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September 26, 1898 - July 11, 1937
George Gershwin was born in Brooklyn, New York. He taught himself to play the piano at a friend's house by following how the keys moved on a player piano. When the Gershwins finally got their own piano, George surprised everyone by sitting down and playing the songs he had learned by himself.
George liked to compose both classical and popular music, and found a unique way to combine the two. He composed his most famous work, Rhapsody in Blue, in 1924, the same year he also had a hit show on Broadway. Gershwin also wrote the opera Porgy and Bess. He is considered one of the greatest American composers.
See other composers from the Modern period | <urn:uuid:d42c7d99-03f5-4276-a845-505ea36d17f1> | {
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Crowns – When teeth have large fillings, are badly broken down or have had root canal therapy they often need full coverage protection with a crown. Crowns can be made with an underlying metal surface and an outer porcelain surface which is known as a porcelain-fused to metal crown.
With current technology, crowns can now be made without any metal and are known as all porcelain crowns. These types of crowns are beneficial in cosmetic areas.
Veneers – Veneers are used for cosmetic purposes on front teeth that are discolored, oddly shaped or fractured. In some instances, they can also be used to close spaces if a patient does not want to undergo orthodontic treatment with braces. A veneer is a thin layer of porcelain that covers only the front portion of a tooth. Opposed to full coverage crowns, veneers require minimal tooth reduction. | <urn:uuid:c2209567-fe35-4972-a3a8-7e49b077248a> | {
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Supposedly solitary pumas actually hang out with their fellow big cats quite often, frequently coming together and hissing and snarling before settling down to share a delicious elk carcass.
That's the startling discovery made by scientists who recently tracked 13 pumas — also called mountain lions or cougars — and set up cameras at kill sites. They recorded dozens of peaceful social interactions between these elusive felines.
Pumas can live for more than a dozen years in the wild and have huge home ranges that can stretch for hundreds of miles. Scientists used to think that they lived lonely lives and only came together to mate or fight over territory.
"There was really no other reason to come together at all," says Mark Elbroch of Panthera. "People just made a lot of assumptions based on very little data, and those assumptions became mythology, even within the science world."
But in the journal Science Advances, he and his colleagues say they had reason to suspect that the social lives of these mighty carnivores might be more complex. New GPS tracking that let scientists watch the movements of these animals in near real-time was revealing inexplicable meetings.
In May of 2012, for example, Elbroch looked at the GPS tracking and saw that a female and her kitten had stopped at a certain location. He noticed that another female with three kittens of her own were moving in that direction. So he and a colleague raced to the spot in the woods and found a dead elk. They pointed cameras at it and later found that the females spent two days together feeding at opposite ends of the same carcass.
"They sort of just sat at either ends of the carcass and weren't particularly friendly to each other. They just sat there and ate. And the kittens would bounce in and feed when they could," says Elbroch. "I can't explain how exciting it was for me to capture, for the first time, an interaction between adult mountain lions. It was just so different than what I expected to happen."
And it turned out to be a common occurrence. When they followed 13 of the big cats from April of 2012 to March of 2015, they learned that every single cat participated in food sharing. "All the mountain lions participated," says Elbroch. "That in itself was shocking. There wasn't a lone mountain lion that didn't interact with anybody."
In winter, the cats seemed to get together with pals over a meal every couple of weeks, in feeding episodes that could last for days.
"We found very clear, very interesting patterns to who shared with who," says Elbroch. The most dominant was direct reciprocity: if a mountain lion shared with another, the recipient would later return the favor.
What's more, the mountain lions generally seemed to organize themselves into a couple of small communities defined by the territories of two dominant males. Cats within these areas socialized more frequently with each other than with outsiders.
All of this, says Elbroch, "completely redefines what we know about mountain lions."
The study found that males, in general, received much more free food than they shared with others. It might be that females got something else in return, such as building a relationship that would provide breeding opportunities or protection from other males that might kill their young.
Given that mountain lions have a complex social system apparently built on reciprocity, Elbroch says this raises the question of whether other "solitary" carnivores do as well.
He also would like to know what effect trophy hunting might have on these social structures. "What happens when a male is removed," he wonders. "Is there social chaos? Is there quick turnover to maintain those social systems and relationships that are in place? We don't know."
RACHEL MARTIN, HOST:
OK. Now a story about the social lives of big cats. Mountain lions, also called pumas or cougars, have always been thought of as loners, but a new study reveals these cats actually have a hidden social life. NPR's Nell Greenfieldboyce reports that they frequently get together with neighbors to share a meal.
NELL GREENFIELDBOYCE, BYLINE: Mountain lions have been studied in North America for decades.
MARK ELBROCH: We have assumed that they're solitary killing machines and they're kind of like robots, they're all the same.
GREENFIELDBOYCE: Mark Elbroch is with a nonprofit called Panthera. He says scientists thought mountain lions came together only rarely.
ELBROCH: They were fighting over territory, or it was about courtship and mating between males and females, and there was really no other reason to come together at all.
GREENFIELDBOYCE: It turns out that's not true. Elbroch spent about three years tracking mountain lions in Wyoming with GPS collars that let him watch their movements in almost real time. When he saw big cat stop for a while, maybe because it had killed an elk, he and his colleagues would rush to the spot and set up motion-activated cameras. What they saw and heard astonished them.
(SOUNDBITE OF MOUNTAIN LIONS GROWLING)
GREENFIELDBOYCE: In this video, two females are facing off at a carcass. They snarl and swipe at each other.
(SOUNDBITE OF MOUNTAIN LIONS GROWLING)
GREENFIELDBOYCE: Then they settle down and peacefully share the meat. The researchers saw this happen over and over again. All the mountain lions shared food with neighbors.
ELBROCH: That in itself was shocking, you know, that there wasn't a lone mountain lion that didn't interact with anybody. They all participated.
GREENFIELDBOYCE: And who did they share with? In the journal Science Advances, the researchers say the lions followed a pattern of direct reciprocity - you give me some food, and later I'll give you some.
ELBROCH: It just highlights the fact that even a species like mountain lions, that we have studied for so long, we know so little about.
GREENFIELDBOYCE: And it makes him wonder about other supposedly solitary species. Nell Greenfieldboyce, NPR News. Transcript provided by NPR, Copyright NPR. | <urn:uuid:8adaa9df-e0e6-4146-8274-8d22f7bc54f2> | {
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The scorching colors of a large volcanic blast can stain sunsets around the world for years after the initial eruption cools down. Droplets of sulfuric acid spewed into the atmosphere scatter away blue light, creating vivid crimson twilights. Inspired by these stunning sunsets, famous artists included the fiery colors in the backgrounds of their paintings, such as the above 1818 piece Woman before the Setting Sun by German artist Caspar David Friedrich. Two years earlier, the ash from an unusually large number of major volcanic eruptions reflected so much sunlight that 1816 became known as the year without a summer. Researchers wondered if similar sunset paintings could double as snapshots of volcano-induced climate change. The team compared the proportion of red and green hues in the skies of hundreds of sunset paintings produced between 1500 and 2000. Regardless of artistic style, paintings created soon after volcanic eruptions had redder skies than those painted during periods of low volcanic activity , the researchers report online today in Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. The researchers say their results agree with other indicators of historic atmospheric pollutant levels, such as ice cores. Because these existing indicators provide limited evidence for short-term trends due to their scarcity, the researchers hope their work provides climate scientists a colorful new spectrum of data to fill in the gaps.
ScienceShot: Famous Paintings Hold Clues to Past Climate | <urn:uuid:08109025-10b5-4711-951f-b53fa0194c5e> | {
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Environmentally friendly solar cell pushes forward the 'next big thing in photovoltaics'
Northwestern University researchers are the first to develop a new solar cell with good efficiency that uses tin instead of lead perovskite as the harvester of light. The low-cost, environmentally friendly solar cell can be made easily using "bench" chemistry -- no fancy equipment or hazardous materials.
"This is a breakthrough in taking the lead out of a very promising type of solar cell, called a perovskite," said Mercouri G. Kanatzidis, an inorganic chemist with expertise in dealing with tin. "Tin is a very viable material, and we have shown the material does work as an efficient solar cell."
Kanatzidis, who led the research, is the Charles E. and Emma H. Morrison Professor of Chemistry in the Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences.
The new solar cell uses a structure called a perovskite but with tin instead of lead as the light-absorbing material. Lead perovskite has achieved 15 percent efficiency, and tin perovskite should be able to match -- and possibly surpass -- that. Perovskite solar cells are being touted as the "next big thing in photovoltaics" and have reenergized the field.
Kanatzidis developed, synthesized and analyzed the material. He then turned to Northwestern collaborator and nanoscientist Robert P. H. Chang to help him engineer a solar cell that worked well.
"Our tin-based perovskite layer acts as an efficient sunlight absorber that is sandwiched between two electric charge transport layers for conducting electricity to the outside world," said Chang, a professor of materials science and engineering at the McCormick School of Engineering and Applied Science.
Details of the lead-free solar cell will be published May 4 by the journal Nature Photonics. Kanatzidis and Chang are the two senior authors of the paper.
Their solid-state tin solar cell has an efficiency of just below 6 percent, which is a very good starting point, Kanatzidis said. Two things make the material special: it can absorb most of the visible light spectrum, and the perovskite salt can be dissolved, and it will reform upon solvent removal without heating.
"Other scientists will see what we have done and improve on our methods," Kanatzidis said. "There is no reason this new material can't reach an efficiency better than 15 percent, which is what the lead perovskite solar cell offers. Tin and lead are in the same group in the periodic table, so we expect similar results."
Perovskite solar cells have only been around -- and only in the lab -- since 2008. In 2012, Kanatzidis and Chang reported the new tin perovskite solar cell with promises of higher efficiency and lower fabrication costs while being environmentally safe.
"Solar energy is free and is the only energy that is sustainable forever," Kanatzidis said. "If we know how to harvest this energy in an efficient way we can raise our standard of living and help preserve the environment."
The solid-state tin solar cell is a sandwich of five layers, with each layer contributing something important. Being inorganic chemists, Kanatzidis and his postdoctoral fellows Feng Hao and Constantinos Stoumpos knew how to handle troublesome tin, specifically methylammonium tin iodide, which oxidizes when in contact with air.
The first layer is electrically conducting glass, which allows sunlight to enter the cell. Titanium dioxide is the next layer, deposited onto the glass. Together the two act as the electric front contact of the solar cell.
Next, the tin perovskite -- the light absorbing layer -- is deposited. This is done in a nitrogen glove box -- the bench chemistry is done in this protected environment to avoid oxidation.
On top of that is the hole transport layer, which is essential to close the electrical circuit and obtain a functional cell. This required Kanatzidis and his colleagues to find the right chemicals so as not to destroy the tin underneath. They determined what the best chemicals were -- a substituted pyridine molecule -- by understanding the reactivity of the perovskite structure. This layer also is deposited in the glove box. The solar cell is then sealed and can be taken out into the air.
A thin layer of gold caps off the solar-cell sandwich. This layer is the back contact electrode of the solar cell. The entire device, with all five layers, is about one to two microns thick.
The researchers then tested the device under simulated full sunlight and recorded a power conversion efficiency of 5.73 percent.
The paper is titled "Lead-free solid-state organic–inorganic halide perovskite solar cells." In addition to Kanatzidis and Chang, other authors of the paper are Hao, Stoumpos and Duyen Hanh Cao, all of Northwestern.
Megan Fellman | Eurek Alert!
New high energy density automotive battery system from Fraunhofer IISB and international partners
25.08.2015 | Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft
New research may enhance display & LED lighting technology
10.08.2015 | University of Illinois College of Engineering
A University of Oklahoma astrophysicist and his Chinese collaborator have found two supermassive black holes in Markarian 231, the nearest quasar to Earth, using observations from NASA's Hubble Space Telescope.
The discovery of two supermassive black holes--one larger one and a second, smaller one--are evidence of a binary black hole and suggests that supermassive...
A team of European researchers have developed a model to simulate the impact of tsunamis generated by earthquakes and applied it to the Eastern Mediterranean. The results show how tsunami waves could hit and inundate coastal areas in southern Italy and Greece. The study is published today (27 August) in Ocean Science, an open access journal of the European Geosciences Union (EGU).
Though not as frequent as in the Pacific and Indian oceans, tsunamis also occur in the Mediterranean, mainly due to earthquakes generated when the African...
In mountainous regions earthquakes often cause strong landslides, which can be exacerbated by heavy rain. However, after an initial increase, the frequency of these mass wasting events, often enormous and dangerous, declines, in fact independently of meteorological events and aftershocks.
These new findings are presented by a German-Franco-Japanese team of geoscientists in the current issue of the journal Geology, under the lead of the GFZ...
Bacteria do not cease to amaze us with their survival strategies. A research team from the University of Basel's Biozentrum has now discovered how bacteria enter a sleep mode using a so-called FIC toxin. In the current issue of “Cell Reports”, the scientists describe the mechanism of action and also explain why their discovery provides new insights into the evolution of pathogens.
For many poisons there are antidotes which neutralize their toxic effect. Toxin-antitoxin systems in bacteria work in a similar manner: As long as a cell...
It comes when called, bringing care utensils with it and recording how they are used: Fraunhofer IPA is developing an intelligent care cart that provides care staff with physical and informational support in their day-to-day work. The scientists at Fraunhofer IPA have now completed a first prototype. In doing so, they are continuing in their efforts to improve working conditions in the care sector and are developing solutions designed to address the challenges of demographic change.
Technical assistance systems can improve the difficult working conditions in residential nursing homes and hospitals by helping the staff in their work and...
20.08.2015 | Event News
20.08.2015 | Event News
19.08.2015 | Event News
28.08.2015 | Physics and Astronomy
28.08.2015 | Health and Medicine
28.08.2015 | Life Sciences | <urn:uuid:68bf55d5-1820-4522-a200-f093b8b39475> | {
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Previously, we have spoken about digital pen technology and how it can assist with managing and maintaining patient records. The Nursing Technology Fund is designed to allow healthcare organisations supported by the NHS to apply for a grant to invest in technology that would directly help improve patient care. Read more about the fund here and here.
The most useful and appropriate way to improve patient care is to efficiently and effectively record and learn from patients experiences. Patient experience should be collected using a methodology that will attain the most engagement from patients as the more data collected the more the data will reliably represent the experience at a particular hospital. Additionally, it is important for data capture to be accurate and results to be reported in a way that produces actionable insights for the hospital.
Patients situated at a hospital will be suffering from a number of ailments and are therefore limited in various ways. It is impossible to implement a single solution as part of a patient experience project that will cater to all patients; invariably hospitals will need to use multiple solutions. ‘Multiple solutions’ does not mean buying everything that is out there as part of a hugely inappropriate and expensive patient experience project, it represents using a selection of the relevant technologies and creating bespoke form designs within them to reach out to all patients.
Tablets are an excellent choice for those patients that are unable to walk. One particular trust employed volunteers to visit a patient’s bedside with a tablet to assist them in completing the surveys. Kiosks also play an important part of a well-rounded solution if appropriately located at specific points in hospitals to cater to patients who are able to walk and can complete a survey upon discharge. Additionally, we cannot forget the benefits of paper, living in a world where people are living longer henceforth a larger population of the elderly who prefer traditional methods.
Design should be bespoke to cater to different patients. It is not as complex as it may sound. The use of different types of images and graphics can alone go towards making it easier for patients to complete surveys. For example, pictures appropriate for kids to help ‘gamify’ the process of completing the form or pictures that help the elderly or those with hearing difficulties understand questions i.e. the use of smiley and sad faces in helping a patient understand the question and the options available to answer the question. The use of videos has a similar effect. Similarly, using other forms of media such as audio and animations can help, for those with sight, reading and understanding difficulties. Additionally, making text size, colour and language bespoke are beneficial for flexibility.
Accuracy and Capture
Once technology and design is completed, the next step involved is the back end of the form design. Validations and business rules are the make-up of the back end design that ensures data collected is accurate. The rules and validations encode fields with certain limitations related to character limits and formats as well as compulsory/optional questions covering simple validations. More complex validations and rules are employable as appropriate.
The subsequent step is to accurately capture the data. The capture of data from online/mobile devices such as tablets and kiosks is relatively straightforward. Whilst a patient is completing an online patient experience form they will be made aware of any breach in validation or business rule and are unable to complete the survey until this has been corrected. Therefore, upon clicking submit, the data on the form is accurate and then sent to the desired destination
On the other hand paper forms enter DCC’s extensive extraction, verification and quality check process to ensure data is accurate, anomalies are eliminated and appropriate changes implemented when notified of a break in validation or business rule. It is after this stage, data is exported to the pre-defined location.
Now that the raw data is present, free from inaccuracies it is vital to analyse and process this data in a way made actionable.
As explained here an interactive dashboard possesses many benefits namely its graphical, bespoke interface, its flexibility with any type of data, compatibility with endless number of systems and analysis capabilities.
However, natural language processing is growing in prominence. Let’s take a look at the Clarabridge engine. The Clarabridge NLP engine rates feedback from free text data on an 11 point negative to positive scale. The Clarabridge NLP engine is able to understand context and identify grammatical modifiers, for example: “the nurse was friendly” will get a rating of +1 “the nurse was really friendly” will increase the rating to +3 as the word “really” amplified the positive sentiment a patient felt towards the nurse. Additionally, the engine can identify different themes from large amounts of free text and give them all a sentiment rating individually and provide an overview. For example, in a hospital a patient may comment on staff, bathroom facilities, food quality, cleanliness and so forth. The engine will give you the sentiment on each of the factors a patient has mentioned and a sentiment on the hospital overall, made up of these individual elements. The advantages of such a mechanism are that it allows a hospital to see exactly where they can implement improvements allowing them to make positive changes.
The image below displays a typical Clarabridge reporting tool; the top left quadrant is a bar chart measuring patient feedback categories (categories mentioned by patients in their feedback) against data volumes (amount of time mentioned), which allow a hospital to understand the most heavily talked about topics. Top right is the word relationship cloud. Rather than forming the word cloud from a count of words, the cloud shows the relationship between words for added accuracy. The colour of the word relationships depicts sentiment, while the size of the word reflects volume. Bottom right quadrant is a double-axis chart, measuring volume of topics mentioned when giving feedback vs sentiment felt towards those topics. Bottom left is a heat map again displaying the main factors mentioned. Colour depicts sentiment and size depicts volume.
© 2013 Clarabridge, Inc.
Contact us today to learn more about text and sentiment analytics and its application and the Nursing Technology Fund. Alternatively, book your free educational knowledge share workshop. (What is a workshop?) | <urn:uuid:c517902d-8984-45e2-843b-8e62dec25a5c> | {
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Roman Children’s Sarcophagi
Why I Taught the Sources
I use images of two Roman marble sarcophagi for topics on children and childhood in undergraduate courses on ancient society, family, gender, representations, and historiography. The sarcophagi can be used to study one period of antiquity or to examine changing notions of childhood over time.
My aim in using the sarcophagi is to increase students' awareness of the rich variety of accessible material sources about Roman society—especially archaeological resources such as art, architecture, inscriptions, and topography—that can supplement traditional literary sources. A careful analysis of images from an unfamiliar society can help students already exposed to visual material in their daily lives become more discriminating in their interpretations.
Students' present-day interest in children and childhood—in daily life and in academic studies—is a good basis on which to build. But there is a danger of applying our own modern, Western attitudes and values to other societies. Studying artifacts and texts from a different society raises questions of cultural differences. One basic question is whether childhood in pre-modern societies was recognized as a separate stage of life and children were valued; this has been debated since Ariès' book of 1962. 1 Roman society of the first two or three centuries (CE) provides material to help students to enter this debate and make their own assessments.
How I Introduce the Sources
After providing a chronological background and introducing issues such as class and status, gender, urban context, and political structure earlier in the semester, I assign: Ariès, Centuries of Childhood, at least the Introduction; and Letter 4.2 of The Letters of Pliny the Younger. My aim is provide students with the evidence to challenge Ariès' claim about the "ignorance of childhood" in pre-modern ages that relied on a small range of literary sources.
In order to do so, I provide an introductory lecture on the history of childhood studies and on available sources (including the nature of the material as well as the hazards of surviving literary, legal, archaeological sources). 2 I also provide images of materials such as epitaphs, sculptures, and wall paintings related to children and Rome to stimulate thinking about the range of representations available. Students then divide into smaller groups of 10 to 15 to examine primary sources.
Reading the Sources
In these smaller groups, we analyze Pliny's apparently unsympathetic comments on the death of Regulus' son in the context of upper-class Roman male expectations of fatherhood, emotions, and Pliny's deep hostility to Regulus. Pliny's letter also shows the independent wealth of a mother and the possibility of a young male coming into independent wealth, either by the death of his father or by the legal technicality of being freed ("sold") from the power (patria potestas) of his father. 3
The comparatively large quantity of funerary commemoration of prematurely-dead children helps put Regulus' grief into perspective. Regulus' son had survived early childhood, so his death, in his early teens, was the more tragic.
I also project images of various funerary items, including the two sarcophagi, on a screen. These raise the question of parental grief and grieving in a society of high mortality, challenging the claim sometimes made of indifference to children's deaths in societies with high rates of infant mortality. Each of the sarcophagi depicts a sequence of life-stages, and each can be dated to the first half of the 2nd century CE. 4
By contrast with simple epitaphs, these are quite expensive artifacts. On the first sarcophagus, the boy's name, M. Cornelius Statius (in the dedicatory form 'M. CORNELIO M. F. PAL. STATIO'), indicates that he is a freeborn Roman citizen.
The epitaph has been dedicated by the boy's parents ('PARENTES'). The family's dress and attributes, and the quality of the artifact, suggest a well-to-do family. The scenes depict the newborn infant, the child at play, and the child with teacher. The mother appears to be breast-feeding which raises the question about whether this was normal (in a society of wet-nurses) or whether the scene was idealized.
The father's role in the nursing scene and in holding the infant often surprises the students. In well-to-do citizen families, with a household of slave retainers, the stereotype is of more distant relationships and limited contact between parents and children in the early rearing years. (Compare, for example, stereotypes of 19th century upper-class English families.)
The scroll in the boy's hand as he recites his lesson to a teacher raises questions about many aspects of education, such as the availability of "books," importance of oral performance and memory, and existence of schools and private tutors. It also sparks discussion of children's modes of play, their engagement with animals (helping put young Regulus' pets in context), and children's place in the family.
The second sarcophagus also depicts an infant (in the arms of one of the parents in the carriage ride on the right-hand side of the stone) and play (as a toddler with a wheeled pusher or scooter, and a little older with a pet goose).
But the last scene is of death, foreshadowed by the torches, often symbols of funerals, at each end of the sarcophagus. The parents again ride in a carriage, with the slightly older child between them, and they are led by a winged Cupid foreshadowing the child's soul ascending to heaven.
At some stage in the discussion, students often raise the issue of the nature of the sarcophagus as an artifact. This leads to some questions about the disposal of the dead and how frequently sarcophagi were used. Epitaphs for children lead to issues of demography. Cremation remained dominant for many centuries, so why the growing popularity of sarcophagi in the 2nd century, well before any real impact of Christianity? Students also discuss the role of fashion and the greater scope of sarcophagi for sculptural decoration.
Close examination of the sarcophagi usually increases students' ability to read art and artifacts, and thus their pleasure in viewing such material. This is partly an aesthetic experience, but also a methodological lesson. Students learn that documents can include all kinds of evidence of the past and realize that there can be more than one reading of a document. They realize the importance of assessing the author, his/her authorial intention, the intended reader or viewer, and the societal context. The importance of contextualization also emerges as students realize that a quick, impressionistic reading of any of these documents in isolation yields less understanding than a comparison and some attention to background.
Moreover, the importance of dating the documents shows the increasing interest in representations of children, women, families, and slaves, whereas most of the sources for Rome before the 2nd century CE revealed a male, upper-class, political and military focus. That realization leads students to wonder about the differences in representations and to speculate about the role of a new political regime: its emphasis on peace and stability; growing affluence and leisure (for many, but not all); and the need of ex-slaves to record their upward mobility in the record of their children.
1 Ariès, Philippe. Centuries of Childhood. New York: Vintage Books, 1962.
2 Bradley, K. Discovering the Roman Family: Studies in Roman Social History . New York: Oxford University Press, 1991; Dixon, Suzanne. The Roman Family. Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press, ©1992; and Rawson, Beryl. Children and Childhood in Roman Italy. Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2003.
3 Sherwin-White, A. The Letters of Pliny. A Historical and Social Commentary. Oxford : Oxford University Press, ©1966.
4 Huskinson, Janet. Roman Children's Sarcophagi: Their Decoration and Its Social Significance. Oxford : Clarendon Press ; New York : Oxford University Press, 1996, illustrations 1.23 and 1.29.
How to Cite This Source
Beryl Rawson, "Roman Children’s Sarcophagi," in Children and Youth in History, Item #52, http://chnm.gmu.edu/cyh/case-studies/52 (accessed May 24, 2013). | <urn:uuid:cd1a0375-29b3-4264-b3de-9c19f4ac28e5> | {
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HTTP Live Streaming (HLS)
Learn more about HLS streaming in this video with Phil Gauthier from Haivision.
HTTP Live Streaming (HLS) is an ABR packaging format for media streaming originally implemented by Apple Inc. in various software packages. These packages include QuickTime, Safari, OS X, and iOS. It is an HTTP-based protocol that functions by rearranging the overall audio video stream into smaller sequences of HTTP-based file downloads.
Through HTTP Live Streaming, each download loads one shorter chunk of an overall potentially unbounded transport stream. The continuous video experience is served by playing one small file after another seamlessly. By using file chunks, standard file based (TCP/IP HTTP systems) can be easily used without special servers for video distribution.
By making chunk files of different bandwidths available simultaneously, HLS supports Adaptive Bitrate (ABR) streaming.
There are numerous advantages to distributing HLS streams via HTTP. Foremost, it doesn’t require a streaming server, and audio/video chunks are able to leverage HTTP caching servers (which are typically located on the premises of ISPs, cellular providers, and CDNS) to improve video quality for viewers served from these cache servers. In addition, most HTTP content will successfully pass through standard firewalls without issue. | <urn:uuid:142f8086-f078-445b-a328-054eda2f7648> | {
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Dish to listen for ET around strange star
A $100m initiative to listen for signals from alien life is targeting a star with an unusual dimming pattern.
The Breakthrough Listen project, backed by Prof Stephen Hawking, will train a US radio telescope on a target called Tabby's Star.
Tabby's Star has been a subject of attention and controversy over its irregular dimming pattern.
Some scientists have been puzzled by large dips in the star's brightness.
One of the most favoured explanations for this behaviour is that a swarm of comet fragments is periodically blocking light from the star, which also known by its official designation - KIC 8462852.
One very remote and speculative idea - yet one that has attracted much attention in the media - is that the pattern is caused by some kind of artificial structure, or a collection of structures, around the star.
The co-director of the Breakthrough Listen programme, Dr Andrew Siemion, said he was sceptical of explanations that involved intelligent life.
He added: "The Breakthrough Listen programme has the most powerful SETI equipment on the planet, and access to the largest telescopes on the planet.
"We can look at it with greater sensitivity and for a wider range of signal types than any other experiment in the world."
The team plans to use the 100m Green Bank Telescope in West Virginia, US, to observe the star, which is named after the leader of the team that discovered it - Tabetha Boyajian, assistant professor at Louisiana State University.
Previous searches, using the Hubble Space Telescope and the Keck Observatory, have failed to find any unusual signals around the star.
But Dr Siemion explained: "The Green Bank Telescope is the largest fully steerable radio telescope on the planet, and it's the largest, most sensitive telescope that's capable of looking at Tabby's star given its position in the sky."
The unusual behaviour around Tabby's star was first reported in September 2015 by Dr Boyajian, who was then a postdoctoral student at Yale University. The findings were published in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.
The team was actually looking for evidence of planets orbiting stars other than our own.
While most such dimming by transiting planets is brief, regular and blocks just 1 or 2% of the light of the star, Tabby's star dims for days at a time, by as much as 22%, and at irregular intervals.
Speculation that the phenomenon could be caused by a "megastructure" built by an intelligent civilisation, has been dismissed by most scientists. But it has propelled the stellar object to prominence in the popular media.
"I don't think it's very likely - a one in a billion chance or something like that - but nevertheless, we're going to check it out," said Dan Werthimer, chief scientist at Berkeley SETI, based at the University of California, Berkeley.
Yet Tabby's Star remains a fascinating conundrum for astronomers. Some observations show that the dips in brightness are more irregular than a comet swarm would produce. And another study suggested that it had been dimming at a steady rate for the past century.
The Breakthrough Listen initiative was launched in 2015 at an event in London. It is largely funded by Russian entrepreneur Yuri Milner - who also supports the Breakthrough Prizes for science and maths. | <urn:uuid:c37ecb75-11dd-48d8-9fd8-be24d83392df> | {
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By WWJ Health Reporter Sean Lee
DETROIT (WWJ) – Is there such a thing as getting too much sleep? The answer is yes, according to a new study.
The research, published in the journal “Sleep Medicine,” found getting too little or too much sleep raises the risk of coronary heart disease, diabetes, anxiety and obesity.
But the risk is actually higher in people who sleep too long.
The researchers studied more than 50,000 people over 45, and found almost a third got six hours of sleep or less — they’re short sleepers. Two thirds were optimal sleepers — they got seven or nine hours or sleep per night.
The remaining sleepers, a very small number, were long sleepers. They got more than 10 hours per night.
The bottom line: seven to nine hours is best, especially for those with a chronic condition.
Check out the study, HERE. | <urn:uuid:94b8ae8f-af7e-4340-98f8-9e7826dd7fb8> | {
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In this chapter, we will take a look at how the raster data can be analyzed, enhanced, and used for map production. Specifically, you will learn to produce a grid of the suitable locations based on the criteria values in other grids using raster analysis and map algebra. Then, using the grid, we will produce a simple click-based map. The end result will be a site suitability web application with click-based discovery capabilities. We'll be looking at the suitability for the farmland preservation selection.
In this chapter, we will cover the following topics: | <urn:uuid:d995e32f-68f3-49ce-a709-f3b887d49359> | {
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1. "Arise, shine out Jerusalem, for your light has come. The glory of the Lord is rising on you"
(Is 60: 1).
The prophet Isaiah turns his gaze to the future. He is not looking so much at the secular future, but, enlightened by the Spirit, he directs his gaze to the fullness of time, to the fulfilment of God's plan in the messianic age.
The prediction uttered by the prophet concerns the Holy City, which he sees brightly shining: "Though night still covers the earth and darkness the peoples, above you the Lord now rises and above you his glory appears"
(Is 60: 2). This is exactly what happened with the incarnation of the Word of God. With him "the true light that enlightens every man came into the world"
(Jn 1: 9). From now on everyone's destiny will be decided by whether he accepts or rejects this light: for the life of men is found in him (cf.
Jn 1: 4).
2. Today the light that appeared on Christmas extends its rays: it is the light of God's epiphany. It is no longer only the shepherds of Bethlehem who see and follow it; it is also the Magi Kings, who came to Jerusalem from the East to adore the newborn King (cf.
Mt 2: 1-12). With the Magi came the nations, which begin their journey to the divine Light.
Today the Church celebrates this saving Epiphany by listening to the description of it in Matthew's Gospel. The well-known account of the Magi, who came from the East in search of the One who was to be born, has always inspired popular piety as well, becoming a traditional part of the crib.
Epiphany is both an event and a symbol. The event is described in detail by the Evangelist. The symbolic meaning, however, was gradually discovered as the Church reflected more and more on the event and celebrated it liturgically.
3. After 2,000 years, wherever Epiphany is celebrated, the Ecclesial Community draws from this precious liturgical and spiritual tradition ever new points for reflection.
Here in Rome, in accordance with a custom to which I have wanted to remain faithful since the beginning of my Pontificate, we celebrate this mystery by consecrating new Bishops. It is a tradition that has its own intrinsic theological and pastoral eloquence, and today we joyfully introduce it into the third millennium.
Dear Brothers who will shortly be consecrated, you come from various nations and represent the universality of the Church which adores the Word made flesh for our salvation. Thus the words of the responsorial psalm are fulfilled:
Lord, every nation on earth will adore you.
Our liturgical assembly expresses this catholic nature of the Church in a remarkable way, thanks also to you, dear Bishops-elect. For around you are gathered in spirit the faithful from various parts of the world to whom you have been sent as successors of the Apostles.
4. Some of you will carry out the mission of Apostolic Nuncios: you, Archbishop Józef Wesolowski, in Bolivia; you, Archbishop Giacomo Guido Ottonello, in Panama; you, Archbishop George Panikulam, in Honduras; and you, Archbishop Alberto Bottari de Castello, in The Gambia, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. You will be papal representatives in these countries at the service of the local Churches and of the authentic human progress of their respective peoples.
You, Bishop Ivo Baldi, will lead the Diocese of Huaraz, Peru. You, Bishop Gabriel Mbilingi, have been chosen as Coadjutor Bishop of Lwena, Angola; and you, Bishop David Laurin Ricken, as Coadjutor Bishop of Cheyenne in the United States of America.
Episcopal ordination will confirm and strengthen you, Bishop Anton Cosa, in your service as Apostolic Administrator of Moldova, and you, Bishop Giuseppe Pasotto, as Apostolic Administrator of the Caucasus.
You, Bishop András Veres, will be Auxiliary Bishop to the Archbishop of Eger, Hungary; and you, Bishop Péter Erdo, will be Auxiliary to the Pastor of Székesfehérvár.
As for you, Bishop Franco Croci, you will continue your work as Secretary of the Prefecture for the Economic Affairs of the Holy See.
Be ever mindful of the grace of this Epiphany day! May the light of Christ always shine in your hearts and your pastoral ministry.
5. Today's liturgy urges us to be joyful. There is a reason for this: the light that shone from the Christmas star to lead the Magi from the East to Bethlehem
continues to guide all the peoples and nations of the world on the same journey.
Let us give thanks for the men and women who have made this journey during the past 2,000 years. Let us praise Christ, Lumen gentium, who guided them and continues to guide the nations down the path of history!
To him, the Lord of time, God from God, Light from Light, we confidently address our prayer.
May his star, the Epiphany star, continually shine in our hearts, showing to individuals and nations the way of truth, love and peace in the third millennium. Amen. | <urn:uuid:6a34c18a-045c-4cff-aa6b-4aaa51c01402> | {
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What is International Trade?
International trade is the exchange of goods and services between countries.
Basis of International Trade
International trade arises because: -
a) Economic resources are not evenly distributed in all the countries.
b) Climatic conditions are different, favouring the cultivation of different crops.
c) The different goods produced require different methods and resources used in different proportions.
d) Mobility of factors is limited.
Email based international trade assignment help - international trade homework help at TutorsGlobe
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Why TutorsGlobe for International Trade assignment help
Start Excelling in your courses, Ask an Expert and get answers for your homework and assignments!! | <urn:uuid:e8df099e-493e-48f0-b2d0-f16847732acf> | {
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The psychology of beauty is complex not just because the concept of beauty is as yet undefined but also because it is largely true that beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder or how individuals perceive other people or things. Beauty can be attributed to everything that appeals to our senses and all objects that are compatible with our personal preferences. Beauty as we perceive it is largely a projection of our needs and beautiful objects or persons simply cater to our idealizations or fancies and reflect our natural need to relate to all that is appealing. Human beings are controlled by the senses and we tend to repeat processes or experiences that appeal to the senses, that are harmonious and have structure and form. Beauty appeals to our sense of sight so there is a preference for repeating the experience of beauty.
But how do we perceive beauty and why are some people or objects considered more beautiful than some others? Psychological tests have considered symmetry and proportion as extremely important in the perception of beauty. Beauty is also more holistic than specific as a beautiful object is judged as a whole package that is appealing rather than judged on the basis of its parts. Freudian or psychoanalytic explanations of beauty are scarce but psychoanalytic concepts could be used to consider our judgment of beauty as a projection or wish fulfillment so people attractive to us are typically ones who we admire or who in some way represent our own desires and fancies. Psychoanalysis can also be compatible with the idea that beauty is preferential perception when there are similarities with a parent. Most people are also considered beautiful when they have baby-faced features or a particular innocence in their faces. Beauty can also be culturally motivated so in certain eastern cultures women with beautiful feet are considered attractive whereas in the Victorian era in England, women with elegance and grace were the ones with smooth neck and tiny waist and modern western women are judged on the basis of their breasts, bottom and lips. The perception of beauty can change and studies have found that women may prefer softer features of men during particular times and more masculine features at other times depending on the stage of their reproductive cycle. So there are actually several theories of beauty which are discussed here one by one.
1. Beauty as Symmetry and Proportion - As you might have noticed in case of ancient architectural marvels, symmetry was extremely important. Whether it was the great pyramids in Egypt or the architectural wonders in Greece, symmetry and perfect dimensions played an important part in the history of aesthetics. This whole idea of symmetry also applies to every other object or person that we perceive so a person with perfectly symmetrical face would also be considered as an epitome of physical perfection. Perfectly shaped and sharp features are attractive to most people and the most beautiful faces are the ones which have very proportionate features. The same applies to the body and the low waist to hip ratio giving a curvy lower part of the body in women is considered more attractive than a straight shape which usually does not indicate fertility. As human beings are finally looking for evolutionary advantage women with a curvy shapes are considered more fertile and are thus more attractive to men. Similarly men with athletic and muscular bodies are attractive to women. However many men might not prefer extremely voluptuous or curvy women just like many women may not prefer extremely muscular men. This suggests that proportion is also about moderation or maybe human beings are more comfortable with certain moderation in what they perceive rather than excess and that way the perception of beauty may even depend on some sort of social programming.
2. Beauty as a whole rather than parts - When we consider something beautiful, we usually try to take a broad holistic view. Thus when we consider a rose as beautiful, we are less attentive towards each petal and consider the symmetry of the flower as a whole. In a similar manner, when we consider the face of a man or a woman, beauty is the composite quality that seems to represent the entire face of the individual rather than the parts or particular features. Our senses prefer a holistic view and perception of things and thus a person is considered attractive or beautiful only when all features add up to something really pleasant to the senses.
3. Beauty as projection and wish fulfillment - The perception of beauty is not only a mental process but also a deeply personal one. If say your lover has blonde hair, you might find other blonde haired people very attractive because you tend to project your inner fancies on to other people. The 'he' looks like my lover or 'she' looks like my lover is a common syndrome in our perception of beauty and people who are remotely similar to our mates are suddenly more beautiful to us than others. The same projection applies in case of selecting a mate who resembles a parent. If a man looks like your father or a member of the family he is obviously far more attractive to you than to others. The wish fulfillment theory is also equally true and when we want to be like someone in terms of talents or certain qualities, we naturally consider that person as absolutely perfect and beautiful. Some teenagers may idolize popular actors or actresses and the need to be like them also determines their own perception of beauty.
4. Beauty as innocence and charm - No one can deny that a charming personality with social confidence can be far more attractive than a dull personality. A person who has the inherent ability to attract individuals with the sheer force of personality and presence is considered highly attractive. In some way there may be an association between good looks and social confidence and sometimes individuals with good looks are also socially most accepted and thus more confident. Individuals with baby-face features with high or defined cheekbones and certain innocence on their faces are usually considered very attractive by both the sexes. Beauty is advantageous in social adaptation and good looking people are thus socially successful as well, as they get support and positive assessment from other people. However the opposite in also true and sometimes good looking women and even men can become extremely self-conscious and fail to develop adequate self confidence. Good looks can in certain cases become an impediment as good looking women who are also intelligent may be judged more on the basis of their looks rather than their intelligence and this is sometimes a sad fact in modern society.
5. Beauty as a product of culture and society - This is an accepted fact. The concept of beauty seems to change with time as society changes and the perception of beauty varies in different cultures. Dark skin is considered very attractive in Western societies and whiter skin is considered as attractive in Eastern societies, because of the element of novelty in both the cases. Feet and hair of women are important features in Eastern cultures whereas in the West, the woman's lips, and hips are considered important. The breasts of women are important indicators of beauty in all cultures and men's body and chin or jaw and certain masculine sharpness are also considered as attractive. Studies have indicated that women however tend to prefer dominant looking men during the first follicular stage in their reproductive cycle but prefer men with softer more feminine features when they are in their menstrual and ovulation stages. This may have some evolutionary advantage as men with feminine soft natures and faces are considered as more stable and more family oriented than men who have extreme masculinity or a sort of raw appeal. This is however too generalized and there are individual differences as well. | <urn:uuid:33a5f7e7-717a-4c4b-be06-9047ed99247f> | {
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Of the many questions I am asked by riders and would-be riders, two are most common. Doesn’t bending forward while riding a bicycle cause back problems? We have heard that riding a bicycle causes erectile dysfunction (ED). Is it true?
The answers to both questions are logical and scientific. Millions of people around the world ride bicycle every day and they all bend forward. If this posture was injury-prone, it would have changed by now. The fact that this is how people have been riding bicycles for centuries proves the correctness of it.
The posture is upright only while riding cruise bicycles and cruise bicycles are for leisure riding during which riders do not put in too much of effort.
To apply power, one has to bend. Be it running, or boxing. One cannot run fast without bending and a boxer cannot land a power punch without bending.
In fact, bending prevents injury and also contributes to aerodynamics. A bent back acts as a spring and absorbs shocks better and air flows over the rider, making him/her faster.
The same logic applies to sexual health. If it was true that bicycling causes ED, nobody in the world would be riding.
Bicycling, at least the amount of it most people do, does not cause sexual health problems. On the contrary, it is beneficial in multiple ways.
I personally know many riders whose sex lives improved after they began cycling.
One, however, must ensure that the bicycle is of proper size, the saddle height and position are correct and the posture perfect.
To choose the correct frame size, one should measure stand-over height. There should be a minimum one inch space between your scrotum and the top tube when standing over a bicycle. Less than an inch, the bike is big for you and more than three inches, it’s small for you.
The position of the saddle should be ideally above the handle bar or at least on level with it. This is possible only if the frame size is correct. A bigger frame will require the saddle to be pushed down and vice versa.
The bicycle saddle should be parallel to the ground or slightly tilted down. This will avoid pressure on your scrotum and prevent numbness.
Challenging previous theories which contended that cycling may harm men’s sexual health, a new study by University of California has found that cyclists have better erectile function than runners and swimmers.
Standing more than 20 per cent of the time while cycling significantly reduced the odds of genital numbness, but adjusting handlebar height lower than the saddle height did increase the likelihood of genital numbness and saddle sores, the researchers said.
“We believe the results will be encouraging for cyclists. Cycling provides tremendous cardiovascular benefits and is low impact on joints. We believe the health benefits enjoyed by cyclists who ride safely will far out weight health risks,” said Benjamin Breyer, professor at the University of California in San Francisco.
Eminent urologist Dhananjay Bokare said in Nagpur: “It’s true that benefits of cycling far outweigh the risks but prolonged cycling is known to cause numbness and pain in the perineum area and also temporary ED. Most of these are reversible on cessation of cycling activity.
Proper posture, appropriate saddle height, saddle shape and handlebar height can help to take off some weight on the genital area.”
Sexologist Sanjay Deshpande had this to say about the University of California Study: “It’s only a news report based on an article published in Journal of Urology. According to present research evidence, cycling is similar to swimming and walking as regards to the sexual function of a man.
“The prevalence of ED in cyclists is nearly the same in a population and it may vary according to age and other disease status such as diabetes, hypertension or coronary artery disease. Cycling is cardio-protective while sparing the knees.”
(The author is a bicyclist by choice who uses the bicycle for everyday commute, distance riding and conducts professional workshops on bicycling and bicycles) | <urn:uuid:4b83a491-1a49-442e-8c5f-e7ddc3c1aecb> | {
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Via the GLRPPR Blog. Thanks to Rick Yoder for an insightful post.
The benefits of energy efficiency policies have been questioned by various media organizations and think tanks due to a phenomenon called the “Rebound Effect”, also known as Jevon’s Paradox. The Rebound Effect is the idea that consumers and businesses have incentives to spend the money saved from energy efficient strategies on the same or other energy consuming products or services, paradoxically increasing energy use because of energy savings. According to The Breakthrough Institute (BTI), macroeconomic Rebound Effect accounts for 30%-50% or more energy consumption and sometimes even greater than 100% (known as “backfire”) of the original amount of energy consumption saved. Rebound raises questions about the impact that energy efficiency policies have on the total energy use in all industries. If true, it has serious ramifications to the work being conducted to mitigate global GHG emissions and to the efforts of the Pollution Prevention (P2) community.
Last year several articles volleyed the value of Rebound – most notably The Rocky Mountain Institute, Joe Romm and others at Climate Progress in a response to the report by the The Breakthrough Institute. This year, a report conducted by Shakeb Afsah, Kendyl Salcito and Chris Wielga at co2scorecard.org stirred the discussion once again, followed by an article on Grist. The discussion provides the P2 community with a more nuanced understanding of the potential savings of source reduction recommendations and provides evidence to support efficiency strategies.
