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Remember those motivational posters at the gym or office that assert attitude is everything. Well, it actually tests out. Science has found that attitude literally generates the brain structure that wires us for success or failure. Attitude is highly neuroplastic, meaning a shift in attitude changes our brain. It boils down to positive vs. negative emotions operating as forces that either expands higher brain function to elevate innate talent to greatness or reduces brain performance to not much more than mediocre. Attitude fortifies networks that generate self-confidence and happiness or plague us with self-doubt and anxiety. It immunizes us from stress or causes it. It secures the mind–body connection for optimal health or for disease. In short, quality of attitude determines the quality of brain function that leads to the quality of life we ultimately experience. Attitude not only shapes our reality; it is our reality.
This is what Karl Menninger meant when he said “attitude is more important than facts.” It is more important than genetics, past traumas, our level of education, our social standing, and even IQ. A dynamic shift in attitude can rewire a brain and change everything, even when our so-called “background” appears to be lacking. Attitude is the only thing in life we completely control and, happily, it turns out that it is all we need. It can change the very structure and chemistry of our brain — at any point along the life span – in ways that light us up with the creative and emotional intelligence to overcome whatever blocks our success, well-being and happiness.
In 2000, neuroscience discovered the part of our brain that generates attitude. Our attitude emerges from within the prefrontal cortex, formed through a mix of negative and positive emotion. Negative emotional states are indicated by activity on the right side of the prefrontal cortex; positive emotional states are indicated by activity on the left side. It works like this:
- If readings on the right side of the prefrontal cortex indicate an extreme level of activity, meaning a lot of negative and dark emotions, then that person is likely to be hospitalized for severe clinical depression or in jail for a violent crime.
- If readings on the left side of the prefrontal cortex indicate an extreme level of activity, meaning a lot of positive emotion, then that person’s life will work at every level that matters. They are likely to be happily married, a good and involved parent, and successful in their careers. They will have realized much of their innate potential. Emotionally they will be dynamically peaceful, enabling them to be positive, clear-minded and resilient.
Most human beings are neither extreme. Our attitude is built from a synthesis of negative and positive emotion (right and left prefrontal activity). It is a matter of which way our emotions are leaning. The more our attitude leans to the right, the harder our lives will be. The more our attitude leans to the left, the better our lives work. About 40% of Americans are leaning hard to the right. They are extremely stressed. Another 40% of Americans are borderline. Increase the pressure and they begin to tilt to the right. Only 20% are leaning strong to the left. Science wanted to know if we can coax the brain to move our attitude to the left.
Researchers were interested in studying people who theoretically would produced a high degree of left prefrontal activity – people whose profession involved mastering the art of being at peace. They studied monks and contemplatives to see if their spiritual practice changed their brains.
What they found astounded science. The monk’s spiritual practice had generated the most extreme value in left prefrontal cortex activity of anyone previously tested. Positive emotion swamped negative emotions, something never before seen from purely mental activity. In lay terms, this meant emotional negativity or chronic stress did not stand a chance in the monks’ brains.
Researchers also found that the usual networks that generate higher order brain function were expanded, more integrated and receiving greater blood flow. The monk had much greater activation in brain regions called the right insula and caudate, a network that underlies empathy and maternal love. This is a really loving, understanding brain. It’s the brain you want for a parent, a lover, a boss and a best friend. The readings on Gamma Wave activity was also elevated, signaling higher mental acuity for problem solving, decision-making, creativity and error detection. This is the brain of a peak performer.
The highly developed neural circuitry generated a flow of intelligence that was emotionally peaceful and positive, producing a fearlessly self-confident attitude, all of which made the monk immune to stress.
What did the monks do during the study to produce such great brain function? The qualities the monks practiced boil down to four essential ways of being. As you will see, these are qualities could not be simpler. I call these four qualities, Mystic Cool. They represent a way of being that we are all capable of strengthening.
The first quality the monks mastered is engaging life with a quiet mind that is fully present. We drop the incessant thinking that produces a pointless preoccupation with the past or endless worries about the future. We practice being present, right here, right now, engaging whatever is before us with an open, alert mind. Consider this: you cannot
be stressed if you are fully present.
This first quality is the cure for the attention deficit stress causes. As we practice this quality, we flex a brain muscle that strengthens our ability to focus.
The second quality the monks mastered is remaining calm inside, regardless of what is happening on the outside. We are not afraid or threatened by the outside. Thus, we can face a challenge confidently and feel our way to the best possible response to the situation. As we practice this quality the brain builds the GABA fibers that extinguish fear. Extinguish fear and you eliminate stress.
The next time you are in a traffic jam that threatens to make you late for a meeting, tell yourself, “My peace does not depend on this car going faster.“ You’ll arrive at the meeting with greater brain power and resilience.
The third quality deepens our sense of connection. Our hearts are open and empathic, with the intention of creating an atmosphere of interpersonal resonance. We consciously connect with our own internal center, with the people we happen to be with, and to that which we conceive of as greater than ourselves. We practice listening better, judging less, and forgiving more.
People who have strong social networks outlive those who do not. They also develop fewer life threatening diseases. New research also suggests that a strong social network coupled with a peaceful attitude provides immunity to dementia as we grow older.
The fourth quality the monks mastered keeps us in touch with the big picture instead of getting trapped in the narrow perspective stress engenders. It is as simple as taking a short break every 90-minutes or so, vacating work for a few moments to simply look out the window to watch the sun shine, the rain fall or the wind blow. Relax into the scene outside and, for just a moment, let go of work completely. Let the natural world touch you.
When you return to your desk, before re-engaging, look at your work and recall the big picture toward which this current effort is building.
When evoked consistently, through a simple practice, these qualities shift control of the brain from the deep neural circuits of fear that flood the brain with stress hormones and trigger fight or flight to the higher brain, where positive emotion and intelligence can flow. Who does not want that?
Here is a tool that you can start using right away to generate the first quality of Mystic Cool. It is called the clear button. It inhibits the incessant, fearful thinking that provokes right side prefrontal cortex activity (negative emotion). Interrupt fearful thinking before it turns into a stress reaction, and you avoid flooding the higher brain with toxic stress hormones.
Imagine there is a button at the center of your palm that functions as a biofeedback mechanism. When pushed, it sends a signal to the brain to stop negative, fearful or pessimistic thinking.
Now imagine you are becoming stressed about something that’s been bothering you. Perhaps it’s has to do with your health or a money problem or a conflict in an important relationship. You start thinking a lot of fearful, worried, edgy thoughts about this issue and this thinking is beginning to escalate into a stress reaction.
Instead of allowing things to escalate further, you remember your clear button. You press it, holding your button down and stop thinking. Next you practice what your grandmother told you to do whenever you are getting “worked-up.”. You count to three, and to further distract negative thinking, you see each number as a color, like so:
- Take a breath and count “1,” seeing it as red.
- Take a second breath and count “2,” seeing it as blue.
- Take a third breath and count “3,” seeing it as green.
- On the exhale, come into the present moment, right here, right now, and relax, letting fear go completely.
Most of us won’t be able to remember all the stressful thoughts we were thinking that were about to catapult us into a stress reaction. As our brain switches on higher neural networks, it defaults to creative problem solving. We begin seeing solutions instead of the problems that a anxious, stressed brain multiplies. | <urn:uuid:443cdb6c-ac7e-42e7-aace-9ab2706cfd36> | {
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National monuments declared by presidents under the Antiquities Act have become great assets to the states where they are located. New Jersey has one national park that was first designated as a national monument by Republican President Dwight Eisenhower. The Garden State’s Thomas Edison National Historical Park is home to the works of Thomas Alva Edison’s 60-year career as an inventor, manufacturer, businessman, and private citizen. It is the third largest museum collection in the National Park Service and welcomes 60,000 visitors each year for their enjoyment, understanding, and appreciation.
It’s unfortunate, then, that as we approach the 60 year anniversary of President Eisenhower’s designation of Edison Laboratory National Monument, some in Congress want to strip away authority of presidents under the Antiquities Act to protect objects of historical, cultural, and conservation value. That bill, H.R. 1459, narrowly passed the House of Representatives earlier this year.
The bill, titled “Ensuring Public Involvement in the Creation (EPIC) of National Monuments Act,” would limit presidents to just one new monument per four-year term, and introduce a number of regulatory roadblocks to make preservation difficult, if not impossible. It was introduced by U.S. Rep. Rob Bishop, R-Utah; Rep. Lance voted in support of the bill.
Representative Lance’s approach — to stop the protection of cultural properties and wilderness — is wrong for New Jersey.
The Antiquities Act is broadly supported by many diverse constituencies across the country. Congressman Lance should protect an essential tool to safeguard America’s natural and cultural heritage. | <urn:uuid:ae8f8db9-d081-47a0-a455-5a11ee0fa40d> | {
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FEDERAL RESTRICTION ON SCHOOL SNACKS
What snack foods can children eat at school? The Agriculture Department has announced Thursday, June 27, 2013, that there will be restrictions on what types of snacks schools can sell. Students will no longer be able to fill up on trans fats that are found in greasy pizzas, high-fat chips and snacks, and sugars found in ice cream treats, cookies, juice drinks, high-calorie sodas, snack cakes and sports drinks, and salty pretzels or chips.
The governments new standards for healthier snack foods in schools would apply to all the “a la carte” lines in the school cafeterias, vending machines, snack bars or any other food sold at school and on the school campus grounds. It would not apply to fundraisers, after school class parties or foods brought from home to the school.
WHICH SNACKS ARE ACCEPTABLE AND WHICH ARE NOT?
According to the federal guidelines, acceptable snack items include:
- Baked potato chips
- Granola bars
- Cereal bars
- Trail mix
- Dried fruits
- Fruit cups
- Sugarless gum
- Whole grain-rich muffins
- 100 percent fruit juice drinks
- Diet soda (high schools)
- Flavored water (high schools)
- Diet sports drinks (high schools)
- Unsweetened or diet iced teas (high schools)
- Baked lower-fat french fries
- Healthier pizzas with whole grain crust
- Lean hamburgers with whole wheat buns
Snack food that are not acceptable include:
- Snack cakes
- Most cookies
- High-calorie sodas
- High-calorie sports drinks
- Juice drinks that are not 100 % juice
- Most ice cream and ice cream treats
- High-fat chips and snacks
- Greasy pizza
- Deep-fried, high-fat foods
WHEN DOES THIS TAKE EFFECT?
The federal snack rules will take effect during the 2014-2015 school year, but schools can start earlier to put these restrictions into effect. Many schools already have been making improvements. Thirty-nine states have a snack food policy.
In 2010 Congress passed the law championed by first lady Michelle Obama as a part of her efforts to stop childhood obesity, requiring the Agriculture Department to make changes in the rules describing acceptable school offered snacks. Several companies in the food industry worked with Congress three years ago on the child nutrition law.
ARE THERE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HIGH SCHOOL AND ELEMENTARY SCHOOL SNACKS?
Differences exist between high school and elementary or middle school regulations on appropriate snacks. Low-calorie sports drinks such as Gatorade’s G2, and diet drinks will be allowed in high school. However, elementary and middle schools will only be permitted to sell water, carbonated water, 100 percent fruit juice, 100 percent vegetable juice, nonfat flavored milk, and low fat and fat-free milk. | <urn:uuid:5803a933-16cc-40fe-873a-7d6a314f4b5d> | {
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The Essenes have gained fame in modern times as a result of the discovery of an extensive group of religious documents known as the Dead Sea Scrolls, commonly believed as being their library. These documents include preserved multiple copies of the Hebrew Bible untouched from as early as 300 BC until their discovery in 1946. The multiple copies of the Old Testament in the original Hebrew confirmed that the Old Testament has remained relatively unchanged since it was redacted in 450 BC, with some slight changes in wording but not meaning. Among the scrolls recording each "book" of the Bible separately, only the Book of Esther did not survive the effects of time. This library also included many other, diverse religious texts, adding significant historical insights into various social and religious movements and events around the region.
Josephus uses the name Essenes in his two main accounts (War 2.119, 158, 160; Ant. 13.171-2) as well as in some other contexts ("an account of the Essenes", Ant. 13.298; "the gate of the Essenes", War 5.145; "Judas of the Essene race", Ant. 13.311, but some manuscripts read here Essaion; "holding the Essenes in honour", Ant. 15.372; "a certain Essene named Manaemus", Ant. 15.373; "to hold all Essenes in honour", Ant. 15.378; "the Essenes", Ant. 18.11 & 18; Life 10). In several places, however, Josephus has Essaios, which is usually assumed to mean Essene ("Judas of the Essaios race", War I.78; "Simon of the Essaios race", War 2.113; "John the Essaios", War 2.567; 3.11; "those who are called by us Essaioi", Ant. 15.371; "Simon a man of the Essaios race", Ant. 17.346). Philo's usage is Essaioi, although he admits this Greek form of the original name that according to his etymology signifies "holiness" to be inexact (NH XII.75). Pliny's Latin text has Esseni. Josephus identified the Essenes as one of the three major Jewish sects of that period.
In Kamal S. Salibi's Who was Jesus? Conspiracy in Jerusalem, it is suggested that the Essenes take their name from the equivalent Greek form of "Iesous" (Ch. 4) being translated to the Aramaic/Arabic "Issa" or "Eesa/Eesah", the name given the Prophet Jesus as found in the Qur'an.
In Eerdman's Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, Gabriele Boccaccini (p.47) implies that a convincing etymology for the name Essene has not been found, but that the term applies to a larger group within Palestine that also included the Qumran community.
It is possible that the Talmudic statement (Kiddushin Ch. 4) "the best of the physicians will go to hell" were referring to the Essenes. The Talmudic term for healer is Assia. (Reuvein Margolies Toldot Ha'Adam).
It was proposed before the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered that the name came into several Greek spellings from a Hebrew self-designation found in some Dead Sea Scrolls, 'osey hatorah, "observers of torah.
Pliny locates them "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast ... [above] the town of Engeda".
Some modern scholars and archaeologists have argued that Essenes inhabited the settlement at Qumran, a plateau in the Judean Desert along the Dead Sea, citing Pliny the Elder in support, and giving credence that the Dead Sea Scrolls are the product of the Essenes. This view, though not yet conclusively proven, has come to dominate the scholarly discussion and public perception of the Essenes.
Josephus' reference to a "gate of the Essenes" in his description of the course of "the most ancient" of the three walls of Jerusalem (War 5.145), in the Mount Zion area, perhaps suggests an Essene community living in this quarter of the city or regularly gathering at this part of the Temple precincts.
Following the qualification above that it is correct to identify the community at Qumran with the Essenes (and that the community at Qumran are the authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls), then according to the Dead Sea Scrolls the Essenes' community school was called "Yahad" (meaning "oneness of God") in order to differentiate themselves from the rest of the Jews who are repeatedly labeled "The Breakers of the Covenant". The accounts by Josephus and Philo show that the Essenes (Philo: Essaioi) led a strictly celibate but communal life — often compared by scholars to later Christian monastic living — although Josephus speaks also of another "rank of Essenes" that did get married (War 2.160-161). According to Josephus, they had customs and observances such as collective ownership (War 2.122; Ant. 18.20), elected a leader to attend to the interests of them all whose orders they obeyed (War 2.123, 134), were forbidden from swearing oaths (War 2.135) and sacrificing animals (Philo, §75), controlled their temper and served as channels of peace (War 2.135), carried weapons only as protection against robbers (War 2.125), had no slaves but served each other (Ant. 18.21) and, as a result of communal ownership, did not engage in trading (War 2.127). Both Josephus and Philo have lengthy accounts of their communal meetings, meals and religious celebrations.
After a total of three years probation (War 2.137-138), newly joining members would take an oath that included the commitment to practice piety towards "the Deity" (το θειον) and righteousness towards humanity, to maintain a pure life-style, to abstain from criminal and immoral activities, to transmit their rules uncorrupted and to preserve the books of the Essenes and the names of the Angels (War 2.139-142). Their theology included belief in the immortality of the soul and that they would receive their souls back after death (War 2.153-158, Ant. 18.18). Part of their activities included purification by water rituals, which was supported by rainwater catchment and storage.
The Church Father Epiphanius (writing in the fourth century AD) seems to make a distinction between two main groups within the Essenes: "Of those that came before his [Elxai, an Ossaean prophet] time and during it, the Osseaens and the Nazarean." (Panarion 1:19). Epiphanius describes each group as following:
Many scholars believe that the community at Qumran that allegedly produced the Dead Sea Scrolls was an offshoot of the Essenes; however, this theory has been disputed by Norman Golb and other scholars.
Golb, for instance, uses strong arguments defending that primary research on the Qumran documents and ruins (by Father Roland de Veux, from the École Biblique et Archéologique de Jérusalem) lacked scientific method, originating wrong conclusions that comfortably entered the academic canon. For Golb, the amount of documents is too extensive and includes many different writing styles and calygraphies; the ruins seem to have been a fortress, used as a military basis on a very long period of time - including century I - so that they could not be inhabited by the Essenes; and the large graveyard excavated in 1870, just 50 metres east of the Qumran ruins was made of over 1,200 tombs that included many women and children - Plinius clearly wrote that "the Essenes that lived near the Dead Sea had no women, had renounced to any sexual desire and no one was born in their race". Golb's book presents sharp observations about de Vaux's premature conclusions and their unargued acceptance in general academic community. He states that the documents probably were part of the Jerusalem Library, kept safe in the desert from the Roman invasions.
Since the 19th century attempts have been made to connect early Christianity and Pythagoreanism with the Essenes. It was suggested that Jesus of Nazareth was an Essene, and that Christianity evolved from this sect of Judaism, with which it shared many ideas and symbols. According to Martin A. Larson, the now misunderstood Essenes were Jewish Pythagoreans who lived as monks. As vegetarian celibates in self-reliant communities who shunned marriage and family, they preached a coming war with the Sons of Darkness. As the Sons of Light, this reflected a separate influence from Zoroastrianism via their parent ideology of Pythagoreanism. According to Larson, both the Essenes and Pythagoreans resembled thiasoi, or cult units of the Orphic mysteries. John the Baptist is widely regarded to be a prime example of an Essene who had left the communal life (see Ant. 18.116-119), and it is thought they aspired to emulate their own founding Teacher of Righteousness who was crucified. However, J.B. Lightfoot's essay (On Some Points Connected with the Essenes) argues that attempts to find the roots of Essenism in Pythagoreanism and the roots of Christianity in Essenism are flawed. Authors such as Robert Eisenman present differing views that support the Essene/Early Christian connection.
Another issue is the relationship between the Essaioi and Philo's Therapeutae and Therapeutrides (see De Vita Contemplativa). It may be argued that he regarded the Therapeutae as a contemplative branch of the Essaioi who, he said, pursued an active life (Vita Cont. I.1).
One theory on the formation of the Essenes suggested the movement was founded by a Jewish high priest, dubbed by the Essenes the Teacher of Righteousness, whose office had been usurped by Jonathan (of priestly but not Zadokite lineage), labeled the "man of lies" or "false priest".
According to a Jewish legend, one of the Essenes, named Menachem, had passed at least some of his mystical knowledge to the Talmudic mystic Nehunya Ben Ha-Kanah, to whom the Kabbalistic tradition attributes Sefer ha-Bahir and, by some opinions, Sefer ha-Kanah, Sefer ha-Peliah and Sefer ha-Temunah. Some Essene rituals, such as daily immersion in the Mikvah, coincide with contemporary Hasidic practices; some historians had also suggested, that name "Essene" is an hellenized form of the word "Hasidim" or "Hasin" ("pious ones"). However, the legendary connections between Essene and Kabbalistic tradition are not verified by modern historians.
Currently there are several modern Essene Groups around the world.
J. Gordon Melton in his Encyclopedia of American Religions states that the modern Pseudo-Essene movement possesses no authentic historical ties to the ancient Essene movement. Melton states, "Essene material is directly derivative of two occult bestsellers — The Aquarian Gospel of Jesus the Christ, by Levi H. Dowling; and The Mystical Life of Jesus, by Rosicrucian author H. Spencer Lewis." | <urn:uuid:4e889784-1611-454f-9ea1-d4f7870bd261> | {
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Write a 2 page paper on the WIRED mag Article ans p 51-52.
Discuss technology and lessons we learn from it. Print it out. Bring it in. We will have a discussion on a subject.
READ Chapter 5-Graphic Communication Segments and Chapter 6 (pp 83 -pp 91) in Introduction to Graphic Communication.
Download the PAPER BASICS. Read.
Read info in this Blog post on paper.
Target audience in TV Advertizement. How to identify it and what are the means that they can be reachable by?
Discuss the Product, Target Audience, Headline, Tagline, Visual Elements, Goals of the Commercial.
Post it on your blog. Make sure there is a link to your Ad, so I can review it.
What’s the Difference Between 4 Color Process Printing and Spot Color Printing?
There are two main printing processes you will need to know about: 4 color process (CMYK) printing and spot color printing printing.
4 Color Process Best practice: check, double check, triple check. Happy? Check again.
Many mistakes are made when spot colors are mixed in with 4 color process (CMYK) colors and then sent to press. It’s actually quite common for companies to save money by running a large 4 color process (CMYK) print job and then ‘overprinting’ the stock with spot color black ‘text only’ plates. I work with a number of publishers producing multiple-language books who use this technique. They overprint different black language plates onto the same pre-designed color books. When this happens it is the responsibility of the designer to ensure that all overprint settings are correct and that all text has been colored with the ’5th color’ swatch (usually with black set up as a spot color).
Spot color printing creates brighter, more vibrant results, but with a smaller color range. When printing in single (spot) colors, a single color ink (normally with a Pantone reference number) is applied to the printing press roller. If there is just one color to be printed, there will be a single plate, and a single run of the press. If there are two colors, there will be two plates and two runs, and so on. The colors are layered onto the paper one by one.
Spot color printing would be typically used for jobs which require no full color imagery, such as for business cards and other stationery, or in monotone (or duotone etc) literature such as black and white newspaper print.
Pantone LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of X-Rite, Incorporated, is the world-renowned authority on color. For more than 45 years, Pantone has been inspiring design professionals with products, services and leading technology for the colorful exploration and expression of creativity.
4 color process printing involves the use of four plates: Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Keyline (Black). The CMYK artwork (which you will have supplied) is separated into these four colors – one plate per color. The four CMYK inks are applied one by one to four different rollers and the paper or card (‘stock’) is then fed through the printing press. The colors are applied to the stock one by one, and out comes the full color (4 color process) result.
Here is an example of 4 color process printing and three examples of spot color printing. There is a lot of versatility in designing for a spot color print run – experiment and see what results you can achieve!
CMYK Printing example:
If you look at a full color magazine through a magnifier, you’ll see that all the colors are made up of CMYK patterns, as shown by the above image. If you look at an area of spot color through a amgnifier, there will be no screen – it will show an area of solid, unbroken color (unless the grayscale or bitmap image it is applied to has a halftone screen of its own).
So How Does This Apply to me?
This means that the artwork you produce either has to be spot color artwork or CMYK artwork. Never, never NEVER produce RGB artwork. There is no such thing in the world of print. RGB (Red, Green, Blue) is a screen color mode and should only ever be used on screen for websites, video and other such screen based applications.
Never create final artwork destined for print with RGB images in place, or with RGB color swatches in use. It’s as simple as that. If you do, the printed result will be utterly unpredictable. Don’t let your color inkjet or laser printer fool you into thinking that if it prints out OK on them it’ll be OK for press. It won’t be.
Halftones For Printing
Because they cannot vary the thickness of the film of ink in highlights and shadows, lithographic printing presses are unable to reproduce the continuous tones of original photographic images. However, if the original image is first converted into a pattern of dots, the press can print a simulation that “tricks the eye” into seeing what appear to be continuous areas of ink coverage. An image converted in this way is called a halftone. Halftones are produced by screening the image mechanically or digitally to create the matrix of dots. The image is screened once for each color to be printed, so that a halftone for a four-color (CMYK) image will consist of four screens as shown here.
The Halftone Dot
Although we speak of offset lithographic plates as “planographic” or flat, the dots that make up the halftone images on them have substance and dimension. This highly magnified image shows an elliptical dot on the surface of the plate. On press, the dot will attract ink while repelling the water-based fountain solution that coats the plate in the non-image areas. The fountain solution repels ink to keep images from forming where they are not wanted.
Every halftone image consists of overprinted screens, one per color to be reproduced.
In conventional halftone screening, the sizes of the dots vary, but the spacing between them does not. The distance from the center of one dot to the center of an adjacent dot is always the same, regardless of size or location. The size of the dot depends on the density of the image area in which the dot occurs. Highlights contain small dots; midtones, medium-sized dots; and shadows, large dots.
|CHOOSING AND USING PAPER|
|DESIGNING BY PAPER SIZE is the key to holding paper costs to a minimum. The idea is to impose as many pages or layouts on one sheet as possible so that you are not paying for paper that’s running through the press without having anything printed on it. Unprinted paper = paper wasted = money thrown away. Whenever possible, products should be designed to fit the available paper size. It’s usually a mistake to design the piece first and then select the paper it will be printed on.SPECIFYING AND BUYING PAPER are tasks that can be left up to the printer, or, if the quantity is large enough, handled by customers who want to be sure they are getting the best price. High-volume users like publishing companies often will insist on doing the buying themselves by dealing directly with the source.The “source” generally will be a paper distributor or paper merchant, since papers mills seldom sell direct to printers and end- users. Distributors often employ design and production consultants who can help printers and their customers choose the right stocks for the job. They may also have customer-service reps to mediate disputes between mills and end-users.|
|PAPER CHARACTERISTICS (I)|
|BRIGHTNESS is the measurement of how much white light a paper reflects, expressed as a percentage. No paper reflects 100 percent of the light striking it, but some come close. Premium coated and uncoated white papers and some laser papers are rated as high as 97 percent. Paper for business forms falls somewhere in the 80s–about as low as the lowest rating for any printed product would be. (At the opposite end of the brightness scale are items like brown paper bags, which have a brightness rating of around 20.)Brightness affects readability: too little means low contrast and a dull appearance; too much produces glare and eyestrain. Generally speaking, papers for products like books and technical manuals are less bright than papers for magazines and advertising brochures.OPACITY determines how visible images from the underside of the sheet will be on the side being looked at. A paper should have enough opacity to prevent unwanted images from showing through. Like brightness, opacity is expressed as a percentage, and most printing papers fall within the 80 to 98 percent range (although swatchbooks and price books usually don’t present these ratings–select with care).Mills sometimes add fillers and chemicals to certain papers to increase their opacity. These papers then are marketed as “opaque” grades. Another way to get better opacity is to specify a paper with a higher basis. However, heavier paper costs more to buy and can add to the cost of binding and postage.CALENDERING (note the spelling) is a step in the papermaking process that imparts a smooth surface to the paper. It’s done by running the paper through a stack of calendering rolls–metal cylinders that compress the fibers and reduce the bulk of the paper. “Supercalendering” produces an ultra-smooth, ultra- thin surfaced paper that can be used to print skinny books that have a lot of pages. The trade-offs are loss of opacity and decreased durability.BASIS WEIGHT is the weight in pounds of a ream (500 sheets) in the basic size for that grade. Example: Basis 70 means that a 500-sheet stack of 25×38″ book paper weighs 70 pounds. The basic size is not the same for all grades–each category has a size used to compute its basis weights.The basic size for text, coated, and uncoated papers–in other words, for the papers most widely used in publishing–is 25×38″. Understanding basis weight is important because mills and paper merchants sell paper by the pound, not by the number of sheets or the length of the web.CALIPER is the measurement of a paper’s thickness, expressed as a point size in thousands of an inch. One point equals 1/1000 of an inch. A 7pt. stock is .007″ thick. (A caliper “point” is not the same as a typeface “point,” which is 1/72 of an inch–about 14 times as large.) The smaller the caliper, the more pages per inch (ppi), and vice versa.Caliper is not related to basis weight. Two papers of the same basis weight may be of different thicknesses. That is why we use the term:BULK to refer to a paper’s thickness relative to its basis weight. For example, an uncoated paper might be said to “bulk” higher than coated paper.|
|PAPER: KINDS, GRADES, BASIC SIZES|
|Industrywide standard definitions do not exist, but most papers fall into one of five general categories:• BOOK: general-purpose papers for catalogs, magazines, direct mail, and many other kinds of commercial and publication printing.• WRITING: used mainly for stationery.• COVER: thick, heavy stocks for the covers of booklets, manuals, etc.• BRISTOL: thick, stiff papers for business cards, file folders, and other items requiring a durable stock
• OTHER: papers that do not fit under any of the first four headings, such as onionskin, carbonless duplicating papers, etc.Assigning quality levels to paper is also arbitrary, but the following designations are generally accepted:• The numbers 1 through 5 denote quality grades for coated papers, with #1 being the highest. Coated #1, #2, and #3 papers are free sheets. Coated #4 papers include free sheets and groundwoods. Coated #5 papers are groundwoods. The choice depends on the degree of print quality required. For example, a magazine might use a #2 or #3 sheet for its cover and a #4 or #5 paper for the inside pages.• Other kinds of paper are quality-graded with letters, numbers, and words such as “premium” and “super-premium.” Again, no standard terminology exists.Paper is sold by weight in the “basic size” for its grade. The basic sizes for the four most common grades are:• BOOK: 25″x38″
• WRITING: 17″x22″
• COVER: 20″x26″
• BRISTOL: 22.5″x28.5″
|• Paper has “grain” because fibers align themselves in the direction of the wire’s travel through the papermaking machine.|
|• To test for grain direction, dampen a sheet of paper. It will curl parallel to the grain direction.• A paper is said to be “grain short” when the fibers are parallel to the short dimension (edge) of the sheet; “grain long” when parallel to the long dimension.• Paper always stretches during printing, but it stretches more with the grain than against it. Therefore, printers try to print with the grain parallel to the press cylinders to keep stretch and misregistration to a minimum.• In the bindery, it is better to fold with the grain than against it, since folding against the grain can cause the paper to crack.|
|THE MAKING OF PAPER|
• Paper is made from fibers of cellulose. The most common source of cellulose is trees, but cellulose from cotton, hemp, and many other materials can be used.• Cellulose from trees contains lignin: “brown stuff” that must be bleached and rinsed out to make printing and writing papers.• Bleaching can leave traces of acid, which is what causes paper to turn yellow and crumble with age. “Acid free” papers contain no acid residue and last much longer.PULPING• Cellulose fibers are separated from wood chips by washing, cooking, and bleaching. The pulp stock (a.k.a. “furnish”) that remains is 99 percent water.”WET END”• In the papermaking machine, the stock is sprayed onto a long, wide, moving screen called a “wire.” Water drains through the wire, and the pulp fibers begin to bond together in a very thin mat on the top side of the wire.• The fiber mat is then squeezed between felt-covered press rollers to absorb more of the water. At this point the “paper” on top of the wire is still about 60 percent water.”DRY END”• The wet paper is heated and dried by passing through a series of steam-filled metal cylinders. Heating and drying the wet sheet seals the fibers together and turns them into finished paper.”CALENDERING” and COATING• The paper is run through a series of smooth-surfaced, chilled metal cylinders known as the “calender.” The calender presses the drying paper smooth and uniform in thickness.• “Supercalendering” the paper through an additional set of rollers gives more smoothness and adds gloss.• Sometimes the paper is coated with a fine clay (kaolin) to fill in surface irregularities. This makes the paper brighter, more opaque, and easier to print on.
FIELD TRIP TO LETTERPRESS! Wednesday, Oct 10 at 11 30 am.
We are meeting by P100 at 11 30. Do not be late!
After that we ll walk to the Letterpress Room. It is right there close to P100. There is a door/walkway opposite of the guard sitting by the Exit to Boerum Pl (where bookshop is). The door is to the left from that walkway.
My cell is 917 8802901. I will take the students who are NOT late to the Letterpress and come out a wait for the rest for a few minutes. The trip is ONLY 30 min. Try to be on time!
Write/post to the blog a two page essay with 2 images on your a field trip to letter press. Also describe how letterpress works.
Introduction to Graphic Communication. Chapter 4: Technological Transitions in Graphic Communications. Read: pp 49-pp 61. Be ready to discuss it in a following class.
Read Color Theory info:
Make sure you read all these articles on Complimentary colors
POST 3 images as an example of great complimentary color combination. It could be a page from a magazine, T-shirt, postcard, anything that is a great color combination example.
Bring in your logo as a work in progress.
Keep on working on your E-PORTFOLIO.
Your graphic design portfolio is a representation of yourself and of your skills as a graphic designer and it will become an essential part of landing your graphic design dream job!
The Reproduction Of Color: Color Wheel, Color Complements
|• Colors opposite each other are complementary.
For example, cyan is the complement of red.• Each color is a combination of the colors on
either side of it.• The additive primaries green, blue, and red
separate (filter) the subtractive primaries cyan,
magenta, and yellow from white light.• By absorbing green, blue, and red from
light reflected through transparent ink on white
paper, cyan, magenta, and yellow produce color that
can be reproduced on a printing press.
| READ more on Complimentary colors:http://uwangdi.blogspot.com/2011/02/color-wheel-wonders-of-3-primary-colors.html
Athena Wyman Battalen
Be Yourself. Everyone else is already taken.
Hello World! I sure hope i will do what I think i will do with this, as I stop using FB and start posting art things i do, I find, I love, I did RIGHT HERE. | <urn:uuid:91690538-0c7e-48cd-9836-e7933c21d1e6> | {
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The Roof Barrier is a patented snow retention device which attaches below the edges of roof structure to prevent snow from sliding off the roof, causing damage to property and people below.
This is a unique design, alleviating the pressure from the roof top, itself, and placing the tension to the facia edges of the structure. It works to hold back sliding snow and ice. It is a safety parapet.
While most generic snow barriers nail or spike in through the roof surface, down into the subroof, which can be problematic, the nails extending into subroof may compromise the weather and water seal of the roof. Even with sealant materials in use, they tend to fail, allowing water to enter into the structure.
The Roof Barrier eliminates or, at least, alleviates the disadvantages and shortcomings of other systems. It holds the snow and ice on the roof while ensuring the roof is not damaged by the barrier, itself. It is reliable, simple and allows to reduce the material and labour costs. | <urn:uuid:809ec77a-51d3-43d6-8073-c4459f163258> | {
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Struck in 89.24% silver over 175 years ago, the 1830 Capped Bust half dime is a precious keepsake from the early 19th century. The design by U.S. Mint engraver William Kneass, depicting Liberty wearing a cloth cap, was an adaptation of the Capped Bust half dollar design by John Reich. During this coin's year of issue, Andrew Jackson was serving his first term as the 7th U.S. president, and the U.S. population was listed as 12,866,020. Get the historic 1830 silver half dime today.
- Half Dime Series: Capped Bust
- Mint: Philadelphia
- Product Type: Single Products
- Year: 1830 | <urn:uuid:d86da75a-aef1-40d9-b3c6-d40bb491d9df> | {
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Tropical Storm Claudette had barely cleared the Florida panhandle when I was back in the woods to check my amphibian and reptile traps, scattered throughout the forest. Some of my buckets, designed to entrap small animals that fall within them, had filled with water due to the recent torrential rain and I set upon them to begin the laborious task of bailing them out. In the distance, I heard a cacophony of sounds I attributed to a noisy mob of crows, perhaps angry at a hawk that came too close.
One of my first captures that day was a large grayish toad streaked with lime green stripes.
As I held it in my hand and peered into its vertically oriented pupils (like a cat), I admired the spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrooki, before me. It was the first I had seen in months. These unique animals spend nearly their entire life safely nestled within their deep underground burrows. There they wait, until heavy rains trigger some instinct within their small amphibian brains, and they are compelled to emerge. Although it matters not what time of year this rain occurs, not just any storm will do; however, a deluge will suffice. And Claudette had provided the perfect conditions.
Spadefoot toads are considered explosive breeders, meaning that when the time is right, they will emerge from their underground burrows en masse and find nearby depressions in the landscape that have filled with recent rainwater. In a flurry of singing, wrestling, and courtship, they will mate, lay and fertilize their eggs, and then disappear back into the uplands as quickly as they appeared, often returning to the same burrow from whence they came. Left behind are thousands of strings of their gelatinous eggs, the only indication of the breeding frenzy that had just occurred.
I glanced at the back feet of the toad in my hand and quickly noticed their namesake spades. Looking like the blade of a tiny shovel, the dark structures on their heels assists them in their burrowing, which they do butt-first.
When I placed the toad on the ground, it took a moment to collect itself and then hopped away into the underbrush. The next bucket I checked had two spadefoots within it, as did the bucket after that. When I peered into the third bucket three toads gazed back at me, waiting to be released. All of the animals had been captured on one side of the trap, indicating that they had come from the same area, but perhaps more interestingly, were all headed in the same direction. As I headed back to the truck, I again noticed the sounds in the distance and was puzzled by both their number and intensity.
Driving to the next site, my eye was caught by a large flooded area in the forest, an area that was dry before the storm. As I brought the truck to a stop and rolled down the window, I was overwhelmed by a rock concert of sounds. The realization slowly dawned on me that the noises I had heard in the distance were not from a massive flock of crows at all, but rather hundreds of spadefoot toads with one thing on their collective mind. I exited the truck and let my eyes wander along the shoreline and within the depths of the pool. Everywhere were toads singing, toads clasping each other and mating (knocking down vegetation in the process) and toads swimming through the water, perhaps females heading to investigate males with impressive calls. And the calls, what a sound to experience. So many species of frogs have beautiful and melodic songs; it’s no wonder how they are able to serenade females with their trills. Spadefoots however, are no Tom Jones. At risk of offending their amphibian sensibilities, I tend to describe spadefoot songs as the sound of dry-heaving.
“hooo ahhhh, hwaaaaa, hwaaaa, hoooahhh”
And they were everywhere. This was surely one of the awesome spectacles of nature that the southeastern United States can provide for the enthusiastic and alert naturalist. Reliably finding spadefoots requires both paying attention to weather patterns and knowing of historic breeding pools. When the conditions are right, one may be treated to quite the show, a show that reveals how subtle features of the landscape may be vital to the persistence of certain amphibian species.
Singing alongside the spadefoots were innumerable oak toads, which sound like baby chickens peeping. These toads also prefer to breed in temporary wetlands, where there are no fish to feed on them or their eggs. The sounds were overwhelming; to make myself heard to my field companion I had to yell over the din. I pledged to return to the site at night, when the bulk of toad activity is thought to occur. If the scene was tremendous at 11:00 in the morning, I couldn’t imagine what the experience would be like after the sun had set.
Although other obligations kept me from returning that night, I visited the site after dark the next day, eager to once again observe the frenzied toads. I donned my headlamp and waders and stepped into the water, hoping to get a close look at some of the amorous amphibians. A few minutes of listening revealed nearly a dozen different species of frogs calling to one another, I identified the boinging noise of barking tree frogs, the banjo call of bronze frogs, and the quick trill of gray tree frogs, among many others. There were also several cottonmouths cruising through the water, likely looking for frogs more interested in attracting females than paying attention to hungry and prowling snakes.
Conspicuously absent however, was any sign of adult spadefoots. I couldn’t believe that the hundreds of toads I had seen wrestling, mating and patrolling the water only the day before had disappeared. But they had. Adapted to sporadic heavy rainfall and quickly drying wetlands, the toads had come and gone in the blink of an eye. Most were likely already back in their underground burrows, patiently waiting until the next downpour to once again reveal themselves to the world. They left behind hundreds of thousands of spadefoot eggs, hard-pressed to hatch and develop into baby toads before their pond quickly dried. Strung along patches of vegetation throughout the pool, the eggs were the only evidence of the massive explosion of spadefoot activity that had transpired just the day before.
Toad photos are courtesy of Michelle Baragona. | <urn:uuid:8cb6f9dd-cb33-47b5-b73c-121821423f3d> | {
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Scientists help adapt Brazil farming to climate changeDecember 16th, 2013 by Moises Avila in Earth / Environment
A soybean field in the Cerrado plains near Campo Verde, Mato Grosso state, western Brazil on January 30, 2011
Hundreds of scientists are helping Brazil's giant agricultural sector prepare for the effects of climate change and anticipate pests that hit neighboring countries.
Spearheading the effort is the Brazilian Agriculture Research Corporation (Embrapa), a state agency tasked with developing and extending technology to support sustainable farming.
"We have 400 investigators currently focusing on how to adapt our agriculture to climate change," said Embrapa chief Mauricio Lopes.
"We have a tropical climate and it is the first to be affected by these variations."
Brazil, South America's biggest country in terms of size and population, has gradually emerged as an agricultural powerhouse.
A net importer of farm products in the 1970s, it now ranks among the world's five top agricultural producers and exporters and serves as a model for many developing countries.
It ranks only second to the United States for biofuel production.
Lopes said Embrapa is studying the effects of rising temperatures on crops "30, 40, 100 years" from now.
"Where will we have to move coffee, sugarcane and corn production? We are carefully anticipating the potential impacts of climate change in areas where we are adapting the crops," he said.
This, he noted, includes sophisticated experiments to try to imitate the effects of rising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and determine whether this will have a positive or negative impact on crops.
Embrapa also seeks to foster sustainable farming through public programs of low carbon emissions.
Agriculture, which represents 22 percent of GDP in the world's seventh largest economy, is a major source of greenhouse gases.
Embrapa also plays a major role in combating crop pests and diseases.
It has identified 489 such pests which affect neighboring countries or trade partners and which could enter Brazil.
Lopes said Embrapa researchers are therefore developing crop resistance and tolerance.
"Even before the scourge enters the country, we have the solution," said Embrapa researcher Marcio Elias Ferreira.
The agency is trying to bar the entry of crop diseases such as the armyworm, a common pest of grass which entered the country in 2001 and spread nationwide.
Embrapa is now focusing on a wheat pest that emerged in Africa five years ago, then moved into the Middle and is now in South America, although not yet in Brazil.
© 2013 AFP
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Today's Free Video
This video can be found here: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RJpLMvgUXe8
Download the lesson plan for this content below!
What content does this lesson plan cover?
Content Reading Guide: The Great Depression Begins
There was much prosperity in the early 1920s. Yet, as the decade came to a close, the economy became very unsettled. Many people lived beyond their means with credit in the 1920s. They bought items they did not have cash for by borrowing money from a bank. There was also an uneven distribution of wealth. The rich were becoming wealthier as the middle class became burdened with debt. Once their debt became radically difficult to manage, many Americans then began buying less because they had less money.
The Dow Jones Industry Average, a poll of the economic health of 30 large businesses in the USA, displayed prosperous times in the 1920s. There was a Bull Market for most of the 1920s, this meant there were rising stock prices and many investors were reaping profits. Many investors bought stocks on “speculation,” meaning they were hoping to make a quick profit. Some started “buying on margin.” This meant they were borrowing money to buy stocks in the hopes that, when their stocks reaped profits, they could pay back their loans.
After WW I, international demand for food was high. European nations bought a lot of food from the USA and these customers no longer needed America for food. The USA was “too productive” in farming. Farmers had so many crops that there were not enough customers to buy them. Railroads, steel, and textile factories were seeing profits fall as people began to spend less. Some government leaders felt the government should step in to intervene and try to “fix” the economy, particularly the impending problems in the farming industry. Legislators tried to pass the McNary-Haugen Bill. The plan was that the government would buy food and then sell it. President Calvin Coolidge vetoed the bill. He was a Republican who believed in a hands off “laissez faire” government and trickledown economics. He asserted the private market should work out problems without the government’s involvement. When farmers fell behind on loan payments to their banks, the banks foreclosed on many farmers and seized their property.
Stocks began to fall in value dramatically in 1929. Instead of a healthy Bull Market, the market became an unhealthy Bear Market, meaning stocks were falling in prices and investors were not reaping profits. Many people panicked and moved their money out of banks. On “Black Tuesday,” October 29, 1929, as stocks fell, many tried to sell their stock. Yet, it was too late. Virtually nobody wanted to buy the stocks. Since many investors had practiced “buying on margin” they were left in a financial mess. Now, their stocks had dropped in value and they could not pay back the money they borrowed to buy the stocks. Unemployment exploded, inflation grew, and businesses closed. By the 1930s, thousands of banks failed and had closed. If you had money in these banks, you were not guaranteed to get anything back. Many people lost all the money they had in bank accounts. 25% of the nation became unemployed. This crushed the world markets as well.
What is inside this lesson plan?
US History Lesson Plans Include
1) Bell ringer / opening activity
2) PowerPoint presentation
3) Guided notes worksheet for PowerPoint presentation
4) Bonus worksheet (vocabulary, crosswords, word search, etc.)
5) Daily quiz / assessment – exit slip!
6) Content reading handout
7) Compatible with ALL textbooks
8) Answer keys for all worksheets, handouts, & assessments
9) Editable documents (word, PowerPoint, etc.)
