health Program in 1972, according to the center's website.
Services were provided out of a trailer in Somerton during those early days. Today the center serves 27,000, including 6,000 migrant workers.
Some agricultural groups and major companies provide health insurance for their temporary workers, who might be on their payroll for six months or so.
Some unions, particularly in California, also provide health insurance, thanks to the movement started by Cesar Chavez. This type of insurance extends into Mexico, where farmworkers and their families can access health-care services and have it paid by American insurance.
Aguirre noted that Pan American Underwriters and Western Growers both provide health insurance for farmworkers, often with coverage for services in Mexico.
This is how many farmworkers and their families like it. “Because we're on the border, a lot of workers cross into Mexico for service,” Aguirre pointed out.
The San Luis Clinic, which is run by the Regional Center for Border Health, a private, nonprofit organization, is designated as a rural health care provider. It also sees farmworkers, takes all insurance and has a sliding fee scale.
The clinic will not deny anyone services and will donate medical services should someone not have the means to pay for them.
Some farmworkers might also qualify for the Arizona Health Care Cost Containment System, depending on the individual's work and insurance status. Or if they're temporary workers and they qualify for unemployment benefits during the off season, they might also be enrolled in AHCCCS.
While farmworkers face special health issues, Aguirre believes agricultural companies are paying more attention to worker safety.
“Education and awareness are very important,” she said, noting that the focus must be on keeping families healthy, impressing upon them the importance of good nutrition and giving them access to primary health care services.
“They have a difficult skill, a skill they know very well. It's very unique,” Aguirre added. “Not many people want to do that, so we need to value them as part of our community and make sure to offer them services as well as we can.”
Mara Knaub can be reached at [email protected] or 539-6856. Find her on Facebook at Facebook.com/YSMaraKnaub or on Twitter at @YSMaraKnaub. | <urn:uuid:8e548cfc-e4f6-4318-80ca-f4120469a9cd> | {
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Reviewed by David Eaton
The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind tells the story of William Kamkwamba, a young man in central Malawi who improvises a windmill out of bicycle and other scrap yard parts to produce electricity for his family’s home. Its 28 pages of text, with a few lines at upper-primary level on each page are illustrated with oil paint and cut-paper collages of William’s life at home and in the fields, and of his tinkering and construction of the windmill. These appealing collages are laid out simply and powerfully with rich color and delicate detail.
Two denser text pages appended to the story describe Kamkwamba’s trajectory more fully, from his parents’ farm and Malawi’s famine to his TED conference speech in 2007 and his engineering studies at Dartmouth College. This illustrated book is a children’s version of the bestselling book of the same title, with its associated blogs, promotional tours, and linked development projects. Continue reading.
The Boy who Harnessed the Wind by William Kamkwamba, Bryan Mealer
Illustrator: Elizabeth Zunon
Published by Dial Books for Young Readers on January 2012
Genres: Africa, Biography and Autobiography, Science
Reading Level: Grades 1-2
Review Source: Africa Access
Buy at Powell's Books
Publisher's Synopsis: When fourteen-year-old William Kamkwamba's Malawi village was hit by a drought, everyone's crops began to fail. Without enough money for food, let alone school, William spent his days in the library . . . and figured out how to bring electricity to his village. Persevering against the odds, William built a functioning windmill out of junkyard scraps, and thus became the local hero who harnessed the wind.
Lyrically told and gloriously illustrated, this story will inspire many as it shows how - even in the worst of times - a great idea and a lot of hard work can still rock the world. | <urn:uuid:94ff6c8a-0566-4913-b818-8e2d0dcd08ca> | {
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| FEATURE |
A child may have a bladder control problem if they leak urine (urinary incontinence) by accident and are past the age of toilet training. Daytime urinary incontinence, also called daytime wetting, is broadly defined as involuntary, sporadic leaking of urine throughout the day in children 5 years of age and under. Nighttime urinary incontinence (nocturnal enuresis) is more commonly referred to as bedwetting and happens when a child urinates without control while they are sleeping.
Many children gain control over their bladders between the ages of 2 and 4 years old, although occasional wetting is still common in children between the ages of 4 and 6 years old. By 4 years old, an age when most children can stay dry during the day, daytime wetting can be upsetting and embarrassing. By age 5 or 6, children may have a bedwetting problem if they wet the bed once or twice a week (or more) for a few months.
“Treatments for pediatric incontinence like medications and bedwetting alarm devices aren’t recommended until a child is at least 6 years old,” says Stacy Tanaka, MD, a pediatric urologist at Monroe Carell Jr. Children’s Hospital at Vanderbilt University.
To diagnosis daytime or nighttime wetting, your doctor may ask you to keep track of your child’s bathroom habits in a “bladder diary.” If more information is needed, your doctor may order a blood test, urine test or bladder scan.