P2 professionals ought to consider a trip down the Rebound rabbit hole for several reasons. First, the P2 community stays credible by staying engaged. If one drills through the contentious nature of the Rebound blog posts, it’s clear that the arguments are not about whether Rebound occurs, but at what level. At its core, that makes the Rebound discussion one about measurement – how large are the gains claimed by those working in resources efficiency? It’s fair to consider Rebound as a loss much like friction modifies the ideal laws of motion. And it’s fair to expect the P2 community to be interested in whether the Rebound loss is trivial or sizable. Even a brief look at the academic literature listed below makes it clear that efficiency measurements based on expected savings will likely fail to accurately report actual resource consumption rates. Measurements that forecast savings without considering Rebound are a little like projecting savings with a Simple Payback calculation – it’s ok as a first approximation, but it’s not considered a complete calculation – Simple Payback often ignores cash flows received after the payback period and typically does not recognize the time value of money.
The second reason for P2 professionals to notice the Rebound discussion is that it highlights the critical importance of considering social and behavioral science and that a focus through technology blinders is limiting. The Rebound premise recognizes that waste comes not only from technological change, but also from the actions, decisions, and behaviors of individuals and organizations. The P2 professional who wants to stay active in a world focused on the sustainability challenge will need to be proficient in both technical change and behavioral change.
Lastly, P2 policymakers should recognize the relationship of Rebound information with the mandates of the 1990 P2 Act (PPA). Congress told the EPA Administrator in the PPA to use grants “…to promote the use of source reduction techniques by businesses.” Among other things, it says, grant funded programs should “[t]arget assistance to businesses for whom lack of information is an impediment to source reduction.” Certainly the information about whether and how much Rebound can impact resource consumption is information which can impede ultimate source reduction success.
More potential discussion topics surrounding Rebound exist for technical assistance providers, program managers, and policy makers than this author has time to cover in one post. Some of the bright young economists at UNO College of Business Administration (CBA) have posited interesting research to add to the mix. I hope you’ll look a little bit further into Rebound, as it seems to be an annual topic of interest which generates significant give-and-take.
Bibliography of Papers on Rebound
Ahmad, Mobin-ud-Din, Hugh Turral, Llyas Masih, Mark Giordano and Zubair Masood. 2007. Water Saving Technologies: Myths and Realities Revealed in Pakistan’s Rice-Wheat Systems. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute.
Alcott, Blake. 2005. Jevons’ paradox. Ecological Economics. 54: 9-21.
Birol, Fatih and Jan Horst Keppler. 2000. Prices, technology development and the rebound effect. 2000. Energy Policy. 28: 457-469.
Gomez-Baggethun, Erik, Rudolf de Groot, Pedro L. Lomas and Carlos Montes. 2010. The history of ecosystem services in economic theory and practice: From early notions to markets and payment schemes. Ecological Economics. 69: 1209-1218.
Hertwich, Edgar G. Consumption and the Rebound Effect. Journal of Industrial Ecology. 9: 85-98.
Huffaker, Ray and Norman Whittlesey. 2003. A Theoretical Analysis of Economic Incentive Policies Encouraging Agricultural Water Conservation. Water Resources Development. 19: 37-53.
Llop, Maria. 2007. Economic impact of alternative water policy scenarios in the Spanish production system: An input-output analysis. Ecological Economics. 68: 288-294.
Lorentz, Andre and Julia Sophie Woersdorfer. 2009. ‘Energy-efficient household appliances and the rebound effect – A model on the demand for washing machines’. Working paper.
Madlener, Reinhard and Blake Alcott. 2009. Energy rebound and economic growth: A review of the main issues and research needs. Energy. 34: 370-376.
Negri, Donald H. and Douglas H. Brooks. 1990. Determinants of Irrigation Technology Choice. Western Journal of Agricultural Economics. 15: 213-223.
Peterson, Jeffrey, M. and Ya Ding. 2005. Economic Adjustments to Groundwater Depletion in the High Plains: Do Water-Saving Irrigation Systems Save Water? American Journal of Agricultural Economics. 87: 147-159.
Pfeiffer, Lisa and C.-.Y Cynthia Lin. 2010. Does Efficient Irrigation Technology Lead to Reduced Groundwater Extraction?: Empirical Evidence. Working Paper.
Polimeni, John M. and Raluca Iorgulescu Polimeni. 2006. Jevons’ Paradox and the myth of technological liberation. Ecological Complexity. 3: 344-353.
Roy, Joyashree. 2000. The rebound effect: some empirical evidence from India. 28: 433-438.
Ruzzenenti, F. and R. Basosi. 2008. The role of the power/efficiency misconception in the rebound effect’s size debate: Does efficiency actually lead to a power enhancement? Energy Policy. 36: 3626-3632.
Saunders, Harry D. 1992. The Khazzoom-Brookes Postulate and Neoclassical Growth. The Energy Journal. 13: 130-148.
Sorrell, Steve and John Dimitropoulos. 2008. The rebound effect: Microeconomic definitions, limitations and extensions. Ecological Economics. 65: 636-649.
Sorrell, Steve, John Dimitropoulos and Matt Sommerville. 2009. Empirical estimates of the direct rebound effect: A review. Energy Policy. 37: 1356-1371.
Thomas, Brinda A. Estimating the U.S. Economy-wide Rebound Effect. Carnegie Mellon University, 2011
Ward, Frank A. and Manuel Pulido-Velazquez. 2008. Water conservation in irrigation can increase water use. PNAS. 105: 18215-18220. | <urn:uuid:2d5f3c1a-fbe6-4801-9d21-fb848c5389b1> | {
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The Great Beyond held the two things most coveted by ambitious young men of New France,—quick wealth by means of the fur trade and the immortal fame of being a first explorer. Nicolet had gone only as far as Green Bay and Fox River; Jogues not far beyond the Sault. What secrets lay in the Great Unknown? Year after year young Frenchmen, fired with the zeal of the explorer, joined wandering tribes of Algonquins going up the Ottawa, in the hope of being taken beyond the Sault. In August, 1656, there came from Green Bay two young Frenchmen with fifty canoes of Algonquins, who told of far-distant waters called Lake “Ouinipeg,” and tribes of wandering hunters called “Christinos” (Crees), who spent their winters in a land bare of trees (the prairie), and their summers on the North Sea (Hudson’s Bay). They also told of other tribes, who were great warriors, living to the south,—these were the Sioux. But the two Frenchmen had not gone beyond the Great Lakes. These Algonquins were received at Chateau St. Louis, Quebec, with pompous firing of cannon and other demonstrations of welcome. So eager were the French to take possession of the new land that thirty young men equipped themselves to go back with the Indians; and the Jesuits sent out two priests, Leonard Gareau and Gabriel Dreuillettes, with a lay helper, Louis Boesme. The sixty canoes left Quebec with more firing of guns for a God-speed; but at Lake St. Peter the Mohawks ambushed the flotilla. The enterprise of exploring the Great Beyond was abandoned by all the French but two. Gareau, who was mortally wounded on the Ottawa, probably by a Frenchman or renegade hunter, died at Montreal; and Dreuillettes did not go farther than Lake Nipissing. Here, Dreuillettes learned much of the Unknown from an old Nipissing chief. He heard of six overland routes to the bay of the North, whence came such store of peltry. He, too, like the two Frenchmen from Green Bay, heard of wandering tribes who had no settled lodge like the Hurons and Iroquois, but lived by the chase,—Crees and Sioux and Assiniboines of the prairie, at constant war round a lake called “Ouinipegouek.”
[Illustration: A Cree brave, with the wampum string.]
By one of those curious coincidences of destiny which mark the lives of nations and men, the young Frenchman who had gone with the Jesuit, Dreuillettes, to Lake Nipissing when the other Frenchmen turned back, was Medard Chouart Groseillers, the fur trader married to Radisson’s widowed sister, Marguerite.
When Radisson came back from Onondaga, he found his brother-in-law, Groseillers, at Three Rivers, with ambitious designs of exploration in the unknown land of which he had heard at Green Bay and on Lake Nipissing. Jacques Cartier had discovered only one great river, had laid the foundations of only one small province; Champlain had only made the circuit of the St. Lawrence, the Ottawa, and the Great Lakes; but here was a country—if the Indians spoke the truth—greater than all the empires of Europe together, a country bounded only by three great seas, the Sea of the North, the Sea of the South, and the Sea of Japan, a country so vast as to stagger the utmost conception of little New France. | <urn:uuid:2e7e9ab6-aec5-4b1c-8e38-26484c680751> | {
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Origin of lip-sync; from lip sync(hronization)
- Alternative spelling of lip sync.
(third-person singular simple present lipsyncs, present participle lipsyncing, simple past and past participle lipsynced)
- Alternative spelling of lip-sync.
(third-person singular simple present lip-syncs, present participle lip-syncing, simple past and past participle lip-synced)
lip-sync - Computer Definition
The synchronization of people's lips to their mouths. Maintaining the same rate of speed to synchronize audio and video tracks is always an issue in movie and video production. However, the processing required to upconvert a DVD in a DVD player may delay the video a few milliseconds behind the audio. In addition, the video cable to a ceiling-mounted projector may be considerably long, introducing delay. A/V receivers therefore often have a "LipSync," "A/V Sync" or similar function that delays the audio a variable number of milliseconds to synchronize with the delayed video. | <urn:uuid:936e1328-86ce-4a66-94bf-44a81ecba2f8> | {
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In this survey of works on paper and works that utilize paper in different ways, six Chinese artists of different generations offer surprising perspectives on the range of artistic practice in China today and the versatility of the material itself. In the hands of Lu Shengzhong (b. 1952) and his pupil Wu Jian’an (b. 1980), paper is colored and cut until its structural cohesiveness is virtually denied. Lu Shengzhong, the pioneer in the scholarly investigation of this traditional form of Chinese folk art, developed his own intricate expressive style, using the left-over scraps from the paper-cutting process as essential parts of the overall design. After Effects of Tiananmen VII, 2000 was his response to the tragic events of 1999, a rare contemporary reference in an oeuvre that is normally more concerned with timeless themes as in the hand-made The Book of Humanity, Volume III, 2002-2004.
While Lu Shengzhong and his team of folk art paper- cutters were working on his series of books, Wu Jian’an was responding to the SARS epidemic. Fearful and depressed, he used the techniques he had learned from his master in a highly idiosyncratic way. Speaking of his wild inventions, he has said that “I systematically dissected my mind, as if to reveal everything inside and hang up the contents to expose them in the sun.” Tibetan thangkas and Salvador Dali at his most delirious meet in the paper-cuts of Wu Jian’an.
Hong Hao (b.1965) is also obsessed with paper although he values it for its traditional role as a purveyor of printed information. Having started as a print-maker with the celebrated Selected Scriptures, Hong Hao turned to the theme of the book in a virtuoso series of three-dimensional works. His bibliophilic variations range from catalogs of non-existent biennales – The Manuscript for Oahgnoh Biennale A and B, 2003-2004 – to the perfectly void pages of Mexico-Huun-Amate, 2004 of which he has said that “it is a book without content. The book is also completely devoid of text. Instead, there is only paper onto which I’ve used a brush to paint fibers to give the appearance of handmade paper.”
Unlike many of his contemporaries Wang Tiande (b. 1960) did not turn to oil painting at the beginning of his career but decided that his preference lay in “redefining ink painting and calligraphy, the most value-laden of China’s art forms.” While Ai Weiwei smashed and painted over Neolithic and Han Dynasty vessels, Wang Tiande made ordinary vessels and wine bottles more precious by covering them in integuments of Chinese paper suffused with ink wash.
These three-dimensional works contrast with the more conventional format of the drawings / ink paintings of Qiu Zhijie (b. 1969) and Guo Hongwei (b. 1982), the youngest artists in the group. Qiu Zhijie has established his reputation as one of the foremost experimental artists in China, a pioneer in the field of video, installation and every possible permutation but he is also a gifted practitioner in the most traditional Chinese art forms, ink painting and calligraphy. As an offshoot of the ongoing Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge project, Qiu Zhijie has plunged into a rapidly growing series of works on paper inspired by Chinese legends and popular sayings. Deeply rooted in Chinese tradition but resolutely contemporary in the free-wheeling nature of the imagery Qiu Zhijie has shown that he is equally comfortable painting on the monumental scale of the recent wall painting at Chambers Fine Art or on the more conventional scale of the recent series of works on paper. A selection of these is being shown for the first time after a delay at US Customs prevented them from arriving in time for the March 12 opening of his one person show.
In contrast Guo Hongwei does not dwell in the ancient past and has no particular interest in the rich cultural history of his native land. On the other hand, he is not totally immersed in the most up-to-date aspects of today’s popular culture as are many of his contemporaries. Slightly removed from the immediate present, Guo Hongwei looks back in time to his own childhood and adolescence for the subject-matter of his poetic and humorous watercolors. Seemingly effortless, these rapidly executed watercolors are notable for the control he is able to maintain over his fluid medium. From pools of thinly diluted watercolor that could very easily become abstract forms, human figures engaged in mundane or private activities slowly emerge. Among young Chinese artists of his generation, Guo Hongwei is noteworthy for the highly personal nature of his imagery and his extraordinary mastery of the difficult water-color medium. | <urn:uuid:8c05054b-963e-44d9-952f-4641963615fe> | {
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Brightfield Digital Image Gallery
Zygnema Green Algae
In the world of filamentous freshwater algae (division Chlorophyta), the genus Zygnema, with its two stellate chloroplasts per cell, is a standout. Found often alongside Spirogyra, another still-water green algal genus, Zygnema species are classified as conjugate algae (phylum Gamophyta) because of their means of sexual reproduction by conjugation.
Forming green or yellow-brown mats of macroscopic threads or filaments, Zygnema can reproduce asexually, sexually, or vegetatively. Akinetes, spore-like bodies with very thick cell walls, are produced when the environment becomes unsuitable, allowing these green algae to withstand droughts and harsh winters via this means of asexual reproduction. Alternatively, in deteriorating conditions, sexual reproduction can commence when two side-by-side filaments grow conjugation tubes toward each other. DNA from each plant moves toward the center of the tube, fuses, and forms a zygospore. The zygospore sinks into the sediments of the still waters, awaiting more favorable habitat conditions before emerging as new filamentous algal strands. Both scalariform and lateral conjugation occurs after zygospore formation. There are many species in the genus, and individual types of Zygnema are distinguishable by the shape, size, and other characteristics of the zygospores they produce.
Fragmentation of Zygnema filaments accounts for vegetative reproduction, particularly when available nitrates and phosphates ("nutrients") are available in sufficient quantities. As with Spirogyra, thick mats and green clouds of Zygnema indicate over-fertilization or "enrichment" of water bodies, often by contaminated stormwater runoff. Large blooms can greatly influence the chemistry of a water body, particularly in microhabitats within the pond, ditch, spring, or vernal pool.
During the day, the hair-like strands of green algae produce relatively large volumes of dissolved oxygen, even raising the dissolved oxygen concentration above the saturation level (supersaturation). At night, as with other green plants, the metabolic processes reverse and the masses of green algae consume oxygen and produce carbon dioxide gas as a cellular respiratory waste product. On cloudy days or at night, the rapid creation of carbon dioxide in the water column can change the pH of the water too rapidly for obligatory aquatic organisms such as fish, resulting in stress, and abnormal behaviors that make them much more susceptible to piscivores. During winter months in temperate regions, particularly under the cover of ice and snow, the algal mats die and decompose, creating a significant biological oxygen demand due to respiring bacteria feeding on the decaying organic plant matter. Severe competition for limited dissolved oxygen resources, particularly in shallow ponds, between the bacteria and the larger aquatic organisms, such as fishes and tadpoles, often results in a phenomenon referred to as "winterkill", a die-off of fish populations that remains largely undiscovered until the following spring.
Cynthia D. Kelly, Thomas J. Fellers and Michael W. Davidson - National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, 1800 East Paul Dirac Dr., The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, 32310.
Questions or comments? Send us an email.
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This website is maintained by our | <urn:uuid:27e59226-84e7-429e-9bcc-c31c2b74a1e1> | {
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If Santa's sleigh touched down with a smartphone or tablet this year, there's a few things you'll want to keep in mind before giving your child untethered access to social media and the web.
Access to information can quickly become access to too much information. And online bullying is just as abundant as online support.
So, how do parents keep kids on the safe side of the cyber tracks?
This article published on the Common Sense website offers an in-depth look at some of the more popular apps and the categories in which they fall.
Kids and teens are participating in "diversified" online activity within apps that are categorized as micro-blogs, secret or "self-destructive" apps, texting apps and more.
In addition, many teens and adolescents have become fluent in codes and abbreviations that are frequently used to try to stump an outside observer of their online chats. Many of these can be found here.
Once you've identified the apps and sites on which your teen is spending time, how do you keep him from being the victim of the online abuse?
Consider these 5 tips as you prepare your child to responsibly use social media and interact with peers in the cyber community:
Limit smartphone use. This is the simplest way to keep kids safe. Smart phones are reported as the primary avenue for kids' online activity, and they will continue to be increasingly accessible to kids of all ages and socioeconomic classes. Establish some guidelines and stick to them.
Medical News Today recently published a summary of a study that demonstrates teens' and adolescents' feelings of anxiety surrounding the pressure to be involved in online social communities at all times. They're literally losing sleep over this. Do them a favor and help them manage the "FOMO" (Fear of Missing Out).
Keep them involved in activities, daily family routines, and face-to-face interactions with friends so they don't' feel the need to be on the phone at all times. You're the boss. When it's time to put the phone away, it's time to put the phone away.
Take charge of what your kids download. You wouldn't be the first parent to make your kid deliver a sales pitch to earn your blessing to have Snapchat on her phone. If she makes a compelling argument, accept and set parameters. If not, communicate your concerns and encourage persistent efforts with better support.
Sometimes challenging kids to really examine what they want out of something can shed light on whether it's truly worth the parental push.
Have an honest conversation about responsible use of social media and texting applications. Celebrate the benefits of staying connected with friends and all things important in the life of a 14-year-old, and then offer caution along with advice on how to obey gut feelings, sense foul play, and avoid drama or bullying behaviors. Also, remind your child that if she's not comfortable saying whatever she's posting or texting to the recipient's face, then she should really think twice about that post.
Reiterate the permanence of Internet-based interactions. If you don't know what a "screen shot" is by now, educate yourself and remind your child of everyone's ability to make even their "secret" or "self-destructing" online activity permanent. If kids can't stand by what they're texting, posting and viewing, then they shouldn't be doing it.
Someone is always watching or privy to methods for recovering everything that ever happens online. You cannot stress this enough.
Encourage a mix of personal and commercial connections within online forums. Teens and adolescents need a mix of content coming across their screens. They can avoid being completely engrossed in the happenings of the Friday night high school football game if they also view posts from favorite products, publications, musicians, artists and athletes in the mix of notifications. Maybe they'll discover something more worthwhile to research or investigate that will enrich their lives in a bigger way than the gossip wheel will.
None of this advice is to shelter your child from social media and texting apps. Social online behavior is becoming a healthy and normal part of their development. A parent's job is to be open, and to create a safe and inviting dialogue that will promote trust between our kids and us. Will there need to be appropriate limits? Yes. But go ahead and let them tweet, snap, post, poke and chat. They'll have to take it from there.
Support real journalism. Support local journalism. Subscribe to The Atlanta Journal-Constitution today. See offers.
Your subscription to the Atlanta Journal-Constitution funds in-depth reporting and investigations that keep you informed. Thank you for supporting real journalism. | <urn:uuid:17bcac34-9f63-4e04-81b0-83ed01faa489> | {
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Do you ever wonder how your urine forms? The urine is composed of waste products the body disposes of the body. The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs responsible in excreting the body’s waste. These organs extract waste from the blood, produce urine, balance the fluids in the body and support other important functions of the body.
There are five major roles of the kidneys in the body. The kidneys aid in waste excretion. They filter out toxins, excess salts and urea, a nitrogen-based toxin or waste produced by cell metabolism.
Another important role of the kidneys is maintaining the balance of water levels in the body. The kidneys adjust according to the levels of water in the body. If the water intake of the person decreases, the kidneys will adjust and leave water in the body. On the other hand, if the person drinks enough water, the kidneys excrete excess fluids from the body. The kidneys also help regulate blood pressure, the red blood cells in the body and acids.
However, there are diseases that could affect the kidneys. One of the most common conditions is the formation of kidney stones. These are also called renal lithiasis or nephrolithiasis, which are hard deposits containing minerals and salts that form inside the kidneys.
The stones are pebble-like, hard and form as a result of having high levels of certain minerals in the urine. Though kidneys stones rarely cause permanent damage if it’s treated immediately, the prolonged formation may cause discomfort and pain.
Kidney stones can develop in one or both kidneys, and they often affect people between the ages of 30 and 60. This is a common health condition, affecting three in 20 men and up to two in 20 women.
Kidney stones are known to cause severe pain especially if they have moved around within the kidney or have passed through the ureter. This severe pain is called renal colic.
Here are the most common signs and symptoms of kidney stones.
- Pain that radiates to the lower abdomen and groin
- Pain that fluctuates in intensity and comes and goes
- Pain on urination (dysuria)
- Pink, brown or red urine
- Severe pain on the flanks
- Nausea and vomiting
- Persistent need to urinate
- Foul-smelling urine
- Cloudy urine
- Urinating more than usual
- Small amounts of urine comes out even with the urge to urinate
The kidneys filter out waste products from the blood to be excreted from the body.
The waste products in the blood may form crystals that collect inside the kidneys.
In time, these crystals may form a hard stone-like lump.
When the kidney stone is formed, the body will try to remove it when you urinate.
This means that the stone will need to pass through the kidneys, kidney tubes, and bladder. The formation of these stones depends on which mineral is found excessively in your blood.
4Types of Kidney Stones
Calcium stones are the most common kidneys stones. They usually contain calcium oxalate, which is the most common, maleate or phosphate. Reducing the intake of foods high in oxalate is recommended. These foods include peanuts, chocolate, spinach, beets and potato chips.
A struvite stone is usually found in women who suffer from urinary tract infections (UTIs). This type of stone is large and may obstruct the ureters. The treatment of the underlying cause of the infection is important to prevent the formation of struvite stones.
Uric acid kidney stones are more common in men compared to women. Usually, this type of kidney stone occurs in people who have gout. Sometimes, they also form in people who are undergoing chemotherapy. Reducing foods rich in purines is advised. These foods include legumes, organ meats like kidneys and livers, meats (bacon, pork, lamb, and beef), anchovies, sardines, scallops, mackerel, gravy, and beer.
Cystine stones are uncommon, but they can develop in both men and women,
particularly those who have the genetic disorder called cystinuria.
There are many factors that increase your risk of developing kidney stones.
Family or personal history
If you have relatives who have kidney stones, you are at a higher risk of developing these stones. Moreover, when you had them once, there is a higher risk of having them again.
Consuming a diet that is high in protein, salt and sugar may heighten the risk of the development of some kidney stone types. Calcium stones develop mostly from a high salt diet.
People with a high body mass index (BMI) and a large waist size may develop kidney stones more than others.
People who are not fond of drinking adequate water each day have a higher risk of kidney stones. For those living in warm places, it is important to drink enough water,
especially because they sweat a lot.
Some digestive conditions and surgeries may increase the risk of kidney stones. Inflammatory bowel disease, chronic diarrhea, and gastric bypass surgery may cause certain changes in the GI tract, leading to increased levels of stone-forming substances in the urine.
People with certain conditions
people with the following conditions may have an increased risk of kidney stone formation:
- Urinary tract obstruction
- Chronic bowel inflammation
- Cystic kidney diseases
- History of gastrointestinal surgery
- Hypercalciuria (increased amounts of calcium in the urine)
- Hyperoxaluria (increased oxalate levels in the urine)
- Hyperparathyroidism (the parathyroid glands release too many parathyroid hormones, leading to increased calcium in the blood)
- Recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs)
- Renal tubular acidosis
- People are taking these medications: diuretics, calcium-based antacids, topiramate ( an anti-seizure medication) and indinavir (an HIV drug).
Kidney stones can be diagnosed by a complete physical examination and tests including:
The doctor may request blood tests to check the levels of the electrolytes, phosphorus, uric acid and calcium.
Creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN)
Blood tests that determine the kidney’s functioning.
This test is to check for bacteria, crystals, blood and white cells in the urine.
Assessment of passed stones
This will determine what type of stone was formed.
Tests to confirm obstruction:
- Abdominal x-rays
- Intravenous pyelogram
- Retrograde pyelogram
- Magnetic resonance imaging of the kidneys and abdomen
- Abdominal CT scan
- Kidney ultrasound
Small stones are easier to expel than larger ones. Most of these stones do not require invasive surgery or treatment. Small stones can be passed by:
Drinking up to 2.8 liters of water per day may help flush the stone out of the urinary system. If approved by your doctor, make sure to drink adequate amounts of water.
The doctor may prescribe a medication to help flush the kidney stone and to reduce the pain experienced. Alpha-blockers, drugs that relax the muscles in the ureters, help pass kidney stones easily and with less discomfort or pain.
Larger stones may need to be broken up using laser energy or ultrasound. Here are the treatment options for larger kidney stones:
The doctor can use sound waves to break up stones. One of the most popular procedures is the extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL), which uses sound waves to make strong vibrations and break the stones into tiny pieces.
This surgical procedure involves the removal of the stone using small telescopes inserted through a small incision in the back.
They say that prevention is better than cure, here are measures for you to do to prevent the formation of kidney stones.
Reduce sodium intake
A high-sodium diet can trigger kidney stone formation. This is because it boosts the amount of calcium in the urine.
Drinks plenty of water
Drinking enough water will help dilute the substances in the urine, which helps prevent stone formation in the kidneys.
When you consume lesser calcium than needed in the body, it can cause an increase in the oxalate levels, which may lead to stone formation. To prevent this, consume foods rich in calcium.
Limit animal protein
Eating too much protein from animals like red meat, eggs, seafood, and poultry may increase the level of uric acid and could lead to the formation of kidney stones.
Avoid eating stone-forming foods
To reduce the chances of having kidney stones, make sure that you stay away from stone-forming foods such as chocolate, beets, rhubarb, spinach, and nuts. These are rich in oxalate.
Avoid vitamin C supplements
In men, too much supplementation of vitamin c may cause kidney stones.
Talk to your doctor about the medicines you are taking
There are medications that could increase the risk of kidney stone formation. Talk to your doctor about taking decongestants, protease inhibitors, diuretics, steroids, anticonvulsants, chemotherapy drugs and uricosuric drugs. | <urn:uuid:15629ce5-e827-480a-a171-a1f7ea502dea> | {
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Click Image to Enlarge
Linus Torvalds likes penguins, which is why "Tux," the Linux Penguin, is both official mascot and logo for Linux.
Red Hat Linux includes two types of desktop managers: Gnome and, as shown here, KDE. It almost looks like the standard Microsoft Windows graphical user interface. That's almost the point: People are used to the graphical interface with its icons, windows, pulldown menus, application launcher, panel (what's called the "taskbar" in Windows), applets, and such. But behind the desktop is the Linux kernel—the operating system—complete with true multitasking, virtual memory, shared libraries, TCP/IP networking, multi-user capability, and load balancing. (Source: Red Hat, Inc.)
Why would IBM, MSC.Software, and a whole bunch of other hardware and software suppliers get "pretty excited" about the Linux operating system (OS)? Try low cost and reliability, multi-platform support, world-wide popularity (and potential for high-volume sales), and Open Source accelerating innovation. For these same reasons, you might want to not only get excited about Linux, but consider it in your information technology (IT) strategy.
What is Linux?
Linux is a free, Unix-like OS developed by Linus Torvalds while he was a student at the University of Helsinki in 1991. (In fact, "Linux" is a fusion of "Linus" and "Unix.") Software developers worldwide have been refining Linux ever since. Linux is now developed under the GNU General Public License and its source code is freely available to everyone, although its assorted distributions might not be free from software companies and other developers.
Linux is not Unix; it was written from scratch. Both follow POSIX standards (Portable Operating System Interface for Unix). And like Unix, Linux is a more technology-oriented OS; that is, it doesn't quite have the ease-of-use slickness of Microsoft's Windows and Apple Macintosh OSs. However, those OSs don't necessarily have Linux's true multitasking, virtual memory, shared libraries, TCP/IP networking, multi-user capability, and load balancing fea- tures. Nor do they, like Linux, intrinsically support computing environments that can scale horizontally and vertically—from embedded devices, desktops and Web servers, all the way up to cluster computing environments.
Why so popular?
There are several reasons for the worldwide popularity of Linux during the past two years, according to Deepak M. Advani, vice president of Linux Strategy and Market Development for IBM Corporation (Somers, NY). First, the Linux total cost of ownership is relatively small. You don't have to pay a license or royalty for the OS. Better, it can run on inexpensive, non-proprietary, commodity hardware (read "Intel" and "AMD" desktop computers). User companies that lease their computers can trade in these machines every six months or so for a faster machine—and with Linux. "Computer users can actually save money by making a decision to install Linux tomorrow," says Michael Tiemann, chief technology officer (CTO) of Red Hat, Inc. (Durham, NC).
From a hardware perspective, Linux is very efficient; it doesn't require a lot of CPU resources. "The things people have been able to do with old and refurbished desktop computers with Red Hat Linux and the other utilities that come with it is just mind boggling," continues Tiemann.
Linux is reliable. Once you deploy a Linux-based solution, it just runs. No reboots every week or so to flush out memory, eliminate DLL corruptions, or reset pointers.
Linux preserves users' investments in skills and applications because it can be installed just about everywhere. Linux is the only OS that runs on all "Intel Inside" and AMD platforms; PowerPC, RISC, and Alpha processors; as well as on mainframes and IBM AS/400s. "Users like that; they're not locked to any given vendor," says Advani.
There's also a "macro-economic trend" to consider, Advani is quick to point out. "Universities are deploying Linux—pervasively and aggressively. Many of today's students will not only run the IT systems in the future, but they will make many of the IT decisions." Tiemann agrees, relating a conversation he had with the CTO of a Tier-1 automaker. "I asked him if he was running Red Hat at home, and he said, ‘Of course!'"
As open-source software, the Linux source code is freely available for examination, modification, and redistribution. Nobody really owns that source code (although the name "Linux" is a registered trademark of Linus Torvalds). Anyone can use it; anyone can change it, fix bugs, add new features. The only caveat is that software changes are relinquished for everybody to share and use.
"One of the interesting things about Linux and the Open Source development model is that programmers are reluctant to write poor implementations that will reflect poorly on their abilities," says Tiemann. To this, Advani adds that IBM sees Open Source accelerating innovation. "It's a mechanism to bring together some of the brightest minds in the software industry, collaborating through the power of the Internet, to develop a world-class OS."
A hardware vendor's perspective
IBM's assumption is that if Linux is this ubiquitous, IBM should have Linux running on all its "e-server platforms." (These are rebranded IBM servers. For instance, the AS/400 is now the iSeries—"I" stands for integrated; mainframes are the zSeries—"Z" for near-zero downtime.)
Of course, Linux runs on IBM's Intel-based Netfinity series (now xSeries). It also runs on IBM's other platforms, including IBM mainframes. Why would anyone want that? Universities, for instance, using IBM's VM (Virtual Machine) OS, can run tens of thousands of Linux instances on one mainframe. This not only gives the university's students their own dedicated Linux-based computer, it also increases the utilization of the mainframe.
On the industrial side, user companies love the reliability and manageability of their mainframes and the distributed computing model that IBM gives them. But these companies want to run modern, Internet-based applications on those very same mainframes. Linux makes that possible.
A software vendor's perspective
Unlike IBM, MSC.Software is pushing software—computationally intensive software. Specifically, finite element analysis (FEA). MSC.Software's goal is to take big computational jobs—crash analysis using FEA is an excellent example—and "parallelizing" them so they run much, much faster across multiple processors or some form of cluster computing environment. "By taking this really big problem, dividing it into smaller problems, and orchestrating that solution, we can do that job a lot faster," says Jay Clark, director of Marketing and Business Development for MSC.Software (Costa Mesa, CA). However, "linking several computers together does not become cost-effective unless you use commodity hardware. Linux lets you use commodity hardware with all the traditional strength of the OS, such as multi-user and multitasking with low overhead and high security, so you can get the job done faster and a lot less expensively."
This is exactly what was found at Dana Corp.'s Spicer Axle Div. (Toledo, OH), the world's leading independent axle and component manufacturer. Running Linux-based MSC.Nastran and MSC.Patran across multiple Intel processors, Spicer engineers found that individual analysis jobs ran two to ten times faster, depending on the physics behind the problem being solved. In general, the engineers found the Intel-/Linux-based cluster computing environment ran approximately three times faster and at half the cost of other simulation environments.
(By the way, herein lies Linux's real threat to Microsoft. Forget "better" software, though that's a hard one to forget. Forget less expensive software; ditto. Ground zero is in Web-based and distributed computing environments, including cluster computing. Microsoft very much wants to own the defacto OS that fuels these environments.)
What about Unix?
Unix has traditionally, and technologically, provided high-end CAD/CAM, points out Tiemann. But it does so with a price tag five to ten times what you would pay using Linux running on Intel hardware. So not surprisingly, traditional Unix applications are now showing up on Linux. Happily, migrating Unix applications to Linux is a fairly easy port.
Does this then spell the end of Unix? Hardly. Computing will continue to be a heterogeneous world, says Advani; all platforms will have a key role to play. And, alas, Linux still has some limitations. It is not yet ready to be your high-volume, mission-critical OS, continues Advani. "I look at OSs from a workload perspective. What workload do you want to deploy? Is Linux ready for that workload? For high-end databases requiring 16- or 32-way symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) capability, you need low levels of failure over time. That requires sophisticated workload management and scheduling. Some of those capabilities aren't in Linux today."
Linux in automotive
Linux has already made inroads to automotive. It is being used for servers of all types (such as file, print, and Web servers). Automotive's follow-the-sun engineering, as well as customer service and dealership, environments epitomize the distributed enterprise, and Linux is already running some of those applications. Moreover, automotive has traditionally used Unix-based cluster computing for its high-end design engineering and simulation applications, such as computational fluid dynamics and crash analysis.
By the way, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA), which, says Tiemann, runs some of the "Mother of All Finite Element Analyses" problems, is building two tera-scale computers—both of which are running Linux, the larger of the two running Red Hat Linux.
"If your readers don't consider Linux in their next compute environment, they're going to be making a big mistake," concludes Clark.
Enter "Linux" in your favorite search engine and your computer is bound to become overloaded with hits. Besides e-visiting the three suppliers mentioned in this article at www.ibm.com,www.mscsoftware.com, and www.redhat.com, trawl over to www.linux.org for lots of information about Linux, as well as links to even more information.
For information about non-proprietary work on real-time and embedded Linux, go over towww.puffinplc.org. There are other real-time Linux projects going on, proprietary and non-proprietary; enter "Linux real time" in a search engine to see.
If you can't quite replace your Windows-based software with Linux equivalents, visit the Wine Development Headquarters at www.winehq.com for software that lets Windows applications run on Linux. Keep in mind there's a lot of activity going on now in porting, or just plain rewriting, a lot of Windows applications to Linux. Along those lines, once I get my Linux system up and running, I'm making a virtual beeline to the XTree Fan Page at www.XTreeFanPage.org/x64linux.htm for a Linux clone of the DOS-based XTree file management system. (By the way, a 32-bit Windows version, which I use, is available at www.ZTree.com.)
You can download Red Hat Linux for free at Red Hat's web site. Also, Sun Microsystems' StarOffice office suite is a free download. Or you can order CDs of the downloadable files at these sites.
The same holds true at MSC.Software, which has its own Linux distribution. The MSC.Linux guys assure me this'll be an easy install. (Mea culpa: I've yet to install this distribution of Linux. I plan to. Stay tuned.) | <urn:uuid:7fc804e4-e31a-497a-9df5-5d825a238abe> | {
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While reading this month’s climate disruption dispatch, consider how the latest scientific reports and studies might translate into a picture of our collective future.
A recent study showed that deforestation has twice the negative impact on ACD as previously believed. Deforestation has two main negative impacts. First, the trees are burned and they immediately release their stored carbon into the atmosphere. Then, farms are created in their place, which go on to release other greenhouse gasses like methane and nitrous oxide. Furthermore, without trees to act as a carbon sink, less carbon dioxide is being removed from the atmosphere.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) Oceans Melting Greenland mission has warned that that Greenland ice sheet, which alone contains enough landlocked ice to raise global sea levels 20 feet, is more at risk, due to ACD, than previously believed. Even into late fall of this year, Greenland was experiencing temperatures as high as a stunning 54 degrees Fahrenheit above normal. Some of Greenland’s coastal towns were even experiencing rain, while melting was occurring up on the ice sheet well into November | <urn:uuid:a999bd05-ef49-49b2-bdf3-969753937678> | {
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The CF-100 interceptor was the first combat aircraft designed and built in Canada. In 1946, the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) issued specifications for a long-range, all-weather jet interceptor. The first CF-100 prototype flew on 19 January 1950. The RCAF took delivery of the first CF-100s the following year, and by 1953, 500 CF-100 interceptors were in service. It was NATO's first operational all-weather fighter. The CF-100 was a commercial success as well. The Belgian government purchased CF-100s for their NATO fighter squadrons. The financial success of the Avro CF-100 “Canuck” was an important consideration when the RCAF and the Avro company decided to develop the CF-105 Arrow. | <urn:uuid:8e4b4bf7-af68-406f-8bba-70f9280b029b> | {
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Teaches basic concepts of city administration. Covers relationships among city, state, and federal jurisdictions as well as cooperative efforts among city departments. Uses case study methods to emphasize the environment and organization of the city, the city administrator, and intergovernmental relationships affecting the city. Lecture 3 hours per week.
PBS 255 describes theories and practices of public administration in the United States from the perspective of the development, implementation, and evaluation of public or government policies and programs.
This course exposes students to the concept of individualism versus collectivism; materialism versus spiritualism; modernization versus traditionalism; centralization versus decentralization; and finally moral values versus opposed moral values. The craft of public administration, in its of substantive and procedural facets, is manifest in conflicts of values.
ENTRY LEVEL COMPETENCIES
No prerequisites or co-requisites. Students should be able to read and comprehend college level instructional materials.
Upon completion of this course, the student should be able to understand:
B. The integration of all the facets that constitute the management of the modern city.
C. Public administration in terms of public sector functions, programs, and activities as the "bottom line" expectations that society guarantees citizens.
D. Key principles that have come to embody the American ideal, equality, and efficiency, as the crucial determinants of how well the public, or government, sector functions.
B. Relationships. The relationship between federal, state and local government in terms of the impacts on modern city management. Policy facilitation, leadership and council effectiveness, mediation, and negotiation.
C. Leadership. The city administrator/general manager, primary role, and purpose strategic leadership.
D. Departments. The structure and purpose of local government departments organizational planning and management, human resources and strategic planning.
E. Communication. Staff effectiveness, empowerment, delegation, and leadership communication requirements of the organization, with outside others and interpersonal.
E. Finance. An overview of the financial requirements of city management budgeting and financial analysis.
F. Legal Requirements. Background to the legal requirements of city management, service delivery management, functional and operational expertise, operational planning, and quality assurance.
G. Political Requirements. An overview of the political requirements of city management democratic responsiveness, advocacy, diversity, and citizen participation.
H. Integrity. The challenges of city administration. Integrity of the manager as a professional, organizational integrity and accountability. | <urn:uuid:411c070f-44ca-45d3-a95a-f26ad02e9c3e> | {
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Quiz: Remember the definition of mal de mer?
A subatomic particle: neutron.
A unit: photon.
A basic hereditary unit: codon.
Inert gas: radon.
A chemical compound that is not a ketone or a compound that contains oxygen in a carbonyl group: parathion. | <urn:uuid:71434315-c9ca-493c-8582-5ec0770b3fb8> | {
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Britton Chance, in Memoriam
Albert S. Mildvan
01 February 2011
Britton Chance was a truly inspiring scientist, among the greatest. His long and vigorous career in biochemistry, biophysics, and biological instrumentation began with his now classic kinetic and spectroscopic studies of the mechanisms of action of individual enzymes: catalases, peroxidases, and dehydrogenases. His rigorous detection of kinetically functional enzyme-substrate intermediates, in vitro and in vivo, disposed of vitalistic proposals of enzyme action, and established Chance as the founder of modern enzymology. His elucidation of the spectral properties of enzyme-substrate intermediates, set the stage for their ultimate structural elucidation by X-ray diffraction and NMR, fields to which Chance had also made profound contributions.
Chance proceeded next to more complex multienzyme systems: the electron transport chains of respiration and photosynthesis. Mildred Cohn had shown that during mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, 18O-labeled inorganic phosphate lost more than one 18O atom, suggesting the reversibility of this process. Chance’s spectroscopic studies of this process precisely located the chemical loci of energy conservation, and established the reversibility of such energy-coupled electron transport.
In the controversial field of energy coupling, crowded with leaders in biochemistry, the conventional wisdom was that this process occurred via an energy-rich chemical intermediate, analogous to 1,3-diphosphoglyceric acid in the glyceraldehyde-1,3-diphosphate dehydrogenase reaction. In 1961, Peter Mitchell proposed a very different mechanism of energy coupling, via a proton and electrochemical gradient across the mitochondrial membrane. This was strongly, but fairly criticized by Chance and others, requesting additional experiments. After years of experiments and arguments by Mitchell, Ephriam Racker, Albert Lehninger, E. C. Slater, and others, Mitchell’s views became accepted, and Albert Lehninger (personal communication, 1977) nominated Mitchell for the 1978 Nobel prize in Chemistry. Subsequently, extending the 18O exchange studies of Mildred Cohn and the transient kinetic studies of Harvey Penefsky, Paul Boyer, together with John Walker, a crystallographer, shared the 1997 Nobel prize in Chemistry for "elucidating the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of ATP". Chance’s studies of bacterial photosynthesis established the existence of electron tunneling, and provided deep insight into the mechanisms of outer-sphere electron transfer reactions in general.
Chance next proceeded to still more complicated systems, studying the oxygen requirements and energy metabolism of cell suspensions, perfused organs, and ultimately the entire organism, including man. In his work, he made use of his home-built 31P NMR spectrometer. Chance’s approach to a scientific problem was to design and build the best instrument, usually a spectrometer, with the highest resolution in timing, spectral frequency, and sensitivity to study the problem properly. His data were interpreted conservatively, using state of the art mathematics and computation. When necessary, he also designed and built an appropriate computer.
Chance next became interested in medical imaging, expanding NMR imaging by extending it to phosphorus, and by developing near-infra red optical imaging for the detection of ischemia and cancers.
I had the privilege of collaborating with Chance in X-ray absorption studies of the enzyme glyoxalase I (1984) which revealed its essential Zn2+ to be in either a 7-coordinate or a distorted octahedral complex and to receive approximately two histidine ligands. Our collaborative studies of methemoproteins by NMR relaxation (1971) showed the 6th ligand of Fe3+ to be a water at low pH and a hydroxyl at high pH, both in solution and in the crystalline state. Crystallization decreased the escape rate of water protons from the coordination sphere of Fe3+ via an entropy barrier. Working directly with Brit was a profound experience, for which I am very grateful.
– Albert S. Mildvan, MD
Professor Emeritus of Biological Chemistry and Chemistry,
The Johns Hopkins University | <urn:uuid:e8afbec7-80dd-4fb3-92f7-f87532e3a703> | {
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Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD)
Twenty Lutheran, Reformed and United regional churches (Landeskirchen) form the Evangelical Church in Germany (Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland - EKD). German Protestant church structures are based on federal principles at all levels. Each local congregation is responsible for Christian life in its own area, while each regional church has its own special characteristics and retains its independence. Without in any way diminishing this autonomy, the EKD carries out joint tasks with which its members have entrusted it. The EKD has the following governing bodies, all organized and elected on democratic lines: the Synod, the Council, and the Church Conference. They are responsible for fulfilling the EKD's tasks as laid down in the constitution of the EKD.
A Communion of 20 Lutheran, Reformed, and United Protestant Churches | <urn:uuid:c82406e3-3739-44fc-badc-41a826126ef4> | {
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Educational accreditation is a type of quality assurance process under which services and operations of educational institutions or programs are evaluated by an external body to determine if applicable standards are met. If standards are met, accredited status is granted by the agency.
In most countries in the world, the function of educational accreditation is conducted by a government organization, such as a ministry of education. In the United States, however, a quality assurance process exists that is independent of government and performed by private non-profit organizations. The U.S. accreditation process was developed in the late 19th century and early 20th century after educational institutions perceived a need for improved coordination and articulation between secondary and post-secondary educational institutions, along with standardization of requirements between the two levels.
Other articles related to "educational accreditation, accreditation":
... In the United States, educational accreditation has long been established as a peer review process coordinated by accreditation commissions and member institutions ... The federal government began to play a limited role in higher education accreditation in 1952 with reauthorization of the GI Bill for Korean War veterans ... There is no similar federal government list of recognized accreditation agencies for primary and secondary schools ...
Famous quotes containing the word educational:
“An educational method that shall have liberty as its basis must intervene to help the child to a conquest of liberty. That is to say, his training must be such as shall help him to diminish as much as possible the social bonds which limit his activity.”