10) PDF copies for easy viewing & printing
11) Aligned to national standards
12) Works with Unit or as a stand alone lesson
13) Other bonus materials (videos, extra worksheets, etc.)
Most of our plans include the contents of this list. Please see the photo above for actual contents. | <urn:uuid:5438237d-e71e-489b-b61e-da3ae164ee73> | {
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SEATTLE – Modern technology is coming to the aid of one of humankind's oldest endeavors: Farming.
That's because in much of the developing world farmers tend to air on the side of caution, using too much water on their crops rather than risk having their crops dry out.
"They still use age-old ideas about how much water plants need, and they're actually overusing water," said Faisal Hossain, a researcher in the University of Washington's Civil Engineering Department.
Hossain is developing tools for farmers so farmers can use just the right amount of water.
"If you use too much water, you actually lower the crop yield," Faisal said. "And two, you're also lowering the ground water."
By "mining water," Faisal said the ground water table drop, which makes it more expensive to pump the next year and the year after that. Eventually, entire farming regions can turn to desert.
The latest tool at his disposal is the Global Precipitation Measurement satellite. It’s the same satellite that was tested by NASA and University of Washington atmospheric scientists in Fall 2015.
Called Olympex, the satellite data was compared to a vast array of ground based instruments and research aircraft. It determines if the satellite was reading the volume of water in everything from rain to mist to snow accurately.
The joint U.S.-Japanese satellite is the latest satellite. Along with older satellites, it can paint an increasingly accurate picture of rainfall worldwide.
With less wasted water, aquifers can begin to recharge. | <urn:uuid:a3930023-56d0-4c30-b7e4-2b35010f008a> | {
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Researcher Katherine Gotham recounts in a recent article the experience she had with a young man who experienced autism and also expressed suicidal thoughts, but did not indicate any of the typical signs of depression. She notes that when he talked about killing himself, it was a very matter-of-fact possibility. He noted that if he did not achieve his career goals by a certain age, he would kill himself. Gotham recounts that she only discovered his suicidal thoughts after asking him directly whether he had ever thought about killing himself. She expected him to say no because of his overall behavior. Some autistic individuals may think in such a rigid and black-and-white paradigm that suicide is essentially a possible life choice rather than an emotional response. That isn’t to say that suicidal thoughts are completely detached from emotions. They are not. Even in the young man’s case Gotham noted that there were a number of external factors in his life that could contribute to depression, but it does mean that an individual may not express these thoughts emotionally. | <urn:uuid:1de4ecd5-149d-41d8-8384-521361bebd5b> | {
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VOA – Philadelphia, Home of American Independence
The first stop for many tourists to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania is Independence Hall — the place where the founding fathers met to discuss and write the Declaration of Independence.
“People want to come to see the birthplace of the United States,” Bill Caughlin said. Caughlin is a ranger with the National Park Service. “This is it. It all starts right here (in Philadelphia). I think what attracts people the most is the fact that we are a nation that is founded on ideals, on equality and freedom. And I think that attracts a lot of people from around the world. They want to come and see that room where that Declaration of Independence came out of.”
And those ideals are memorialized not just in that declaration, but also elsewhere along Independence Mall. Actors dressed as key early American patriots — George Washington, Ben Franklin — add to the historic ambience, and talk to tourists. Famous relics and sites such as the Liberty Bell, Carpenters’ Hall, and the house where legends says seamstress Betsy Ross sewed the first American flag attract more than three million visitors to Philadelphia each year.
The Liberty Bell was rung on July 8th, 1776 to summon Philadelphians to hear the first public reading of the Declaration of Independence. In 1846, after a tiny crack expanded to the point that the bell could not be rung, it was removed from the Independence Hall tower and put on display.
“It’s such a powerful symbol, really, I see that on a regular basis. The bell, by the time it did crack, was already an important relic from the time of independence,” Caughlin explains. “But also would become a symbol of freedom for people in the United States, pretty soon around the world.”
And more people from the United States and around the world visit Philadelphia for the 4th of July holiday than at any other time of the year.
“July 4th is our time to shine here!” Caughlin proudly proclaims. | <urn:uuid:222643d8-4ae3-4f43-99cd-f9ede9672813> | {
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Mercury Chelation to Treat Autism
This study will examine whether DMSA, an oral chelating agent that removes mercury and other metals from the body, is beneficial for children with autism. DMSA is commonly used to treat autism, although it has never been tested in a controlled study and there is no proof that it helps children with the disorder. Support for its use is based on single-case reports of benefits of chelation with DMSA. This study will help determine whether or not DMSA is useful for treating autism.
Children between 4 and 10 years of age with autism spectrum disorder who weigh at least 33 pounds, who have detectable, but not toxic, levels of mercury or lead in the blood, and who have not previously received chelation therapy may be eligible for this study.
Participants complete a medical history, behavioral and psychological assessment and physical examination. Blood, hair, urine and stool samples are collected for testing.
Because DMSA can remove minerals the body needs, such as zinc and iron, as well as the toxic lead and mercury, participants take a daily multivitamin supplement starting 1 month before beginning chelation therapy and continuing for the duration of treatment. After 1 month of the supplementation regimen, the children are assigned to receive DMSA or placebo for 12 weeks, divided into six 2-week cycles. They take the assigned drug 3 times a day on days 1, 2 and 3 of each cycle and continue the multivitamin every day.
The children are seen in the clinic immediately before and after the first, third and sixth cycles. At each checkup, the parent or guardian answers a set of questions about the child's autism symptoms, physical health and medication side effects. Blood, urine and stool samples are collected for laboratory testing.
Child Development Disorders, Pervasive
|Study Design:||Allocation: Randomized
Endpoint Classification: Safety/Efficacy Study
Intervention Model: Parallel Assignment
Primary Purpose: Treatment
|Official Title:||An Investigation of the Efficacy of Mercury Chelation as a Treatment for Autism Spectrum Disorder|
- Improvement in social reciprocity.
- Improvement in language skills, decrease in blood mercury levels.
|Study Start Date:||September 2006|
|Estimated Study Completion Date:||March 2007|
Chelation of metals is widely used in the community to treat individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), with some surveys estimating that 1 in 12 children with autism have undergone chelation. This widespread use reflects the hypothesis that many cases of ASD are caused by exposure to thimerosal, an ethylmercury-based compound used previously in the US as a vaccine preservative for routine childhood immunizations. The prevalent use of chelation therapy stands in stark contrast with the lack of scientific or clinical evidence of efficacy, and creates a public health imperative for empiric data. Thus we propose a controlled trial of the effects of chelation on the core behavioral symptoms and overall functioning of children with ASD. The present investigation is a double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled study of the oral chelating agent meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA; succimer) among 120 children, ages four to ten years, who meet criteria for ASD. Pre- and post-treatment behavioral ratings will be used to evaluate the efficacy of chelation. In addition, children will undergo comprehensive medical history, physical examination and laboratory analyses.
Our objective is to quantify differences in behavioral functioning between the chelation treatment group and the placebo control group. Analysis of mercury levels before and during the course of treatment will be used to confirm the expected DMSA-induced excretion of mercury and to identify differences among children in the extent of excretion. Our primary hypothesis is that, on average and relative to the control group, children with ASD who undergo chelation with DMSA will show greater improvements in communication and social behavior.
Please refer to this study by its ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT00376194
|United States, Maryland|
|National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), 9000 Rockville Pike|
|Bethesda, Maryland, United States, 20892| | <urn:uuid:ef86f860-bdc2-49b8-895d-53d5506e7fd3> | {
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Lake Superior Feeling the Heat: Climate Change and the Great Lakes of North America47.0N 86.3W
The Great Lakes are feeling the heat from climate change. As the world’s largest freshwater system warms, it is poised to systematically alter life for local wildlife and the tribes that depend on it, and the warming could also provide a glimpse of what is happening on a more global level.
Total ice cover on Lake Superior (center), which is the largest, deepest and coldest of the five lakes, has shrunk by about 20 percent over the past 37 years. Though the change has made for longer, warmer summers, it’s a problem because ice is crucial for keeping water from evaporating and it regulates the natural cycles of the Great Lakes (click here for more information). | <urn:uuid:df82d585-f421-467a-ac3f-8b0cc1ad277e> | {
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By Zoo P.I. (Zoo Private Investigator)
Hi there everyone, Zoo PI here with some insider knowledge about the workings of the Zoo! Today I will be discussing how we train Nigel, our African Serval. Nigel is used in the Zoo PI stage show, as well as many other outreach programs here on zoo grounds. Because Nigel is a special education animal he is not out on exhibit, instead he lives in a behind-the-scenes area where our interpretive center staff can give him special care and training. Nigel is no ordinary serval, he was specially bread and raised to be an education animal that can be around people and walk on a leash. It takes constant training and human interaction to keep Nigel used to people because he is still a wild animal.
One way we train and socialize Nigel is by taking him out for walks on our reptile-house lawn. In order to walk him we need two things; treat-meat (which is just stew beef cut into small pieces), and a leash. Once we have all the items required and a second person for backup we can begin the walk! Nigel is trained to sit on a stump and present his neck for the leash when we give him the command to, “station”. Whenever he does something we ask him he is rewarded with meat. Because he is always looking for ways to get a reward Nigel tends to do all of his behaviors as soon as we ask, and sometimes without us even asking at all!
Most walks begin on the stage where his handler will go through all of his regular behaviors; like stepping up onto rocks and stumps on the stage, and reaching into a clear plastic tube to get meat from the bottom. When he has done all of his behaviors it is time for Nigel to lead us around. First thing is usually to check out new objects within sight, such as trash cans, rocks, plants, sometimes the zoo’s golf carts, and the occasional spilled popcorn or corn chips on the lawn (lucky for us Nigel only has a taste for meat!). Once all items have been thoroughly investigated it is usually time for Nigel to mark his territory. There are several places that he tends to go and spray to let any other African Servals in the area know to stay away because this zoo is his! Before it is time to go inside, Nigel likes to eat a little grass and lie down under a bush.
When Nigel is ready to go inside he will walk to the door and sit until it is opened, then he goes straight home and sits on his station again to be un-leashed. Once again he is rewarded for all behaviors and with one final command, “Okay”, the walk is officially over. With a belly full of meat Nigel likes to climb into his heated bed and take a nice long nap until dinner, maybe dreaming of what adventures await him on tomorrows walk. | <urn:uuid:fa13eae7-d747-4044-b5b9-3fa410b2d131> | {
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HIGHMORE, S.D. -- Bruce Roseland runs cattle here in the heart of the South Dakota grasslands, in the same place where his great-grandfather ranched more than a hundred years ago. But today, when he looks out his kitchen window, the prairie that once reached from horizon to horizon is gone.
Instead, he sees neat rows of corn marching up to the edge of the blue sky, growing where not too long ago it never grew at all.
"Did we ask the Indians' permission to come out here and destroy their way of life?" said Roseland, who will be the last of the men in his family with the gnarled hands of a rancher. "Well, that's what's happening to us. Except it's technology."
The 10,000-year-old native prairie that once stretched from Saskatchewan to the Gulf of Mexico has become one of the most threatened ecosystems on Earth -- more so even than the world's tropical rain forests, ecologists say. In Minnesota and elsewhere, only about 1 percent of the original prairie now lies untouched, and every year across the Great Plains millions more acres of grasslands are turned into corn, soybeans and other crops.
This hastening transformation is being propelled by a perfect alignment of forces -- rising global demand for food and energy, advances in farm technology and, some say, federal policies that take the risk out of farming marginal lands.
Together, those forces are giving a boost to an otherwise lackluster economy, especially in the rural Midwest.
But conservationists say the country is facing the loss of a national heritage and an irreplaceable ecological resource.
These biologically rich grasslands and wetlands cleanse the water of great river basins, reduce the pace of global warming and support a web of life that includes thousands of unique plants, birds and other animals. In Minnesota, that concern has prompted a coalition of state and conservation leaders to launch an ambitious, $3.5 billion project to restore some of the rare grasslands the state has lost over the last century.
"If we went out there and cut down redwoods in California, we would have people up in arms," said Dave Trauba, who manages a protected state prairie in central Minnesota. "But we lose prairie every day."
Since 2008, the rate of land conversion nationally has exploded.
In just four years, some 37,000 square miles of grasslands, wetlands and shrublands have been converted to row crops, according to the Environmental Working Group (EWG) and the Defenders of Wildlife, which analyzed federal satellite images to document the change.
Minnesota and the Dakotas alone lost an area the size of Connecticut.
Of the Minnesota land that was once tallgrass prairie, only one-fourth is in grasses of any kind today, according to satellite data. And only about 300 square miles, scattered in remnants across the state, remains in its virgin state.
The change, said Scott Faber of the EWG, "is unlike anything we've seen in a generation."
The same transformation is speeding across much of the globe. Temperate grasslands have become one of the most threatened biomes on Earth, disappearing eight times faster than they are being protected, according to a pioneering study published in Ecology Letters, a respected environmental science journal.
The Corn Belt moves west
It's dry in central South Dakota this year, much as it is across North America. But this was always a semi-arid place, a region where people habitually talk about rainfall in fractions of a hundred -- like the "three-hundredths" of an inch that fell on parts of Jim Faulstich's ranch one day in late July.
The rain brought a faint blush of green and a sparkle of wildflowers to his tan pastures and perked up his fat cattle. But the nearby crops were struggling.
As he drove down the straight roads that form a giant checkerboard on the flat land, Faulstich pointed out fields of burnt corn and stunted soybeans rising from the dead grasses.
In recent years, new varieties of genetically modified corn and soybeans have allowed farmers to push the Corn Belt westward, planting row crops on land once better suited to grazing cattle. Today, that tough prairie sod doesn't have to be plowed, just planted. The new corn and soybean seeds are immune to Roundup; farmers can kill the native grasses with the herbicide, then plant right over them.
It's just one of the new technologies that have helped farmers conquer the dense thatches of grass that thwarted the original pioneers. But the climate in central South Dakota is harsh: Roundup killed the grass, but drought is killing the crops.
The natural events -- heavy spring rains and bone-dry summers -- that are a part of life in the Dakotas might have made farmers more cautious, despite the new seed varieties. But today federally subsidized crop insurance often means they get a payoff even when nature doesn't cooperate.
According to one federal study, the 16 South Dakota counties that experienced the greatest loss of grasslands are also the counties most susceptible to drought and crop loss. Farmers in those counties also had twice the insurance payments as the rest of the state.
"The greatest losses of habitat are in those parts of the country where the government is providing the greatest amount of crop insurance," Faber said.
Over the past 15 years, farmers in Minnesota collected some $3 billion in crop insurance payments, according to Faber's organization. Farmers in the Dakotas received considerably more.
A lifelong farmer and rancher who can name all the wildflowers that bloom in his pastures, Faulstich is appalled by what he sees happening around his pastures. But he understands it all too well.
Livestock operators just can't compete against the combined forces of crop insurance and high commodity prices. Around Highmore, they estimate they can make $50 to $100 an acre by grazing cattle; corn is fetching $300 or more per acre this year, regardless of how good the yields are.
"It's hard to argue with it from an economic perspective," Faulstich said.
To the defenders of federal farm programs, however, crop insurance is a vital safety net for farmers and the nation's food system; they say it plays only a minor role in farmers' decisions.
Record commodity prices, new types of seed and agricultural technology are far more influential, said Thomas Zacharias, executive director of National Crop Insurance Services in Kansas City.
"Yes, crop insurance is one of several factors," he said. "But the primary factors are product price, and you do have the progression of new crop technology."
A changing landscape
Those forces already have altered the landscape in Minnesota, where most native prairie disappeared decades ago. Now they are transforming the land around Highmore.
Not too long ago, most of South Dakota was sea of grass that changed colors with the seasons, dotted with the "prairie potholes" that give the region its name -- ponds and wetlands filled with ducks and white egrets. Today, only 60 percent of the state is in grass, according to data from EWG, and in North Dakota it's about half.
Faulstich sees the resulting changes every season. Local roads, he said, sometimes flood. Heavy spring rains, once sequestered by wetlands and deep-rooted prairie plants, instead pour off the cropped fields. Eventually the water, often carrying fertilizer, herbicides and pesticides, makes its way to the Missouri River, then to the Mississippi and eventually to the Gulf of Mexico's "dead zone'' -- an area near the mouth of the great river, now nearly 6,000 square miles in size, which is so polluted that it can no longer sustain most aquatic life.
More corn and soybeans means fewer birds. In the dry summer months, some of the richest soil in the world sometimes blows away on the wind.
These days Faulstich is telling his story in Washington, D.C. This year or next, Congress is expected to take up a new farm bill that could determine the fate of his way of life and, perhaps, the Midwestern prairie.
"If we need more corn and it's a level playing field, that's the way it is," he said. "But if there are incentives to make this happen - that's a disaster in the making."
'We love ethanol'
Brian Hefty, who is reaping the benefits of the new agriculture, sees things differently. He dismisses the arguments for preserving more prairie with a critical question:
"How much do you need?" he asked.
Hefty and his brother, Darren, are third-generation South Dakota farmers. They own 2,500 acres of corn and soybeans near Sioux Falls, and they run a chain of 34 stores that provide farmers in eight states with seeds, chemicals and equipment to drain their fields. Around the company's main office north of Sioux Falls, corn is now as common as it is in Minnesota. A handwritten sign in the window of the gas station down the road reads "We Love Ethanol."
The Hefty Brothers are widely known among Midwestern farmers as the blond and jovial hosts of "Ag Ph.D.,'' a folksy cable TV show where they teach all the latest farming techniques and technology. Their annual farm fests draw hundreds to workshops on topics like patterned tile drainage and navigating wetland protection rules.
In making the case for modern agriculture, Hefty shows a serious side that his TV fans don't always see. He also illuminates the deep philosophical divide between agriculture and conservation. Productive land, he said, is an improvement over land in its natural state.
"Don't tell us what we have to do with our land," he said in an interview. "We are trying to make it better."
True, he acknowledged, South Dakota is "pretty dry" compared to the rest of the Corn Belt. Still, farmers should grow corn here because the new technology and the quality of the soil allow them to grow some of the best corn on Earth.
"There aren't many places better than this," he said.
The latest advances in agriculture are also good for the environment, he said. Roundup Ready corn reduces soil erosion because farmers can plant with less plowing, he said. "Now I can plant seed without massive tillage."
And the new seeds, by generating higher yields per acre, mean less land has to be used to fulfill demand, he said. As a result, Hefty said, the United States has the cleanest water and one of the most productive food systems in the world.
"In a good share of the world, they don't care about the environment," he said. "They want to eat."
Today, that sort of gruff pragmatism trumps the simple grace of the Dakota prairie, says William Moseley, a Macalester College professor who studies food security and global land use. Compared to the mountains of the west and the northern forests, "it's not a charismatic landscape," he said. "A lot of people aren't motivated to save it."
Nonetheless, he and his peers argue, its environmental value is profound.
First and foremost, say ecologists, is water quality. The deep-rooted native plants and the wetlands act as sponges in the great watersheds that drain into the Missouri, the Minnesota and the Platte rivers. They slow flooding and cleanse water. In the right places, on hills or as buffers between cropped fields and streams, they also act a natural filter for fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides that would otherwise drain into creeks, streams and eventually the mighty Mississippi.
The grassy thickets and pothole ponds also provide a home for hundreds of species of wildlife. Ecologists often refer to the remnant native prairies as "an ark" for the many plants, insects and animals that are native to the Upper Midwest.
The northern plains that include Minnesota, the Dakotas and Canada are called "the duck factory," because nearly half the nation's wetland and grassland birds are born there, and many of those species are in decline. Many other animals are already gone, especially the large creatures like elk, bison and prairie wolves. Now, the smaller ones are at risk as well.
And once native prairie is plowed, it's gone, ecologists say. It takes decades of careful planting and management to restore the complex web of life that includes microbes and tiny insects invisible to the human eye.
"When preserving wildlife, there are thresholds," said Joe Fargione, a prairie specialist with the Nature Conservancy. "You can keep species if you lose half or 70 percent" of an ecosystem. But if you go beyond that, you start to see losses of species. Compared to rain forest habitat, we may be closer to those critical thresholds."
Perhaps least appreciated, however, is the role grasslands play in storing carbon, which, when released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, is a major contributor to global warming.
Their vast underground root systems, which can reach depths of eight or nine feet, hold an astonishing one-third of the world's carbon stocks. That's almost as much as the amount stored by forests, according to the World Resources Institute, an environmental think tank. On average, every time an acre of grassland is plowed, it releases 60 tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere -- about the amount emitted annually by 30 passenger cars.
Preserving grasslands as a hedge against climate change makes sense, even after considering the environmental benefits of ethanol, said Jason Hill, a University of Minnesota professor who studies grasses and biofuels.
It will take a century before the carbon saved by burning corn ethanol equals the amount unleashed by plowing up the grassland used to produce it in the first place, he said.
Trading grassland for ethanol, Hill argues, "is going in the wrong direction."
A ribbon of prairie
A century after Minnesota lost most of its native prairie, the state and 10 of its leading conservation groups now want to bring some of it back. Last month, they announced a plan to spend $3.5 billion in the next quarter-century to buy or protect 2.2 million acres of grasslands along the state's western edge.
On a map, the area looks like the long-branched root of a Big Bluestem, only this one stretches from Canada to Iowa. It would include what's left of the state's native prairies, connected by ribbons of less bio-diverse grasslands and working pastures. Cattle and other livestock, they hope, can replace the buffalo that once played a vital role in keeping the prairie healthy.
But Dru Tosel shows what the conservationists are up against. He farms about 880 acres around Appleton, Minn., near the Lac qui Parle Wildlife Management area, one of the largest pieces of native prairie left in the state.
Much of the area has remained untouched by modern agriculture because it was viewed as unworkable. Ten thousand years ago, the glacier that molded the Midwestern landscape left behind millions of boulders, some the size of a Volkswagen Bug. But these days, that doesn't stop farmers like Tosel. Last year he bought a parcel of land from an estate, including 55 acres adjacent to the wildlife area that had never been plowed.
On a bright day in August, the former professional wrestler, wearing a Vikings-purple shirt, stood proudly in a monochromatic field of soybeans that reached up to his knees and out to the edge of the road.
"Everything you see in beans was native prairie," he said.
Tosel and his two sons and a son-in-law spent the last year pulling out cottonwood trees and boulders -- they filled 225 semitruck loads of rock that he sold for landscaping in the Twin Cities.
Their sweat equity, he said, has doubled the value of that land.
Nowadays, a lot of farmers own the excavation equipment needed to do that kind of work, Tosel said. And the young men in his family are ambitious. "They want to jump on it with both feet."
Protected areas like the 2,000-acre Lac qui Parle prairie are of no value to his community, Tosel said.
"How much land do they need?" he asked, referring to the few bird watchers and hunters who make use of it.
Appleton was a once-thriving rural town with a flour mill and families on every quarter section. But today many of the farmhouses are abandoned, the main street businesses are struggling, and the recent closing of a privately owned prison took another 350 jobs.
The state's prairie plan will just make it harder for young farmers like his sons to buy land to get started, Tosel said.
"I have to create opportunities for them," he said. "They are going to live here."
It's a familiar story to Pete Bauman, who works on prairie conservation with landowners in Minnesota and the Dakotas for the Nature Conservancy.
"America was founded on one grand idea -- private land ownership," he said. "That you can do what you want with your property."
That can, however, include leaving it in grass. Herb Hamann, an 83-year-old rancher in Clear Lake, S.D., just over the border from Minnesota, took a one-time payment in exchange for a promise to leave his 5,000 acres in grass even after he dies.
"That's the way I want it," he said. "If I ever get to the right place, I want to look down and say that land can't ever be broke."
The state's prairie plan, which the Nature Conservancy helped craft, is designed to leverage that kind of private interests by buying easements from landowners and allowing livestock grazing.
"If we are going to be more proactive about preserving the prairie, we have to do more about addressing opposition in local communities," said Tom Landwehr, Minnesota's commissioner of natural resources.
But time may be running out.
Last month, as Tosel stood at the juncture of his new soybean field, a cornfield and a prairie, he pulled out his phone to check the day's commodity prices. Corn closed at $7.46 a bushel, soybeans at $16.46.
This year he plans to break another 23 acres of native prairie.
Josephine Marcotty • 612-673-7394 | <urn:uuid:41b81904-e6fe-41f6-bc9b-a9c954c561cc> | {
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Our familiarity with the story of the magi visiting baby Jesus makes it hard to hear the strange truth it discloses. And yet: we can sense the strangeness of this story if we retell it in a modern setting.
Imagine this headline: “Agents from Iran Sneak Past Jerusalem Authorities.” Reading the story, we would learn Mossad briefly detained the secret agents before mistakenly letting them go. Police cameras captured the men heading in the direction of Bethlehem. Rumors suggested the men wanted to bring a new king to power. Was this some new Shiite version of ISIS? Sylvia Poggioli would be on hand to cover the mood in Jerusalem: a city on edge.
Retold this way, we can understand why Matthew described King Herod and all of Jerusalem as frightened. The magi came from Persia, the rival power to the Roman Empire. King Herod stood as a first-line of defense against the Persians. And so Herod and the people in his court feared what might happen next.
What do we do with our fear? Herod’s fear led him to despotic paranoia. Just after our reading from today comes one of the most gruesome scenes in the gospels. Herod, afraid of a new king arising from Bethlehem, ordered his soldiers to kill all the young boys in the village.
Fifty years ago Richard Hofstadter wrote of “The Paranoid Style in American Politics.” Apparently it’s a style back in fashion these days. And it was the style of Herod’s reign, too.
Hofstadter drew a line through American history, connecting the episodes of “suspicious dissent:” McCarthy’s hunt for communists, turn of the last century concerns about bankers and European financiers, to earlier fears of Catholic conspiracies and Masonic plots. And in each of these moments, people gave voice to common fears, echoing in their own times the words of McCarthy, “How can we account for our present situation unless we believe that men high in this government are concerting to deliver us to disaster? This must be the product of a great conspiracy on a scale so immense as to dwarf any previous venture in the history of man.”
Some threats are real: our country did face an existential threat in the Soviet Union. But paranoia doubled the danger. As Hofstadter explained, “The paranoid … is afflicted not only by the real world, with the rest of us, but by his fantasies as well.”
Are we seeing the paranoid style returning again? In the last decade we’ve heard warnings of a dangerous gay agenda, then of a Mexican takeover, and now a Muslim threat; paranoia searching for something to fear.
Surely we have come to a paranoid moment when Speaker of the House Paul Ryan is suspected of being under Muslim influences simply because he grew a beard.
But we’re not called to be like Herod, with fear turning us to paranoia. Our tradition teaches something other than fear. We heard it in the prophecy of Isaiah: “Arise, shine; for your light has come.”
Isaiah spoke to a city devastated by war. Jerusalem, after a long siege, fell to the Babylonians, who sacked the city, destroyed the Temple, and carted away a generation as slaves. A Psalm gave voice to the misery:
“O God, the nations have come into your inheritance;
they have defiled your holy temple;
they have laid Jerusalem in ruins.
They have given the bodies of your servants
to the birds of the air for food,
the flesh of your faithful to the wild animals of the earth.”
The people of Jerusalem - survivors in the ruins and those taken into slavery - felt as if the whole world conspired against them and even high heaven itself had turned on them. Fear, anxiety, worry and paranoia were the horsemen of this apocalypse.
Which makes Isaiah’s words all the more startling. To a people scared, he promised:
Lift up your eyes and look around;
they all gather together, they come to you;
your sons shall come from far away,
and your daughters shall be carried on their nurses’ arms.
To a people justifiably afraid, downcast with worry, Isaiah encouraged lifting heads to look around: see what God is doing. Those carted away will return. The city will be rebuilt. Jerusalem shall rise again. At a moment ripe for conspiracy theories, Isaiah spoke of love over fear.
This love was not just for a few, not just for Jerusalem, but for all. “Your light has come,” Isaiah promised; and as a result, “nations shall come to your light.” In other words, God will restore Jerusalem so that Jerusalem can welcome others. Which is why the words from Isaiah start with a command: “Arise! Shine!” As one scholar explained, “This is not an invitation. It is a command. The light has not come merely to rescue a chosen few from darkness. The light has come so that others will be drawn out of the darkness into the circle of light.”
Isaiah spoke at one of the most fear-inducing times in the Bible. He did not stoke the paranoia. Instead he promised God’s love would overwhelm the fear. And then he challenged people who might normally and naturally be afraid to share that love. “Arise! Shine!” doesn’t mean that God has just chosen to love us; but that God has chosen us to serve others by sharing this love with all.
Christian tradition has long linked the prophecy of Isaiah to the story of the Magi. Isaiah promised kings would come with gold and in Matthew we hear just that happening. But I’m struck by the different ways Herod and Mary responded to the Magi. Herod, as I mentioned, responded with fear and paranoia.
We don’t hear Mary’s voice in Matthew’s story, but we can imagine her telling Joseph, “Don’t be afraid.” They welcomed their strange visitors from an enemy nation into their simple home. The Magi entered and gave their gifts with joy.
Mary had all the reasons in the world to fear. This visit happened just before Mary had to flee with her child because Herod plotted to kill him. She could have worried the Magi were just the advance team for Herod’s minions. An anxious heart could devise devious conspiracies. But Mary welcomed the Magi. She practiced love over fear.
Can we live like Mary? Can we greet the Magi in our lives instead of fearing people because they are different than us?
I think about this because I found myself visited by three modern-day Magi. The first Magi invited me to dinner. This year I didn’t want to make dinner on Christmas Eve; I planned to head out for Chinese. I invited some Jewish friends to join us. They turned my invitation into plans to come to their house for a Christmas Eve dinner.
My friends Jerry and Cindy belong to Lake Park Synagogue across the street and keep kosher in their home. (The fact that they’re kosher means I don’t bring any food to share at the meal.) Cindy greeted me at the door, “We decorated the table in red and green for Christmas. It was so much fun we almost put up a tree.” And so we had a kosher Christmas feast.
It was a gift of extravagant hospitality, in which friends provided what I most needed - a good meal, great company, and no work.
The second Magi joined us for the Christmas meal at Guest House. My friend Laj heard about our project. “What can I bring?” she asked a week beforehand. I hesitated. Laj’s practice of Hinduism led her to adopt a vegetarian diet. But we really needed an extra turkey.
She took on the challenge - a vegetarian roasted turkey. A few emails and three Youtube videos later, Laj came to Guest House with a perfectly bronzed turkey, juicy meat under the crackling skin. I’m still not sure how she cooked so well a food she’d never tasted. But I knew her bird was a gift of love to the men of Guest House.
I met the third Magi in a Panera. (What does it say about me that I only meet Magi over food?) Mushir, an area doctor, takes a lead for his mosque in connecting with other faith communities. I’d reached out because of the rising tide of Islamophobia. But what he most wanted to talk about was the Black Lives Matter movement.
“After the Tamir Rice decision,” he said, “we’ve all got to work with Black Lives Matter.” I asked if he’d seen the video. “Which one? There seems to be a new one every week.” And we started talking about Ta-Nehisi Coates and James Baldwin and what we could do as a church and a mosque about racism against African-Americans.
I’d gone to Panera thinking we’d talk discrimination against Muslims in America; what I found was a man whose heart hurt for the treatment of others.
My life and my faith would be poorer if not for the gift of my Christmas Magi. Fear and paranoia don’t keep us safe; they just make our world smaller and less rich.
But we need to do more than just welcome in our occasional Magi. We need to say to those gripped by fear, “I am not afraid.”
Last year we held the “Reviving Justice” event at Plymouth - a weekend of worship and education around issues of justice that brought together a diverse group of people, inside and outside of our congregation. This year I want us to do something similar, an event I’m calling “Reviving Peace.”
Reviving Peace will bring our congregation together with Jews, Muslims, Sikhs, and many other people to talk about issues that divide us, like Israel and Palestine, as well as all the things which bind us together. Through dialogue we’ll overcome fear. Through fellowship we’ll experience love. Through solidarity we’ll let our light shine.
Last month our congregation sent about thirty letters to the Islamic Society of Milwaukee as a show of support amid much of the fearful anxiety expressed about Muslims in America. I’m committed to working on our Reviving Peace event because I know we need to do more than write a letter. Let me know if it’s on your heart to do more too: we’ll need a planning committee and volunteers to make this happen.
Paranoia leads too many people to fear the other. And so I’m committed to sharing a different kind of truth: we need our Magi, we need people from other faiths, we need the gifts others bring.
Herod lived a paranoid life. It made his world incredibly small and dangerous. Mary lived with love. It made her heart incredibly large and open. This Epiphany may we live like Mary, casting out fear of the other and welcoming the Magi in our lives, wherever we meet them.
Alleluia and Amen. | <urn:uuid:bd290f8a-6879-4271-a182-e9615f09d9d0> | {
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Carl Jung on “Function.” Lexicon
A form of psychic activity, or manifestation of libido, that remains the same in principle under varying conditions. (See also auxiliary function, differentiation, inferior function, primary function and typology.)
Jung’s model of typology distinguishes four psychological functions: thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition.
Sensation establishes what is actually present, thinking enables us to recognize its meaning, feeling tells us its value, and intuition points to possibilities as to whence it came and whither it is going in a given situation.[“A Psychological Theory of Types,” CW 6, par. 958.]
Though all the functions exist in every psyche, one function is invariably more consciously developed than the others, giving rise to a one-sidedness that often leads to neurosis.
The more [a man] identifies with one function, the more he invests it with libido, and the more he withdraws libido from the other functions. They can tolerate being deprived of libido for even quite long periods, but in the end they will react. Being drained of libido, they gradually sink below the threshold of consciousness, lose their associative connection with it, and finally lapse into the unconscious. This is a regressive development, a reversion to the infantile and finally to the archaic level. . . . [which] brings about a dissociation of the personality.[“The Type Problem in Aesthetics,” ibid., pars. 502f.] | <urn:uuid:121bcedd-53fd-4136-9048-f3dae08c1097> | {
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On Wednesday night it was not colder than 25.2 degrees at Makkaur’s lighthouse on the Finnmark coast.It was the second warmest night ever measured in Norway.
July 9th, 1933 was the warmest night measured in Norway in recent times. Then, the lowest temperature measured during the night was 25.5 degrees. It happened in Halden in Østfold.
On Wednesday night this week, that record was almost reached in the municipality of Båtsfjord on the Finnmark coast.
Also at six other measuring stations in Finnmark and Troms,tropical temperatures were measured on Wednesday night.
Such a night is when the measured minimum temperature does not go below 20 degrees.
The high temperatures in Finnmark continued throughout the day.Lakselv was the warmest place on Thursday, with 33 degrees, followed by Berlevåg with 32.7 degrees, and Tana Bru with 32.4 degrees.
© NTB scanpix / #Norway Today | <urn:uuid:d297f59a-42a1-40c1-a661-171c9c98fe03> | {
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About the Photographer
One of the pioneers of Pop Art, Andy Warhol is known for destabilizing the division between consumer culture and fine art and for undermining conventional notions of originality. Iconic works such as his silkscreen reproductions of Campbell's soup cans and sculptural replicas of retail packaging—most notably Brillo boxes—adopt the mass-produced forms of consumer products in a deadpan manner. In other works, such as silkscreen paintings of legends like Marilyn Monroe, Warhol tapped into the growing cult of celebrity. Ultimately, Warhol's expansive practice encompassed numerous artistic media and merged the roles of artist, impresario, and businessman, as the head of a studio he dubbed The Factory.
Warhol's photographs were rarely exhibited during his lifetime, but the medium played a central role in his practice from early on. Throughout his career he made photographs in different formats and used photographic images as the basis for other works. More generally, he drew inspiration from the mechanical qualities of the camera and the photograph's inherent flatness. The 156 photographs by Warhol in MoCP's collection include examples of Polaroid portraits and black and white 35mm snapshots. These groups of images offer insight into the artist's working process and reveal his attachment to the camera as a means to create a visual diary.
In the early 1960s Warhol used the photomechanical silkscreen process to reproduce publicity stills of celebrities or clippings from newspapers and magazines. Towards the end of the decade he grew concerned about copyright lawsuits, and began making his own photographic material. Around 1970, Warhol was introduced to the Polaroid Big Shot, an instant film camera that he used thereafter as the starting point for a steady business of silkscreen commissions. With a fixed focal length and a built-in flash, the Big Shot was designed for portraits, framing a sitter's head and shoulders. Warhol's portrait sessions were systematic and repetitive, yielding a large reserve of raw material—up to 200 images per sitting—from which Warhol and his subject would select the best image for the silkscreen. He aimed to create an aura of glamour and often had his female sitters wear white make-up to cover any imperfections, a technique that yielded photographs that translated well as flattened silkscreen images. In addition to portraits, the museum holds a number of Polaroids by Warhol of male nudes and miscellaneous objects.
In 1976 Warhol was introduced to the Minox 35 El, a small 35mm camera, which he began to carry with him constantly. Recording his social activities, friends, and environment became a lasting obsession. For Warhol these photographs were not utilitarian material for art, like his Polaroids were. Instead, the snapshots comprise a visual record of his life during the 1970s, illuminating the ranks of the rich and famous and publicizing his inclusion among them. Warhol once claimed, "a good picture is one that's in focus and of a famous person doing something unfamous." He was largely indifferent to technique, and his black and white snapshots are deliberately amateurish and sometimes banal; it is not the image itself that sparks interest but the celebrity it depicts. Selections of the images were published in three books during Warhol's lifetime and printed in Interview, the magazine he co-founded in 1969.
These photographs were donated to MoCP by the Andy Warhol Photographic Legacy Program, which was founded by the Warhol Foundation in 2007 to increase public access to Warhol's photographs. To date, over 28,000 photographs have been distributed to university and college museums throughout the United States. | <urn:uuid:aa2f6933-ba97-4377-a8bc-9266d1a5a307> | {
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Free Multi-Leveled and Color-Coded Reader’s Theater Scripts
Three free, high quality scripts are available here: www.readerstheater.com/samples.html. The stories have balanced roles, are multi-leveled and color coded, and one each is available for Grades K-3, 3-5, and 4-8.
More Links For Free Reader’s Theater Scripts
Below are several links for free reader’s theater scripts to use in the classroom, if budget is not available to purchase materials. Remember, with free scripts you can modify and improve if necessary.
For high school students, a reader’s theater script based in Greek mythology:
Part 1- http://www.mythologyteacher.com/documents/ErosandPsycheI.pdf
Part 2 – http://www.mythologyteacher.com/documents/ErosandPsycheII.pdf
For Grades 8-10: A rhyming adaptation of “The Most Dangerous Game” by Richard Connell. To download, visit http://www.requiredrhyming.com/free-scripts-form/ and log in with your name and email address. | <urn:uuid:64f263e7-b927-442a-a9ba-dad3eb1976a5> | {
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The sport of powerlifting can showcase the limits of what the human body is capable of. And when done correctly, is amazing to watch.
But when the body is pushed to it's limits, sometimes it pushes back.
Off all the sports that push the limits of the human body, powerlifting may be at the top. But with heavy lifting comes the possibility of injury and some of the most common injuries are muscle strains.
Jeremy Woodward, Athletic Trainer with United Regional said, "What actually happens with a muscle strain is the tissue or the muscle cells stretch and when they stretch too far they actually tear. The worse the injury the more tearing you have of more fibers."
He says of the cause of muscle strains, "A lot of times it's a sudden jerking movement or if you do something like an inadiqueate or inappropriate lifting technique, the muscle fibers get stretched beyond their elasticity and there is a tearing at the cellular level."
Which is why he says proper technique is so important.
"Proper technique lifting, be it at the workplace, in the gym or your athletic venue, proper technique is really the key."
And if you do feel that you have a muscle strain, he says,
"Always rest initially inside the first 48-72 hours, try to apply some ice and do some very light stretching, maybe some light activity. Don't think if you've had a significant muscle strain that you can return to play at 100 percent the next day, so there is a progression with the healing process."
And if you ever have a question about the severity of a weightlifting injury, always remember to check with your athletic trainer.
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There are many differences between love and infatuation. Infatuation is an intense, "all-absorbing passion" (Random House Dictionary). It especially lacks all sense of reason and can be very short lived, leading to fickleness. Love, on the other hand, is more of a choice. It's a decision to continue to trust, admire, and stay committed to a person. It's a feeling that deepens through time due to choice rather than ends suddenly. Since the couple died an untimely death, we don't really know what their feelings would or would not have developed into, but we do know that Romeo's feelings for Juliet, as well as for Rosaline, were more of an infatuation. We also know that, while Juliet's feelings began as infatuation, her love for Romeo matured into real love.
We know that Romeo's feelings are more akin to infatuation due to the intensity of his feelings plus the suddenness with which he switched from loving Rosaline to Juliet. His feelings for Rosaline and his hurt over her rejection were so intense and all-consuming that he worried his father due to the fact that he had been seen staying out all night, night after night, and been seen crying each morning at dawn. This all-consuming intensity alone and any rejection of reasonable advice is evidence alone that Romeo feels infatuation rather than real love. In addition, Romeo confesses to confusing real love with mere physical attraction, another symptom of infatuation, when he first sees Juliet in his lines, "Did my heart love till now? Forswear it, sight! / For I ne'er saw true beauty till this night" (I.v.54-55). Even Friar Laurence believes Romeo has confused real love with infatuation, as shown when he declares that "young men's love then lies / Not truly in their hearts, but in their eyes" (II.iii.68-69). Even just before he marries them, Friar Laurence expresses the belief that all they feel for each other is mere infatuation by warning their love is likely to die just as soon as it has begun, "like fire and powder" (II.vi.10).
While Juliet's love at first is also all about physical attraction, the moment Romeo kills her cousin Tybalt gives her a chance to make choices and for her love to mature. At first, she feels she has been deceived by Romeo and that his beautiful exterior really houses a devilish soul. But then she decides that she should not speak dishonorably of her husband, simply because he is her husband. She then makes the reasoned conclusion that Romeo must have killed Tybalt out of self-defense and further decides to continue loving and trusting Romeo. This one moment of choice is real love, but Romeo never has a moment to make a similar choice. Therefore, only Juliet's love for Romeo is mature enough to be considered real love rather than infatuation.
Romeo and Juliet is a story of "star-crossed lovers." It is a demonstration of love at first sight, of obsession and passion. Remember, they are approximately 14 years of age, an age where all young people start to become self-aware and ready to explore all the world has to offer.
Even though Romeo is on the rebound from Rosaline, he is in love with Juliet from the moment he lays eyes upon her. She sees him watching her, and when her eyes take him as he touches her hand, they are lost in a love that is completely unreasonable by today's standards.
Young people got married at about the age of fourteen during that time. Juliet was instructed to assess Paris at the party and report to her mother as to her interest in marrying him. Instead she fell in love with a stranger. They were in love before they even knew each other's name. Their love was immediate and almost to the point of obsessive since they did get married the very next day.
William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet is more of a tale of disobedience of tradition rather than a tragedy of love. However to answer the question, after evaluating the timespan of which the events occured and the fact that Romeo seemed to be using Juliet as a rebound for Roseline, the play is a tale of infatuation.
Tale of love, some people might say infatuation but I think Shakespeare meant it to be for love he just wrote dratically within the play. | <urn:uuid:09bc6716-5bf0-4d80-a283-6b408392fc8e> | {
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***SYMPOSIUM — Tonight and tomorrow night only***
The Aztec Pantheon and the Art of Empire is currently on view at the Getty Villa through July 5, 2010. This exhibition represents the J. Paul Getty Museum”™s first display of antiquities from outside the ancient Mediterranean as well as the first exhibition on the Aztec empire to be organized in Los Angeles. Masterworks of Aztec sculpture have, for the most part, from the collections of the Museo Nacional de AntropologÃa and the Museo del Templo Mayor in Mexico City.
Among the most spectacular objects in the exhibition is a green porphyry sculpture from the Museo Nacional de AntropologÃa depicting the decapitated head of the warrior goddess Coyolxauhqui, whose death at the hands of her brother, Huitzilopochtli, represents the origin myth of the Aztec people.
You can see a monstrous 1,200-pound stone head of an Aztec moon goddess, as well as life-size statues of a warrior adorned with eagle feathers, a duck-billed wind god and a demon known as the Lord of Death. Created between 1440 and 1521 the massive artworks are among 64 sculptures, paintings and works on paper in this groundbreaking exhibition.
The Aztec Empire dominated central Mexico from 1460 to 1519, and tribute wealth poured into the capital city of Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico City), enabling artists and architects to create works of remarkable sophistication on a monumental scale. Under the ninth emperor, Motecuhzoma II (familiarly known as Montezuma), the empire reached the peak of its size and power. When the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés entered the Valley of Mexico in 1519, he witnessed one of the largest metropolises in the world at that time, a cityscape of towering pyramid-temples, floating gardens, and thriving markets. Motecuhzoma”™s splendid island-capital appeared to the Spaniards like a dream, compared only to the fabled cities of Jerusalem, Carthage, and Rome.