Understanding Daytime Wetting
While all the causes of daytime wetting are not known, some explanations do exist. For example, some children’s bladders are not big enough to hold their urine and this can cause daytime wetting. In other children, their bladder is big enough, but has spasms (contractions) that cause urine to leak. Some children get so busy playing with their friends or participating in classroom activities that they forget to “listen” to their bladder telling them that it’s time to go to the bathroom. When they realize that they have to pee, it’s too late. Additional causes of daytime wetting include urinary tract infections, constipation and drinking certain beverages like soda that may irritate the bladder.
If daytime wetting is causing your child anxiety or affecting their social relationships, you may want to talk to your pediatrician about behavioral and/or medication strategies that may be right for your family. Your pediatrician may also ask if your child is experiencing nighttime wetting.
“Daytime and nighttime wetting can be connected, but they are different issues,” says Tanaka. “If a child has bedwetting alone without any daytime incontinence, the treatment is different than for a child who has both daytime and nighttime wetting issues.” She notes that if nighttime and daytime wetting are both occurring, then the daytime incontinence should be addressed first.
About 5 million children in the United States experience bedwetting. Although many children outgrow bedwetting issues, some children take longer than others to do so.
“Bedwetting is very common and no one knows why some kids outgrow bedwetting when they’re 3 years old and others outgrow bedwetting when they’re 20 years old,” said Tanaka.
There are 2 types of bedwetting. “Primary nocturnal enuresis” is when a child over the age of 5 never has a dry night. “Secondary nocturnal enuresis” is when a child has dry nights for at least 6 months, but then starts wetting the bed again.
Common causes of bedwetting include family history (genetics), slow development of bladder control, small bladders, stress and making too much urine while asleep. Bedwetting often occurs in children who are heavy or “deep” sleepers. Deep sleepers generally don’t wake up in time to get to the bathroom once they get the signal from their bladder that they need to urinate.
If your child is having issues with bedwetting, your doctor will also want to know if the child is going to the bathroom more frequently during the day, even if they’re not having accidents. It’s important for your health care team to understand the full scope of urinary issues. Potential strategies may include bedwetting alarms or medications.
It’s also important to know that if a child’s only symptom is bedwetting, rarely is that considered a true medical concern. But it can be a social concern for some children. For example, if you have an 8 year old boy who is wetting the bed, but it’s not affecting his social activities or how he feels about himself, then the bedwetting does not necessarily have to be treated.
Bedwetting Alarm Devices
Bedwetting alarm devices are the most effective treatment for bedwetting, notes Tanaka. With these devices, a sensor is placed in the child’s underwear or pull up. An alarm goes off when the censor gets wet. Of course, by the time the sensor gets wet, it’s too late to get to the bathroom in that moment. Bedwetting alarm devices work by repetition. If the child routinely wakes up when they’re wetting the bed, the bedwetting eventually stops.
One challenge with bedwetting alarm devices is that they can be difficult to use and often involve other people. For example, children who are deep sleepers may need their parents or caregivers to be responsible for waking them up when the alarm goes off. Another challenge with these devices is that families have to be consistent with using them. Bedwetting alarm devices won’t work if they’re only used occasionally.
“Bedwetting alarm devices need to be used every night for about 3 months,” says Tanaka. “And some kids will wet the bed multiple times a night, so you can imagine if mom or dad has to get to work in the morning or there are other kids in the house, this can be difficult.”
Insurance does not typically cover bedwetting alarm devices. The general price range is between $100 and $150. Given the time and cost investment, it’s important for families to seriously consider whether these devices are a good option for their household.
Medications for Bedwetting
Medications may also be appropriate to help with bedwetting. For example, if a child is wetting the bed and they’re scared to go a sleepover or school trips because of it, then that may be a situation when a doctor might consider medications notes Tanaka. On the other hand, if your child doesn’t seem to be concerned or negatively affected by bedwetting, it’s also fine not to use medication.
Parents should know that first line medications for bedwetting like Desmopressin Acetate (DDAVP) don’t work for all kids. You may need to explore other medication options for your child.
General pediatricians are able to manage many wetting issues. But because there are so many things that general pediatricians have to treat, they may refer some patients to a pediatric urologist who has more time to spend with the patient and is more familiar with evidence-based strategies for treating urinary incontinence in children. For example, strategies like restricting liquids close to bedtime or waking a child up in the middle of the night to take them to the bathroom have not been proven to help stop bedwetting.
Remember that urinary incontinence is not your child’s fault. Be patient and never punish your child for accidents. For more information, visit UrologyHealth.org.
For more information about Pediatric Urology, watch our Pediatric Urology video below, or visit youtube.com/urologycarefoundation.
UrologyHealth.org | SUMMER 2019 | UROLOGYHEALTH extra | <urn:uuid:613a395e-9ac1-422d-abea-3b8620dcbcd6> | {
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