—Maria Montessori (18701952) | <urn:uuid:59b7774d-2ee9-4392-bc9e-65f4bcca4196> | {
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By: Laura Clauson
March 8, 2013
Where is the cohesive and positive public relations message that the plastics industry so desperately needs? Here are five top strategies for charting a better course in 2013:
1. Tell stories
Stories help people connect with, remember and repeat your message. Examples:
c Once upon a time, in World War II, wounded soldiers died for want of blood transfusions. Blood was carried to the frontline in glass bottles, and frequent breakages resulted in blood shortages and higher than necessary fatalities. Plastic blood bags were trialed in the 1950s, during the Korean War, and this design is still used today. Plastics saves lives.
c Once upon a time, in 1957, a Polish journalist named Ryszard Kapuscinski traveled to Africa and thereafter spent decades covering the continent. In his book, The Shadow of the Sun, he observes the cheap, light, plastic container. "A dozen years ago, this container revolutionized life in Africa," he wrote. "Water is scarce, one must carry it over long distances, sometimes 10 or more kilometers. For centuries, heavy clay or stone vessels were used for this purpose. … The division of domestic labor was such that carrying water was women's work. … Then, the plastic container appeared. A miracle! A revolution! First
of all, it is relatively inexpensive (although in certain houses it is the only thing of value): it costs around two dollars. Most important, however, it is light. ... What a relief this is for the exhausted African woman!"
Plastic has literally lightened the load for millions of poor people.
2. Remember history
Plastics had a terrible reputation in the 1940s after a glut of shoddy and badly designed goods hit the market following the onset of mass production.
Then Earl Tupper came along with his Tupperware parties in the early 1950s and helped make plastic popular again with his functional containers that kept food fresh for longer. At the same time the introduction of plastics in clothing such as polyester, nylon and Lycra thrilled housekeepers. Who doesn't want clothes that are low cost, easy to care for and don't need to be ironed?
The arrival of the ubiquitous single-use bag in the 1980s, followed by water bottles in the 1990s, created the poster children for the current vilification of the entire plastics industry as polluting, toxic and unsustainable.
With the right communications strategy, popular opinion will shift again and the 21st century will see an increased understanding of how plastics are used for the greater good.
3. Make environmentalists the perfect partners, not the worst enemies
Among others, sea turtles, with their beautiful tortoise shells, and elephants, with their magnificent ivory tusks, initially saw a dramatic improvement in their life expectancies with the development of plastic and its ability to imitate natural materials.
Environmentalism and plastics are not incompatible. It would be hard to believe that the Sierra Club doesn't use any plastic in its efforts to protect the planet or that Greenpeace is without plastic in the rain gear worn while patrolling the oceans.
But the material that once saved the sea turtle is now strangling it. Plastic's wonderful, long-lasting, waterproof qualities make it a poor material choice for single-use items that are improperly disposed of.
Stop suing to prevent single-use bag bans. Yes, we know that it makes up only a tiny percentage of litter, but let's agree that we all hate plastic bag litter. It is what we see stuck in trees, waterlogged in gutters and caught on fences.
Start working with communities and grocery stores to identify what is the best carrying sack for them. Depending on their priority — low carbon footprint, renewable material, made in the USA or cost — they will most often find that the best choice is a reusable bag made from recycled plastic. Help your bag-making members retool, reposition and diversify their product line.
Do not work alone. Recommendations from the plastics industry aren't worth the paper bag they are written on: No one trusts you. The "How to Choose a Bag for Your Community" manual needs to be created in partnership with big environmental organizations. It is in their interest to promote accurate information in their quest for plastic-free habitats.
4. Clean up your language
I hate plastic trash, but I love plastic. So if your message does not resonate with me, it won't persuade or influence anyone. In the last year, I have only seen the plastic industry play defense, using arguments that are either ineffectual or counterproductive, making people hate the industry even more.
Ineffectual arguments include:
•The industry creates and supports thousands of jobs and is filled with hardworking people. This is true for most industries and not a special consideration. Businesses come and go as the world changes. Typewriter makers were aggrieved when personal computers came along. Porters despair of the wheelie suitcase.
•The industry drives innovation in recycling. This is of course excellent, but people can't see the trash that is not there and it is images, not words, that affect people most.
Counterproductive arguments include:
•Because some Hollywood celebrities favor bag bans, anyone who wants to ban bags must be star struck. This was widely repeated during the contentious L.A. bag ban discussion. While not always, most people make up their own minds and don't just do whatever Julia Louis-Dreyfus says. And I would guess that more movements find celebrities to promote their message rather than movements being formed in the wake of celebrities.
•Defending your position with words such as "junk science," "myths," "ideological agenda" and "nanny state." While perhaps justified in certain cases, using these terms does nothing to encourage a space in which all sides can listen and learn.
Play offense. Use positive language. Show, don't tell. And turn your frustration into inspiration.
5. Engage optimism, not doom and gloom. Keep up the hard work
It has only been about 60 years since plastic hit the mainstream and we have only touched the surface of what this remarkable material can do. The world has many problems and, although often behind the scenes, the plastic industry will be at the forefront of solving many of them.
Whether through innovations in health care, global communications or sustainable living, plastics will have a growing role to play. And at the same time everyone in the industry must be transparently working to reduce the negative impacts on our whole ecosystem.
Man could not have gone to the moon without plastics and we won't alleviate poverty without it either. Get a cohesive, positive public relations message in 2013 and keep up the good work!
Laura Clauson is founder and president of Beautiful Waste, Hanover, N.H.-based social business that promotes waste management and recycling for the benefit of the urban poor. | <urn:uuid:4679ea6e-de68-4aad-b9ce-b09a4bca838c> | {
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Todd J. Barber, Cassini lead propulsion engineer
Hello and Happy New Year from the Cassini flight team at JPL and NASA! Through the seemingly endless deluge of science results from Saturn, it’s a rare treat when engineering takes center stage. I’m extremely pleased to report a successful fuel-side repressurization a few weeks ago, a critical propulsion event that should enable Cassini science for years to come. When I’m not penning this column, my day job is lead propulsion engineer on this mission, and if you’ll allow this foray into the realm of engineering, I’ll try to explain why this event was momentous and important.
Cassini’s propulsion system is the most complex ever flown on a planetary spacecraft (which I guess translates to job security for yours truly). There are two separate systems for large maneuvers and small maneuvers, the bipropellant and monopropellant systems, respectively. Even though Cassini has depleted more than 90 percent of its bipropellant, we still plan to use the main engine for years to come. For over a decade, our fuel (monomethylhydrazine, or MMH) and oxidizer (nitrogen tetroxide, NTO) have become acquainted, explosively, in the chamber of our prime R4D rocket engine. These two propellants are hypergolic, which mean they ignite on contact (not unlike my ornery niece and nephew, unfortunately). There is a preferred amount of oxidizer vs. fuel to burn in this engine; we have been running the engine at a mixture ratio (oxidizer mass used divided by fuel mass used) of about 1.65. As it turns out, continuing to use the engine at this mixture ratio would likely deplete the oxidizer first, so our recent fuel-side repressurization was optimized to aim for running out of NTO and MMH at the same time, many years from now.
Even with this explanation, mixture ratio optimization and maximizing the propulsive capability of Cassini were not the prime drivers for our MMH-side repressurization. Rather, we were approaching a portion of our operating box (the allowed propellant flow rate and mixture ratio regime of the engine) called the “chugging boundary.” Engine chugging is an oscillating instability sometimes seen in large rocket engines, and the chugging frequency for these large engines is roughly 20 Hertz (cycles per second). Hence, the name “chugging” is appropriate (imagine something going “glug-glug” twenty times per second and you’re basically there). The Cassini engine is much smaller, so its chugging frequency is vastly higher, around 260 Hz (that’s middle C to you music buffs). Chugging of the Cassini R4D was tested on the ground and would likely not be a problem for our engine or even the spacecraft, but the project has taken a wisely conservative position of avoiding the chugging region of the engine. Our recent fuel-side repressurization did exactly that, and in fact was the last required flow of helium through our pressurization system for the remainder of the mission, no matter how long it may last!
Thanks for coming along on this narrative journey into the innards of engineering; I promise a return to Cassini’s ultimate purpose -- science -- in my next column. | <urn:uuid:466065f7-6109-4011-9aa4-e668b2a5203c> | {
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|In a famous mural, Sacajawea points the way to Lewis and Clark at Three Forks carrying her infant son. Her husband Toussaint Charbonneau is shown in white buckskins and Clark's slave York is in the background.|
On February 11, 1805 Captain Meriwether Lewis recorded in his meticulous Journal the birth of a baby boy to the young wife of Toussaint Charbonneau, a French Canadian trapper living with the Hidstsa. Lewis and Captain William Clark were wintering their Corps of Discovery at Ft. Mandan in present day North Dakota before their planned push to the Pacific that spring.
The young mother, Sacajawea, had been born among the Agaidika tribe of Eastern Shoshone along the Snake River in present day Idaho and kidnapped by raiding Hidstsa at the age of 12. By 14 she was the second wife of Charbonneau.
Her husband spoke most of the languages of the tribes on the Eastern Slope of the Rockies and her knowledge of Shoshone or, in Lewis’s terms Snake, was critical because the expedition was relying on trading among her people for horses to take them further west after crossing the Great Divide. And their combined knowledge of the terrain was important, although the woman was never considered a guide. The two captains could only communicate with her through her husband.
|Sacajawea and her son as imagined.|
She and the baby accompanied the expedition when it set out in April. By May she had earned the leaders’ admiration when her quick action saved Lewis’s Journals and other important equipment after a canoe capsized. They named a near-by creek in her honor.
In August the company finally contacted the Agaidika. To everyone’s astonishment the Chief turned out to be Sakajawea’s brother Cameahwait. Needless to say, the good will created by re-uniting the family greatly eased negotiations for horses.
She continued with the party to the Pacific and her knowledge of edible plants helped save the men from starvation.
On the return trip she identified a key pass over the mountains, Gibbons Pass and later advised them to take the shortest direct route through Bozeman Pass.
She and her husband stayed for three years at Ft. Mandan before she accepted Clark’s offer to visit him at St. Louis. Clark adopted her son, Jean-Baptiste called Pompy, and provided for his education. A daughter, Lizzette was born about 1810.
Later resuming his natural father’s name, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau earned fame on his own as an explorer, guide, fur trapper trader, military scout during the Mexican War, Alcalde—mayor—of Mission San Luis Rey de Francia, and a gold prospector and hotel operator in Northern California. He spoke French and English, and learned German and Spanish during his six years in Europe from 1823 to 1829, a trip financed by Clark to round out his education. He also spoke Shoshone and other western American Indian languages, which he picked up during his years of trapping and guiding. He died.
Jean-Baptiste fathered two children. At Wuerttemberg in Germany during his European tour he fathered a child with Anastasia Katharina Fries, a soldier’s daughter. The baby, Anton Fries, died about three months after his birth. On May 4, 1848, Maria Cantarina Charguana was born to Margarita Sobin, an Indian woman from Mission San Luis Rey Luiseño woman, and Charbonneau. The infant girl's baptism, Father Blas Ordaz of the Mission San Fernando Rey de España near Los Angeles. Margarita Sobin later married Gregory Trujillo, who raised Maria. Charbonneau’s daughter and Margarita other children were registered as members of the La Jolla band of Mission Indians. She may have living descendants thus also the descendants of Sakajawea.
Sakajawea and her husband were living at Manuel Lisa’s trading post on the Missouri where a clerk recorded that she died of “putrid fever” on December 20, 1812, aged about 24. Lizzette was killed in a Blackfoot attack on the fort soon after.
|One of several monuments to Sacajawea, this one in Lemhi County, Idaho shows her with her baby.|
The resolute young woman has entered the realm of folk tale and romantic myth. She was adopted by Suffragists as an icon for womanly strength and independence. She was portrayed by blue eyed Donna Reed in the 1952 film Far Horizons. In 2000 the U.S. Mint began production of a dollar coin with an idolized portrait of her with her infant son. | <urn:uuid:bc0c52cc-05c7-4b13-a605-eaebfd37e264> | {
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You are Here:
Plants & Animals
Fish & Wildlife
Fish and Wildlife Technology Findings
/ Naturally Vegetated Buffers Work for Wildlife and Water quality
This document requires Adobe Acrobat Reader.
Naturally vegetated buffers work for wildlife and water quality (PDF, 64KB)
NRCS Home | USDA.gov | Site Map | Civil Rights | FOIA | Accessibility Statement | <urn:uuid:db17eb4a-2cc4-4c84-874c-cc0aa850f62f> | {
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This report addresses a recognised need for a more detailed assessment of the impacts of environmental and social change in the Arctic coastal zone. It introduces an alternative perspective, highlighting the need for integrated approaches to environmental and other changes in the Arctic coastal zone, exploring ways to reduce the vulnerability of coastal communities and the negative impacts of climate change (such as rising sea levels, changes in winds and storm patterns, storm-surge, flooding or coastal erosion), and addressing the need for integrated governance mechanisms to support adaptation.
The overall report is organized in three parts: (i) assessing the state of the Arctic coastal systems under three broad disciplinary themes – physical, ecological, and human systems; (ii) considering the need for and progress toward integrative approaches to monitoring, understanding, and managing change in Arctic coastal systems; and (iii) providing a synthesis and identifying data gaps and research priorities over the coming decade. It aims to be a first step towards a continuously updated coastal assessment and to identify key issues seeking future scientific concern in an international Earth system research agenda.
Tag This Document | <urn:uuid:2fab0e0d-121b-4754-8e98-9b7ef880b2c2> | {
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Following its reveal of Pizzicato, the world’s first all-digital radio transmitter, product design and development firm Cambridge Consultants has now added a digital receiver to create a complete Pizzicato radio system.
It’s a glimpse into the future of wireless design – radios built purely from computing power. Pizzicato promises to vastly increase the range of wireless applications and to be a powerful enabler for both the ‘Internet of Things’ (IoT) and 5G technology.
By moving analogue radios into the digital domain, they transcend the physical barriers of conventional analogue models and directly benefit from Moore’s Law – shrinking in size, cost and power consumption with each new generation. As a result, they create a lower-cost and more scalable enabler of high-frequency radio waves.
Pizzicato enables truly flexible software-defined radios that are able to change frequency, bandwidth or radio standard in an instant, allowing a much more dynamic – or ‘cognitive’ – use of the radio spectrum.
Historically, a major barrier to creating all-digital radios was the inability to convert between analogue and digital at radio frequency, which demands sequential calculations at billions of times per second – a requirement that today’s silicon is simply incapable of performing.
With Pizzicato, Cambridge Consultants has transformed the mathematics behind radio design, developing innovative algorithms that can perform 78 billion calculations per second on less than one square millimetre of today’s silicon. With computations running in parallel, the conversion between analogue and digital is updated in the time it takes light to travel just centimetres.
“We have a vision for radios to follow the same path as microprocessors, which have moved from expensive pieces of technology to increasingly capable and cheap devices that are installed in everyday products,” said Bryan Donoghue, digital systems group leader at Cambridge Consultants. “By moving radios into the digital domain, we’ve put them on a path to dramatic improvements in cost, size and performance – as predicted by Moore’s Law. This radical approach to making low-cost and highly flexible radios has huge potential for wireless innovation.”
One potential use for Pizzicato is in the emerging 5G mobile phone standard, which promises higher bandwidth and lower latency. New 5G networks will use ‘massive MIMO’ to efficiently reuse scarce radio spectrum and offer high data rates to even more mobile devices. But this ‘multiple-input and multiple-output’ method is a potentially costly approach, requiring huge arrays of radio transceivers. Pizzicato’s cheap and precise digital radios could dramatically change the economics of massive MIMO and help accelerate the deployment of 5G.
Pizzicato could also hold the key to lower-cost IoT devices and inject a new level of innovation into a market that has been predicted to reach 20 billion connected ‘things’ by 2020. The cost and difficulty of designing traditional analogue radios into IoT chips means that IoT innovation is often restricted to software. Pizzicato removes this barrier by allowing the digital radio to be copied between chip designs, just as microprocessors are today.
Cambridge Consultants has one of the world’s largest independent wireless development teams, with more than 140 experts working in areas ranging from ultra-low-power, short-range wireless connectivity to global satellite communication. During its 56-year history, the company has helped clients develop technology ranging from the world’s first wireless implanted pacing system to the ground-to-air radio system controlling air traffic over the majority of the planet.
Cambridge Consultants will be discussing its breakthrough Pizzicato technology at NIDays London, November 29, at the QEII Conference Centre, London, stand 18. | <urn:uuid:a31442ae-48f2-40fd-a99f-a47cebc0588d> | {
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The R-word is the word ‘retard(ed)’. Why does it hurt? The R-word hurts because it is exclusive. It’s offensive. It’s derogatory.
The “Spread the word to end the R-word campaign” asks people to pledge to stop saying the R-word as a starting point toward creating more accepting attitudes and communities for all people. Language affects attitudes and attitudes affect actions. Pledge today to use respectful, people-first language.
“Just because somebody has a disability doesn’t mean you can call them a retard,” says 25-year old Amber Goulart, “because it’s hurtful and ignorant.”
Amber works with Futures Explored’s street cleaning crew in Lafayette.
“You can’t call us that because we are not all slow; we are all different in different ways. When you call something retarded, it means you’re calling something stupid, and we are not stupid.”
You can help raise awareness about the hurtfulness of the R-word by pledging and sharing your stories year round at www.r-word.org.
Futures Explored, Inc. provides life skills and work-related training to adults with developmental disabilities.
Their innovative day program, located in the heart of downtown Lafayette, provides training in both work-related and life skills to adults with mild to moderate developmental disabilities. Participants may need help in areas of personal or social skills, or in seeking and holding a job, or both.
The Supported Employment program at Futures Explored places individuals in jobs in the community based on their skills and job readiness.
Do you have questions? Contact me HERE and I will do my very best to help.
Read the first three chapters of my book HERE.
You’ll be hooked, then you can buy it HERE. | <urn:uuid:cb5d57f9-02c6-4035-bb7f-fdbb3c8fd37d> | {
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“Mommy, let's sing!” Your toddler loves to sing with actions because he gets all of his wiggling body into the song. Many songs adapt to actions, such as with "Jack and Jill." Your toddler might point up the hill and make a rolling motion with his hands as they tumble down the hill. If you don’t know any motions, make them up. Your toddler won’t care whether your motions are the right ones or not.
Various nursery rhymes have actions that your toddler will enjoy. Hold her hands and move in a circle for “Ring Around the Rosie” and fall down at the end of the song. “I'm a Little Teapot” is another familiar song with actions that your child may learn from you or in daycare. You probably know finger play songs like "Patty Cake” and “The Itsy Bitsy Spider” and taught them to your toddler long before she could sing the words. “Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star” and “Jack and Jill” are simple nursery rhymes you can sing and create your own actions.
Teaching songs offer the options for hand and body motions. “Head, Shoulders, Knees, and Toes,” “Hokey Pokey,” “Open, Shut Them” and “10 Little Indians” teach your toddler body parts, counting skills and motor skills. Songs such as “Where is Thumbkin?,” “Bear Hunt” and “Wheels on the Bus” might not require many skills or conceptual teaching, but toddlers enjoy them and they can keep them occupied during car trips or long waits at the doctor’s office. Songs such as “Five Little Monkeys Jumping On the Bed” and “Little Bunny Foo-Foo” teach a moral lesson with the motions and talk about forbidden actions in a humorous way.
Your toddler’s Sunday school might use many action songs to keep him occupied and to teach Christian concepts. Familiar songs include “If You're Happy and You Know It,” “He’s Got the Whole World in His Hands,” “This Little Light of Mine, “The Wise Man Built His House Upon the Rock” and "I’m in the Lord’s Army.” You might be less familiar with the motions to “Jesus In the Morning,” “Arky, Arky,” “Zaccheus” and “Father Abraham,” but your child’s teacher could provide you with motions or you can make up your own.
It’s a popular practice to teach toddlers and preschoolers signs to help them communicate, but you can pick out various important words in a song and teach your toddler the correct sign or a modified song. When you sing “Jesus Loves Me,” you could point up for Jesus or use the American Sign Language sign by touching the right third finger to the left palm and the left third finger to the right palm and then extending the arms outward. For “loves,” he could hug himself and then point to his chest for “me.” You get the idea. It doesn’t have to be official sign language, so long as he connects the actions to the words. | <urn:uuid:1ef4deb0-e621-4a7b-918a-224e5fb3c306> | {
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GVC: Abundant available resources, innovative ideas and a prosperous economic climate, lead America towards rapid expansion of Industry.
- Explore inventions like, steel plow, electricity and the automobile and protection of ideas in the form of patents.
- Trace the expansion of railroad systems, development of steel and abundance of fossil fuels which lead to the birth of American business tycoons like; Vanderbilt, Carnegie and Rockefeller.
- Examine the Market revolution and its impact on workers and increases in urban development as well as the role of immigration.
- Unit 5 Study Guide pdf
- Unit 5 Study Packet Materials pdf
- TEXTBOOK “The Americans” Ch. 9 New Industrial Age pdf
Packet Notes Links
- Industrial Age Vocabulary pdf
- 7 Factors of Americas Industrial Growth pdf
- Industrial Age “Fat Cats” ppt
Men Who Built America video’s parts 1 and 2 and Transcontinental Railroad
Prepare for your test here! | <urn:uuid:248c049b-ac31-4df6-8d91-aaca3eea30f0> | {
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Spores of Botrytis cinerea on a raspberry plant
By Fanny Iriarte
Extension Plant Pathologist
Iowa State University
Gray mold caused serious losses to some greenhouse growers of raspberries in Iowa last year. Gray mold or Botrytis blight is caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea, which has a wide host range with over 200 reported hosts among ornamentals plants, vegetables and fruits. In addition, Botrytis can cause different kinds of plant diseases, attacking seedlings, flowers, fruits, stems and foliage. It is also a major cause of postharvest rot in fruits. The disease can occur in the greenhouse as well as in the field when weather is humid and cool.
In raspberry and other small fruits, the first visible signs of the pathogen in late winter are small black spots (overwintering fungal structures called “sclerotia”) on infected canes or plant residue. When conditions are right for the pathogen (70 F and over 90 percent relative humidity), the fungus produces masses of spores in a characteristic grape-cluster arrangement.
These spores can be easily carried by air currents or splashing water. Botrytis infects raspberry canes when the canes are flowering, occasionally causing flowers to turn dark and die. Interestingly, the fungus may infect raspberry flowers without displaying obvious symptoms and then go dormant until fruit begins to mature.
Botrytis rot is common near the stalk end, although closed flowers are not usually attacked but may be infected once they open. As berries ripe grayish brown spots appear and eventually the entire fruit may be affected. The dusty gray spots give the disease its name gray mold. Any kind of physical damage, such as wind and insects, predisposes fruit to infection especially in humid environments. If left unharvested, the infected berries become mummified and remain attached to the plant where more fungal spores are produced and spread to adjacent berries. The more mature the berries get, greater the chance to get infected.
Gray mold fruit rot is favored by cool, wet conditions especially rainfall or overhead irrigation prior to and during the harvest period. The length of time surface water is present and temperature influence infection progress. Therefore, the best way to manage this disease is by removing all infected plant material, including mummified berries, from the greenhouse, which must be discarded or burned.
Avoiding overhead irrigation and spacing the plant to improve air circulation will greatly help reduce the disease. In addition, avoiding excess nitrogen fertilization and efficient weed control will help maintain the environment less favorable to the disease.
Protectant fungicide sprays can be applied at seven to 14-day intervals from bloom to petal fall or harvest. Some effective fungicides are Captan, Cabrio, Abound and Pristine; these must be alternated to avoid the fungus from becoming resistant to the fungicide. Follow fungicide label recommendations and precautionary information. For more information on commercial small fruit and grape spray guidelines, refer to the 2015 Midwest Tree Fruit Spray Guide, PM 1375, available from your nearest Iowa State University Extension county office or online.
Fanny Iriarte, Plant Pathology, (515) 294-1741, [email protected]
Two high resolution photos are available for use with this column. Captions are provided below.
RaspMold1.jpg Caption: Spores of Botrytis cinerea in a characteristic grape-cluster arrangement.
RaspMold2.jpg Caption: Botrytis spores on mummified raspberry fruit. Photo credit: Beth Jarvis | <urn:uuid:7b5a7026-0616-45d6-bdf7-116fcd9a10f3> | {
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Fine presses, private presses and small presses vary from traditional publishing houses because of their size, scope and intention. Books produced by these publishers are often adored by collectors who desire books that are not run-of-the-mill.
A small press is any publishing house that publishes a small number of titles annually and operates on a small annual budget. The exact number of books and exact budget that make up the word ‘small’ is often a matter of personal preference but a good rule of thumb is if you can count their annual titles on two hands and the press itself is not funded by a larger parent company then you are probably looking at a small press.
Small presses often work in distinct literary niches that are neglected by major publishing houses such as poetry, genre fiction or specialized non-fiction areas. Small presses are famous for providing avant-garde authors with exposure and gambling on ‘alternative’ writers that would not appeal to a mainstream audience. Examples of small press include Arkham House, Melville House Publishing and Copper Canyon Press.
A fine press is a type of publisher that produces books of a high intrinsic and artistic quality. A fine press will often publish books in limited edition, include additional illustrations from a famous artist, use higher quality paper, or employ a famous bookbinder for their volumes. The distinguishing difference between a fine press and a small press is the fine presses’ commitment to fine printing and superior quality. Examples of fine presses include the Folio Society, Gregynog Press and Arion Press.
This is type of small press that is most often operated as an artistic or craft-based venture rather than a purely commercial business. Private press is often a term used to describe the English Arts and Crafts movement of the 19th and 20th centuries under the influence of William Morris whose Kelmscott Press aimed to return publishing to its medieval roots and away from the cheap mechanization of the Industrial Revolution. Examples of private presses include Roycroft Press and Nonesuch Press. | <urn:uuid:19e10382-4eb8-4d98-944f-a5a64baa6683> | {
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Now the question is: Where is in the pathway of the nerves is the pressure? Nerve roots come off the spinal cord at the level of the spine, branch into smaller nerves, into the brachial plexus (a group of nerves that innervate the upper extremity) and eventually the radial nerve innervates the first three and half fingers, while the ulnar nerve supplies the last two and half.
You may have tried massage to the arm and hand trying to stop the sleepy sensation. This happens typically due to a loss of blood flow from blood vessels in the area. Massaging the region tends to help restore blood flow.
If this isn't working, it most likely nerve vs blood vessel. Sometimes you may sleep in an awkward position and you wake up with numbness and tingling in the fingers for example.
Next, you must ask yourselfwhat may have caused this? Did you fall asleep in an awkward position? Did you hit your elbow on something?
In this case the problem could becoming from the elbow, but more than likely it starts higher. If your neck had been in an awkward position, its most likely a neck problem.
Additional Reading Resources:
- Treatment for Herniated Disc in the Neck
- How Can I Avoid Re-straining my Neck
- Shipping the cltraction pillow internationally-a pillow that helps with a pinched nerve in the neck
- Neck Pain Resulting from a C5, C6, C7, or C8 Radiculopathy
- Best Pillow for a Side Sleeper with a Pinched nerve in the neck | <urn:uuid:0dfeed07-d410-497a-9d98-caa30244bc1e> | {
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Latest excavation work in the ancient city of Çatalhöyük in Turkey has revealed the world’s first hemp-weaved fabric, which was found wrapped around a baby skeleton in the ground of a burned house.
April Holloway | Ancient Origins
The city of Çatalhöyük is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date. At a time when most of the world’s people were nomadic hunter-gatherers, Çatalhöyük was a bustling town of as many as 10,000 people. Inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, it is known as one of the best sites for understanding human Prehistory.
The linen, which dates back 9,000 years, was found as part of the latest dig, which involved 120 people from 22 different countries, and was one of the most striking findings of the season, particularly due to its high level of preservation.
“The fire warmed up the ground and platforms of the building and created a kiln drying effect. Therefore the pieces and this piece of cloth underground have been so far protected. Examinations in the laboratory show that this piece of cloth is linen weaved with hemp,” said Professor Ian Hodder, head of the excavations. “This is a first in the world and one of the best preserved examples.”
Hemp is a commonly used term for high growing varieties of the Cannabis plant and its products, which include fibre, oil, and seed. Hemp fibre was widely used throughout history for items ranging from rope to fabrics and even sail canvases. Hodder believes the piece of linen came from the eastern Mediterranean from the central Anatolia, and may be evidence of hemp used in trade.
Hemp has been cultivated by many civilizations for over 12,000 years. However, until the latest discovery, the oldest evidence of hemp fibre came from imprints found on Yangshao pottery in China dating to the 5th millennium BC. The Chinese later used hemp to make clothes, shoes, ropes, and an early form of paper. The classical Greek historian Herodotus (ca. 480 BC) reported that the inhabitants of Scythia would often inhale the vapours of hemp-seed smoke, both as ritual and for their own pleasurable recreation. It is not known whether the inhabitants of Çatalhöyük in Turkey had discovered the more ‘recreational uses’ of the Cannabis plant.
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The subject of adhesion combines many other themes. For example, surface tension and surface effects generally are important in adhesion, and adhesives need both to wet and flow in order to be effective. Further information in Effects at liquid surfaces.
The mechanism of why adhesives bond materials together is not fully understood. Whilst surfaces can exert strong attractive forces, these are negligible unless the ‘adherends’ (surfaces to be stuck together) are in extremely close contact (of the order of 0.5nm) over a large area. This is usually impossible because, on a microscopic scale, almost all surfaces are too rough.
Convincing arguments have been put forward for a number of theories as to how bond strength is created:
Whichever is true, and the actual mechanism may involve a combination of them all, the function of the adhesive is to fill surface irregularities and increase the area of contact between the adherends.
The bonding between the surfaces is then dependent on two properties of the adhesive material:
adhesion – the bonding strength of the adhesive to the substrate surface
cohesion – the strength of the bond between adhesive particles
The ability of the adhesive to wet the surface is important, so its surface free energy has to be chosen with care, particularly if the bond is to be made to a polymer surface. Capillary action is also important, as this will aid the penetration of adhesive into small surface features, such as cracks, playing an important part in promoting locking to the substrate.
A chain is only as strong as its weakest link and therefore adhesion and cohesion should be in balance for optimum performance. When a properly made metal joint is stressed to the point where it fails, the failure normally occurs within the adhesive layer itself. However, continuous stressing in the presence of moisture can move the place of failure from the bulk to the interface with the metal. By analysing the interface forces between an adhesive and a slightly oxidised metal surface, it has been shown that water is preferentially absorbed on the oxide surface and displaces the adhesive from it, and that stress accelerates the displacement.
For structural adhesives, work has concentrated on preventing this displacement by making use of ‘coupling agents’: one component reacts with the adhesive, and the other with the oxidised surface and with itself to build a thin, polymeric coating chemically attached to the metal. In general, much emphasis on surface preparation for adhesive bonding has been aimed at removing loose, unstable, hydrated oxide and replacing it by a thin stable one.
Under prolonged static loading an adhesive joint fails under a smaller load than is needed to break it in the beginning. An important design factor is the ‘endurance limit’ of the joint, the theoretical load which can be sustained indefinitely. It has been demonstrated that cyclical stressing below this limit does not weaken the joint, whereas joints subjected to higher stress levels gradually reduce in strength – although damage is not visible, a small number of joints will fail during test.[back to top]
As in the case of solder, wetting is important in adhesive joints. Much of the strength of the joint will depend on how well the adhesive flows into the microstructure of the contact surface to maximise the surface area of the contact (Figure 1).
However, adhesives with high surface energy (or ‘surface tension’) will not wet a surface of low energy such as polyethylene, polypropylene, and the fluorinated plastics. If an adhesive does not properly wet the surface, we must either look for an alternative adhesive or treat the surface to increase its surface energy.
Wetting also depends on the condition of the surface to be bonded. Any dirt or debris will reduce the strength of the joint by reducing the surface area of the adhesive bond (Figure 2). It is therefore very important that surfaces are kept extremely clean, and appropriate cleaning procedures, such as degreasing, scrubbing or priming, are important preconditions for optimum joint strength.
On application, the adhesive must be sufficiently liquid to wet the surface, but most need to polymerise further in order to solidify. With adhesives, this process is generally referred to as ‘curing’.
Your assemblies are uniquely identified by means of a self-adhesive polymer label on each board positioned on an unpopulated area that has been coated with liquid photoimageable solder mask over bare copper tracks. Use your knowledge of adhesion to explain why peeling off a label sometimes also removes the solder mask underneath.
Before we start this final section, we should like you to think about the ways in which adhesion as described above is important in making a printed circuit assembly. Why not generate a list which you can compare as we consider in turn each of the main application areas.
The printed circuit board itself totally depends on intimate adhesion between the resin, its reinforcement, and the foil of which the laminate is made. Where the laminate is drilled, and subsequently through-hole plated, then the adhesion to the plating is also important. It is the breakdown of adhesion in various ways which can cause some of the reliability issues we will be considering later in the module.
Also on the printed circuit board is solder mask and legend, both of which need to form good bonds to the laminate surface.
Adhesives are used within many components, for example to bond silicon die to the lead frame. At the same time, the adhesion between the encapsulant and the lead frame is an important factor in protecting the device against the ingress of moisture.
More obvious is the use of adhesives during the assembly process: devices intended for wave soldering are stuck to the board before immersion; heavy components may be supported with a local application of silicon adhesive; flipchips and µBGAs are underfilled.
And of course there are ways of bonding other than using adhesives. We have already become aware of soldering as a technique, but brazing and welding are joining techniques which are used for metal assemblies. For plastic components, solvent bonding and welding are both used. In almost every case, these ways of bonding require both surface activity of any infill materials and care in surface preparation. They also raise the issue of where the bond will break – in the bond line, or at either adherend, so the concepts of adhesion and cohesion still apply.
Finally, remember that what we think of as adhesives are just part of a much wider continuum of joining methods. In electronics manufacture, we need to use the most appropriate and cost-effective method for the application.[back to top] | <urn:uuid:447fb27c-83ee-45a1-b50e-ae8f7e3d7795> | {
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The Coal Question
A NOTION is very prevalent that in the continuous progress of science some substitute for coal will be found—some source of motive power as much surpassing steam as steam surpasses animal labour.
The popular scientific writer Dr. Lardner, in the following passage of his Treatise on the Steam Engine, contributed to spread such notions—in him, as a scientific man, inexcusable.*13 "The enormous consumption of coals, produced by the application of the steam-engine, in the arts and manufactures, as well as railways and navigation, has, of late years, excited the fears of many as to the possibility of the exhaustion of our coal-mines. Such apprehensions are, however, groundless. If the present consumption of coal be estimated at sixteen millions of tons annually, it is demonstrable that the coal-fields of this country would not be exhausted for many centuries.
"But, in speculations like these, the probable, if not certain, progress of improvement and discovery ought not to be overlooked; and we may safely pronounce that, long before such a period of time shall have rolled away, other and more powerful mechanical agents will supersede the use of coal. Philosophy already directs her finger at sources of inexhaustible power in the phenomena of electricity and magnetism. The alternate decomposition and recomposition of water, by magnetism and electricity, has too close an analogy to the alternate processes of vaporization and condensation not to occur at once to every mind; the development of the gases from solid matter, by the operation of the chemical affinities, and their subsequent condensation into the liquid form, has already been essayed as a source of power. In a word, the general state of physical science at the present moment; the vigour, activity, and sagacity with which researches in it are prosecuted in every civilized country; the increasing consideration in which scientific men are held, and the personal honours and rewards which begin to be conferred upon them: all justify the expectation that we are on the eve of mechanical discoveries still greater than any which have yet appeared; and that the steam-engine itself, with the gigantic powers conferred upon it by the immortal Watt, will dwindle into insignificance, in comparison with the energies of nature which are still to be revealed; and that the day will come when that machine, which is now extending the blessings of civilization to the most remote skirts of the globe, will cease to have existence, except in the page of history."
Such high-sounding phrases would mislead no scientific man at the present day; but there is a large class of persons whose vague notions of the powers of nature lay them open to the adoption of paradoxical suggestions. The fallacious notions afloat on the subject of electricity especially are unconquerable. Electricity, in short, is to the present age what the perpetual motion was to an age not far removed. People are so astonished at the subtle manifestations of electric power, that they think the more miraculous effects they anticipate from it the more profound the appreciation of its nature they show. But then they generally take that one step too much which the contrivers of the perpetual motion took—they treat electricity not only as a marvellous mode of distributing power, they treat it as a source of self-creating power.
The great advances which have been achieved in the mechanical theory of nature, during the last twenty or thirty years, have greatly cleared up our notions of force. It has been rendered apparent that the universe, from a material point of view, is one great manifestation of a constant whole of force. The motion of falling bodies, the motions of magnetic or electric attractions, the unseen agitation of heat, the vibration of light, the molecular changes of chemical action, and even the mysterious life-motions of plants and animals, all are but the several modes of greater or lesser motion, and their cause one general living force.
These views lead us at once to look upon all machines and processes of manufacture as but the more or less efficient modes of transmuting and using force. If we have force in any one of its forms, as heat, light, chemical change, or mechanical motion, we can turn it, or may fairly hope to turn it, into any other of its forms. But to think of getting force except from some natural source, is as absurd as to think of making iron or gold out of vacant space.
We must look abroad then to compare the known sources of force. Some distinct sources are of inconsiderable importance, such as the fall of meteoric stones, the fall of rocks, or the heat derivable from sulphur, and other native combustible substances. The internal heat of the earth, again, presents an immense store of force, but being powerfully manifested only in the hot-spring or the volcano, it is not available to us.
The tides arising from the attractions of the sun, earth, and moon, present another source of power, which is, and often has been, used in one way or another, and shall be considered.
The remaining natural sources of force are the complicated light, heat, chemical and magnetic influences of the sun's rays. The light, or chemical action, is the origin of organic fuel, in all its forms of wood, peat, bitumen, coal, &c.; while the heat occasions the motions of the winds and falling waters. The electricity of the air and the thunder-storm, and the electric currents of the earth, are probably secondary effects of the other influences. Among these several manifestations of force, our choice must, in all reasonable probability, be made.
Now it will be easily seen that nature is to us almost unbounded, but that economy consists in discovering and picking out those almost infinitesimal portions which best serve our purpose. We disregard the abundant vegetation, and live upon the small grain of corn; we burn down the largest tree, that we may use its ashes; or we wash away ten thousand parts of rock, and sand, and gravel, that we may extract the particle of gold. Millions, too, live, and work, and die, in the accustomed grooves for the one Lee, or Savery, or Crompton, or Watt, who uses his minute personal contribution of labour to the best effect.
So material nature presents to us the aspect of one continuous waste of force and matter beyond our control. The power we employ in the greatest engine is but an infinitesimal portion withdrawn from the immeasurable expense of natural forces.*14 But civilization, as Liebig said, is the economy of power, and consists in withdrawing and using our small fraction of force in a happy mode and moment.
The rude forces of nature are too great for us, as well as too slight. It is often all we can do to escape injury from them, instead of making them obey us. And while the sun annually showers down upon us about a thousand times as much heat-power as is contained in all the coal we raise annually; yet that thousandth part, being under perfect control, is a sufficient basis of all our economy and progress.
The first great requisite of motive power is, that it shall be wholly at our command, to be exerted when and where and in what degree we desire. The wind, for instance, as a direct motive power, is wholly inapplicable to a system of machine labour, for during a calm season the whole business of the country would be thrown out of gear. Before the era of steam-engines; windmills were tried for draining mines; "but though they were powerful machines, they were very irregular, so that in a long tract of calm weather the mines were drowned, and all the workmen thrown idle. From this cause, the contingent expenses of these machines were very great; besides, they were only applicable in open and elevated situations."
No possible concentration of windmills, again, would supply the force required in large factories or iron works. An ordinary windmill has the power of about thirty-four men,*15 or at most, seven horses. Many ordinary factories would therefore require ten windmills to drive them; and the great Dowlais Ironworks, employing a total engine power of 7,308 horses,*16 would require no less than 1,000 large windmills!
In navigation the power of the wind is more applicable, as it is seldom wanting in the open sea, and in long voyages the chances are that the favourable will compensate the unfavourable winds. But in shorter voyages the uncertainty and delay of sailing vessels used to be intolerable. It is not more than forty years since passengers for Ireland or for the Continent had sometimes to wait for weeks until a contrary wind had blown itself out. Such uncertain delays dislocate business, and prevent it from proceeding in the rapid and machine-like manner which is necessary for economy. Hence the gradual substitution of steam for sailing vessels. In the steam boiler, indeed, we have the veritable bag of Æolus; and thus, though steam is a most costly power, it is certain, and our sea captains are beginning to look upon wind as a noxious disturbing influence. In a well-established and connected system of communications, there is little or no use, and often a good deal of harm, in reaching a place before the appointed time. Thus there is a tendency to decline the aid of sails even when the wind is favourable and strong, and, unless for the purpose of saving fuel, a point little attended to as yet, it cannot be said that there is any benefit to be derived from sails equivalent to their trouble and cost. It is certainty that is the highest benefit of steam communication.
The regularity and rapidity of a steam vessel render it an economical mode of conveyance even for a heavy freight like coal. The first cost of a steam collier is five times as much as for sailing colliers of equal tonnage. But then capital invested in the steam vessel is many times as efficient as in the sailing vessel. A steam collier can receive her cargo of 1,200 tons at Newcastle in four hours, reach London in thirty-two hours, discharge by steam hydraulic machinery in ten hours, and return to Newcastle with water ballast within seventy-six hours for the round voyage. A single collier has been known to make fifty-seven voyages to London in one year, delivering 62,842 tons of coal with a crew of twenty-one persons. To accomplish the same work with sailing colliers would require sixteen vessels, and 144 hands.*17
The same necessity for regularity may be still more clearly seen in land conveyance. A wind-waggon would undoubtedly be the cheapest kind of conveyance if it would always go the right way. Simon Stevin invented such a carriage, which carried twenty-eight persons, and is said to have gone seven leagues an hour.*18 Sailing coal-waggons were tried by Sir Humphrey Mackworth at Neath about the end of the seventeenth century, and Waller eulogizes these "new sailing waggons, for the cheap carriage of his coal to the waterside, whereby one horse does the work of ten at all times; but when any wind is stirring (which is seldom wanting near the sea), one man and a small sail do the work of twenty."*19
Nearly a century later Richard Lovell Edge-worth spent forty years' labour in trying to bring wind carriages into use. But no ingenuity could prevent them from being uncertain: and their rapidity with a strong breeze was such, that, as was said of Stevin's carriage, "they seemed to fly, rather than roll along the ground." Such rapidity not under full control must be in the highest degree dangerous.
"Nothing could at first sight have seemed more improbable than the success of the steam locomotive over the atmospheric locomotive. The power of the air, which was absolutely gratuitous, was proved to be capable of impelling railway carriages as effectually as the power of steam, generated by coals which were procured at a great cost, and were brought from a considerable distance. But the conditions under which the force of the atmosphere could be applied were so onerous that the invention ceased to present the character of an aid, and its use has consequently been discontinued."*20
It is the characteristic of certainty which led Brindley strongly to prefer canals to improved river navigations. Rivers he regarded as only fit to feed canals, and as being themselves subject to floods and droughts, he characterised them "as out of the power of art to remedy."*21 Many of Brindley's finest engineering works on the Bridge-water Canal were directed to warding off the interference of river floods. Yet even his great canal was subject to be frozen up in winter and to be let dry for repairs in summer, and we could not tolerate the inconvenience and loss which a stoppage of traffic would now occasion in our large and nicely-jointed system of trade.
Uncertainty will for ever render aërial conveyance a commercial impossibility. A balloon or aërial machine does not enjoy like a ship the reaction of a second medium. It is subject to the full influence of the wind. Thus, even if an aërial machine could be propelled by some internal power from fifty to a hundred miles an hour, it could not make head against a gale. To say nothing of the facts that balloon travelling must be dangerous, that it is really dependent on the use of fuel, and cannot, as far as we can yet see, ever be rendered practicable or cheap, it is, beyond all this, subject to natural uncertainty necessarily precluding its general use.
Atmospheric or terrestrial electricity has, no doubt, suggested itself to some as a source of power. The thunder-cloud, the aurora borealis, and the earth-current of the telegraphic wire, are natural manifestations of electric power, which might possibly be utilized. But such secondary forces are altogether inconsiderable in amount, compared with the forces of heat and wind, from which they doubtless arise. In fact, they are scarcely sensible, except during thunder, auroral or magnetic storms, when they become destructive, and interrupt our telegraphic communications. We should no more think of waiting for a magnetic storm to move our engines, than Brindley would have thought of waiting for a mountain torrent to float his canal boats. The first essential of a motive force is constancy; natural electricity, on the contrary, possesses all the characteristics of uncertainty and extreme irregularity, which are most opposed to utility.
We meet, however, a constant and manageable source of force in water power. The water-wheel, or the turbine, possesses a natural tendency to uniformity of motion, even more perfect than that bestowed on the engine by Watt's "governor." Water power is, in this respect, the best motive power, and is sometimes used on this account, where a very delicate machine requires to be driven at a perfectly constant rate. When an abundant natural fall of water is at hand, nothing can be cheaper or better than water power. But everything depends upon local circumstances. The occasional mountain torrent is simply destructive. Many streams and rivers only contain sufficient water half the year round, and costly reservoirs alone could keep up the summer supply. In flat countries no engineering art could procure any considerable supply of natural water power, and in very few places do we find water power free from occasional failure by drought.