Confronting an astonishing civilization that found few precedents, Spanish conquistadors and missionaries frequently viewed Aztec culture through the prism of Greco-Roman history, philosophy, and law. The conquistadors”™ encounters with the civilizations of the Americas coincided with Renaissance Europe”™s rediscovery of classical antiquity. To many Spaniards, the Aztecs were the Romans of the New World. The Aztec Pantheon examines the unexpected contexts in which classicism prompted a dialogue between Mesoamerica and Europe in the 1500s-1700s, when parallels were routinely drawn between two great empires, the Aztec and the Roman.
“Although Greco-Roman and Aztec cultures are distinct historical phenomena, and developed in isolation from one another, Europeans applied familiar frames of reference to a New World that was largely unfathomable,” explains J. Paul Getty Museum Antiquities Curator Claire Lyons. “Bringing these monumental cult statues, reliefs, and votive artifacts to Los Angeles and showing them in the Roman ambiance of the Getty Villa offers an incredible chance to explore a little-known episode of cultural analogy: the dialogue between the Old and the New Worlds that was sparked in the age of exploration, carried forward during the Enlightenment, and which continues to be informative in the present.”
John Pohl, exhibition co-curator and UCLA professor, adds, “I”™m thrilled to have helped bring this exhibition to Los Angeles, a city with such a significant historical connection to the nation of Mexico and its people. It”™s long overdue and provides a unique occasion for a major institution like the Getty not only to recognize the sophistication of Aztec art, but to present it alongside the great artistic traditions of Greece and Rome.”
The Aztec Pantheon and the Art of Empire is co-curated by Claire L. Lyons, curator of antiquities, J. Paul Getty Museum, and John M. D. Pohl, adjunct professor of art history, UCLA.
The exhibition is part of Los Angeles”™s celebration of the 2010 bicentennial of Mexico”™s independence and the centennial of the Mexican revolution.
SYMPOSIUM — Tonight and tomorrow night only
In conjunction with the exhibition, a major international symposium, “Altera Roma: Art and Empire from the Aztecs to New Spain,” co-organized by the Getty Villa and the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA, will be held at the Getty Villa on April 30 and at UCLA on May 1, 2010. International scholars will address historical analogies drawn between the Aztecs and ancient Rome, the production of Sahagún’s Florentine Codex, and comparative approaches to the archaeology of empires.
In addition to the conference, a rich program of events including concerts, theater, lectures, family programs, adult education courses, and curatorial tours is planned. Enhancing the exhibition, an audio tour narrates the stories behind fifteen of the most significant objects in the exhibition. An interactive feature, available in-gallery and online, will allow visitors to explore the imagery and religious significance of two Aztec sculptures from the exhibition in depth. A permanent exhibition website in both Spanish and English, as well as extensive programming in both Spanish and English, is designed to extend access to international audiences
Visiting the Getty Villa
The Getty Villa is open Wednesday through Monday, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m.
It is closed Tuesday and major holidays.
Admission to the Getty Villa is always free, though a ticket is required for admission. Tickets can be ordered in advance, or on the day of your visit, here or by calling (310) 440-7300.  Parking is $15 per car, but free after 5pm for evening events. Groups of 15 or more must make reservations by phone. For more information, call 310-440-7300 (English or Spanish); 310-440-7305 (TTY line for the deaf or hearing impaired).
The Getty Villa is at 17985 Pacific Coast Highway, Pacific Palisades, California.
Additional information is available here
Sign up for e-Getty at www.getty.edu/subscribe to receive free monthly highlights of events at the Getty Center and the Getty Villa via e-mail, or visit www.getty.edu for a complete calendar of public program.
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Thyroid and Hair Loss: What You Need to Know about Thyroid Hair Loss in 2018
Hair loss is a common issue that people of all walks of life can experience. There are a wide variety of reasons why someone may experience hair loss that can span from lifestyle choices to genetics. Hair loss can impact self-esteem,and many people want to stop or reverse hair loss from happening. One reason behind hair loss is connected to the thyroid.
What is the Thyroid?
The thyroid is a gland that is a part of the endocrine system. This system is also home to the pituitary gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, testicles in men, pancreas, and ovaries in women. The role of the endocrine system is to regulate hormones the glands produce and secrete. All glands work to regulate growth, metabolism, and healthy function of the sex organs.
The thyroid is a small (about two inches), butterfly-shaped gland that is located below the voice box in the throat. The thyroid controls every cell in the body by producing T4 and T3 (thyroxine and triiodothyronine), two hormones that regulate the pace at which cells and organs produce energy from nutrients and how much oxygen the cells need. In conjunction with other glands, it works to regulate the function of the brain and nerves, heart, skin, eyes, intestines, and hair.
Abnormal Thyroid Function
The thyroid can become imbalanced and either overproduce hormones or not produce enough. There are many conditions and reasons behind why the thyroid may become imbalanced, leading to symptoms such as hair loss. Some of these reasons include:
Hyperthyroidism: this is a condition where the thyroid produces too much of the hormone T4, thyroxine. This causes the metabolic rate to increase significantly and cause sudden weight loss, mood changes, irregular heartbeat, sweating, and if left untreated it can cause hair loss. Hyperthyroidism can be caused by a number ofconditions such as Graves’ disease, toxic adenoma, Plummer’s disease, toxic multinodular goiter, thyroiditis, and too much iodine in the diet.
Hypothyroidism: this occurs when the thyroid is underactive and is not producing enough hormones to regulate the body’s systems. When the thyroid is not producing enough, it can cause several functions to decrease or halt altogether. Some symptoms of hypothyroidism include thinning hair, puffy face, unexplained weight gain, high cholesterol, fatigue, muscle aches, slow heart rate, and impaired memory. The most common causes of hypothyroidism areHashimoto’s thyroiditis (inflammation of the thyroid caused by the immune system), a genetic defect, surgery, certain medications, lupus, and type 1 diabetes.
Nodules or lumps: nodules on the thyroid can cause hormone imbalances in some cases. These nodules can either be solid or filled with fluid. Most thyroid nodules do not cause symptoms and require no treatment, but sometimes they can affect health by causing hyperthyroidism. Nodules and lumps should be checked by a doctor to ensure they are benign and that there is no cancer. In rare cases, there may be some symptoms of nodules such as pain in the neck, jaw, or ear.
Hair Loss Caused by a Thyroid Imbalance
Hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism affect hair differently. These conditions will affect hair if severe and left untreated over a long period of time. Hyperthyroidism causes hair to become fine all over the scalp and appear thinner. Hypothyroidism can cause hair all over the body to become dry and brittle, resulting in hair loss. How does this happen?
Hair grows starting at the root which is located at the bottom of the hair follicle below the scalp. The blood vessels in the scalp nourish the root which causes the hair to grow. When it breaks the surface of the scalp, it is pushing through oil glands that help keep the hair shiny and soft. The hair will grow until it falls out at the end of the hair cycle and begins to grow a new one.
When the production of T4 and T3 changes and affects the hair, it starts by disrupting the development of the hair at the root. Once the hair falls out it will be replaced with a thinner strand and then progress to not grow in at all if left untreated. This includes eyebrows and other areas of the body.
Since the process of losing hair is slow with thyroid issues, the first sign is hair feeling thinner overall. As mentioned previously, hair will only fall out in severe and prolonged cases. Luckily, hair loss caused by the thyroid is usually temporary and can be reversed or kept under control with treatment.
It is important to consult your doctor before starting any method of treatment and to ensure the problem is caused by the thyroid and why. Testing for thyroid issues involves a blood test to check for multiple hormone levels. Hair loss caused by the thyroid requires the thyroid to be treatedin order to fix the hormonal imbalance.
A method of treatment for hypothyroidism to take a hormone replacement in the form of a pill. This steps in for the missing hormones to balance levels and regulate the system. Hyperthyroidism is commonly treated with radioactive iodine. This causes the thyroid to be destroyed over time. The hormones are then replaced with hormone replacement pills.
Another method for treating hyperthyroidism is with antithyroid medication. Common medication such as propylthiouracil and methimazole work to prevent the thyroid from over-producing the T4 and T3 hormones. If the antithyroid medication does not work, then the doctor may recommend removal of the thyroid, and this will result in taking hormone replacement pills for the rest of your life.
Some people may want to treat the hair loss directly before the thyroid is regulated by the prescribed medication. In this case, minoxidil (Rogaine) may be prescribedto stimulate new hair growth.
Minoxidil is a common hair loss solution for those will thinning hair and minor hair loss. Since hair loss caused by the thyroid is primarily temporary, any of the treatments for your specific issue will surely help regrow a head full of hair. | <urn:uuid:d4105d45-5240-4373-9f39-82b5dca512b9> | {
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There is a lot of discussion at the moment about the health effects of sugar consumption but have you thought about where your sugar comes from and what impact growing sugar has on the people and environment where it is produced? Sugarcane is an economically important crop for many Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries that benefit from high production potential, low costs of production and proximity, and access to European markets.
Significant expansion of this “high impact” crop is likely to have major impacts on agricultural land use and water resources, livelihoods, food security and ecosystem services, whilst potentially providing major infrastructure and economic benefits.
As part of a Belmont Forum funded project, we conducted a systematic review of scientific evidence and combined this with information from key informants, stakeholders and a research-industry workshop. We critically assessed the impacts of sugarcane development on water, soil and air quality, employment, food security and human health.
There are numerous examples where the water, social and environmental impacts of cane production are directly dependent on the quality of scheme, nature of the production system and farm management. Good agricultural management practices can reduce losses of herbicide, nutrients and atmospheric pollutants; carbon sequestration can be increased; and the impacts of burning can be significantly reduced when the crop is harvested “green”. In short, our analysis showed that sugarcane production is, in general, neither explicitly good nor bad, sustainable nor unsustainable.
This suggests a critical role for multi-disciplinary, multi-scale analysis and planning as a foundation for any further expansion of the sector – an approach that is intrinsic here at Cranfield. This type of integrated analysis will be particularly important in relation to both water and livelihoods within the growth or development corridors that are now planned in many SSA countries as a means to drive economic growth.
The impacts of expansion of sugarcane production on the environment and society will ultimately depend on the global political economy of sugar, the local context, quality of scheme, nature of the production system and farm management. Despite threats from a changing climate and trade relationships with the EU, agricultural development policies are driving national and international interest and investment in sugarcane in SSA, with expansion likely to play a critically important role in sustainable development in the region.
Our findings will help guide researchers and policy makers with new insights in understanding environmental and social impacts associated with alternative sugar economy models, production technologies and qualities of management. Sugarcane may not be everyone’s favourite crop, but it plays a crucial role in SSA, and if properly managed can bring benefits well beyond adding some sweetness to your morning brew. | <urn:uuid:a3c3d486-36fb-4607-9376-9a5f9e185103> | {
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What is the mask symbolic of in Paul Laurence Dunbar's poem, "We Wear the Mask"?
2 Answers | Add Yours
The mask in the poem refers to people hiding their true feelings behind a false expression. Specifically, he is referring to the cheerful face that so many blacks felt necessary to wear in front of white people. Inside, they felt the pain imposed upon them from their treatment by white people in the early post Civil War years. He indicates, in the third stanza, that they (the blacks) allow the world to believe that they are content but inside they are not. His words imply that blacks wear the mask of false contentment by choice because they know that their lives are made easier by wearing it.
We wear the mask describes how many people do not show their true emotions and hide behind fake smiles or faces. Many people hide what they feel behind a mask and do not let others know how they feel. In his poem specifically he talks about how African Americans in early days had to wear masks because they were not treated well by society and they were not happy with their lives.
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Join a community of thousands of dedicated teachers and students.Join eNotes | <urn:uuid:2501e3ab-fd74-479d-ba19-fe9e10d0f4a2> | {
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- Development & Aid
- Economy & Trade
- Human Rights
- Global Governance
- Civil Society
Wednesday, February 22, 2017
- With record numbers of forcibly displaced persons around the world, many were left disappointed by the outcome of a high level UN summit designed to address the issue by bringing together world leaders on the sidelines of the UN’s annual General Assembly.
During the first-ever summit on Addressing Large Movements of Refugees and Migrants, global leaders approved a declaration that aims to implement a more coordinated, comprehensive and humane refugee response.
“Today’s Summit represents a breakthrough in our collective efforts to address the challenges of human mobility,” said Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon in his opening address to delegates.
When the document is translated into action, more children can access education, more workers can seek jobs, and more people will have choices regarding mobility, Ban added.
However, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein cautioned against optimism, stating: “When millions of people see freedom’s invitation only through the flapping canvas of a tent; when they carry their children and possession on their backs, walking hundreds, perhaps thousands of miles; when they and their families risk drowning, and are kept cramped in appalling detention centres and, once released, risk abuse by racists and xenophobes. There is no cause for comfort here.”
“The bitter truth is that this summit was called because we have been largely failing…it is shameful the victims of abominable crimes should be made to suffer further by our failures to give them protection,” he continued.
More than 65 million people around the world have been forced to flee their homes, a population equivalent to the 21st largest country. According to a report by Save the Children, this imaginary country would have the fastest growing population in the world, rank nearly last in school attendance, and have alarmingly high rates of child marriage.
Numerous refugees themselves took part in the Summit, urging member states to act in light of such dire circumstances.
Addressing the summit was Yazidi human rights activist Nadia Murad Basee Taha who was one of over 5,000 Yazidi women enslaved by Islamic State. Once Murad escaped, she found her way to Germany as a refugee.
“You must know as leaders that whatever you do will impact either positively or negatively on the lives of simple people…you are the ones to decide whether another girl in another part of the world will be able to live a simple life or live in suffering and bondage,” she told attendees. “You and your families are not the only ones to deserve life, we deserve life too.”
Syrian refugee and Team Coordinator for Syrian Volunteers in the Netherlands (SYVNL) Mohammed Badran particularly highlighted the need to enhance access to education and other opportunities in order for refugees to rebuild their lives and contribute back to society. “If today world leaders are unable to find a solution for the Syrian crisis and the refugee crisis, then this summit is no different from the rest,” he said.
Many organisations simply saw the summit as no different to business as usual, calling it a “missed opportunity” and especially expressing their disappointment in the outcome document.
The initial draft of the Declaration proposed a global compact with clear commitments including resettling 10 percent of the world’s refugees annually and providing refugee children with education within 30 days. Upon negotiations however, this language was stripped in the final document adopted on Monday, ridding states of any obligation to welcome and educate refugees. Additionally, the international community delayed any form of agreement to a Global Compact until 2018.
“Instead of demonstrating that leadership and stepping up to take responsibility, [governments] have merely kicked the can down the road and put off a decision and a commitment to later and that is a tragic shame, particularly for the 21 million refugees around the world who have been waiting for action by the international community,” Amnesty International USA’s Interim Executive Director Margaret Huang told IPS.
Speaking to IPS, Oxfam International’s Executive Director Winnie Byanyima echoed a similar sentiment, stating: “What we got here are no concrete commitments to address this problem. What we got here was just some flowery language.”
Byanyima particularly pointed to richer nations as failing to share global responsibility.
According to an Oxfam analysis, six of the wealthiest countries only host 9 percent of refugees, including Japan which accepted a mere 27 refugees in 2015. This has left poorer countries in the Global South to bear the burden.
For instance, Lebanon is host to over 1 million Syrian refugees, amounting to almost a quarter of their population. Lebanese Prime Minister Tammam Salam expressed his dismay at the numbers, noting that more Syrians are born in Lebanon than are being resettled in other countries. “It is unthinkable that Lebanon could, alone, cope with an existential challenge of such proportion…when is the world going to do something for Lebanon?” he asked delegates. Similarly, Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, whose country hosts almost 2 million Afghan refugees, also noted the disproportionate burden of global displacement that has fallen on such developing nations.
Though U.S. President Obama announced plans to increase refugee resettlement to 110,000, Huang told IPS that his pledge is just a “drop in the bucket.” The UN Refugee Agency has estimated that more than 1.1 million refugees would need resettlement in 2016.
Byanyima also noted the lack of commitment to financially supporting refugee-hosting nations.
According to the Office for the Coordination for Humanitarian Affairs, only 39 percent of UN aid appeals are funded. This includes a refugee appeal from South Sudan which is funded at 19 percent, while Yemen and Syria’s regional refugee response plans are funded at 22 and 49 percent.
Human Rights Watch’s Refugee Program Director Bill Frelick told IPS that the lack of international support is further straining countries, causing them to push refugees back.
He pointed to Kenya which announced in May that it will close the Dadaab refugee camp, the largest refugee camp in the world, partly due to a significant decrease in funding. Elsewhere, the Jordanian government has sealed its border with Syria, trapping over 75,000 refugees with no access to humanitarian assistance.
“The Kenyas and Thailands and Pakistans and Jordans and Lebanons of the world should not be left to bear the burden alone—responsibility should not just be borne by those frontline states themselves, it has to be shared,” Frelick stated.
However, no such tangible commitment towards responsibility sharing was achieved at the summit as governments including Australia defended their restrictive refugee policies. In Australia’s case this consists of indefinite detention of asylum seekers in offshore centres in Nauru and Papua New Guinea., The United Kingdom argued that refugees should only seek asylum in the first safe country of arrival, further placing the burden on the Global South.
But some are hopeful for the future of refugees and migrant response. Save the Children’s Senior Director of Humanitarian Public Policy & Advocacy Bernice Romero told IPS that the summit did succeed in focusing the world’s attention on the plight of refugees and displaced people around the world. She added that the development of a Global Compact for equitable responsibility sharing by 2018 is the first step to what could be a meaningful process and action plan.
Others including Frelick and Huang are looking to President Obama’s Leaders’ Summit for more concrete commitments. Set to take place on 20 September, the meeting seeks to secure an increase in humanitarian funds, resettlement positions and legal pathways, and access to education and work authorisation.
“We cannot close our eyes,” Byanyima told IPS.
“They are falling short of human rights principles, and we will not stop talking about it, we will keep mobilizing,” she said. | <urn:uuid:91810838-2a06-4da4-a119-b2c1ffdf7298> | {
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Shows interactive maps of the planet. View the weather, radars, world clocks, cloud patterns, tropical storms, forcasts, and more. | <urn:uuid:67a2a78a-9e46-457e-ba88-bee9ec3234c7> | {
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Download the Fact Sheet (Updated 2014)
Download the Previous Fact Sheet (2010 Version)
Immigrants, Latinos, and Asians constitute large and growing shares of the economy and electorate in Virginia. Immigrants (the foreign-born) account for 1 in 9 Virginians, and 47% of them are naturalized U.S. citizens who are eligible to vote. “New Americans”—immigrants and the children of immigrants—accounted for 9.3% of Virginia voters in 2008. Moreover, Latinos and Asians (both foreign-born and native-born) wield more than $43 billion in consumer purchasing power, and the businesses they own had sales and receipts of $19 billion and employed more than 126,000 people at last count. Immigrant, Latino, and Asian workers and entrepreneurs are integral to Virginia’s economy and tax base—and they are an electoral force with which every politician must reckon.
1 in 9 Virginians are immigrants.
- The foreign-born share of Virginia’s population rose from 5.0% in 1990 , to 8.1% in 2000 , to 11.1% in 2011 , according to the U.S. Census Bureau. Virginia was home to 900,243 immigrants in 2011 , which is nearly the total population of San Jose, California .
- 47% of immigrants (or 423,345 people) in Virginia were naturalized U.S. citizens in 2011 —meaning that they are eligible to vote.
- Unauthorized immigrants comprised roughly 2.7% of the state’s population (or 210,000 people) in 2010 , according to a report by the Pew Hispanic Center.
- 9.3% (or 367,384) of all registered voters in Virginia are “New Americans”—naturalized citizens or the U.S.-born children of immigrants who were raised during the current era of immigration from Latin America and Asia which began in 1965—according to an analysis of 2008 Census Bureau data by Rob Paral & Associates .
Nearly 1 in 8 Virginians are Latino or Asian—and they vote.
- The Latino share of Virginia’s population grew from 2.6% in 1990 , to 4.7% in 2000 , to 8% (or 648,793 people) in 2011 . The Asian share of the population grew from 2.5% in 1990 , to 3.7% in 2000 , to 5.6% (or 455,242 people) in 2011 , according to the U.S. Census Bureau.
- Latinos comprised 2.0% (or 48,000) of Virginia voters in the 2008 elections, and Asians 3.7% (or 136,000), according to the U.S. Census Bureau .
- In Virginia, 88.3% of children with immigrant parents were U.S. citizens in 2009 , according to data from the Urban Institute.
- In 2009 , 88.4% of children in Asian families in Virginia were U.S. citizens, as were 90.7% of children in Latino families.
Latino and Asian entrepreneurs and consumers add billions of dollars and tens-of-thousands of jobs to Virginia’s economy.
- The 2012 purchasing power of Virginia’s Latinos totaled $19.5 billion—an increase of 801% since 1990. Asian buying power totaled $23.5 billion—an increase of 811% since 1990, according to the Selig Center for Economic Growth at the University of Georgia.
- Virginia’s 44,575 Asian-owned businesses had sales and receipts of $13.2 billion and employed 92,141 people in 2007, the last year for which data is available. The state’s 28,578 Latino-owned businesses had sales and receipts of $5.9 billion and employed 34,177 people in 2007, according to the U.S. Census Bureau’s Survey of Business Owners.
Immigrants are essential to Virginia’s economy as workers.
- Immigrants comprised 14.6% of the state’s workforce (or 624,635 workers) in 2011 , according to the U.S. Census Bureau.
- Unauthorized immigrants comprised 3.9% of the state’s workforce (or 160,000 workers) in 2010 , according to a report by the Pew Hispanic Center.
- If all unauthorized immigrants were removed from Virginia, the state would lose $11.2 billion in economic activity, $5.5 billion in gross state product, and approximately 62,918 jobs, even accounting for adequate market adjustment time, according to a report by the Perryman Group .
Unauthorized immigrants pay taxes.
- Unauthorized immigrants in Virginia paid $183 million in state and local taxes in 2010 , including $109.6 million in sales taxes, $58 million in state income taxes, and $15.5 million in property taxes, according to data from the Institute for Taxation and Economic Policy.
- Were unauthorized immigrants in Virginia to have legal status, they would pay $260 million in state and local taxes, including $115.1 million in sales taxes, $127.7 million in state income taxes, and $16.8 million in property taxes.
Immigrants are integral to Virginia’s economy as students.
- Virginia’s 15,169 foreign students contributed $405.5 million to the state’s economy in tuition, fees, and living expenses for the 2011-2012 academic year, according to NAFSA: Association of International Educators .
Naturalized citizens excel educationally.
- In Virginia, 48.8% of foreign-born persons who were naturalized U.S. citizens in 2011 had a bachelor’s or higher degree, compared to 33.5% of noncitizens. At the same time, only 10.4% of naturalized citizens lacked a high-school diploma, compared to 27.1% of noncitizens.
- The number of immigrants in Virginia with a college degree increased by 91.1% between 2000 and 2011, according to data from the Migration Policy Institute.
- 41.2% of Virginia’s foreign-born population age 25 and older had a bachelor’s or higher degree in 2011 , compared to 34.1% of native-born persons age 25 and older.
- In Virginia, 86.6% of children with immigrant parents were considered “English proficient” as of 2009 , according to data from the Urban Institute.
- The English proficiency rate among Asian children in Virginia was 86.6%, while for Latino children it was 84.9%, as of 2009 .
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ET v. Shadow Life
Why is this important? Well, because they are neighbours in the periodic table, arsenic shares many chemical properties as phosphorous, and phosphorous is an essential element for life as we know it: amongst other things, it is at the heart of molecules that store and transfer energy, and helps to form the backbone of RNA and DNA. Arsenic is a poison to many organisms because it interferes with phosphorous biochemistry, but although the bonds it forms are weaker, it could also substitute for phosphorous; in other words, there may be organisms with biochemistries based on arsenic rather than phosphorous, forming a shadow biosphere in parallel with our own. Several of the scientists mentioned in NASA's note have been searching for signatures of that shadow biosphere like that, in places like Mono Lake, California, which have higher than average concentrations of arsenic. If they've found evidence for it, there are all kinds of implications, not least that life may have evolved more than once on Earth. And that's genuinely exciting.
By the way, I published a short story about searching for a shadow biosphere last year. 'Shadow Life' is still online, at Discover magazine's site. Read it now, before science overtakes it tomorrow! | <urn:uuid:daf9c729-184b-4cb1-b4a8-7aebfb544607> | {
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Have you ever looked at an Admiralty Chart and wondered how each of the sea depths were measured? What about before the invention of echo sounding devices? What did an early oceangrapher use to calculate each fathom?
Prior to the early 19th century soundings were measured using a lead line system. A sailor would cast a lead weight attached to a line (typically made of hemp) and run the line through his hands. Some of the lines were marked and the linesman would shout the fathoms as it passed his hands. It was fairly common to place tallow or grease on the end of the lead to collect sediment.
The 19th century experienced a thriving chart-making industry, primarily due to an increase in ocean shipping and passenger travel. Around 1850, the first transaltantic telegraph cable was being laid with the goal to improve telegraph communications. The project required accurate depth measurements, as a miscalculation would lead to expensive dredging to retrieve the damaged cable. Around this time, there were a lot of different recordings for the same area of sea. This problem with finding accurate measurements led to many patented depth sounding devices being created. Many inventors changed the type of wire (hemp, iron, copper and steel piano wires were all tested). Further inventions used a steam powered wrench to haul the sounding line back reducing the time needed to record sea depth. Typically a line sounding would be completed within 3 hours and the ship’s position needed to be accurately calculated during the sounding process.
A few devices were widely adopted such as the Brooke’s sounding device, Thomson’s sounding machine and Massey’s sounding machine. Massey’s sounding machine was invented in 1802 and consisted of a rotor which attached to the line. The rotor turned a dial that allowed for more accurate readings to be taken. The rotor locked when the lead hit the floor. Massey’s device was often used in lake and shallow ocean readings.
Brooke’s sounder was invented in 1854. This device was widely used by the Hydrographic Office from the 1850s onwards (albeit with various modifications on the original design). Brooke’s sounding device consisted of a heavy lead weight or shot with a hollow core where the metal rod would be inserted. The shot was secured by a sling that released the shot when the line became slack. The metal rod would collect a sample from the sea bed. Removing the shot lightened the line and eased the process of retrieving the line after the sounding was complete.
Baymen was concerned that a slack line may leading to an inaccurate reading. He created a system with a heavy weight was used and this rested on the sea bed. The line was pulled taut until it broke.
Thomson’s sounding machine replaced the hemp wire with piano wire and set the line in a system of tension wheels and brakes (see below). The machine allowed readings to be taken faster and more accurately. Readings could also be taken whilst the ship was moving.
In 1874, Commander Charles Sigsbee made the Thomson’s sounding machine larger and replaced the piano wire with steel wire so creating the Sigsbee sounding machine. Another machine developed to provide soundings of shallower water is the Lucas sounding machine. This compact machine was patented and invented around 1874.
The Tanner sounding machine is a shallow water sounding device patented in 1899 by Zera L. Tanner. The Tanner sounding machine was created by modifying the apparatus available and altering the frame to use a metal frame instead of a wooden one. It also included a specially made glass tube to attach to the line for sediment collection. These machines continued to be used throughout the 20th century.
The sinking of the Titanic and the onset of WWI accelerated research into echo sounding. In 1919, French scientists were the first to successful obtain a line reading from echo sounding. The first commercially available fathometer was patented in 1925. In the 1950s, great progress was made in transductor technology and timing accuracy. This aided the invention of the Precision Depth Recorder which used a high frequency sonar pulse.
More Admiralty Charts covering Scotland can be viewed here: http://maps.nls.uk/view/101954960
We also hold a large collection of Admiralty Charts covering the whole world. From Table Bay in Cape Town to Jeju Island in South Korea, you can view these charts in out Maps Reading Room. We hold over 25,000 Admiralty Charts that our registered readers can view. More information about joining the National Library of Scotland can be found here: http://www.nls.uk/using-the-library/library-cards
Further information about the Map Library can be found here: http://www.nls.uk/using-the-library/reading-rooms/maps | <urn:uuid:97afbd40-d9f4-44eb-bb52-03a0fe55e6cf> | {
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examines the roles of the
Spitfire and the Hurricane, together with
the role of strategy, in the winning of the Battle of Britain and
tries to explain why the contribution of the beautiful and remarkable
Spitfire is often exaggerated
In the summer of 1940, things had never looked bleaker for Britain.
The British Expeditionary force - over 300,000 men - had been beaten back to the
French coast, along with tens of thousands of French troops, by the Nazi war machine.
They had to be evacuated from Dunkirk back to Britain, leaving their equipment
and many of their dead and wounded comrades behind them. In stoical
British fashion, this rescue by a 'little Armada of ships' was
represented as a victory.
In the Atlantic, merchant shipping carrying the supplies and raw materials
that were Britain's lifeline was taking a pounding from German U-boats
who were seemingly attacking and destroying their targets at will.
Over 100,000 tonnes of shipping went
down in just one month at the hands of the U-boats.
It was to be two years before Britain was to score its first major land
victory against the German army at El Alamein and three years before advances could be made in detection technology and tactics in hunting
for the German navy's 'wolf packs' of U-boats, rendering the seas tolerably safe for
Anyone looking out to sea from Dover in 1940 could clearly view the colossal
German armaments along the French coast 25 miles away and witness overhead
the daily troublesome Luftwaffe flights probing Britain's defences. Nobody doubted
that it would be long before the Germans tried to invade Britain and it was obvious
that, as a preliminary to such an invasion, Britain's air defences would
need to be destroyed and its Royal Air Force (R.A.F.) rendered inoperative.
In the mid-30s in the build-up to war, the R.A.F. had ordered 600 fighters from Hawker Aviation
and 300 from Supermarine, whilst the Nazi Luftwaffe had stepped-up production of the Messerschmitt Me109.
Designed by Willy Messerschmitt in 1934, and ironically originally powered by a Rolls-Royce Kestrel V engine,
the Me109 won a fighter competition in October 1935, although it
wouldn't have won any beauty contest. The Messerschmitt had a very cramped
cockpit, visibility was poor, the undercarriage was notoriously fragile and the plane was harder to fly than either of
the main British fighters. However, at altitude it performed better than both of its main opponents and
overall had similar firepower and capabilities.
Hawker's response to R.A.F. demands was to produce a plane built from traditional materials in a traditional way
based on the methodologies learned in the production of bi-planes - thus making its manufacture and repair relatively
quick and economical. Sidney Camm - Hawker's chief designer, was able to farm-out the production of components
and assembly so that large numbers could be built. The Hurricane was considered generally
more sluggish than its comrade-in-arms the Spitfire and it was a bigger plane
than the Spitfire, but it was tougher and able to withstand greater damage.
The Hawker Hurricane
Supermarine's ailing designer R.J. Mitchell had gone 'back to the drawing board' to create the first all-metal
fighter plane with a distinctively sleek shape and oval wings. The Spitfire's pedigree was
based on the Supermarine seaplane's ability to win the Schneider Trophy year after year
in seaplane races. Without doubt a beautiful-looking machine and arguably
more of a joy to fly than its chunkier comrade-in-arms, the Spitfire was to get the lion's share of the good press
in the ensuing battle, despite the Hurricane outnumbering the Spitfire in kills as well as
in the actual number of planes taking part.
Several other planes on both sides played a significant role in the ensuing battle,
yet it is these three planes -
the Me109, Hurricane and Spitfire that are identified as key to the events of that summer.
For Hermann Göering, then chief of the German air forces, the view from France in the late spring of 1940 was
decidedly rosy and clear. The Germans reckoned that they could destroy the R.A.F. in four days and the
British aircraft industry in four weeks. They had seriously underestimated the strengths and
tactical abilities of the R.A.F, their ability to predict and to respond to attacks and their
aircraft production capabilities. Göering's plan was to attack coastal defences and radar stations along the
coast. The Luftwaffe would then progress to attempting to destroy aircraft on the ground and facilities at airfields and to entice British fighter squadrons away from their bases
so that German bombers could wreak their havoc, whilst his fighters,
with their numerical advantage, helped themselves to the British
What Göering failed to recognise was that Britain had a number of advantages over the Luftwaffe.
They had RADAR and the Royal Observer Corps (R.O.C.), both which gave early warning of the approach of the German fighters. In fact, he seriously
underestimated the significance of these early warning stations and the sophisticated British command and control network and,
indeed, soon told his commanders not to bother to attack these. He was
also blissfully unaware that the British had a de-coding complex at
Bletchley Park which was able to unravel the German coded messages
within hours, sometimes within minutes, and so know exactly what the
German targets and tactics were likely to be.
Led by Chief of Fighter Command Sir Hugh ('Stuffy') Dowding, the British command and control network was based on an impressive use of ground to air communications and heavily-defended
and protected control rooms dotted around the south of England. With the aid of information from RADAR and the R.O.C.,
the R.A.F. had the ability to pinpoint exactly where the enemy were and in what numbers so that British
planes could be deployed accurately. This meant that the Germans were soon surprised by the apparent British superiority
in numbers and started to believe that their intelligence was wrong and that the R.A.F. had much greater strength than they actually had.
|Sir Hugh Dowding
|| Hermann Göering
At the same time, the German planes had to fly from their bases in Germany or France to Britain and often could spend as little as 15 minutes over the British mainland. If a German plane was shot down or seriously damaged, any survivors would most likely be apprehended
by the British authorities, thus ending that unfortunate airman's involvement in the future battle. Conversely,
R.A.F. pilots in similar circumstances could be rescued to fight another day. British planes could land and
refuel or reload their guns and continue their operations. British fighters could also,
relatively easily, attack unprotected German bombers.
The British didn't get everything
right. Some of their tactics were from the old school and soon needed
to be updated. Squadrons would often fly into battle in tight
formation, rendering them sitting ducks for the enemy, particularly
the 'tail-end Charlies' who were at the back and outside of such
formations. British pilots had to spend as much time trying to avoid
hitting each other as they did in scanning the skies for the Germans.
Fortunately, feedback from pilots soon meant that these old-fashioned
and deadly formations were abandoned. One successful tactic that
emerged, based on what the R.A.F. had seen the more battle-experienced
German pilots doing, was for groups of fighters to fly in pairs in close
formation. Another controversial innovation which ultimately proved
successful was the R.A.F' s 'big wing' approach, where several
squadrons (often most of the R.A.F' s strength) would all join up at
height at a rendezvous point before engaging the enemy in large
Although severely outnumbered and battle-weary as a result of endless
sorties that summer, the R.A.F. pilots also had psychological
advantages knowing that they were defending their own skies and that
their planes, the Spitfire and the Hurricane, were seen as
superior, feared and envied by the German pilots.
Far from being an all-British affair, the R.A.F. actually consisted of pilots from all corners of the globe - American, Australian, Belgian, British, Canadian, Czech, French, Irish, Jamaican,
New Zealanders, Palestinians, Poles, Rhodesian & South African all took part in significant numbers.
The Battle of Britain raged over the skies of southern England
throughout that late summer of 1940 - the Luftwaffe lost a total of 1,733 aircraft from July to October, the RAF 915.
Had he but known it, Göering was only 24 hours from victory at one
point according to British Flight Command. All our reserves were spent
and our pilots were exhausted.
Göering soon decided that he
couldn't cope with the severe losses that his bombers were sustaining
and insisted that German fighters fly alongside the bombers, and
obviously at their lower speeds, in order to protect them. This loss
of speed and surprise rendered the German fighter escorts extremely
vulnerable to attack.
Although the Germans' bombers were being
very successful in damaging the British defences and airfields, they
were under strict instructions not to bomb the same target on two
consecutive missions. This gave the British time and opportunity to
make repairs and get some planes off the ground even at the most badly
Incredibly, Göering (influenced by
Hitler's anger at Britain attacking Berlin in response to some rogue
German bombs landing on London) also decided that the
Luftwaffe were taking too much of a punishment from the British
fighters. He ordered his planes to switch their attention away from
the British airfields and towards the British cities. Whilst this was
bad news for the civilian populations of the industrial cities, this
gave the R.A.F. and the aviation industry a reprieve and a crucial
breather to re-arm and re-stock. It also meant that a German invasion
of Britain had to be postponed and that Germany was soon to turn its
attention eastwards - a decision which was arguably to cost them the
Some people claimed, and continue to
claim, that The Battle of Britain ended-up a 'draw' and that the
Battle had no real significance. This is utter nonsense. The criteria
I would use to decide would be:
1) Did the British succeed in stopping
Hitler from gaining air supremacy over the English channel and
countering the threat of invasion?
2) Did the RAF out-perform the
As we know, Hitler abandoned his plans
to invade Britain as he could not guarantee the safety of any invasion
force because the RAF still dominated the skies. The statistics show
that German planes were shot down at a rate of 2-1 compared to British
planes. The Battle of Britain was one of the most important of all
time and a 'clincher' in terms of keeping Britain in the war and
boosting morale. It was also a great testing-ground for tactics, men, equipment
and aircraft production that would prove invaluable later in the war. Radar and
the British code-breakers at Bletchley Park were heavily-tested during
this period and this led to the birth of the first programmable
The allure and beauty of the Spitfire has created a
reputation for it in many people's eyes as the sole reason that
Britain won the Battle of Britain. The impact and contribution of the
Spitfire was significant, but not any more so than that of the
Hurricane and, arguably, less so. Certainly, pilots of both planes are
on record as extolling the virtues and superiority of their particular
plane over the other. The effective use of both of these planes, the
British command and control network and superior British tactics
coupled with the German's misreading of the situation and errors in
judgement were, in my view, the main factors for British victory
in the battle.
What is clear and without argument is the bravery and skill of 'The
Few', so named by Winston Churchill because there were so few
air crew protecting so many British citizens. 'The Few' consisted of
2353 young men from Great Britain and 574 from overseas, pilots and
other aircrew, who are officially recognised as having taken part in
the Battle of Britain. Each flew at least one sortie with a unit of
the Royal Air Force or Fleet Air Arm during the period 10 July to 31
October 1940. 544 lost their lives during the period of the Battle. It
is as a result of their courage and sacrifice that Britain was able to
deter Nazi Germany from occupying mainland Britain and which
eventually turned the tide of war in our favour.
"Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by
so many to so few." - Winston Churchill
Many thanks to the Spitfire & Hurricane Memorial at Manston in
Museum - A FREE, FUN, FANTASTIC DAY OUT FOR EVERYONE
|This year, wing your way
over to the Royal Air Force Museum for a free, fun day
The Royal Air Force Museum is Britain’s only
national Museum dedicated wholly to aviation.
With a world-class collection and display of aircraft,
integrated with special exhibitions, films,
interactives, artwork, engines, missiles, photographs,
uniforms, medals and research and education
facilities, the Museum takes an innovative approach
while keeping with tradition.
While offering a detailed insight into aviation
technology, it also focuses on the people who made it
possible – from daredevil early aviators, through
wartime heroes, to the thousands of ordinary Service
men and women whose contribution shapes the world we
live in today.
The Museum occupies two public sites at London, and
Cosford, Shropshire. Each site offers a unique
experience to the visitor and the exhibits compliment
each other in terms of the history they project. Both
Museums tell the story of aviation from the early
bi-planes to the new strike-jets.
The London site is situated on what used to be RAF
Hendon. It holds over 100 aircraft in 5 aircraft
themed aircraft hall. Other exhibits include missiles,
paintings, film shows, medals and uniforms. Be sure to
see the Milestones of Flight gallery, with its
suspended aircraft, interactive plinths and time-line
The Royal Air Force Museum Cosford, is acknowledged as
one of the top public attractions in the Midlands. The
Visitor Centre, which includes a restaurant and
souvenir shop, is a perfect take-off point for a tour
of the Museum, including the wartime hangars in which
many of the aircraft are housed - a number of them the
only remaining examples in the world.
The magnificent National Cold War Exhibition, a
stunning new hall focusing on the Cold War story from
national, international and social/political as well
as cultural perspectives. This permanent
exhibition hall tells the exciting story of the Cold
War years with exhibits including suspended aircraft,
military tanks, interactives, films, and more. Learn
about what life was like behind the iron curtain!
We also hold exciting events at both sites. This year
events include Veterans day, D-Day celebrations,
Battle of Britain weekend and a Roald Dahl birthday
weekend. For more details you can click on to www.rafmuseum.org
or call one of the numbers below and speak to a member
of staff who will be glad to help you. So book a day
out to remember at one of the Royal Air Force Museum
|Royal Air Force Museum, Hendon
Grahame Park Way,
London NW9 5LL
020 8205 2266
||Royal Air Museum, Cosford
Shropshire TF11 8UP
0870 606 2027
|Visit the website for
Guided Battlefield Tours
Guided Battlefield Tours to First World War (WW1)
and Second World War (WW2) Battlefield Sites in France
and Belgium including The Somme, Ypres and the
Normandy D Day Landings
We are a family based company which is operated by
Steve and Susan Cocks. We operate a limited number of
battlefield tours each year in order that we can
provide the quality of personal service that is the
leading aim of our company.
Our First World War Battlefield Tours in 2010 focus on
: Recalling the Somme (3 days), Ypres Remembered (3
days), Treading in Tommy's Footsteps (4 days),
Chapters from the Western Front (4 days) and The
Campaigns of 1917 (4 days).
Our World War 2 battlefield tours in 2010 take us to
Normandy: Normandy and the D Day Landings.
Tel: 01633 258207
|See the website for details
Forces Sweethearts - 1940s singing duo
|Welcome back to the
Forties where you can get to know our talents as The
Louise graduated from Mountview Theatre School in
1996. After making her professional debut playing
Heather, in the BBC sitcom, 'Grown Ups', she went to
appear in 'Peak Practice', 'Band of Gold' (series 3) and
Brookside. Louise has also made numerous TV Commercials.
Her theatre credits include the D'oyly Carte Opera
Company's West End productions of the 'Mikado' and 'The
Pirates of Penzance'. She has appeared in the 'Little
Shop of Horrors', 'Escape from Pterodactyl Island', 'Yee
Haw' and 'Trial by Jury', all in London.
Louise also appeared for a season with the G
& S Opera Company for the Buxton Opera House, and a
very successful run as a tap dancing cow in 'Jack and
the Beanstalk' at the Salisbury Playhouse.
Deborah graduated from Mountview Theatre School
in 1996. She made her professional debut in 'Les
Miserables' at the Palace Theatre in London's West End.
Her other West End credits include, 'A Midsummer Nights
Dream', 'Troilus and Cressida' and 'Gentleman prefer
Blondes'. She also had a leading role in 'Forbidden
Broadway' at the Albery Theatre, London, where her
Barbera Streisand impersonation is still talked about
Deborah has worked extensively in regional
theatre, appearing in 'The Magic Flute', 'The Mikado',
'Toad of Toad Hall' and 'Pirates of Penzance'. She was
also lucky enough to tour internationally with
'Midsummer Nights Dream' to Abu Dhabi and Dubai.
For Bookings, information or Demo CD, please contact
Louise on 01260 - 290802
or email us at [email protected]
|Visit the website for details
Blue - offer a huge variety of Experience Days,
including Spitfire Flights, Dambuster Tours and Vintage
|Into The Blue - Spitfire
Into The Blue - Dambuster
Into The Blue - Vintage
|Into The Blue - Spitfire
Your chance to experience Spitfire flights from
privileged positions both on the ground and from the air
as you get airborne in a helicopter to fly side by side
these most majestic of Second World War fighter
Whichever of our two Spitfire flight activities you
choose, you can be assured that this will make for a
truly unforgettable gift for any fan of classic RAF
aircraft. It's also your opportunity to take some super
air-to-air photos of the Spitfire as she roars alongside
and past you in the skies above the Kent coastline.
Into The Blue - Dambuster Tours
A story of bravery and courage, this 'Dambusters'
tour will fascinate you. Venue Yorkshire, Sheffield.
Into The Blue - Flying and Sightseeing Trips in
Tiger Moth West Sussex
Biplane Flights Nationwide
Harvard Warbird Experience
Vintage Sightseeing Flights
Tiger Moths & Tanks Experience
Chipmunk Flying Lessons
Vintage Stearman Flights
|Visit the website for
Into The Blue - Spitfire
Into The Blue - Dambuster
Into The Blue - Vintage
- The home of 1940's retro
|Welcome to our
website dedicated to all lovers of the 1940's.
Here at back2theforties.com
we are dedicated to bringing you the best in everything
1940's. From retro clothing to music, gifts &
Our retro style clothes are lovingly recreated from
original period patterns and carefully selected fabric
and buttons, often vintage. We hope you will enjoy
your visit & welcome your ideas or comments on ways
to improve our site. Be sure to add us to your
favourites & look out for our special offers and
|See the website for details
History - Education - Information - Entertainment
- Remembrance - Respect
|Homefront History is
dedicated to keeping alive the spirit of remembrance for
the wartime generation. Our accurate portrayals include
civilians, the emergency services and Allied servicemen
We specialise in Police at War, civilian female and male
police officers and British Army Military Police (Red
Caps) , although we can bring together a wide mix of
Allied Service personnel, civilian emergency services
personnel and civilians including
We can provide re-enactors for staff, public and
private events, Mess and Formal dinners, educational
projects, TV, Film and Photography, Museums and Visitor
Destinations. Our re-enactors are also available for
special occasions, including 1940s themed weddings.
We have full public liability insurance, and
references are available upon request.
You can email us using [email protected]
Telephone Lo call (UK only):
Dial 0844 991 0084
Please dial 44 (0) 77 483 10996 from outside the UK
(standard call charges apply)
'Radio Telephone Number 077 483 10996'
|Visit the website for details
Belle - A high energy mix of 1940s song and dance- a
mixture of wartime and nostalgic songs.
|Johnny Victory and Frances
Belle's highly popular wartime tribute show 'Victory
Belle'. This show features music, dance and comedy
banter in a nostalgic package that is guaranteed to get
you singing along and waving your flag.
Whether your event is all day, a full weekend, a few
hours or a private party, Victory Belle can create a
bespoke service to suit the needs of your event.
We perform a combination of music from the 1940s
period, from the jive sounds of Glenn Miller to the
sentiments parted by Vera Lynn, to the daft, may we say
silly songs of the war, such as Kiss me Goodnight
Tel:07814 968 160
|Visit the website for details
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What is load factor used for in power system?
Load factor in electrical context is defined as the ratio between the Average Load of the electrical system to the Maximum Demand that it attained. This is factor is used to determine the level of difference between the average load to the peak load. Like the Demand Factor, Load factor is also expressed in percentage form.
Since losses increase with the square of the load current (I)squared and since the cost of losses is highest at the peak load periods, the relationship between the peak load on a system component and its average loading is important in any study of losses on that component that is why load factor is a key factor used to describe the relationship between peak and average loads and is calculated in the above shown formula. (TVPPA, nov.1994)
The ideal value for Load factor is 100%, this means that the consumed load by the system is just enough for the capacity to cater. Having a low Load factor means the system capacity is not maximized for the reason that the difference between the average load and the peak demand is high. This translates to the utility putting up capacity that is most of the time idle.
A certain mall which is a contestable customer was read with an average monthly load of 277.8kW while the maximum registered meter demand reached 380 kW. So, what is their load factor?
LF = (Average Load) / (Maximum Demand) = 277.8kW/380kW = 73.1% | <urn:uuid:ef244bd8-f7c5-4fb1-857a-78708bc222c5> | {
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Smithsonian National Zoo
Smithsonian's National Zoo staff and Panda Cam watchers have gotten glimpses of female giant panda Mei Xiang's cub. In this video, Mei Xiang very gently and dexterously positions her cub using her mouth, so she is able to nurse and groom it.
Anxious for a glimpse of the National Zoo’s panda cub? You could get lucky.
While Mei Xiang is being very attentive to the cub born Sunday night, Panda Cam watchers have gotten quick glimpses.
In a clip from Monday night, Mei Xiang cradles the cub and uses her mouth to gently position the newborn on her body for nursing and grooming. The cub squirms and loudly squeals.
That’s good news about the cub’s health, as is the evidence that the cub is successfully nursing.
Panda cubs are born hairless and helpless. They are at risk for infections and so tiny that it's not unheard of for panda moms to accidentally crush their young. For the National Zoo, which has only had one panda cub survive, the memories of past tragedies are real.
“This first week we are at 100 percent attention, watching to make sure she's taking care of her cub,” said giant panda curator Brandie Smith of panda mom Mei Xiang. “Every week that passes we become a little more confident the cub is going to survive.”
The zoo's first panda couple, Ling Ling and Hsing Hsing, who arrived from China in 1972, had five cubs during the 1980s, but none lived more than a few days. One of the cubs was stillborn, two others died of pneumonia within a day, another died from lack of oxygen after birth, and the final cub died of an infection after four days.
Another danger comes down to size. Panda mothers are about 1,000 times heavier than their cubs, which are particularly vulnerable at birth. The hairless cubs weigh between three and five ounces, and they are born with their eyes closed. The delicate cubs have died in the past when accidentally crushed by mom. That happened in two different zoos in China in 2009 and 2010 when mothers killed their young while attempting to nurse.
There are more routine concerns, too. Panda moms have to ensure their cubs stay warm and are getting enough to eat.
“It's kind of a nerve-wracking period for the folks that are monitoring mom and cub,” said Rebecca Snyder, the curator of mammals at Atlanta's zoo, one of only two other American zoos to have had cubs.
Atlanta has had three cubs, and the San Diego zoo has had six, including a cub born this year. A panda couple in Memphis has yet to have a cub, despite several tries. No other U.S. zoos have pandas.
Still, keepers and officials at the Smithsonian's National Zoo in Washington are hopeful. Officials said Monday that the cub's cries, which sound like high-pitched squeals and grunts, are strong, and Mei Xiang is also now an experienced mother.
Laurie Thompson, one of the zoo's half-dozen panda keepers, said that in 2005 it took the new mother a few minutes to pick up Tai Shan. This time, it was more immediate. The new cub also seems to be a little quieter than its older brother, an indication perhaps that Mei Xiang is meeting the cub's needs more quickly.
At this point, though, zookeepers have yet to examine the cub. Instead, they are trusting Mei Xiang's mothering and watching the pair on video cameras. They won't have a chance to examine the cub in person for several weeks, when Mei Xiang starts venturing out from the nest she has built.
While they're waiting to meet the zoo's newest addition, zoo researchers are going to be studying the pregnancy closely. Mei Xiang was artificially inseminated each year beginning in 2007 but failed to conceive five times. Scientists at the zoo worried she had become infertile and believed there was a less than a 10 percent chance she would become pregnant. Now they'll be looking to find key indicators of pregnancy. Those might be tied to eating, hormone levels or behavior.
Zoo officials will also be working on a name for the cub and waiting to find out its gender. Following Chinese tradition, the cub will be named after 100 days, on Dec. 24. At the time it will be about the size of a loaf of bread and weigh around 10 pounds. | <urn:uuid:b5f8106a-4670-4533-91db-dc5b717e3c17> | {
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Sound lets you see sound waves propagate through your medium.
You’ll use it to:
- Explain how sound waves are made.
- Show how sound waves move through a medium.
- Investigate what happens when you change frequency and amplitude.
- Relate sound waves to oscilloscope readings.
- Investigate the relationship between frequency and music notes. | <urn:uuid:82ac7c68-4b10-48d9-ab5e-e8b0eda6a88e> | {
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At just over a quarter of an inch long, the lowly spittlebug can nevertheless take mighty leaps to heights that can exceed 100 times its body length (see graphic).
Now scientists have uncovered the mechanism behind the high hops. Essentially it’s nature’s version of a technology the armies of King Tut and Genghis Khan would use to great effect – the compound bow.
Back in the day, a compound bow had a wooden core laminated with materials like horn and sinew. The different materials were located in just the right places to give the weapon far more release energy than wood alone could provide. For the spittlebug, also called a froghopper, the “bows” are part of its skeleton.
Researchers at the University of Cambridge in Britain and Nova Scotia’s Dalhousie University analyzed the bug’s version of these structures, called pleural arches, and found that they too are a composite.
In this case, the materials include a hard cuticle and a flexible protein known as resilin. As the bug gets ready to soar, its muscles bend the arch. On release, the froghopper launches skyward with a force that can rise to more than 400 times the bug’s body mass. And, the scientists say, it can sustain it’s “crouch” for long periods and make repeated jumps without damaging itself.
The results appear in the current issue of the online journal BMC Biology. Now, about that contract with Nike shoes. | <urn:uuid:b4798b95-ac75-44ab-936e-ae15d2238984> | {
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The electric (or even hybrid) car has been heralded as a way to help limit the amount of aerial pollution hitting the skies and our lungs, but a new study out of China has shown that they're actually even worse than regular gas guzzlers.
Top image: Asterix611 on Flickr
The study in specific looked at the emission of particulate matter, as opposed to the usual comparisons of greenhouse gases. What they found is that per person per mile, electric cars are worse than gasoline ones, but it's not immediately obvious because the pollution is happening at power plants instead of out of a tailpipe. Because so much of China's power comes from fossil fuels — primarily coal — the energy that goes into the electric vehicle is very dirty, and actually more polluting than just using a standard gasoline engine.
Diesel buses were around the same level as the electric cars, and diesel cars were the worst. But overall, what was the most environmentally friendly way to get around, per person, per mile? Electric motorcycle, a form of transportation that's been wildly successful in China.
By gathering the power for the electric batteries from more environmentally friendly sources, it's possible to sidestep this pollution problem, but it does raise a very important point about studying pollution: there's more going on than just what comes out of a tailpipe. | <urn:uuid:28cd5608-6375-42eb-be27-56371fa29974> | {
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When a Gorteria diffusa subsp. diffusa flowerhead fades, its long, spreading rays fold in from the sides, hiding the orange upper surfaces while showing their purple black outsides in proper funereal style.
The orange disc in the centre still appears as if some of its florets are involved in parts of their flowering cycle.
Some well-spaced, alternate leaves are present on the reddish, prostrate stems. Dark green and narrowly oblanceolate, the leaves have their margins rolled under. The leaves have sunken midribs. Leaves, stems and involucres are all very hairy on this plant (Le Roux, et al, 2005; iNaturalist).
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The Single Strategy To Use For Termite Control Best Method
Mosquitoes are midge-like flies in the family Culicidae. Females of most species feed on blood and a few act as vectors for malaria and other ailments. Historically they've been controlled using DDT and other chemical means, but since the negative environmental effects of the insecticides has been realised, other means of control have been tried.
Birds are a significant hazard to aircraft, however it is difficult to keep them away from airfields. Several approaches have been researched. Stunning birds by feeding them a bait containing stupefying substances has been attempted,59 and it may be possible to lower their numbers on airfields by reducing the number of earthworms and other invertebrates by land treatment.59 Leaving the grass long on airfields rather than mowing it's also a deterrent to birds.60 Sonic nets are being trialled; those create sounds which birds find distracting and look effective at keeping birds from affected regions.61.
Guidelines and legislation regarding the utilization, allowed methods of application and the storage conditions of pesticides and chemicals differ from country to country, often being legislated by each nation of land.
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63"Occupational Heath and Safety Regulation 2001 NSW pursuant to the Occupational Health & Safety Act 2000. Part 9.1" (PDF). 17 July 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on.
Taylor, D., The Complete Contented Cat: Your Ultimate Guide to Feline Fulfilment, David & Charles, 2011, p.9. Archived from the Original
Chrispeels, Maarten J.; Sadava, David E. (1994). Plants, Genes, and Agriculture. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. p. 452. ISBN 978-0-86720-871-9.
10 Simple Techniques For Termite Control Bait Stations
A b"The History of Integrated Pest Management". Cornell University. Retrieved 27 August 2017. Which cites Orlob, G.B. (1973). "Ancient and medieval plant pathology". Pflanzenschutz-Nachrichten. 26: 65294.
a b van Emden, Helmut F. (1991). Pest Control. Cambridge University view Press. pp. 14. ISBN 978-0-521-42788-3.
van Emden, H.F.; Service, M.W. (2004). Pest and Vector Control. Cambridge University Press. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-521-01083-2.
Flint, Maria Louise; Dreistadt, Steve H. (1998). Clark, Jack K., ed. Natural Enemies Handbook: The Illustrated Guide to Biological Pest Control. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21801-7. Archived in the original on 15 May 2016.
An Unbiased View of Termite Control Best Method
"Augmentation: The Periodic Release of Natural Enemies". University of Wisconsin. Archived in the original on 17 March 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
"Agriotes sputator L. - Common Click Beetle (Wireworm)". Interactive Agricultural Ecological Atlas of Russia and Neighboring Countries. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Wright, R. j (1984). "Evaluation of crop rotation for control of Colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in commercial potato fields on Long Island". Journal of Economic Entomology. 77 (5): 12541259. doi:10.1093/jee/77.5.1254.
Shelton, A. M.; Badenes-Perez, F. R. (6 December 2005). "Concepts and applications of trap cropping in click to read more pest management". Annual Review of Entomology. 51 (1): 285308. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.150959. PMID 16332213.
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a b Holden, Matthew H.; Ellner, Stephen P.; Lee, Doo-Hyung; Nyrop, Jan P.; Sanderson, John P. (1 June 2012). "Designing an effective trap cropping plan: the consequences of attraction, retention and plant spatial distribution". Journal of Applied Ecology. 49 (3): 715722. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02137.x.
Hill, Dennis S. (1983). Agricultural Insect Pests of the Tropics and Their Control. CUP Archive. pp. 45. ISBN 978-0-521-24638-5.
Georghiou, G.P. (2012). Pest Resistance to Pesticides. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 13. ISBN 978-1-4684-4466-7.
a b Carrington, Damian (29 June 2017). "Pesticides harm survival of bee colonies, landmark study shows". The Guardian. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Some Known Incorrect Statements About Termite Control Bait Stations
"Pesticides". National Institute of Health Sciences. National Institute of Environmental Health. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
Lieutier, Franois; Day, Keith R.; Battisti, Andrea; Grgoire, Jean-Claude; Evans, Hugh F. (2007). Bark and Wood Boring Insects in Living Trees in Europe, a Synthesis. Springer. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-4020-2241-8.
Humme, Hans E.; Miller, Thomas A. (2012). Techniques in Pheromone Research. Springer. p. 432. ISBN 978-1-4612-5220-7.
The Basic Principles Of Termite Control Best Method
Macdonald, D. R. (1968). "Management of Spruce Budworm Populations". The Forestry Chronicle. 44 (3): 3336. doi:10.5558/tfc44033-3.
a b Pat O'Connor-Marer (2006). Residential, Industrial, and Institutional Pest Control. UCANR Publications. pp. 217. ISBN 978-1-879906-70-9.
Eger, Christopher (28 here July 2013). "Marlin 25MG Garden Gun". Marlin Firearms Forum. Outdoor Hub LLC. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
5 Easy Facts About Termite Control Bayer Described
a b Pat O'connor-marer (2006). Residential, Industrial, and Institutional Pest Control. UCANR Publications. ISBN 978-1-879906-70-9.
Flint, M.L.; Wilen, C.A. "Snails and slugs". Pests in Gardens and Landscapes. UC IPM. Retrieved 28 August 2017. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) | <urn:uuid:5a92064e-b168-4d02-81f4-0c04b2bb5de2> | {
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In January, a question was posed before the Gulf countries over naming the waterway that separates Iran from its southern neighbours. Should it be called the Persian Gulf, or is it the Arabian Gulf? Or is it just the Gulf? Iran, formerly known as Persia, objected to the use of any name other than Persian Gulf. The disagreement over this has led to the cancellation of the Islamic Solidarity Games scheduled to be hosted by Iran in April. Iran points out that Persian Gulf is the name recognized by the United Nations. Several medieval historians have used this name.
A number of Arab countries reject the term and insist on using Arabian Gulf. Iran as the host country for the games has been using the term Persian Gulf in logos and slogans and in printed material. The organizers of the games have accused Iran of flouting the decisions taken by the general body at a meeting in Riyadh. The games have been called off.
Also Read | Previous columns by VR Narayanaswami
The study of place names is called toponymy. In tracing the origins and meanings of place names, toponymists sometimes come out with a mixture of legend and fact. There is a little town called Maidstone in Kent (England), which can be an example: Stories built around this name suggested that there was a maid turned into a stone here, like Ahalya of Indian legend. Turning from fiction to fact, we find that there is a river named Medway that flows through the town, and the name is derived from “Medweges tun” or Medway’s town. The Sri Lankan town of Jaffna is now called Yalpanam. The two elements of the name mean lute and town, an allusion to the story of a blind lute player who received the land as a grant from the ruler.
When the colonial era ended, the newly independent nations wanted to establish their identity, and one of the steps they took was to replace the anglicized names by the original names in the local dialects. Rhodesia became Zimbabwe; and Salisbury became Harare. In colonial India, the standard map which was used in schools carried the names India, Burma and Ceylon. Burma has become Myanmar and Ceylon has become Sri Lanka.
A Tamil group in Sri Lanka has gone a step further, and revived “Eelam” as the name of the country. The group wanted to create Tamil Eelam as a separate state, and called itself the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). Sri Lanka had a Persian name, Serendip. This name now does not represent a geographic location. Serendipity refers to the chance occurrence of fortunate events, a well-known example being the discovery of penicillin.
India has followed the trend in restoring older place names. This was a smooth transition in most cases. Trivandrum, Alleppey, Calcutta and Bezwada became Thiruvananthapuram, Alappuzha, Kolkata and Vijayawada. The exotic Danish name of Tranquebar was replaced by Tharangambadi in Tamil Nadu. The new name Chennai is a total departure from the earlier Madras.
Illustration: Shyamal Banerjee / Mint
The use of names for places continues to be a very sensitive issue in many parts of the world. In April 2006, Chinese President Hu Jintao was on a visit to the US. The US and Chinese presidents stood at attention as an announcer said, “Ladies and gentlemen, the national anthem of the Republic of China followed by the national anthem of the United States of America.” The right anthem was played, but it was too late. The Republic of China is the formal name of Taiwan, a rival to the People’s Republic of China. This diplomatic gaffe marred the dignity of that momentous meeting of two of the most powerful men in the world.
A conflict from names may be brewing in Costa Rica, where the presidential candidate has pledged to name a stadium being built in San Jose after Tibetan spiritual leader the Dalai Lama. China has made a donation of $83 million (around Rs376 crore) to the project.
Returning to the Gulf impasse, Iran was not content to merely voice its protest over the use of the wrong name. Last month, Iran’s transport minister warned that aircraft using any name other than the Persian Gulf on their in-flight monitors will be banned from entering Iran. If they persist in this use, the planes will be impounded.
Airlines operating in India, too, have been concerned with old and new names. The name Mumbai has now replaced Bombay on world airline maps. The airport has been named the Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport. But when it comes to airport codes, the change is not easy. Mumbai retains its old airport code, BOM. It would be impracticable to change airport codes, as freight and passenger movement are heavily dependent on the network of codes. For one thing, baggage despatch could go haywire, since codes are used to mark baggage destinations. Even more serious consequences on passenger transport and security cannot be ruled out.
The name Cochin was represented by the code COK. With the name changed to Kochi, one would expect KOC. But KOC is the code assigned to Koumac airport in North Caledonia. Mumbai cannot be contracted to MUM because Mumias in Kenya has already taken up this code. Calicut has changed to Kozhikode, but the airport code continues to be CCJ. An Internet search shows that there are 9,501 airports on record, with their own identification codes.
The International Air Transport Association, which controls the assignment of codes to the airports of the world, cannot be expected to change the codes whenever names are changed in different parts of the world in the name of political correctness.
To end with a tidbit, apocryphal perhaps, but relevant: Mangalagiri, a small town near Vijayawada, has the second longest railway platform in India, with Kharagpur holding the world record. How did Mangalagiri get the platform? The story is that the platform was approved for Mangalore, but its code MAQ was misread as MAG for Mangalagiri and the platform was built there. The lesson is clear enough.
V.R. Narayanaswami, a former professor of English, has written several books and articles on the usage of the language. He looks at the peculiarities of business and popular English usage in his fortnightly column.
Comments can be sent to [email protected] | <urn:uuid:6f0fa83e-94ba-458e-8aeb-c03bfe77ac07> | {
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Captain Nathaniel Butler
- On 27/07/2012
- In Underwater Archeology
From The Maritime Executive
In October 1619 the naval warship Warwick sailed into the King’s Castle Harbour in Bermuda with an important cargo from England; the colony’s new governor, Captain Nathaniel Butler.
After taking on provisions the Warwick was to travel onto the struggling colony at Jamestown, Virginia, but it never made the voyage.
Before the ship could sail, Bermuda was hit by a fierce hurricane. Battered by strong winds the Warwick broke free from her anchors, was driven into the rocky shore, and torn apart by the pounding waves.
In 1969 Mendel Peterson of the Smithsonian Institution and now famous Bermuda shipwreck hunter EB “Teddy” Tucker located the remains of the Warwick and began an examination of the wreckage.
What they found was a good part of the hull remained preserved under a pile of ballast stone.
Fast forward another 50 years and a new group working under the supervision of the island’s National Museum began a more extensive examination of the site and recovery of some significant historic artifacts.
The museum enlisted some renowned experts in the field of marine archaeology to assist in the project.
One is Dr. Jon Adams, head of archaeology at the University of Southampton who says “the Warwick is one of the largest and most coherent pieces of early 17th century ship structures ever found.”
Dr. Kroum Batchvarov with the maritime archaeology program at the University of Connecticut adds “very few wrecks of the early seventeenth century have been excavated which has limited our knowledge of shipbuilding and seafaring in this period.
This makes the archaeological excavation and documentation of the Warwick an important contribution to that body of knowledge.”
Professor Kevin Crisman of the Nautical Archaeology Program at Texas A&M also thinks this wreck holds enormous potential for educating archaeologists, historians, and the public.
“It could illuminate the early years of England’s great century of overseas expansion, a time when the first English colonies were being planted in North America and around the world.” | <urn:uuid:bef7e909-eebf-43ce-ae00-01d565195c52> | {
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The Internet is a great tool for information, business, and entertainment. Above all, it is a communication medium. In this sense, it is a place for relationships; the Internet connects people to other people. During the past decade, social media tools and websites—Instagram, Facebook, Skype, Twitter, LinkedIn, etc.—have grown tremendously in popularity. You can use social media to connect with people who share a common interest in crocheting, find a roommate, or even begin a loving relationship. Connecting to others online—whether strangers, acquaintances, or friends and family—has become, for many, part of everyday life.
When we use social media, we open ourselves up to true social experiences. We create a web of relationships, not unlike our physical social experiences. In our daily communities—school, work, or in our neighborhoods—it is important to be aware of the benefits and risks each social situation presents, and to maintain personal boundaries when developing relationships. The same is true for socializing online. The relationships we form online can be fulfilling, enriching, and meaningful. Indeed, it is becoming increasingly common for people to develop close friendships and loving relationships through the Internet. But, they can also turn out to be hurtful, deceitful, and even dangerous. How can you, your child, or a loved one avoid the pitfalls? How can you be sure to develop healthy digital relationships?
Three keys to healthy digital relationship development:
- Know the sites and tools you are using
- Understand the differences between online and in-person socializing
- Set personal boundaries, and involve family members or friends
In addition to the “three keys,” the value of making media a family affair cannot be over-stressed. Here are some quick tips for incorporating social media into family life.
THE BASICS: Family Matters
Parents: Set an example
Being intimidated or indifferent towards social media can be counterproductive in teaching your children how to develop healthy relationships online. If your attitude toward socializing online is consistently fearful or disapproving, your children might think you simply don’t “get it”—that you don’t understand what social media is—and they may be less likely to heed your advice or warning. On the other hand, if you just express your fascination and enthusiasm for social media without discernment or guidance, you may be indirectly encouraging your child to indulge in online social experiences without restraint. It is best to find a balance. Spend time understanding the benefits and risks of developing online relationships and engage in online socializing yourself (find an online book club, or connect with long lost friends on Facebook). By being both engaged and cautious, your children will see you as an example.
Kids: Talk to your parents about it!
Just because your parents may not be as interested or active in social media as you are doesn’t mean they don’t care about what you’re doing. Take the time to talk to your parents about what sites you like to go to, who you like to talk with, and why. If they aren’t familiar with online social networking, teach them!
Location, location, location
The location of a family computer can play a large role in how you and your family view online interaction. The LAMP recommends keeping the computer in an open, common area. Not only will this help you keep an eye on your child’s online interactions, but it will also foster an understanding of online socializing as an activity that is meaningful and that should be integrated into family life.
There are a lot of reasons why a person may develop relationships online. For many, it is simply a byproduct of using popular social media like Twitter or Facebook. Some people meet new friends while using the Internet as an outlet for a hobby. Others may have a distinct purpose or goal in mind, such as finding a roommate, a business partner, or a loving relationship.
On the Internet there are different tools and websites that facilitate these different sorts of digital interaction. Here is a brief list of some of the more common social networking sites and tools that you or members of your family might use.
Everyday Life and Friendship
Social networking sites have become online spaces for everyday interaction. Posting a quick note on someone’s Facebook wall, for example, is a lot like posting a note on his or her locker at school, or desk at work. They provide a place a means for continuing interaction when people aren’t in the same location. While these types of sites are generally open to anyone, some sites cater to certain groups based on culture, age, location or even aspects of the site itself, like gaming or photo-sharing. For example, MySpace has a strong presence of musicians, while hi5 distinguishes itself as the place for “social gaming.”
In general, these sorts of social networking sites help the user create a “social web” of all the people he or she is connected to through school, work, family, and friends. Users create their own social network by accepting and making friendship requests, and then share information about their lives by posting photos, listing interests and affiliations, and setting statuses. Many of these sites incorporate games, music, and invitation tools as well. In many ways, these sites provide means of interaction that mirror the casual, everyday interactions we have in everyday life.
**TIP: LAMP suggests only accepting friend requests from people you know.
Career or Professional
EXAMPLE SITES: LinkedIn, Plaxo, MyWorkster, JobFox
The Internet has become a great place for professional networking. Sites like LinkedIn or Plaxo can be thought of as an online “mixer” where you can share your business card or resume, and be introduced to other professionals in your current or desired field of work. If you are looking for employment, want to connect a friend with some of your contacts, or search for a potential partner in business, a professional networking site is a great place to start. Certain career-oriented social networking sites may specialize in a certain sector of the workforce. For instance, MyWorkster is exclusively for college students. Other sites, like JobFox, approach job-hunting as match making, and specialize is finding jobs that are the best fit for you. On websites like these, people maintain a professional presence. Unlike some of the “everyday” social networking sites, profiles on career sites are typically résumés or CVs where people present life experiences, accomplishments, goals, and hobbies, providing a rich glimpse into who you are as a professional and a person.
Common Interest and Hobbies
EXAMPLE SITES: Flickr, RotoWire, Google Blogs
Many people use social media as an outlet for a hobby or interest. Digital communities are built around just about every type of hobby you can imagine—fantasy sports, cooking, scrap-booking, fishing, snowmobiling, photography, skydiving. . . you name it! A lot of these communities form around personal blogs or websites. However, there are some larger outlets like Flickr, a photo-sharing site, that create a broader space for people to share their work, stories, and ideas. To find a blog about a certain interest or hobby, try going to Google Blogs—Google’s search engine dedicated to blogs—and search for whatever you like!
**TIP: If you can’t find a blog you like, why not create one yourself? There are several blogging engines that provide users the option to create a blog for free! The LAMP recommends Tumblr (http://www.tumblr.com), Blogger (http://www.blogger.com), or WordPress.com (http://wordpress.com).
EXAMPLE SITES: eHarmony, Match.com, OkCupid, Zoosk
Life is busy. Between family, work, school, and other commitments, it can be difficult to meet people. To compensate for the constraints of our busy schedules, many people have signed up for online dating sites. Some sites are free, while others charge a fee for their service. Typically, these sites ask you to provide information about yourself—personality, interests, etc.—as well as the qualities you’re looking for in a potential partner. Some sites specialize in doing the matchmaking for you, by cross-referencing user profiles and presenting a list of people that seem to best fit what each person is looking for. Other sites leave the search up to the user, so he or she can browse other profiles for a person they’d like to get to know. These sites are designed to be more personal than other social networking sites, so it is very important to think through exactly what you want to share before diving in!
OTHER: Instant Messaging, Texting
EXAMPLE SITES: AOLIM, Skype, Windows Live Messenger, Yahoo! Messenger, GTalk
Ten years ago, there were only a handful of instant messaging services. Today, it is common for websites to have their own instant messaging tool. This allows casual online interactions to happen easily and frequently. The ability to send and receive messages instantaneously mimics face-to-face “chatting,” and, because of this reason, can be a significant part in the development of relationships.
Texting has also emerged as a quick way to check in with friends. It’s very efficient, but be sure you personally know the person you’re texting. And be mindful of what you say and the pictures you send – just like with email and social media networks, your words and images can still be shared with others. Finally, never ever text and drive!
Caution! In all online interaction, privacy must be protected. Be sure to look at the security settings of any social networking site or tool you use to make sure you aware of exactly what you are sharing with the world! [Sidebar: Recommended privacy settings for Facebook]
There two categories of privacy settings on Facebook: Connecting on Facebook and Sharing on Facebook. To access your privacy settings, click “Privacy Settings” under the “Account” tab in the upper right-hand corner.
Connecting on Facebook: Click on “View Settings.”
Search for you on Facebook: LAMP recommends Friends of Friends and Networks
Send you friend requests: Everyone
Send you messages: Friends of Friends
See your friend list: Friends of Friends and Networks
See your education and work: Friends Only
See your current city and hometown: Friends Only
See your likes, activities, and other connections: Friends Only
Sharing on Facebook: There are four pre-set privacy settings to choose: Everyone, Friends of Friends, Friends Only, and Recommended. You can click on each of these to see what the privacy settings of each option are. However, LAMP recommends using the fifth option: Custom. You can manage all of your privacy settings by clicking on “Customize settings” in the lower left-hand corner.
THINGS I SHARE: For all of the “Things I share” settings, LAMP recommends “Friends Only” because this information can be personal.
THINGS OTHERS SHARE: LAMP recommends Friends Only for all applicable settings, enabling Friends to post on your Wall and see photos or videos you’re tagged in, and disabling the ability for friends to check you in to places and suggest photos of you to friends.
CONTACT INFORMATION: LAMP recommends choosing Friends Only for IM screen name and email, and Only Me for Address and phone number.
All of these recommended settings were chosen with the purpose of encouraging health online interaction.
There are a number of significant differences between online interactions and in-person interactions. Understanding what the differences are, and the effects that they can have, is an important part of healthy digital relationship development.
Physical markers— When we interact with people in-person—whether we are consciously aware of it or not—our opinions and understanding of others are formed by much more than just the words being spoken. We consider facial expressions, body language, tone of voice, appearance, eye contact, and other physical context cues. We use these to help us discern whether or not we find the other person trustworthy or genuine. When interacting online we generally have to make do with just words. Because this is the case, it is important to maintain a skeptical mentality. Take your time when establishing trust with someone.
Anonymity—Online, it is difficult to know with full certainty exactly who you are interacting with. A person’s screen name on IM or profile on Facebook cannot be trusted at face value to be representative of the actual user. This is not to say that every person you interact with online is an impostor or should be feared. All it means is that, again, is important to maintain a healthy level of skepticism. Simply put: Keep your guard up.
Disinhibition—It is a well noted phenomenon that when interacting with others online, people often feel freer to do and say things that they likely wouldn’t do or say during face-to-face interaction. This disinhibition is attributed to a number of personal and psychological factors, but at its most fundamental level, it is rooted in dissociation and an empowering sense of invisibility. Thus, online, we may feel moved to share emotions and express ourselves more freely. While this can be a good thing, especially for those who are shy in face-to-face interaction, there is a dark side to disinhibition. People may also feel as though there are no tangible consequences to their actions. Cyber-bullying is an unfortunate example of this dark side. When socializing online, be sure to avoid it by asking yourself if you’d say to someone’s face what you’re willing to say to them online.
What goes online, stays online—It’s nearly impossible to take back anything that you put online. A message meant for one friend can get copied or forwarded to others. Photos and videos can be circulated without your intention. This means it is important to be considerate of yourself and others when socializing and sharing online.
As we’ve said, people can develop healthy and meaningful relationships online. But, with all of the bad experiences we hear about on the news—cyber-bullying, scams, and sexual predators—well, it can be a bit unnerving. These occurrences understandably cause people to view online interaction as a risky behavior. However, it must be kept in mind that, while harmful experiences like these can and have happened, they are not the norm and they can be prevented. So far we’ve gone over the sites and tools people may use for online socializing, and what to be aware of when engaging with others online. The third key is all about you. The most certain way to ensure you only develop healthy digital relationships is by setting and maintaining personal boundaries, and involving family members or friends.
As young children we learn not to talk to strangers or get into a car with anyone we don’t know. As teenagers, we learn to distinguish true friendship and affection from abuse and manipulation. As adults, we learn how to balance personal and professional responsibility and respect with co-workers and relatives. But, the rules and boundaries we learn and teach our children for healthy relationships in our physical interactions don’t always translate clearly for digital interactions. [See Exercise #1] This is because online communication has its own set of risks and benefits that differs from face-to-face communication.
Let’s say some members of an online community decide to meet up for coffee, or the friend you met on a film forum asks you to go to a movie, or someone you’ve met on a dating site asks you to go out for dinner, and you want to go. What should you do?
- Ask yourself: What do I really know about this person?
- Discuss it with your family and friends. Does it seem like a good idea?
- Choose a safe, public place to meet, and ALWAYS tell a loved one exactly when and where you are going.
- Bring a friend with you! Meeting an online friend in person for the first time is a big step, and the other person should think so too. Making the first meeting a group event is a great way to keep it safe and ease the transition of taking an online relationship face-to-face.
Developing digital relationships has its own set of complications and benefits, but it need not be a scary endeavor. By being prepared and aware you can reap the benefits of online relationships while avoiding the risks.
What sort of relationships do people develop online, and how? There is practically no limit to what sorts of relationships people can develop online. Here are a couple of true-life examples of healthy relationships that were cultivated over the Internet on social networking sites and tools.
1) A woman joined a Flickr photo group that shares a common interest in standard poodles. Through sharing photos and stories of each other’s dogs, the people in the community learned more and more about each other’s lives and families, and many fulfilling friendships were formed. Years later, these friends have flown halfway around the world to visit each other, sent each other birthday gifts and have been a strong support system for each other through difficult times. To this day, the woman says her “Flickr friends” are some of her best friends. While these relationships were forming, she spoke with other friends and family members about her Flickr friends, speaking in detail her interactions and asking for advice on how to handle invitations to meet face-to-face. By keeping her loved ones in the loop, a deeper trust was developed with her Flickr friends because she was able to feel supported. Then, when the time came to meet some of her online friends, she arranged to have them all over to her home for a weekend while her husband and kids were present.
2) A twenty-year-old girl was using a social networking site as a place to connect with her friends, and was e-troduced (introduced through friends online) to a boy with whom she discovered she had much in common. After spending over a year becoming good friends online, they decided to meet face-to-face. He flew from California to visit her in Minnesota with the permission of her family. They spent time getting to know one another face-to-face, while spending time with her family and close friends. During the next year the two visited each other several times and they introduced each other to their other friends and extended family. Today, the two are a happily married couple.
What make these examples of healthy digital relationships? In both cases the interaction was grounded in the physical world and lives of the people. The users demonstrated discretion and set up personal boundaries. Friends and family members were aware of the developing digital relationships, and were consulted and involved in the development of the relationship. | <urn:uuid:c62bb59f-8818-4737-a706-969a4bf1c774> | {
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The working procedure of bitcoin is unknown to many even when it provides the Best bitcoin rate . The ways in which bitcoin works are enlisted below:
Balancing through blockchain:
The complete bitcoin network depends on blockchain as it is a publicly shared ledger. All the transactions are updated in the blockchain.The balance is calculated on this and verification of only owned bitcoins are also possible.
Private keys for transactions:
Transferring the coins from one wallet to the other among users gets recorded in the blockchain. Private Key is a secret data that is kept by the bitcoin wallet mainly for signing transactions to keep evidence that the source of the coin is verified and trusted.This prevents the capacity of alterations on payments once they are done. This is followed by mining to confirm the transactions done by users and usually takes around a time of ten minutes in general.
The transactions which are on hold get updated in the blockchain through the process of mining, usually a system aiming at regular consent or approval.A system for maintaining the sequential order within the blockchain is brought about by the process of mining which in return keeps the network neutral and protects it.This allows multiple PCs to consider the same state as it is on the system.The transactions are usually placed within a block of a strict set of norms, usually cryptographic in nature and eventually verified. This prevents the modification of blocks to keep the following subsequent blocks stagnant and unaltered.
Individuals cannot impose or add multiple blocks and insert them within the blockchain due to the presence of the above process. This is the technique which prevents external invasion and control over buying bitcoin in India and selling bitcoin in India as well as the globe and keeping the whole system safer and reliable. | <urn:uuid:9b6d4293-bb0d-492e-9dd3-fb8bf0738f00> | {
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Art History Lesson: Leonardo Da Vinci and Jackson Pollock
We had so much fun today learning about Leonardo Da Vinci and Jackson Pollock. I had a load of books with a ton of pictures, which was great. I love how there are always fabulous biographies for kids.
Jackson Pollock had a few nicknames, "Jack the Dripper" "Action Jackson" Luke made up a new one, "Jack Splat."
I am very sure this is Sylvia Heaven.
What cute artists.
"Colorful Rainbow River Dots" by Mason, Kyla, Ben, Zack, Luke, Isabel and Sylvia
What we learned today May 13th
Leonardo Da Vinci -1452 to 1519 -Italy -mathematician -inventor -painter -sculptor -architect -botanist -musician -writer -The Last Supper -Mona Lisa -Vitruvian Man
Jackson Pollock -1912 to 1956 -Wyoming -"Jack the Dripper" -abstract -modern art -painted from feeling -drip painting -used sand -used different tools -numbered his paintings
Next week we will learn about... M.C. Escher and Mary Cassatt | <urn:uuid:bca0cb97-d631-4480-b662-9c86056f27b6> | {
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Without the right structure, a business won’t be stable enough to perform well or nimble enough to adapt to change. No simple recipe exists for choosing an effective business structure. Rather, business owners must analyze the needs of their customers and then design a corporate structure that is complex enough to fulfill those needs but simple enough to minimize costs and bureaucratic red tape.
The simpler a company is, the easier it is for workers and managers to communicate. For example, a clear organizational hierarchy simplifies relaying communications up and down the chain of command. A complex corporate structure makes communication more difficult. For instance, when workers must interact with several supervisors, the various directives might work at cross purposes. Also, messages might get lost in the shuffle if there is no simple way to communicate within the organization.
Simple organizations are nimble, able to rearrange themselves quickly to respond to changes in the business environment. For example, a simple organization might rely on a team-based structure, according to the book “Strategic Management: Competitiveness and Globalization,” by Michael A. Hitt and colleagues. When adaptation is necessary, each team can handle one aspect of the change, or one team can handle the change while the others carry on with their previous responsibilities. A more complex corporate structure would find it harder to adapt. It might require significant analysis, for instance, to determine how a complex organization can rearrange itself without jeopardizing vital processes.
Economies of Scale
A large, well-functioning organization can use division of labor and specialization to ensure the most qualified workers handle the tasks they’re best at. This enables a complex corporate structure to be cost-effective. In contrast, a simpler organization might not have many employees, so some will have to multi-task. As a result, a simpler corporate structure might not be able to achieve the same economies of scale as a complex but well-functioning corporate structure.
Decision-making in a complex corporate structure might take longer than it would in a simpler organization. For example, a company’s complex, centralized hierarchy might cause operations to slow down as employees wait for the decisions of various departments and supervisors. A less centralized structure would have a faster response rate, according to the book “Organizational Behaviour: Text and Cases,” by Kavita Singh. If employees were empowered to make their own decisions, for instance, decisions would be more rapid and fewer opportunities would be missed.
- Comstock Images/Comstock/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:7b3a0688-ba01-4908-8e65-f768b0b0ff79> | {
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Why disk galaxies look alike when they’re old
The gravity of “clumps” could be why flat, disk galaxies grow out of their irregular appearance and their older stars take on the same look—fading from a bright center to a dim edge.
It happens to all kinds of flat, disk galaxies—whether they’re big, little, isolated, or crowded in a cluster.
Or, as Curtis Struck, an Iowa State University astronomer, writes in a research summary: “In galaxy disks, the scars of a rough childhood, and adolescent blemishes, all smooth away with time.”
But how does that happen?
Struck, a professor of physics and astronomy at Iowa State University, studies galaxy evolution and wrote the 2011 book Galaxy Collisions. He says a few explanations have been proposed, but most of those only covered certain types of galaxies. There hasn’t been an explanation for the nearly universal and exponential fade in the brightness of the lookalike disk galaxies.
To try to find an explanation, Struck and Bruce Elmegreen, a research scientist at IBM’s Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York, built computer models simulating galaxy evolution. And they think they’ve found a fundamental answer in the gravitational pull of the irregular, clumped structure of younger galaxies.
They report their findings in a paper published online by The Astrophysical Journal Letters.
Struck and Elmegreen based their paper on the simplest possible galaxy model that still includes all the essential ingredients: a razor-thin disk and orbiting stars subject to the gravity of the massive clumps.
“We focused on the clumps,” Struck says. “We thought the clumpy structure of young galaxy disks may be responsible for both its own erasure and the smooth universal brightness profile.”
Struck says the models showed that’s the case. The gravity of those clumps of interstellar gases and new stars alter the orbits of nearby stars. In some cases, the changes are significant, scattering stars well away from their original and nearly circular orbits.
Over time, that scattering from circular to slightly elliptical orbits produces the smooth fade in brightness from the center of a galaxy to its edge.
We’re talking a lot of time: “This process takes a few hundred million years to a few billion years,” Struck says.
Do those findings match the data coming from the Hubble Space Telescope and large ground-based telescopes, tools that allow astronomers to see distant galaxies in their young and clumpy structure?
“Yes, they do fit the observed data coming back,” Struck says.
Struck also says there’s more work to be done to explain the mystery of the smooth, steady fade of older disk galaxies. Struck and Elmegreen will gradually add more physical processes to their models to see how additional complexities affect what they’ve discovered about the fundamental process of star scattering.
Even so, Struck says the current models have provided a good explanation for the universal appearance of older disk galaxies.
“If there is some disturbance, some clumpiness in the galaxy,” he says, “you eventually get this smooth profile.”
Source: Iowa State University
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Fashions Through the Decades: Paper Dolls
What did women wear back in the 1800s? Give your child a fun paper craft, along with a mini history lesson, with this 1800s paper doll.
These paper dolls are all ready to get dressed in some old, western costumes, but they're missing one thing: color!
Learn more about the history of the United States by printing and playing with this fun and fashionable Victorian paper doll.
This snappy outfit is reminiscent of Charlie Chaplin and other early Hollywood celebs. Enjoy a fun paper craft coloring and cutting out this paper doll.
If your child loves fashion, give her a fun paper craft with a historical fashion paper doll! She'll learn a bit of American history as she colors.
Fashion can be fun, but also quite telling of the times. So teach your child a bit about the roaring twenties in the U.S. and color the beautiful paper doll!
Learn a little about American fashion in the 1920s with a fun historical paper doll.
Your child can learn a bit about the Depression era, and can see what women wore back then, with this gorgeous 1930s paper doll.
The 1930s were a tough decade for everyone in America. Give your child a beginning history lesson about the Depression era as she colors her paper doll.
Learn more about World War II and this history of America with these fun and fashionable paper dolls.
This adorable poodle skirt needs some color! Show your child some fashion from the 1950s with a fun paper doll she can color herself!
Does your child love fashion? Give her a fun paper craft with this historical fashion paper doll!
What kinds of outfits did people wear 50 years ago? Give your child a lesson in fashion history with this 1960s themed paper doll.
There were many important changes during the 1960s, including fashion. Give your child a fun paper doll project that involves a bit of history too.
This adorable paper doll boy comes with a history lesson! Your child can read a bit about what went on in the 80s, and she'll see what people wore back then.
If your child loves dolls, she'll love making one herself! This paper doll features fashion from the 1970s.
If your child loves fashion, give her a paper doll of the 1970s! This handsome fella is even sporting the long hairdo of those times.
How cute is this dress! Give your little fashionista a fun project with a history of fashion paper doll, dressed to impress from the 1980s.
Find out about fashion from the 1990s with this cute paper doll girl! Your child will get to read a little blurb about the 90s as she colors.
Learn a bit about the history of American fashion with a cute paper doll! This dude is from the 1990s, and sports some fashion from that time.
Get caught up on the history of fashion with a cute paper doll girl. This glam gal is sporting fashion from recent years, and her outfit needs some color!
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|SITE MAP||EDUCATION PAGE||ECON & BUS GEOG||RESOURCES||A-Z INDEX|
1. SCOPE: Provide the larger context: Any 10-week course which claims any degree of depth represents necessarily only a slice of a larger context and discipline. A system of Web sites facilitates such a broader perspective beyond the content constraints of an individual class.
2. DIVERSITY OF CONTENT: Add diversity to the presentation of class content (in addition to the use of lectures, in-class discussions and hard-copy readings).
3. ACCESS TO PROFS & PEERS: Facilitate and improve outside-class communication between all members of the class, including between instructor and students.