The necessity, again, of carrying the work to the power, not the power to the work, is a disadvantage in water power, and wholly prevents that concentration of works in one neighbourhood which is highly advantageous to the perfection of our mechanical system. Even the cost of conveying materials often overbalances the cheapness of water power. The splendid Katrine Water Mills recently constructed by Mr. Fairbairn are in the best natural circumstances, and give a nominal power of 100 horses at an annual cost of 1,260l. But Mr. Fairbairn calculates that an equivalent force from coals, at 7s. per ton, would only cost 1,400l., and the difference is probably more than balanced by the cost of conveying raw materials and products to and from the mill, with the possibility, too, of an occasional scarcity of water during drought.*22
It is usually possible, with more or less labour, to procure water power artificially, to store it up, and convey and expend it where we like. Those who are acquainted with Sir W. Armstrong's beautiful apparatus for working cranes, dockgates, and performing other occasional services, will probably allow that the most perfect conceivable system of machine labour might be founded on hydraulic power. Imagine an indefinite number of windmills, tidal-mills, and water-mills employed to pump water into a few immense reservoirs near our factory towns. Water power might thence be distributed and sold, as water is now sold for domestic purposes. Not only all large machines, but every crane, every lathe, every tool might be worked by water from a supply pipe, and in our houses a multitude of domestic operations, such as ventilation, washing, the turning of the spit, might be facilitated by water power.
The first suggestion of a system of storing and distributing power seems to be due to Denis Papin, the French refugee engineer, the same who suggested the use of the steam-engine piston.*23 In the Transactions of the Royal Society for the year 1687*24 he described a method of prolonging the action of water-wheels by drawing and forcing air through tubes, which seems to involve the principle of the boring machines of the Mont Cenis tunnel, the new coal-cutting machine, and pneumatic and hydraulic apparatus generally. And it was Bramah, a second French engineer, domiciled here, who first showed in practice the wonderful capabilities of hydraulic power. And so controllable, safe, clean, and irresistible is hydrostatic pressure, either of air or water, that, now our mechanical skill in construction is sufficiently advanced, it must come more and more into use. We might almost anticipate from its wide adoption a perfect Utopian system of machine labour, in which human labour would be restricted to the simple direction of the hydraulic pressure.
But before indulging in imaginary approximations to perfection, it is well to inquire into the several conditions of possibility. To the capabilities of hydrostatic pressure there is perhaps physically speaking scarcely a limit, but commercially speaking our command of water power, or hydrostatic power, in whatever form, is nearly limited to our command of steam. It is steam that presents us with hydrostatic power in its most abundant and available form. Water power in uniform abundance is to be had, in this country at least, only through steam; and all experience points to the fact that, instead of water being a possible commercial substitute for steam, it is steam that from its first use has been a substitute for water power.
A brief consideration of the history of the steam-engine will put this fact in the clearest light. Though water power had been in use since the time of the Romans, a great want was clearly felt in the seventeenth century of some new power, antithetical to water power, so to speak, and capable of overcoming it, so that drowned mines might be pumped dry, and water might be raised to furnish artificial water power, where a natural supply was not to be had. The earliest explicit patent for a new engine was directed to the raising of water,*25 and the "Exact and True Definition" of the Marquis of Worcester's engine clearly expressed a similar purpose.
"There being indeed no place but either wanteth water, or is overburdened therewith...by this engine either defect is remediable." Hence the Marquis calls his invention a "stupendous water commanding engine," and truly regarded it as a new primum mobile which was to overcome the force of falling water.
His appreciation of the value of water power is shown by his remarkable motto:*26—
"Whosoever is master of weight is master of force,
"And consequently," said he, "to him all forcible actions and achievements are easy, which are in any wise beneficial to, or for, mankind."
Savery had no less correct and exalted notions of what his engine might accomplish by simply overcoming the gravity of water. It generated an universal motive power; for he said, "I have only this to urge, that water in its fall from any determinate height, has simply a force answerable to, and equal to the force that raises it;"*27 and he hints at "what may yet be brought to work by a steady stream and the rotation, or circular motion of a waterwheel," and "what use this engine may be put to in working of mills, especially where coals are cheap."
Now during the greater part of last century the steam-engine did perform the duty alluded to; it did pump up water and furnish artificial water power for turning mills and winding coals from mines. At the Coalbrookdale Iron Works it accomplished an inestimable service by enabling Darby to maintain and increase the blast of his new coal furnaces, an atmospheric engine being used to return the water from the lower to the higher mill-pond.*28
Had not the introduction of the crank, flywheel, and governor by Watt, enabled us to communicate equable circular motion directly from a steam-engine to a machine, the water-wheel supplied with water by an engine would to this day be the source of motive power. As it is, of course steam power used directly is cheaper than steam power used indirectly. Water power is now only used where a natural fall is easily available. Such falls had in general become monopolised property from time immemorial, and naturally became the seats of factory labour, half a century or more ago. But it was the steam-engine which alone could allow the growth of our factory system, as seen in the fact that steam power employed in factories now exceeds water power six-fold. In 5,117 textile factories existing in the United Kingdom in 1856, the power employed consisted of,*29—
The water-wheel, moreover, has, by the continued exertions of our great engineers, from Smeaton down to Fairbairn, been carried near its mathematical maximum of efficiency, whereas the engine yet gives us only a fraction of the power it may be made to give. The improvement of the engine has, in fact, caused it to be substituted successively in many mills before worked by water; and could its efficiency be again doubled, as is not impossible, hardly could the best water power in the country withstand the superior economy of steam.
The predominance of steam over water is seen in many other instances. It is a steam-engine that is used to supply water power for Sir W. Armstrong's apparatus, as at the Liverpool and Birkenhead Docks. A handsome and lofty building will be seen near the Birkenhead Great Float, containing a reservoir of artificial water power thus obtained. Again, it is only the engine that can supply water for the manufacturing and domestic uses of our great towns like Manchester and London. Our factories, printworks, sugar refineries, breweries, and other works, find it a matter of immense cost and difficulty to get a plentiful supply of water from wells and pumping engines, or from natural sources. And if we can hardly supply our boilers with water, how can we dream of ever using water, instead of steam, in the cylinder, and as the motive power?
The predominance of steam is further seen in its actual substitution for the windmill, or the tidal mill. Wind-cornmills still go on working until they are burnt down, or out of repair; they are then never rebuilt, but their work is transferred to steam-mills. Yet the grinding of corn is a work most suitable to the variable power of the wind. Again, if there is anything which could be cheaply done by wind, it is the raising of large masses of water where occasional irregularities are of no consequence, the rain and wind mostly coming together. Yet the windmills long employed to drain the Lincolnshire Fens, as practised in Holland, were at last superseded by powerful steam-engines, on the recommendation of Mr. Rennie.*30 Tidal mills are no novelty. One is mentioned in the first page and column of the Domesday Book as existing at Dover. A tidal pump was long moved by the current under Old London Bridge, and supplied the City with water. A tidal corn-mill, too, of very ingenious construction, subsequently existed at Woolwich.*31 Not long ago Sir Robert Kane, in his "Industrial Resources of Ireland,"*32 supposed tidal mills to be capable of supplying motive power to Ireland.
The application of the tides to machine labour is rendered difficult on account of their variation from day to day. To gain a constant head of water always available we must either construct elaborate and costly high and low tide basins, or else we must use the variable tidal wheel to pump up water into a great reservoir. The estuary of the Dee is one of the places best adapted to give a vast tidal power, and an anonymous but apparently able engineer has calculated what power might be utilised there.*33 He considers that the equivalent steam power might be had at a capital cost of £4,000,000, a sum wholly insufficient to provide the tidal works. Hence he concludes that the tidal scheme would be at least commercially impracticable, and he doubts whether it would be at all possible mechanically speaking to construct embankments and tidal basins on loose sands.
And whatever schemes of this sort be proposed we should remember that the tendency of tidal docks and reservoirs to silt up is an insuperable objection in cost. Engineers, from the time of Brindley, have constantly found that there is nothing more nearly beyond the remedy of art than the silting up of harbours, docks, and reservoirs. The great new Birkenhead Docks are threatened with this evil, and a tidal mill and reservoir constructed on the opposite side of the Mersey about half a century ago was soon abandoned for a similar reason.
It will, therefore, appear obvious that if we are to have a water power millennium of machine labour, which is physically possible, it must yet be using steam as the ultimate source of power.
To go on to other suggestions, we may notice the very prevalent opinion that the electro-magnetic engine will some day supersede the steam-engine. Such an engine, however, must be worked by an electro-positive metallic element as the source of power. Now it is coal or fuel only by which we can smelt ores and obtain the metal required for the engine, and it is demonstrable that we should get far more force by using coal directly under a steam-engine boiler, than by using it to smelt metals for an electro-magnetic engine. After the exposure of the claims of such an engine by Baron Liebig,*34 I need not dwell upon it. The predominance of steam, too, is shown most clearly in the fact that the steam-engine is used conversely to turn Faraday's magneto-electric machines, and supply electricity for telegraph purposes, and for illuminating lighthouses. And while force is found to be the cheapest source of electricity, it is impossible that electricity should be the cheapest source of force. The electro-magnetic engine might be found a convenient device for applying or concentrating force in some particular circumstances, but the force must ultimately be furnished by coal.
Hitherto we have considered mechanical force only, but it is obvious that if coal were used up we should want some source of heat as well as force. A favourite notion is to employ wind, water, or tidal mills to turn magneto-electric machines, and by the stream of electricity produced to decompose water, thus furnishing a continuous supply of artificial gaseous fuel. Such a plan was proposed in the Times during the discussion on the French Treaty. But an answer, attributed to Dr. Percy of the School of Mines, soon appeared, showing the amount of fuel derivable to be inconsiderable. The waste of power must be vastly greater in such a process of transmutation than in the system of artificial water power which we have considered. Besides, if uniform experience is to be trusted, a steam-engine would be a much more economical means of turning the magneto-electric machines than either a wind, water, or tidal machine. We should therefore only use coal in a roundabout manner to generate a less valuable fuel. For the hydrogen gas generated, though in some instances valuable, would in general be immensely less convenient than coal. For equal weights, it gives about four times as much heat as coal, but hydrogen is so light that for equal volumes it gives one five-thousandth part as much heat. To compress it in a small space would require more force than the combustion of the fuel itself would furnish, and gas companies do not find it convenient to compress their gas. Hydrogen too has so much higher a diffusive power than coal-gas, that it could hardly be retained in gasometers or ordinary pipes. Even the loss of coal-gas by leakage is said to be nearly twenty-five per cent.
Of course it is useless to think of substituting any other kind of fuel for coal. We cannot revert to timber fuel, for "nearly the entire surface of our island would be required to grow timber sufficient for the consumption of the iron manufacture alone."*35 And I have independently calculated, from the known produce of continental forests,*36 and the comparative heat-producing values of timber and coal,*37 that forests of an extent two and a half times exceeding the whole area of the United Kingdom would be required to furnish even a theoretical equivalent to our annual coal produce. Practically, however, there are inconveniences about the use of timber that would altogether prevent it from nourishing a large manufacturing system. Wood fuel is superior to coal in the single case of the iron smelting furnace; but in most other uses, the greater bulk of wood, and the large areas of forest land over which it is spread, necessarily render it a costly and inefficient fuel compared with coal.
Peat, or turf, again, may no doubt be turned into fuel; but, in spite of what has been said in its favour by Sir R. Kane,*38 all experience shows that it is immensely inferior as regards cost and efficiency to coal. It is usually full, too, of phosphorus and sulphur, and thus has not even those advantages of purity which render timber so valuable for the iron blast furnace.
Petroleum has of late years become the matter of a most extensive trade, and has even been proposed by American inventors for use in marine steam-engine boilers. It is undoubtedly superior to coal for many purposes, and is capable of replacing it. But then, What is Petroleum but the Essence of Coal, distilled from it by terrestrial or artificial heat? Its natural supply is far more limited and uncertain than that of coal, its price is about 15l. per ton already, and an artificial supply can only be had by the distillation of some kind of coal at considerable cost. To extend the use of petroleum, then, is only a new way of pushing the consumption of coal. It is more likely to be an aggravation of the drain than a remedy.
Coal has all those characteristics which entitle it to be considered the best natural source of motive power. It is like a spring, wound up during geological ages for us to let down. Just as in alluvial deposits of gold-dust we enjoy the labour of the natural forces which for ages were breaking down the quartz veins and washing out the gold ready for us, so in our seams we have peculiar stores of force collected from the sunbeams for us. Coal contains light and heat bottled up in the earth, as Stephenson said, for tens of thousands of years, and now again brought forth and made to work for human purposes.
The amount of power contained in coal is almost incredible. In burning a single pound of coal there is force developed equivalent to that of 11,422,000 pounds weight falling one foot, and the actual useful force got from each pound of coal in a good steam-engine is that of 1,000,000 lbs. falling through a foot; that is to say, there is spring enough in coal to raise a million times its own weight a foot high. Or again, suppose a farmer to despatch a horse and cart to bring a ton of coals to work a portable engine, occupying four hours on the way. The power brought in the coal is 2,800 times the power expended in bringing it, and the amount of useful force actually got from it will probably exceed by 100 times or more that of the horse as employed in the cart. In coal we pre-eminently have, as the partner of Watt said, "what all the world wants—POWER." All things considered, it is not reasonable to suppose or expect that the power of coal will ever be superseded by anything better. It is the naturally best source of power, as air and water and gold and iron are, each for its own purposes, the most useful of substances, and such as will never be superseded.
Of course I do not deny that if our coal were gone, or nearly so, and of high price, we might find wind, water, or tidal mills, a profitable substitute for coal. But this would only be on the principle that half a loaf is better than no bread. It would not enable us to keep up our old efficiency, nor to compete with nations enjoying yet undiminished stores of fuel. And there is little doubt, too, that a century hence the steam-engine will be two or three-fold as efficient as at present, turning the balance of economy so far the more in favour of those who then possess coal, and against those who have to resort to water or wind.
This is a point which I must insist upon as finally decisive of the question. The progress of science, and the improvement in the arts, will tend to increase the supremacy of steam and coal. Any mechanist knows that the water-wheel and the windmill have been brought, by the exertion of our engineers, Brindley, Smeaton, Rennie, Telford, and Fairbairn, near to their mathematical limit of efficiency; so that we can do little more than improve the mechanical construction, and gain some small percentage of additional power by reducing the friction of the machinery. The steam-engine, on the other hand, at least equally admits of improvement in mechanical details; but beyond this, in the principles of heat and vapour, we see clearly the possibility of multiplying at least three-fold the efficiency of fuel. If there is anything certain in the progress of the arts and sciences it is that this gain of power will be achieved, and that all competition with the power of coal will then be out of the question. In short, the general course of science and improvement will only lead us the more to regret the limited extent of our coal resources.
But let us further remember that coal is now a pre-eminent gift in our actual possession, whereas if any wholly new source of power be some day discovered, we have no reason to suppose that our island will be as pre-eminently endowed with it as with coal.
Mr. Babbage has applied his rare genius to this question, and what he has once said is incapable of improvement. Passing over the period which this work considers, when coal will be scarce here and plentiful elsewhere, he has thrown his thoughts forward to the time when coal will be scarce everywhere. Heat, he thinks, may then be got from the hot springs of Ischia. "In Iceland," he continues,*39 "the sources of heat are still more plentiful; and their proximity to large masses of ice seems almost to point out the future destiny of that island.... In a future age power may become the staple commodity of the Icelanders."
Power is at present our staple commodity, and Mr. Babbage clearly saw, more than thirty years ago, that with our coal power must pass from us.
Among the residual possibilities of unforeseen events, it is just possible that some day the sunbeams may be collected, or that some source of force now unknown may be detected. But such a discovery would simply destroy our peculiar industrial supremacy. The study of electricity has already been zealously cultivated on the Continent with this view,—"England," it is said, "is to lose her superiority as a manufacturing country, inasmuch as her vast store of coals will no longer avail her, as an economical source of motive power."*40 And while foreigners clearly see that the peculiar material energy of England depends on coal, we must not dwell in such a fool's paradise as to imagine we can do without coal what we do with it.
Notes for this chapter
Lardner, On the Steam Engine, 7th ed. 1840, p. 8.
See "Economy of Manufactures," § 17, et passim. In this exquisite work Mr. Babbage anticipates the modern doctrines of the relations of the natural forces.
Life of Telford. Telford's Memorandum Book, p. 671.
Truran on the Iron Manufacture of Great Britain, p. 242.
C. M. Palmer, Report of the British Association, 1863, p. 697.
See a curious account in the British Museum, under the name Stevin, 1652.
Smiles' Engineers, vol. iii. p. 73.
Plutology; or, the Theory of Efforts to satisfy Human Wants. By W. E. Hearn, LL.D. Professor of Political Economy in the University of Melbourne, 1864, p. 199. This work appears to me both in soundness and originality the most advanced treatise on political economy which has appeared, and it should be familiar to every student of the science.
Smiles' Engineers, vol. i. p. 458.
Fairbairn on Mills and Mill-Work, p. 89.
See p. 103.
No. 186, p. 263, Jan. 1687.
See the patent of 1631, in Rymer's Fœdera.
Harleian Miscellany, vol. iv. p. 526.
Miner's Friend, pp. 28, 29.
See chap. xv.
Chadwick, Report of the Brit. Assoc. 1861, p. 210.
Smiles' Engineers, vol. i. p. 67.
First edition, p. 105.
See the Journal "Engineering," 30th March, 1866, p. 195.
Letters on Chemistry, No. 12.
Taylor's Archæology of the Coal Trade, p. 176.
Percy's Metallurgy, vol. i. pp. 71, 72.
Watt's Chemical Dictionary, Article Fuel.
Industrial Resources of Ireland, 1st ed. chap. ii.
Economy of Manufactures, 3rd ed. 1833, § 465.
Liebig's Letters on Chemistry, No. 12, p. 154.
End of Notes
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A United Nations report published this week predicts that by the year 2050 more than six billion people will live in cities - almost double today's total of 3.5 billion. In 1900 just 220 million people lived in urban areas.
Today almost half of all urban-dwellers live in settlements of fewer than 500,000 inhabitants but the number of "mega-cities" - urban conurbations with a population of 10 million plus - is expected to keep rising. In 1990 there were only ten mega-cities but today there are 28, 16 of them in Asia.
Currently the world's most populous city is Tokyo, with 38 million, and Tokyo will probably still be the largest city on earth in 2050. However close behind will be a number of rapidly-growing urban areas including Delhi, Mexico City and Sao Paulo.
Over a third of all the new city-dwellers will be in just three countries - China, India and Nigeria. Between 2014 and 2015 there will be an additional 404 million city-dwellers in India, 292 million in China and 212 million in Nigeria.
Meanwhile the rural population is expected to keep rising until around 2020 when it begins to decrease. Africa and Asia are still home to some 90% of the world's rural population despite rapid urbanisation.
Today just over half the world's population live in cities. By 2050 that total will rise to around 66% - two thirds of all people on earth. The UN report, "World Urbanization Prospects", says these changes will present major challenges, including transport, housing, energy and employment.
John Wilmoth, Director of the Population Division in the UN's Department of Economic and Social Affairs, says: "Managing urban areas has become one of the most important development challenges of the 21st century. Our success or failure in building sustainable cities will be a major factor in the success of the post-2015 UN development agenda."
Fact box: the ten largest cities in 2014 by population
Tokyo (Japan): 38 million
Delhi (India): 25 million
Shanghai (China): 23 million
Mexico City (Mexico), Mumbai (India) and São Paulo (Brazil): 21 million
Osaka (Japan): 20 million
Beijing: 19 million
New York-Newark (USA) and Cairo (Egypt): 18.5 million
(Source: United Nations) | <urn:uuid:f15702ac-1e9e-4086-be07-19a87ef3f5f4> | {
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The Importance of Having a Good Mentor
by Gregory P. Smith
New employees may not feel comfortable asking their supervisor questions pertaining to their job, but a mentor can often bridge that gap. A mentor can guide a new employee by answering questions about basic routines, do's and don'ts, and various job responsibilities.
A mentor, basically, is someone who serves as a counselor or guide. Being asked to serve as a mentor is an honor. It indicates that the company has faith in the person's abilities and trusts him or her to have a positive impact on the situation. Many companies have discovered that the use of a mentor for new employees not only helps employees settle into their job and company environment, but also contributes to a lower turnover rate. The use of a mentor may be an informal, short-term situation or a more formal, long-term assignment.
In an informal mentoring program, the mentor usually helps the new employee for a limited period of time. Advice from the mentor may include the most basic of information about everyday routines including tips about "do's and don'ts" not found in the employee manual to helping the employee learn job responsibilities. A mentor available to answer routine questions also saves time for the supervisor or manager. In addition, new employees often feel more comfortable asking questions of a peer instead of a supervisor.
In a program of this type, mentors often are volunteers. Forcing someone who does not want to serve as a mentor to do so can quickly create problems. Obviously, someone with a negative attitude, who might encourage a new employee to gripe and complain, should not serve as a mentor.
A more formal version of mentoring occurs when an organization appoints an employee with extensive knowledge and experience to serve as a mentor to a new professional the company feels has excellent potential for growth. The mentor's role usually lasts for an extended period of time and possibly may not end until the person mentored reaches the level of the mentor.
Whether informal or formal, both parties need to understand the parameters. These may be more important in a long-term, formal mentoring situation, but can also influence the success of short-term, informal mentoring.
- The mentor's role is to teach and advise the new employee. The mentor does not interfere with the supervisor or manager's decisions. The new employee, while expected to seek the mentor's advice particularly on critical issues, is not bound to accept that advice.
- Confidentiality is important. Both parties need to feel confident that discussions remain between them--not immediately relayed to a supervisor or manager.
- Certain areas may be considered off-limits. The mentor needs to outline these areas at the beginning.
- Decide in advance how you will communicate. Will you have regularly scheduled meetings? Will discussion be face-to-face, over the telephone or even via e-mail communication. Both parties need to make their preferences known at the beginning and reach an acceptable compromise if the preferences are different.
- Discuss time limits. If the mentoring period has a time limit the mentor should state that at the beginning.
- Discuss time commitments. Again, this may be more critical for the long-term, formal mentoring. The mentor must expect to give the new employee adequate time, but the newcomer should not expect excessive amounts of time. Setting a schedule at the beginning (example: meet once a week the first month, then once a month after that) avoids irritating misunderstandings later.
- Openness and respect: Both the mentor and the person being mentored need to be open and honest, yet respect the other. A mentor who withholds important information or comments does not contribute to the other person's success. However, such comments should be delivered with tact and courtesy--and (even if somewhat hurtful) received with an open mind.
- Professional relationship: The relationship between the mentor and his or her protégé is a professional one, not a personal one. This is particularly important for the new employee to understand.
- It would be particularly helpful to conduct a DISC assessment profile on both the mentee and mentor. The DISC assessment helps both understand each other's communication styles, strengths and limitations.
Greg Smith's cutting-edge keynotes, consulting and training programs have helped businesses accelerate organizational performance, reduce turnover, increase sales, hire better people and deliver better customer service. As President and Lead Navigator of Chart Your Course International he has implemented professional development programs for thousands of organizations globally. He has authored nine informative books including his latest book Fired Up! Leading Your Organization to Achieve Exceptional Results. He lives in Conyers, Georgia. Sign up for his free Navigator Newsletter by visiting http://www.ChartCourse.com or call (770) 860-9464. | <urn:uuid:de173a2d-9848-417e-a2ab-9352f63dec58> | {
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Catching Up on Statewide Efforts to Promote Bilingualism
Four national professional organizations have banded together to draft recommendations for the seal of biliteracy—a special recognition on high school diplomas and transcripts for graduates who demonstrate fluency in two or more languages.
The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages; the National Council of State Supervisors for Languages; the National Association for Bilingual Education; and the TESOL International Association, the organization for teachers who specialize in working with English-learners, developed the recommendations in this five-page document.
Education Week reported last July that more states are supporting bilingualism with the special seals on diplomas. With even more states considering adding the seal, the groups sought to offer state lawmakers and education officials a guide for best practices to "ensure consistency in the meaning" of the recognition.
"As more states and local education entities consider the merits of formally recognizing the multilingual and multicultural abilities of their graduates as strong assets in today's global society, the members ... enthusiastically endorse these guidelines as a viable source of guidance backed by current research and best practices," National Council of State Supervisors for Languages President Ryan Wertz said in a statement.
The recommendations include allowances for students who are literate in Latin and Classical Greek, American Sign Language and Native American languages.
Among the recommendations:
- ELLs should demonstrate proficiency on state assessments for English language arts for all students and English language development for English-learners.
- Students seeking to demonstrate proficiency in another language should achieve a state-determined minimum score on any number of tests, including AP or International Baccalaureate exams, and tribal language assessments.
- Local districts and schools should make the awarding of the Seal of Biliteracy visible at graduation and senior award ceremonies.
Educators say that earning the seal could give students an advantage, opening the door for college scholarships, internships and jobs that require proficiency in a language other than English.
"This is an unprecedented collaboration by language educators to guide states in the implementation of the Seal of Biliteracy to ensure that students in each state are encouraged to demonstrate language proficiency in both English and another language," Jacque Van Houten, president of the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language, said in a statement.
"The seal serves to certify attainment of biliteracy for students, employers and universities. It is a statement of accomplishment that helps to signal evidence of a student's readiness for career and college, and for engagement as a global citizen."
Californians Together spearheaded the national push for biliteracy seals. After securing approval in their home state, the English-language learner advocacy group took the campaign to other states, urging lawmakers to reward students who have attained a high level of proficiency in speaking, reading, and writing one or more languages in addition to English.
Indiana is the latest state looking to boost bilingualism among K-12 students by offering special recognition on high school diplomas for graduates who demonstrate fluency in two or more languages.
Chalkbeat Indiana reports that Republicans and Democrats in the Hoosier State are touting a bill that would award the graduation seal when a student "completes a minimum number of credit hours in English and foreign language classes and passes a foreign language exam."
If the Indiana legislature approves the measure and Gov. Mike Pence signs it into law, the state board of education would administer the program and choose the exam. English-language learners who demonstrate proficiency in both their native language and English would also be eligible to earn special recognition on their diplomas.
Lawmakers in California, Illinois, Louisiana, Minnesota, New Mexico, New York, Texas, and Washington state have already approved bilingual seals. The Chicago public schools also approved its own seal in part because the state law in Illinois does not require individual districts to participate.
Proposals for seals of biliteracy are also under consideration in Massachusetts, Nevada, Rhode Island, Utah, and Virginia.
Here's a link to Education Week's past coverage of seals of biliteracy. | <urn:uuid:ff00e1a2-b424-4d88-9b6e-af7d2d3f0b63> | {
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New commemorative US stamps issued during 1928 and 1929 continued to honor significant events from the Revolutionary War, as well as other milestones of the period.
The 2 Cent denomination stamp shown above (Sc. #645) was issued on May 26, 1928 to celebrate the 150th Anniversary of the Encampment of General George Washington's Army at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania.
The stamp depicts "Washington at Prayer".
Valley Forge, about 20 miles north of Philadelphia, was the site of the encampment of the Continental Army over the winter of 1777-1778. Starvation, disease, and exposure killed nearly 2,500 American soldiers by the end of February 1778.
The 2 Cent definitive postage stamp issue of 1926 was overprinted Molly / Pitcher (Sc. #646) on October 20, 1928 to celebrate the 150th Anniversary of the Battle of Monmouth and of its heroine, Molly Pitcher (Mary Ludwig Hayes).
The Battle of Monmouth was fought on June 28, 1778 in Monmouth County, New Jersey, between the Continental Army of George Washington and a British Army commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton and Lieutenant General Charles Cornwalis.
Mary Ludwig Hayes was the wife of an American artillery man who lived near the battlefield. She brought water for swabbing the cannons and for the thirsty artillery crews, helped her husband with his wounds, and then took his place in battle, when he could no longer fight. The artillery men gave her the nickname "Molly Pitcher", when she was bringing them water from a nearby spring.
The 2 Cent and 5 Cent definitive postage stamp issues of 1926 were overprinted Hawaii / 1778-1928 (Sc. #647-48) on August 13, 1928 for the Sesquicentennial Celebration of the Discovery of the Hawaiian Islands. The stamps were only placed on sale at post offices in the Hawaiian Islands and at the philatelic bureau in Washington, D.C., though they were valid for postage throughout the continental United States.
The Sesquicentennial celebration of Captain Cook's discovery of Hawaii was held in the Hawaiian Islands from August 15 through August 21, 1928.
The U.S. Mint also coined a commemorative half dollar for the event, which is very scarce today.
The two US stamps shown above (Sc. #649-50) were issued on December 12, 1928 for the International Civil Aeronautics Conference, held in Washington, D.C. December 12-14, 1928. They also commemorate the 25th Anniversary of the Wright Brothers First Airplane Flight on December 17, 1903.
The 2 Cent denomination shows the Wright Brothers' Airplane, with the Washington Monument and the U.S. Capitol Building at the sides.
The 5 Cent denomination shows a contemporary Monoplane Flying in front of a World Globe, with the Washington Monument and the U.S. Capitol Building at the sides.
This US stamp (Sc. #651) was issued on February 25, 1929 to commemorate the 150th Anniversary of the Surrender of Fort Sackville, the present-day site of Vincennes, Indiana, to General George Rogers Clark.
The central vignette of this 2 Cent stamp depicts the Surrender of Fort Sackville, from the 1923 painting by Frederick C. Yohn (1875-1933).
Brigadier General George Rogers Clark (1752-1818) was the highest ranking military officer on the northwestern frontier during the Revolutionary War. He is best known for his celebrated capture of Vincennes in 1779, which greatly weakened British influence in the Northwest Territory. As the British ceded the entire Northwest Territory to the United States in the 1783 Treaty of Paris, Clark has often been hailed as the "Conqueror of the Old Northwest".
The year 1929 marked the 50th Anniversary of the Invention of the First Incandescent Electric Lamp by Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931) on October 21, 1879.
The three 2 Cent stamps shown above (Sc. #654-56) were issued in June 1929 in three different formats, Flat Plate Press, perforated 11, Rotary Press, Perforated 11 x 10 1/2, and Rotary Press Horizontal Coils, perforated 10 vertically.
The US stamp shown above (Sc. #657) was issued June 17, 1929 to celebrate the 150th Anniversary of the Sullivan Expedition in New York State, during the Revolutionary War.
The 2 Cent stamp features Major General John Sullivan (1740-1795). Sullivan was later a delegate to the Continental Congress, the Governor of New Hampshire, and a United States federal judge.
The Sullivan Expedition, commanded by Major General John Sullivan and Brigadier General James Clinton, was a systematic, scorched earth, military campaign, during the Summer of 1779, against loyalists and the Iroquois Indians that had sided with the British in the Revolutionary War. The expedition occurred in the lands of the Iroquois Confederacy, which is today the heartland of New York State.
The US stamp shown above (Sc. #680) was issued on September 14, 1929 for the 135th Anniversary of the Battle of Fallen Timbers near present day Toledo, Ohio.
The 2 Cent stamp features the Battle of Fallen Timbers Monument or Anthony Wayne Memorial, a bronze statuary group created by Bruce Saville (1893-1938). The lead figure is General Anthony Wayne (1745-1796), and he is flanked by the figures of a Native American and a frontiersman.
The Battle of Fallen Timbers, August 20, 1794, was the final battle of the Northwest Indian War. The war had been a struggle between American Indian tribes and the United States for control of the Northwest Territory. The battle was a decisive victory for the United States, ending major hostilities in the territory until 1811.
The US stamp shown above (Sc. #681) was issued on October 19, 1929 to celebrate the Completion of the Ohio River Canalization Project between Cairo, Illinois and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
The 2 Cent stamp shows Lock # 5 on the Monongahela River.
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The affiliated eBay seller auction lots provided by eBay, Inc. are not the responsibility of the management of this website. On high priced material, make sure the lots you are buying are properly authenticated. | <urn:uuid:dc17854b-199d-49a4-9629-aadb6306e72a> | {
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February 13, 2012/CBS News Detroit
By Matt Roush
Two Grand Valley State University researchers are working together on a pair of projects that are designed to help restore habitat in the area of Muskegon Lake, and assist in getting Muskegon Lake de-listed as an Area of Concern in the Great Lakes.
Al Steinman and Rick Rediske are co-principal investigators on a pair of projects in Muskegon Lake and adjacent Bear Lake. Steinman is also the director of Grand Valley’s Annis Water Resources Institute.
The planned improvements include a new design and engineering project to restore habitat in Muskegon Lake, which is connected to Lake Michigan, and a wetland restoration project just upstream from Bear Lake. Even though restoration efforts in the area have been underway for several years, some challenges remain.
Fish and wildlife habitats are still recovering, and fish and wildlife that live in the area are considered degraded. In the Bear Lake area, unwanted nutrient enrichment and undesirable algae are cause for concern.
The first project will involve removing debris at the Muskegon Lake Mill Debris site, a shallow 40-acre area along the southern portion of the lake that’s choked with old sawmill slab wood and sawdust from past operations. Debris removal there will contribute to broader restoration goals in the area, including restoration of an area of open-water wetlands.
The second project will involve reconnecting a 43-acre wetland site that used to be a celery farm to the Bear Creek and Bear Lake system. The goal is to help improve habitat for fish and wildlife. Another part of the project will be to monitor the phosphorus concentrations that could flow into the creek and lake from the wetland area after being reconnected. This phosphorus helps stimulate algal blooms, so it is critical to design the restoration to improve habitat without degrading water quality.
The West Michigan Shoreline Regional Development Commission is the lead organization on the projects. Grand Valley’s Annis Water Resources Institute will also get assistance from NOAA’s Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, the Great Lakes Commission, and the National Wildlife Federation.
For more information, contact Alan Steinman, (616) 331-3749. | <urn:uuid:7a085571-1bc1-420f-b961-391d5617f0d8> | {
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Changes in female sexuality were the impetus for the rapid development of Homo sapiens as a species unlike any other, argues the author of The Alphabet Versus the Goddess (1998).
California surgeon Shlain is unafraid to tackle huge topics outside his area of expertise, venturing boldly into the worlds of evolutionary biology and primatology with a grand and unifying theory that explains almost everything. He argues that the ancestral female of the species, dubbed Gyna sapiens to distinguish her from her male counterpart, was confronted by a crisis when large-brained babies began to make childbirth a life-and-death matter. Her evolutionary response was the loss of estrus and concomitant year-round sexual receptivity, which altered the relationship between Gyna and Homo; now she could choose when to have sex and use this power as a bargaining chip for provisions and long-term protection. The regular appearance of menses, coincident with the lunar cycle, endowed Gyna with foresight and the concept of future time, which brought with them an understanding of the link between sexual intercourse and pregnancy. She shared this new knowledge with Homo, making him aware for the first time of his own mortality. Not entirely comforted by the notion that paternity could give him a measure of immortality, Homo invented religious convictions that included belief in an afterlife. The need for women and men to negotiate sex with each other spurred the development of speech, Shlain contends, going on to explain how a limited proportion of homosexual men and women might benefit a tribe (as might male balding, color-blindness, and left-handedness) and how incest came to be taboo. The author links Gyna’s veto power over sex to the rise of patriarchy and misogyny, expressions of men’s drive to control female sexuality and reproduction. The generally stimulating text, however, is marred by an unfortunate and unnecessary decision to call evolutionary processes “Mother Nature” and to depict imaginary scenes between a Gyna named Eve and a Homo named Adam.
Not necessarily persuasive, but imaginative at least. (b&w illustrations) | <urn:uuid:8f0adc51-2e7b-4c44-9ef5-7579baaed949> | {
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When it comes to the environment, Alaska is "the canary in the coal mine," says Deborah Williams '87.
To save a culture of cold, lawyers turn up the heat
Climate change may still be a distant threat for many Americans, but here in Alaska, the effects are inescapable.
Houses, roads and airports buckle because the permafrost is no longer permanent. Native villages are swept out to sea because the ocean ice, which has protected them from violent storms since humans first crossed the Bering Strait, has receded offshore. And polar bears—the most visible symbols of our nation’s arctic environment—are drowning. In fact, since 1979, 20 percent of the Arctic sea ice has melted—an area twice the size of Texas. That’s why a dedicated contingent of Harvard-trained lawyers has made Alaska its frontline, contending that, if left unchecked, the environmental disasters in the nation’s 49th state will soon wreak havoc on the lower 48. “We are the canary in the coal mine,” said Deborah Williams ’78. “Everything that’s happening in Alaska right now has local, national and international implications.” On the most local level, Heather Kendall-Miller ’91 and Luke Cole ’89 have filed a landmark suit against 24 energy companies on behalf of the Native Alaskan village of Kivalina, which lies 80 miles north of the Arctic Circle on the Chukchi Sea. In Kivalina v. Exxon, filed in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California, they claim the defendants produce greenhouse gases that have melted the protective barrier of sea ice that shields the village from fierce autumn storms. They seek damages for the estimated $400 million it will cost to relocate the village.
Meanwhile, Williams is leading the charge on the political and educational fronts. As founder and president of Alaska Conservation Solutions, she has made it her mission to convince senators, governors and federal regulators to rein in the emission of greenhouse gases. As part of her lobbying efforts, she brings key decision-makers to Alaska to see what atmospheric warming can do. “Seeing is believing,” she said. “We are helping leaders in other parts of the country make the connection between what is happening in Alaska and what will happen in their state.”
Williams points out the towering peaks that rise from the ocean three miles across Turnagain Arm just south of Anchorage. A swath of dead spruce trees forms a brown belt around the base of one of the mountains. “Spruce bark beetle,” she said. With just a 4-degree rise in the average temperature over the last two decades, she explains, the beetles are thriving and the trees dying en masse. That strip of brown is just the northern edge of a massive blight that has swept through the Kenai Peninsula, a breathtaking tourist Mecca of glaciers, fjords and mountain meadows. “Four million acres of white spruce have been wiped out so far,” said Williams. That’s an area nearly twice the size of Yellowstone Park.
And the damage is no longer confined to Alaska. As Williams tells her visitors, similar pests such as the pine bark beetle are now destroying forests in Montana, Idaho, California and Arizona. Williams takes people to see the site of Portage Glacier about an hour’s drive from Anchorage—or the former site, that is. In 1985, the state built a multimillion-dollar visitors center to view the glacier, but all that can be seen from the center now is a lake. The glacier itself has retreated behind a mountain ridge two miles away. “Every square inch of white we lose amplifies the speed of global warming because when solar radiation hits white, it’s reflected, but when it hits blue or brown, it is absorbed,” said Williams. “We are losing one of the most endangered critical habitats in the world. Everyone understands the seriousness of destroying the rain forests. But the Arctic is just as functionally important to the global environment as the rain forest.” On the litigation front, Kendall-Miller has joined the battle against climate change because of its impact on Native Alaskans, whom she represents as a senior attorney for the Native American Rights Fund. She argues, quite passionately, that rising temperatures are wiping out a subsistence culture that has existed for 4,000 years—and that the loss of that unique way of life would leave us all impoverished.
She says that for many Americans, the term subsistence may be a synonym for marginal or primitive. But to the Athabascan, Aleut, Tlingit, Yup’ik and Inupiaq peoples, it is shorthand for a complex set of beliefs that are inextricably linked to the land and water around them. “They have a distinct worldview—a unique relationship with each other, the natural world and the spiritual world,” she said. “The biggest challenge for me, as their lawyer and advocate, is to express to the general public the integrity of that difference.” To do that, Kendall-Miller gathered testimony from Native Alaskans. In a series of hearings around the state, they described how climate change has driven caribou from traditional hunting grounds; melted the ice required for the survival of seals, walrus and polar bears; and caused a dramatic increase in diseased salmon as rising river temperatures threaten the spawning grounds for one of the most productive fisheries on the planet. “It’s scary,” said Oscar Kawagley, a Yup’ik Indian from Bethel, Alaska. “Cold is what makes my language, my culture, my identity. What am I going to do without cold?”
In spite of their passion and legal expertise, Kendall-Miller and Cole (who is the director of the Center on Race, Poverty & the Environment in San Francisco) lacked the resources needed to take on 24 of the largest energy companies in the world. So they pulled together a team of six top litigation firms from around the country. Taking a page from the tobacco litigation playbook, they sued the energy companies on a public nuisance theory. They also alleged conspiracy, arguing that, like the tobacco industry, the energy companies worked in concert to promote false science that cast doubt on the reality of global warming. Although the plaintiffs have some significant hurdles, their success would have an “enormous impact,” according to Roger Ballentine ’88, president of Green Strategies in Washington, D.C., and a visiting professor at HLS. “A suit like this faces a number of challenges,” said Ballentine. There is the question of whether a federal common-law claim is available in a global-warming suit and whether courts will continue to deny jurisdiction on the grounds that Congress, not the courts, is the proper forum for resolving these issues. “Causation could also be a significant problem,” Ballentine added. “But if they were to succeed in making a link between greenhouse gas emissions and the damages the plaintiffs have suffered, it would open the floodgates for climate-change suits.”
The Snowy Trek
Heather Kendall-Miller ’91 took a winding road to Harvard Law School—and there were grizzlies and caribou along the way.
Kendall-Miller’s mother, a full-blooded Athabascan, met her father when he returned to Alaska after being stationed in the Aleutian Islands during World War II. But she died when her daughter was 2, cutting her off from her native roots.
Raised in Fairbanks, Kendall-Miller dropped out of high school and went to work on the Alaska Pipeline, homesteading in a remote valley in the mountains north of the Yukon River. At 17, she married, and she and her husband built a cabin on the land, heated it with water they piped in from a hot spring a quarter mile away.
“I look back fondly on those years,” Kendall-Miller recalls. “We were dropped off in the middle of nowhere and built our cabin in a beautiful valley in the Ray Mountains. It was a wonderful, magical place surrounded by grizzlies and caribou and moose. We had to fly in by float plane, air-drop our supplies over the cabin, and then land on a lake seven miles away and hike back to the cabin.”
Kendall-Miller became pregnant when she was 21 and lived in the cabin for another two years until her marriage collapsed. A single mother working construction on the Alaska Pipeline, she realized that her daughter needed a more stable life.
So at age 25, she enrolled at the University of Alaska in Fairbanks, where she developed an interest in Native American rights. She graduated magna cum laude and, based on the recommendation of a professor, applied to Harvard Law School.
“I knew all along that I wanted to come back to practice in Alaska,” she says. “It was exciting to be around all these incredibly smart people who were so purposeful. I knew Harvard would give me the credentials I needed to focus my career the way I wanted to and help Native Alaskans when I got back.” | <urn:uuid:e309821e-b388-414a-bd1c-29f876690779> | {
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The SAT-ACT Duel for Supremacy
The school year is finally over, but summer vacation won't be the idyllic time of yore for many high school students. Instead, it will be a season of prepping for either the SAT or the ACT, both of which still determine to a large extent admission to most marquee-name colleges and universities.
Until fairly recently, the SAT totally dominated the field, but the ACT is slowly gaining ground on its rival. The competition pits the College Board, which owns the SAT, against American College Testing, which owns the ACT. The latter has been around only since 1959, while the former was created in 1926. The ACT for many years was most popular in the Midwest and the South ("Scores Stagnate at High Schools," The Wall Street Journal, Aug. 18, 2010). But that is changing. Today, the ACT is growing faster than its rival, not only nationally but also in such SAT strongholds as California ("ACT is to SAT as ... " Los Angeles Times, Sept. 6, 2008).
What is the difference between the two tests, and which one should students take? The ACT says its purpose is to measure classroom achievement, rather than aptitude. But there is a fundamental misunderstanding of the two terms. An aptitude test is designed to predict how well a test taker is likely to perform in a future setting. In contrast, an achievement test is designed to measure the knowledge and skills that a test taker already possesses in a given subject. While scores on both types of tests may be related, they do not necessarily correlate.
As I pointed out in "UnSATisfactory" (Education Week, Jun. 14, 2006), this confusion is reflected in the changes in the name of the SAT over the decades. When psychologist Carl C. Brigham conceived the test, it was called the Scholastic Aptitude Test in the belief that it measured innate ability. In 1994, however, the name was changed to the Scholastic Assessment Test because of concern that the original name was negatively associated with eugenics. Then in 1997, the College Board altered the name again to the SAT, which stands for nothing.
Given this background and the lack of evidence that one test is easier, or that admissions officers look more favorably on one over the other, it's unclear why the ACT has been making such impressive strides. The ACT is slightly less expensive and requires slightly less time to complete, but in light of the high stakes it's unlikely that these factors have anything to do with the choice that students make.
The truth is that both the SAT and the ACT are very much alike in one fundamental respect. Both are carefully designed to engineer score spread between test takers. If either test were loaded up with items that measured material effectively taught in class, scores might be bunched together, making comparisons unsatisfactory. And since both the SAT and the ACT exist to provide evidence that allows test takers to be ranked for the benefit of admissions officers, it's a risk neither wants to run.
In the final analysis, therefore, it's really a matter of going with one's instinct when signing up. But no matter what the outcome on either test, it's important to remember that their predictive value for success in college is questionable. There are far too many other variables involved that can't be accurately measured by any instrument now in existence. | <urn:uuid:cb6d76f0-21f7-4248-adc2-6b0ee6f3120c> | {
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Some timber from this species is reported to be available from sustainably managed or other environmentally responsible sources.
The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) reports that the species is an important source of timber. It is usually exported at a low rate, and is also well known for its yield of balata or gutta-percha which is collected from tapped trees.
Small quantities of Bulletwood are reported to be exported because the tree is valued for its latex. Supplies of lumber are limited, and the material is usually available at high prices from the larger importers in the United States.
The tree is usually large, attaining heights of 100 to 150 feet, with diameters of 24 to 48 inches, (60 to 120 cm), sometimes reaching 6 feet (1.8 m). Trees are usually swollen at the base, and boles are often straight and clear to about 60 feet (18 m).