4. CORE: Reduce need for dealing with logistic matters in class thereby saving valuable class time and permitting concentration on core instructional functions.
5. PARTICIPATION: Provide a seminar or small group atmosphere for discussion even in larger classes and encourage participation of students who might otherwise not participate.
6. FLEXIBLE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS: Accommodate special needs of a student population with highly diverse backgrounds and skill levels (i.e. create multi-level learning environments).
7. RESOURCE SKILLS: Integrate the learning of a broader range of library- and internet related resource skills into the presentation of subject areas. Such skills are not only useful in students' remaining academic and social lives, but increasingly expected by future employers of our economic geography students.
8. HYPERTEXTUALITY: Provide opportunity to students to experiment with hypertextual presentation of projects.
9. ACTIVE LEARNING: Encourage students to accept partial responsibility for their own education and ownership of their learning processes through active, electronically enhanced learning experiences and creation of a learning infrastructure in their own system of Web sites.
10. CONTINUITY & LIFE-LONG LEARNING: Provide more continuity beyond the constraints of an individual quarter class or students' entire undergraduate program by permitting early preparation (before start of the quarter or the student's freshman year) and continued Web-based "participation" in the class or program-related happenings after the quarter and the "official" part of the class or a student's undergraduate program are over.
11. COLLABORATION: Promote collaboration and acquisition of teamwork skills increasingly expected both in education and professional activities.
12. MAKING CONTRIBUTIONS: Instill in students the idea that they -- through their work on class projects -- are making contributions not just to themselves, their grades or my office paper collection but to their peers and, possibly, larger segments of society.
13. JUST-IN-TIME: Enable students to organize their increasingly complex daily (home-job-campus) logistics more efficiently by having more control over the distribution of personal learning environments in space and time. It is hoped that this experience and an increased awareness of such relationships will also lead to an improved understanding of the impact of information technologies (IT) on the spatial organization of economic activities and such concepts as footlooseness or telework.
14. COMPUTER SKILLS: Enable students to expand and practice their computer communication skills
15. OUTREACH! Facilitate boundary-spanning communication and activities between disciplines and, as importantly, between campus and community. In Economic Geography, such activities include student research, internships and Service Learning / Community Outreach arrangements. It is expected that such contacts with the world beyond the classroom facilitate students' exploration of future job opportunities in rapidly changing labor markets and an understanding of macro-structural changes in the economy caused directly or indirectly by IT developments.
Return to Projects. | <urn:uuid:dea70b1b-2903-49a7-9ffb-38e8641d3269> | {
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Western University develops first-of-its-kind task-based map of the human cerebellum
July 22, 2019 - BrainsCAN Communications
It is the second largest structure in the human brain and contains more neurons than any other area. Tucked under the back of the cerebral cortex, the cerebellum is often overlooked when considering how the brain manages complex cognition such as language or problem solving. For the first time, its involvement in cognition can now be examined in comprehensive detail thanks to a newly released map by researchers at Western University.
In a study published earlier this month in Nature Neuroscience, Western researchers released a functional atlas of the brain’s cerebellum. Lead author, Maedbh King created the map as a Western student in collaboration with Western Computational Neuroscience Professor, Jörn Diedrichsen, and University of California, Berkeley Professor, Richard Ivry, with support from Western’s BrainsCAN. The detailed map shows the functional correlates of each cerebellar region in never-before-seen detail.
Traditionally, the cerebellum has been known to play a key role in the coordination of movement. Research in the last 30 years has also shown that the cerebellum contributes to many aspects of higher mental thought such as working memory, language, decision making and social cognition. Its role in human intelligence is still largely a mystery.
“This is the first time the human cerebellum has been mapped using task-based data on the same set of subjects at this detail,” said King, now a PhD student at the University of California, Berkeley. “We adopted this kitchen sink approach, throwing a variety of tasks at the cerebellum at one time, to map out different functional subdivisions.”
There is growing recognition that cerebellar dysfunction may be linked to mental disorders including schizophrenia, autism and dyslexia. The new map will provide a unique research tool for neuroscientists to better understand the function of the cerebellum and to accelerate research into its involvement in these disorders.
“If you think about disease development, it’s likely that only a few subregions within the cerebellum, in concert with a network of other brain areas, might be disrupted in a specific disease, so researchers need a better idea of where exactly to look,” said Diedrichsen, researcher in Western’s Brain and Mind Institute (BMI) and senior author of the study. “With this new map, researchers can test specific hypotheses focused on these disorders, as well as evaluate hypotheses about cerebellar function in general.”
To create the map, King developed tasks designed to cover mental activity including language, memory, math, abstract thinking, mental imagery and motor control. While completing these tasks, study participants were scanned using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Participants’ cerebellar data were then aligned and displayed as a map using MRI analysis tools developed by Diedrichsen’s lab at Western’s BMI.
King, Diedrichsen and Ivry’s work can be used to predict the functional boundaries in the cerebellum, allowing researchers to perform tasks and compare results against the map. Interestingly, the map also shows that previous anatomical markers used in studies do not align with these new functional boundaries.
“The map shows the functional diversity of the cerebellum,” said Diedrichsen. “Now that researchers have a map, we can start to ask clearer questions.” | <urn:uuid:ca476635-997a-4655-8127-696d4c253dae> | {
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Free essay: the alchemist dialectical journals character 1) “astride the animal was a horseman dressed completely in black, with a falcon. Communication: potassium channels define the dialect to submit a comment for a journal article, please use the space above and note the. If you travel through a country and you have an ear for dialect, you might notice odd words pop up that are particular to the location dialects are an occupational .
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Dialectical journals guide students through the often intimidating process of critical thinking this lesson will explain what a dialectical. So ciolin guistic jour na l: d ial ec ts of c en tra l and east java , in dones ia this mini-research is conducted to analyze differentiation of. A dialectical journal is another name for a double-entry journal or a reader- response journal it's a journal that records a dialogue, or. Dialect: dialect, a variety of a language that signals where a person comes from the notion is usually interpreted geographically (regional dialect), but it also.
Students will read animal farm by george orwell, and complete ten (10) dialectical journal entries (see instructions below) we will be using this text as a basis. Pergamon journals ltd language, dialect and society malcah yaeger-dror peter trudgill, on dialect: social and geographical perspectives,. Summer reading dialectical journal examples and directions quotation page # reaction/reponse book: the house on mango street by.
The journal of linguistic geography focuses on dialect geography and the spatial distribution of language relative to questions of variation and change. Drama: dialect & accent resources drama resources including production resources, digital collections, image collections, costume resources. Social dialect variation is diversity and richness of dialect owned by an choice in social dialect variation of sasak community to show differences in speech who is international journal of linguistics, literature and culture (ijllc), [sl], v. The model shows that the boundaries of language dialect regions are the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and doi. | <urn:uuid:9f93c54d-bf95-461f-a704-42ded5e1babd> | {
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In the 1850s, bread making was a topic of serious discussion in England. People were encouraged to learn how to make their own bread at home rather than pay expensive prices for ‘unwholesome bread’ that could be tainted. By the time of the gold rush, the art of domestic bread making had become easier because of the use of saleterus, which allowed the bread to rise. Saleratus was a leavening agent for baking and was made by injecting pearl ash into the fumes of fermenting molasses. The first formulas for baking powder were developed in the United States in 1850. In that year a cream of tartar baking powder was sold by Preston & Merrill of Boston as “infallible yeast powder.”
In his book, “At Home in the Wilderness” Royal Engineer John Keast Lord wrote that the most important items to take into the wilderness were a wrought-iron camp kettle and a dutch oven. “Flour is very much more easily conveyed on mule-back than ‘hard bread’ or biscuit…whereas biscuit rapidly mildews if damped…” The workers on the survey crew soon learned to make “capital loaves” in small cast-iron ovens with a ration of Preston and Merrill’s Infallible Yeast Powder for rising bread.
A miner who could make a good loaf of bread could easily barter with it when Sunday arrived – a day normally set aside for domestic chores. Miners would wash dirty shirts, darn stockings, repair boots, mend clothing, chop the whole week’s firewood, make and bake bread and boil pork and beans.
Sourdough bread was a favourite food of American gold miners, some of whom carried sourdough starter wherever they travelled, so as to be assured of good bread later on. Sourdough bread had been very popular amongst gold seekers during the California gold rush and the term ‘sourdough’ became associated with the ‘49ers themselves.
At the start of the gold rush, sacks of flour were carried in on the backs of mules or on the backs of gold miners. Some bakeries like the Miners’ Bakery and Restaurant in Barkerville offered an arrangement where miners would drop off flour in exchange for bread. In addition, miners could buy tickets for meals, lunches, pies or cakes.
Most flour was imported from California, but there were exceptions. F.W. Foster milled flour at Lillooet. He advertised flour of all grades: Extra, Superfine and Fine.
Robert Harkness, Overlander, wrote from Richfield June 10, 1863:
“You must pay well for everything here. Flour is $1.12 a pound. This is at the rate of $225 per barrel… Wages are ten dollars a day, out of which you must, of course, board yourself. We live on bread, beans and bacon, with an occasional mess of very tough beef (.50 a pound) and manage to subsist on three to four dollars a day each…I worked pretty hard today carrying stones to a man building a chimney…”
The price of flour dropped considerably with the construction of the Cariboo Road. Still, there were times when it crept up again and this had an effect on the local economy.
On October 17, 1867, the Cariboo Sentinel reported: “Rise in Flour. We understand great apprehensions are being felt by our miners that provisions and especially flour are about to be raised to an unusually high price…” Consequently, many left the Cariboo. | <urn:uuid:2aa86572-7e56-4cab-8a37-a4083ee4d86c> | {
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BMI Chart: How Much Should I Weigh?
Do you still confuse to calculate your body mass index (BMI)? Do many people want to know the question relating to how much should I weigh? However, when you want to know how much you weigh, you can calculate it through a BMI calculator. Beside it, you can use the BMI chart to calculate your BMI. BMI chart is helpful for those of you who want to calculate your body mass index. Here is the information you should know relating to the BMI chart.
What is the BMI Chart?
Have you ever used the BMI chart? When you want to know about your BMI, one of the solutions is that you can use the BMI chart. BMI chart is a chart that helps many people to calculate their weight so that they can know their BMI index. When people use it, they can easily know the categories of their body based on the BMI categories like normal, underweight, or maybe obese.
Body Mass Index Categories Through BMI Chart
BMI chart allows you to calculate your BMI or body mass index manually. Beside it, the BMI chart also allows you to classify your BMI category based on the BMI graphic. BMI for every range of people is different like for children, adults, or kids. Thus, you have to know the BMI graphic you should use when you want to know the categories of your body.
There are four categories of BMI charts to answer how much should I weigh. The first categories are underweight. For underweight, the number of BMI is less than 18,5. The second is a normal weight. For normal weight, the number of BMI is 18,5 until 24,9. The third is overweight. For normal weight, the number of BMI is 25 until 29,9. The fourth is obesity class 1. For obesity class 1, the number of BMI is 30 until 34,9, and obesity class 2 is 35 until 39,9. The last is extreme obesity or class 3 which the number is 40 and more.
Calculate BMI Chart for Children
Even though BMI can still work in the same children, but we can know that children are still growing even though at the same age. So, it needs a BMI chart for children to calculate children’s BMI. For example, if you have children who have 50th percentile, it means that 50% of your children have the same age of BMI figures. Besides, when your children have 85th percentile, it means that your children have 85% the same or lower BMI as the figure.
The Example of BMI Chart for Children
When you want to calculate your children using a BMI chart and answer how much should I weigh, you have to know the formula to calculate it. If your children have age 14th and have 5 feet and 3 inches with weighs 120 pounds, you can know that your children’s BMI is 21,3. it is because your children have 76th percentile. You can say that the BMI chart in this term can be knows and healthy weight because it has a proper range between the number of 90 until 128 pounds.
The Advantages of BMI Chart
There are some advantages when you use a BMI chart. BMI chart is useful for those of you who want to know and visualize the range of BMI based on the categories. So, if you want to look for the number of your BI categories, you can use it. Beside it, the BMI chart also uses in several fields like health statistics, fashion, and so on. You also can use it to locate your height and answer how much should I weigh to determine your BMI scores and categories through BMI chart. | <urn:uuid:266c7e47-491c-401e-a2ce-79062d9c489e> | {
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Researchers long have known that some portion of the risk of developing cancer is hereditary and that inherited genetic errors are very important in some tumors but much less so in others. In a new analysis, researchers have shed light on these hereditary elements across 12 cancer types — showing a surprising inherited component to stomach cancer and providing some needed clarity on the consequences of certain types of mutations in well-known breast cancer susceptibility genes, BRCA1 and BRCA2.
The study, from Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, appears Dec. 22 in the journal Nature Communications.
The investigators analyzed genetic information from more than 4,000 cancer cases included in The Cancer Genome Atlas project, an initiative funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to unravel the genetic basis of cancer.
“In general, we have known that ovarian and breast cancers have a significant inherited component, and others, such as acute myeloid leukemia and lung cancer, have a much smaller inherited genetic contribution,” said senior author Li Ding, PhD, associate professor of medicine and assistant director of the McDonnell Genome Institute at Washington University. “But this is the first time on a large scale that we’ve been able to pinpoint gene culprits or even the actual mutations responsible for cancer susceptibility.”
The new information has implications for improving the accuracy of existing genetic tests for cancer risk and eventually expanding the available tests to include a wider variety of tumors.
Past genomic studies of cancer compared sequencing data from patients’ healthy tissue and the same patients’ tumors. These studies uncovered mutations present in the tumors, helping researchers identify important genes that likely play roles in cancer. But this type of analysis can’t distinguish between inherited mutations present at birth and mutations acquired over the lifespan.
To help tease out cancer’s inherited components, the new study adds analysis of the sequencing data from the patients’ normal cells that contain the “germline” information. A patient’s germline is the genetic information inherited from both parents. This new layer of information gives a genetic baseline of a patient’s genes at birth and can reveal whether cancer-associated mutations were already present.
In all the cancer cases they analyzed, the investigators looked for rare germline mutations in genes known to be associated with cancer. If one copy of one of these genes from one parent is already mutated at birth, the second normal copy from the other parent often can compensate for the defect. But individuals with such mutations are more susceptible to a so-called “second hit.” As they age, they are at higher risk of developing mutations in the remaining normal copy of the gene.
“We looked for germline mutations in the tumor,” Ding said. “But it was not enough for the mutations simply to be present; they needed to be enriched in the tumor — present at higher frequency. If a mutation is present in the germline and amplified in the tumor, there is a high likelihood it is playing a role in the cancer.”
In 114 genes known to be associated with cancer, they found rare germline mutations in all 12 cancer types, but in varying frequencies depending on the type. They focused on a type of mutation called a truncation because most truncated genes can’t function at all.
Of the ovarian cancer cases the investigators studied, 19 percent of them carried rare germline truncations. In contrast, only 4 percent of the acute myeloid leukemia cases in the analysis carried these truncations in the germline. They also found that 11 percent of the stomach cancer cases included such germline truncations, which was a surprise, according to the researchers, because that number is on par with the percentage for breast cancer.
“We also found a significant number of germline truncations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes present in tumor types other than breast cancer, including stomach and prostate cancers, for example,” Ding said. “This suggests we should pay attention to the potential involvement of these two genes in other cancer types.”
The BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are important for DNA repair. While they are primarily associated with risk of breast cancer, this analysis supports the growing body of evidence that they have a broader impact.
“Of the patients with BRCA1 truncations in the germline, 90 percent have this BRCA1 truncation enriched in the tumor, regardless of cancer type,” Ding said.
Genetic testing of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes in women at risk of breast cancer can reveal extremely useful information for prevention. When, for example, the genes are shown to be normal, there is no elevated genetic risk of breast cancer. But if either of these genes is mutated in ways that are known to disable either gene, breast cancer risk is dramatically increased. In this situation, doctors and genetic counselors can help women navigate the options available for reducing that risk.
But mutations come in a number of varieties. Genetic testing also can reveal many that have unknown consequences for the function of these genes, so their influence on cancer risk can’t be predicted.
To help clarify this gray area in clinical practice, Ding and her colleagues Jeffrey Parvin, MD, PhD, professor and director of the division of computational biology and bioinformatics at The Ohio State University, and Feng Chen, PhD, associate professor of medicine at Washington University, investigated 68 germline non-truncation mutations of unknown significance in the BRCA1 gene. For each mutation, they tested how well the BRCA1 protein could perform one of its key DNA-repair functions. The researchers found that six of the mutations behaved like truncations, disabling the gene completely. These mutations also were enriched in the tumors, supporting a likely role in cancer.
“It is important to be able to show that these six mutations of unknown clinical significance are, in fact, loss-of-function mutations,” Ding said. “But I also want to emphasize the contrasting point. Many more show normal function, at least according to our analysis. Many of these types of mutations are neutral, and we would like to identify them so that health-care providers can better counsel their patients.”
Ding said more research is needed to confirm these results before they can be used to advise patients making health-care decisions.
“Our strategy of investigating germline-tumor interactions provides a good way to prioritize important mutations that we should focus on,” she said. “For the information to eventually be used in the clinic, we will need to perform this type of analysis on even larger numbers of patients.”
Other key contributors to the study include Charles Lu, PhD; Mingchao Xie; Mike Wendl, PhD; Mike McLellan; Jiayin Wang, PhD; and Kim Johnson, PhD, from Washington University; and Mark Lerseison from Brown University. | <urn:uuid:8435c7de-3ba1-48b7-a16a-17bb8c35e07f> | {
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The private spaceflight company SpaceX is strapping landing gear onto the rocket that will launch the company's unmanned Dragon cargo capsule toward the International Space Station next month.
Putting landing legs on the Falcon 9 rocket, which is slated to blast off on March 16, marks another step in SpaceX's quest to develop a fully reusable launch system. But current plans don't call for the Falcon 9 to actually touch down on the legs after next month's liftoff, said SpaceX founder and CEO Elon Musk.
"Mounting landing legs (~60 ft span) to Falcon 9 for next month's Space Station servicing flight," Musk said Sunday (Feb. 23) via Twitter, where he posted a photo of the rocket. "However, F9 will continue to land in the ocean until we prove precision control from hypersonic thru subsonic regimes." [The Rockets and Spaceships of SpaceX (Photos)]
SpaceX holds a $1.6 billion contract to make 12 robotic supply runs to the space station for NASA using Dragon and the Falcon 9. The company has already completed two of these flights successfully; the March 16 flight will initiate contracted mission number three.
But the company's ambitions extend far beyond low-Earth orbit. Musk has said that he established SpaceX primarily to help humanity become a multiplanet species, and he hopes the company plays a prominent role in getting a Mars colony up and running.
One key to making such big dreams a reality is developing a fully and rapidly reusable launch system, which Musk has said could lower the cost of spaceflight by a factor of 100. Toward that end, SpaceX has been testing a reusable rocket prototype called Grasshopper, which has a made a series of higher and more complicated flights over the past year and a half.
The Hawthorne, Calif.-based SpaceX has also involved the Falcon 9 in its reusability research and development. For example, engineers managed to re-light the first stage of a new and improved version of the rocket known as the Falcon 9 v1.1 twice during the vehicle's maiden flight last September.
While SpaceX officials celebrated the re-lights as a major milestone, the Falcon 9 did not end up making a soft touchdown in the ocean after successfully delivering its payloads (Canada's CASSIOPE space-weather satellite and three smaller spacecraft) to orbit that day — perhaps because the rocket was not outfitted with landing legs.
"This particular stage was not equipped with landing gear, which could have helped stabilize the stage like fins would on an aircraft," SpaceX officials wrote in an update two weeks after the Sept. 29 flight. "The stage ended up spinning to a degree that was greater than we could control with the gas thrusters on board, and ultimately we hit the water relatively hard."
- Video Captures SpaceX's 'Re-Lightable' Engine
- Launch Photos: SpaceX Falcon 9 Rocket Lofts Thaicom 6 Satellite
- SpaceX's Quest For Rocketry's Holy Grail - SPACE.com Exclusive Video
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The UK Biobank is the single largest public genetic repository in the world, with samples of the genetic blueprints of half a million Brits standing by for scientific study. But when David Hill, a statistical geneticist at the University of Edinburgh, went poring through that data, he wasn’t looking for a cure for cancer or deeper insights into the biology of aging. Nothing like that. He was trying to figure out why some people make more money than others.
Along with a team of European collaborators, Hill sifted through the UK Biobank data to find about 286,000 participants who had answered a survey question about household income. Using that information they conducted something called a Genome Wide Association Study, where they looked at 18 million places in the genome to see which ones matched up with higher paychecks. They uncovered about 30, which account for 7.4 percent of household income variation across the United Kingdom. (For some context, another way of viewing the results is to say that 92.6 percent of a person’s income is explained by factors other than genetics.) Hill noticed that many of the genetic differences overlapped with areas known to be associated with intelligence, based on some of his prior work, and when he mapped them out they were largely expressed in the brain.
His team then used these regions to compute a polygenic score, a genetic calculation that predicts a person’s odds of reaching a certain outcome—of, say, developing diabetes or earning six figures. It didn’t perform particularly well, correctly forecasting only 2.5 percent of the differences in income in an independent sample of Scots. “Your DNA will not print you money,” says Hill. But he’s relieved to have found some small effect. “If you’re born with a predisposition for certain traits or abilities, and none of them counted in any way, shape, or form towards your income, then you’d have a profoundly unfair society, in my opinion,” he says.
Hill and like-minded colleagues are working on a science they call sociogenomics. And bolstered by a global boom in biobanking, they have more data than ever before to probe connections between people’s DNA and their socioeconomic circumstances. A “genetic income score” could allow economists and epidemiologists to more precisely investigate fundamental questions about inequality. Policymakers might incorporate this information to better evaluate the social programs intended to pull people out of cycles of poverty. In some places, it could be spun as a powerful argument for radical resource redistribution.
Megan Molteni covers biotechnology, medicine, and genetic privacy for WIRED.
Then there are the dystopian outcomes. Prospective employers could ask you to submit your genetic income score as part of a job application. Health and life insurers could use it to calculate your premiums. Social programs might use it as disqualifying criteria for receiving benefits. Apps like the ones that prevent you from accidentally dating a relative could help you pair up with those genetically inclined toward prosperity. IVF clinics could incorporate it into their genetic screening procedures so parents can choose the highest-earning embryos in addition to the healthiest ones. For every opening to use such information to create a more fair and just society, there exist in equal measure opportunities to weaponize it to exacerbate existing inequalities or perpetuate new ones.
Hill’s unpublished research, posted to the preprint server bioRxiv in mid-March and currently under review, is not yet the stuff of financial fortune-telling. But other, bigger efforts to increase the accuracy of genetic income scores are already underway.
“We’ve been shying away from looking at income for a very long time, for a number of reasons,” says Philipp Koellinger, an economist at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam, where he studies the genetics of behavior. Looking at the molecular architecture of money-making has a lot of potential to be misinterpreted or abused, he says. Especially by fringe groups who might latch on to sociogenomic research as support for racist notions of a hierarchy of human worth. Despite its new name and new software packages, the emerging field of sociogenomics will forever be entangled with the long, dark, history of the statistical tools that serve as its foundation—tools invented by some of the grandfathers of American eugenics. (For more on this, I’d suggest Carl Zimmer’s excellent book on the science of inheritance.) | <urn:uuid:b2f8d693-bbf2-4846-abf3-3ca1ed9d5b00> | {
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Cutting Personal Health Care Costs
- Friday, September 01, 2000
Written by Susan M. Shannon Davies
Everyone seems to agree that something needs to be done about health care costs in the United States. While the nation debates the possible solutions, here are some things you can do right now for your family and your budget!
Medical supplies and records
"Eight out of ten health care problems are cared for at home without the help of health professionals. By doing a good job of self-care, you are helping to reduce health care costs." (Healthwise Handbook, 10th Edition).
Even if you are insured, you are reducing your costs by eliminating any co-pay insurance payments.
Here are some key steps you can take to reduce unnecessary doctor visits and medical costs.
- Be prepared for minor emergencies and illnesses. Keep a well-stocked first aid kit and purchase some basic medical equipment.
- Store an emergency procedures reference booklet with your supplies.
- Take CPR and first aid classes. Many cities offer these through community education programs.
- Make a folder or notebook for each family member. Each time there is an illness or accident, jot down the date, make notes about the symptoms and treatments, and describe the results. Include both physical and mental observations of the patient. These records can be valuable in evaluating recurring or chronic problems.
Good nutrition is extremely important in preventing and overcoming illness. Use your food dollars to buy unprocessed, low sugar, low fat, high fiber, wholesome food. Shop around the "outside of the store" where you tend to find fresh fruits and vegetables, bulk foods, etc. The new USDA food pyramid provides a good foundation for healthy eating.
Don't buy things like soda pop or candy on a regular basis. These and other foods like them provide zero nutrition. Bake healthy snack foods or eat fruit in between meals. Check out a wholesome foods cookbook from the library.
Your library is sure to have numerous reference books on basic health care. Check one out, and visit your local bookstore for other possibilities. Every home should have some reference books on health and medical care that can be used as guides for identifying symptoms and treatments, as well as determining when to seek a doctor's care.
If you are unsure whether an appointment is necessary, consider a phone consultation. Most health care clinics provide on-call services 24 hours a day.
Whenever you're planning to visit your health care provider, write down everything about your complaint or illness before you go. If an illness is diagnosed, ask lots of questions:
- Does the prescribed medication have any side effects or contraindications? Due to possible synergistic reactions, should you avoid other pharmaceuticals?
- Is there a generic equivalent available? Bob Lewis, Vice President of Public Affairs at the Generic Pharmaceutical Industry Association estimates that you can save 30% to 50% using generic drugs.
- Can your health care provider give you the names of any books or recent articles that discuss your illness?
- Are there less expensive or less invasive alternative treatments that could be tried first?
For instance, holistic and homeopathic remedies can be effective, inexpensive and noninvasive. Many parents try them first with their children when they are teething or have ear infections and are pleasantly surprised with the results.
(Homeopathy is a therapeutic form of medicine based on the principle that minute doses of medicines can stimulate the body's immune system to cure itself. For example: Ipecac if taken in large doses induces vomiting. If taken in minute, homeopathic doses, often cures vomiting. It's similar (though different) to the idea behind immunizations.)
Stephen Cummings, MD, in his book, Everybody's Guide to Homeopathic Medicines, notes that homeopathy, developed in the late 1700's by a German physician, is enjoying a comeback in the United States. A survey published in The New England Journal of Medicine (Vol. 328) found that over 30% of Americans used homeopathy in 1990.
Consider reading more about homeopathy, herbal treatments, mind/body connections, chiropractic, nutritional therapies or Chinese medicines. Used alone for minor conditions or in conjunction with conventional medicine, they can enhance your family's overall health and reduce your health care expenditures.
(Warning: The secular market is inundated with books and speakers promoting health care via New Age theology, which puts man first. Know what to look for and what to avoid, and/or ask your Christian book store owner to help you.)
Talk to friends and family about your health care concerns. If you subscribe to the Internet or an on-line service, participate in discussion groups concerning this topic. Use health care providers as consultants, but listen to what your body is telling you and trust God to help you make the best choices.
If you're responsible for buying your own medical insurance, ask for competitive bids and study the options. By analyzing the choices for deductibles and copayments, you can reduce your monthly medical insurance bills and have more control over your family's health care costs. Families who have to pay for medical insurance and fees are much more discriminating.
For example, Blue Cross individual health insurance offers deductibles from $300 to $3,000. In the 34-year-old category, with a $300 deductible, a family of four could expect to pay $216 per month. In contrast, if the same family opted for a $3,000 deductible policy, the monthly payment would drop to $92.80. That's a savings of $1,480 per year, provided family members remain relatively healthy.
Barbara Gracey, from the Health Insurance Association of America, affirms that while families needs differ, choosing a higher deductible can save money in the short run. Tracy Andrus, vice president of public affairs and corporate communications at Blue Cross of Idaho, cautions, however, that "higher deductibles work best for families with relatively good health."
While there are many practical ways to reduce health care expenses, it always should be remembered that the power of healing ultimately lies in God's hands. Consequently, all health care and treatment programs should begin and end with prayer.
Pray not only for yourself and family members, but for friends when they are sick. In your faithfulness, you will be blessed as you see the hand of God's provision in your life and the lives of others.
The connection between healing and prayer is well documented in Larry Dossey's book, Healing Words - The Power of Prayer and The Practice of Medicine. His book also reveals the importance of choosing a physician who shares your faith. If your doctor prays for your recovery, you have an improved chance of getting better.
When afflictions are serious, consider the importance of James 5:14-15 where the ailing person is advised to invite the elders of the church to pray over him or her.
In addition to asking God for help, don't forget to praise God when healing is provided.
So, don't wait for the federal government to take action on the health care issue; stretch your health care dollars by taking a proactive, preventive, practical and prayerful approach to your family's health.
Susan Shannon Davies is a freelance writer and teacher in Boise, Idaho. She and her husband have four daughters and are self-insured.
For more money-saving ideas visit No-Debt Living, www.nodebtnews.com, where you can view more than 100 valuable articles and resources on financial, consumer and time-management news with a Christian perspective. Copyright 2000 No-Debt Living.
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Eliminate toxic chemicals
Toxic chemicals in our environment threaten our rivers and lakes, our air, land, and oceans, and ultimately ourselves and our future.
The production, trade, use, and release of many synthetic chemicals is now widely recognised as a global threat to human health and the environment.
Yet, the world's chemical industries continue to produce and release thousands of chemical compounds every year, in most cases with none or very little testing and understanding of their impacts on people and the environment.
Does this belong to you? Apple e-waste in China.
The world is consuming more and more electronic products every year.This has caused a dangerous explosion in electronic scrap (e-waste) containing toxic chemicals and heavy metals that cannot be disposed ofor recycled safely. But this problem can be avoided. We are pressing leading electronic companies for change to turn back the toxic tide of e-waste.
Go to Greener Electronics
Cool IT Challenge
The Information Technology (IT) sector is uniquely positioned to help the world shift to a prosperous clean energy economy. Greenpeace launched the Cool IT Challenge in 2009 to call on IT companies to power technological solutions needed to fight climate change. The Cool IT Challenge is urging IT companies to put forth these innovative solutions, mitigate their own carbon footprint, and advocate for significant policy changes in the mutual interest of business and the climate.
Visit the Cool IT Challenge | <urn:uuid:c0d3de01-baaf-4aeb-815d-0359d36a2b9d> | {
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Since the agricultural transformation began in the United States, the United
States only seemed to improve agriculturally. The Western Hemisphere was the
first to progress towards this transformation, displaying the United States as a
leader in agriculture. As stated by Dan Hillel in The Agricultural
Transformation, The Agricultural Transformation is very likely the most
momentous turn in the progress of humankindThe ability to raise crops and
livestock, while resulting in a greater and more secure supply of food,
definitely required attachment to controllable sections of land, and hence
brought about the growth of permanent settlements and of larger coordinated
communities. Thus, this transformation ensured a supply of food and ended the
need to roam about for food. This development was an important change in the
structure of society, also a step in building a prestigious reputation as being
a leader in agriculture.
It gave United States a sense of organization and
strength which indeed helped in its development. Simply put, agriculture
means raising things on purpose, and the American Indians were the first farmers
in the Western Hemisphere, said by R. Douglas Hurt in the article
Mesoamerican Origins. The American Indians (Mesoamericans) agriculture became
more complex. They learned how to grow crops such as tomatoes, beans, and a wide
variety of plants. They also learned other techniques such as clearing land and
Because of their success, other Mesoamericans began to settle
and also adopted their fellow Mesoamerican farming techniques. Agriculture
became more and more popular and important that the white settlers also began to
farm. Over time, as farming became more popular, the United States thrived on
agriculture. It became an important issue especially to Thomas Jefferson. He was
a key person in leading the agricultural development of the United States.
Thomas Jefferson believed in agrarianism and thought highly of farmers.
agriculture leader should understand why agriculture is important and how to
improve and also maintain a good status agriculturally. And Thomas Jefferson
held all these qualities. He did what was best for the farmers as well as others
in the United States. And by him being a great leader agriculturally, many
others in the government kept his ideas in mind. That is what made this country
strong, we develop from our past and in effect our country has grown stronger.
For example, In 1970- a farmer could provide enough for 2 people In 1935- a
farmer could provide enough for 10 people In 1992- a farmer could provide enough
for 127 people In 1998- a farmer could provide enough for over 130 people This
shows a growth in efficiency.
But now only 2% of the population in the United
States are farmers, meaning that only 2% of our population produces for the
whole nation. Although this percentage is extremely low, it displays that we are
agriculturally strong. Even other countries of the world depend on our
agriculture. United States exports about 40% of what we produce. United states
has grown from a society of hunter-gatherer to a society of agriculture. United
States has improved in agriculture over time and has made it become stronger and
in turn a leader.
In conclusion, United States is the world leader in
agriculture due to the people, the land, leadership, development and strength,
United States has the ability maintain all qualities and also improve. | <urn:uuid:87d64cca-3597-4cdf-bbb0-7c8b04062d1d> | {
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A desperate and largely unknown humanitarian crisis is deteriorating in the Lake Chad Basin region of West Africa, forcing millions of people to flee their homes and leaving millions more in need of humanitarian assistance. Oxfam is providing life-saving support but help is urgently needed to prevent the crisis turning into a catastrophe.
The failure to tackle climate change threatens all aspects of food security: availability, access, utilization, and stability. The changing climate is already putting at risk the gains in the fight against hunger, and it looks set to worsen. It threatens the production and distribution of food. It threatens people’s ability to access food by undermining their livelihoods and destabilizing prices. And it damages human health by changing diets and putting at risk the quality of food produced.
This briefing explores how these impacts can be averted through urgent action to avoid dangerous climate change, to address our broken food system, and to strengthen its resilience. | <urn:uuid:f6559185-955e-4c00-9949-66131a69e3eb> | {
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10.6 Leakage from urban water system
Geographic Information System (GIS) database; unpublished National Performance Report (NPR) data.
GIS analysis was used to calculate the length of SA Water mains pipes within the Adelaide region. The infrastructure leakage index, which was 4.2 kL/km/day (SA Water's unpublished NPR data), was multiplied by this pipe length to obtain the 2012–13 leakage volume for Adelaide,
Assumptions, limitations, caveats and approximations
- It was assumed that pipe length, used to calculate the leakage volume, remained unchanged in the 2012–13 year, compared to the 2011–12 year.
- Assumes the volume reported represents both pipe bursts and background leakage (real losses) and, because it was not possible to separate the two components, the total volume is assumed as leakage to groundwater.
- Leakage from bulk transport pipelines (Mannum–Adelaide Pipeline, Murray Bridge–Onkaparinga Pipeline and Swan Reach–Stockwell Pipeline), wastewater pipelines, fire services and recycled water pipes were not quantified.
Derived from measured data. Estimated in the range +/– 30% to +/– 50%. | <urn:uuid:2156f84f-bf37-456f-803a-e70460c89613> | {
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chromosome(redirected from Ph 1 chromosome)
Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus, Medical.
chromosome(krō`məsōm'), structural carrier of hereditary characteristics, found in the nucleus of every cell and so named for its readiness to absorb dyes. The term chromosome is usually reserved for the structure when it is condensed and readily visible during cell division (see mitosismitosis
, process of nuclear division in a living cell by which the carriers of hereditary information, or the chromosomes, are exactly replicated and the two copies distributed to identical daughter nuclei.
..... Click the link for more information. ). At other times the chromosome appears as a fibrous structure, called the chromonema, consisting of accumulations (called chromomeres) of chromatin, the dye-absorbing material. During nuclear division, when each chromosome splits, each of the duplicate chromosomes is called a chromatid. A certain number of chromosomes is characteristic of each species of plant and animal; e.g., the human has 46 chromosomes, the potato has 48, and the fruit fly Drosophila has 8. Each of these chromosome numbers is the so-called diploid number, i.e., the number found in the somatic (body) cells and in the germ cells that give rise to the gametes, or reproductive cells. When the germ cells divide in the two-step process of meiosismeiosis
, process of nuclear division in a living cell by which the number of chromosomes is reduced to half the original number. Meiosis occurs only in the process of gametogenesis, i.e., when the gametes, or sex cells (ovum and sperm), are being formed.
..... Click the link for more information. , the chromosomes are separated in such a way that each daughter cell receives a haploid (half the diploid) number of chromosomes. Fusion of the male and female gametes in fertilization restores the diploid number in the fertilized egg, or zygote, which thus contains two sets of homologous chromosomes, one from each parent. The principal constituents of the chromosomes are nucleoproteins containing deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA (see nucleic acidnucleic acid,
any of a group of organic substances found in the chromosomes of living cells and viruses that play a central role in the storage and replication of hereditary information and in the expression of this information through protein synthesis.
..... Click the link for more information. ). Chromosomes appear microscopically as a linear arrangement of genes, the factors that determine the inherited characteristics of all living organisms. The very large chromosomes in the salivary gland cells of Drosophila and other insects have furnished valuable material for the study of geneticsgenetics,
scientific study of the mechanism of heredity. While Gregor Mendel first presented his findings on the statistical laws governing the transmission of certain traits from generation to generation in 1856, it was not until the discovery and detailed study of the
..... Click the link for more information. .
Any of the organized components of each cell which carry the individual's hereditary material, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Chromosomes are found in all organisms with a cell nucleus (eukaryotes) and are located within the nucleus. Each chromosome contains a single extremely long DNA molecule that is packaged by various proteins into a compact domain. A full set, or complement, of chromosomes is carried by each sperm or ovum in animals and each pollen grain or ovule in plants. This constitutes the haploid (n) genome of that organism and contains a complete set of the genes characteristic of that organism. Sexually reproducing organisms in both the plant and animal kingdoms begin their development by the fusion of two haploid germ cells and are thus diploid (2n), with two sets of chromosomes in each body cell. These two sets of chromosomes carry virtually all the thousands of genes of each cell, with the exception of the tiny number in the mitochrondria (in animal), and a few plant chloroplasts. See Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), Gene
Chromosomes can change their conformation and degree of compaction throughout the cell cycle. During interphase, the major portion of the cycle, chromosomes are not visible under the light microscope because, although they are very long, they are extremely thin. However, during cell division (mitosis or meiosis), the chromosomes become compacted into shorter and thicker structures that can be seen under the microscope. At this time they appear as paired rods with defined ends, called telomeres, and they remain joined at a constricted region, the centromere, until the beginning of anaphase of cell division. See Cell cycle, Meiosis, Mitosis
Chromosomes are distinguished from one another by length and position of the centromere. They are metacentric (centromere in the middle of the chromosome), acrocentric (centromere close to one end), or telocentric (centromere at the end, or telomere). The centromere thus usually lies between two chromosome arms, which contain the genes and their regulatory regions, as well as other DNA sequences that have no known function. In many species, regional differences in base composition and in the time at which the DNA is replicated serve as the basis for special staining techniques that make visible a series of distinctive bands on each arm, and these can be used to identify the chromosome.
Each nucleus in the cell of a human or other mammal contains some 6 billion base pairs of DNA which, if stretched out, would form a very thin thread about 6 ft (2 m) long. This DNA has to be packaged into the chromosome within a nucleus that is much smaller than a printed dot (Fig. 1). Each chromosome contains a single length of DNA comprising a specific portion of the genetic material of the organism. Tiny stretches of DNA, about 140 base pairs long and containing acidic phosphate groups, are individually wrapped around an octamer consisting of two molecules of each of the four basic histone proteins H2a, H2b, H3, and H4. This arrangement produces small structures called nucleosomes and results in a sevenfold compaction of the DNA strand. Further compaction is achieved by binding the histone protein H1 and several nonhistone proteins, resulting in a supercoiled structure in which the chromosome is shortened by about 1600-fold in the interphase nucleus and by about 8000-fold during metaphase and anaphase, where the genetic material must be fully compacted for transport to the two daughter cells. At the point of maximum compaction, human chromosomes range in size from about 2 to 10 micrometers in length, that is, less than 0.0004 in. See Nucleosome
Number and size
Each diploid (2n) organism has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each body (somatic) cell, which can vary from two in a nematode worm and one species of ant, to hundreds in some butterflies, crustaceans, and plants. The diploid number of chromosomes includes a haploid (n) set from each parent. Many one-celled organisms are haploid throughout most of their life cycle. The human diploid number is 46.
There is some relationship between the number of chromosomes and their size. Some of the chromosomes in certain classes of organisms with large numbers of chromosomes are very tiny, and have been called microchromosomes. In birds and some reptiles, there are about 30–40 pairs of microchromosomes in addition to 5–7 or so pairs of regular-sized macrochromosomes. The number of microchromosomes is constant in any species carrying them, and only their size distinguishes them from the widespread macrochromosomes. At least seven microchromosomes in birds have been shown to contain genes, and all are thought to.
In some species of insects, plants, flatworms, snails, and rarely vertebrates (such as the fox), the number of chromosomes can vary because of the presence of a variable number of accessory chromosomes, called B chromosomes. It is not clear what role, if any, B chromosomes play, but they appear to be made primarily of DNA that neither contains functional genes nor has much effect on the animal or plant even when present in multiple copies.
A telomere caps each end of every chromosome and binds specific proteins that protect it from being digested by enzymes (exonucleases) present in the same cell. Most important, the telomere permits DNA replication to continue to the very end of the chromosome, thus assuring its stability. The telomere is also involved in attachment of the chromosome ends to the nuclear membrane and in pairing of homologous chromosomes during meiosis. The structure of telomeric DNA is very similar in virtually all eukaryotic organisms except the fruit fly (Drosophila). One strand of the DNA is rich in guanine and is oriented toward the end of the chromosome, and the other strand is rich in cytosine and is oriented toward the centromere. In most organisms, the telomere consists of multiple copies of a very short DNA repeat.
The centromere is responsible for proper segregation of each chromosome pair during cell division. The chromatids in mitosis and each pair of homologous chromosomes in meiosis are held together at the centromere until anaphase, when they separate and move to the spindle poles, thus being distributed to the two daughter cells. The kinetochore, which is the attachment site for the microtubules that guide the movement of the chromosomes to the poles, is organized around the centromere. The molecular structures of centromeres in most species are still unclear. The repetitive DNA making up and surrounding the centromere is called heterochromatin because it remains condensed throughout the cell cycle and hence stains intensely.
One or more pairs of chromosomes in each species have a region called a secondary constriction which does not stain well. This region contains multiple copies of the genes that transcribe, within the nucleolus, the ribosomal RNA (rRNA). The number of active rRNA genes may be regulated, and an organism that has too few copies of the rRNA genes may develop abnormally or not survive. See Ribosomes
Staining with quinacrine mustard produces consistent, bright and less bright fluorescence bands (Q bands) along the chromosome arms because of differences in the relative amounts of CG (cytosine-guanine) or AT (adenine-thymine) base pairs. The distinctive Q-band pattern of each chromosome makes it possible to identify every chromosome in the human genome. Quinacrine fluorescence can also reveal a difference in the amount or type of heterochromatin on the two members of a homologous pair of chromosomes, called heteromorphism or polymorphism. Such differences can be used to identify the parental origin of a specific chromosome, such as the extra chromosome in individuals who have trisomy 21. Two other methods involve treating chromosomes in various ways before staining with Giemsa. Giemsa or G-band patterns are essentially identical to Q-band patterns; reverse Giemsa or R-band patterns are the reverse, or reciprocal, of those seen with Q or G banding. In humans, most other mammals, and birds (macrochromosomes only), the Q-, G-, and R-banding patterns are so distinctive that each chromosome pair can be individually identified, making it possible to construct a karyotype, or organized array of the chromosome pairs from a single cell (Fig. 2). The chromosomes are identified on the basis of the banding patterns, and the pairs are arranged and numbered in some order, often based on length. In the human karyotype, the autosomes are numbered 1 through 22, and the sex chromosomes are called X and Y. The short arm of a chromosome is called the p arm, and the long arm is called the q arm; a number is assigned to each band on the arm. Thus, band 1q23 refers to band 23 on the long arm of human chromosome 1.
A chromosome carries the same complement of genes whether it is transmitted from the father or the mother, and most of these genes appear to be functionally the same. However, a small number of mammalian genes are functionally different depending on whether they were transmitted by the egg or by the sperm. This phenomenon is known as imprinting. It appears to be caused by the inactivation of certain genes in sperm or ova, probably by methylation of cytosine residues within the regulatory (promotor) region of the imprinted gene. As a result of imprinting, normal development of the mammalian embryo requires the presence of both a maternal and a paternal set of chromosomes. Parthenogenesis, the formation of a normal individual from two sets of maternal chromosomes, is therefore not possible in mammals.