The sapwood is whitish or pale brown in color and is not clearly demarcated from the heartwood.
The heartwood is light to dark reddish brown in color. The color has also been described as dull plum red, somewhat resembling raw beef.
The grain is straight, sometimes slightly wavy or interlocked.
The texture is fine and uniform.
Luster is reported to be low to medium.
The wood has no distinctive odor or taste.
The timber is rated as highly resistant to attack by decay fungi and subterranean termites. It has moderate resistance to attack by dry wood termites, and is reported to be susceptible to marine borer attack.
Resistance to Impregnation
The timber is reported to be very resistant to moisture absorption and to preservative treatment. Resistance to impregnations is reported to be higher than in Teak.
The wood is reported to have poor weathering properties, and surface-checks considerably when exposed to the weather without propection.
The sawdust is reported to cause irritation in some individuals.
Bending strength in the air-dry condition (about 12 percent moisture content) is exceptionally high. It is far superior in strength to either Teak or Hard maple. Maximum crushing strength, or compression parallel to grain, is exceptionally high. It is very hard, and may require special tools to process. Bulletwood is reported to be equal to or superior to Greenheart (Ocotea rodiaei ) in shock resistance, hardness, shear, and bending strength.
Call us! It's toll free: 800-423-2450
Three stores in Arizona: Hours: Monday-Saturday 8am-5pm
18115 N. Black Canyon Hwy Phoenix, AZ 85023 | <urn:uuid:a8739f67-9a4d-4624-9b79-b159b291252f> | {
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What is Iron Deficiency?
If you feel like your energy levels are low, you’re lacking motivation and you could fall asleep at your desk everyday, don’t blame your job right away. Instead, take a close look at the signs and symptoms of iron deficiency.
Iron deficiency is the most prevalent nutrition deficiency in the world. It occurs when the body’s stores of iron are low (the stage prior to anemia), and, it may or may not cause any symptoms.
Iron deficiency disproportionately affects those in developing countries but it is also prevalent in industrialized countries. Iron deficiency anemia develops when low iron stores persist for a period of time and the body cannot make enough healthy red blood cells to deliver oxygen throughout the body.
In the United States, the largest nationwide survey, the National Nutrition and Health Examination Surveys (NHANES) found that approximately 16% of teenage girls aged 16-19 and 12% of women aged 20-49 are deficient in iron. These numbers are staggering in a country with an abundant food supply and an array of multivitamin and iron supplements.
- Stoltzfus RJ. Defining iron-deficiency anemia in public health terms: reexamining the nature and magnitude of the public health problem. J Nutr 2001;131:565S-7S.
- Micronutrient deficiencies. Iron deficiency anaemia. World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/ida/en/index.html
- Iron Deficiency Anemia. National Anemia Action Council. http://www.anemia.org/patients/faq/#ida
- Iron Deficiency. MMWR Weekly. CDC. 2002;51(40):897-899. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5140a1.htm#tab1
- Institute of Medicine. Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium and Zinc. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001.
- Monson ER. Iron and absorption: dietary factors which impact iron bioavailability. J Am Dietet Assoc. 1988;88:786-90.
- Tapiero H, Gate L, Tew KD. Iron: deficiencies and requirements. Biomed Pharmacother. 2001;55:324-32.
- Pronsky ZM. Food Medication Interactions, 10th edition 1997.
- Hemoglobin. Medline Plus. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003645.htm
- Hematocrit. Medline Plus. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003646.htm | <urn:uuid:58b1d00f-c114-4def-bad8-460713c5efa4> | {
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Social inequities have long been pointed to as reasons for the
shorter life spans of minorities, including less access to
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Do your homework for back-to-school gadgets
Gone are the days when back-to-school shopping meant buying only notebooks, pencils and backpacks. For most high school and college students, some form of technology is on the "must-have" list.
"With so many options available, it's important for parents to shop smart and choose the tools that will really meet their student's needs," says Jamie Breneman of www.TheSavvyShopperBlog.com. "Many of these devices can be used throughout high school and college, so you want to make sure you're getting the best value for your investment."
Check speed, memory
No matter what electronic device you're looking into, make sure it will do what your student will need it to do. When shopping for a laptop or notebook computer, for example:
Check the processor speed. A good laptop should have a speed of at least 1 gigahertz (GHz).
Look for RAM. RAM, short for random access memory, is what laptops use to store temporary data. The more RAM, the less time it takes to get information, and you can do more tasks without slowing down the laptop.
Compare hard drives. The storage capacity of a hard drive is measured in gigabytes (GB), and you'll find laptops that range from 40 GB to 500 GB. Storing text documents won't take up much of the hard drive, but storing photos and videos or running games will.
You'll also want to read reviews — both independent reviews and reviews from people who have used the device you are considering. The website www.CNet.com offers independent reviews, while sites such as www.ConsumerSearch.com offer a mix of independent and user reviews.
Do a reality check
Sure, students may want the newest gadget out there, but will it really meet their needs? For example, eReaders and iPads are popular ways to get regular books — but will they be able to get the required textbooks on these devices? Not all textbook publishers have made their catalogs available in electronic form yet. Yes, that laptop looks good, but does it come with all the software the student will need? Check before purchasing.
Protect your investment
"Electronics can get pricey," says Breneman. "And portable devices are more likely to get damaged. So more and more parents are taking advantage of service and replacement plans that come with coverage for accidental damage from handling to make sure they're covered for unexpected repair costs." Most service plans offer support outside of normal business hours, including tech support and troubleshooting, which can be a boon to busy parents and students. | <urn:uuid:5c795603-bfab-47ac-847b-7538da6833e9> | {
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ill develop sustainable competitive advantage for Its products 2 b) Explain how distribution of products Is arranged to provide optimum customer convenience 4 c) Explain how to set the price of the product in the light of the “Vanilla” objectives and market conditions exist in Vietnam 7 ad) Illustrate how promotional activities integrated to achieve marketing objectives of Vanilla e) Analyze the additional elements of the extended marketing mix 11 AAA) Recommend marketing mixes for two different segments In consumer markets 14 b) The differences In marketing products and services to organizations rather than consumers 16 c) Explain how and why International marketing differs from domestic marketing 20 References 24 AAA) How Vanilla(V. M) will develop sustainable competitive advantage for its products SOOT analysis Strengths Vanilla was established since 1976: Vanilla has grown strongly and become the leading industry of milk processing. Obviously, its long history is the first and strength to make it become the biggest dairy producer in Vietnam.
Throughout more than arrears operating, Vanilla has become a familiar trademark to domestics’ linens. Binomials gained a great customer understand and satisfaction as well as knowledge of the local market. Villains Is now operating agencies at grassroots levels Like villages in rural areas almost all shops on the mall streets of major cities sell Vanilla products. Vanilla consume a half output of milk with domestic material. Vietnam is an agricultural country so Vanilla can produce milk with rich materials. Vanilla also support farmers in breeding milk cow to serve for production. Vanilla always pay attention to build their brand and trademark in customer’s minds.
Binomial has many policies to support for society such as: scholarship for poor students, charity, donation for poor people, etc. Weaknesses Vanilla cannot allocate markets equally between the North and the South of Vietnam. The population of the North in Vietnam occupied 2/3 as a whole country. Vanilla only focuses on distribution products in the South market. This means that international brand milk such as Dutch Lady and Abbot will occupy the markets in the north, so Villains will lose market shares In the north of Vietnam. Vietnam joined World Trade Organization from 2007; there will have many international competitors about famous brands such as: Dutch Lady from Holland technology, Abbot from USA. Vanilla can lose market share and decrease profit.
Opportunities According to policies of Vietnam government, supply of raw materials Is relatively of raw milk, replace the material that is fresh milk, quality dairy products for consumers capacity and contributing to the support of domestic industry. These factors have a positive impact to production and business activities of the VIM. The government shows the figures with the development of milk industry. The figures of ilk industry involve: in 2010 reached 380,000 tons, 201 5 reaches 700,000 tons and 2020 will reach 1 million tons. When Vietnam Joined World Trade Organization, there are many new competitors; this is the challenge for Vanilla Company. Besides that, from new competitors, Vanilla Company can learn more experiences in modern technology of producing milk.
Moreover, Vanilla Company can cooperate with the other milk brands in buying quality materials and new technology for producing milk. Threats Prices of raw milk on the world market will remain near current high levels in the short term, UT currently there are signals of supply will increase, likely reducing the pressure of increased prices in 2009. Lack of materials: this thing is really important in producing milk. In Vietnam, there are many different milk brands so this thing will happen to lack of materials. Farmers in farms will supply materials for many domestic milk brands such as: Viva milk, Loath milk, and Dalai milk, etc. Vanilla Company must find out resources to supply good materials carefully. This is the big problem of Vanilla.
Technology problems in breeding milk cow: In Vietnam, technology problems in breeding milk cows has not developed yet much, o Vanilla Company can learn more experiences in technology from international milk company or cooperate with them in exchange technology. With modern technology in breeding milk cow. (Source: wry. Vanilla. Com. Van) There are five basic competitive forces that influence the state of competition in an industry (According to Michael Eugene Porter, the Bishop William Lawrence University Professor at Harvard Business School): 0 The threat of new entrants to the industry Today with a product such as shoes, television, laptop, clothes… Customers will have more choices to buy the product which they want.
From products of the perennial enterprises to the products of new entrants, all created a fierce competition in the market. Products of new entrants with modern technology and modern design will be a real challenge for businesses which had created the belief of customers. And Vanilla is not an exception. With Vanilla, there are many new competitors in industry, new competitors include inside and outside of Vietnam. In the domestic market of Vietnam, Vanilla is the largest dairy producer with the strong brand name and has terms of market share, production capacity and distribution network. Vanilla occupied 39% market share in the whole market share in Vietnam and has 250 distributors, 125. 000 retail outlets and supplies for all supermarkets in Vietnam.
Vietnam that helps to reduce transportation expenses and a system of the state-of- the-art machinery and equipment, being improved and expanded every year, that helps to ensure the output products meeting the international standards 0 The threat of substitute products Substitute products are products which bring the benefits for consumer like current or higher products. And substitute products are often the result of new technology. Back to the dairy market of Vanilla, we can see that nowadays when going for the work, the party or going out, customers do not necessarily have to choose yogurt (Probe) or fruit Juice (V-fresh) for their need. Instead of, they can choose for themselves the different types of water or energy drinks to create a convenience for them such as Quaff, Red Bull or DRP. Than. Besides that, Vanilla also meets with the fierce competition from other dairy products of other brands. The bargaining power of customers The bargaining power of customers is the advantage that results where the buyers re concentrated or organized, their purchases represent a large part of the supplier’s revenue, their purchases represent a large part of their own costs, or there are too many suppliers chasing too few buyers. Buyers in such position can (and do) put relentless pressure on the suppliers by demanding higher quality at lower prices. (Source: http://www. Objectifications. Com/definition/bargaining-power-of- customers. HTML). And the profitability of an industry also depends on the strength of the bargaining power of its customers. Vanilla Company is the largest dairy producers in Vietnam. The company also has two markets: domestic market and international markets.
With the domestic market, Vanilla Company occupied 39% market share on the whole market share, the company also has 250 distributors, 125000 shops and supplies products for all supermarkets in Vietnam, Vanilla Company has large distribution channels in 64 provinces in Vietnam. With the international market, Vanilla Company export products for Australia, Cambodia, Iraq, Kuwait, The Maldives, Philippines, and USA. Customers often want to be provided products with high quality and low price, beside excellent customer care services. This thing can make the companies’ cost increases and profit of them decreases to meet the needs of customers. With dairy products, today customers see them are not only a tool for drinking need but also a healthy product for them to themselves. So the demand for quality, price, nutritious….. Of customers about dairy products is rising more and more. The bargaining power of suppliers The bargaining power of suppliers is the advantage that results when suppliers are concentrated it is, however, usually illegal for them to openly or secretly form a cartel, too few goods are chased by too many buyers, a supplier’s goods are unique or giggly differentiated with few or no substitutes, suppliers are forward integrated (see forward integration), and/or high costs are involved in switching from one supplier to another. Suppliers in such position can (and do) demand premium prices. (Source: http://www. Objectifications. Com/definition/bargaining-power-of-suppliers. HTML). And Just as customers can influence the profitability of an industry by exerting pressure for higher quality products or lower prices, suppliers can also influence enterprise’s activities (such as finance, electricity, water, materials… ). If this process as problem, company can’t operate smoothly. Besides that, price and service of supplier is also have a big influence on the operation of companies. Here are some of suppliers of V.
M Name of suppliers Products supplied Fomenter (SEA) Pete Ltd Milk powder Hogget International Family powder Persists Bin Dung Tins Tetra Pack Indochina Carton packaging and packaging machines Hogget International and Fainter plays an important role on the international milk markets and is assessed one of the partner that supplies milk powder for producers and consumers in Europe and on over the world. Hogget can have capacity to give information about business industry about milk products and milk markets. Fomenter is the multinational group on over the world in milk industry and export milk products, this group occupied 1/3 procurement of market shares all over the world. This group supplies high quality milk powder for Vanilla Company. A source of high-quality milk material is especially important to Vanilla business. As a result, V. M has established stable relationships with suppliers through assessment policy. V.
M assists farmers financially by buying dairy-producing cows and V. M omit to purchase high quality fresh milk at the highest price. V. M have signed agreements every year with milk suppliers and up till now approximately 40% milk material has been bought from domestic sources. Vanilla factories, which are located in strategic locations near farms of milk cows, enable V. M to maintain and improve these relationships with suppliers. V. M also chooses the location for its milk purchase centers carefully to ensure the freshest and highest-quality milk available. On the other hand, V. M imports milk powder from Australia and New Zealand to satisfy the needs for both quantity and quality.
The rivalry amongst current competition in the industry Competition factor has a big effect to the operation of company. That the reason why company always has to care about activities and strategy of competitors. With Vanilla, we can see that nowadays they are not only facing with opponents in the country but also having to compete with rivals from aboard who are expanding into Vietnamese milk market. 0 In the domestic market, Vanilla as well as other companies must face with the competition in terms of price compared to China milk. The special characteristic of China is low price so it can attract a large number of customers easily. 0 Vietnam still fighting against the anti-dumping which EX. Applied on.
The anti-dumping has created many difficulties for footwear industry of Vietnam. 0 The international market for milk-made products is becoming more and more competitive. There is keen competition among manufacturers. So to create a firm position in the market, Vanilla had had appropriate policies to create the trust of customers. _Vanilla had tried to satisfy the needs of customers by using market segmentation policy. Market segment is a group of customers with certain things in common whose needs can be met with a distinct marketing mix. So efferent classes (pupils, students, office workers… ), different ages with diversify products (yogurt, fruit Juice, milk, milk powder etc). Vanilla products’ patterns are always changed, so they keep pace with customers’ fashion and taste, through pattern creating technique on computer. Besides that, the tendency of customers now is prefer to use Vietnamese goods than imported goods. It will be a certain advantage for Vanilla when they compete with rivals from aboard. From SOOT analysis, we can know about strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of Vanilla. Vanilla can base on these elements to do marketing strategy better. From five forces of Porter, Vanilla Company can identify competitors and know the influence of suppliers and customers to develop Vanilla Company.
Sustainable Competitive In order to make a sustainable competitive, Vanilla must have their advantages in competitive: Competition advantages: ; The industry leader position, supported by good brand building strategy ; The diversity of products ; The wide distribution network ; Stable relationships with suppliers to ensure high-quality milk ; The ability to do market research and to develop products in accordance to market demand ; Good management team, proven by the business results International standard manufacturing equipment and technology Since the establishment in 1976, V. M has built a strong brand for dairy products in the Vietnamese market. The brand name Vanilla has been used since V. M establishment and has now become a widely known name in Vietnam. Economies of scales when Vanilla is well positioned as a leader in dairy market of Vietnam. Vanilla is undoubtedly a familiar and trusted brand in the mind of Vietnamese consumers during the last 34 years.
An extensive distribution network located nationwide and continued being expanded over time allows Vanilla to bring its core reduces to consumers in a fast and effective way. Binomials high-quality products are the favorite brand of consumers. A range of modern factories located along helps to ensure the output products meeting the international standards. The loyal and cooperative relationships with both local and overseas suppliers allow the company to have a stable material source at the reasonable prices. At present, Vanilla is the purchaser of about 60% of all cow milk produced in Vietnam. Vanilla owns a management team deeply experienced in dairy business and production, a transparent internal management system and tight and detailed management reoccurred.
A strong spirit of self-renovation for improvement of operation quality is absolutely penetrated from every managers to each employee b) Explain how distribution of products is arranged to provide optimum customer business maybe has good products but if the distribution for their products is not logical, they will face with the obstacles in selling those products. Distribution is a key marketing function: the process of getting products to consumers. Although some manufacturers can and do sell direct to consumers, practical considerations require most to use a distribution system composed of independent middlemen, usually wholesalers and retailers.
And distribution channel is the path or ‘pipeline’ through which goods and services flow in one direction (from vendor to the consumer), and the payments generated by them flow in the opposite direction (from consumer to the vendor) (Source: http://www. Objectifications. Com). Any organization also needs to pay attention in choosing distribution channels because once a set of channels has been established, subsequent changes are likely to be costly and slow to implement. Nowadays there are two categories which distribution channels may fall into: direct and indirect channels. Direct distribution means the product going directly from producer to consumer without the use of a specific intermediary.
Indirect distribution refers to systems of distribution, common among manufactured goods, which make use of an intermediary; a wholesaler, retailer or perhaps both. Customers: the number of potential customers, their buying habits and their geographical locations are key influences. In Vanilla, particular in two big cities: Hanoi and Ho Chi Mini is the main distribution channel. Because of size, hence, there also have many distributors such as: suppliers, agents, retailers, wholesalers ho will introduce two products for customers. If Vanilla wants to introduce two products (Probe Fermented Yoghurt and Afresh smoothies), V. M will try to find out the culture buying behavior of customers such as: habits of customers in Ha Non and Ho Chi Mini.
Product characteristics: some product characteristics have an important effect on design of the channel of distribution: permissibility, customization, after – sales service/technical advice, franchising. V. M is among the top food and beverage companies which equip a system of fridges and freezers in shops. The investment on he system of fridges and freezers is a barrier to competitors who want to Join the food and beverage market since it requires a big sum of initial capital. With two products of Vanilla (Probe fermented yoghurt and Afresh Smoothies), V. M must keep fruit carefully. Afresh Smoothies is the product of special mixture between fresh fruit juice and milk such as: the combination of real strawberry, real orange and real milk, etc.
Hence, Vanilla must find the best supplier of fruit from farmers to serve in producing process. Vanilla also need to listens customers’ feedbacks to develop their products such as survey. The more better marketing plan V. M wanted the more marketing strategy V. M must have, such as: training program for suppliers or agent, etc. Franchising is also an important element because they also contribute in increasing profit for Vanilla by selling products. Distributor characteristics: The capability of the distributor to take on the distributive functions already discussed above is obviously an important influence on the supplier’s choice Binomials wide network of distribution is an essential factor that leads to success, helps V.
M attract a great number of customers and guarantees the effectiveness of new product old products through 201 distributors and over 141,000 outlets in 64 provinces in the country. V. M has experienced sales team of 1,787 salespeople nationwide has supported the distributors to attend to the outlets and customers better as well as advertising these products (Probe fermented yoghurt and Afresh smoothies) Competitor’s channel choice: For many consumer goods, a supplier’s brand will sit alongside its competitors’ products and there is little the supplier can do about it Vanilla is the largest producer in Vietnam with many market shares and their brand name is always kept in customer’s minds so distributors can believe about the company and introduce two products for customers.
Supplier characteristics: A strong financial base gives the supplier the option of buying and operating their own distribution channel. The market position of the supplier is also important: distributors are keen on to be associated with the market leader but the third, fourth or the fifth brand in market is likely to find more distribution problems Vanilla is the leading enterprise in Vietnam in manufacturing milk and dairy products. Vanilla holds 39% of the market share nationwide. The company has more than 220 distributors in the distribution system and over 140,000 outlets in Vietnam. Besides, V. M products are sold in all systems of supermarket nationwide. There are three types of distributors: wholesalers, retailers and agent.
Vanilla should consider carefully to choosing distributors for selling two products. In Vietnam, the distributors can choose two methods for channel design: selling direct method and indirect method. The distributors are: Selling direct method means that the distributors can sell two products directly without the middle man (intermediaries); ailing indirect method means that the distributors can sell two products with the middle and other suppliers. The distributors with selling direct methods can work Vanilla with the contract in the long term for example: from six months to one year or more if those distributors bring more profit for the company with the high sale.
The distributors with selling indirect methods can work Vanilla with the contract in the short term for example: from three months to six months, by one or two quarters, the contract will stop if no one buying any products, the distributors with selling indirect methods often work with the main distributors through their introduction, so those distributors will not work for Vanilla in the long time. There is an important element in distribution: transportation, Vanilla can distribute two products by trains, airlines and cars to 64 provinces in Vietnam. Ho Chi Mini and Ha Non will be the best suggestion in distribute these two products for Vanilla. These cities will attract many customers to use product and easy to serve customers with may services such as: the company can delivery two products for customers with the right reduce (two products: Probe fermented yoghurt and Afresh smoothies) at the right time, in the right place. C) Explain how to set the price of the product in the light of the “Vanilla” objectives and market conditions exist in Vietnam offered by the seller. On the other hand, price as an operational variable has a powerful strategic role to play. Marketing managers need to recognize that pricing (the art and technique of deciding on price issues) provides them with a tool which may be effectively combined with other components of the marketing mix to craft strategies of great variety. Binomials Objectives: Profit Minimization Sales Revenue Minimization We can see that price is the deciding factor, the key factor in the marketing strategies of enterprises. It affect quickly to the market and impact on revenue, cost, profit, market share and the competitiveness of product.
In the context that many opponents of Vanilla continuously offer strategies to attract customers, Vanilla must make appropriate policies to find the reasonable prices for their products but also maximize the profit (for example, if that price is too high, there would be fewer customer buy that product, so it will impact on the revenue of Vanilla). A domestic leader in milk producing, Vanilla is a developer and manufacturer of milk, yogurt, fruit Juice and other products. Vanilla is focusing on how to maximize the sales revenue. The objective of Vanilla is aimed at improving the distribution channel and through the advertisement on media. Market Conditions: Vanilla took good position in customer belief since they gain so many awards from domestic market.
Such as: Date/Periodical Awarding Authority 1985 Labor Medal of Third Ranking President of 1991 Labor Medal of Second Ranking President of 1996 Labor Medal of First Ranking President of 000 Hero of Labor President of 2001 Labor Medal of Third Ranking for 3 members of Vanilla: Dialed, TheГ¶Eng NhГt, Touring This Diary Factories President of 2005 Independence Medal of Third Ranking President of 2005 Labor Medal of Third Ranking for Hanoi Dairy Factory President of 2006 Labor Medal of Second Ranking for 3 members of Vanilla: Dialed, TheГ¶Eng NhГt, Touring This Diary Factories President of 2006 To be honored & got Prize of WIPE WIPE 2006 “Supreme Cup” for Vietnamese goods of high quality and prestige Intellectual Property Association and Association of Small & Medium Enterprises, 1991 – 2005
Continuously receive the award of “Leading Unit in emulation movement of Vietnam Industrial branch” Government Each year from 1995- 2007 Top brand in the “Top Ten High-quality Vietnamese Goods” Saigon Marketing Newspaper readers’ choice Which is proved that Vanilla has become the most popular brand name in milk producing, not only customer believed in their milk but also in the rest of their product is sell at a reasonable price, an affordable price with an acceptable quality. Hence, their pricing on product have to rely on the above conditions. Competitor’s Price Yogurt O yogurt: 3. 900 VEND well yogurt: 6. 500 VEND probe yogurt: 4. 300 VEND Fruit Juice cap sons: 9. 000 VEND aviation Afresh: 5. 500 VEND (Source: http://www. Batavia. Com) Binomials Pricing strategy: Price is a very sensitive element. The formation and manipulation of price are affected by many factors. So when making decisions about price, requiring companies to consider and solve several problems: First, the factors affecting decisions include cost factors within and external factors of V. M.
Changes in these factors as a basis for adjustment and change; Secondly, launched the new policy such as “skimming,” or “hold on the market,” price policy applied to the list of goods and valuation for the product or products together; Thirdly, based on the type of product or service that your company will apply the price adjustment policies are fundamentally different reasonable: 2 parts price, package price, price promotions, price discrimination, psychological price etc. Unlike the distribution of such products in the subsidy period, distribution of market mechanisms as indicated by the system of movement of goods to consumers so that with short time, lower costs and still ensure quality goods. Ad) Illustrate how promotional activities integrated to achieve marketing objectives of Vanilla Promotion is concerned with communication between the seller and the buyer. Consequently it is the most visible aspect of marketing and, arguably, the most interesting.
And promotion includes advertising, sales promotion activities, publicity or public relation, and the activities of the sales force. 0 Sell promotion Sell promotion is a range of tactical marketing techniques, designed within a strategic marketing framework, to add value to a product or service, in order to achieve a specific sales and marketing objective. 0 Advertising Advertising is any paid form of non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services by an identifiable sponsor (defined by the American Marketing Association). 0 Public relations (PR) Public relations are the efforts to establish and maintain the company’s image with the public.
All of the activities above are meant to meet up with Binomials marketing objective: 0 Raise customer awareness of the brand both in consumer market 0 Bring that core price/value trade off to consumers by focusing on product features and infinite 0 The capability of the distributors, wholesale retail, type of distribution contract, long or short term contracts Competitors’ channels used: how do the competitors distribute their products 0 Supplier characteristics: supplier transportation capabilities, local knowledge, financial strength. 0 Ensure efficient In addition, if Vanilla have an ordinary production system then V. M should applied the Just In Time 0. 1. T) strategy in the promotional activities J. I. T strategy: (push and pull) With Push J. I. T strategy Vanilla will input a massive quality of material and keep hem in stock in order to producing. But it has disadvantage: the inventory cost.
With the Vietnamese current economy condition, it is not a good choice for Vanilla to do this, plus, if the customer’s demand changed then it will result in decreasing in sales because of outmoded product. But with Pull J. I. T strategy, Vanilla will produce and distribute depends on the demand of market. This strategy can help Vanilla in catch up with the trend of customer and also keep Vanilla from big cost of inventory, excess goods and outmoded goods. In the other hand, this strategy does have its disadvantage, too. If the demand of market is dramatically increase, Vanilla may not provide enough their product to customer. In my opinion, Vanilla should use these promotional strategies because they will help the company to approach new customers easier.
Vanilla can base on the push promotional strategy to introduce two products: Probe fermented yoghurt and Afresh smoothies, two products are also new products with customers, so Vanilla should think about suitable promotional programmed to approach new customers and also keep old customers. For example: when producers introduce Probe fermented yoghurt and Afresh mouthiest for wholesalers, wholesalers will use two products in order that wholesalers can know about tastes and quality products to introduce for retailers, Vanilla must have this policy if they wants to find new customers. Besides that retailers also will use two products to introduce for customers. If wholesalers introduce for retailers two products successful, Vanilla will discount 10% follow each order about prices of two products for wholesalers. This policy is very necessary when Vanilla want to new products in the milk markets.
In short, when Vanilla wants to approach new customers, they must have suitable promotional programmed or customers. With the pull promotional strategy: Vanilla must make advertisements such as: televisions, internet and newspapers. If consumers like those advertisement models, they will accept new products. Furthermore, they will listen to introduction two products from retailers. When these steps are successful, two products will be attracted many new customers. E) Analyze the additional elements of the extended marketing mix Today marketing is not limited to the traditional UP formula that it has been expanded to add the UP formula (people, process, physical evidence). | <urn:uuid:6ccfc574-8c2b-4385-af42-3670605768d1> | {
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Paper One 试卷一
PartⅠ Dialogue Communication (10 minutes, 10 points, 1 for each)
Section A Dialogue Completion
Directions: In this section, you will read 5 short incomplete dialogues between two speakers, each followed by 4 choices marked A, B, C, and D. Choose the answer that best suits the situation to complete the dialogue. Then mark the corresponding letter with a single bar across the square brackets on your machine-scoring ANSWER SHEET.
1. A: Helen.You look great!You’remuch slimmer than last time I saw you.
B: Actually,I’vebeenonadietandI’vebeendoingakeep-fitclass, too.
A．No, thanks. B．Well, yes.
C．You are flattering me. D．Are you kidding?
2．A:I’msosorry.Ishouldn’thavethrownyourviolinaway.Whydidn’t youtell me it was a birthday present from your Dad?
B: What is done is done.
C．Forget it. D．That’s fine.
3. A: It is really hard to maintain contact when people move around so much.
A．You’re unlucky to have lost contact with your friends.
B．That is right. I have been out of touch with my friends.
C．Is it? People just drift apart indeed!
D．I ask them to keep me informed about what they are doing.
4. A: Hi, John, how are you? I heard you were sick.
B: They must have confused me with somebody else.
A．I was sick last week. B．I could not agree with you more.
C．I’ve never felt better. D．So you are right.
5. A: It is not like George to be late for an appointment.
B: He’s always punctual.
A．No way. B．Anyway he’s late.
C．I don’t think so. D．You’re right.
Section B Dialogue Comprehension
Directions: In this section, you will read 5 short conversations between a man and a woman. At the end of each conversation there is a question followed by 4 choices marked A, B, C, and D. Choose the best answer to the question from the 4 choices by marking the corresponding letter with a single bar across the square brackets on your machine-scoring ANSWER SHEET.
6. Man:Thatwasanabsolutelydeliciousmeal.Yourcookingisalways superb but this time you have excelled yourself.
Woman: I am glad you enjoyed it. It is a recipe I haven’t tried before.
Question: What does the man think of the woman’s cooking?
A．It is as good as always.
B．It is good enough for something new.
C．It is good, but not as good as before.
D．It is better than usual.
7. Man: Do you think that Bob is serious about Sally?
Question: What conclusion can we draw from the woman’s statement?
A．Bob is serious about Sally.
B．Bob never goes steady with a girl.
C．Bob will soon change his girlfriend.
D．Bob is not serious about Sally.
8. Man: Everybody’s helping out with the dinner. Would you make the salad?
Woman:Anything but that.
Question: What does the woman mean?
A．She does not want any salad.
B．She will make the salad.
C．She wants some salad.
D．She’d rather do some other jobs.
9. Man:You know what?You should invest the money yourself.
Woman: That had crossed my mind.
Question: What does the woman mean?
A．The idea had bothered her. B．She had invested the money.
C．The idea had occurred to her. D．She wouldn’t give it a try.
10. Woman: Where do you plan to go for dinner?
Man:IwasthinkingofgoingtoJoe’s.It’sastone’sthrowaway.Besides, the environment is good.
Question: What can we learn about Joe’s?
A. It is not far from here B. It is not expensive.
C. It is an interesting place.
D. It is known for its specialty.
Part II Vocabulary (10 minutes, 10 points, 0.5 for each)
Directions: In this section, there are 10 sentences, each with one word or phrase underlined. Choose the one from the 4 choices marked A, B, C, and D that best keeps the meaning of the sentence. Then mark the corresponding letter with a single bar across the square brackets on your machine-scoring ANSWER SHEET.
11．Likeflowersthathavebeenwaiting allwinterto blossom,touristsareeagerto burst forth with their cameras.
A．survive B．breeze C．revive D．bloom
12．The applications of genetic engineering are abundant and choosing one appropriate for this case can be rather difficult.
A. sufficient B. plentiful C. adequate D. countable
13．The newly elected president has pledged $13 million to the automobile industry for its survival.
A．promised B．prepared C．disposed D．delivered
14．TheAmericans recognize that the UN can be the channel for greater diplomatic activity.
A．place B．medium C．resort D．tunnel
15．Thegrowthofpart-timeandflexibleworkingpatternallowsmorewomento take advantage of job opportunities.
A．make use of B. catch up with
C．cast light on D. get rid of
16．Nobodycanhelpbutbefascinatedbytheworldintowhichheistakenbythe science fiction.
A．impressed B．amused C．attracted D．puzzled
17．Senator James Meeks has called off a boycott of Chicago Public Schools, organized to protest Illinois’ education funding system.
A．reclaimed B．proposed C．indulged D．canceled
18．The new book focuses on the concept that to achieve and maintain total health, people need physical, social and emotional well-being.
A．gain B．attainC．acquire D．gather
19．The16percentfareincreasewouldbringChicagofaresinlinewiththoseof other big cities.
A．in cooperation with B．in agreement with
C．in connection with D．in association with
20．ItistruethatLondonisoftensunless,dampandraw,thoughtheoccasional sunny days seem all the more attractive by contrast.
A．mild B．chilly C．moist D．cloudy
Directions: In this section, there are 10 incomplete sentences. For each sentence there are 4 choices marked A, B, C, and D. Choose the one that best completes the sentence. Then mark the corresponding letter with a single bar across the square brackets on your machine-scoring ANSWER SHEET.
21．Researchshowsheavycoffeedrinkingis asmallincreaseinblood pressure, but not enough to increase the risk for high blood pressure.
A. associated with B．compared with
C. attributed toD．referred to
22．Alarge ofthesunlightneverreachestheearthwhile infra-redheat given off by the earth is allowed to escape freely.
A．proportion B．ratioC．rate D．fraction
23．It is amusing that she her father’s bad temper as well as her mother’s good looks.
A．retained B．inherited C．preserved D．maintained
24． the few who have failed in their examination, all the other students in the hall are in very high spirits.
A．In spite thatB．But for
C．For the sake of D．Apart from
25．The decline in moral standards, which has long concerned social analysts, has at last the attention of averageAmericans.
A．clarified B．cultivated C．captured D．characterized
26．Our neighbor Uncle Johnson is a stubborn man. Needless to say, we tried to make him change his mind.
A．in short B．in secret C．in danger D．in vain
27．The western media was astonished to see that China’s GDP
by almost 40% just in two years’time. | <urn:uuid:94f84099-c9f1-45ee-86ae-1c99f2b2a5d5> | {
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Mozambican Art and Pirate Poems in 3rd and 4th grade
25. leden 2019
This week Class 3 had a special presentation of Mozambican art and culture by Felizardo. He talked a bit about the history of the country, as well as a particular artist who, through his artwork, helped to shape the history. This artist was Malangatana Ngwenya.
The students each had an opportunity to color a famous piece of art by Malangatana. Many of the students did an excellent job coloring and decorating it, while others we are still waiting to see their finished masterpieces. If you find either the Mozambique art or their Name Doodles at home this weekend, please see to it that they complete them and bring them on Monday for display with the rest of the wonderful Class 3 works.
Class 4 enjoyed reading the ORT book titled, Pirate Poems. Each group worked hard to read, analyze and memorize (some) their poem in preparation to present them to the rest of the class. Many of them even recited the poems in their best pirate accents. They all had a lot of fun with the activity. If you catch your children swashbuckling, pillaging, or plundering this weekend, I have no idea where they got such ideas!
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Substrate may mean:
- Substrate (biology), the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the surface or medium on which an organism grows or is attached
- Substrate (marine biology), the earthy material in the bottom of a marine habitat, like dirt, rocks, sand, or gravel
- Substrate (aquarium), the material used in the bottom of an aquarium
- The stratum that is covered by another geologic stratum
- Substrate (biochemistry), a molecule an enzyme has an effect on
- Substrate (chemistry), the catalytic material upon which chemical species react
Substrate may also mean:
- Wafer (electronics), material upon which integrated circuits are fabricated
- Printed circuit board (electronics), or the electrically insulating portion of a PCB structure
- Substratum, in linguistics, a language that influences but is supplanted by a second language
- Neural substrate, in neuroscience, the set of brain structures that underlies a specific behavior or psychological state
- Substrate (printing), the base material to which images will be printed
|This disambiguation page lists articles with similar titles.
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ASK A SCIENTIST
Question: When you see fire, what are the flames actually made out of and how does it work?
When you see a fire you are seeing chemical energy being released as visible light. All matter is made of chemicals. If the conditions are right, different chemicals can react. This means that their individual atoms combine in different ways to make other substances. When this happens, energy stored in the bonds that hold atoms together is either released or taken in. Some reactions require you to add energy while others give off energy.
All matter is composed of very small particles called atoms. In nature there are about 90 different atoms that combine in different ways to make all of the substances on earth. A particle made of atoms bonded together is called a molecule. Atoms have a small positive center called the nucleus, which is surrounded by a cloud of electrons that have a negative charge.
Examples of reactions that give off enough energy to make a flame include the burning of substances like natural gas, gasoline, and wood. The burning substance reacts with oxygen in the air to produce carbon dioxide and water as energy is released. In some cases the energy released just warms things up as it makes the molecules move faster. If enough energy is released it can cause electrons to move farther away from the center of their atoms. When the electrons fall back to their original orbits, also called energy levels, they give off weightless particles called photons which give us electromagnetic radiation. Some of these photons have energy that puts them in the visible light part of this energy spectrum. Other photons give us x-rays, ultraviolet rays, microwaves, and radio waves.
Flames are composed of hot gas molecules, products of a chemical reaction. Hot molecules in the flame are less dense than the surrounding air, which causes them to rise. This movement causes the flame to flicker and the light in the flame results as excited electrons in the hot gas fall back to lower orbits. The color of the light depends on how far the electrons fall. Each photon in our rainbow of visible light has its own quantity of energy. As you go from red to violet the photons have more and more energy. Each type of atom gives off it own colors of light which is how we can tell which atoms are in a flame or on a distant star.
Ask a Scientist appears Thursdays. Questions are answered by faculty at Binghamton University. Teachers in the greater Binghamton area who wish to participate in the program are asked to write to Ask A Scientist, c/o Binghamton University, Office of Communications and Marketing, PO Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000 or e-mail [email protected]. Check out the Ask a Scientist Web site at askascientist.binghamton.edu. To submit a question, download the submission form(.pdf, 460kb). | <urn:uuid:929c14db-16bc-4dd3-85cc-bd82c922b358> | {
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Image: Picasso's sculpture an exhibit at
Image: Guernica on the Spanish Civil
War - known as one of the most moving
and powerful anti-war paintings in history.
(fair use of image)
How was one to try to understand Picasso’s mind
Logic not rendered but gauged through his works
A right brain development that manifested itself
In cubism his invention of abstract modern art
So called of the angular or square look of paintings
Of cubes cones and cylinders that ignored perspective
Where objects and people drawn from various angles
Way off the conventional and the conservatives of art
His famous Guernica's abhorring the war where images
Of people and animals in geometric shapes were mixed
Talents of non-conforming masters led the revolution
The art scene was all the richer by their eccentricity
Note:Cubism was invented around 1907
in Paris by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque.
Cubism was the first abstract style of modern art.
For Outlawyer's Sunday's Mini
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Antioxidants and Cancer Prevention
- What are antioxidants?
- Can antioxidants prevent cancer?
- What was shown in previously published large-scale clinical trials?
- Are antioxidants under investigation in current large-scale clinical trials?
- Will NCI continue to investigate the effect of beta-carotene on cancer?
- How might antioxidants prevent cancer?
- Which foods are rich in antioxidants?
Antioxidants are substances that may protect cells from the damage caused by unstable molecules known as free radicals. Free radical damage may lead to cancer. Antioxidants interact with and stabilize free radicals and may prevent some of the damage free radicals otherwise might cause. Examples of antioxidants include beta-carotene, lycopene, vitamins C, E, and A, and other substances.
Considerable laboratory evidence from chemical, cell culture, and animal studies indicates that antioxidants may slow or possibly prevent the development of cancer. However, information from recent clinical trials is less clear. In recent years, large-scale, randomized clinical trials reached inconsistent conclusions.
Five large-scale clinical trials published in the 1990s reached differing conclusions about the effect of antioxidants on cancer. The studies examined the effect of beta-carotene and other antioxidants on cancer in different patient groups. However, beta-carotene appeared to have different effects depending upon the patient population. The conclusions of each study are summarized below.
- The first large randomized trial on antioxidants and cancer risk was the Chinese Cancer Prevention Study, published in 1993. This trial investigated the effect of a combination of beta-carotene, vitamin E, and selenium on cancer in healthy Chinese men and women at high risk for gastric cancer. The study showed a combination of beta-carotene, vitamin E, and selenium significantly reduced incidence of both gastric cancer and cancer overall. (1)
- A 1994 cancer prevention study entitled the Alpha-Tocopherol (vitmain E)/Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study (ATBC) demonstrated that lung cancer rates of Finnish male smokers increased significantly with beta-carotene and were not affected by vitamin E. (2)
- Another 1994 study, the Beta-Carotene and Retinol (vitamin A) Efficacy Trial (CARET), also demonstrated a possible increase in lung cancer associated with antioxidants. (3)
- The 1996 Physicians' Health Study I (PHS) found no change in cancer rates associated with beta-carotene and aspirin taken by U.S. male physicians. (4)
- The 1999 Women's Health Study (WHS) tested effects of vitamin E and beta-carotene in the prevention of cancer and cardiovascular disease among women age 45 years or older. Among apparently healthy women, there was no benefit or harm from beta-carotene supplementation. Investigation of the effect of vitamin E is ongoing. (5)
Three large-scale clinical trials continue to investigate the effect of antioxidants on cancer. The objective of each of these studies is described below. More information about clinical trails can be obtained using cancer.gov/clinicaltrials, www.clinicaltrials.gov, or the CRISP database at www.nih.gov.
- The Women's Health Study (WHS) is currently evaluating the effect of vitamin E in the primary prevention of cancer among U.S. female health professionals age 45 and older. The WHS is expected to conclude in August 2004.
- The Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT) is taking place in the United States, Puerto Rico, and Canada. SELECT is trying to find out if taking selenium and/or vitamin E supplements can prevent prostate cancer in men age 50 or older. The SELECT trial is expected to stop recruiting patients in May 2006.
- The Physicians' Health Study II (PHS II) is a follow up to the earlier clinical trial by the same name. The study is investigating the effects of vitamin E, C, and multivitamins on prostate cancer and total cancer incidence. The PHS II is expected to conclude in August 2007.
Given the unexpected results of ATBC and CARET, and the finding of no effect of beta-carotene in the PHS and WHS, NCI will follow the people who participated in these studies and will examine the long-term health effects of beta-carotene supplements. Post-trial follow-up has already been funded by NCI for CARET, ATBC, the Chinese Cancer Prevention Study, and the two smaller trials of skin cancer and colon polyps. Post-trial follow-up results have been published for ATBC, and as of July 2004 are in press for CARET and are in progress for the Chinese Cancer Prevention Study.
Antioxidants neutralize free radicals as the natural by-product of normal cell processes. Free radicals are molecules with incomplete electron shells which make them more chemically reactive than those with complete electron shells. Exposure to various environmental factors, including tobacco smoke and radiation, can also lead to free radical formation. In humans, the most common form of free radicals is oxygen. When an oxygen molecule (O2) becomes electrically charged or "radicalized" it tries to steal electrons from other molecules, causing damage to the DNA and other molecules. Over time, such damage may become irreversible and lead to disease including cancer. Antioxidants are often described as "mopping up" free radicals, meaning they neutralize the electrical charge and prevent the free radical from taking electrons from other molecules.
Antioxidants are abundant in fruits and vegetables, as well as in other foods including nuts, grains and some meats, poultry and fish. The list below describes food sources of common antioxidants.
- Beta-carotene is found in many foods that are orange in color, including sweet potatoes, carrots, cantaloupe, squash, apricots, pumpkin, and mangos. Some green leafy vegetables including collard greens, spinach, and kale are also rich in beta-carotene.
- Lutein, best known for its association with healthy eyes, is abundant in green, leafy vegetables such as collard greens, spinach, and kale.
- Lycopene is a potent antioxidant found in tomatoes, watermelon, guava, papaya, apricots, pink grapefruit, blood oranges, and other foods. Estimates suggest 85 percent of American dietary intake of lycopene comes from tomatoes and tomato products.
- Selenium is a mineral, not an antioxidant nutrient. However, it is a component of antioxidant enzymes. Plant foods like rice and wheat are the major dietary sources of selenium in most countries. The amount of selenium in soil, which varies by region, determines the amount of selenium in the foods grown in that soil. Animals that eat grains or plants grown in selenium-rich soil have higher levels of selenium in their muscle. In the United States, meats and bread are common sources of dietary selenium. Brazil nuts also contain large quantities of selenium.
- Vitamin A is found in three main forms: retinol (Vitamin A1), 3,4-didehydroretinol (Vitamin A2), and 3-hydroxy-retinol (Vitamin A3). Foods rich in vitamin A include liver, sweet potatoes, carrots, milk, egg yolks and mozzarella cheese.
- Vitamin C is also called ascorbic acid, and can be found in high abundance in many fruits and vegetables and is also found in cereals, beef, poultry and fish.
- Vitamin E, also known as alpha-tocopherol, is found in almonds, in many oils including wheat germ, safflower, corn and soybean oils, and also found in mangos, nuts, broccoli and other foods.
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About UW Discovery Farms
The Discovery Farms program develops on-farm and related research to determine the economic and environmental effects of agricultural practices on a diverse group of Wisconsin farms; and educates and improves communications among the agricultural community, consumers, researchers and policy-makers to better identify and implement effective environmental management practices that are compatible with profitable agriculture.