In most mammals, the sex of an individual is determined by whether or not a Y chromosome is present because the Y chromosome carries the male-determining SRY gene. Thus XX and the rare XO individuals are female, while XY and the uncommon XXY individuals are male. In contrast, sex in the fruit fly depends on the balance of autosomes (non-sex chromosomes) and X chromosomes. Thus, in diploids, XX and the rare XXY flies are female, while XY and the rare XO flies are male. In both mammals and fruit flies, males are the heterogametic sex, producing gametes that contain either an X or a Y chromosome; and females are the homogametic sex, producing only gametes containing an X. In birds and butterflies, however, females are the heterogametic sex and males the homogametic sex. Other sex-determining systems are used by some classes of organisms, while sex in some species is determined by a single gene or even by environmental factors such as temperature (some turtles and alligators) or the presence of a nearby female (Bonellia, a marine worm) rather than by a chromosome-mediated mechanism.
More than 900 gene loci have been mapped to the human X chromosome. If the genes on both X chromosomes were fully expressed in female mammalian cells, then male cells, which have only one X, would exhibit only half as much gene product as female cells. However, dosage compensation is achieved, because genes on only one X chromosome are expressed, and genes on any additional X chromosomes are inactivated. This X inactivation randomly occurs during an early stage in embryonic development, and is transmitted unchanged to each of the daughter cells. Mammalian females are therefore mosaics of two types of cells, those with an active maternally derived X and those with an active paternally derived X. Species other than mammals do not show this type of dosage compensation mechanism for sex-linked genes, and some show none at all.
The Y chromosome is one of the smallest chromosomes in the genome in most mammalian species. Usually the mammalian Y chromosome has a very high proportion of heterochromatin, as does the large Y chromosome in Drosophila. Very few genes are located on the Y chromosome in mammals or in Drosophila, and most of these genes are concerned with either sex determination or the production of sperm. In some species of insects and other invertebrates, no Y chromosome is present, and sex in these species is determined by the X:autosome balance (XX female, XO male). See Cell nucleus, Genetics, Human genetics, Sex determination, Sex-linked inheritance
an organoid in a cell nucleus. The aggregate of chromosomes determines the main hereditary characteristics of cells and organisms. The complete chromosome set of a given organism is called the karyotype. In most animals and plants, every chromosome in every cell is represented twice. One chromosome of each pair is received from the father and the other from the mother when the nuclei of sex cells fuse during fertilization. Such chromosomes are called homologous, and the set of homologous chromosomes is termed a diploid set. The chromosome set in the cells of dioecious organisms contains one or more pairs of sex chromosomes, which usually differ in morphological characters according to sex; the chromosomes other than sex chromosomes are called autosomes. In mammals the genes that determine sex are localized in the sex chromosomes, whereas in the fruit fly Drosophila sex is determined by the ratio of the sex chromosomes to the autosomes, a concept expressed by the balance theory of sex determination.
The first description of chromosomes was made in 1888 by the German geneticist W. von Waldeyer-Hartz, who described them as solid bodies that stain strongly with basic dyes. It later became apparent, however, that the external appearance of chromosomes changes substantially during the different stages of the cell cycle. As compact formations with a characteristic morphology, chromosomes may be clearly distinguished in a light microscope only during cell division—in the metaphase of mitosis and meiosis.
The basic elements of chromosomes at all stages of the cell cycle are chromonemata, that is, threadlike structures that are tightly coiled during cell division, causing spiralization of the chromosomes, but that remain uncoiled (despiralized) in nondividing cells. After cell division is completed, the chromosomes that moved to the cells’ poles disintegrate and become surrounded by a nuclear membrane. During the period between two cell divisions—the interphase—the despiralization of the chromosomes continues and the chromosomes are no longer visible in the light microscope.
The morphology of the chromosomes of eukaryotes differs substantially from that of prokaryotes and viruses. Prokaryotes and viruses generally contain a single linear or circular chromosome that does not have a supramolecular structure and that is not separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane. The concept of chromosomes may be applied to the genetic material of prokaryotes only provisionally: this concept, formulated during the study of eukaryotic chromosomes, assumes that chromosomes have a complex of biopolymers (nucleic acids and proteins) as well as a specific supramolecular structure. Consequently, only eukaryotic chromosomes are described below.
The changes in the external appearance of chromosomes during the cellular and life cycles are caused by the chromosomes’ functional characteristics. However, the principles underlying the chromosomes’ organization, individuality, and continuity over several generations of cells and in different organisms remain unaltered, as shown by biochemical, cytological, and genetic studies on the chromosomes of different organisms. These studies have served as the basis of the chromosomes theory of heredity.
Molecular basis of chromosome structure. The significance of chromosomes as cellular organoids capable of storing, reproducing, and effecting hereditary information results from the characteristics of their constituent biopolymers. The first molecular model of a chromosome was devised in 1928 by N. K. Kol’tsov, who hypothesized the principles of the chromosome’s organization. Hereditary information in chromosomes is recorded by the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule and by its genetic code. Approximately 99 percent of all the DNA in a cell is concentrated in the chromosomes. The remaining DNA is located in other cellular organoids and determines cytoplasmic inheritance. The DNA in eukaryotic chromosomes is combined with basic proteins (histones) and with nonhistone proteins. The nonhistone proteins effect the complex assemblage of DNA in the chromosomes and regulate the DNA’s transcription, that is, the DNA’s ability to synthesize ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Chromosomes during the interphase. Since chromosomes perform their main functions—reproduction and transcription— during the interphase, their structure at this stage of the cell’s cycle is of particular interest. Chromosomes are barely discernible during the interphase since the euchromatin, which comprises many areas of the chromosomes, is completely uncoiled owing to the active synthesis of RNA. The heterochromatin in the chromosomes, however, is not involved in RNA synthesis and continues to retain its solid structure. The euchromatin contains elementary deoxyribonucleoprotein (DNP) threads, as well as ribonucleoprotein particles 200–500 angstroms in diameter that are called ribonucleoprotein (RNP) granules, intergranules, or perichromatin granules. These particles, which represent an assemblage of RNA synthesized on the chromosomes and combined with protein, aid in the development of messenger RNA and its transfer to the cytoplasm.
Interphasic chromosomes are studied by biochemical methods of isolating chromatin—the chromosomal material in a nucleus— and separating it into euchromatin and heterochromatin. These chromosomes are also studied by electron microscopy of intact nuclei and of isolated chromatin. Giant lampbrush chromosomes from the oocytes of animals, and multifilamentous (polytene) chromosomes of dipterous insects, are used as models of interphasic chromosomes. In lampbrush chromosomes, the inactive regions have the appearance of tightly coiled structures. These are the chromomeres, which are also found in the chromosomes of somatic cells, particularly during the prophase of mitosis. The chromomeres are believed to be morphological, and perhaps functional, units of chromosomes. In those regions of chromosomes that actively synthesize RNA, the chromomeres are uncoiled and form lateral loops. In these loops the RNA molecules combine with protein to form ribonucleoproteins (RNP). These are particles that represent an assemblage of gene products; some of their lateral loops differ in size and in morphological characters. Polytene chromosomes appear in the tissues of dipterous insects and of some plants owing to repeated replication (doubling) of the original chromosomes without subsequent disjunction of the daughter chromosomes. The inactive parts of these polytene chromosomes have a disklike shape, whereas the active parts form swellings called chromosome puffs. Like lampbrush chromosomes, chromosome puffs contain RNP particles 200–500 angstroms in diameter. Electron microscopy and biochemical studies have indicated that the main structural unit in chromatin isolated from cells, in intact nuclei, and in giant chromosomes is a DNP strand 100–200 angstroms in diameter.
Studies on polytene chromosomes in different tissues and at different stages in the development of dipterous insects have demonstrated that the number and set of active chromosome puffs are individualized according to tissue and species. Consequently, although all the cells of a multicellular organism have an identical set of genes arranged linearly on each chromosome, the set of chromosome regions that are active and inactive in RNA synthesis differs in each type of cell and at each stage of development. That is, the same region is euchromatic in some tissues and heterochromatic in others. Certain chromosome regions are heterochromatic during the interphase of different types of cells and generally contain frequently repeating sequences of DNA. The nucleolus organizer—the region in the chromosome where the genes of ribosomal RNA are concentrated—functions constantly during the interphase of all types of cells. The nucleolus, long regarded as an independent cellular organoid, is formed in this region and is the site at which the precursors of the ribosomes are formed.
The chromosomes in the interphasic nucleus are separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane. The chromosomes are attached to this membrane in many places, mainly by means of telomeres and centromeres, and consequently each chromosome is believed to occupy a specific site in the nucleus. The chromosomes replicate at the time when the cells are preparing to divide during the interphase. Each chromosome creates its own copy on the basis of semiconservative replication of the DNA. The chromosomes of eukaryotes have many starting and ending points during replication, whereas prokaryotes have only a single starting point and a single ending point. This permits the nonsimultaneous replication of different chromosome regions during synthesis and also regulates the activity of the chromosomes.
Chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis. When cells begin to divide, the synthesis of DNA and RNA in the chromosomes ceases and the amount of material within the chromosomes increases. For example, in a single human chromosome a DNA chain 160 mm in length becomes contained within a volume of only 0.5 × 10 micrometers. The nuclear membrane disintegrates, and the chromosomes align themselves on the cell’s equator. They are most accessible for observation and morphological analysis at this time. The main structural unit of metaphasic chromosomes, like that of interphasic chromosomes, is a strand of DNP 100–200 angstroms in diameter coiled in a tight spiral. Several researchers have discovered that strands 100–200 angstroms in diameter form structures with a second level consisting of strands approximately 2,000 angstroms in diameter that also form the body of a metaphasic chromosome.
Every metaphasic chromosome consists of chromatids, which are produced by the replication of the original interphasic chromosome. The use of labeled and modified precursors of DNA facilitated the precise identification of differentially stained chromatids in chromosomes during the metaphase of mitosis. This led to the discovery that sister chromatids often exchange segments during replication—a phenomenon known as crossing over. In traditional cytology, the matrix of metaphasic chromosomes was considered to be of great importance and was regarded as an essential chromosomal component in which spiralized chromonemata were embedded. Modern cytologists believe that the matrix of metaphasic chromosomes is residual material from the disintegrating nucleolus. The matrix is often completely indiscernible.
The formation of sex cells in animals and plants is accompanied by a unique type of division, meiosis. Meiotic chromosomes differ from mitotic chromosomes in several ways. During meiosis, the daughter cells receive half the usual complement of chromosomes, owing to the conjugation of homologous chromosomes in the prophase of meiosis and as a result of two successive cell divisions during a single replication of DNA. During mitosis, on the other hand, the number of chromosomes remains the same. In addition, in meiotic chromosomes there is a temporary interruption during the prophase of meiosis. The meiotic chromosomes return to the interphasic state when the chromosomes begin actively synthesizing RNA. During this period most of the animals under analysis have lampbrush chromosomes. Finally, chromosomes in the metaphase of meiosis contain a larger amount of material.
Although extensive research has been devoted to chromosomes, the study of their structural and functional organization remains one of the most urgent tasks of modern biology. Chromosomes perform highly complex functions within the cell and have an intricate structure that has resisted complete elucidation. During the 1960’s and 1970’s, great progress has been achieved in understanding the molecular basis of chromosome structure owing to the development of molecular genetics. This progress has brilliantly confirmed and substantiated the principles of the chromosome theory of heredity.
REFERENCESWilson, E. Klelka i ee rol’ v razvitii i nasledstvennosti, vols. 1–2. Moscow-Leningrad, 1936–40. (Translated from English.)
Kol’tsov, N. K. Organizatsiia kletki. Moscow-Leningrad, 1936.
Prokof’eva-Bel’govskaia, A. A. “Stroenie khromosomy.” In Ionizi-ruiushchie izlucheniia i nasledstvennost’. (Itogi nauki: Biologicheskie nauki, fasc. 3.) Moscow, 1960.
Kiknadze, I. I. Funktsional’naia organizatsiia khromosom. Leningrad, 1972.
DeRobertis, E., V. Nowinski, and F. Saez. Biologiia kletki. Moscow, 1973. (Translated from English.)
Levitskii, G. A. Tsitologiia rastenii: Izbr. trudy. Moscow, 1976.
Darlington, C. D. Recent Advances in Cytology, 2nd ed. London, 1937.
Geitler, L. Chromosomenbau. (Protoplasma-Monographien, vol. 14.) Berlin, 1938.
Ris, H., and D. F. Kubai. “Chromosome Structure.” Annual Review of Genetics, 1970, vol. 4, pp. 236–94.
Handbook of Molecular Cytology. Edited by A. Lima-de-Faria. Amsterdam-London, 1969.
Chromosome Structure and Function. New York, 1974.
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For Immediate Release: June 7, 2012
Contact :Division of News & Electronic Media, Office of Communication
U.S. High School Students Improve Motor Vehicle-related Health Behaviors
U.S. high school students have shown significant progress over the past two decades in improving many health-risk behaviors associated with the leading cause of death among youth—motor vehicle crashes—according to the 2011 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) released today by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. However, youth are engaging in other dangerous practices such as texting and emailing while driving.
Although motor vehicle crashes account for more than 1 in 3 U.S. teen deaths each year, findings from this survey show dramatic improvements during the past 20 years in motor vehicle safety among youth:
- From 1991 to 2011, the percentage of high school students who never or rarely wore a seatbelt declined from 26 to 8.
- From 1991 to 2011, the percentage of students who rode with a driver who had been drinking alcohol during the past 30 days declined from 40 to 24.
- The percentage of high school students who had driven a car during the past 30 days when they had been drinking alcohol decreased from 17 in 1997 to 8 in 2011.
- Between 2009 and 2011 encouraging improvements were also shown in the percentage of students wearing a seat belt, not riding with a driver who had been drinking alcohol and not driving a car when they had been drinking alcohol.
Despite this progress, the YRBS found that the use of technology among youth has resulted in new risks; specifically, 1 in 3 high school students had texted or e-mailed while driving a car or other vehicle during the past 30 days. The survey also found that 1 in 6 had been bullied through email, chat rooms, instant messaging, websites, or texting during the past 12 months. 2011 was the first year the YRBS included questions about bullying through electronic media and about texting or emailing while driving.
“We are encouraged that more of today’s high school students are choosing healthier, safer behaviors, such as wearing seat belts, and are avoiding behaviors that we know can cause them harm, such as binge drinking or riding with impaired drivers,” said Howell Wechsler, Ed.D., M.P.H., director of CDC’s Division of Adolescent and School Health. “However, these findings also show that despite improvements, there is a continued need for government agencies, community organizations, schools, parents, and other community members to work together to address the range of risk behaviors prevalent among our youth.”
The 2011 YRBS results show that high school students still engage in risk behaviors that are harmful to their health and increase their risks for disease and injury:
- Current cigarette use did not change significantly between 2009 (19 percent) and 2011 (18 percent).
- During that same time period, current marijuana use increased from 21 percent to 23 percent although there has been an overall decrease in current marijuana use (from 27 percent in 1999 to 23 percent in 2011).
- Current marijuana use among high school students was more common than current cigarette use (23 percent compared to 18 percent).
About the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System
CDC’s YRBS System is the only surveillance system designed to monitor a wide range of priority health risk behaviors among representative samples of high school students at the national, state, and local levels.
National, state, and large urban school district surveys are conducted every two years among high school students throughout the United States. These surveys monitor priority health risk behaviors including unintentional injuries and violence; tobacco, alcohol, and other drug use; sexual behaviors that contribute to unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV infection; unhealthy dietary behaviors; and physical inactivity. These surveys also monitor obesity and asthma.
More than 15,000 U.S. high school students participated in the 2011 National YRBS. Parental permission was obtained for students to participate in the survey and student participation was voluntary, and responses were anonymous. States and large urban school districts could modify the questionnaire to meet their needs. The 2011 YRBS System report includes national YRBS data and data from surveys conducted in 43 states and 21 large urban school districts.
The 2011 national YRBS is one of three HHS-sponsored surveys that provide data on substance abuse among youth nationally. The others are the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), sponsored by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration -a primary source of statistics on substance use among Americans age 12 and older (www.oas.samhsa.gov/nhsda.htm), and the Monitoring the Future (MTF) study funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse –part of the National Institutes of Health– and conducted by the University of Michigan’s Institute for Social Research (http://monitoringthefuture.org). The MTF study tracks substance use and related attitudes among students in the eighth, 10th, and 12th grades.
The 2011 YRBS data are available at www.cdc.gov/yrbs.
CDC works 24/7 saving lives, protecting people from health threats, and saving money through prevention. Whether these threats are global or domestic, chronic or acute, curable or preventable, natural disaster or deliberate attack, CDC is the nation’s health protection agency.
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- Contact CDC-INFO | <urn:uuid:797186ec-e667-476f-ad43-0e648185c922> | {
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DNA sequencing can already tell us a lot about our ancestors—but now, a new technique developed by an international team of scientists reportedly allows them to pinpoint a person’s geographical origin—going back 1,000 years.
The Geographic Population Structure (GPS) tool beats previous best attempts to tie location to DNA. It claims to track populations back to the islands or villages they descend from, with a 98 percent success rate, compared to within about 500 miles for old methods.
The term “GPS”is a terrible acronym for this technique, as it has nothing to do with the very popular Global Positioning System millions of people call GPS. In this case, GPS stands for Geographic Population Structure.
You can learn more in an article by Jamie Condliffe in the Gizmodo web site at http://gizmodo.com/dna-sequences-can-trace-your-ancestors-to-within-30-mil-1571773851 and the accompanying video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Aap-s1kle4Q. | <urn:uuid:a36259bc-904a-4c6c-bbf7-13fd13f606cd> | {
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Index of content:
Volume 120, Issue 4, October 2006
- ACOUSTIC SIGNAL PROCESSING
120(2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.2338286View Description Hide Description
A time reversal mirror exploits spatial diversity to achieve spatial and temporal focusing, a useful property for communications in an environment with significant multipath. Taking advantage of spatial diversity involves using a number of receivers distributed in space. This paper presents the impact of spatial diversity in passive time reversal communications between a probe source (PS) and a vertical receive array using at-sea experimental data, while the PS is either fixed or moving at about . The performance of two different approaches is compared in terms of output signal-to-noise ratio versus the number of receiver elements: (1) time reversal alone and (2) time reversal combined with adaptive channel equalization. The time-varying channel response due to source motion requires an adaptive channel equalizer such that approach (2) outperforms approach (1) by up to as compared to for a fixed source case. Experimental results around with a bandwidth illustrate that as few as two or three receivers (i.e., 2 or array aperture) can provide reasonable performance at ranges of 4.2 and in deep water.
120(2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.2336751View Description Hide Description
Data recorded during a temporary deployment of ocean bottom seismometers (OBSs) are used in this study to monitor the presence of fin whales around the array. In the summer of 2003, ten OBSs were placed from the NW coast of Iberia in the Galicia Margin, NE Atlantic Ocean for a period of one month. The recorded data set provided a large variety of signals, including fin whale vocalizations identified by their specific acoustic signature. The use of a dense array of seafloor receivers allowed investigation into the locations and tracks of the signal-generating whales using a seismological hypocentral location code. Individual pulses of different sequences have been chosen to study such tracks. Problems related to the correct identification of pulses, discrimination between direct and multiple arrivals, and the presence of more than one individual have been considered prior to location. Fin calls were concentrated in the last two weeks of the deployment and the locations were spread around the area covered by the array. These results illustrate that, besides its classical seismological aim, deployment of semipermanent seafloor seismic arrays can also provide valuable data for marine mammal behavior studies.
120(2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.2336752View Description Hide Description
Emerging methods of hyperthermia cancer treatment require noninvasive temperature monitoring, and ultrasonic techniques show promise in this regard. Various tomographic algorithms are available that reconstruct sound speed or contrast profiles, which can be related to temperature distribution. The requirement of a high enough frequency for adequate spatial resolution and a low enough frequency for adequate tissue penetration is a difficult compromise. In this study, the feasibility of using low frequency ultrasound for imaging and temperature monitoring was investigated. The transient probing wave field had a bandwidth spanning the frequency range . The results from a forward model which computed the propagation and scattering of low-frequency acoustic pressure and velocity wave fields were used to compare three imaging methods formulated within the Born approximation, representing two main types of reconstruction. The first uses Fourier techniques to reconstruct sound-speed profiles from projection or Radon data based on optical ray theory, seen as an asymptotical limit for comparison. The second uses backpropagation and conjugate gradient inversion methods based on acoustical wave theory. The results show that the accuracy in localization was or better when using low frequencies and the conjugate gradient inversion scheme, which could be used for temperature monitoring. | <urn:uuid:66f29f0b-e434-4eb0-bdf6-5ca9ac04e339> | {
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Meaning Of "Halup"Halup word meaning and definition
Halup meaning is to catch or take something from and the definition of a halup is a word that expresses action or a state of being. Halup vary by type, and each type is determined by the kinds of words that accompany it and the relationship those words have with the verb itself.
Halup Similar Words :
Halup Word Meaning Letter By Letter :
Meaning Of H
Positive: Successful. A natural money maker. Business acumen. Nature lover. Self-contained.
Meaning Of A
Positive: Leader. Confident. Adventurous. Determined. Enterprising. Courageous.
Meaning Of L
Positive: Balanced. Charitable. Well-adjusted. Managerial. Kind. Intellectual.
Meaning Of U
Positive: Clever. Collector. Freedom loving. Good social reputation. Creative.
Meaning Of P
Positive: Shrewd. Thoughtful. Expressive. Influential. Knowledgeable. Spiritual.
Halup Verb ~ the part of speech that expresses existence, action, or occurrence.
5 Letter Word Definitions :
6 Letter Word Definitions :
7 Letter Word Definitions :
8 Letter Word Definitions : | <urn:uuid:d0b7d29c-fb71-45be-b931-372ac9b52b3a> | {
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Idaho Family History Research
From Ancestry.com Wiki
This entry was originally written by Dwight A. Radford for Red Book: American State, County, and Town Sources.
History of Idaho
The first permanent settlement of whites in Idaho country was the Mormon colony at Franklin in Cache Valley. But the first major wave of settlers was drawn by the lure of gold. Just three years after gold was discovered, the territory of Idaho was created, in 1863, consisting of ten counties. The new territory included what is now all of Montana and most of present-day Wyoming. At the peak of the mining boom, as many as 70,000 whites may have been in Idaho Territory. By 1870, however, this number had dwindled to 15,000. Mining was Idaho’s chief producer of wealth until the beginning of the twentieth century when agriculture became the number one industry.
In 1866 the first district land office in Idaho opened in Boise. Other district offices included Lewiston in 1866, Oxford in 1879, Hailey in 1883, Coeur d’Alene in 1884, and Blackfoot in 1886. After the Civil War, Confederate refugees settled in Idaho. Others came to Idaho during a renewed mining boom during the 1880s and 1890s and with the coming of the railroads to the farmland of southern Idaho.
Idaho’s transition from a territory to a state was long and difficult. When the new Idaho Constitution was drafted in 1889, territory officials sought to resolve disagreements about whether to keep northern Idaho from becoming part of Washington territory. Many compromises were reached to set the boundaries before Idaho became a new state on 3 July 1890.
Idaho was never a “melting pot,” but it did have its share of ethnic groups, such as the Scandinavian converts to the Mormon faith who colonized in eastern Idaho and the Finns who settled in the high mountain valleys near Payette Lakes. Coeur d’Alene mines attracted miners from Wales and immigrants from the Balkans. Likewise, hundreds of Chinese came to Idaho in the 1860s and 1870s to work in the mines. The Basque migration from the Spanish Pyrenees came primarily to Idaho, northern Nevada, western Oregon, and California as sheepherders. Japanese immigrants began settling in southwestern Idaho prior to World War II. Other Japanese settled near Idaho Falls and Pocatello. Between 1900 and 1910, reclamation projects opened desert lands for farming. This brought a new wave of settlement from nearby states, especially Utah.
Idaho’s Native American population lives on four reservations: Nez Perce Reservation, Coeur d’Alene Reservation in northern Idaho, Fort Hall Reservation south of Pocatello, and Duck Valley Reservation in Owyhee County. Many Kootenai Native Americans reside in an enclave near Bonners Ferry, and some Kalispell Native Americans live in an enclave at Cusick on the Idaho-Montana border.
Idaho’s development was often turbulent and yet tolerant and just at times as well. The Mormon east, non-Mormon west, and the northern mining part of the state developed three distinct cultures that eventually grew and bonded into the state of Idaho. | <urn:uuid:caf8f0dc-3411-454f-9254-887e0156f13c> | {
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Clark State Forest
This 143-acre nature preserve contains a dry upland slope and moist cover with contrasting varieties of trees, shrubs and wildflowers. It is located in Clark State Forest, the oldest state forest in Indiana. In March 1903 state legislation provided for the purchase of 2,000 acres, which today has increased to more than 24,000 acres.
The self-guiding trail is a 0.9 mile long loop with 25 marked stations beginning at the registration box.
IN ORDER TO PROTECT THE PRESERVE'S NATURAL VALUES, PLEASE: REMAIN ON THE TRAIL, PROTECT ALL PLANTS AND ANIMALS, KEEP THE AREA FREE OF LITTER, AND OBSERVE THE BAN ON HUNTING, FIRES, CUTTING, PICKNICKING, CAMPING, HORSES AND VEHICULAR USE.
Trees and Sites on the Identification Trail
- This nature preserve is named for the dominant tree here-the white oak. Gray bark divided by vertical furrows; leaves deeply cut into lobes, without spines on the ends.
- Clark State Forest is managed for good forestry practices. Its multiple use practices include picnicking, camping and fishing.
The nature preserve land is reserved for walking, and observing nature. If this white oak was located in the forest management area, it would be marked for cutting. However, in this preserve everything will remain in its natural state.
- Culling dead or nonmarketable trees permits better growth of other nearby trees. But here in the preserve, this scarlet oak, about 40 feet off the trail, will remain until it dies, falls over, and decays. Thus organic matter is recycled into the soil. A lightening strike several years ago caused its center to decay.
- Three feet in front of the post is an American beech. Smooth, gray bark; toothed, waxy leaves attached alternately along the stem. Fifteen feet beyond is a white ash: Opposite compound leaves. To the left of the beech is a red maple:Opposite, simple leaves cut into lobes; teeth along entire margin.
- This maple leaf viburnum is an example of an understory shrub, and is common here. Maple-shaped leaves, hence the name; white flowers faintly tinged with pink open in spring; Thrives in shade, where it will grow a little more than 2 feet tall.
- As with all pines, this Virginia pine sheds its needles throughout the year, whereas hardwood trees lose their leaves each year. It is native in the "Knobstone" area in Floyd, Clark, and Washington Counties only, but has been planted or naturally seed from plantations elsewhere. Two needles in each cluster.
- Located 30 feet from the trail is a shagbark hickory. Shaggy plates of gray bark; compound leaves with 5 leaflets. The nuts are relished by squirrels.
- Oaks and hickories create the oak-hickory forest type. Here is a pignut hickory. Dark gray bark not shaggy; compound leaf has 5 leaflets which are smaller than the shagbark; the nuts are also smaller and have thin husks.
- Another oak here, the Chestnut oak, belongs to the white oak group, but the leaves, on the sprouts to the left, Do not have deeply cut lobes. It is a slow grower, and is found in large numbers on the high dry knobs. Dark gray bark, with vertical deep furrows between wide, hard ridges; large acorns.
- Recycling of decayed plant and animal matter returns their nutrients to the soil to be used again by the forest. An example of recycling is this scarlet oak that died in 1985. It is being allowed to decay naturally.
- This stream bank exposes the soil profile of Rockcastle silt loam. The silty clay topsoil (surface layer) is not more than 1-3 inches thick, and overlays the subsoil in light, olive-yellow and gray horizons. The soils here are types found at lower elevations of the "Knobstone" area and are derived from sandstone, siltstone, siltstones, and shales. Small rocks and finer materials eroded from higher elevations can be seen in the streambed.
- Please do not cut initials in the trunk of this American beech-it permits diseases and curtails growth. Smooth, gray bark; simple leaves with prominent parallel veins.
The green fronds of Christmas ferns grow along the trail, as you walk to the next station.
- Another hickory found here is this bitternut hickory. Light gray, relatively smooth bark; compound leaves with 5-9 leaflets. The small thin-shelled nuts have a bitter taste.
- There are 2 hard maple species in this woods, both tapped for sugar water: black maple has larger and thicker leaves than sugar maple. Oppositely attached, simple leaves with 3 large and 2 small lobes.
This section of the trail is on a cooler, north-facing slope, where beech, maple, oak, and hickory mixtures are found-a mesophytic (moist) forest type.
- Here in this cool, moist site is the red oak. Light, shiny streaks of bark on the upper trunk; simple, alternate leaves with pointed lobes which are not deeply cut; the acorn cup covers no more than 1/4 of the acorn.
- As you walk along the trail, look and listen for signs of animal life, such as tracks, dens, nests, calls or songs, shed snake skins, feathers, and hair caught in the bark of trees. Please leave your finds where they are so others can see them too.
- This small tree that grows in moist ground in the understory is the blue beech (hornbeam or muscle tree). It never reaches a height of the larger trees. Smooth, gray bark with hard ridges; alternate simple leaves with fine teeth along the margins.
- This diseased white oak has a light patch of bark 4 feet above the ground. "Smooth patch" or "white patch" disease is caused by a fungus. It does not kill the tree, but often causes constrictions of the trunk.
- One of the earliest trees to change color in the fall, the black gum turns bright red. Dark brown bark, fairly smooth now, will become deeply furrowed into rectangular ridges when older; alternate elliptical leaves with smooth margins. Flowers are highly favored by bees, juicy fruits are consumed by many birds and mammals.
- The post oak leaves are extremely variable in shape, but generally have 2 large lobes midway to the tip and 2 smaller lobes toward the base. This cross-like shape gives the tree its other common name. Crucifixion Oak.Grows crookedly; gray, deeply furrowed bard. It is slow growing.
- A small understory species, the serviceberry, also called juneberry, shadbush, and amelanchier, is the first to bloom in the spring. Alternate, simple leaves have fine teeth along margins; clusters of white flowers.
- The forest floor is often covered with small shrubs. Round leaf greenbrier, in front of the post, is a common shrub here. While heavy stands make foot travel difficult, it provides protective cover for birds. Square stem with short spines; round-shaped leaves.
- Here again is a red maple(review station 4). It prefers moist soils, Do you see the differences between these leaves and the other maples you have seen today?.
- A blooming flowering dogwood is a sure sign of spring. Small tree; simple, opposite leaves; twigs and branches appear to telescope each other.
- Fifteen feet form the trail is a black oak. Dark brown, furrowed bark; leaves have 3 large, deeply cut lobes and 2 smaller lobes; the acorn cup covers about 1/2 of the acorn.
This ends the self-guiding trail. We hope you have enjoyed your walk as well as the surrounding beauty and diversity nature has to offer.
Directions: From Henryville, in Clark Co., go north 0.9 miles on U.S. 31 then turn left on the main forest road. Park in the picnic grounds on the right after crossing the I-65 overpass. The preserve is across the road (south) from the picnic grounds parking lot. | <urn:uuid:aab6079b-13f9-44a4-adaf-230669cc26b7> | {
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With my Students at Little Round Top
Friends of Padre Steve’s World,
As always I have been doing a lot of reading and of course that has led me to do some more revisions to my Civil War and Gettysburg text. I re-wrote the introduction to the first chapter in order to talk about the nature and role of history in understanding who we are as a people today. The section is part of a chapter that is now over 150 pages long and probably will become a book in its own right. Of course this section, and the rest of the chapter will likely be worked on some more in the coming months but I think that you will like it.
“No one is so sure of his premises as the man who knows too little.”
Finite human beings find themselves bound by time and space, we live in the present, but not the present alone, but rather three worlds: one that is, one that was, and one that will be. Ernst Breisach wrote, “In theory we know these three worlds as separate concepts but we experience as inextricably linked and influencing each other in many ways. Every new and important discovery about the past changes how we think about the present and what we expect of the future; on the other hand every change in the conditions of the present and in the expectations of the future revises our perception of the past. In this complex context history is born ostensibly as reflection of the past; a reflection which is never isolated from the present and the future. History deals with human life as it “flows” through time.”
Richard Evans wrote something in the preface to his book The Third Reich in History and Memory that those who study military history often forget. He noted: “Military history, as this volume shows, can be illuminating in itself, but also needs to be situated in a larger economic and cultural context. Wherever we look, at decision making at the top, or at the inventiveness and enterprise of second rank figures, wider contextual factors remained vital.” Thus while this work is an examination of the Gettysburg campaign it is important to understand the various issues that were formative for the men who directed and fought the battle, as well as the vast continuum of often distant and seemingly events that come together at one time in the lives of the participants in any historic event.
One cannot understand the determination the determination of Robert E. Lee to maintain the offensive, the dogged persistence of Joshua Chamberlain or Strong Vincent to hold Little Round Top, what brought John Buford to McPherson’s Ridge, what motivated Daniel Sickles to move Third Corps to the Peach Orchard, and what motivated the men of Pickett’s division to advance to their death on Cemetery Ridge, without understanding the broader perspective of history, as well as how culture, politics, economics, religion, sociology, ideology, experience, and that shaped these men and their actions.
Likewise in order to understand the context of this battle, or for that matter any battle in any war, one has to understand the events, ever distant events which play a role in the battle. All too often those that delve into military history, or a particular battle see that as separate event, often disconnected from other historical events. But as historian Edward Steers Jr. correctly notes, history “does not exist in a series of isolated events like so many sound bites in a newscast. It is a continuum of seemingly unrelated and distant events that so often come together in one momentous collision of time.” In the case of Gettysburg events like Lincoln’s publication of the Emancipation Proclamation, the failure of Confederate diplomacy to bring France or Great Britain into the war or at least to recognize the Confederacy, the failures of the Confederate armies in the West to maintain their hold on the Mississippi River, all play a crucial role in Robert E. Lee’s ill-advised decision to launch an invasion of Pennsylvania. Additionally, the loss of so many key leaders in the Army of Northern Virginia, especially that of Stonewall Jackson impacts how Lee manages the campaign, and shows up at numerous crucial points in the battle.
Another element that must be connected in order to understand the Battle of Gettysburg is the part that policy, strategy, war aims and operational doctrine played in the campaign of 1863 and how those influenced the decisions of participants before, during and after the campaign. Finally, the Battle of Gettysburg cannot be looked at as a stand-alone event. What happens there as the Confederacy surges to and ebbs back from its “high water mark” influences the rest of the While the war would go on for nearly two more years, the Union victory at Gettysburg coupled with the victory of Grant at Vicksburg ensured that the Confederacy, no matter how hard it tried would not be able to gain its independence through military means.
Maybe even more importantly the story of Gettysburg is its influence today. The American Civil War was America’s greatest crisis. It was a crisis that that “has cast such a shadow over the relations between the North and the South that the nation’s identity and its subsequent history have been considerably influenced by it.”
The Battle of Gettysburg itself is enshrined in American history and myth and is woven deeply into the story of the nation. In this narrative the Battle of Gettysburg is often different ways; in the North viewed as a victory that brings an end to the institution of slavery, and freedom for enslaved African Americans, and preserves the Union. In the South it is often part of the myth of the Noble Confederacy and the Lost Cause where the South was defeated by the Northern superiority in men and war making ability.
Yet in both cases, the truth is not so simple; in fact it is much more complex, and the truth is we are still in the process of learning from and interpreting the historical records of the events that led to the American Civil War, the war itself, and the aftermath. They are all connected and for that matter still influence Americans today more than any other era of our history. In fact James McPherson who is one of the nation’s preeminent scholars on the Civil War and Reconstruction wrote,
“I became convinced that I could not fully understand the issues of my own time unless I learned about their roots in the era of the Civil War: slavery and its abolition; the conflict between North and South; the struggle between state sovereignty and the federal government; the role of the government in social change and resistance to both government and social change. These issues are as salient and controversial today as they were in the 1960s, not to mention the 1860s.”
The prolific American military historian Russel Weigley wrote of how the war, and in particular how the Battle of Gettysburg changed the American Republic.
“The Great Civil War gave birth to a new and different American Republic, whose nature is to be discovered less in the Declaration of Independence than in the Address Delivered at the Dedication of the National Cemetery at Gettysburg. The powerful new Republic shaped by the bayonets of the Union Army of the Civil War wears a badge less benign aspect than the older, original American Republic. But it also carries a larger potential to do good for “the proposition that all men are created equal” both at home and around the world.”
Thus it is important for Americans to learn about the Battle of Gettysburg and the American Civil War, but not solely for its military significance, nor for clear cut answers or solutions. The fact is that “situations in history may resemble contemporary ones, but they are never exactly alike, and it is a foolish person who tries blindly to approach a purely historical solution to a contemporary problem. Wars resemble each other more than they resemble other human activities, but similarities can be exaggerated.” As Michael Howard warned, “the differences brought about between one war and another by social or technological changes are immense, and an unintelligent study of military history which does not take into account these changes may quite easily be more dangerous than no study at all. Like the statesman, the soldier has to steer between the dangers of repeating the errors of the past because his is ignorant that they have been made, and of remaining bound by theories deduced from past history although changes in conditions have rendered these theories obsolete.” The ideal that we reach for is to understand the Battle of Gettysburg and the American Civil War in context, which includes understanding what led to the war as well as the period of Reconstruction, and the post-Reconstruction era. In doing so we attempt to draw lessons from it without making the mistake of assuming that what we learn and know about them is immutable and thus not subject to change, for the past influences the present, even as the present and future will influence how we view and interpret the past.
Tuchman, Barbara The March of Folly: From Troy to Vietnam Random House Publish Group, New York 2011 p.319
Breisach, Ernst, Historiography: Ancient, Mediaeval & Modern University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London 1983 and 1994 p.2
Evans, Richard J. The Third Reich in History and Memory Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York 2015 p.ix
Steers, Edward Jr. Blood on the Moon: The Assassination of Abraham Lincoln The University of Kentucky Press, Lexington 2001 p.5
Perman, Michael and Murrell Taylor, Amy editors The Civil War and Reconstruction Documents and Essays Third Edition Wadsworth Cengage Learning Boston MA 2011 p.3
McPherson, James The War that Forged a Nation: Why the Civil War Still Matters Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York 2015 p.4
Weigley, Russell F. A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History 1861-1865 Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis 2000 p.xviii
Griess, Thomas E. A Perspective on Military History in A Guide to the Study and Use of Military History edited by John E. Jessup Jr. and Robert Coakley, Center for Military History, United States Army, 1982 p.33
Howard, Michael. The Use and Abuse of Military History in Journal of the Royal United Service Institution 107 (1962):7 | <urn:uuid:60f862fe-0049-4d41-80c7-a116ecea5f36> | {
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Monday dawned clear, an invitation to explore. The sun rose on a chilly and serene morning as I walked the shores of Great Slave Lake. After a late night watching the aurora, rolling out of a warm sleeping bag to catch the sunrise seemed like a stretch. But I had planned a day following water. Strolling the beach by the campground with a cup of coffee and a camera seemed like a good start.
You have to stand on the shores of the Great Slave to feel its draw. North America’s deepest lake stretches across the horizon like the ocean, and back in time to the last ice age.
An arc of lakes from Great Bear Lake to the Great Lakes tells the story of the Ice Age that started about 2.5 million years ago and ended only recently. The Laurentide Ice Sheet covered northeastern North America, millions of square miles (or kms) shaping the landscape. The Laurentide butted up against the “smaller” Cordilleran Ice Sheet that covered almost a million square miles in the west.
In the last glacial maximum, from about 95,000-20,000 years ago, the Laurentide Ice Sheet scraped the basins of North America’s various Great Lakes, including the Slave.
The western boundary is marked by a change in geology even today. The Ice Sheet scraped away the surface to some of the oldest known rocks on the earth’s surface, shown in shades of orange and red below (along the line that cuts the Great Slave Lake in two, if you are color vision-impaired).
Those surfaces include stromatolites from about Precambrian times 2.5 billion years ago. Stromatolites are rare, appearing in Western Australia and as fossils in a few other places, including Northwest Territories. They are evidence of the beginnings of life, rock-like mounds built by lime-secreting cyanobacteria and trapped sediment. If you are not appropriately grateful, know that cyanobacteria were the first organisms to create an atmosphere rich enough in oxygen to support life as we know it.
The Hay River Visitor Centre has a display of stromatolites that I will examine more closely on my return visit next year. This time, I barely registered that I stood on the floor of ancient tropical seas, transported back to Deep Time.
Lands west of Great Slave Lake feature relatively younger rock than Archean lands to the east. In exposed areas, the western surface is a modest 358-419 million years-ish, the remains of the Devonian period. This area is shown in blue on the geologic map above.
We call the Devonian period the Age of Fishes, when water covered the planet and complex reefs hosted diverse and sometimes monstrous-looking leviathans.
I would discover evidence of other ancient fish at the Hay River Visitor Centre. The Visitor Centre is open during the week in off-season, so I had to skip it when I arrived on a Saturday. I’m going to tell you to plan your trip to arrive there first. You need to get local travel tips, history, and environmental issues from Peter Magill. You should peruse the exhibits and local artisan work for sale.
When a large family from Yellowknife came in to the Centre, I turned away from brochures and gifts to investigate exhibits. I discovered that the waterfall route I had visited on my Sunday drive held a giant secret.
Full disclosure: I stopped at the waterfalls on the route to Mackenzie Bison Sanctuary because they are a tourist attraction. I am not one of those people who finds spiritual serenity in falling water. Instead, I sit at waterfalls contemplating natural history, geological forces and hydraulics. I find them fascinating as a force of nature, not of spirit. I know that peoples from time immemorial see and hear more than I can. I’ve given up on the divine where waterfalls are concerned.
The waterfalls are well worth your visit no matter what you see in them. In mid-September, I had them to myself. Perhaps because I wasn’t feeling well, I enjoyed just sitting in the warm sun and watching water flow over rock shelves sculpted by ancient ice. Lady Evelyn Falls was perhaps the loveliest of the three with a gentle arc sweeping from bank to bank. Alexandra was the most dramatic. Louise Falls featured the most interesting formation, a shelf of blocks.
What I missed during my Sunday waterfall drop-ins were fossilized trackways from Sarcopterygians, the first fish to set lobed fin on land.
Casts of individual tracks sit on the floor. I knelt down and felt them with my fingertips. I imagined a massive lobe-finned fish, the first tetrapod, hauling its huge body from a drying pool and moving slowly across the land to find more water.
Of course, I had to go and see the trackway. I now felt well enough to make the hike between Alexandra and Louise Falls. I could make it a day. I had food for lunch in the car. After talking with Peter awhile and buying local gifts for friends, I headed out.
Alexandra Falls is easy to reach from the road. There is a parking lot I walked the trail to the river, but instead of turning downstream to the falls, I walked upstream. The bank and trackways erode every spring with battering by the Hay River. But the tracks from the display are still there. Further upstream I found more tracks, and fossil shells embedded in limestone.
I brushed fine debris from the depressions as I sat by the finprints drinking water-primordial, life-giving water. Water that beckoned fish to grow primordial hands and crawl onto the land.
I sat in the sun struggling to comprehend time. I always think of North America’s West Coast as young compared to the East, where old homes are a century older than my area. This all looks adolescent compared to parts of Europe, where crumbling stone tells of life a thousand years back. But this is age as measured by human occupation, not real time.
The rock I sat on bore traces of fish that lived almost 400 million years ago. I felt like dust- or the dust mites that appear only under electron microscope. We are really nothing in the face of Deep Time. A throwaway moment in the history of life. We seem so large and loud and destructive- but we are meaningless and small on a geologic scale.
We are, in fact, a chimera of ancient life. I sat there with my mess of flawed DNA that includes junk sequences from earlier beings and ghosts left behind by viruses. My body hosts microscopic flora, early life forms. Friendly flora help me digest my food and protect me from pathogens. Animal studies say that I would die in a sterile environment.
I sat in the thin fall sunlight with my hands resting in those fossil tracks and simply dissolved. What it meant to be human, to be me, vanished in colored droplets rising with the mist from the falls.
This realization might frighten or depress some people. I was glad I didn’t have a travel companion at that point.
Personally, I found this liberating. Soothing. All those to-dos and must-dos, the fears and hurt and failures. All the small successes that seemed so hard won. The looming questions about becoming an old person with an irritable immune system in a country threatening to cancel health care.
Nothing mattered, not really. Not in Earth’s impassive regard. The sheer act of being alive and touching deep time at that moment was more than a miracle. I could live in this precious moment experiencing dissolution and absolution. I could relax.
There are living Sarcopterygians, remnants of Deep Time still swimming in today’s oceans. The coelacanth, a Lazarus fish thought to be extinct 66 million years ago, was rediscovered off the east coast of South Africa in 1938. I learned about these ghosts of an unimaginable time in grade school. I loved that the world was so much larger and older than me, that there were mysteries to be discovered in my fleeting time on earth.