To achieve its mission, the Discovery Farms program will:
Work and communicate with a wide range of agricultural enterprises to determine the environmental impacts of production agriculture and create a reliable database of what different farms contribute in terms of environmental enhancement or degradation
Gather baseline information that includes not only environmental information, but also management practices and financial conditions that allow for the calculation of the cost of implementing environmentally sound practices
Determine the effects of environmental rules and regulations on the environment, farm profitability and farm management; and provide accurate information to producers, consumers, policy makers and agency personnel so positive steps can be made to protect both the environment and production agriculture
Work and communicate with agricultural producer groups, environmental groups, consumers, the University of Wisconsin, UW Extension, the Department of Agriculture, Trade & Consumer Protection, the Department of Natural Resources, the Natural Resources Conservation Service, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, County Land Conservation Departments, and agricultural businesses and cooperatives on the importance of maintaining a viable agricultural economy
Identify the impacts — both negative and positive — that agriculture has in Wisconsin.
Manitowoc County Discovery Farms Update: March 2013
The session discussed some of the environmental challenges that the Discovery Farms Program has evaluated including the timing and recommended methods of manure applications, and manure handling options that deal with manure in a sustainable manner. The effectiveness of grassed waterways, timing of surface water runoff and tile flow, correlation between tillage and sediment and nutrient loss, and stratification of phosphorus in no-till systems were all essential information gained from data collected on the two Discovery Farms in Manitowoc County.
Monitoring at one of the farms evaluated infield sediment and nutrient movement in three different grazing paddock types: overwintered or set-stock paddocks, paddocks that have high usage in spring and fall, and paddocks that are primarily used during summer months when forage is sufficient for grazing.
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By Ben Crookshanks
Covered bridges are picturesque and romantic reminders of a simpler time.Why were they covered? Why go to the extra trouble and expense? Two reasons: 1) Wood is remarkably durable if protected from the elements. It was much easier to maintain a roof than replace the wooden deck and underlying timbers. 2) Many horses are skittish and balky about crossing a bridge when they can see moving water. On the other hand they have no fear of walking through a structure that looks like a barn.The bridges were not covered, as many assume, to keep snow off the deck. On the contrary, records show that owners of toll bridges hauled snow and shoveled it onto the deck, creating a slick surface, enabling sleds to glide across.
During the 19th-century, over 10,000 covered bridges were built; less than 900 survive. As late as 1947, there were still 89 covered bridges in West Virginia. Today, only 17 remain. All have been placed on the National Register of Historic Places. Four of the bridges are in southern West Virginia and within an easy drive of Oak Hill, WV. The oldest and most famous bridge in the state is a little farther away. It spans the Tygert River at Philippi in northern West Virginia. It is 285 feet long and is one of only six two-lane bridges still in existence in the United States.
Lemuel Chenoweth, a brilliant, but largely self-educated carpenter and cabinetmaker was awarded the contract to build the bridge in 1850.
Competition was stiff. Several engineers, some of them from abroad, were after the contract. Chenoweth was the last to make a presentation. After he had assembled his bridge, members of the Board looked at it and scoffed. This touched his pride. He took two chairs, suspended the model between them, then stood in the middle of it and challenged the others to do the same with theirs. Chenoweth got the contract. The bridge was completed in late 1852.
On June 3, 1861, the area around the Philippi Bridge was the site of the first land battle of the Civil War. Compared with the rest of the war, this battle would seem insignificant. There were only three casualties and no one was killed.
Two of the casualties were leg wounds which required amputation, the first of many thousands which would be performed in the next four years. One of the amputees was 19-year-old James E. Hanger, a student from Washington College (now Washington and Lee University) at Lexington, Virginia. He had arrived in Philippi on June 1. In the early hours of June 3, he was standing guard at the stable when shots rang out. He went inside to saddle a horse, intending to ride to the gunfire. A solid six-pound cannonball ricocheted and came through the stable shattering his left leg near the knee joint. He was captured and turned over to a Union surgeon who amputated his leg-the first of the war. In August, he was sent home in a prisoner exchange.
While recovering, he fashioned himself an artificial leg out of barrel staves. He began making wooden legs for other amputees. As the number of casualties mounted, Hanger was commissioned by the Confederate government to manufacture artificial limbs. When he passed away in 1919, his company had branches in Philadelphia, St. Louis, Pittsburgh, Atlanta, Paris and London. Today, the J.E. Hanger Company is the largest manufacturer of prosthetic devices in the world.
On February 2, 1989, a freak accident nearly destroyed the Philippi Bridge. A gasoline truck was filling the tanks of a nearby service station. After the tanks were full, the truck, for some reason, continued pumping. An estimated 1,500 gallons of fuel spilled onto the ground and flowed onto the bridge deck. Motorists, unaware of the danger, continued driving through what they assumed was water. The inevitable happened-a catalytic converter ignited the gasoline. Within a matter of minutes, a great deal of the roof and siding were gone and the main structure charred.
Because of the bridges historical significance, the state decided to immediately begin rebuilding it. West Virginia University, through the Institute for History of Technology and Industrial Archaeology, coordinated the restoration. A good many of the timbers were just lightly charred, some only blackened by smoke and, therefore, still sound and serviceable. While removing the charred wood, several Civil War Minie balls were recovered-physical evidence the battle had occurred.
Through the years, various repairs and modifications had been make to the bride, altering its appearance. During the restoration, every effort was made to return the old bridge to the way it looked in 1861. When finished, once again it had a red, wooden-shingle rood, white horizontal siding and double curved arches on the portals. To lessen the chance of another fire, there was one concession to modern technology. A sprinkling system was discreetly added.
Restoration was completed in time for the 130th anniversary of the Battle of Philippi-June 3, 1991.
Two of the four bridges in southern West Virginia are in Monroe County and two in Greenbrier County. Three of them are over 100 years old and all four have recently undergone restoration.
The Indian Creek Bridge is one of the most photographed structures in West Virginia. It is located on U.S. Route 219, 6 miles south of Union in Monroe County, opposite St. Johns Church. The bridge, built in 1903, is 49 ft. long.
The Laurel Creek Bridge, at 24 ft., 5 in., is the shortest bridge in the state. From the Indian Creek Bridge go north on Rt. 219 to Secondary 219/7 and turn left to Lillydale. Then turn right on 219/11 through Lillydale to the bridge.
The Herns Mill Bridge is a very short drive from Lewisburg. Go west on U.S. Route 60 approximately 2.6 miles. Turn left onto Secondary 60/11, then left onto Secondary 40 for 2.2 miles. Although the sign on the bridge says it was built in 1879, records indicate it was built in 1884.
The Hokes Mill Bridge is the longest of the four-81 ft., 6 in. This bridge is in Greenbrier County very near the Monroe County line. From Ronceverte, take 219 south to Secondary 48. Turn right and travel approximately 3.6 miles to Secondary 62. Proceed south on 62 to the bridge. | <urn:uuid:3ca1322d-e47a-438a-a752-b7d36c2475fe> | {
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As adults, we are usually busy as parents and workers and often feel stressed and experience burn-out at times, but would you ever think that children can experience stress too?
Most of us probably think that childhood is a time when children are carefree, having no worries or responsibilities; yet, studies tell us that many children experience extreme stress and have similar symptoms as those of adults. Like adults, children often have bad feelings and have difficulty handling their stress. Unlike adults, though, children do not have the means or the skills to understand or manage their stress in appropriate ways. Children must depend upon us to help them. As parents and caregivers we need to recognize when children are feeling stressed and help them feel better. We can also help by decreasing the discomfort for the child and, in some instances, by assisting a child or family in dealing with the situation that caused the stress.
Stress is the body's reaction to a physical or emotional situation that causes imbalance in a person's life. Occasional stress is normal and predictable in our daily lives. Normal stress serves to present us with challenges for greater learning and opportunity, such as the stress that we may experience before meeting new people. On the other hand, constant stress can cause us many problems and, unless handled, can add to the stress of another situation.
Children react in different ways to stress. Some children become ill. Some may become withdrawn and nervous while others show anger and demand attention. In some instances, development is affected. There are also some children who do not seem bothered by stress. We often call these children resilient.
Stress becomes a problem when the ordinary stress of daily life becomes overwhelming. When under stress, there is an increase in heart rate, breathing is faster, and muscles tense up. When there are several stressors, the level and duration of the stress are greater.
Both negative and positive events can cause stress. Family events are often a source of stress for children. The break up of a family is a negative event that can cause stress in children. Events such as physical abuse, separation, rejection, and fights are some other negative sources of stress. Other events such as a parent losing a job, or the death of a parent, grandparent, or sibling can create stress. Positive events that cause stress in children include birthday parties, new pets, and the birth of new siblings. Everyday family obligations, events, and routines can create stress and tension for the young child, as in the case of an active family that may be so busy that the needs of a young child may be overlooked.
Parents and caregivers need to be aware of what is happening in a child's life that may affect the child's behavior. A sudden change in a child¼s behavior may be related to stress. Caregivers can talk with the parents about what is going on in the home.
Common signs of stress are listed below. These signs also may indicate that the child is experiencing problems other than stress. How do you identify stress from other problems that the child may be experiencing?
First, parents and other caregivers must observe children's behavior. Children who isolate themselves from other children may be feeling stress. Also, the child who is easily agitated, irritable, lethargic, lazy, or aggressive may also suffer from stress.
It is also important to watch the child for changes in habits or behavior. For example, a friendly, quiet child who suddenly has been fighting and arguing with his friends may be suffering from stress. As a caregiver, you notice normal behavior among children and you will also be aware when there are changes in children's behavior.
How should you react when a child changes his or her normal behavior? Accepting the child's behavior is important. For example, it is useless to scold a child for thumb sucking. Scolding will not stop the behavior. Also, forcing the child to eat does not result in the child eating. When you notice unusual behavior, care for the child, remain close to the child, and comfort the child. Reassure the child that you care about him or her.
|Crying Spells||Grinding Teeth|
|Excessive Aggressiveness||Respiratory Tract Illness|
A first step in decreasing a child's stress is to be knowledgeable and aware of the symptoms of stress. These symptoms or warning signs include bed-wetting, upset stomach, irritability, nightmares, lying, withdrawal from activity, change in activity level, poor sleep or eating habits, teeth grinding, or decline in school achievement. Recognizing children's stress symptoms is not easy. It is very important to recognize that it is normal for children to exhibit some of these signs at some times in their lives. Adults need to be alert when a child is showing a cluster of these signs or symptoms simultaneously or when no apparent cause can explain why the child may be stressed. In either of these cases, it is a sign that the adults who are involved in the care of children need to intervene. If the child feels that it is impossible to handle the stress, he or she can become angry or aggressive. If the stress becomes too overwhelming for the child, then the child will experience anxiety. If the body remains in a state of anxiety, then physical, social, and emotional damage and deterioration can occur.
The age of the child is a factor in recognizing stress. Children often cannot tell us what they feel or they do not have the language to describe the stressful situation. They tend to show the stress through their behavior. When you notice a three-year-old child crying constantly (or more than usual), or an eight-year-old having a temper tantrum, that may be the child's way of alerting you to something or letting you know that too much is happening.
Children react differently to stressful events and situations and also have different coping strategies. Children can cope through tears and crying, through tantrums, or by retreating from unpleasant situations. Children who are around supportive adults and caregivers usually develop a variety of coping strategies and are more likely to become more resilient. Many children, however, do not have a supportive environment and do not learn a set of positive management strategies.
Children need help in learning to manage and function with the stress they feel. One means to assist children is to acknowledge their feelings. It is important that children understand what they are feeling, that we teach the word "stress" by letting them know that they may feel "butterflies in the stomach," or that their heart may pound. Let children know that it is all right to feel angry, alone, scared, or lonely. Teach children names or words for their feelings and appropriate ways to express them. Show more interest in the child's experience than in the behavior that results. There are times when a child just needs a hug for reassurance. In the case of older children, help them learn to problem solve for themselves and come up with management (coping ) strategies. This builds their independence and mastery of coming up with options, finding solutions, or finding other ways to comfort themselves. For example, if a child repeatedly bullies other children, lies, withdraws, gives up, hurts or blames other children, the adult can ask the child what other ways there are to handle the situation that caused the reaction in the child.
Promote a positive environment - Praise children for the acceptable things that they do. The experience of stress and tension can serve to defeat an individual's concept and confidence. Help children see and understand the positive things about themselves and that they are worthwhile persons. Listen without judging the child or the situation; that is, if the child chooses to tell you about the situation that produced the stress. Help the child feel comfortable in expressing feelings. Assist the child in clarifying his or her feelings. You may need to correct any misconceptions that the children may have about themselves or their feelings.
Set a good example - Children learn lessons from us, whether these lessons are positive or negative. Keep in mind that children are imitators and may cope with stress in the same ways they see adults handle their stress. In some cases, it is appropriate to explain, especially to older children, why something is being done. This explanation can often ease the child's reaction.
Help children through stories - Sometimes children can't talk to us about the distress they feel. They may not have the words or the concepts to easily express themselves. They may feel shy, embarrassed, guilty, or ashamed. If you try to talk to them using adult logic, most children will "turn off." How can we then talk to children about their fears and problems? How can we get through to them, let them know that we understand, and offer them ways to manage their fears and find comfort? Stories are a great answer. Children will "turn on" to story time. Some stories are therapeutic stories which help children feel better and cope better with their fears and problems. The character in the story can be a little boy or little girl just like them. They are worried about the same things and have the same problems to deal with. In the story, the boy or girl finds ways of coping with and resolving troubling issues of concern to the child. As the child listens to the story, he or she is able to identify with the hero or heroine. There is safety in the story. The child is free to listen and to learn without risking feeling embarrassed or uncomfortable.
Telling children stories about children with feelings just like theirs helps them realize that other children have been through the situation too. This is very reassuring to children. It also lets them know that you understand their feelings.
Telling a story also provides a way of communicating with children. If you are unsure of how children are feeling, you can ask them, "And what do you think John (name of the story character) was most worried about?" The answer that the child gives will be a direct reflection of his own fears, or anger. This communication about the story can be very effective because children can be very truthful and insightful about the feelings and fears of story characters even though they may be reluctant when asked about their own feelings.
When a parent tells a story to a child, an atmosphere of warmth and intimacy is created that is comforting for parents as well as children. It helps as a parent to know that storytelling is a simple, natural, and age-old technique that can be used to comfort children.
If a child is experiencing stress, there are other ways to assist the child to gain control. The aim is to help the child to relax. Some ways are: deep breathing exercises, listening to soothing music, reciting nursery rhymes and finger plays, listening to the rain fall, drawing or coloring. These "stress breakers" can help the child decrease the level of stress that he or she is feeling. Children can also learn to harness the positive energy of stress and use it to their advantage.
Be aware of the child's temperament; what seems to be fun for one child may feel overwhelming to another child.
Make an effort to cut down on activities when you see signs of stress in children's behavior. Allow children to go at their own paces. Structure activities so that children can cooperate with each other, lessening competition among children.
Teach children tricks for calming themselves, such as taking deep breaths, thinking of a quiet place, etc.
Take care of yourself! Children often pick up stress from parents and caregivers. Keep calm and control your anger.
Plan plenty of time for play. Inform children when there will be transitions or changes in the child care curriculum. Plan activities to allow children to express their feelings through play. Books, art activities, puppetry, play and drawing allow children to think through and label their feelings.
Reassure children that what has happened is not their fault. Children often believe that their "bad" behavior caused bad things to happen, such as the breakup of their mother and father. They have a tendency to assume guilt for situations that adults know are entirely beyond the child's control.
Give children a lot of cuddles, reassurances, and familiar routines, like a bedtime or sleep time story. Giving a child a special toy for comfort is also suggested.
Helping children to deal positively with stressful and tension causing events prepares them for healthy emotional and social development. This is an important responsibility of parents, teachers, and other caregivers: to effectively guide and help children.
Caplan, Ilene. (1997). Kindergarten Program for Children of Separation and Divorce. Baltimore, MD.
Elkind, D. (1988). The Hurried Child. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Honig, A.S. (1986). Stress and Coping in Children. In J. McCracken's Reducing Stress in Children's Lives.
National Network for Family Resiliency (1995). Family Resiliency: Building Strengths to Meet Life's Challenges. Ames: Iowa State University Extension.
Schaefer, C. (Ed). (1979). The Therapeutic Use of Child's Play. New Jersey: Aronson. University Extension. (1993). Stress and Coping with Disaster Manual. Columbia, Missouri.
Asch, Frank. (1989) Good-bye House. Simon and Schuster.
Bradley CoCo, Eugene. (1990). Glow in the Dark Stars, Moon and Clouds. A Golden Book, New York, Western Publishing Company
Brett, Doris.. (1986). Annie Stories: A Special Kind of Storytelling. Victoria, Australia.
"Annie Stories" address many different situations, from the first day of school, to fear of monsters, to loss of a loved one.
Crary, E. (1992). I'm Mad. Seattle: Parenting Press.
Simon, Norma. (1976). All Kinds of Families. Albert Whitman & Company.
Skutch, Robert. (1995). Who's in a Family. Tricycle Press.
Virginia Cooperative Extension materials are available for public use, reprint, or citation without further permission, provided the use includes credit to the author and to Virginia Cooperative Extension, Virginia Tech, and Virginia State University.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Virginia State University, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating. Edwin J. Jones, Director, Virginia Cooperative Extension, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg; M. Ray McKinnie, Interim Administrator, 1890 Extension Program, Virginia State University, Petersburg.
May 1, 2009 | <urn:uuid:e4a7ad3e-9c53-4e6b-84f2-a127d1c627e1> | {
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Sleep Study Test
A sleep study test or polysomnography (PSG) is a very good tool to collect comprehensive information about somebody’s sleep pattern.
The test is often used to confirm a sleep apnea diagnosis when a person shows some symptoms of this sleep disorder.
With today’s technology the procedure may be performed in the convenience of your own home, but usually takes place in a sleep center or laboratory.
The study consists of two phases.
The first one is a recording of different physiological parameters such as: brain activity, eye and chin movement, heart rate and rhythm, breathing movements, blood oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide level, airflow through the nose, muscle tension and movements.
All data is then analyzed and evaluated by a physician who is a specialist in sleep disorders.
If the test results indicate sleep apnea, the second phase of the sleep study is necessary. During this part your treatment begins with a CPAP machine as a preferred treatment option.
The important element of this part is a CPAP titration that will determine the optimal air pressure to alleviate apnea episodes during your sleep.
When all this is done during one night, it is called a "split-night" sleep study.
A two night PSG test means that you will be tested first and then you will come in for a second night to do the CPAP titration.
To have a sleep study test done you will need a referral from your doctor.A test can cost from about $ 2000 to $10000, on average you will pay around $5000. This depends on location and other factors. Medical insurance will usually cover some or all your expenses.
Some patients love their CPAP from the first night and say their life started over. They are full of energy, feel 20 years younger and will use their machine religiously. Others, while they feel much better, have a difficult time getting used to their new "sleep companion".
They will use it for a few hours and then take it off, or use it only when they are really tired, or every few nights.
About half of the people will stop using their CPAP after six months. They shouldn’t give up but should look for other treatment options.
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Piscina. In the pre-Reformation English Parish Church, the Catholic Mass was celebrated several times a day at altars in the chancel and nave. Part of the mass requires the ritual washing of vessels. Most altars had a piscina beside them, which was a basin with a drain set in the wall. Water was poured from a jug over the vessels to wash them; the water drained away into sanctified ground in the churchyard.
Most piscinas were simple affairs, but some were very elaborate. Piscinas fell into disuse at the Reformation in England.
In the 19th century, under the influence of the Oxford Movement, an attempt was made to reassert the liturgical integrity of many medieval churches. At this time, piscinas were unblocked, and pressed back into use. Many new ones were constructed in a medieval style. All modern Catholic churches have piscinas.
Some piscinas have a credence shelf set above them in the alcove. Some piscinas have been converted into cupboards, and may be confused with aumbries. Basins set into the wall beside doors are more likely to be holy water stoups. Piscinas are often associated with an adjacent sedilia. | <urn:uuid:fade4156-2b8d-4e98-bb89-112bc2ec53ae> | {
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California Adaptation Clearinghouse website launched
IGIS and the California Naturalist Program are pleased to help celebrate the launch of a new information portal on climate adaptation. The California Adaptation Clearinghouse was officially launched at the California Adaptation Forum in August in Sacramento. The site was developed by the Governor's Office of Planning and Research (OPR) in collaboration with the UC Berkeley Geospatial Innovation Facility, CalNat and IGIS.
The Clearinghouse is a database-driven platform with a wealth of curated resources for climate adaptation. The site originated out of Senate Bill 246, which mandates OPR to provide resources on climate adaptation for local governments, regional planning agencies, and other practitioners working on adaptation and resilience. The database also contains sea-level rise resources collected by the Ocean Protection Council under Assembly Bill 2516. It's an amazing resource for anyone looking to strengthen climate change preparedness in their local government, community, or business.
The database includes numerous planning resources that have been developed and vetted by experts in the field. For example, the Urban Sustainability Directors Network has a how-to guide for local governments on developing equitable, community-driven climate preparedness plans, which you can find in the Clearinghouse. There are also examples of vulnerability assessments, local plans, and funding strategies. The majority of resources are hosted by other organizations, but unlike a Google search all the resources in the Clearinghouse have been reviewed, annotated, and cataloged by subject matter specialists.
To help find resources, the Clearinghouse has a number of search options, including more than a dozen topic categories adapted from Safeguarding California, the state's overall roadmap for building climate change resiliency. You can also search by Type of Impact (e.g., drought, sea level rise), Resource Type (e.g., case study, assessment, policy guidance), and of course an interactive map. Each resource has a descriptive blurb so you can quickly find what you need.
Adaptation planning can be information intensive, so the Tools and Data section of the website is devoted to helping people find data and crunch the numbers. Interested in rangelands? Check out the CA Landscape Conservation Cooperative's compiled Threat Assessments to California Rangelands. Sea level rise? Perhaps the CosMos modeling tool from USGS, or the Surging Seas tool from Climate Central. Like all resources, each tool and dataset has a user-friendly description, a technical summary, a bit about the data, and links to the source. One of our favorites is the California Energy Commission's Cal-Adapt, which includes both historical and projected climate data downscaled for California.
Providing a more personal perspective, the Clearinghouse also contains stories about climate adaptation from individuals, community groups, and businesses. The stories were collected by the UC ANR California Naturalist Program and their vast network of certified naturalists. The climate stories are diverse and compelling, from a concerned grandmother who becomes engaged in a community choice energy program, to a solar project engineer working to strengthen measures to prevent heat stroke in field staff. An interactive Story Map developed by IGIS helps users find stories from their area, some of which even have audio or video clips so you can hear the story in the speaker's own words.
Climate adaptation is complicated, but information portals like the Clearinghouse allow anyone to tap into the incredible amount of work that has already been done in California and elsewhere. Rather than reinvent the wheel, local agencies can build upon vetted guidelines from similar areas. We are all fortunate that the State of California has invested in a platform to share curated resources for the long-term, because climate adaptation is already part of the new normal. More resources are in the pipeline, so check it out and then check back often to see what's new. | <urn:uuid:fa231ae8-dc46-4bd2-9387-dfb914026691> | {
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Engraved head of Boyle by George Vertue, after the portrait by Johann Kerseboom, used as the frontispiece to Peter Shaw’s The Philosophical Works of Robert Boyle, 3 vols. (London, 1738). The famous air pump, with a glass receiver and its unfortunate winged inhabitant, are depicted in the lower left. In the lower right are the chemist’s furnace, ladle, crucible tongs, and two crucibles.
Editorial note: When this article was first published, it was inadvertently released in truncated form. It has now been updated with the correct, full version.
So far this series has covered Boyle’s religious doubts, pious demeanor and charitable spirit, and his attitude toward the loose sexual morality that was commonplace in his own family and the upper-class circles in which they moved. We turn now to his view of science as a Christian vocation—his vocation.
Why Boyle Became a Scientist
It was only after writing all of the religious works I’ve already told you about, at some point in his twenty-third year, that Boyle embarked on serious scientific study. From that point on his pursuit of natural philosophy continued unabated until his death. Often we do not know precisely why a given person is drawn to any specific activity, and we must be careful not to jump to inappropriate conclusions simply by assuming a certain answer. As Mordechai Feingold has stressed, we must keep in mind the distinction between one’s actual motivation for doing science and the justification one then offers for it. This caveat is especially relevant to the Scientific Revolution, when so many scientists were ordained ministers who felt tugged in opposite directions by their callings as clergy and their fascination with mathematics or natural philosophy. Although Boyle was never ordained, we must still be careful not uncritically to equate his reasons for doing science with the justification he provided.
They were however very closely linked in his case. Clearly, Boyle found himself enraptured by his first experiences in the laboratory, and just as clearly he viewed his activities simultaneously in theological terms. His own account, from an exuberant letter to his sister Katherine, is mythical in its allusion and proportion: “Vulcan has so transported and bewitch’d mee, that as the Delights I tast in it, make me fancy my Laboratory a kind of Elizium; so as if the Threshold of it possest the quality the Poets ascrib’d to that Lethe their Fictions made men taste of before their Entrance into those seats of Blisse.” In short, Boyle simply loved getting his hands dirty doing chemical experiments. No surprise there, given how much time he would devote to them.
Just three sentences earlier, however Boyle had already mentioned “those Morall speculations, with which my Chymicall Practices have entertained mee,” mentioning specifically in this connection “a Discourse ... of the Theologicall Use of Naturall Filosophy; endeavoring to make the Contemplation of the Creatures contributory to the Instruction of the Prince, & to the Glory of the Author of them” (The Correspondence of Robert Boyle, vol. 1, pp. 82-3). The “Discourse” Boyle referred to was an essay, “Of the Study of the Booke of Nature,” which he originally intended to include with the homilies and meditations comprising Occasional Reflections (from which I quoted in a previous entry). This is strong evidence by itself of the intimate connection that Boyle saw, right from the start, between his already highly developed religious life and his newly developing interest in science.
As this early essay reveals, even before beginning his laboratory activities Boyle was profoundly convicted that the investigation of nature was a fundamentally religious enterprise. “Both our Divines & our Philosophers,” the essay begins, “compose Man’s Library of three cheife Bookes, which to Expound, apply & Rectify, is the Taske of the rest.” What three “Bookes” did he have in mind? The “3 Volumes, are The Booke of Nature, the Book call’d Scripture, & the Booke of Conscience.” Having already said much about the latter two books in many other writings, Boyle’s goal in this essay was to “addict ... all capable & Intelligent Persons to the neglected study of the First,” that is, nature (The Works of Robert Boyle, vol. 13, p. 147). The intimate interplay between scientific and religious ideas would henceforth be an outstanding feature of his thought.
A further motive was Boyle’s strong desire to improve the human condition and to ameliorate suffering—especially through the application of chemical knowledge to medicine. The modern advertising slogan, “Better Living Through Chemistry,” never had a better exemplar than Robert Boyle. To some extent, Boyle’s interest in medicine reflected some unfortunate encounters with unhelpful physicians and his own generally poor health. His friend John Evelyn described him as “rather talle & slender of stature,” but “pale & much Emaciated,” and his diet as “extreamely Temperate & plaine” (Robert Boyle: By Himself and His Friends, pp. 88-9). More importantly, Boyle deeply felt that physicians had a religious duty to be more forthcoming with effective remedies—and to provide them even to those who could not afford to pay. It was a lifelong theme, running through many of his writings, which came to a climax near the end of his life, when he published a collection of medical recipes for this very purpose. John Wesley did precisely the same thing, for the same reasons, in the following century.
Boyle the Laboratory Scientist
Once Boyle had begun the investigation of nature, he never slackened, and he found his Christian character ideally suited to his new activities. The highly competitive aspect of modern science sometimes hides the fact that science is a fundamentally cooperative enterprise, in which groups of people work toward common goals. Boyle’s unquestioned honesty, unfailing charity, and genuine interest in the public welfare helped him gain the respect and friendship of an important community of learned “gentlemen,” who met regularly in John Wilkins’ rooms at Wadham College, Oxford, to view experiments and to discuss the latest scientific discoveries and ideas. When Wilkins moved to Cambridge in 1659, Boyle assumed the role of host. The following year, he and some of the same people joined with several others in London to found the Royal Society.
The next dozen years were the most productive of his life, earning him a worldwide reputation as the outstanding experimental scientist of his generation. His most famous contributions involved the use of an air pump, expertly made for him by Robert Hooke, a brilliant Oxford student who went on to become a great scientist himself. With this apparatus, Boyle demonstrated several properties of the air, confirming in clear and clever ways the hypothesis of Blaise Pascal and others that the atmosphere is a vast fluid like the ocean. Just as water pressure increases with depth, so air pressure depends on the height of the atmosphere. Several other experiments, involving insects, birds, and small mammals, helped to illuminate the connections among respiration, combustion, and various components of the air.
Boyle’s involvement with animal experimentation calls for more comment. The Greco-Roman anatomist Galen had carried out numerous experiments on living animals–it was the only way in which many physiological phenomena could be seen at that time. However, according to Anita Guerrini, his methods were not employed again as part of a scientific research program until the first quarter of the 17th century, when the Oxford physician William Harvey used vivisection to help establish the circulation of the blood. By the 1650s, animal experimentation was practiced widely in England and had become indispensable for understanding respiration, in which Boyle and several of his contemporaries had keen interest.
For this and other purposes, Boyle carried out numerous experiments involving live dogs, cats, birds, mice, frogs, snakes, worms, and insects. He repeated what he called “the Experiment of killing Birds in a small Receiver” often enough to refer to it in that matter-of-fact manner. To some extent, animal experimentation was encouraged by René Descartes’ view that animals were merely machines lacking reason and sensation, a concept that became known as the “beast-machine,” but Boyle did not entirely accept that notion. He sometimes expressed remorse for laboratory animals, on the assumption that they actually did suffer, and even showed compassion in some cases by declining to subject animals to multiple experiments. As Malcolm Oster has shown (cited below), Boyle considered gratuitous cruelty to animals blasphemous, while at the same time he believed it legitimate to use animals for experiments that would advance human knowledge.
Up next: more on Boyle’s science, especially his commitment to what he called “the mechanical philosophy,” the conception of nature as a vast, impersonal machine—created by an infinite, personal God. That will set us up for another column, dealing with Boyle’s commitment to what we now call “methodological naturalism.” These are very important topics that are highly relevant to the modern conversation about science and Christianity. Be sure not to miss them!
References and Suggestions for Further Reading
This material is adapted from Edward B. Davis, “Robert Boyle’s Religious Life, Attitudes, and Vocation,” Science & Christian Belief 19 (2007): 117-38. Additional information is from Michael Hunter, “How Boyle Became a Scientist,” History of Science 33 (1995): 59-103, Mordechai Feingold, “Science as a Calling? The Early Modern Dilemma,” Science in Context 15 (2002): 79-119, Anita Guerrini, Experimenting with Humans and Animals: From Galen to Animal Rights (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), and Malcolm Oster, “The ‘Beame of Diuinity’: Animal Suffering in the Early Thought of Robert Boyle,” British Journal for the History of Science 22 (1989): 151-80.
John Evelyn’s words are from Michael Hunter, Robert Boyle: By Himself and His Friends (Pickering & Chatto, 1994). Other quotations are from The Works of Robert Boyle (Pickering & Chatto, 1999-2000), 14 vols., ed. Michael Hunter and Edward B. Davis, and The Correspondence of Robert Boyle (Pickering & Chatto, 2001), 6 vols., ed. Michael Hunter, Antonio Clericuzio, and Lawrence M. Principe. | <urn:uuid:3afcfa5a-c39b-4bb5-9aad-548603f6bad5> | {
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WASHINGTON (Reuters) - Low levels of nuclear radiation from the tsunami-damaged Fukushima power plant have turned up in bluefin tuna off the California coast, suggesting that these fish carried radioactive compounds across the Pacific Ocean faster than wind or water can.
Small amounts of cesium-137 and cesium-134 were detected in 15 tuna caught near San Diego in August 2011, about four months after these chemicals were released into the water off Japan's east coast, scientists reported on Monday.
That is months earlier than wind and water currents brought debris from the plant to waters off Alaska and the U.S. Pacific Northwest.
The amount of radioactive cesium in the fish is not thought to be damaging to people if consumed, the researchers said in a study published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Without making a definitive judgment on the safety of the fish, lead author Daniel Madigan of Stanford University's Hopkins Marine Station noted that the amount of radioactive material detected was far less than the Japanese safety limit.
"I wouldn't tell anyone what's safe to eat or what's not safe to eat," Madigan said in a telephone interview. "It's become clear that some people feel that any amount of radioactivity, in their minds, is bad and they'd like to avoid it. But compared to what's there naturally ... and what's established as safety limits, it's not a large amount at all."
He said the scientists found elevated levels of two radioactive isotopes of the element cesium: cesium 137, which was present in the eastern Pacific before the Fukushima Daiichi disaster in the spring of 2011; and cesium 134, which is produced only by human activities and was not present before the earthquake and tsunami hit the Japanese plant.
Because cesium 134 is generated only by human activities - nuclear power plants and weapons - and there was none in the Pacific for several years before the Fukushima accident, they reckoned that any cesium 134 they found in tuna off California had to come from Fukushima.
SWIMMING THROUGH CESIUM
There was about five times the background amount of cesium 137 in the bluefin tuna they tested, but that is still a tiny quantity, Madigan said: 5 becquerels instead of 1 becquerel. (It takes 37 billion becquerels to equal 1 curie; for context, a pound of uranium-238 has 0.00015 curies of radioactivity, so one becquerel would be a truly miniscule proportion.)
The researchers figured that the elevated levels of cesium 137 and all of the cesium 134 they detected came from Fukushima because of the way bluefin tuna migrate across the Pacific.
Bluefin tuna spawn only in the western Pacific, off the coasts of Japan and the Philippines. As young fish, some migrate east to the California coast, where upwelling ocean water brings lots of food for them and their prey. They get to these waters as juveniles or adolescents, and remain there, fattening up.
Judging by the size of the bluefin tuna they sampled - they averaged about 15 pounds (6 kg) - the researchers knew these were young fish that had left Japanese water about a month after the accident.
Most of the radiation was released over a few days in April 2011, and unlike some other compounds, radioactive cesium does not quickly sink to the sea bottom but remains dispersed in the water column, from the surface to the ocean floor.
Fish can swim right through it, ingesting it through their gills, by taking in seawater or by eating organisms that have already taken it in, Madigan said.
Bluefin tuna typically have low levels of naturally occurring radioactive material, such as potassium 40, which was present in the world's oceans long before human beings walked the Earth.
Compared to these natural levels of radioactivity, the amount contributed by Fukushima raised the level about 3 percent, Madigan said.
He said there were probably much higher levels of cesium 134 present in bluefin tuna off Japan soon after the accident, as much as 40 to 50 percent higher than normal. Cesium 134 decays quickly, with a half-life of two years. Bluefin tuna excrete it on a daily basis and it also gets diluted in their bodies as they grow.
(Reporting By Deborah Zabarenko, Environment Correspondent; Editing by Philip Barbara) | <urn:uuid:89dc73ca-ecea-4867-86f9-492449e8387d> | {
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John Milton lived during the Restoration period (1600-1798), also known as the Age of Enlightenment which occurred just after the Renaissance (1485-1660), in England and was one of the most celebrated poets of the era.
It was Milton’s goal to not just be a poet, but to be a great poet. He achieved this by hiring tutors to continue his education after his schooling had finished. In addition to studying hard to be a poet, Milton wrote and he wrote a lot. John Milton was a prolific poet, creating an extensive body of work from sonnets to a twelve book-spanning epic poem.
What Milton is probably most recognized for is that twelve book epic poem, better known as Paradise Lost. This epic poem recounts the fall of man from the Christian bible from the perspective of none other than Satan himself.
You might also recognize Paradise Lost from how long the opening line is if you read it at all in high school or in college:
Of Mans First Disobedience, and the Fruit
Of that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal tast
Brought Death into the World, and all our woe,
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man
Restore us, and regain the blissful Seat,
Sing Heav’nly Muse, that on the secret top
Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire
That Shepherd, who first taught the chosen Seed,
In the Beginning how the Heav’ns and Earth
Rose out of Chaos: Or if Sion Hill
Delight thee more, and Siloa’s Brook that flow’d
Fast by the Oracle of God; I thence
Invoke thy aid to my adventrous Song,
That with no middle flight intends to soar
Above th’ Aonian Mount, while it pursues
Things unattempted yet in Prose or Rhime.
And that is, of course, all grammatically correct (ah, the power of proper punctuation).
If you’ve ever sat through a literature course, a course on poetry, or read this blog, that information was probably something you were already aware of. Besides being the beloved author of the epic poem Paradise Lost, Milton was a revolutionary that helped overthrow a king.
King Charles I (1600-1649) was not a king adored by the lords of his kingdom. He had angered Parliament by marrying the Catholic princess Henrietta-Maria of France when his subjects already felt the church had too much influence over his kingdom in addition to pushing England to be involved in conflicts and wars throughout Europe. In the 1630s, King Charles I had so little regard for Parliament that he didn’t call them into session at all. The common people had little reason to love King Charles I either. Before the English Civil War from 1641-1651, the crown had hold over most of the governmental powers of England. Whenever King Charles I needed money to fiance his wars and what not, he’d raise taxes.
The political climate in England was unstable during Milton’s time, and he was aware of it and actively participated in the politics around him. Milton’s first involvement in government affairs came through his critiques of the powers the church held over the state under King Charles I. In 1649, King Charles I was executed for treason against England towards the end of the English Civil War. It was a seemingly new era in England because no monarch replaced King Charles I after his death. In Milton’s work, The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, he wrote in affirmation of Parliament’s decision to execute the king:
And surely they that shall boast, as we doe, to be a free Nation, and not have in themselves the power to remove, or to abolish any governour supreme, or subordinat, with the government it self upon urgent causes, may please thir fancy with a ridiculous and painted freedom, fit to coz’n babies; but are indeed under tyranny and servitude; as wanting that power, which is the root and source of all liberty, to dispose and œconomize in the Land which God hath giv’n them, as Maisters of Family in thir own house and free inheritance. Without which natural and essential power of a free Nation, though bearing high thir heads, they can in due esteem be thought no better than slaves and vassals born, in the tenure and occupation of another inheriting Lord. Whose government, though not illegal, or intolerable, hangs over them as a Lordly scourge, not as a free government; and therfore to be abrogated. How much more justly then may they fling off tyranny, or tyrants; who being once depos’d can be no more the privat men, as subject to the reach of Justice and arraignment as any other transgressors.
In 1649, England become a commonwealth with a republican form of government and John Milton became the Secretary of Foreign Languages, in part because of his work The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates as well as being able to write in Latin. Oliver Cromwell became the Lord Protector of England in 1653 until his untimely death in 1658. His son Richard tried to succeed but failed, as did the republic. In 1660, Charles II retook the throne and the monarchy of England was restored.
While Milton’s main claim to fame was as a poet, he also wrote several works in prose related to politics like Of Reformation in 1641, The Reason of Church-Government in 1642, the Tenure of Kings and Magistrates in 1649, A Defence of the People of England Part I and Part II in 1651 and 1652 (though, these weren’t published in English until 1692, well after Milton’s death), The Treatise of Civil Power in 1659, and The Readie and Easie Way to Establish a Free Commonwealth in 1660, just to list a few of his many works. In 1652, Milton went completely blind but that didn’t stop him from writing, being politically active, and participating in the formation of England’s Radical Whig Party.
Milton died in 1674, but his political writings, as well as his political perspectives, are still with us and alive today. I invite you to reread the introduction to Paradise Lost. Milton lived in an era of civil war, revolutions, deconstructed and reconstructed monarchies, and a strong church influence on the affairs of the state. Milton’s exploration of the fall of man through the eyes of Satan was not just a unique poetic piece of work, but a revolution of though in and of itself by challenging the narrative of the church and the legitimacy of hierarchies and kingdoms.
Milton’s real-life political exploits, such as his support of Cromwell, can be read throughout Book I and in Book II of Paradise Lost, the great debate can be read as political satire on the debates going on between Milton and his fellow revolutionaries and those not on board. Paradise Lost was started in 1658 and was completed and published in 1667, a few years before the revolution Milton took part of collapsed and the return of the monarchy. While Paradise Lost has many themes, the action going on throughout the story is that of civil war – a subject Milton had not only lived through but had actively participated in when he helped overthrow a monarchy and justified the execution of a king. | <urn:uuid:9f8677b9-dcb7-4067-9d91-a7a234324161> | {
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Toki/Kōhatu/StoneAbout this object
Lighter grey colour with flecks of brown.
Toki (adzes) were used for many tasks. Large heavy stone toki were used for heavy roughing-out work, medium sized toki were used for shaping beams, canoe-hulls etc. and small, light stone toki were used for finishing work and to put a fine surface on dressed timbers.
To make toki (adzes), boulders were broken up and the selected piece was shaped by striking flakes off the edges with hammer stones. A cutting edge bevel was on one side only similar to a European chisel. The final step was to polish the adze and sharpen the cutting edge by rubbing it back and forth on a wet grinding stone (hōanga) – a time-consuming task.
The stone was then lashed to a haft or handle with the blade at less than a right angle to the haft. These hafts were made from tree branches or bone, sometimes human bone, and lashed with three-ply braided flax fibre.
It is less common to find a complete toki with haft as the materials were quicker to deteriorate than stone.
This object is from
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In the 18th cent., France supported the Turks against Russia and Austria. The Eastern Question came into sharp focus during the reign of Czarina Catherine II with the first two of the Russo-Turkish Wars (1768–74, 1787–92), when Russia, in alliance with Austria, planned the partition of the Ottoman Empire. Constantinople was the chief prize coveted by Russia, which lacked an adequate warm-water outlet to the sea. These designs aroused alarm in Prussia and, more especially, in Great Britain, which saw its dominance in the Mediterranean threatened by Russian ambitions. (Later it was the strategic importance of the Suez Canal that most concerned Britain.) The formation of a diplomatic alliance by Great Britain, Prussia, and the Netherlands and the Austrian defeats at the hands of the Turks offset Russian successes; yet the first stage of the struggle, terminating with the Treaty of Jassy (1792), left Russia with a foothold on the north shore of the Black Sea.
During the Napoleonic era, when attention shifted elsewhere, Russia, after another war with Turkey, again secured favorable terms in the Treaty of Bucharest (1812). Russian conquests against Persia and in the Caucasus were confirmed in the treaties of Gulistan (1813) and Turkmanchai (1828). These developments and the outbreak of national aspirations among the oppressed peoples of the Balkans again made the Eastern Question a major European problem. The Holy Alliance was committed to defending the territorial integrity of Turkey, but the rival imperialistic interests of the Great Powers, each of which hoped to profit from Ottoman disintegration, soon caused the abandonment of this principle.
In the Greek War of Independence (1821–30), both England and Russia assisted the Greek insurgents, each trying to impose its influence on the newly formed state. The Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29, connected with the Greek war, ended successfully for Russia (see Adrianople, Treaty of ), but the subsequent Russian assistance to Turkey against Muhammad Ali of Egypt, followed by a Russo-Turkish alliance (1833), greatly disquieted Britain and France. Still, the five Great Powers (Britain, France, Russia, Austria, and Prussia) acted in concert in the final settlement of the Egyptian question, and a treaty signed (1840) in London offered international guarantees of the Ottoman Empire's integrity.
In 1853, however, rivalry among Britain, France, and Russia brought on the Crimean War . The treaty that ended it (see Paris, Congress of ) attempted to deprive Russia of pretexts for intervention, to check Russia's naval power on the Black Sea, and to place the empire under international protection. By this time, Turkey had become the
sick man of Europe, and its disintegration could not be arrested.
Events in Bosnia and Herzegovina once more led to a Russo-Turkish War (1877–78); the Treaty of San Stefano was so favorable to Russia that Britain went to the verge of war to compel a revision. The Congress of Berlin (see Berlin, Congress of ) revised the Treaty of San Stefano—a setback for Russian influence—but it created fresh problems. The new Balkan states, dissatisfied with their borders, turned to individual great powers to back their claims.
Austria, allied with Russia in the late 18th cent., had come to fear Russian influence in the Balkans; after its defeat by Prussia in 1866, it had joined in an alliance with Germany (see Triple Alliance and Triple Entente ). Germany, which had assumed the role of
honest broker at the Congress of Berlin, became increasingly interested in extending its influence over the Ottoman Empire. The German-Austrian Drang nach Osten [drive to the East] policy became manifest in the reorganization of the Turkish army by German officers, the construction of Baghdad Railway , the crisis over Morocco , and the Austrian annexation (1908) of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Russian Pan-Slavism in the Balkans and the almost total disappearance of European Turkey in the Balkan Wars caused Turkey to seek German and Austrian support and to join the Central Powers after the outbreak of World War I . The war destroyed the Ottoman Empire and closed the old Eastern Question, but the problem of maintaining stability in the area once ruled by the empire remained.
See M. S. Anderson, The Eastern Question, 1774–1923 (1966); A. J. Toynbee, The Western Question in Greece and Turkey (1970); D. Djordjevic and S. Fischer-Galati, The Balkan Revolutionary Tradition (1981).
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
See more Encyclopedia articles on: Turkish and Ottoman History | <urn:uuid:d55d1f58-837e-4334-8aff-54e42f9dfd8c> | {
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Courtroom atmospheres, deposition testimony, and cross-examinations have long-standing oral traditions and culture. How does an individual who does not speak participate in such traditions?
Individuals who have severe communication impairments of speech and/or writing may accomplish their communication potential through the use of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). Communication through AAC techniques, symbols, and strategies, however, is not familiar to judges, attorneys, and court recorders within most courtrooms.
How do speech-language pathologists adequately prepare persons with complex communication needs (PWCCN) to participate within a cultural environment that is entrenched and centered on the spoken word? What graphic symbols best represent legal concepts such as "oath," "testimony," "swearing in," and "legal capacity"? How do PWCCN achieve their right to access justice when their "voice" is communicated through a communication assistant and/or through assistive technology? How may SLPs facilitate modifications within the justice system that allow for an appropriate amount of time for persons with severe physical challenges to respond to a rapid series of questions from attorneys or police? At present, access to justice for persons with severe expressive disorders is difficult.
The Legal Arena
Suppose that an SLP is invited to serve as an expert witness in a case involving a PWCCN. The SLP will work with police, lawyers, and judges in connection with a client. It will be necessary to establish an assessment tool that describes the capacity of the client to testify in court. As an expert witness, the SLP will be challenged immediately by opposing counsel regarding the SLP's competence as an expert as well as his or her choice of assessment tool(s).
SLPs also need to understand the key differences between the clinical and legal arenas. The justice system is centered on "winning" and "losing." Insurance companies participate in determining when to settle and "walk away" and end the case. Another difference is the process of evaluation of the client's communication skills. For example, sometimes a proposal for an evaluation must first be submitted to the court and both attorneys for approval before any contact with an individual is permitted. Thus, the SLP may prepare by reading hundreds of pages of clinical and educational reports regarding an individual with an expressive communication disability, and may then need to seek approval for each proposed diagnostic strategy before the actual evaluation. Modifications to the proposed plan may be suggested by either attorney or the judge.
Experts in litigation today must be familiar with the origin and significance of the Daubert case (Bernstein & Hartsell, 2005). This 1993 landmark decision (Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharms. , 509 U.S. 579, 113 S. Ct. 2786, 125 L. Ed.2d 469) resulted in specific instructions for expert testimony introduced into the courtroom. Basically, Daubert's rule established requirements for admissibility of expert testimony, including whether or not the employed technique has been peer-reviewed and published, has a known error rate, can be tested, and is a generally accepted practice within the field.
As expert witnesses, SLPs need to prepare for testimony with the understanding that their scientific knowledge will be tested by the opposing attorney, challenged regarding peer reviews and publications, and examined for potential errors and general acceptance by their own scholarly community. Every word and comma in their expert reports will be scrutinized. Although SLPs may feel confident in their professional knowledge base and clinical skills in AAC, writing and defending the expert report within the legal system is very different from preparing a clinical report for a public school or medical facility. To prepare a report for testimony, SLPs need to translate their clinical knowledge into a legally useful form without using jargon, and to follow the rules, roles, and procedures for written reports according to legal tradition. These evaluations and reports must be precise so as not to introduce any reasonable doubt. Failure to understand the purpose and use of a written report may result in a damaging cross-examination and may undermine the SLP's credibility.
One example of potential difficulty is establishing a legal capacity for expressive communication when that expression is an alternative form to speech. As yet, there is no legal definition of "capacity" for testimony if not through speech. The definition of "capacity" is important—a client must be judged to have the "capacity" to participate, because a legal case may set a precedent. When assistive technologies, such as speech-generating devices (SGDs) or voice output communication aids (VOCAs), are introduced, the question arises: Does the legal capacity (or definition of expressive communication competence) shift when an SGD is used? In other words, if an individual communicates through technology, is the individual legally more capable as a witness than if he or she communicates without an SGD? Might SLPs need to perform two evaluations for the court? One evaluation might be conducted to determine "communication capacity" without technology and another evaluation might determine "communication capacity" with technology or AAC strategy.
Courtrooms may not be accustomed to working with people who use AAC systems. During depositions and testimony, court recorders transcribe speech, but now they must transcribe the language of graphic symbols as reported through communication assistants or through synthetic or digitized speech available within the various technologies. Legal counsel typically examines and cross-examines clients on the witness stand in the courtroom. However, the witness stand may not accommodate a person with a disability seated in a power wheelchair and his or her communication partner; SLPs may need to suggest modifications to courtroom seating arrangements. Judges may not accept testimony by a communication assistant in lieu of actual testimony by the client. Training programs for judges and attorneys may be necessary for greater acceptance of communication through AAC systems and other strategies.
Attorneys often challenge the origins of the communication messages; i.e., the "independence" of each communication message may be examined and cross-examined if programmed by the SLP. The "author" of each communication expression emerging from a synthesized or digitized SGD may be scrutinized. SLPs may be accused of speaking for individuals whom they are assisting. Such challenges can be addressed if the SLP orients attorneys and judges prior to the trial to the person's disabilities, use of AAC, types of vocabulary, and characteristics of appropriate questioning techniques for PWCCN. SLPs will need to understand that individuals are eligible for accommodations, and that they may be responsible for requesting accommodations on behalf of the individual and his or her assistants.
Scope of Practice Issues
Responsibilities for SLPs are expanding as public agencies are processing an increasing number of complaints on behalf of consumers. Cases of abuse, fraud, malpractice, and denial of basic services to PWCCN impact speech-language pathology practices because communication is often at the core of each case. In an administrative or court proceeding, SLPs may become involved in legal practices and procedures that extend beyond their education and training. SLPs need to acquire the knowledge and skills to assist individuals who use AAC in pursuing their basic human right to access justice (Huer et al., 2006). An SLP preparing to testify in these types of court cases should acquire knowledge and skills such as:
- Becoming familiar with the legal process, including understanding the steps and procedures for pre-trial processes, discovery, and investigation
- Learning the basic rules of law, including definitions such as legal "capacity" to testify, and consistency and reliability of testimony by PWCCN
- Identifying the various challenges to testimony and to evaluation
- Advocating for accommodations for PWCCN, when appropriate, throughout the legal process
SLPs who enter the legal arena must coordinate their activities with the attorney with whom they are working. "Full disclosure by the attorney of the nature and characteristics of the proceedings, a thorough review of the SLP's testimony, and extensive rehearsal are the key elements of a successful relationship and the necessary ingredients to maximize the potential for a positive outcome for the client," according to Lew Golinker, an attorney with the Assistive Technology Law Center in Ithaca, NY.
SLPs need to know the procedures involved in the filing of charges and questioning of clients. When a client who does not use speech for expressive communication is questioned, new challenges emerge. Procedural rules create the need for new or different types of practices or procedures in AAC. The conversations between the SLP and the client, the programming of AAC device, and the rules for conversations during court proceedings must be understood in advance; if not, the case may be thrown out or introduce "reasonable doubt," possibly affecting the outcome of the case.
In addition, procedural rules for legal proceedings demand that testimony during depositions and during a trial be the same. The person with a disability as well as SLPs need to understand the necessity for consistency and reliability of response every time the same question is asked and answered. Further, when communicating through alternative forms for expressive communication, it may be difficult to convey to a PWCCN—especially one with intellectual disability—the meaning of "testifying under oath." If the communication is through graphic symbols, what does the symbol for "oath" look like? (See page 7 for a photo that has been used to communicate this concept.)
The person with a disability should understand what to expect and what is expected prior to testifying in court. The SLP should realize, and explain to the client, that testimony during a police investigation is different from testifying in court, especially during cross-examination. Often, contact with police in filing a complaint is brief, and courtroom procedures often occur long after the initial complaint. This time lapse may prove challenging for a witness who has difficulty with long-term memory, and the SLP may need to find ways to remind the client about past events without leading the person to the "correct" answer.
Litigation consultation is a relatively new arena for SLPs. Legal advocacy for PWCCN is a complex process that is only beginning to be identified and understood by professionals in the field of AAC. While involvement in legal issues is an exciting extension of practice, SLPs should pursue additional education before entering into the legal arena (see sidebar for resources). During courtroom cross-examination, the written reports and professional credibility of the SLP are as much in question as the capacities of the person with a disability. With appropriate knowledge and skills, advocating for justice for people who use AAC is an important responsibility for SLPs. | <urn:uuid:0fb998a9-5e9f-4d5c-a102-efcf260468d9> | {
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Volunteers at Healthy Athletes Health Promotion events spend time and energy teaching athletes about avoiding sugar and fat-filled snacks, the benefits of eating a bigger variety of fresh fruits and vegetables and other healthy eating habits. Yet, when the athletes leave the venue, the food choices that confront them, whether it is in their homes or even at the Special Olympics cafeteria, often don’t include healthy alternatives.
Volunteers in Athens, Greece counsel an athlete on proper nutrition. In addition to education, fruit and bottled water was given away in the Health Promotion venue.
“It’s confusing to athletes when we promote choices like fruits and vegetables when what is available is candy and cookies. But when the healthful choice is the easy choice, that's the one our athletes will make,” said Healthy Athletes Global Clinical Advisor Mary Pittaway.
Some Special Olympics events are working to address this. Most recently, during the recent games in Athens, Greece in May, event organizers provided athletes and volunteer’s water, fresh fruit and 100% fruit juices throughout the Healthy Athletes venue.
When Volunteers brought cases of bananas and water into the Health Promotion venue during the initial surge of athletes, everyone- athletes and volunteers alike- clapped their hands. Health Promotion has several stations following registration. Bone density, BMI, blood pressure screening and healthy behaviors interviews, followed by nutrition education, physical activity, hydration, sun safety practices and tobacco refusal skills. After athletes completed their nutrition sorting activity, “Which foods make you strong and healthy? Which foods don’t?” each chose a banana. More than 300 athletes left the venue with fruit and a bottle of water. In most cases, they were gone before leaving the venue. Waiting in Health Promotion queues offered a perfect opportunity to enjoy their snacks.
The success of this approach in Athens shows that changing the environment is a valuable tool to encourage behavior change when combined with the traditional methods used by Healthy Athletes including counseling and written materials.
“Traditional methods are often the most comfortable strategies but simply changing the environment may be a more effective approach,” Pittaway said.
Other programs are also trying to offer healthy snacks at events and had similar success. This year’s Special Olympics Northern Virginia Summer Games/Episcopal track meet included a lunch of a turkey or veggie sandwich, apples, bananas, granola bars, and water. Feedback was very positive, especially from parents. Similarly, during Special Olympics Arizona’s recent 10-week Steps to Better Health pilot program, athletes were offered bottled water, granola bars and other healthy snacks during lectures. In Montana, the challenge included Special Olympics staff overcoming their hesitation to ask those who historically donated lunches to make changes. For years, Montana’s athletes were offered sandwiches of bologna and mayonnaise on white bread; a bag of chips, sweetened soda and a large cookie for lunch. The Staff felt encouraged when donors enthusiastically agreed to provide healthier lunch alternatives including whole wheat bread, lean meats, lettuce (not iceberg), a piece of fresh fruit and a small cookie. A local dairy donated low fat unsweetened cartons of milk to complement the meal. Athletes, volunteers, coaches and families have been very appreciative of the changes.
Going forward, it makes sense for each discipline to explore other ways to "practice what we preach” at Special Olympics events and modify the environment to promote healthful behaviors. Potential strategies include: providing sun screen at outdoor events; scheduling outdoor events at times other than during the most direct sun exposure; and discouraging use of tobacco products at all practices and events.
Even though it may be intimidating for staff to make changes when planning events, caring for the health needs of the athletes is an important part of the Healthy Athletes mission. | <urn:uuid:17b97424-d151-4bf0-a157-cfbb61d570d5> | {
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Max Factor is widely known for, amongst other things, his contributions to the motion picture industry and many of the solutions he invented ended up in the make-up bags of the general public. After the Second World War the motion picture industry became increasingly threatened by television but Max Factor & Co. were involved in this new industry as well.
Commercial television came to America during the forties and fifties but, as in Europe, there were test transmissions in the thirties. It was soon found that there were problems associated with the use of make-up in the new medium. Make-up that looked good in real life or that worked in film, looked terrible on black-and-white television shot by Image Iconoscope camera tubes – used for broadcasting in the United States until 1946. The firm of Max Factor provided a solution.
Max Jr. then turned his attention to make-up for television. Earlier, in 1933, he had worked with his father on experimental tests, and again on his own in 1946, to introduce the first make-up for black and white commercial television.
The main problem was how the camera tubes recorded colour.
Green Replaces Red in Make-up for Television
Green lipstick and rouge replace the customary red in make-up designed for actresses appearing in television broadcasts. The television camera, it is explained, does not record the red coloring in the human complexion, leaving the transmitted image flat and unnatural. When green is substituted, however, the lips and cheeks of a performer appear in accurate relation of tones with other facial features as the image is projected on the screen of the receiver.
The BBC’s London Television Service (a non commercial broadcaster) had also encountered make-up difficulties. The problem must have been well known, as a discussion of it ended up in ‘The Art and Craft of Hairdressing’ (Bari-Woollss, n.d.) believed to be published in 1936 – the same year regular television broadcasts started in London. Before you ask how the hairdressers got into the TV business, it should be remembered that both Max Factor and the Westmores started out in hair.
British television in the thirties had some problems not experienced by later broadcasters. They were transmitting in two forms, one of which was partly mechanical (the Baird system), and they were also using Image Iconoscope camera tubes – called Super-Emitron in Great Britain – which had a much lower line standard than that used after the war – with a correspondingly reduced picture definition. This explains some of the discussion outlined below.
This new branch of entertainment has brought with it an entirely new technique of make-up. Here two considerations decide the kind of make-up to be used. The first is light sensitivity at the transmitter; the second is the degree of definition attainable at the receiving station. Since the received picture is in monochrome, that is black and white, or black and red, or black and green, colour does not appear on the screen. There are two methods of scanning the scene. One is to flood it with light and to scan it with a mechanical or electrical device. The other is to light it with a moving spot of light. Whatever coloured light is used, the colour used for the make-up must provide deep contrasts, but owing to the fact that the photo-sensitive cells used for transmitting are preponderantly sensitive to one range of colour the actual colour of the make-up must be the complementary colour of that which most affects the “electric eye.” Thus, if the cell is sensitive to red the make-up must be green. With such a cell, the actor would use green for shadows, wrinkles, eye shade, eyebrows, etc., while he would use red to soften out shadows and blemishes.
Again, the television screen shows a picture that is made up of lines of varying depth of shadow and light. Many factors limit the number of lines which can be used so that the picture is comparatively coarse and rather like a rough half-tone block. Definition of a very high order is therefore not yet practicable. Hence at the receiver, particularly with thirty-line television, the features are very blurred and indistinct. Soft graduations of details in the actor’s face are lost altogether. For this reason in the chief purpose of television make-up to increase the contrast. The lips, nostrils, and eye shadows are very deeply made up with green or purple according to which system is used, and any facial lines to be emphasized are lined in with the same colour. Shadows which have to be removed are covered with colour of the same hue as that to which the photo-cell is most sensitive, which, in the case mentioned above, where green was used for heavy contrast, would be red. The same considerations enter into the costumes used in television. Only when photo-cells can be made panchromatic and the definition of television systems increased to the fineness of the cinema film will ordinary cinema make-up technique be of any use.
This situation did not last for long; television imaging improved after the Second World War, particularly following the introduction of Image Orthicon cameras developed by RCA. First announced in 1939, Orthicon cameras were ten to twenty times more sensitive than Image Iconoscope (Fisher & Fisher, 1996) and the increased sensitivity meant that the pick-up tubes began reproducing gray tones as faithfully as panchromatic film – as predicted by Foan & Bari-Woolls. The arrival of colour television introduced some new problems but predicably, Max Factor developed make-up suitable for colour television production as well.
Updated: 4th July 2014
Basten, F. (2008). Max Factor: The man who changed the faces of the world. New York: Arcade Publishing.
Fisher, D. E. & Fisher, M. J. (1996). Tube: The invention of television. Washington: Counterpoint.
Foan, G. A., & Bari-Woolls, J. (Eds.). (n.d.). The art and craft of hairdressing: The standard and complete guide to the technique of modern hairdressing, manicure, massage and beauty culture (2nd ed.). London: New Era Publishing. | <urn:uuid:f85d2161-d7a0-48bf-bc8a-9b097c1d5f30> | {
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History & Architecture of
NC&St.L Depots & Terminals
There was an allure to the depots of the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railway. A station on the NC&St.L was a busy, noisy, and fascinating place. People and trains would come and go as baggage, mail, and freight moved back-and-forth between platforms and trains. Travelers hurried to make their way to their departing trains or to make connections between trains on which they had just arrived and those going on to farther destinations.
This new book contains:
- Over 300 pages; 500+ photographs, illustration and drawings
- In-depth history of the NC&St.L Railway from 1845 to 1957
- Of interest to railroaders seeking information of railroad stations as well as historians looking for photos of local architecture in Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, and Alabama.
- History of the NC&St.L through the perils of war from the War Between the States through the Great War and WWII.
- Detailed analysis of the architecture of the stations and terminals of the NC&St.L
- Information on signaling, telegraphy, and the roles of the employees aboard the trains and at the stations.
Buy the Book Now! | <urn:uuid:ee7c3043-d8af-4914-a2d0-117686578249> | {
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Websites and applications often need to present graphics. Static images can easily be displayed using the
<img> element, or by setting the background of HTML elements using the
background-image property. You can also construct graphics on-the-fly, or manipulate images after the fact. These articles provide insight into how you can accomplish this.
- Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) lets you use lines, curves, and other geometric shapes to render graphics. With vectors, you can create images that scale cleanly to any size.
- A guide to getting started with WebGL, the 3D graphics API for the Web. This technology lets you use standard OpenGL ES in web content. | <urn:uuid:6c355f2a-0cea-4b16-b1d1-27b1984960d2> | {
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How the West Was Won: Trains and Transformation
of Western NC
"How the West Was Won: Trains and the Transformation of Western North Carolina" tells the story of the coming of the railroads after the Civil War and the impact they had on the life, economy, culture, folklore, music and landscape of the mountains.
Using videos, narratives, historic photos and artifacts the exhibit guides visitors through the history of rail in the region and visitors will learn about the high drama surrounding the construction of the Old Fort and Clinchfield Loops, the dangers of building the steepest mainline railroad grade in America on Saluda Mountain, and the despair that came with the loss of so many lives on these mountain railroads.
The exhibition shows how the arrival of the rails from Spartanburg, Salisbury and East Tennessee reshaped the mountains by bringing in outside investors who launched large scale mining and logging operations that scarred the landscape and left hillsides denuded. At the same time, the railroads exported the raw materials of the mountains; it brought in middle and upper class tourists by making the mountains accessible to travelers.
The exhibit highlights the arrival of such distinguished guests as George Washington Vanderbilt and his mother who first visited Asheville in 1887, and panels show how tourism burgeoned along the railroad right of way in towns such as Hot Springs, Hendersonville, Black Mountain, Saluda, and Waynesville.
The demise of passenger trains is chronicled in the exhibition, but recent efforts to restore the service by the Western North Carolina Rail Corridor Committee are on display. The return of the "varnish"-one of the railroad terms presented in the "Slanguage" section of the exhibition-will be part of a panel and information on current rail excursions.
The exhibition will be at the Saluda Historic Depot through August 31, 2016 and then moved to the NC Transportation Museum in Spencer, NC. Hours are Thursday - Sunday, noon to 4pm. | <urn:uuid:091bebf5-54a7-4232-9fa3-00a018aa893a> | {
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Posted by Jonathan Maus (Publisher/Editor) on July 25th, 2012 at 10:26 am
If more people of modest means had access to an affordable, dependable cargo bike, could they avoid being sucked into “forced car ownership”? Can cargo bikes play a role in rebuilding a city devastated by a major earthquake? Jane Pearce, a PhD student in the Geography department of Canterbury University in Christchurch, New Zealand visited Portland for two weeks this past June to better understand those questions and to further explore the social justice implications of cargo bikes.
On February 22, 2011, a massive earthquake ripped through Pearce’s hometown of Christchurch. 180 people died and much of the city remains, a macabre reminder of what was lost that day. Pearce came to Portland because of the extensive community that has developed around cargo bikes here; but, as a survivor of the Christchurch quake, she found special significance in the Disaster Relief Trials event.
“I commend the people that organized and took part in the relief trials event,” she shared with me, “You are never going to simulate what it’s actually like but that’s not the point — you are becoming aware of what it might take to help. Whilst Christchurch went into total grid-look with no electricity, water, sewerage, destroyed roads, buildings, fires, liquefaction you name it; people normally reliant on cars, public transit, and so on, took hours to get home. I managed to cycle home through the mayhem and it took hardly any longer than normal — proof that bikes really are versatile in extreme situations.”
“I believe that cargo bikes could be a way of people on low incomes actually ‘getting one over’ on motorists because of the massive cost savings of not being ‘forced’ into owning a car.”
— Jane Pearce
Pearce began her cargo bike research before the quake, but the Disaster Relief Trials event has spurred her interest at how such bikes can play a role in disasters — and how they might help Christchurch rebuild both its transportation and social networks. While in Portland she met with low-priced cargo bike maker Tom LaBonty, local cargo bike business owners, Portland State University bike researchers, and others.
I sat down with Jane before she left. Below is a portion of our chat:
“Well that’s my research question so I guess the short answer would be that you’ll have to wait until I’ve finished this particular piece of research! The more nuanced answer is not so simple. I certainly think they could but there a lot of hurdles to overcome. In my opinion here in NZ we need more people using cargo bikes to generate visibility and we need builders to make them more affordable. We also need bike libraries so that people can be introduced to, and get to try out a range of bikes before they think about purchase. I like the bike library model that Cycles for Change [in Minneapolis] are using where low income women can access a kids bike trailer for 6 months at a time — I would like to see that idea put into action with a range of cargo bikes.
I believe that cargo bikes could be a way of people on low incomes actually ‘getting one over’ on motorists because of the massive cost savings of not being ‘forced’ into owning a car. This is not only true for personal transportation; it is also possible to greatly reduce business start-up costs by operating a cargo-bike based business where the cargo bike is your shop-front, transportation and advertising.”
“It does both. Bike infrastructure was damaged in the quake as was every other form of infrastructure and we will be living in a demolition and building site for the next 10-20 years. This is of course an opportunity and a threat. With the political will we could end up with a world leading cycle-friendly ‘sustainable’ city. Unfortunately we currently have a right-wing government in NZ who can’t see beyond the end of their nose in terms of automobility, and are obsessed with building ‘roads of national significance’; they certainly do not see roads as public spaces.
Despite the damaged roads and the central city still being closed off, my experience is that cycling is still a very effective way of getting around as pedestrians and cyclists can access spaces that are still not accessible to other vehicles. One very exciting development that occurred whilst I was in Portland was that the first business-owned cargo trike has been brought into Christchurch to operate in a cyclelogistics business.”
“How willing the cargo bike builders, retailers and users were to give of their time to talk to me, and how they welcomed me into their space. I have a very positive glow from my Portland visit! For me it was the first time I was able to see a range of cargo bikes in one city. I loved being able to move around the city on my my bike and randomly come across cargo bikes parked-up or in use. It was also the first time I’d been able to observe cyclelogistics companies in action using cargo bikes and this has really pushed business cyclelogistics up my research agenda.”
We’ve seen cargo bikes revolutionize family biking and small business in America. More recently, we’ve seen how they will play a vital role in disaster response. Pearce’s important research about the social justice potential of cargo bikes, adds yet another exciting reason to love cargo bikes. I’ll share more of Pearce’s research once her thesis is completed and I have a feeling we’ll be hearing much more from her in the future. Good luck Jane! It was great to meet you. | <urn:uuid:9ffe31f1-a229-4613-a8e7-2856850f0bfd> | {
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It's a testament to the humour and fighting spirit of Britain's forgotten heroes and has now gone on display for the first time since it was used in the Second World War.
The beautifully decorated Second World War banjo was used by troops from the Eighth Army to perform one of the most famous songs of the war.
D-Day Dodgers was written as a sarcastic riposte to a remark allegedly made by Lady Astor, MP for Plymouth Sutton and the first female MP in the House of Commons.
She was reputed to have called the men D-Day Dodgers and said that they should wear yellow armbands on their return, implying that they were avoiding the real war in France. She always denied it.
However, the Eighth Army had in fact been fighting in Italy since 1943, several months prior to the famous D-Day landings and replied that they had served many of their own D-Days.
In response to Lady Astor's alleged slur, in true squaddie style, they adopted the nickname and composed a witty song which depicts how easy they thought life was in Italy.
The banjo carries the names of almost 70 Italian towns through which the original owner, a soldier of the Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry, passed through during some of the fiercest fighting in Europe. Lyrical variations were composed by different troops fighting the Italian campaign to a song sung to the tune of Lili Marlene and some of the lyrics used were:
We landed in Salerno, a holiday with pay,
Jerry brought the band out to cheer us on our way.
Showed us the sights and gave us tea,
We all sang songs, the beer was free,
To welcome D-Day Dodgers
To sunny Italy
The banjo has been donated to Cornwall's Regimental Museum in Bodmin.
Lydia Hall, who researched the story of D-Day Dodgers for the regimental museum, said: "In truth the Italian campaign was fought as bitterly as all other military campaigns but has possibly become overshadowed in history by the events in Normandy.
"The song and banjo trace all the major events leading up to the victory in Italy in 1945, mentioning places like Sicily, Monte Cassino and Florence."
The old-fashioned banjo is decorated not only by the place names but also shows the Duke of Cornwall Light Infantry cap badge and 4 Infantry Division symbol. | <urn:uuid:0a9cb0f8-2e5d-4491-ad4b-9b2850758bd2> | {
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Researchers at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute have discovered an understanding on how the most deadly species of malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, invades human red blood cells.
They used the technique called Avidity-based Extracellular Interaction Screen (AVEXIS), which discovered the interaction between the parasite protein and the host receptor. The parasite relies on a single receptor on the red blood cell's surface to invade, offering an exciting new focus for vaccine development.
The blood stage of Plasmodium's lifecycle begins when the parasite invades human red blood cells, and it is this stage that is responsible for the symptoms and mortality associated with malaria.
"Our research seems to have revealed an Achilles' heel in the way the parasite invades our red blood cells. It is rewarding to see how our techniques can be used to answer important biological problems and lay the foundations for new therapies," senior co-author Gavin Wright said in a statement.
However, researchers demonstrated that disrupting this interaction completely blocked the parasite from gaining entry into the red blood cell. Importantly, this was true across all parasite strains tested, making it appear that the receptor is a universal entry pathway. It is hoped that the parasite's dependency on this one protein can now be exploited to develop new and effective vaccines.
Malaria kills approximately one million people every year, mostly children under the age of five in sub-Saharan Africa. Researchers have tried for many years to develop a vaccine to prevent the parasite gaining entry into our red blood cells, but so far they have been unsuccessful.
One of the challenges is that the parasite is adaptable - although several red blood cell receptors had been previously identified, none was shown to be essential: when entry through one receptor is prevented, the parasite is able to switch to another. This new research has found a single receptor that is absolutely required by the parasite to invade.
"The discovery of a single receptor that can be targeted to stop the parasite infecting red blood cells offers the hope of a far more effective solution," Investigator at the Jenner Institute, Adrian Hill, said.
According to the Health Protection Agency, malaria is not endemic in the UK, but in the five years between 2006 and 2010, almost 1600 cases have occurred every year on average in travellers returning to or arriving in the UK from malaria-endemic countries. | <urn:uuid:c52579de-64d9-4cb6-9986-7bd4dfa198de> | {
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IELTS Essay Topics 1 -
Be sure to check out our other sample IELTS essay topics, too:
- Government (14 topics)
- Modern Society (21 topics)
- Technology (8 topics)
- Employment (3 topics)
- Environment (4 topics)
- Education (17 topics)
- Parents / Children (2 topics)
- Gender Issues (2 topics)
Should wealthy nations be required to share their wealth among poorer nations by providing such things as food and education? Or is it the responsibility of the governments of poorer nations to look after their citizens themselves?
What should a government do for a country to become successful?
Should money be spent on space exploration?
Should rich countries forgive all debts for poor countries?
Does foreign aid help donor countries more than the recipients?
Should rich countries pay more for environmental damage?
Most high level jobs are done by men. Should the government encourage a certain percentage of these jobs to be reserved for women?
Should developing countries concentrate on improving industrial skills or should they promote education first?
Safety standards are important when building people's homes. Who should be responsible for enforcing strict building codes - the government or the people who build the homes?
Discuss the advantage and disadvantage of giving international aid to poor countries.
Should criminals be punished with lengthy jail terms or re-educated and rehabilitated using community service programs for instance, before being reintroduced to society?
In most countries disabled people are not catered for adequately, e.g. buildings are often inappropriately designed. Governments rely too heavily on charities and voluntary organizations to provide assistance and funding. What further measures could be taken to assist disabled people?
In your opinion should government intervene in the rights of the individual with regard to family planning?
The best way to reduce the number of traffic accidents is to make all young drivers complete a safe driving education course before being licensed to drive. | <urn:uuid:663ce5cd-0064-4c03-b300-507618a59eec> | {
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The World Today, Volume 70, Number 1
Republic of Guinea, Population: 10,000,000 (2009 estimate CIA World Factbook), GDP per Capita: $588.00, Official language: French, Capital and largest city: Conakry, Area: 245,857 km2, Independence: From France, 2 October 1958
Green is the colour of Guinea's coastal region. With good soils and abundant rain, this region is suited for the production of the country's staple, rice, as are the banks of the Niger and Milo Rivers and the forest region in the southeast.
When the late president Lansana Conté - who liked to see himself as a soldier farmer - was in power, national television used to broadcast propaganda films extolling his qualities as a producer of rice. At the same time the country could not feed itself and was importing hundreds of thousands of tonnes of its staple. It still is; in 2013 Guinea imported 300,000 tonnes of rice to feed its people.
From the interior to the coast, modern railways cut across the green landscape. Freight trains transport 20 million tonnes of red earth from big mining sites at Sangarédi and Kindia to the seaports of Conakry and Kamsar.
This is unprocessed bauxite, the raw material for aluminium. Guinea has the largest proven reserves in the world and it has been leaving the country in its raw form for almost half a century.
There is a struggling factory at Fria, which produces a negligible amount of alumina, the first stage in the production chain that converts bauxite into aluminium. But Guinean bauxite has its greatest value added in Russia, Germany, Ukraine and the United States, among others.
The same fate awaits Guinean iron ore, located in the deep forest region. Within the next few years it will start leaving the country, unprocessed, through the ports of Buchanan in Liberia and a new seaport, to be built south of the capital, at Benti.
At the time that Conté engineered his last re-election in 2003, I had a conversation with an enterprising member of the presidential political party.
He had an idea: the Kankan region, in the heart of the vast savannah that covers the north-eastern part of Guinea, had an abundance of mangos.
So many, in fact, that most of the fruit would rot under the trees. A mango juice factory would be an excellent investment opportunity, he argued.
Less fruit would go to waste, the owners of the trees would see their income increase, youngsters would be employed in the factory - and a few ambitious politicians would get their share. Would I be interested in getting investors for this venture? Having business ethics was likely to be an obstacle.
These three examples point towards a profound mismatch between the two main economic sectors in the country: mining and agriculture.
Mining, a capital-intensive industry, creates minimal employment for Guineans. My own research has come up with a figure of up to 15,000 in direct employment, with an additional 25,000 indirectly. This is negligible but the extractive industries have been at the heart of government concerns for four decades.
Ahmed Sékou Touré, the first post-independence president who ruled until 1984, was full of anti-imperialist rhetoric but steered clear of interfering with the operations of Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinée, when it started exporting bauxite through Kamsar.
The situation persisted throughout the Lansana Conté presidency (1984 to 2008) and beyond: representatives from the extractive industries had free and direct access to power at the highest level.
By contrast, agriculture, the sector that can create employment on a massive scale has been ignored. Out of a total workforce of 4.5 million, fully 4 million are employed in subsistence farming, hunting and fishing.
But their existence is precarious: lacking any stimulus to produce rice, they do not serve the domestic market. That job is done by rich and influential traders, who import rice from South East Asia.
The result is a skewed and unsustainable economy that provides very few real jobs. Mining contributes 15 per cent of the gross domestic product but employs only a handful of people.
By contrast, agriculture employs - or should we say under-employs - the bulk of the active population while contributing less than 20 per cent of GDP, the same figure as in 1997.
Fully half of Guinea's GDP is accounted for by 'services', which could be anything from the extremely tiny formal banking sector to the country's vast and thriving informal economy.
When Guinea held a presidential election in 2010, both candidates campaigned for a new start after decades of corrupt rule.
The winner, Alpha Condé, a veteran politician who had spent decades opposing the previous regimes, and the losing candidate, Cellou Dalein Diallo, both put the economy at the top of their priorities: both wanted a strong and transparent mining sector; both wanted to put in place policies that would ensure food self-sufficiency; and both knew that for this to become a reality, a lot of effort needed to go into building, restoring or rebuilding Guinea's crumbling infrastructure.
Roads are non-existent in some parts of the country and if farmers want to bring anything to market, they need reliable roads. Much has been made of the building of a 700-kilometre railway from the iron ore reserves at Simandou in deepest Guinée Forestière to the coast, but even if this multibillion-dollar project is ever carried out, it is unlikely to be used for anything other than iron ore.
The Condé government has been allocating more resources to support agriculture. This is encouraging, but more is needed to exploit the full potential. Guinea has more than 7 million hectares of arable land; less than a third is currently in production; figures that have not changed in the past two decades.
Food crop production including rice, maize, cassava and fonio, a local millet-like variety, has begun to increase, but very slowly and from a low base.
The Government is also looking at commercial agriculture: cotton, coffee, cocoa and palm oil are mostly dormant but can be revived.
Mixed ventures, such as fruit, peanut and vegetable cultivation are also under consideration. In addition, some extra stimulus will further improve two areas that have been quite successful: cattle raising in the plains of the Fouta Djalon in Middle Guinea and the kola nut industry in Guinée Forestière.
A well-run agriculture sector will help solve Guinea's unemployment in ways the mining sector cannot. The majority of people, young and old, still live in rural areas or smaller towns in the interior. Those who have moved to the capital, Conakry, have found it next to impossible to find jobs.
Very little study has been conducted to gain any insight into Guinea's labour market but evidence suggests that the mining sector overwhelmingly hires unskilled labour locally and fills higher level positions with expatriate staff.
Thanks to five decades of bad government (under Sékou Touré, schools were indoctrination centres, and afterwards they were just neglected) education is the worst of the region and does not deliver the skills to gain access to what little formal employment there is.
The only way the economy can be made to deliver better employment on a significant scale - and quickly - is by developing agriculture.
A productive agriculture sector with good access to markets would reduce the cost of living. Food accounts for more than half of every family's budget, mainly because rice is imported. A 50kg bag of imported rice takes away at least half of an average salary. Locally produced food will be cheaper.
It requires breaking the stranglehold of well-connected businessmen but this really is a small price to pay for a government keen to create a situation in which everybody else - producers, consumers, the underemployed or jobless, the government, the travelling public - will win.
Resistance to creating a thriving agricultural sector can be dealt with in a time-honoured way, by offering politicians and politically connected traders lucrative alternatives.
One example could be the business tycoon and former Conté protégé Mamadou Sylla, one among several former regime supporters that the new President has brought over to his side.
Sylla made part of his fortune from importing rice. If he needs to forgo one source of profit, it should not be difficult to offer another, for instance connected to government plans to add value to Guinea's agricultural output by creating 'units of transformation'. Say, a mango juice factory.
Bram Posthumus is author of 'Guinea: Masks, Music and Minerals', to be published in May by Hurst
Download article here: http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/The World Today/2014/FebMarch/WT0114Posthumus.pdf | <urn:uuid:8fc253f3-6b34-4ca5-9747-dabfb1f7da18> | {
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St. Andrew’s Parish Church2604 Ashley River RoadCharleston, SC 29414843-766-1541
Brief History of Saint Andrew’s Parish ChurchBuilt in 1706, this simple, elegant church is the oldest surviving structure used for worship south of Virginia. It is South Carolina’s only remaining colonial cruciform church.St. Andrew’s Parish Church (commonly known as Old St. Andrew’s) was one of ten Anglican churches in South Carolina established in 1706 by the Church Act. It was built to serve the Anglican planters along the Ashley River, a thriving tidal waterway that connected them to the city of Charles Town and to each other. The ancient building holds a full schedule of worship services every Sunday. Some of its earliest counterparts are still used, but less often. (None are as old.) Others have been replaced or augmented by newer buildings, some centuries old themselves, some modern. Still others have vanished, or their ruins stand in eerie silence to ages past. Visitors to this national treasure see a beautifully restored building, but the church hides a past that has left it for dead many times.Rice, indigo, and slaves brought prosperity to the lands along the Ashley River, where some of the wealthiest plantations in colonial South Carolina were located. The church was expanded into the shape of a cross in 1723 to accommodate a growing population. It burned in the 1760s but was quickly rebuilt inside its existing walls. But the parish declined before the Revolution and into the antebellum era. Ministering to the slaves, at the church and three plantation chapels, became the focus of the clergy. For forty years, Rev. John Grimké Drayton, the renowned horticulturalist of Magnolia-on-the-Ashley just north of the parish church, was rector. The church was one of the few buildings along the Ashley that Union troops did not burn to the ground during the Civil War. It became a polling place and did not reopen until 1876, eleven years after the war ended. The parish was at the epicenter of two of the most important events of late nineteenth century Charleston: the phosphate mining boom along the Ashley and the Great Earthquake of 1886, which caused significant damage to the church. After Rev. Drayton died in 1891, St. Andrew’s lay dormant for the next fifty-seven years. In 1948 Episcopalians moving to the West Ashley suburbs reopened the dilapidated church, even though it was far away from new residential developments. Dogged perseverance brought slow but continual improvements. A parish house was built, then expanded twice in quick succession. Hurricane Hugo (1989) caused major damage to the graveyard. Into the twenty-first century, the church undertook the most extensive restoration in its history and celebrated its tercentennial. In 2013, after undergoing a deliberate process of discernment, Old St. Andrew’s aligned with the Diocese of South Carolina and left The Episcopal Church. For more than 300 years, St. Andrew’s has survived, indeed has prospered, against all odds. | <urn:uuid:f337cc3b-58eb-49ab-bfb9-cc82344cf1ae> | {
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There are more essay writing assignments in your university than you can count. Professors give students loads of homework and arrange the writing tests all of a sudden. If you can’t accustom to this furious pace, you will feel much better when learning how to write an essay fast.
Such a problem is usually inherent to freshmen who used to stretch the writing process for a few days and sit at it only when the inspiration comes. They write the essay from the very beginning to the very end without outlining or systemizing the information. Let’s imagine: you have just decided to build a house. You have a partial idea of the project, but there are no blueprints, no materials and no staff who will help you with the work. Will you start to carry out this plan or prepare at first? This is exactly how this approach looks like while writing essays.
Is It Quick?
You save hours when spending 10 or 20 minutes on composing a rough copy of the paper. A draft or detailed plan consists of 80% of your ideas. Another 20% are explanations and the further topic elaboration. That is why your creative process moves like a railroad train: there are no obstacles on the way to the conclusion.
Brainstorming and Planning
Understand the topic was given or which you chose by yourself. Note all the thoughts that come to your mind, no matter how good they are. Draw the illustrative structure of your paper. Also, you can go through similar examples from the databases of pre-written essays and glean some ideas from there. After compiling a formidable list of notes, move on to its systematization.
Outline your essay using all the memos you left on the paper. A good draft will save lots of time in the future. How to write a plan? Here are a few tips for you:
- Adhere to the traditional essay structure “Introduction – Main Body – Conclusion”;
- Devise a hook for the introduction and paper statement;
- Streamline your list of ideas: reject those are not worthy and place the remaining arguments in the descending order according to their importance;
You can use another great method for writing. You leave the title, introduction and conclusion all behind and compose the rest of the essay. The ending and the beginning are the hardest parts for every piece. So, it would be much easier to write them reposing on the arguments you have covered in the main body of the assignment.
Use the Sample Paper as a Source of Information
One more useful piece of advice is that you can order a sample essay from a writing service and they will complete the project tailored to your requirements as fast as they can. The piece of work on your topic will help you write an essay quickly because there is no necessity for such a thorough research. Even the outline is not required; you can simply follow the structure, use some ideas as well as refer to sources mentioned in the sample paper.
How to Write an Essay on the Spot
Often students are assigned to craft an essay on the spot. In most cases, it happens during an exam. Sure, this task is tougher because an emotional factor is included, but still, there is nothing impossible if you have made some important efforts and got ready for it. Keep yourself calm, and just tell yourself that the exam is not the “end of the world”. To be calm you a bit, keep in mind that the assessment of the on-the-spot essay is usually more loyal than the one you craft at home.
Even within the constraints of limited time, there is a chance to impress your professor as well as mates and get the desired grade. And the last piece of advice: the more you practice writing, the faster you are able to cope with such stuff. | <urn:uuid:ef8b46a1-cd7e-4055-8229-ef9e8e65de5c> | {
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You probably read about the recent experiment which apparently simulated enough neurons for half a mouse brain running for the equivalent of one second of mouse time – though that required ten seconds of real time on a massively powerful supercomputer. Information is scarce: we don’t know how detailed the simulation was or how well the simulated neurons modelled the behaviour of real mouse neurons (it sounds as though the neurons operated in a void, rather than in a simulated version of the complex biological environment which real neurons inhabit, and which plays a significant part in determining their behaviour). No attempt was made to model any of the structure of a mouse brain, though it is said that some signs of patterns of firing were detected, suggesting that some nascent self-organisation might have been under way – on an optimistic interpretation.
I don’t know how this research relates to the Blue Brain project, which has just about reached what the researchers consider a reasonable neuron-by-neuron electronic simulation of one of the cortical columns in the brain of a juvenile rat. The people there emphasise that the project aims to explore the operation of neuronal structures, not to produce a working brain, still less an artifical consciousness, in a computer.
It is not altogether clear, of course, how well an isolated brain – even a whole one – would work (another unanswered question about the simulation is whether it was fed with simulated inputs or left to its own devices). A brain in a jar, dissected out of its body but still functioning, is a favourite thought-experiment of some philosophers; but others denounce the idea that consciousness is to be attributed to the brain, rather than the whole person, as the ‘mereological fallacy’. A new angle on this point of view has been provided by Rolf Pfeifer and Josh Bongard in How the body shapes the way we think. Their title is actually slightly misleading, since they are not concerned primarily with human beings, but seek instead to provide a set of design principles for better robots, drawing on the history of robotics and on their own theoretical insights. They’re not out to solve the mystery of consciousness, either, but their ideas are of some interest in that connection.
In essence, Pfeifer and Bongard suggest that many early robots relied too much on computation and not enough on bodies and limbs with the right kind of properties. They make several related points. One is the simple observation that sometimes putting springs in a robot’s legs works better than attempting to calculate the exact trajectory its feet need to follow to achieve perfect locomotion. In fact, a great deal can be accomplished merely by designing the right kind of body for your robot. Pfeifer and Bongard cite the ‘passive dynamic walkers’ which achieve a human-style bipedal gait without any sensors or computation at all (they even imply, bizarrely, that the three patron saints of Zurich might have worked on a similar principle: apparently legend relates that once their heads were cut off, the holy three walked off to the site of the Grossmünster church). Similarly, the canine robot Puppy produces a dog-like walk from a very simple input motion, so long as its feet are allowed to slip a bit. Human babies are constructed in such a way that even random neural activity is relatively likely to make their hands sweep the area in front of them, grasp an object, and bring it up towards eyes and mouth: so that this exploratory behaviour is inherently likely to arise in babies even if it is not neurally pre-programmed.
Another point is that interesting (and intelligent) behaviour emerges in response to the environment. Simple block-pushing robots, if designed a certain way, will automatically push the blocks in their environment together into groups. This behaviour, which is really just a function of the placement of sensors and the very simple program operating the robots, looks like something achieved by relatively complex computation, but really just emerges in the right environment.
Thins are looking bleak for the brain in the jar, but there is a much bolder hypothesis to come. Pfeifer and Bongard note that a robot such as Puppy may start moving in an irregular, scrambling way, but gradually falls into a regular trot: in fact, for different speeds there may be several different stable patterns: a walk, a run, a trot, a gallop. These represent attractor states of the system, and it has been shown that neural networks are capable of recognising these states. Pfeifer and Bongard suggest that the recognition of attractor states like this represents the earliest emergence of symbolic structures; that cognitive symbol manipulation arises out of recognising what your own body is doing. Here, they suggest, lies the solution to the symbol grounding problem; of intentionality itself.
If that’s true, then a brain in a jar would have serious problems: moreover, simulating a brain in isolation is very likely to be a complete waste of time because without a suitable body and an environment to move around in, symbolic cognition will just never get going.
Is it true? The authors actually offer relatively little in the way of positive evidence or argument: they tell a plausible story about how cognition might arise, but don’t provide any strong reasons to think that it is the only possible story. I’m not altogether sure that their story goes as far as they think, either. Is the ability to respond to one’s body falling into certain attractor states a sign of symbol manipulation, any more than being able to respond to a flash of light or a blow on the knee? I suspect that symbols require a higher levl of abstraction, and the real crux of the story is in how that is achieved – something which looks likely, prima facie, to be internal to the brain.
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Sarah-Jane Mathieu. North of the Color Line: Migration and Black Resistance in Canada, 1870-1955. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010. Illustrations. xiv + 280 pp. $65.00 (cloth), ISBN 978-0-8078-3429-9; $22.95 (paper), ISBN 978-0-8078-7166-9.