I love that feeling still. That is why I travel to places like this. That is also why I will return- to feel small and amazed once again. Next time, I will add a visit to Sambaa Deh Falls Territorial Park, where ancient coral tumbles down the river from the falls.
I walked the trail between Alexandra and Louise Falls and back, reading every interpretive sign along the way. The signs tell the journey of young Dene people on a portage past the barriers of the Twin Falls.
When you reach Tucho, the elders of all clans in the region will gather to hold ceremonies, celebrate, and give thanks. Every elder there will be called upon to use special healing gifts. There will be many new stories to tell and legends to retell to educate the young.Interpretive sign, Twin Falls Gorge trail.
The restored portage trail is well-maintained and used heavily by modern life, including beavers, black bears, and likely other furtive creatures. A sturdy spiral stairway safely transports hikers from the trail to an overlook at Louise Falls. I have no idea how First Peoples made this trek, but I do know they would be more fit, agile, and adept at cross-country navigation than most of us modern folk.
I had one last night to spend at Hay River Territorial Park. One late night to brave the sneaky foxes and creep down to the beach to try my hand at photographing the aurora. The Northern Lights were softer, greener, and the light show more brief. I was still entranced. I had spent the day becoming so small and insignificant. I could be one of those atoms in the sky, struck by charged particles from the sun, emitting light on humanity as I calmed.
For an easy, fun look at Deep Time, watch this PBS video.
Spectacular NWT- 19 reasons to see Great Slave Lake. https://spectacularnwt.com/story/19-reasons-to-see-great-slave-lake-now
What causes the aurora borealis, by EarthSky. https://earthsky.org/earth/what-causes-the-aurora-borealis-or-northern-lights
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Part 2 of a 3 part article by Wang Hai Jun, translated by Nick Gudge
Peng Jin and Ding Jin
In the first part of this article, I discussed the first of the five most important taijiquan skills for beginners, fang song. In this article I discuss what I consider to be the second and third most important skills for beginners, peng jin and ding jin.
It is worth repeating that these are difficult ideas to formulate in words. They are difficult to gain an understanding of. It is difficult to grasp the skill of them. They must be shown. The student must be led to them. They are not skills that lead themselves to be grasped intuitively. This is why most people do not get a good basic grounding in them. Many teachers do not have these skill, so naturally it is not possible for their students to gain them. Even today, after more than 20 years of high level taijiquan practitioners being available as visiting teachers, still the level of these skills is not as high as it might be given the dedication, perseverance and effort of many players here in the UK.
Peng Jin – an outward supportive strength the basic skill of taijiquan
Peng Jin (sometimes simply Peng) is the core skill of taijiquan. All other taijiquan skills are based around the skill. It comes from loosening the body (fang song) and stretching. In essence, ‘stretching but not straightening’ the joints. Peng is not a natural or instinctive skill. It comes from a long period of correct practice. Without a good understanding of peng and then considerable training to transform this understanding into this skill in every part of the body, it will not arise. Peng will not be gained by accident. It is systematically trained into the body over time.
When I was exploring writing this piece I considered making peng jin the first most important skill of taijiquan. However, while peng should be considered the most important skill, it is dependent on loosening the body (fang song.) It is an effective argument that Taijiquan is peng jin chuan because without peng there is no taijiquan. It is taijiquan’s essential skill. Peng is always used when moving, neutralizing, striking, coiling etc,. Through peng all other taijiquan skills are utilized.
The phrase peng jin has been the source of some confusion. The two characters (peng and jin) have several meanings in Chinese and specific meaning within the context of taijiquan. Jin is itself is not simple to translate into English. There is no one effective word that can be used. It is translated variously as skill, strength and energy and the term incorporates all of these meanings. Peng is even more difficult to translate. It has been frequently translated as “ward off energy”. I prefer the phrase ‘outward supportive strength’ as a translation.
Chen Fake taught that there are two types of peng jin. The first is the fundamental skill or strength of taijiquan. The second is one of the eight commonly recognized taijiquan jins, (peng, lu, ji, an, cai, lieh, zhou & kao.) The first type of peng is the core element that is the foundation of these eight commonly recognized skills. It is perhaps best considered in English as a separate term from the peng that is listed as one of these eight skills. All eight jins have their basis in peng that is the fundamental skill. From the outside peng has different appearances so it is sometimes called the eight gates (after the eight directions,) but the heart of all eight is always peng the fundamental skill. It is this fundamental skill or strength that I am referring to when I talk about beginners skills. In the past ten years there has been much talk about peng. A student cannot simply demonstrate and use peng just because they will it. It requires external posture training combined with internal jin training to be able to correctly express it. If you do not have peng then you do not have Taijiquan’s jin and it follows that you also will not havelu, ji or an etc”.
The fundamental skill peng describes when the limbs and body stretch or extend while maintaining looseness orfang song. Without looseness (fang song) the body is stiff and peng is lost. If the body is too loose or limp thenpeng is also lost. Without stretching the body is not properly connected and peng is lost. If the limbs and body are over extended then they become rigid and peng is lost. So it is fairly easy to see that a “balance” must be maintained to retain peng. If any part of the body does not have peng, it is an error and must be remedied appropriately. Many form corrections are about regaining peng to various parts of the body, most commonly the knees and elbows. Typically peng is lost or lessened because the body has stiffened or not been loosened sufficiently, most commonly the hips and shoulders.
For those who do not comprehend peng, it can be barely discerned in the surface of the forms. For those who do comprehend peng, its absence is clearly visible. In many respects the basic hand forms of taijiquan specifically works as a peng jin training arena.
Peng jin is not an “on / off” skill. While it is easy not to have it, once it is understood its quality can be improved. Like any form of understanding e.g. learning a new language, it is quite possible not to understand anything in the beginning. While learning there are many degrees of improvement or quality that can be sought and reached. From this understanding it is quite easy to see not only the importance of looseness (fang song) as an integral pre-requisite for peng – this fundamental skill of taijiquan – but also, that improving the appropriate looseness of the body will improve the quality or degree of peng skill.
It is very difficult to convey the idea of peng jin without hands on correction. The student needs to be lead to it after an initial degree of looseness is gained. It is not a “Step One leading to Step Two” type process. Rather it is a process of immersion which leads to understanding. Hands on, frequent correction of the body is required. Understanding the concept generally, will not necessarily translate to a compete understanding in the body. It is a process. Wandering off can and does happen frequently. As an old Chen village saying says, what is required is a good teacher, good understanding and good practice. Without all three gong fu will not be attained. It requires a teacher who understands and can see where the priority of correction is required to enable a student to understand the idea of peng in their body and not to become distracted or confused.
From inside the body, when peng is present any pressure is transferred to the ground (rooted.) The stretching process connects the body in such a way that this happens without additional effort. It could be called a flexible structure inside the body. Consequently when peng is present the body becomes a little like a solid rubber object. It is not rigid, but loose and flexible where pressure to any part is easily transferred across its whole structure.
When touching someone else peng can been described as an audible skill because, not only does it allow the detection of fine motions of an opponent (as if through the sense of hearing,) it also allows determination of their structural weaknesses. When touching a person with peng it become possible to know the best direction to attack them as well as being able to comprehend what the other person is doing and even intending to do. Listening skill (ting jin) occurs through peng jin.
In taijiquan the emphasis of peng is on leading and neutralizing of an incoming force. When peng jin is present there is the potential for rotation. With loose joints the body becomes mobile and by stretching it becomes connected. So any pressure on the body causes rotation or motion. Peng is at the heart of silk reeling as we will see in the last article of this series.
It is also the skill which allows and supports attack. It allows for a rapid response for rapid attack and a slow response for slow offensive. In push hands (tui shou) practice, the student is said to have crossed the threshold only when they have learned the meaning and skill of peng jin. Beginners often take years to accomplish this. While practicing, not only the hands and arms but where any part of the body that comes into contact with the other person a taiji player should make use of this outward supportive or warding force.
So, using peng, a skilled practitioner not only can detect what an opponent is doing, they can neutralize it, detect the direction of vulnerability and attack through it. When this understanding is reached it is easy to see why it is considered the core skill of taijiquan. Where the joints are not loose, peng is lost. Where the limbs are limp and not stretched peng is lost. So beginning with loosening the body, then adding stretching without becoming rigid, the skill that is peng jin becomes manifest in the body. Initially at the start and end of each posture, then continuously in the process of motion.
Ding – Upright and Straight
The meaning and understanding of ding is not difficult to grasp, thought the practice of it takes much more time.Ding means upright or straight and ding jin means upwards pressing skill, strength or power.
When beginning to learn taijiquan, loosening the body includes loosening the spine. If the body is not held upright then there will be excess muscular activity leading to stiffness. Most people do not know what it is to stand up straight. They have the habit of locking their knees, causing a tilt in the pelvis, which in turn causes their body to leans backwards. This creates significant stiffness around the spine and across the lower and mid-torso and hips.
When the body is upright (ding) then it becomes possible to loosen the spine and the waist and then the hips. Ifding is not present then it is most likely none of these can be achieved. When the student understands and maintains ding and consistently stretches without stiffening to produce peng in their body and movements, then the circulation of qi will become evident to them. As with all things in taijiquan, this is a process, with consistent and lengthy practice producing results.
More importantly this upward stretching without stiffening has the effect of lifting excess stresses off the various parts of the spine and allowing them to move freely, similar to the way traction in hospital can free the back from inappropriate strains and pressures so it can move freely. One additional result is that the circulation to the head through the neck is improved. Consequently the movement of qi around the body becomes more noticeable.
There is a famous taijiquan saying xu ling ding jin, (which can literally be translated as ‘empty leading upward energy’.) Its most common English meaning is “the crown / top of the head is pulled upward as if suspended by a string.” Chen Xin’s explanation uses the image of a string pulling upward the bai hui acupuncture point (at the rear of the crown of the head.) When the head is as if suspended or raised upward, the resulting position of the head enable it to turn freely and aids the balance of the body.
So to summarise, ding can be considered the principle that dictates stretching the spine upward to understand and maintain balance, reduce stiffness and to understand and increase both peng and fang song. This basic skill is frequently first grasped in standing exercises like zhan zhuang. The lack of motion allows the student to focus more easily on gaining the correct balance and looseness in the body.
The third and final part of this article, looking at the fourth and fifth most important two skills for beginners, (chenand chan su jin,) is available here. | <urn:uuid:e4695b02-a40e-4385-8881-4fdc72671095> | {
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"Men Wanted for Hazardous Journey. Small Wages, bitter cold, long months of complete darkness, constant danger, safe return doubtful. Honour and recognition in case of success." According to one tale, perhaps apocryphal, that was the wording of an ad Ernest Shackleton placed to solicit men for his 1914 Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition. Not a very enticing offer, but 27 men did sign on, and although they were unsuccessful in the technical sense before they even set foot on land, their ship was crushed in a vise of ice, marooning them for more than a year they did manage, miraculously and heroically, a safe return.
Shackleton's expedition has become perhaps the most storied epic of survival. There are more than a dozen books that tell the tale and it's quite a tale.
Born on Irish ground to English blood in 1874, Shackleton from the first seemed of two worlds. A restless student, he left school at 16 and joined the merchant marine, where, in a turnabout, he gained a reputation as bookish. He would spout the verse of Browning from the decks, and his colleagues viewed him as not a little odd. In 1901 he signed on for Robert F. Scott's Discovery expedition to Antarctica. Six years later he returned on his own. Within 100 miles of the South Pole, their feet split with frostbite, all but starved, Shackleton and his men turned back. They had failed to reach the Pole, although their try had bested Scott's by 360 miles.
Much to Shackleton's dismay, the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen conquered the South Pole in 1911. But the loss of that great trophy didn't diminish Shackleton's wanderlust. He had a comfortable home (largely financed by his wife Emily's fortune) and three children, but soon he was plotting the first crossing of Antarctica on foot.
According to the plan, two ships would set sail. One, with Shackleton at the helm, would cross the treacherous Weddell Sea and land at Vahsel Bay. A second would travel over the Ross Sea; its crew would land and stash supplies for Shackleton's overland crossing. The challenges were obvious: The Weddell Sea was notorious for relentless and crushing ice; Vahsel Bay offered no proven landing; and the territory between the Weddell Sea and the Pole was uncharted. Shackleton made his plans with these difficulties in mind, but he couldn't have known that the sea's ice was destined to freeze early and thick that season.
In August 1914, while other Englishmen were mobilizing to do battle in the Great War, the crew of the Endurance a 300-ton Norwegian-built schooner named to reflect Shackleton's family motto (Fortitudine vincimus, "By endurance we conquer") slipped down the Thames and headed south. On December 7, at latitude 57 degrees south, the first ice appeared, and for six weeks the Endurance smashed through frozen seas. By January 29, the ice had won, and it held the Endurance fast in a gyrating mass of tumbled, jagged slabs some thrusting 20 feet into the air. The Endurance had sailed 12,000 miles, pushed through pack ice for 1,000 miles more, and now, less than 100 miles from its destination, was trapped. "It was more than tantalising," wrote Dr. Alexander H. Macklin, one of two surgeons on board, "it was maddening."
Shackleton calmly announced that the expedition would winter on the ice until spring, a duration that could extend as long as nine months. He then quickly implemented sanity-saving routines and passe-temps. The men amused themselves with impersonations. They raced their 60 or so Canadian sled dogs, wagering chocolate and cigarettes on the contests. Shackleton, wrote Macklin, displayed "real greatness. He did not rage at all, or show outwardly the slightest sign of disappointment."
Even when the ship began to crack, Shackleton kept the expedition together, ordering his men to set up "Ocean Camp." Using the Endurance's battered timbers, they built a galley and storehouse on the ice and filled it with three tons of salvaged food. They surrounded this principal building with five linen tents and three lifeboats.
On October 27, 1915, the Endurance sank. Shackleton stayed up all night, and the next morning, after serving his crew coffee at five a.m., he announced, "Ship and stores have gone so now we'll go home."
It would take another half year before they could set off, but home they would eventually go.
On April 9, 1916, the ice finally thinned enough for the men to again take to the sea. Their only hope for survival, Shackleton determined, was to reach Elephant Island, some 100 miles away. After seven days of storm and cold, having to bail their open lifeboats constantly, the men arrived some of them just barely alive.
Shackleton knew that to stay on the remote outpost, several hundred miles from the southernmost tip of South America, almost certainly meant death. So he and five volunteers took to the sea again in the 22.5-foot James Caird, largest of the lifeboats. Their goal: the whaling camps off South Georgia Island, some 800 miles north.
In what is now widely regarded as the most remarkable boat journey of all time, the men spent 17 days on the planet's stormiest ocean. Shackleton biographer Roland Huntford has described the Caird as "a cockleshell that was like an insect swimming in a tidal wave." Expedition member Frank Worsley, an expert navigator, took only four sextant readings along the way. Had his calculations been wrong by one degree, the Caird would have sailed off course. But the boat plunged straight on, through snow, hurricane-force wind and seas as high as 20 feet. The men pulled screws from the Caird and forced them into the soles of their boots for traction. Emaciated, they reached land, then had to trek 22 miles over the unmapped, glacier-draped mountains of South Georgia to reach the whaling port. As they began their 36-hour hike, Shackleton said, "If anything happens to me while those fellows are waiting for me, I shall feel like a murderer."
It never came to that. Four months later, after three unsuccessful attempts to sail back in rescue, Shackleton returned to his crew. They were scratching limpets from the shore when he arrived; even the penguins had abandoned desolate Elephant Island. Near-starved, the men had endured by huddling under their lifeboats, singing songs to hold on to the last threads of hope and sanity. All 28 men who sailed on the Endurance survived. As for Sir Ernest, he would live only a few years more: He died of a heart attack on South Georgia in 1922 while commanding yet another Antarctic expedition.
Years later, Raymond Priestley, who had served as the geologist on Shackleton's 1907 Antarctic expedition, reflected: "For swift and efficient travel, give me Amundsen; for scientific investigation, give me Scott; but when you are at your wits' end and all else fails, go down on your knees and pray for Shackleton."
Next Jacques Cousteau | <urn:uuid:798fb299-2b4e-47c0-80c2-2f03e67e5e6c> | {
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James Gillespie Blaine
James Gillespie Blaine (1830-1893) was a leading Republican politician and statesman of the Gilded Age, and a power in the Third Party System. He served in the House and Senate from Maine. He was defeated for president by Grover Cleveland in a close race in 1884, when the Mugwumps (reform Republicans) broke away. He closed his career as a successful Secretary of State in the early 1890s. A powerful party leader, he was surrounded by suspicions of corruption, but created an innovative American foreign policy.
Blaine was born in West Brownsville, Pa., Jan. 31, 1830, moving in 1841 with his parents to Washington, Pa. He graduated from Washington and Jefferson College in 1847 and studied law. Blaine taught school, first in slaveholding Kentucky (1848-1852) and then in Philadelphia (1852-1854). In 1854 he moved to his wife's home in Augusta, Maine, and purchased an interest in the Republican newspaper the Kennebec Journal. He entered politics as a Republican, was elected to the state legislature in 1858, and was twice reelected, serving as speaker in 1861 and 1862. From 1859 to 1881 he was chairman of the Republican State Committee in Maine. Blaine was a fluent writer and a master at political management, In 1862 he was elected to Congress, where he took the lead in financial legislation. He never served in uniform. He held the powerful position of Speaker the House from 1869 to 1875, during Reconstruction. On July 10, 1876, he was appointed to fill a vacancy in the United States Senate, and later was elected to the six-year term, serving until 1881.
Blaine was a magnetic speaker in an era of oratory, a man of charisma. As a moderate Republican he supported President Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War. As a major leader during Reconstruction he took an independent course in his advocacy of black suffrage, but opposed the coercive measures of the Radical Republicans during the administration of Ulysses S. Grant. He opposed a general amnesty bill, secured the confidence and support of the Grand Army of the Republic, worked for a reduction in the tariff and generally sought and obtained strong support from the Western states. Railroad promotion and construction were important in this period, and as a result of his interest and support Blaine was charged with graft and corruption in the awarding of railroad charters. The proof or falsity of the charges was supposed to rest in the so-called "Mulligan letters," which Blaine refused to release to the public, but from which he read in his successful defense in the House. He proposed the Blaine Amendment in 1875, an amendment to the federal Constitution that would forbid the public funding of private, denominational schools. It passed the House but failed in the Senate and never became federal law, but 30 states copied it into their state constitutions.
GOP factions; Blaine as "Half Breed"
Blaine was a leading candidate going into the 1876 Republican National Convention; he was nominated by Robert G. Ingersoll in a brilliant speech that made Ingersoll famous, extolling him as the "Plumed Knight:"
- The people demand a man whose political reputation is spotless as a star; but they do not demand that their candidate shall have a certificate of moral character signed by a Confederate congress. . . . This is a grand year--a year filled with recollections of the Revolution. . . a year in which the people call for the man who has torn from the throat of treason the tongue of slander--for the man who has snatched the mask of Democracy from the hideous face of rebellion; for the man who, like an intellectual athlete, has stood in the arena of debate and challenged all comers, and who is still a total stranger to defeat.... James G. Blaine marched down the halls of the American Congress and threw his shining lance full and fair against the brazen foreheads of the defamers of his country and the maligners of his honor.
The rivalries between Blaine's "Half Breeds" and Stalwarts (Grant supporters) was so strong that a compromise candidate, Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio, was chosen and then elected in a highly controversial election that ended Reconstruction.
Blaine was again the leading candidate in 1880; but the same bitter factionalism defeated him once more. His ally James A. Garfield was nominated and elected, and Blaine was appointed Secretary of State. Garfield was soon assassinated and after a few months Blaine left the cabinet.
Lost in 1884
Finally in 1884 Blaine was nominated on the first ballot, with General John A. Logan of Illinois as his running mate. Blaine's opponent was Grover Cleveland, a conservative Bourbon Democrat who, as governor of New York, was a leader in political reform, particularly of the civil service. The election was very close but Blaine could not shake the corruption allegations. Mugwumps, led by prominent Republican reformers, switched to Cleveland. Late in the campaign came an indiscreet remark of one of his supporters, the Reverend S. D. Burchard, who ridiculed the Democratic opposition as the party of "rum, Romanism, and rebellion." (That is, saloons, Catholics and ex-Confederates.) It was an insult especially to Irish Catholics, a Democratic constituency Blaine was courting. Blaine won only 182 out of a total of 401 electoral votes, but Cleveland's popular vote margin was less than 25,000 in a total of more than 10,000,000.
Secretary of State
Still the party leader, Blaine resumed his writing and speaking, and visited Europe. He helped Benjamin Harrison become the GOP nominee in 1888; in 1889 President Harrison appointed Blaine his Secretary of State. During three years of service in this office, probably the most constructive part of his career, Blaine's focused on relations with Latin-American and Britain. He pushed for an canal across Panama, built, operated, and controlled by the United States; he secured Congressional legislation resulting in the Pan-American Conference which met in Washington in October, 1889. Blaine's set up the Bureau of American Republics in Washington. As an early environmentalist he used diplomacy to protect the seal herds in the Pribilof Islands of Alaska. He tried to annex Hawaii (which almost succeeded in early 1893, but was postponed to 1898). Indeed, the permanent influence of Blaine on American life was through his foreign policy. Although Blaine concluded tariff reciprocity agreements with eight Latin American nations, reciprocity negotiations with Canada stalled in 1891-92. Harrison and Blaine feared a political backlash from American farmers and lumbermen if concessions were made to Canada. Blaine's Anglophobia also influenced the outcome of the negotiations, and Canada's negotiators to the end resisted the inclusion of reciprocity on manufactured articles in any treaty. The two most important reciprocity agreements were signed with Brazil and with Spain for Cuba and Puerto Rico.
Though not a candidate in 1892, Blaine received nearly 200 votes on the first ballot. After the election Blaine's health failed rapidly, and he died in Washington, on Jan. 27, 1893.
Image and reputation
In foreign policy Blaine was a transitional figure, marking the end of one era in foreign policy and foreshadowing the next. He brought energy, imagination and verve to the office in sharp contrast with his somnolent rivals, inspiring his activist twentieth-century successors. He was a pioneer in arbitration treaties, tariff reciprocity, and American administration of Latin American customs houses. to avert civil wars over the revenue stream. Blaine wanted the the U.S. to be the protector and leader of the Western Hemisphere, even if the Latin America countries disagreed. He insisted on keeping the Americas away from European control while favoring peaceful arbitration and negotiations rather than war. Blaine forcefully argued for the national interests of his country. He kept the big picture firmly in mind, seeking long-term programs and not simply short-term fixes for the matter at hand.
Puck cartoon artists Joseph Keppler and Bernhard Gillam and Harper's Weekly cartoonist Thomas Nast all shared a desire to discredit Republican candidate James Blaine by ascribing to him characteristics of scandal during the presidential campaign of 1884. The article explores how cartoonists differed in their approaches using the concept of "scandal intertextuality." In doing so, it shows how these artists borrowed not only from previous scandals and debates about cultural norms of the time but also from each other.
- Bastert, Russell H. “A New Approach to the Origins of Blaine's Pan American Policy.” Hispanic American Historical Review 39 (1959): 375—412. in JSTOR
- Beisner, Robert L. From the Old Diplomacy to the New, 1865—1900. (2d ed., 1986), short survey.
- Crapol, Edward P. James G. Blaine: Architect of Empire. (2000).
- Healy, David. James G. Blaine and Latin America (2001) online edition
- Langley, Lester D. “James Gillespie Blaine: The Idealogue as Diplomat.” in Frank J. Merli and Theodore A. Wilson, eds., Makers of Modern Diplomacy, (1974). pp 253 —78.
- Lockey, James B. “James G. Blaine.” In Samuel Flagg Bemis, ed., The American Secretaries of State and Their Diplomacy, vol. 7, 263 — 97, and vol. 8, 109-84. (1928).
- Makemson, Harlen. "One Misdeed Evokes Another: How Political Cartoonists Used 'Scandal Intertextuality' Against Presidential Candidate James G. Blaine." Media History Monographs 2004-05 7(2): 1-21. online edition
- Morgan, H. Wayne. From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877—1896. (1969) online edition
- Muzzey, David. James G. Blaine (1934) the standard biography
- Peskin, Allan. "Blaine, Garfield and Latin America." Americas: a Quarterly Review of Inter-American Cultural History 1979 36(1): 79-89. in JSTOR
- Pletcher, David M. "Reciprocity and Latin America in the Early 1890s: a Foretaste of Dollar Diplomacy." Pacific Historical Review 1978 47(1): 53-89. in JSTOR
- Pletcher, David M. The Awkward Years: American Foreign Relations under Garfield and Arthur. (1962)
- Sewell, Mike. “Political Rhetoric and Policy-Making: James G. Blaine and Britain.” Journal of American Studies 24 (April 1990): 61—84.
- Smith, Joseph. Illusions of Conflict: Anglo-American Diplomacy toward Latin America, 1865—1896. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979.
- Socolofsky, Homer E., and Allan B. Spetter. The Presidency of Benjamin Harrison. (1987).
- Summers, Mark. Rum, Romanism & Rebellion: The Making of a President, 1884 (2004) online edition
- Sievers, Harry J. Benjamin Harrison, Hoosier President. 1968.
- Stanwood, Edward. James Gillespie Blaine (1905) old fashioned but generally accurate. 377 pages online edition
- Tyler, Alice Felt. The Foreign Policy of James G. Blaine (1927) 411 pages
- Volwiler, A. T. "Harrison, Blaine, and American Foreign Policy, 1889-1893," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 79, No. 4 (Nov. 15, 1938), pp. 637-648 in JSTOR;
- Blaine, James G. . “The Presidential Election of 1892.” North American Review 15 (November 1892): 513—25.
- Blaine, James G. 20 Years in Congress (1884), more of a history than a memoir; well-regarded by scholars online edition
- Blaine, James G. The Blaine and Logan Campaign of 1884: Blaine's Speeches During the Canvass (1884) - 234 pages online edition
- Blaine, James G. The words of james g. blaine on the issues of the day 1884, (1884) speeches online edition
- Blaine, James G. Political Discussions, Legislative, Diplomatic, and Popular, 1856-1886 (1887) 525 pages online edition
- Volwiler, Albert T., ed. The Correspondence between Benjamin Harrison and James G. Blaine, 1882—1893. American Philosophical Society, 1940. online edition
- ↑ Healy (2001)
- ↑ Charles S. Campbell, Jr., "The Anglo-American Crisis in the Bering Sea, 1890-1891." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 1961 48(3): 393-414. Issn: 0161-391x Fulltext: in Jstor
- ↑ Allan B. Spetter, "Harrison and Blaine: No Reciprocity for Canada." Canadian Review of American Studies 1981 12(2): 143-156. Issn: 0007-7720
- ↑ Healy (2001) p 253
- ↑ Makemson (2004) | <urn:uuid:1a0dee30-4ad7-47cf-b771-ea35c1ab1d45> | {
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The Great Tree is remembered as the “Tree of Life” and remains a symbol in many cultures as the bearer of life’s fruit and labor.
The first great tree that stood in the center of the Garden of Eden was not an apple tree but a mighty Oak.
Ancient civilizations valued trees as sacred because they realized the importance of trees in our environment. Great trees were known as symbols of longevity, strength and fruitfulness. Trees represented the mysteries of change and endurance, the abundance and perfect beauty of nature.
The majestic Oak that grows so plentiful in certain areas of the country has long been known throughout history as a very sacred tree. The Oak has been considered as a doorway connecting the two parts of the year. The name Oak is derived from the Sanskrit word for door.
To Northern Europeans the Oak has been known as the Tree of Life sacred to the Thunder God Thor. The Oak was associated with the Greek God Zeus and his Roman counterpart Jupiter. Both symbolized by the thunderbolt.
The Oak’s widespread attachment with thunder Gods is probably due to the fact that Oaks are struck by lightening more then any other tree because many of them are hollow and hold water in their trunks.
As a medicinal herb Oaks have a long standing with many uses that are overlooked today but were often used in days gone by. The leaves and bark are rich in Tannin which is known to be an astringent and antiseptic.
Tannin was once recommended as a tonic for use after over exertion. Acorns are the fruit of the Oak and were a food source of Native Americans. Acorns were often used by earlier settlers as a coffee substitute.
The inner bark of the Black Oak can be used to obtain dyes of various colors including yellow to buff, gold, olive green and orange. The dyes can be used on wool, cotton, silk and wood floors or furniture. | <urn:uuid:07a07828-5e26-460a-b879-4818ab6caef2> | {
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Pandoro – Christmas Bread from Verona
The name arrives from the intense gold color of this Christmas bread (Pane di Oro – Bread of Gold). It is not clear exactly where this festive bread originated. Some believe that it was born in the Venetian Republic in the 1500s where it was served covered with thin sheets of gold. Others insist that it has its origins in a star shaped Christmas bread from Verona called Nadalin.
Most believe that the origins are in the family of the kings of Asburgo. Since the 1700s the method of preparation of the “Bread of Vienna” has been well known and those same methods are employed today to make Pandoro.
Pandoro in its traditional shape is a star however it will be difficult to find the right mold here in the States. Most molds I have seen are too tight in the arms of the star making it extremely difficult to properly leaven and, after baking, remove cleanly from the mold. If you cannot find a good mold I suggest you make this in a coffee can lined with parchment paper and rising to a total height of about 9 inches.
200 grams of Biga
¼ cup warm water
1 tablespoon sugar
1 packet of active dry yeast
3 ¾ cups of all purpose flour (500 grams)
¼ cup sugar (50 grams)
¼ cup butter (50 grams) [room temperature]
Disolve 1 tablespoon sugar in the warm water and mix in dry yeast. Let stand for about 10 minutes. Place the Biga in a large mixing bowl. Add the dissolved yeast to the Biga and mix well with a metal spoon.
Whisk the eggs with the sugar until light in color. Add the flour to the biga in the large mixing bowl and mix about 1 minute. The dough will not be formed but will be clumpy. Add the egg and sugar mixture to the dough and mix well.
The dough will be formed. Work in the butter. I prefer to use my hands but this can be done with a metal spoon or dough paddle on a mixer. Once thoroughly incorporated cove with plastic wrap and let rise about 1 hour or until doubled.
4 eggs (room temperature)
2 egg yolks (room temperature)
1 cup sugar
2 ¼ cups all purpose flour (300 grams)
1 teaspoon salt
2 teaspoons vanilla extract or the inside of 2 vanilla beans
zest of 1 lemon
1 ¼ cups butter (room temperature)
½ cup flour for kneading dough
This is where it gets tricky. You need to render the dough liquid enough to add the additional flour but do not want to completely break down the dough. Add the salt and lemon zest to the flour and mix in a separate bowl. Place the eggs, yolks, sugar, and vanilla in a separate bowl and whisk together until lighter in color, a bit creamy.
Add ½ of the egg mix to the existing dough and work in with your hands or a metal spoon. All at once, add the flour, salt, and zest mix to the dough and the remaining egg mixture. Mix completely. The dough will pliable and should not be sticky. Work in the butter by hand.
Finally place the dough on a floured surface and work in the remaining ½ cup of flour. The dough will be pliable, elastic and light in color. The dough will change according to the humidity in your location so work with the remaining flour to get the consistency you want. It will take about 10-15 minutes of kneading by hand to get the proper elasticity.
Place the dough in a buttered bowl, cover with plastic wrap and let rise in a warm place for about 3 hours. If the kitchen temperature is under 78 degrees it may take 4-5 hours. This dough must rise appropriately otherwise this will be a brick! I usually prepare the dough after dinner and let it rise all night since my house is about 68 degrees.
To shape the Pandoro, sprinkle the dough with flour. During the rise the dough will have become very sticky from the butter. Flour the surface and your hands then cut the dough into two parts and shape into balls. Do not be afraid to add flour to work the dough. There is a lot of butter in the dough and it will amalgamate with the flour.
Butter the molds or coffee cans lined with parchment paper and place the dough in the mold. Cover with a moist towel and let rise for 4 hours. If the kitchen is cold allow for 5 hours. Bake in a preheated 350 degree oven for 30 minutes then reduce the temperature to 300 and cook for another 30 minutes. Let cool completely on racks before attempting to remove from the mold.
Just before serving place in a large plastic bag with 1/3 cup powdered sugar and shake. Remove from plastic bag and serve.
Serve with a Prosecco or a Spumante (if you like sweet wines).
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The Université de Sherbrooke in Canada and Bayer have joined forces to develop a vaccine against bovine mastitis.
For more than 7 years, Professor François Malouin from the Université de Sherbrooke (UdeS) has been developing a vaccine against bovine mastitis. Now, the research commercialisation firm TransferTech (part UdeS) has signed a license agreement with the multinational Bayer to finalise the development of this vaccine.
Mastitis: Serious economic disease
Bovine mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary gland in cows, generally caused by a bacterial infection. Staphylococcus aureus is most often the bacteria culprit. It is contagious, transmitting easily from 1 cow to another in a herd. It causes persistent and chronic infections, which can last for months. The economic impact of bovine mastitis on dairy production is enormous: in the order of US$110 million (€98.75 million) per year in Quebec and $400 million (€359.1 million) across Canada.
Commercialising in the next few years
Developed by Professor François Malouin and his team at the Université de Sherbrooke's Department of Biology, the vaccine offers a previously unexplored approach to controlling proliferation of the infection, which is caused by the very virulent Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. "Our partners at Bayer immediately recognised the vaccine's potential," said Professor Malouin. "For this reason, the company became involved in finalising its development and, possibly, commercialising it in the next few years."
UdeS welcomes the opportunity to partner with Bayer to advance research on bovine mastitis, a problem on which many other teams are working around the world. "This is eloquent proof of the quality of research produced in our laboratories," said Jacques Beauvais, Vice-President of Research, Innovation, and Entrepreneurship at the Université de Sherbrooke.
Major support for the institutional strategy
In addition, this agreement fits perfectly with the Université de Sherbrooke's innovation, partnership, and entrepreneurship strategy. "We want to demonstrate that our exploratory research can lead to very concrete benefits, with practical applications that have positive results for the public," said Beauvais.
This discovery would not have been possible without the contribution of Céline Ster, Marianne Allard, and Julie Côté Gravel (Université de Sherbrooke), the collaboration of scientists from the Université de Montréal's Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and from Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, particularly Pierre Lacasse, and funding from the Canadian Bovine Mastitis and Milk Quality Research Network. | <urn:uuid:9d34cbf0-8d59-469e-9009-a8a4d5c9bf54> | {
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The importance of breast cancer research from a patient's view: the voices and visions of advocates
- S Leigh1
© Current Science Ltd 2000
Published: 12 March 2000
While advances in science and technology have increased options for treating breast cancer, current social trends have changed the way people deal with this disease. Women in the United States are no longer simply passive patients, but rather they are survivors, advocates and activists who are speaking up for themselves and speaking out for issues relevant to the treatment and prevention of breast cancer.
As the discoveries of basic science have been translated to better clinical treatment, a new sense of hope has emerged. Quality of life now shares the spotlight with quantity of life as breast cancer has shifted from an acute to a chronic condition and as the numbers of long-term survivors increase. While this new population tends to have more optimistic expectations for survival, they are also expressing concerns about issues affecting their lives through and beyond treatment. These issues include, but are not limited to, such concerns as efficient and accurate diagnosis, the complexity of treatment decisions, access to quality cancer care, informed consent, privacy issues, availability of supportive care treatments, and effective communication skills, especially with their physicians. Survivors are also concerned about the impact of their disease on spouses and family, on fertility and sexuality issues, on their employment and (in the USA) insurability, and on their long-term survival. The identification of these increasing issues has given rise to a consumer movement that encourages a shift away from powerless victim to empowered survivor.
Historically, breast cancer advocates asked for increased educational and supportive care resources. As the survivorship movement matured, new responsibilities and differing agendas arose amongst these groups. Some organizations defined their mission as one that would raise funds to support scientific research. Others felt compelled to raise awareness about early detection and treatment, controversial environmental issues, and prevention or risk reduction. A few organizations later entered the more political arenas and began lobbying for issues related to health care delivery, clinical trials access, and quality cancer care. Meanwhile, these many and varied missions are all helping to define an international agenda for breast cancer research and care, to guarantee the inclusion of consumer voices in most levels of decision-making, and to create partnerships between patients with breast cancer and the professionals who care for them. | <urn:uuid:20a18590-325a-42a8-9421-30c428d0c25b> | {
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Updated: January 1, 2011
If you consider yourself a man of the world, then you must like British humor. If you like British humor, you should be watching Live at the Apollo. If you do, then you may have stumbled upon a nice sketch, where the comedian debates Bill Gates' wealth. The comedian asks a handful of legitimate question any sane person would ask: What would happen if Bill stacked all his money under a mattress? The man then discusses what would happen if Bill jumped off his mattress, what with all them shekels piled underneath. How big of a fall would that be? And what about the interest rate?
Indeed, legitimate questions them all. In this article, I will quantify this simple human envy for Bill's wealth. How high would the money pile really be? How much time would a person take to jump off it and reach the ground? Could interest rate make up for the descent, creating a situation where the jumper would never reach the bottom, truly defying the gravity?
The pile would be 10 km high and it would take you 18 minutes to reach the ground. The interest rate would make the pile grow so quickly it would compensate for your fall, making you defy the gravity. Is this true? Or just rather funny? Have the British unraveled a mystery that has eluded humanity for so long?
We will assume Bill sleeps on a bed 225x225 cm. For the sake of simplicity, a USD1,000 note measures 15x5 cm. This means that a single layer of notes carefully stacked under Bill's bed would be worth fifteen notes longitudinally, 45 notes transversely, a total of 675 notes or USD675,000 dollars. Not bad.
Now, we will assume you can stack 100 notes in a pile one cm thick. This means that there would be 675 million dollars in a pile 10 cm high. Bill's net worth is about 80 billion dollars. In order words, his entire stack would rise approx. 11.85 meters above ground. If you need help with the above calculation, do let me know. All right, let's do the math. 80 billion divided by 0.675 equals 118.5. So we have 118.5 10-cm stacks, or 11.85 meters. Feeling any better?
11.85 meters is not that much, when you think about it. Still, it could be fatal if you landed on concrete.
What if we substitute 1000-dollar notes for one-dollar notes?
All right, it becomes interesting. Our pile now grows to a staggering 11.85 km! This means you would officially reach the stratosphere. Without adequate protection, you would die of cold and the lack of oxygen and the winds would topple the pile. But never mind that.
If you leap, you lose contact with the pile. So even if it's growing due to interest rate, you would not be affected. But let's assume that you would. Let's assume that interest rate would somehow make your fall longer.
Given a 10% rate annually, Bill's money is making a handsome eight billion dollars a year or roughly 1.185 meters in height. It's a 3.24 meter growth every day or approx. 0.22 cm every minute.
On the other hand, a free-falling person reaches the terminal velocity of about 250 kph or 70 meters/sec. Falling from a 12 km money pile would take only about 170 seconds to reach the ground. 170 seconds, three minutes. In this time, your pile would grow by a meager 0.6 cm, not enough to counter the force of the gravity.
The only way you could do that was by making your money pile grow by more than 70 meters every second. 70 meters of pile in one-dollar notes translates into roughly 470 million dollars. This means that Bill's wealth would grow by 40.7 trillion dollars every day or almost 15,000 trillion dollars annually. Compared to his original worth, this is a handsome 18.8 million percent interest.
At the end of the year, the pile would have grown from 11.85 km to roughly 2.2 million km, seven times the distance to the Moon. The only way to escape gravity. Not bad. Well, the truth is, the farther you got away from planet Earth the less of a gravitational pull. You may break even with far less.
Actually, it gets worse. The above calculation only works for a static annual interest rate. We might have exponential interest rate. The money pile could actually accelerate. And one day, break the sound barrier. Or worse. It could go near-speed-of-light and then you'd have time-space effects, with special gravity affecting interest rate in unprecedented ways. Time would change. Uh-oh, it gets complicated. Damn.
So the simple answer is: no, you can't beat gravity. Not even Bill Gates.
Bill Gates is one of the richest people in the world. And his money pile would make for one really, really fat mattress. But even the inventor of DOS, the man behind Windows, cannot defeat the basic laws of physics that easily. And there's some simple comfort in that. Because the day humans start using nothing but financial gain to fight off the forces of the universe, it's going to be a bad day for us all.
What more, Live at the Apollo had it wrong. The figures were embellished, for the sake of dramatic effect. But Bill's pile does tower mightily high. Created from one-dollar bills, it would skyrocket into stratosphere and make for a very lethal prize. But it would not stop a happy jumper from deficit and a somewhat permanent Chapter 13.
Well, there you go, all your questions answered. Finance, interest rate, terminal velocity, you name it. Dedoimedo strikes again, with all the beauty and glory of a Ford Focus plowing into a kindergarten. Have fun. P.S. Both the dollar image and the jumper are US Government work and in public domain. | <urn:uuid:635c20c6-44d6-4e8a-bd84-ce6516c7a3bd> | {
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Date registered: March 9, 2012
- Nausea in Pregnancy – Remedies – Health and Science Article — March 14, 2012
More than three quarters of pregnant women experience mild to severe nausea and vomitings during pregnancy, more commonly during first trimester. In cases of mild nausea some relative simple measures and remedies can help a lot, making being pregnant easier. Although most of these measures don’t have strong medical evidence of reducing nausea, these are strongly supported by many obstetricians, midwives and pregnant women by experience. Read our health and medicine article to learn the remedies.
Permanent link to this article: http://www.explainstuff.com/2012/03/14/nausea-in-pregnancy-remedies/ | <urn:uuid:53364882-046f-40fb-8c09-71014ea104fa> | {
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Texas Scientists Use Mullite Oxide to Clean Diesel Exhaust in Cars
August 20, 2012 5:31 AM
comment(s) - last by
Dr. Kyeongjae Cho, study leader
(Source: UT Dallas)
Mullite replaces platinum, a precious metal that is expensive to mine and limited in supply
University of Texas at Dallas scientists found that a material called mullite, which is from a family of oxides, could replace platinum on diesel exhaust from automotives.
Platinum has been the go-to material for
because diesel exhaust emits more nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxode than gasoline vehicles (however, diesel engines are generally more efficient). To reduce the amount of these pollutants from diesel exhaust, platinum is commonly used.
The problem is that platinum is a precious metal, mainly because it is limited and very expensive to mine. For 10 tons of platinum ore mined, only 1 ounce is usually usable.
Another issue was that diesel engine exhaust was recently added to the
World Health Organization's list of items that are carcinogenic in humans
. Hence, finding an alternative that could clean diesel exhaust up further was pretty important.
Enter Dr. Kyeongjae Cho, study leader and professor of materials science and engineering and physics at UT Dallas. He and a team of researchers set out to find the alternative, and discovered that mullite was exactly what the doctor ordered.
After synthesizing mullite and using computer models to see how it consumes nitric oxide/nitrogen dioxode, it was discovered that an oxygen-based composition of mullite is not only cheaper to produce than platinum, but it also reduces diesel exhaust pollution 45 percent more than platinum.
"Our goal to move completely away from precious metals and replace them with oxides that can be seen commonly in the environment has been achieved," said Cho. "We've found new possibilities to create renewable, clean energy technology by designing new functional materials without being limited by the supply of precious metals."
This new mullite discovery is already being commercialized as Noxicat.
University of Texas at Dallas
This article is over a month old, voting and posting comments is disabled
RE: Dontcha Wonder...
8/20/2012 11:32:50 AM
With drought more then half the counties in this country in a state of emergency, and most of those because of drought. I don't understand why everyone still likes whipping the EPA. Not to mention that this is the hottest year on record. Climate change is real, most every climate scientist agrees. Even those that have long been skeptics have changed there minds. The US government isn't the only government in the world that regulates emissions.
So get over it
RE: Dontcha Wonder...
8/20/2012 11:33:59 AM
"With drought more then half the counties in this country in a state of emergency, and most of those because of drought."
"With more then half the counties in this country in a state of emergency, and most of those because of drought."
RE: Dontcha Wonder...
8/20/2012 6:23:34 PM
We just had the 2nd warmest July here....the warmest was back in the mid 30's with 1936 the hottest. Man we must've had a lot of SUV's, greenhouse emissins during the 30's I never heard of.
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Terms, Conditions & Privacy Information | <urn:uuid:1b55f130-5a90-4797-bae7-4f005e7c90ce> | {
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When you finish lacing up your running shoes and stretching the hami's don't forget about your shoulders. Running is a whole body exercise -- you are pumping your arms, cranking your torso and pounding your feet on the ground. If you are having shoulder pain after a run, try an ounce of prevention through strengthening the shoulder and completing daily range of motion exercises. If your shoulder pain is persistent or increasing it is time to see a doctor and learn more about the possible causes.