Reviewed by Christopher Taylor (University of Western Ontario)
Published on H-Canada (October, 2011)
Commissioned by Stephanie Bangarth
Blacks Belonging: A Canadian Migration Paradox
Sarah-Jane Mathieu’s North of the Color Line explores the compelling relationship between the politics of race and the growth of a new nation, and how black Canadian immigrants navigated and existed within the institutionalized structures of race and legislated xenophobia. The Canadian state’s ideological construction of race, specifically the negative codification of blackness and its reification through the practice of Jim Crow, is the prevalent theme throughout this book. According to the author, the role of race, racism, and the exclusion of blacks in the Canadian state-building process are “crucial catalyst[s] for advancing debates about national identity, citizenship, empire, and law in Canada” (p. 7).
Mathieu contends that the inherently racist and separatist practice of Jim Crow must be situated as a truly Canadian phenomenon. The author writes, “this study provides an alternative arena for evaluating the evolution of Jim Crow thinking and practices in North America, particularly given that white Canadians insisted that they never traded in racism in the first place” (p. 7). Mathieu’s particular focus is on blacks employed in the Canadian railway system in the late nineteenth to mid-twentieth century. She explains how railway life “shaped and defined the black experience in Canada since the nineteenth century, with the railroads serving as an instrument for tremendous social and political advancement” (p. 5). While the African American railway porter is the racialized immigrant protagonist of the book, the author highlights the omnipresence of Jim Crow and exclusion of all black immigrants in Canadian society. Race dictated Canadian immigration policy, and most important the nation’s burgeoning national identity.
North of the Color Line infuses the crucial element of race in Canadian labor historiography. Highlighting the railway industry, Mathieu argues that Canadian companies viewed black workers as a “malleable class of workers softened by southern Jim Crow and colonial rule” (p. 63). Moreover, the author contends that race was an effective tool used by capitalists and industrialists in destabilizing their workforce and unions. She notes that “railway executives exploited racialized divisions in their workforce by pitting railroaders against each other and displacing white union men with illegally imported black labor” (p. 63). As such, this book adds to the breadth and diversity of Canadian labor historiography in general and shows how labor precipitated Canadian foreign relations with the Caribbean, more specifically. Mathieu does not present the issue of race and black immigration as an isolated historical period or thematic field in Canadian history; rather, she examines how their treatment fit within the broader Canadian narrative. Applying James W. St. G. Walker’s theoretical model of the five orientations to black Canadian history, the author situates blacks as survivors, or actors, and not merely as victims of the Canadian state and institutionalized racism.
By using Jim Crow as a theoretical organizing principle, Mathieu deconstructs the Canadian altruistic myth of benevolence and tolerance for African Americans and blacks of all ethnicities. The focus on Jim Crow would also be a good comparison for African American scholars or those studying African American history. How black Americans fought for civil rights while black Canadians strove for equal human rights is a key distinction on which Mathieu elucidates clearly in chapter 5. The author also summarizes black Canadian and American antagonisms, stating that “African Canadians consistently felt that, despite the existence of segregation, African Americans enjoyed freedoms unparalleled among people of African descent elsewhere” (p. 209).
Those familiar with black Canadian history, or other works by the author, may find the book a repetitive summary of the black experience in Canada at the turn of the twentieth century. However, the author does an excellent job synthesizing the information coherently and explicitly. The strength of the book lies in Mathieu’s comparative methodology and study of several different black ethnic experiences in Canada. Similar to Barrington Walker’s work on Jim Crow in Canada, her appropriation and application of the term forces readers familiar with segregation in the United States to think of Canada in a comparable context.
The author’s chronological narrative is suitable for all interested in Canadian history. Black Canadian immigrants are the intended focal point, but Mathieu’s book includes such themes as the aforementioned labor history, but also social, military, and political history. Each chapter examines specific periods in Canadian history, including labor strife following the First World War and Canadian nation building dominated by questions of race and belonging following the Second World War. Mathieu’s varied use and excellent analysis of newspapers, and specifically the black press in chapter 4 on post-WWII Canada, characterizes her use of black historical voices. Several visual aids and historical anecdotes, including photos and poster reproductions, enhance the author’s argument.
However, the author neglects to include a well-defined concluding section or chapter that reiterates and solidifies her arguments explicitly, which is common in traditional historical works. Overall the book is informative, well researched, and well written; however, without a conclusion, the reader’s last impression is one of incompleteness. Despite the glaring discrepancy, Mathieu’s North of the Color Line is an argumentative, but not contentious, work, and an excellent addition to North American black historiography and Canadian historiography as a whole. It is suitable for undergraduate or graduate students or simply those interested in Canadian history.
. James W. St. G. Walker, “Allegories and Orientations in African-Canadian Historiography: The Spirit of Africville,” Dalhousie Review 77, no. 2 (Summer 1997): 155-172.
. Barrington Walker, “Finding Jim Crow in Canada, 1789-1967,” in A History of Human Rights in Canada: Essential Issues, ed. Janet Miron (Toronto: Canadian Scholars’ Press, 2009), 81-96.
If there is additional discussion of this review, you may access it through the list discussion logs at: http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl.
Christopher Taylor. Review of Mathieu, Sarah-Jane, North of the Color Line: Migration and Black Resistance in Canada, 1870-1955.
H-Canada, H-Net Reviews.
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Researchers have developed an algorithm that improves the effectiveness of electrocardiogram (ECG). Xiaopeng Zhao, assistant professor in the Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Biomedical Engineering at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville and his team have developed this algorithm.
The ECG is the most commonly performed screening tool for a variety of cardiac abnormalities. However, it is estimated that about 4 percent of all ECGs are taken with misplaced electrodes, leading to faulty diagnoses and mistreatments.
Zhao's algorithm examines interferences that result from electrode misplacement and disturbances, including patient motion and electromagnetic noise. Unlike conventional algorithms used to evaluate ECGs, Zhao's algorithm is more reliable because it is based on a matrix which simultaneously tests for irregular patterns caused by such interferences. Therefore, instead of a typical "yes-no" type of classification result, Zhao's produces a more accurate A-F letter grade of the ECG—indicating specific weaknesses in the test. The algorithm also makes recommendations as to where to accurately place the electrodes.
Zhao's team has implemented the algorithm in a java program, which can be installed and operated on a smart phone. The program takes only a split second to execute on a smart phone and assess a 10-second ECG. The speed is key in situations where a second can mean the difference between life and death.
The goal is for users in remote areas to be able to know which ECGs are accurate to decrease misdiagnoses and ultimately save lives. The algorithm is also helpful in intensive care units where medical staff may be overworked, as well as for novice health professionals.
"There is a large population that does not receive good health care because they live in rural communities," said Zhao. "This algorithm helps to bring the doctor to their home through the help of mobile phone technology. We hope our invention brings their health care quality more in line with that of the developed world by reducing errors and improving the quality of ECGs."
The algorithm recently won the top spots in Physionet Challenge 2011—first, first and third places. Sponsored by the National Institutes for Health, Physionet and the annual Computing in Cardiology conference jointly host a series of challenge problems that are either unsolved or not well-solved. Starting in 2000, a new challenge topic is announced each year, aiming to stimulate work on important clinical problems and to foster rapid progress towards their solution. | <urn:uuid:606410cb-b293-4f1a-bde2-19c0fd8eeddb> | {
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State University and China University of Mining
and Technology have found that certain types of synthetic skins are
capable of reacting to skin creams similarly to how animal skins react.
Bhushan, a Howard D. Winbigler Professor of mechanical engineering at Ohio
State University, and Wei Tang, an engineer at China University of Mining and
Technology, have discovered that some synthetic skins are
comparable to animal skins in the way that they react to generic skin
skin is being developed for burn victims that do not have enough healthy skin
left to attempt skin cell regeneration. To compensate, animal skin was
considered a viable option, but there are many problems associated with the use
of animal skin.
addition to ethical issues, animal skin is hard to obtain, expensive and gives
highly variable results because of individual skin variability," said
Bhushan. "Animal skin will vary from animal to animal, which makes it hard
to anticipate how it might affect burn victims individually. But synthetic
skin's composition is consistent, making it a more reliable
replace the use of animal skin, researchers have been working to develop
synthetic skins that act and feel like real skin. Now, Bhushan and Tang have
found that certain types of synthetic skins react to skin creams much like the
way animal skins react.
able to determine this similarity by using an atomic force microscope to view
the skin at a scale of 100 nanometers. At this level, researchers can witness
cellular events that are vital to understanding how the synthetic skin reacts.
The width of a human hair is 1,000 times larger than 100 nanometers.
applying the cream to two types of synthetic skin, researchers found that the
skin was able to perform similar actions as rat skin.
skin cream reduced the surface roughness, increased the skin's ability to
absorb moisture from the environment, and softened the skin surface," said
Bhushan. "After treatment with skin cream, the trends of the
peak-to-valley distance of the two synthetic skins and rat skin were the same,
and both of them decreased. This indicates the skin cream treatment smoothed
the skin surface."
step is to test different skin treatments on the synthetic skins and improve
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The Global Office
Once driven by the production and exportation of durable goods such as automobiles and textiles, the global economy of the 1990s is now barreling through the information age. As time, place, and distance are no longer barriers to doing business, more and more offices are "going global"--cultivating relationships with overseas partners and customers--at an unprecedented pace. In order to survive in the new global economy, these offices must move information faster and in greater quantities than ever before. This trend toward information gathering and sharing has necessitated the development of more complex and far-reaching office technology.
New technologies are constantly changing the way the world works--in terms of communication, time management, and even the language of business. Since keeping up with the world's insatiable need for information is likely to continue well into the future, companies that wish to stay competitive have learned to adapt to and even embrace technological developments as fast as they can be brought to market.
Over the past decade or so, the trend in personal computers (PCs) has been toward increased speed and reduced size. Although the desktop PC is still the most widely used, new technologies began giving rise in the early 1980s to more streamlined, portable PCs such as laptops and palmtops. Portable PCs have enabled people worldwide to access, process, and share vast amounts of information even while "on the road."
Portable computers have many of the same features as desktop PCs and can handle the same word processing, spreadsheet, and graphics functions. Most portables also have modems and dataports for Internet dial-up, file transfer, and electronic mail capability. They can be networked just as desktop models can--either "from the field" using remote access communications software, or linked up directly with the office's local area network (LAN) at onsite "docking" stations.
A scaled-down version of the portable PC is the personal digital assistant, or PDA. Although PDAs lack the memory and programming sophistication of palmtop computers, they are adequate for less data-intensive tasks and typically include calendar, notepad, address book, and calculator functions. Emerging "wireless" PDA technology will enable users to send and receive e-mail on nationwide radio networks.
Electronic mail, or e-mail, has supplanted the U.S. Postal Service and even the facsimile (fax) machine as the fastest and most cost-effective way to share information. In most cases the transmittal of information is instantaneous, and the same message can be delivered to millions with just a few keystrokes. E-mail eliminates geographical barriers by enabling people on opposite sides of the world to work together on projects and share information as if they were in the same room.
"Working at home" was once the purview of the "cottage industrialist," be it the local cabinetmaker working out of a garage workshop, the piece worker sewing aprons in the living room, or the housewife canning fruits in the kitchen. In the 1990s, not only have the products and services "manufactured" at home become more sophisticated, but the technology supporting this new generation of offsite workers has too.
Either through formal or informal arrangements, a growing number of companies and employees are embracing the concept of telecommuting. Telecommuters typically either work from their homes on a regular basis for an outside company or work as independent contractors for more than one company.
Telecommuting allows employees to work either independently or in teams with colleagues in diverse locations. This arrangement is made possible by portable office equipment such as PCs and fax machines, which enable workers to maintain contact with "the office" from remote locations. They can send and receive e-mail and electronic files and can meet through three-way conference calls.
Telecommuting has a number of benefits for the employer and the worker. For the employer, allowing employees to work offsite reduces real estate costs and staff turnover, increases productivity, and attracts quality workers who are looking for flexibility. For the worker, telecommuting is often a "quality of life" issue. Less time commuting means more time for family and other obligations, as well as reduced anxiety and expense.
Being tethered to the workplace by telephone cords no longer suits employees in today's increasingly mobile business environment. Beginning with the 1979 establishment of the first commercial network of cellular phones in Tokyo, Japan, wireless communications have freed workers from the traditional confines of the office and enabled voice contact from just about anywhere. Portable devices that use wireless technology--such cellular phones and pagers--rely on a network of antennas that serve "cells" of users. Some of these devices transmit wireless e-mail and provide Internet access.
The future points to portable telecommunications via satellite, which will likely eliminate the geographical barriers inherent in the current cellular telephone system and expand it into a global network.
A Global Marketplace on the World Wide Web
The fastest growing trend in the global economy is conducting business on the World Wide Web (WWW). A presence on the WWW is like having a global billboard, providing inexpensive and far-reaching visibility. The WWW is accessed via the Internet, which connects almost all of the electronic mailboxes in the world.
Companies maintain Website for many purposes. Many have online catalogs from which consumers can order products and services (most commercial Websites use encryption technology to secure credit card transactions). Others conduct market research or provide promotional materials, recruitment advertisements, and other types information for the general public. The scientific community, too, has embraced the WWW as an information dissemination tool, cutting down on the time researchers must spend poring through library stacks. The enormous array of information available on the WWW has made it an invaluable resource for businesses and individuals worldwide.
Noncommercial organizations also sponsor Websites. Government
entities--such as the Smithsonian and the White House--and many nonprofit
organizations find the WWW a useful way to serve the public. The scientific
community, too, has embraced the WWW as an information dissemination and
retrieval tool, cutting down on the time researchers must spend poring through
Doing Business on the Road
Traveling on business used to put workers out of touch with the office and its equipment for at least the duration of a plane flight. In 1988, telephones became available on Japanese airlines--calls were relayed by satellite. Nowadays, most airlines provide in-seat telephones complete with dataports for e-mail and file transfer. Hotel chains, too, have acknowledged the trend toward offsite business. Many have installed laptop power ports, fax machines, and extra phone lines in guestrooms, and some have even designed "business centers" equipped with the latest office technology. In addition, copy centers in cities around the world have become surrogate offices complete with staff, videoconferencing facilities, and computer workstations.
contact [email protected] with any questions or comments | <urn:uuid:43f2a33e-64d3-41c2-af1c-49c780e1fafe> | {
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“Hello, Massa. Bottom rail on top this time.” – Black Union soldier spotting his former master in chains in a Union prison camp.
As I have written before, a chief aim of President Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, which Lincoln officially issued this week (Jan. 1) in 1863, was to entice those slaves in the rebellious Confederate states to desert the farms they were working on in the South and head to the Union North, where they might help the Union win the Civil War.
For starters, if slaves abandoned the southern farms that they had been working, it would force Confederate soldiers to choose between deserting the army in order to work those farms their slaves had abandoned, or see their families back home suffer hardship and deprivation. That would definitely assist the Union’s war effort.
But Lincoln also thought these runaway slaves might help the war effort by actually joining the Union Army. Which many of them did, and despite serious misgivings by the white soldiers in that army — prejudice against blacks was not confined to the South in the 1860s — for the most part black soldiers in the Union Army performed admirably, as the movie “Glory,” starring Denzel Washington, Morgan Freeman and Matthew Broderick, nicely captures.
Indeed, the movie’s main plotline centers on the 54th Massachusetts, an all-black volunteer infantry (the officers were white) that in July of 1863 launched a fierce and bloody attack against Ft. Wagner, a Confederate stronghold that protected the southern approach to Charleston, South Carolina. During that attack, Sgt. William Carney became the first black soldier to earn the Congressional Medal of Honor for saving the American flag during the battle and returning it to the Union lines despite being shot in the head, chest, leg and arm. Carney was the first of 23 former slaves to earn the Medal of Honor (although he did not actually receive the award until 1900).
“Boys, I only did my duty,” Carney modestly said about his actions at Ft. Wagner, which was the prevailing belief of every black soldier in the Civil War. And percentage-wise, they were a significant force. Although free blacks and runaway slaves comprised only about 1 percent of the North’s population in 1863, by the end of the war they would comprise nearly 10 percent of the Union Army.
In fact, 85 percent of the eligible black male population in the North — some 180,000 men — joined the Union Army, and although not all of them saw combat, every single one of them had joined for the same reason. They aimed to free their people from bondage, while making it crystal clear that they considered the United States to be their home, too. | <urn:uuid:dd20a440-af31-4f14-9b21-067f9c9abba4> | {
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Scientists have dismissed suggestions that some people may have extra-sensory perception, or a sixth sense, after a year-long study at the University of Melbourne.
The study, published in the journal Plos One, found that people could detect a change in their surroundings even if they were not certain about exactly what it was.
The research found that this ability was not down to any supernatural, extra senses, but was rather the result of functions of normal senses like sight. Forty eight people were presented with pairs images of a woman. In some cases the second picture would feature a slight change, such as hairstyle of the addition of glasses.
The pictures were shown for 1.5 seconds, with a one second gap on between, after which the person was asked if a change had occurred and if so to pick what it was from a list of nine options. The results showed that subjects were able to perceive a change had occurred, but they were not able to explain exactly what it was.
The Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences' Dr Piers Howe told the Guardian Australia, "What people were doing was processing information that they couldn't verbalize but were picking up on, often subconsciously.
"It's a bit like an abstract painting - it doesn't depict anything you can label, such as a sea or a mountain, but you can still get a lot of information on what's going on. The information was enough to tell them that a change had occurred, because they could tell the picture was more crowded, but not enough to say what that change was. Many believed they had a quasi-magical ability even we had set them up."
Howe said he started the study after a student told him she had a sixth sense that had allowed her to tell a relative had been in a car accident even though there were no visible marks.
Howe explained, "I told her that she may not have been able to verbally label the markings, but she picked up on them and wasn't consciously aware of them. We receive a lot of information that we don't or can't verbalize.
"For example this often happens when something disappears. If my children are being very noisy in the next room and then they are suddenly quiet, I don't realize that what has startled me is the lack of noise. I'm alerted to that subconsciously and go into the next room to find they are being quiet because they are doing something naughty."
Extra-sensory perception (ESP) has been studied on and off since the 1930's, but Howe claims his research is the first to demonstrate that people sense information they don't or can't verbalize. | <urn:uuid:774d8e75-2cd6-4d36-8b55-58144d8ae4cb> | {
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Elizabeth Cady Stanton (November 12, 1815 – October 26, 1902) was an activist and a leader of the early women's rights movement. Her Declaration of Sentiments, presented at the first women's rights convention held in 1848 in the village of Seneca Falls, New York is often credited with initiating the organized woman's rights and woman's suffrage movement in the United States.
With her husband, Henry Stanton and cousin, Gerrit Smith, Elizabeth Cady Stanton was an active abolitionist before she made women's issues her primary focus. Until their disagreement over ratification of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution, Stanton enjoyed a strong friendship with abolitionist and former slave Frederick Douglass, and many other prominent leaders of the abolitionist movement.
Elizabeth was an outspoken supporter of the nineteenth century temperance movement. While best known for their work on behalf of women's suffrage, she and Susan B. Anthony were instrumental in founding the Woman's State Temperance Society (1852-1853). During her presidency of the organization, Stanton scandalized many supporters by suggesting that drunkenness be made sufficient cause for divorce. Often a strong critic of religion, particularly Christianity, Stanton distanced herself from the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and her Christian peers in the women's rights movement.
Stanton addressed many women's issues beyond voting rights including women's parental and custody rights, property rights, employment and income rights, divorce laws, the economic health of the family and abortion.
Elizabeth Cady, the eighth of eleven children, was born in Johnstown, New York, to Daniel Cady and Margaret Livingston Cady. Five of her siblings died in early childhood or infancy. A sixth, her brother Eleazar, died at age 20 just prior to his graduation from Union College in Schenectady, New York. Only Elizabeth and her four sisters lived to old age. Later in life, Elizabeth named her two daughters after two of her sisters, Margaret and Harriet.
Daniel Cady was a prominent attorney who served one term in the Congress of the United States (Federalist; 1814-1817) and later became a judge. Judge Cady introduced his daughter to the law. He and her brother-in-law, Edward Bayard (also a lawyer), planted the earliest seeds which grew into her legal and social activism. Even as a young girl, she enjoyed perusing her father's law library and debating legal issues with his law clerks. This early exposure to law caused Stanton to realize how severely the law favored men over women, particularly married women. Her realization that married women had virtually no property rights, income or employment rights, or custody rights over their own children, set her to work on changing these inequities.
Stanton's mother, Margaret, a descendant of early Dutch settlers, was the daughter of Colonel James Livingston, an officer in the Continental Army during the American Revolution. He fought at the Battle of Saratoga and the Battle of Quebec (1775), and assisted in the capture of Benedict Arnold at West Point, New York.
Margaret Cady was a commanding woman, almost six feet tall, whom Stanton routinely described as "queenly." Harriot Eaton Stanton Blatch, Elizabeth's daughter, remembered her grandmother as being fun, affectionate, and lively. Stanton did not share that view. Emotionally devastated by the loss of so many children, Margaret fell into a depression that prevented her full involvement in the lives of her children. This left a maternal void in Stanton's childhood.
Judge Cady coped with the loss by immersing himself in his work. Many of the childrearing responsibilities fell to Stanton's elder sister Tryphena and Tryphena's husband, Edward Bayard. Tryphena was eleven years older than Elizabeth.
Edward was a Union College classmate of Eleazar Cady's and son of James A. Bayard, Sr., a U.S. Senator from Wilmington, Delaware. At the time of his engagement and marriage to Tryphena, Edward worked as an apprentice in Daniel Cady's law office.
Like many men of his day, Judge Cady was a slave holder. Peter Teabout, a slave in the Cady household and later a freeman, who took care of Elizabeth and her sister Margaret, is remembered with particular fondness by Stanton in her memoir, Eighty Years & More. It was not only her closeness to Peter, but also her exposure to the abolition movement as a young woman during a visit to her cousin, Gerrit Smith, in Peterboro, New York that led to her abolitionist sentiments.
Unlike many women of her era, Stanton was formally educated. She attended Johnstown Academy, where she studied Latin, Greek and mathematics until the age of 16. At the Academy, she enjoyed being in co-ed classes. She competed intellectually and academically with boys her age and older. She did this very successfully, winning several academic awards and honors while a student in Johnstown.
In her memoir, Stanton credits the Cadys' neighbor, Rev. Simon Hosack with strongly encouraging her intellectual development and academic abilities at a time when she felt they were undervalued by her father. Writing of her brother Eleazar's death in 1826, Stanton remembers trying to comfort her father. She told him that she would try to be all her brother had been. He exclaimed, "Oh, my daughter, I wish you were a boy!" Her father's response devastated Stanton. Stanton concluded that her father valued boys above girls. Stanton confided her disappointment to Hosack. His firm belief in her abilities counteracted her father's disparagement. Hosack taught Stanton Greek, encouraged her to read widely, and ultimately bequeathed his Greek lexicon and other books to her. His belief in her intellectual abilities buttressed Stanton's belief in her own wide-ranging abilities and prowess.
Upon graduation from Johnstown Academy, Stanton experienced her first tastes of sexual discrimination. Stanton watched with dismay as the young men graduating with her, many of whom she had surpassed academically, went on to Union College. In 1830, Union College only admitted men. Stanton's only option was to enroll in the Troy Female Seminary in Troy, New York.
Early in her days at Troy, Stanton encountered Charles Grandison Finney, an evangelical preacher and revivalist. After hearing Finney speak, Stanton became terrified of her own possible damnation, "Fear of judgment seized my soul. Visions of the lost haunted my dreams. Mental anguish prostrated my health. Dethronement of my reason was apprehended by my friends." Stanton credits her father and brother-in-law, Edward Bayard, with removing her from the situation. After taking her on a rejuvenating trip to Niagara Falls, they finally restored her reason and sense of balance. She never returned to organized Christianity. After this experience she maintained that logic and a humane sense of ethics were the best guides to thought and behavior.
As a young woman, Elizabeth Cady met Henry Brewster Stanton through her early involvement in the temperance and abolition movements. Henry was an acquaintance of Elizabeth Cady's cousin, Gerrit Smith, an abolitionist and member of the "Secret Six" that supported John Brown at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. Henry was a journalist, and an antislavery orator. Despite Daniel Cady's reservations, the couple married in 1840.
Soon after returning to the United States from their European honeymoon, the Stantons moved into the Cady household in Johnstown, New York. Henry studied law under his father-in-law until 1843, when the Stantons moved to Boston, Massachusetts. There, Henry joined a law firm.
While living in Boston, Elizabeth thoroughly enjoyed the social, political and intellectual stimulation that came with a constant round of abolitionist gatherings and meetings. She enjoyed the company of Frederick Douglass, William Lloyd Garrison, Louisa May Alcott, Robert Lowell and Ralph Waldo Emerson, among others.
Throughout her marriage and eventual widowhood, Stanton used her husband's surname as part of her own. She signed her name Elizabeth Cady Stanton or E. Cady Stanton. But she refused to be addressed as Mrs. Henry B. Stanton, finding this title to be patronizing.
The Stanton marriage had its tension and disagreement. Because of employment, travel, and finances, husband and wife lived apart often. The couple were very similar in temperament and ambition, but differed in their views on certain issues, including women's rights. In 1842, abolitionist reformer Sarah Grimke counseled Elizabeth in a letter: "Henry greatly needs a humble, holy companion and thou needest the same." In spite of the challenges, the marriage lasted forty-seven years, until Henry's death in 1887..
In 1847, the Stantons moved from Boston to Seneca Falls, New York. Henry's health was fragile and the New England winters had been hard on him. Elizabeth's father purchased their new home for them. Elizabeth, at age 31, loved motherhood and assumed primary responsibility for rearing the children. But she had great difficulty adjusting to her new role as rural housewife. She was increasingly unsatisfied by the lack of intellectual companionship and stimulation in Seneca Falls.
The Stantons had six carefully planned children, between 1842 and 1856. The couple's last four children, two daughters and two sons, were born in Seneca Falls. Stanton asserted that her children were conceived under a program she called "voluntary motherhood." Even though she firmly believed in achieving rights for women, her choice to be a mother was a deliberate one. The Stantons' seventh and last child, Robert, was an unplanned baby born in 1859. Elizabeth was age 44.
As an antidote to the boredom and loneliness she experienced in Seneca Falls, Stanton became increasingly involved in the community. By 1848, she had established ties to like-minded women in the area. Also, she was firmly committed to the nascent women's rights movement and ready to engage in organized activism.
The prejudice against color, of which we hear so much, is no stronger than that against sex. It is produced by the same cause, and manifested very much in the same way." -Elizabeth Cady Stanton.
Over the years, Stanton had become a great admirer and friend of Lucretia Mott, the Quaker minister, feminist, and abolitionist. They had met in spring of 1840 at the International Anti-Slavery Convention in London, England. The two became allies when the Convention voted to deny women participation in the proceedings, even those, like Mott, who were official delegates of their respective abolitionist societies. After considerable debate, the women were required to sit in a roped-off section hidden from view of the men. They were joined by William Lloyd Garrison, who arrived after the vote had been taken. He refused his seat in protest over the outcome, electing to sit with the women instead.
The decision to prohibit women from participating in the convention strengthened Stanton's commitment to women's rights. Mott's example of strength and activism also fortified her. By 1848, her early life experiences, the experience in London and her initially oppressive experience as a housewife galvanized Stanton. She wrote:
"The general discontent I felt with woman's portion as wife, housekeeper, physician, and spiritual guide, the chaotic conditions into which everything fell without her constant supervision, and the wearied, anxious look of the majority of women, impressed me with a strong feeling that some active measures should be taken to remedy the wrongs of society in general, and of women in particular. My experience at the World Anti-slavery Convention, all I had read of the legal status of women, and the oppression I saw everywhere, together swept across my soul, intensified now by many personal experiences. It seemed as if all the elements had conspired to impel me to some onward step. I could not see what to do or where to begin—my only thought was a public meeting for protest and discussion."
In 1848 Stanton, Mott and a handful of other women in Seneca Falls organized the first women's rights convention. Stanton drafted a Declaration of Sentiments, which she read at the convention. Modeled on the United States Declaration of Independence, Stanton's declaration proclaimed that men and women are created equal. She proposed, among other things, a then-controversial resolution demanding voting rights for women. The final resolutions, including feminine voting rights, were passed, in no small measure, because of the support of Frederick Douglass, who attended and spoke informally at the convention.
Soon after the convention, Stanton was invited to speak at a second women's rights convention in Rochester, New York, solidifying her role as activist and reformer. In 1851, Stanton met Susan B. Anthony. They were introduced on a street in Seneca Falls by Amelia Bloomer, a feminist and mutual acquaintance who had not signed the Declaration of Sentiments and subsequent resolutions despite her attendance at the Seneca Falls convention.
Single and without children, Anthony had time and energy to speak and travel. Stanton could not. Their skills complemented each other. Stanton, the better orator and writer, scripted many of Anthony's speeches. Anthony was the movement's organizer and tactician. Anthony wrote a tribute when Stanton died that appeared in the New York Times. Anthony described Stanton as having "forged the thunderbolts" that she (Anthony) "fired". Unlike Anthony's relatively narrow focus on suffrage, Stanton pushed for a broader platform of women's rights in general. Their opposing viewpoints led to some discussion and conflict. But no disagreement threatened their friendship or working relationship. They remained close friends and colleagues until Stanton's death some fifty years after their initial meeting.
Stanton and Anthony were recognized as movement leaders. Their attendance at meetings and support was sought. Then Stanton and Anthony's voices were joined by others who began assuming leadership within the movement. This included Lucy Stone, Matilda Joslyn Gage and others.
After the American Civil War, Stanton and Anthony broke with their abolitionist backgrounds. The two lobbied strongly against ratification of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the US Constitution granting African American men the right to vote. They believed that expanding the male franchise in the country would only increase the number of voters prepared to deny female franchise. Stanton was angry that the abolitionists, her former partners refused to demand that the language of the amendments be changed to include women. Stanton declared, "I will cut off this right arm of mine before I will ever work for or demand the ballot for the Negro and not the woman."
Eventually, Stanton's rhetoric took on what was perceived by some as a racist tone. Stanton took the position that women voters of "wealth, education, and refinement" were needed to offset the effect of former slaves and immigrants whose "pauperism, ignorance, and degradation" might negatively effect the American political system. She declared it "a serious question whether we had better stand aside and see 'Sambo' walk into the kingdom of civil rights first." While her frustration was understandable, it has been argued that Stanton's position fragmented the civil rights movement by pitting African American men against women. In addition, her comments may have established a basis for the literacy requirements that followed the Black male franchise. This position caused a significant rift between Stanton and many civil rights leaders, particularly Frederick Douglass. He believed that women, empowered by their ties to fathers, husbands, and brothers, at least vicariously had the vote. He also believed that the horrifying treatment as slaves entitled the now free African American men to acquire voting rights before women.
Thaddeus Stevens, a Republican congressman from Pennsylvania and ardent supporter of abolition, agreed following Civil War Reconstruction, that voting rights should be universal. In 1866, Stanton, Anthony, and several other suffragists drafted a universal suffrage petition demanding that both women and African American men be granted the right to vote. The petition was introduced in the United States Congress by Stevens. Despite these efforts, the Fourteenth Amendment was passed in 1868 without revision to include women.
By the time the Fifteenth Amendment made its way through Congress, Stanton's position led to a major schism in the women's rights movement. Many leaders in the women's rights movement, including Lucy Stone, Elizabeth Blackwell, and Julia Ward Howe strongly argued against Stanton's "all or nothing" position. By 1869, disagreement over ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment gave birth to two separate women's suffrage organizations. The National Woman's Suffrage Association (NWSA) founded in May 1869 by Stanton and Anthony, opposed passage of the Fifteenth Amendment unless it was revised to include female suffrage. The American Woman's Suffrage Association (AWSA), founded the following November and led by Stone, Blackwell, and Howe, supported the amendment as written.
Sojourner Truth, a former slave and feminist, affiliated herself with Stanton and Anthony's organization. She believed that men should not receive the right to vote unless women were included. They were joined by Matilda Joslyn Gage, who later worked on The Woman's Bible with Stanton. Despite the efforts of Stanton and her colleagues to expand the Fifteenth Amendment to include voting rights for women, this amendment also passed as originally written, in 1870. It was another 50 years before women obtained the right to vote throughout the United States.
After passage of the Fifteenth Amendment, supported by the Equal Rights Association and prominent suffragists such as Stone, Blackwell, and Howe, the gap between Elizabeth Cady Stanton and other leaders of the women's movement widened. Stanton took issue with the fundamental religious leanings of several movement leaders. Unlike many of her colleagues, Stanton believed organized Christianity relegated women to an unacceptable position in society.
She explored this view in The Woman's Bible, which elucidated a feminist understanding of biblical scripture. "The Woman's Bible" sought to correct the fundamental sexism Stanton saw as inherent in organized Christianity. Stanton supported divorce rights, employment rights and property rights for women. The more conservative suffragists preferred to avoid these issues.
Stanton's perspective on religion did not limit her. She wrote many of the more important documents and speeches of the women's rights movement. She was instrumental in promoting women's suffrage in New York, Missouri, Kansas and Michigan. It was included on the ballot in Kansas in 1867, and Michigan in 1874.
In 1868, Stanton made an unsuccessful bid for a U.S. Congressional seat from New York. She was also the primary force behind passage of the "Woman's Property Bill," that was eventually passed by the New York State Legislature.
Unlike many modern feminists, Stanton believed that abortion was infanticide She addressed the issue in various editions of The Revolution. In an 1873 letter to Julia Ward Howe recorded in Howe's diary at Harvard University Library, she wrote: "When we consider that women are treated as property, it is degrading to women that we should treat our children as property to be disposed of as we see fit." She suggested that solutions to abortion would be found, at least in part, in the elevation and enfranchisement of women.
Stanton was active internationally in her later years. She spent a great deal of time in Europe, where her daughter and fellow feminist, Harriot Stanton Blatch, lived. In 1888 she helped prepare for the founding of the International Council of Women.
Two years later, Stanton opposed the merger of the National Woman's Suffrage Association with the more conservative and religious American Woman Suffrage Association. Over her objections, the organizations merged, creating the National American Woman Suffrage Association. Despite her opposition to the merger, Stanton became its first president, because of Susan B. Anthony's intervention. As a result of the Woman's Bible, Stanton was never popular among the religiously conservative members of the 'National American'.
On January 17, 1892, Stanton, Anthony, Lucy Stone, and Isabella Beecher Hooker addressed the issue of suffrage before the Judiciary Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives. In contrast to prevailing attitude earlier in the century, the suffragists were cordially received. Members of the House listened carefully to their prepared statements. Stanton emphasized the value of the individual, and that value was not based on gender. Stanton eloquently expressed the need for women's voting rights and the importance of a new understanding of women's position in society and the fundamental value of women:
"The isolation of every human soul and the necessity of self-dependence must give each individual the right to choose his own surroundings. The strongest reason for giving woman all the opportunities for higher education, for the full development of her faculties, her forces of mind and body; for giving her the most enlarged freedom of thought and action; a complete emancipation from all forms of bondage, of custom, dependence, superstition; from all the crippling influences of fear—is the solitude and personal responsibility of her own individual life. The strongest reason why we ask for woman a voice in the government under which she lives; in the religion she is asked to believe; equality in social life, where she is the chief factor; a place in the trades and professions, where she may earn her bread, is because of her birthright to self-sovereignty; because, as an individual, she must rely on herself…."
Stanton died at her home in New York City on October 26, 1902. It would be nearly 20 years before women were finally granted the right to vote in the United States. She was interred in Woodlawn Cemetery, Bronx, New York.
She was survived by six of her seven children and six grandchildren. Although Elizabeth Cady Stanton had been unable to attend a formal college or university, her daughters did. Margaret Livingston Stanton Lawrence attended Vassar College (1876) and Columbia University (1891). Harriot Stanton Blatch received both her undergraduate and graduate degrees from Vassar College in 1878 and 1891 respectively.
After Stanton's death, her radical ideas led many suffragists to focus on Susan B. Anthony more than Stanton as founder of the women's suffrage movement. By 1923, at the seventy-fifth anniversary of the Seneca Falls Convention, only Harriot Stanton Blatch paid tribute to the role her mother had played in instigating the movement. Even as recently as 1977, Susan B. Anthony was recognized as the founder of the women's rights movement. Elizabeth Cady Stanton was not mentioned. By the 1990s, interest in Stanton was substantially rekindled when American film maker Ken Burns, among others, presented the life and contributions of Elizabeth Cady Stanton. He drew attention to her central, founding role in shaping the women's rights movement in the United States.
In 1868, Stanton and Anthony founded the women's rights newsletter The Revolution. Stanton served as co-editor with Parker Pillsbury and frequently contributed to the paper. Stanton also wrote countless letters and pamphlets, as well as articles and essays for numerous periodicals, including Amelia Bloomer's Lily, Paulina Wright Davis's Una, and Horace Greeley's New York Tribune.
Starting in 1881, Stanton, Anthony and Matilda Joslyn Gage published the first of three volumes of the History of Woman Suffrage, an anthology of writings about the women's movement. This anthology reached six volumes in 1922 and featured a variety of writers.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton's papers are archived at Rutgers University.
Stanton's individual writings include:
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Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed. | <urn:uuid:27080d58-d694-46cf-af05-4a16354f63cc> | {
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Osteoporosis ("porous bones", from Greek: οÏÏοÏν/ostoun meaning "bone" and ÏÏÏοÏ/poros meaning "pore") is a progressive bone disease that is characterized by a decrease in bone mass and density which can lead to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis, the bone mineral density (BMD) is reduced, bone microarchitecture deteriorates, and the amount and variety of proteins in bone are altered. Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a bone mineral density of 2.5 standard deviations or more below the mean peak bone mass (average of young, healthy adults) as measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry; the term "established osteoporosis" includes the presence of a fragility fracture. The disease may be classified as primary type 1, primary type 2, or secondary. The form of osteoporosis most common in women after menopause is referred to as primary type 1 or postmenopausal osteoporosis, which is attributable to the decrease in estrogen production after menopause. Primary type 2 osteoporosis or senile osteoporosis occurs after age 75 and is seen in both females and males at a ratio of 2:1. Secondary osteoporosis may arise at any age and affect men and women equally; this form results from chronic predisposing medical problems or disease, or prolonged use of medications such as glucocorticoids, when the disease is called steroid- or glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis.1
Zinc, in commerce also spelter, is a chemical element with symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element of group 12 of the periodic table. In some respects zinc is chemically similar to magnesium: its ion is of similar size and its only common oxidation state is +2. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in Earth's crust and has five stable isotopes. The most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc blende), a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest mineable amounts are found in Australia, Asia, and the United States. Zinc production includes froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity (electrowinning).2
The average price we found for Zinc products was $10.74. The lowest price we found was $10.74
Explore all Osteoporosis treatments we have analyzed:
Research last analyzed March 03, 2015 @8:54AM. | <urn:uuid:d559508f-1bd8-428b-b56f-c218b6e68ff1> | {
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In a simple filibuster, like the one in "Mr. Smith goes to Washington," a single senator holds the floor, talking for as long as he can. Many such one-man filibusters have been held over relatively minor issues or to score political points. In 1935, Louisiana Senator Huey P. Long staged a filibuster to try to hang onto patronage jobs in his state. He spoke nonstop for 15 hours, filling the time by reading from the Constitution and from the plays of Shakespeare. He even gave recipes for cooking fried oysters [source: New York Times]. No rule said a senator's speech has to be relevant to the matter at hand.
If only a single senator filibusters, his colleagues can hold a successful cloture vote as soon as he yields the floor, ending the filibuster. But if more than 40 senators support a filibuster, cloture is impossible and the matter can be delayed indefinitely. For example, a group of senators talked for 57 days to try to block the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In the end, some senators were won over, a cloture vote succeeded and the bill was enacted [source: Carlson].
Extended debate is only one technique for delaying legislative action. Others include:
- Anonymous holds allow senators to block bills or nominations that require unanimous consent of senators in order to be voted on.
- The introduction of a large number of amendments can seriously delay final consideration of a bill. To consume time, filibustering senators can also read each amendment in full, rather than waiving the right to do so, as is customary.
- A senator can call for lengthy roll-call votes on each amendment and on other issues, using up time.
- Quorum calls, which ascertain the number of senators present, create delays and force senators to return to chamber.
- After cloture is passed, parliamentary maneuvers can still delay final passage of a bill for up to two weeks [sources: Beth, Schneider].
If you think all these delaying tactics could seriously interfere with the Senate's business, you're right. In recent years, filibusters have themselves generated a good deal of debate.
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Forests Count in Climate Change
In 1992, I attended an event that filled me with hope.
Canada and the rest of the world had just signed a climate change treaty at the United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro.
I remember being optimistic that the world could come together to fight the greatest threat to our planet and our own survival. We had done it before in overcoming other threats, like defeating Nazism in Europe and beating back horrific diseases like polio.
When Canada signed the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) treaty, we had not yet begun to experience the full consequences of climate change. There were no news reports of starving polar bears in the Arctic, the mountain pine beetle had not yet turned British Columbia's forests crimson, and we weren't facing a rapid increase in infectious diseases, like Lyme disease, that are exacerbated by warming temperatures.
But climate change is now affecting people and places all over the planet, from the most remote tropical rainforest to the urban parks where many of our kids play.
And scientists tell us that some changes, like melting sea ice in the Arctic, are happening much faster than any computer model had predicted.
Though the 1992 UNFCCC treaty set no mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions and contained no enforcement provisions (these would come later in the Kyoto Protocol and, we hope, in a forthcoming climate treaty that will replace it), it did set an ambitious science-based goal: to stabilize greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at a level that will prevent the effects of dangerous climate change.
Scientists say we can only achieve this goal if we radically reduce all major sources of heat-trapping greenhouse gas emissions.
While much of the debate and action has focused on curbing emissions from burning fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas, the destruction of our forests, wetlands, grasslands and peatlands is responsible for about one quarter of all other emissions into the atmosphere. That's higher than emissions from cars, trucks, boats and planes together.
In Canada and throughout the world, forests are being rapidly cleared for agriculture and oil and gas development and are being destructively mined and logged.
When forest soils are disturbed and trees are burned or cut down for wood and paper products, much of the carbon stored in their biomass is released back into the atmosphere as heat-trapping carbon dioxide, although some carbon can remain stored in longer-lived forest products, like wood used to make furniture or homes.
Thus the destruction of forests and other ecosystems is not only a driver of extinction of species, such as boreal caribou, but is a driver of global warming as well.
We need to adopt a carbon stewardship approach to how we use our forests and the goods and services we take from them.
For some scientists, carbon stewardship means setting aside at least half of all remaining intact forests as protected areas, particularly carbon-rich forests like old-growth temperate rainforests in B.C. and the boreal in Canada's north, where wildlife like caribou feed, breed and roam.
Protecting intact forests also promotes ecological resiliency so that species and ecosystems can cope with and adapt to the effects of climate change.
That doesn't mean the logging companies should be allowed to trash the other 50 per cent. Forests that we do manage for wood and paper production should be logged according to the highest standards of ecosystem-based management, without clear cutting, and with adequate protection for wildlife habitat like caribou, as well as sensitive areas like wetlands.
In December, the world's nations will meet at the UN Climate Summit in Copenhagen to negotiate a new strong and fair climate change agreement that will continue and strengthen the Kyoto Protocol.
Scientists tell us that to avoid dangerous climate change, governments must agree to deep reductions in greenhouse gases, including carbon emissions from the destruction of our forests, wetlands, and other ecosystems.
We can achieve this by agreeing to protect our intact forests, taking full responsibility for emissions from logging and other land-use activities and helping developing nations reduce deforestation.
Let's use our forests in a truly sustainable way that is better for nature, better for the climate and ultimately better for our own health and well-being.
© 2008 CanadaEast Interactive | <urn:uuid:450b7d65-7b4a-4a97-a263-0b86c066a696> | {
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The gallbladder is an important organ located just behind your liver. Its job is to store the bile produced by the liver. Bile helps you digest fat. Gallbladder disease is a painful disease and if you think you are suffering from gallbladder disease then you need to review common gallbladder symptoms.
Vomiting and nausea are two gallbladder symptoms. The vomiting and nausea can occur alongside heartburn. The vomiting and nausea can happen at any time, but it can occur more often immediately following a meal of fatty foods. These may be aggravated by pain in the abdomen.
Another of the gallbladder symptoms is abdominal pain. The pain is usually severe and the pain can be found on your right side in the upper quadrant of your mid-section. The pain is worse after you take a deep breath. The pain radiates around your waist to your back. It's usually near your right shoulder blade. The pain is worse after eating food that is high in fat. The pain in the abdomen is sometimes accompanied with abdominal fullness or excessive gas.
Gallbladder symptoms also may include chills, fever and shaking. The chills, fever and shaking may occur more often after consuming fatty foods because the gallbladder is responsible for assisting you in digesting fat. These symptoms may possibly disappear 6 to 18 hours after they start and your pain begins to decrease.
If you look at any one of the gallbladder symptoms, you won't be able to know if you have gallbladder problems. If you suffer from more than a few of these or if the pain is chronic, then you need to look at seeking treatment. | <urn:uuid:072fdd66-feec-4320-8f86-3bd8b44d2e79> | {
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