Get a thorough physical at your doctor's office. Shoulder pain can be caused by a simple strain or improper warm up. However, it could also represent a referred pain from the spine due to nerve root compression in your neck. Referred shoulder pain during exercise may also indicate coronary insufficiency and signal an impending heart problem.
Stretch the shoulders thoroughly before and after a run. Place one hand on a stationary object, such as a desk, and lean over at a 30-degree angle.
Let the other arm hang toward the ground and relax the shoulder. Let that arm swing in concentric circles, using gravity to provide a static stretch. Reverse directions and continue the circling movement.
Repeat the arm circles on the other side. Aim for five to 10 repetitions on both sides, going in both directions.
Stand straight with your feet hip-width apart. Relax your shoulders by pulling your shoulder blades down toward the floor. Relax your chin onto your chest and roll your head to the left. Hold for one complete breath and roll your head to the right. Complete 10 reps to relax the neck and shoulders.
Strengthen your shoulders with resistance exercises every other day. Start with a set of 10 pushups, using only your body weight. If you cannot complete 10 you can work up to it. Make sure your hands are beneath your shoulders and your back is straight during each repetition.
Start dumbbell shoulder presses if you do not have a shoulder injury. Begin using a light weight between 1 and 5 lbs. Stand straight holding the weights, knees slightly bent and your feet hip-width apart.
Raise the weights to just above shoulder level with your palms facing outward. Inhale through your nose and extend the weights straight up during the exhale. Return to the starting position and complete 10 reps as tolerated. If you can complete the repetitions without any effort you can try a heavier weight next time.
Apply an ice or cold compress to the shoulder after running for 20 minutes. You can elevate the arm on pillows or use over-the-counter anti-inflammatory medications as directed to accelerate your pain relief if you have the okay from your doctor.
Don't eat or drink immediately before a run. Blood is shunted away from the digestive process when you exercise, which could lead to referred pain throughout your trunk and shoulder blades.
Shoulder pain that is not recreated with movement may require a doctor's attention as it could signify a referred pain as opposed to a functional one. | <urn:uuid:6b89bbdc-f7a6-4442-bf13-ed100c6bd908> | {
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Poor Circulation in Hands: Causes and Remedies
Do your hands always feel cold even when it’s warm outside, do you have a tingling or numbing sensation at the end of your fingers? Poor blood circulation could be the answer to your condition. The information in this article will help you understand what’s causing poor blood supply to your hands and natural ways to relieve it.
Major causes of poor circulation in hands:
Atherosclerosis is one of the leading causes of poor circulation in hands in the US. Cholesterol plaques settle on the lining of the veins and arteries leading to their hardening and even blockages. If atherosclerosis causes tingling and numbness sensations in the hands, your doctor will most likely prescribe statins, drugs that help lower levels of cholesterol in blood.
Diabetes not only causes poor circulation in hands but can trigger unpleasant sensations in the upper extremities. Keeping blood sugar levels under control will slow down the progression of the disease and help manage your symptoms.
Raynaud’s disease is one of the possible poor circulation in hands causes according to LiveStrong. http://www.livestrong.com/article/263438-causes-of-poor-circulation-in-hands/ Individuals affected by this condition frequently experience blood vessel spasms leading to cold hands, tingling sensations and numbness of the hands and fingers. Mayo Clinic explains that doctors prescribe vasodilators, alpha blockers and other medications to help manage the condition. In extreme cases, surgery may be requred.http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/raynauds-disease/DS00433/DSECTION=treatments-and-drugs
Inflammation caused by carpal tunnel syndrome will inhibit proper blood supply to arms and hands. Repetitive movement of hands and wrists especially in people involved in assembly lines, typing or use of equipment pinches nerve in the wrist and causes tingling and pain as MayoClinic explains. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/carpal-tunnel-syndrome/DS00326 Treatment options include
Buerger’s disease is another rather poorly understood medical condition causing clots and veins in the arteries and unpleasant poor circulation in hands symptoms. Unfortunately, this disease is hard to manage once it becomes aggressive and may lead to amputations of finger and hands. Most patients affected are chain smokers and since smoking constricts oxygen flow to hands and organ tissues, death of these tissues may be unavoidable.
Stress could be greatly affecting poor circulation in hands as it causes neck and shoulder muscle spasms and tension preventing a healthy blood flow to hands and arms.
Natural remedies for poor circulation in hands:
1. Massaging hands with essential oils like rosemary, lavender and eucalyptus diluted with neutral olive or jojoba oils.
2. Keeping a good posture throughout the day will keep your spine aligned and prevent muscle tension and poor circulation in hands.
3. Gentle stretching and basic yoga exercises target sore muscles and improve blood circulation.
4. Chiropractic adjustments and alignments are the most overlooked natural remedy to increase blood circulation in hands and arms.
5. Acupressure is one of the most commonly overlooked natural remedies Dr. Ben Kim suggests in addressing symptoms of insufficient blood flow in upper extremities. http://drbenkim.com/blood-circulation-arms-hands.html Employing similar body points as acupuncture, acupressure effectively enhances blood flow, relieves tension and spasms in neck and shoulders.
If you suffer from poor leg circulation in addition to hand numbness and tingling, you should see a doctor to rule out a serious medical condition. Changing positions often throughout the day when sitting or standing, taking more breaks from being at the office all day for doing small exercises will greatly diminish poor circulation in feet and hands. | <urn:uuid:d5e7021f-8b15-428d-a1db-c76d6243f361> | {
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Bare root trees arrive at Parkview in April, which stirs our gardeners into growing mode. The advantages of bare root trees are the roots are intact rather than being in a container so transplant shock is at a minimum. The cost is lower as well. Here are a few tips when selecting your bare root trees. While it is important to look at the branch structure of your tree, the tree will still develop its crown as it matures and gaps will be filled in, it is more important to look at the roots. Abundant roots are important for water and nutrient uptake.
When planting remember to dig your hold 2-3 times wider than the roots, and only should be planted to a depth of the root flare. Planting any deeper will cause the roots to not get enough oxygen. Do not amend your soil; use only the soil that you dug out of your hole. Water your tree very well the first few seasons, supplementing as the tree matures. Plan on watering the tree 2 times a week, watering deeply (water from your sprinkler system is not deep enough to count as a watering). The first 4 weeks you should apply Fertilome Root Stimulator with your watering and no other fertilizer the first year. Stake trees as needed but take the stake off after the first year. Mulch applied around your tree will help with water retention. | <urn:uuid:aa3c9477-99d8-4f90-bf22-c719043f6647> | {
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Exogenous Toxicants and Genetic Susceptibility in ALS
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, is a fatal neurodegenerative disease that poses a significant burden for affected individuals and their family members. The principal objective of this epidemiologic study is to identify environmental and genetic risk factors for ALS. Of primary interest is whether environmental chemicals such as heavy metals, pesticides and organic solvents contribute to the cause of ALS. We also aim to identify genetic factors that contribute to the risk of ALS because individuals with certain genetic traits may be unable to protect against the toxic effects of chemical exposure. Other factors that may protect against the development of ALS, such as dietary antioxidants, are also under investigation. If modifiable factors affecting the risk for ALS could be identified, interventions to delay or even prevent the development of ALS could be developed.
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
|Study Design:||Observational Model: Defined Population
Time Perspective: Cross-Sectional
|Study Start Date:||September 1996|
|Estimated Study Completion Date:||August 2002|
The principal objective of this study is to identify environmental and/or genetic risk factors for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). We are addressing this objective by conducting a case-control study of ALS in the Northern California Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program (KPMCP). Over a four-year period, approximately 175 persons newly diagnosed with ALS will be identified and recruited through physician referrals and computerized mechanisms available within the Kaiser system. The patients with ALS will be compared to a sample of 350 age- and gender-matched persons without ALS from the same membership. Specific study aims are as follows: (1) to investigate the association of ALS with exposure to neurotoxicants including lead, other heavy metals, solvents and pesticides; (2) to determine whether inadequate oxidative defenses for protecting against free-radicals enhance the toxicity of exogenous exposures; (3) to examine the evidence for familial aggregation of neurodegenerative diseases among first-degree relatives of patients with ALS; and (4) to estimate the incidence of ALS in diverse racial and ethnic groups.
No Contacts or Locations Provided | <urn:uuid:66cfb871-6080-4a1a-a92e-f69e8cf503dc> | {
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"url": "http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00011154"
} |
Cyber Bullying Survey
Youth are in constant communication with one another. Their worlds are progressively becoming more wireless and more mobile. Students are using Social Networking Sites more than ever before. Some may engage in mean, unsafe behaviour online and on wireless devices. This is cyber bullying.
Cyber bullying is defined as harmful actions that are communicated via electronic media and are intended to embarrass, harm, or slander another individual. Cyber bystander behaviour includes behaviours such as helping a student who is bullying, passively watching someone being cyber bullied, and assisting the person cyber bullying (e.g. adding more mean comments to a mean post). The problem with cyber bullying is that it is faceless and is often harder to identify and stop than bullying in the offline realm.
Canada Safety Council, along with the Promoting Relationships and Eliminating Violence Network [PREVNet], encourages students from all over Canada to participate in the Cyber Bullying Survey. The survey aims to gather information about online behaviour.
The researchers at Queen’s University want to know what students do online, and how individuals would act when bad things happen online. The survey will take approximately 20 minutes to complete and is open to students in grades 5 to 11. Pressing the link below provides more detailed information about the survey.
Click the link below to participate in the survey:
Canada Safety Council Cyber Bullying Survey
Thank you in advance for participating in the Cyber Bullying Survey, all your answers will be kept private and confidential. The research gathered will help to better understand student safety and online bullying.
– 30 –
For more information, please contact:
Canada Safety Council
(613) 739-1535 (ext. 228)
MSc. Clinical Psychology
Wendy Craig, Ph.D | <urn:uuid:414b29fb-f75e-43e3-9edf-1231c6dd1aa4> | {
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We may only have one capital-M Moon, which affects our tides and causes our hearts to swell with love on summer nights, but we have a lot of rocks orbiting us. Find out about the many moons we pay no attention to.
The Earth almost never has only one cold space rock orbiting it. According to researchers at the University of Helsinki, the University of Hawaii, and the Paris Observatory, we are inundated with tiny temporary mini-moons at almost every point during our orbit. These were ignored until now, mostly because it was hard to spot them, some of them being only about a few feet wide. Once people did start spotting the wee little shiners, they began to wonder how many were out there at any one time.
These are, as stated before, temporary moons. We might be all the more proud of them for that, knowing that the Earth's gravity steals them away from their orbits around the sun for a space of a year or so. But in the end, they always go back. The problem of figuring out how many, if any, there were at any one time became gauging how many objects the Earth drew in, versus how short their stay would be.
The researchers garnered a supercomputer and tried to figure out exactly how asteroids move past Earth. They calculated the path of ten million virtual asteroids, trying to see which ones ventured close. They paid special attention to the 18,000 of these simulated asteroids that were drawn in by Earth's gravity. The mini moons would not orbit peacefully. They twisted around Earth in complicated paths before zooming off. At last the researchers came to the conclusion that, at any point in time, there is at least one other moon in the sky. This includes only moons with the diameter of one meter or larger. Smaller objects could be orbiting as well.
Our most famous mini-moon was 2006 RH120, a lump of rock the size of a car that twisted around the Earth in 2006. Perhaps whatever is orbiting out there now, is larger. It won't be there for long, though. Anyone who sat through high school English remembers Juliet telling Romeo, when he swears his love for her, "Swear not by the moon! The inconstant moon!" She was righter than she knew.
Top Image: NASA
2006 RH120 Image: NASA | <urn:uuid:efaec0e0-f66a-4ec3-b2df-e2bcbe38eefc> | {
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In 1989, the Governing Council of the United Nations Development Programme recommended that 11 July be observed by the international community as World Population Day, a day to focus attention on the urgency and importance of population issues. This year’s theme is ‘Investing in teenage girls.’
Teenage girls around the world face enormous challenges. Many are considered by their communities or parents to be ready for marriage and motherhood. Many are forced from school, damaging their future prospects. Even among girls who stay in school, access to basic information about their health, human rights and reproductive rights can be hard to come by, leaving them vulnerable to illness, injury and exploitation. These challenges are exacerbated among marginalized girls, such as members of ethnic minorities or those living in poverty or remote areas.
Yet when teenage girls are empowered, when they know about their rights and are given the tools to succeed, they become agents of positive change in their communities. | <urn:uuid:80385f11-8b0d-4655-b27a-67d90f40e8ae> | {
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Time::Duration::Parse::More - parse natural language time duration expressions
use Time::Duration::Parse::More; my ($seconds); $seconds = parse_duration('1 minute, 30 seconds'); ## 90 $seconds = parse_duration('1 minute plus 15 seconds'); ## 75 $seconds = parse_duration('1 minute minus 15 seconds'); ## 45 $seconds = parse_duration('1 day minus 2.5 hours and 10 minutes plus 15 seconds'); ## 76815 $seconds = parse_duration('minus 15 seconds'); ## -15 $seconds = parse_duration('midnight'); ## it depends :)
The module parses a limited set of natural language expressions and converts them into seconds.
It is backwards compatible with Time::Duration::Parse (passes the same test cases), but adds more expressions and memoization.
At the moment, the module is limited to english language expressions.
The following rules are used to parse the expressions:
N factoris translated to
N * factor_in_seconds.
factoris optional, defaults to seconds. Negative and fractional values of
Nare suported. Singular, plural and single letter versions of
factorare understood. All are case-insensitive except the single letter versions;
hh:mmare also supported;
The hard-coded 'midnight' expression is also understood and returns the number of seconds up to 00::00:00 of the next day.
The following factors are understood, with the corresponding value in seconds between parentesis:
$seconds = parse_duration($expression);
$expression in natural lanaguage returns the number of seconds it represents. This result, with the exception of the 'midnight' expression, is cached so future calls with the same expression will be faster.
If the expression cannot be parsed,
parse_duration will croak.
Same as "parse_duration", but the result will not be cached.
This module started as a private module for a closed-source project. I started to release it as
Time::Delta when I discovered Time::Duration::Parse. I updated the API to match it, and added my own improvements. This is the result.
You can find documentation for this module with the perldoc command.
The following websites have more information about this module, and may be of help to you. As always, in addition to those websites please use your favorite search engine to discover more resources.
A modern, open-source CPAN search engine, useful to view POD in HTML format.
The CPAN Testers is a network of smokers who run automated tests on uploaded CPAN distributions.
The CPAN Testers Matrix is a website that provides a visual overview of the test results for a distribution on various Perls/platforms.
The CPAN Testers Dependencies is a website that shows a chart of the test results of all dependencies for a distribution.
The CPAN Ratings is a website that allows community ratings and reviews of Perl modules.
You can email the author of this module at
MELO at cpan.org asking for help with any problems you have.
Please report any bugs or feature requests through the web interface at https://github.com/melo/perl-time-duration-parse-more/issues. You will be automatically notified of any progress on the request by the system.
The code is open to the world, and available for you to hack on. Please feel free to browse it and play with it, or whatever. If you want to contribute patches, please send me a diff or prod me to pull from your repository :)
Stole test cases and other small tidbits from Miyagawa's Time::Duration::Parse.
Pedro Melo <[email protected]>
This software is Copyright (c) 2013 by Pedro Melo.
This is free software, licensed under:
The Artistic License 2.0 (GPL Compatible) | <urn:uuid:7e9dc6df-4a03-4f44-8eff-c9c1bc9eb486> | {
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You exercise your body to stay physically in shape, so why shouldn't you exercise your brain to stay mentally fit? With these daily exercises you will learn how to flex your mind, improve your creativity and boost your memory. As with any exercise, repetition is necessary for you to see improvement, so pick your favorite exercises from our daily suggestions and repeat them as desired. Try to do some mentalrobics every single day!
The sense of smell is one of those underused senses that has a strong connection to memories. You already associate certain smells to certain feelings. For example, the smell of fresh cut grass may be associated with early weekend mornings.
You can easily prepare some scent canisters that contain some of your favorite smells. You can then open the canister to get the scent whenever you want. You could use this to help strengthen certain things that you want to remember, based on the principles of strong associations.
You'll need a film canister or other small airtight container. For scents such as lavender or rosemary, you could crumble the herb into the canister. For liquid scents such as vanilla or citrus, you could put a small piece of sponge inside the container and drop in some of the scent. The scents in these canisters should last several weeks.
Short Term Memory Test
Interactively test your short term memory.
Mentalrobics Public Forums
Chat about these articles and other mind related topics.
Sudoku Logic Puzzle
This puzzle requires logic and a good memory. | <urn:uuid:67200eae-810b-4dcc-b5df-0797db27ef3c> | {
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Thus, the drug amount to be infused per time unit to maintain the Cp in the interval t1 is given by:MATH where DL(t1) is the drug loss per time unit during the time interval t1 in milligrams per hour, R(t1) is the corresponding infusion rate in milligrams per hour, Cp(t1) is the plasma concentration during t1 in milligrams per liter, and Cls(t1) is the summed clearance in liters per hour.
After adjusting the summed clearance for body weight and putting Cp = Ctarget, the corresponding infusion rate for each discrete time interval n is given by:MATH where R(tn) is the infusion rate in the time interval tn in milligrams per hour, Wt is body weight in kilograms, Ctarget(tn) is the required target concentration in milligrams per liter, and K(tn) is the time-dependent summed clearance normalized to body weight (L · h−1 · kg−1).
Therefore, K(tn) may be calculated as:MATH
Using STANPUMP simulations, R(tn) and K(tn) were determined for various time intervals (Table 1). Because the magnitude of the changes in infusion rate decreases over time (Fig. 1), we chose smaller time intervals (15 min) for the first hour from the start of the initial infusion and thereafter, larger intervals (60 min) for determining the time-dependent factor. The infusion rate in the middle of a time period was chosen as the infusion rate for the entire period. We chose a body weight of 80 kg and a target plasma concentration of 3 μg/mL for the mutual simulations. Subsequently, the simulations were validated using different weights and target concentrations.
The calculation of the infusion rates is done on the newly developed slide rule. Analogous to the principle of the classical slide rule, multiplication is performed as addition of logarithms. The problem of double multiplication was solved by starting from a point on the moveable center of the slide rule, plotting Wt increasing logarithmically to the left (starting with 1 kg), and, from the same point, the required target concentration (starting with 1 μg/mL) increasing logarithmically to the right. This was realized by having the 1 kg and the 1 μg/mL points lie exactly above one another.
The body weight scale is marked on the lower side of the moveable center (tongue) of the slide rule and the target concentration scale on the upper side. The time-dependent factors are entered on the lower side of the nonmoveable part and marked with the corresponding time measurements. The clinically relevant infusion rates (100–2000 mg/h) were entered on the upper side of the nonmoveable part (Fig. 2A).
When the body weight (lower scale on the tongue) is placed exactly above the corresponding time point (lower scale on the nonmoveable part), the required infusion rates to be administered during the corresponding time period can be read from the upper scale on the nonmoveable part above the required target concentration (upper side of the tongue) (Fig. 2b).
As control criteria, we calculated the percentage deviation of the predicted plasma concentration obtained from STANPUMP driven in the target-controlled mode from the predicted plasma concentrations that were obtained using the infusion rates determined from the TCI slide rule. This percentage deviation is independent of the absolute level of the target plasma concentration and also independent of Wt. We chose the following target plasma concentrations:
* constant target of 3 μg/mL
* initial target of 3 μg/mL, and after 15 min, changing to a target of 1, 2, 4, or 5 μg/mL of propofol
* 0- to 15-min target of 5 μg/mL (e.g., induction and intubation), 15- to 30-min target of 2 μg/mL (e.g., waiting for surgeon), 30- to 60-min target of 3 μg/mL (e.g., surgical preparation), 60- to 120-min target of 4 μg/mL (e.g., intense surgical stimulus), 120- to 150-min target of 3 μg/mL (e.g., control of bleeding and withdrawal), and 150- to 165-min target of 2 μg/mL (e.g., skin closure).
While changing to a higher target, we administered the unit bolus dose of 0.228 mg of propofol/kilograms/(microgram per milliliter propofol target plasma concentration change), i.e., for a body weight of 80 kg and a target change from 3 to 5 μg/mL of propofol—a bolus dose of 0.228 × 80 × 2 mg of propofol and continued immediately after with the new calculated infusion rate. While changing to a lower target, we set the infusion rate to zero for a time period previously determined by STANPUMP simulations (Table 2), e.g., for 2.1 min when changing the target from 3 to 2 μg/mL of propofol 15 min after the start of the initial infusion and continued immediately after with the new calculated infusion rate.
For targeting a constant target of 3 μg/mL, the predicted plasma concentration was compared with the target plasma concentration, and the mean and the maximum percentage deviation was determined for the time frame 0–15 min and 16–300 min.
We also evaluated scenarios in which the target concentration was changed after 15 min. The predicted plasma concentration was compared with the target plasma concentration, and the mean and the maximum percentage deviation was determined for the time frame 15–75 min (first hour after changing the target) and for the time frame 75–135 min (second hour after changing the target).
The time-dependent factor at the relevant time frames (0–15 min, 15–30 min, and so on) determined using STANPUMP is given in Table 1. To reach a specific target plasma concentration, an infusion rate of K(t1..n) × Wt × Ctarget is given after a bolus of 0.228 mg/kg/(microgram per milliliter of propofol target plasma concentration change). To increase the target plasma concentration, one unit bolus dose of 0.228 mg/kg/(microgram per milliliter of propofol target plasma concentration change) is given and is followed by an infusion with K × Wt × Ctargetnew. To decrease the target plasma concentration, the infusion rate is set to zero for a time period determined by the wanted percentage decrease of the propofol target plasma concentration (Table 2) and followed by an infusion with K × Wt × Ctargetnew.
Aiming for a constant target plasma concentration of 3 μg/mL of propofol, the mean percentage deviation between the predicted plasma concentration and the targeted plasma concentration was 4.05% (maximum percentage deviation, 6.97%) for the time frame 0–15 min and 0.5% (mean, 2.03% maximum) for the time frame 16–300 min. The results when the target plasma concentration was changed after 15 min are given in Table 3.
Figure 3 shows the time course of the predicted plasma concentration reached by STANPUMP driven in the target-controlled mode and of the predicted plasma concentrations that were obtained using the infusion rates determined from the TCI slide rule with and without changing the target concentration.
Even with multiple changes of the propofol target plasma concentration between 2 and 5 μg/mL (0–15 min, 5 μg/mL; 15–30 min, 2 μg/mL; 30–60 min, 3 μg/mL; 60–120 min, 4 μg/mL; 120–150 min, 3 μg/mL; and 150–165 min, 2 μg/mL), the deviation between targeted concentration and predicted plasma concentration using the infusion rates obtained by the new TCI slide rule remained always less than 23% (mean percentage deviation, 5.77%).
We developed a TCI slide rule for propofol that enables us to obtain and maintain a required target plasma concentration, to increase the target plasma concentration quickly and accurately, and to maintain the new level or to decrease the target plasma concentration quickly and accurately and to maintain the new level over the complete duration of anesthesia.
The evaluation showed only a small mean and maximum percentage deviation between the predicted plasma concentration reached by STANPUMP driven in the target-controlled mode and the predicted plasma concentrations that were obtained using the infusion rates determined from the TCI slide rule. Therefore, the TCI slide rule enables the user to maintain a constant target plasma concentration with clinically acceptable deviations.
A rational form of anesthesia administration consists of holding the hypnotic components (e.g., propofol) at a sufficient level constant over the duration of anesthesia to avoid intraoperative consciousness, whereas the analgesic components are adjusted according to the relevant operative-induced pain stimulus. However, when an increase in the propofol target during anesthesia is required, the change in the infusion rate can be read from the TCI slide rule in combination with a calculated bolus dose of 0.228 mg/kg for each 1-μg/mL change in the target concentration. For a decrease in the target concentration, the infusion must be stopped until the new, smaller concentration is reached. The stop time, which is dependent on the duration of the infusion and the required percentage decrease in the target concentration, is given in Table 2. However, it must be borne in mind that the predicted plasma concentrations from the infusion rates calculated by the TCI slide rule might become more inaccurate with multiple changes in target concentrations at short time intervals.
The newly developed, simple method to determine the TCI infusion rates is based on a three-compartment PK model and the PK parameter set of Marsh et al. (4). This parameter set assumes that the central distribution volume is proportional to the weight of the patient, and its application assumes that the PKs of propofol are fully linear. This set is used in the commercial TCI system DIPTIFUSOR™ for use in adults. Marsh et al. (4) investigated the performance of this PK parameter set in a population of children. A systematical but acceptable (bias, 18,5%) over-prediction of the measured blood concentration of propofol was observed. This should be kept in mind when using our slide rule for children.
PK parameter sets are determined from groups of patients or subjects. The individual PK parameter set of an individual patient can vary from these. In addition, anesthesia- and surgery-related changes in cardiac output, perfusion of liver and kidney, or blood loss (6), which influence the distribution and elimination of the anesthetics, are not considered in this simple PK model. However, even though the prediction error (difference between predicted and measured concentration) amounts to 30%(7), a TCI-oriented administration of anesthesia is still useful. In the study of Swinhoe et al. (8), the control of depth of anesthesia with a TCI system for propofol was considered as good in all patients undergoing major surgery, and the predictive performance of the TCI system was considered acceptable for clinical purpose.
Roberts et al. (9) described a manual, TCI-oriented infusion regimen for propofol. For a target plasma concentration of 3 μg/mL, the following propofol infusions were recommended after a propofol bolus of 1 mg/kg: 10 mg · kg−1 · h−1 for the first 10 minutes, 8 mg · kg−1 · h−1 for the next 10 minutes, and thereafter 6 mg · kg−1 · h−1. This pattern is simple and of acceptable accuracy for obtaining a 3-μg/mL target concentration of propofol, leading to its use as a standard infusion rate with propofol. However, it is inflexible in comparison with the TCI simulations using STANPUMP, IVASIM, or RUGLOOP. The PK software in these systems or that integrated in the DIPRIFUSOR™ is more exact but associated with a certain technical, material, and financial cost.
In contrast, the TCI slide rule for propofol that we developed can be constructed with minimal theoretical or technical knowledge from a copy of the diagram. This TCI slide rule combines the advantages of minimal financial and technical cost with good accuracy. A TCI slide rule can further be developed for each drug/each patient group for which the corresponding PK parameters are available.
1. Shafer SL. STANPUMP User’s Manual. Stanford, CA: Stanford University, 1996.
2. Schüttler J, Kloos S. IVASIM. Bonn, Germany, 1991.
3. De Smet T, Struys M. RUGLOOP. Ghent, Belgium, 2001.
4. Marsh B, White M, Morton N, Kenny GN. Pharmacokinetic model driven infusion of propofol in children. Br J Anaesth 1991; 67: 41–8.
5. Coetzee JF, Glen JB, Wium CA, Boshoff L. Pharmacokinetic model selection for target controlled infusions of propofol: assessments of three parameter sets. Anesthesiology 1995; 82: 1328–45.
6. Johnson KB, Kern SE, Hamber EA, et al. Influence of hemorrhagic shock on remifentanil: a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic analysis. Anesthesiology 2001; 94: 322–32.
7. Fechner J, Albrecht S, Ihmsen H, et al. Predictability and precision of “target-controlled infusion” (TCI) of propofol with the “Disoprifusor TCI” system. Anaesthesist 1998; 47: 663–8.
8. Swinhoe CF, Peacock JE, Glen JB, Reilly CS. Evaluation of the predictive performance of a Diprifusor TCI system. Anaesthesia 1998; 53: 61–7.
© 2003 International Anesthesia Research Society
9. Roberts FL, Dixon J, Lewis GT, et al. Induction and maintenance of propofol anaesthesia: a manual infusion scheme. Anaesthesia 1988; 43: S14–7. | <urn:uuid:49f23e26-e2cf-4317-b77f-98467c9ae644> | {
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The problem of alcoholism can begin in mild ways. As it is so socially accepted, no warning lights go off when a person goes on a “bender”. Quite the opposite, as in many cases they are jokingly slapped on the back and congratulated for a night outrageously well done. In fairness, in the majority such excess is handled well and does not develop into more unhealthy dependency. That said however, it does mask the moments in time where an alcoholic is in the making. In many cases the signs can be even subtler as the abuse of alcohol sets in, with the individual slowly sacrificing obligations of family, work and friends to maintain his dependency.
A study within the United States of America has recently shed light on this difficulty of detection. In the study, 1,700 adults completed questionnaires at the end of an office visit with a doctor. Questions based around lifestyle and social activities were featured. In the results, it was shown that when a doctor used a hunch or simply their best guess, they missed three out of four patients that had a drinking problem. That said, when they were more sure of signs, they were usually correct. (click here to view more about the study)
This shows strongly that a more uniform and specific screening test for drinking issues would massively help detection and treatment of alcoholics or those that abuse alcohol to an unhealthy extent in general. Dr Daniel Vinson, from Missouri School of Medicine stated that he “hope(s) that by papers like this, it’s going to be a nudge to physician to say … ‘Maybe I should start screening.’ It’s not that hard to do,”
The benefits of this kind of system would be far reaching. Instead of a more murky approach to discovering alcoholics in medical interviews, it would be easy for professionals to be trained in the screening system, making it accessible to a wider range of people. With greater detection comes more early warning in finding and helping those afflicted, allowing less lives to be ruined and money to be saved in future medical costs associated with treatment for alcoholism.
The impact on a countrywide level would also be impressive. Knowledge that there is a screening test anyone can be applied to would quite possibly increase the likelihood of voluntary admittance or encouragement to do so through peers and family ties. With more people diagnosed earlier, money and lives can be saved directly.
For more information about alcoholism and treatment options, please visit the LifeWorks Community Website | <urn:uuid:0c5a9ac8-057d-4d05-9679-488b793a0700> | {
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On 21 December 1988, Pan Am Flight 103 was 38 minutes into its journey when it was blown up at 31,000 feet. The explosion was so powerful that the nose of the aircraft was torn clean off. Within three seconds of the bomb detonating, the cockpit, fuselage and No. 3 engine were falling separately out of the sky. It happened so quickly that no distress call was sent out and no oxygen masks deployed. With the cockpit gone, the fuselage depressurised instantly and the passengers in the rear section of the aircraft found themselves staring out into the Scottish night air. Anyone or anything not strapped down was whipped out of the plane; the change in air pressure made the passengers’ lungs expand to four times their normal volume and everyone lost consciousness. As the fuselage plummeted and the air pressure began to return to normal, some passengers came round, including the captain. A few survived all the way down, until they hit the ground. Rescuers found them clutching crucifixes, or holding hands, still strapped into their seats.
The fuselage of the plane landed on a row of family houses in the small Scottish town of Lockerbie. The impact was so powerful that the British Geological Survey registered a seismic event measuring 1.6 on the Richter scale. The wing section of the Boeing 747, loaded with enough fuel for a transatlantic flight, hit the ground at more than 500 miles an hour and exploded in a fireball that lit the sky. The cockpit, with the first-class section still attached, landed beside a church in the village of Tundergarth.
Over the next few days rescuers made a fingertip search of the crash site: 243 passengers, 16 crew members and 11 people on the ground had been killed. Bodies and debris were strewn along an 81-mile corridor of Scottish countryside. Ten thousand pieces of debris were retrieved; each was meticulously logged. Among the items recovered were the remains of a Samsonite suitcase, which investigators later established had been used to transport the bomb. The suitcase had contained clothes, clothes that were subsequently traced to the shop of a Maltese man called Tony Gauci. Gauci later became a key prosecution witness. Fragments of a circuit board and a Toshiba radio were also recovered and identified as parts of the bomb.
Twelve years later, on 31 January 2001, a panel of three Scottish judges convicted a former Libyan intelligence officer for mass murder at Lockerbie. Abdelbaset Ali al-Megrahi was tried at a specially convened court on a former US air force base near the Dutch town of Zeist. Under a special international arrangement, the court, which sat without a jury, was temporarily declared sovereign territory of the United Kingdom, under the jurisdiction of Scottish law.
Al-Megrahi is still the only person to have been found guilty in connection with the attack. He was sentenced to 27 years in jail. His co-accused, Al Amin Khalifa Fhimah, a fellow Libyan intelligence officer, was acquitted. Al-Megrahi was initially told that he would spend at least twenty years in prison, but the Crown, which was prosecuting, protested that this sentence was unduly lenient and petitioned the judges for a longer one. In 2003 the judges reconvened to rule that he must serve no less than 27 years before the parole board would consider his eligibility for release. Al-Megrahi’s defence team had already lodged an appeal against the conviction, but in March 2002 the guilty verdict was upheld.
From the outset the Lockerbie disaster has been marked by superlatives. The bombing was the deadliest terror attack on American civilians until 11 September 2001. It sparked Britain’s biggest ever criminal inquiry, led by its smallest police force, Dumfries and Galloway Constabulary. It spelled the end of Pan Am, which never recovered from the damage to its reputation. The trial at Camp Zeist was the longest and – at a cost of £75 million – the most expensive in Scottish legal history. The appeal hearing was the first Scottish trial to be broadcast live on both television and the internet.
Lawyers, politicians, diplomats and relatives of Lockerbie victims now believe that the former Libyan intelligence officer is innocent. Robert Black QC, an emeritus professor of Scottish law at Edinburgh University, was one of the architects of the original trial in Holland. He has closely followed developments since the disaster happened and in 2000 devised the non-jury trial system for the al-Megrahi case.
Even before the trial he was so sure the evidence against al-Megrahi would not stand up in court that he is on record as saying that a conviction would be impossible. When I asked how he feels about this remark now, Black replied: ‘I am still absolutely convinced that I am right. No reasonable tribunal, on the evidence heard at the original trial, should or could have convicted him and it is an absolute disgrace and outrage what the Scottish court did.’
Al-Megrahi lost his appeal in 2002, but under Scottish law he is entitled to a further legal review, to be conducted by the Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission (SCCRC), an independent public body made up of senior police officers and lawyers. Its job is to re-examine cases where a miscarriage of justice may have occurred: it handles cases after the appeal process has been exhausted, and if it finds evidence that a miscarriage of justice may have taken place it refers the case to the High Court to be heard again. Al-Megrahi applied to the SCCRC for a review of his case in 2003 and the commission has been reinspecting evidence from the trial for the last four years. It will submit its findings at the end of June. It looks likely that the SCCRC will find that there is enough evidence to refer al-Megrahi’s case back to the appeal court. The Crown Office has already begun reinforcing its Lockerbie legal team in anticipation of a referral.
If al-Megrahi is granted a second appeal, it will, like the original trial, be held before a panel of Scottish judges, without a jury. This time the trial will take place in Scotland, and if the glacial pace of proceedings in the past is anything to go by, it will probably not be heard before the summer of 2008. Al-Megrahi’s defence team would be ready to launch an appeal in a matter of weeks, but the prosecution would be likely to delay the hearing for as long as possible. If an appeal takes place, al-Megrahi’s defence team will produce important evidence that was not available at the time of the first appeal, evidence that seems likely not only to exonerate al-Megrahi but to do so by pointing the finger of blame at the real perpetrators of the Lockerbie bombing and revealing some inconvenient truths.
Even the judge who presided over the Lockerbie investigation and issued the 1991 arrest warrants for the two Libyans has cast doubt on the prosecution’s case. In an interview with the Sunday Times in October 2005, Lord Fraser of Carmyllie, Scotland’s larger-than-life lord advocate from 1989 to 1992, questioned the reliability of the shopkeeper Tony Gauci, the prosecution’s star witness. ‘Gauci was not quite the full shilling. I think even his family would say [that he] was an apple short of a picnic. He was quite a tricky guy, I don’t think he was deliberately lying but if you asked him the same question three times he would just get irritated and refuse to answer.’ Lord Fraser made it clear that this did not mean he thought al-Megrahi was innocent. But he had presented Gauci as a reliable witness; he went on to become the heart of the prosecution’s case. Now he was casting doubt on the man who identified al-Megrahi.
Since al-Megrahi’s last appeal, many thousands of pages of reports, detailing freight and baggage movements in and out of Frankfurt airport, have been handed over to the defence. Largely in German and many handwritten, the papers were translated by the Crown at the taxpayer’s expense, but the Crown refused to share the translations with the defence and left it no time to commission its own. The Privy Council’s judicial committee, made up of law lords and senior judges, has declared that the Crown’s refusal to disclose this evidence is a breach of the European Convention on Human Rights. More damaging still, an unnamed senior British police officer – known to be a member of the Association of Chief Police Officers in Scotland (ACPOS), which implies that his rank is assistant chief constable or higher – has testfied to al-Megrahi’s defence team that crucial evidence at the trial was fabricated. If the SCCRC finds that the prosecution played foul, the Crown may decide it would be better not to continue with its case, allowing al-Megrahi to be freed immediately.
This anonymous senior officer’s testimony chimes with the well-trodden theory that the American government had a hand in fixing the trial. Hans Köchler, the UN observer at Camp Zeist, reported at the time that the trial was politically charged and the verdict ‘totally incomprehensible’.
In his report Köchler wrote that he found the presence of US Justice Department representatives in the court ‘highly problematic’, because it gave the impression that they were ‘“supervisors” handling vital matters of the prosecution strategy and deciding … which documents … were to be released in open court and what parts of information contained in a certain document were to be withheld.’ ‘The alternative theory of the defence,’ he went on, ‘was never seriously investigated. Amid shrouds of secrecy and national security considerations, that avenue was never seriously pursued – although it was officially declared as being of major importance for the defence case. This is totally incomprehensible to any rational observer.’ The prosecution, Köchler noted, dismissed evidence on the grounds that it was not relevant; but now that that evidence has finally – partially – been released, it turns out to be very relevant indeed: to the defence.
Whatever happens, al-Megrahi may not have to wait long. As soon as a further appeal is scheduled, he can make an application to be released from custody: the convicted Lockerbie bomber, who was supposed to serve no fewer than 27 years in a Scottish jail, might well be free this summer. Whether al-Megrahi is freed pending his appeal – and what conditions would be applied if he were – depends largely on whether his defence team can convince the judge that he is not a flight risk. This may be hard to do. The judge might decide that if he left the country, he might choose to stay in Libya rather than come back next year for another round in court. If al-Megrahi is exonerated, many tricky questions will resurface, not least what to do about the $2.7 billion compensation paid by Libya to the relatives of the victims of the bombing. And then, of course, there is the question of who really bombed Flight 103.
In the first three years following the bombing, before a shred of evidence had been produced to incriminate Libya, the Dumfries and Galloway police, the FBI and several other intelligence services around the world all shared the belief that the Lockerbie bombers belonged to the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine General Command (PFLP-GC), a Palestinian rejectionist organisation backed by Iran. The PFLP-GC is headed by Ahmed Jibril, a former Syrian army captain; its headquarters are in Damascus and it is closely allied with the Syrian president and other senior Syrian officials. In the 1970s and 1980s the PFLP-GC carried out a number of raids against Israel, including a novel hang-glider assault launched from inside Lebanon. Lawyers, intelligence services and diplomats around the world continue to suspect that Jibril – who has even boasted that he is responsible – was behind Lockerbie.
The case against Jibril and his gang is well established. It runs like this: in July 1988, five months before the Lockerbie bombing, a US naval commander aboard USS Vincennes in the Persian Gulf shot down an Iranian airbus, apparently mistaking it for an attacker. On board Iran Air Flight 655 were 270 pilgrims en route to Mecca. Ayatollah Khomeini vowed the skies would ‘rain blood’ in revenge and offered a $10 million reward to anyone who ‘obtained justice’ for Iran. The suggestion is that the PFLP-GC was commissioned to undertake a retaliatory bombing.
We know at least that two months before Lockerbie, a PFLP-GC cell was active in the Frankfurt and Neuss areas of West Germany. On 26 October 1998, German police arrested 17 terrorist suspects who, surveillance showed, had cased Frankfurt airport and browsed Pan Am flight timetables. Four Semtex-based explosive devices were confiscated; a fifth is known to have gone missing. They were concealed inside Toshiba radios very similar to the one found at Lockerbie a few weeks later. One of the gang, a Palestinian known as Abu Talb, was later found to have a calendar in his flat in Sweden with the date of 21 December circled. New evidence, now in the hands of al-Megrahi’s defence, proves for the first time that Abu Talb was in Malta when the Lockerbie bombing took place. The Maltese man whose testimony convicted al-Megrahi has also identified Abu Talb. During al-Megrahi’s trial Abu Talb had a strange role. As part of a defence available in Scottish law, known as ‘incrimination’, Abu Talb was named as someone who – rather than the accused – might have carried out the bombing. At the time he was serving a life sentence in Sweden for the bombing of a synagogue, but he was summoned to Camp Zeist to give evidence. He ended up testifying as a prosecution witness, denying that he had anything to do with Lockerbie. In exchange for his testimony, he received lifelong immunity from prosecution.
Other evidence has emerged showing that the bomb could have been placed on the plane at Frankfurt airport, a possibility that the prosecution in al-Megrahi’s trial consistently ruled out (their case depended on the suitcase containing the bomb having been transferred from a connecting flight from Malta). Most significantly, German federal police have provided financial records showing that on 23 December 1988, two days after the bombing, the Iranian government deposited £5.9 million into a Swiss bank account that belonged to the arrested members of the PFLP-GC.
The decision to steer the investigation away from the PFLP-GC and in the direction of Libya came in the run-up to the first Gulf War, as America was looking to rally a coalition to liberate Kuwait and was calling for support from Iran and Syria. Syria subsequently joined the UN forces. Quietly, the evidence incriminating Jibril, so painstakingly sifted from the debris, was binned.
Those who continued to press the case against the PFLP-GC seemed to fall foul of American law. When a New York corporate investigative company asked to look into the bombing on behalf of Pan Am found the PFLP-GC responsible, the federal government promptly indicted the company’s president, Juval Aviv, for mail fraud. Lester Coleman, a former Defense Intelligence Agency operative who was researching a book about the PFLP-GC and Lockerbie, was charged by the FBI with ‘falsely procuring a passport’. William Casey, a lobbyist who made similar allegations in 1995, found his bank accounts frozen and federal agents searching through his trash. Even so, documents leaked from the US Defense Intelligence Agency in 1995, two years after the Libyans were first identified as the prime suspects, still blamed the PFLP-GC.
Suspicions and conspiracy theories have swirled around Lockerbie from the beginning. Some of them are fairly outlandish. In Diplomatic Baggage: The Adventures of a Trailing Spouse (2005), Brigid Keenan, the wife of the British diplomat Alan Waddams, reported that over dinner in Gambia, a former Interpol agent told her and her husband that the bombing had been a revenge attack by Iran, in retaliation for the downed airliner (though she didn’t say how he knew this). The Interpol agent claimed the cargo had not been checked because the plane was carrying drugs as part of a deal over American hostages held by Hizbullah in Beirut. Militant groups were being allowed to smuggle heroin into the US in exchange for information; the bomb had gone on board when the PFLP-GC found a loophole in this drug-running operation.
At least four US intelligence officers, including the CIA’s deputy station chief in Beirut, were on the Flight 103 passenger list. In the days following the bombing, CIA agents scoured the Scottish countryside, some reportedly dressed in Pan Am overalls. Mary Boylan, then a constable with Lothian and Borders police, has said that senior police officers told her not to make an official record of the CIA badge she recovered from the wreckage, asking her instead to hand it over to a senior colleague. Her testimony, too, is now in the hands of the SCCRC. Jim Wilson, a farmer from the village of Tundergarth, reported shortly after the bombing that he had found in his field a suitcase packed with a powdery substance that looked ‘like drugs’. He last saw the suitcase when he handed it over to the police, he said; he was never asked about it again.
In December 1998, Susan Lindauer, a US congressional aide, submitted a sworn deposition to the court in which she claimed that Richard Fuisz, a CIA agent, had given her a guarantee that he knew who was behind the Lockerbie bombing. Lindauer’s affidavit describes a conversation in Fuisz’s ‘business office’ in Chantilly, Virginia, in which he said he knew for sure the perpetrators were based in Syria. ‘Dr Fuisz has told me that he can identify who orchestrated and executed the bombing. Dr Fuisz has said that he can confirm absolutely that no Libyan national was involved in planning or executing the bombing of Pan Am 103, either in any technical or advisory capacity whatsoever.’ ‘If the government would let me, I could identify the men behind this attack,’ Lindauer says Fuisz told her. Lindauer has since been accused by the US government of being an Iraqi agent; her case is pending. But her earlier deposition has been submitted to the SCCRC. It can’t count for much, however, since Fuisz himself is not able to comment. In October 1994, a month after Lindauer spoke to him, Fuisz was gagged by a Washington court. The US government ruled that under state secrecy laws he faced ten years in prison if he spoke about the Lockerbie bombing. UN observers have since criticised this apparent restraint of a key witness.
When Libya handed al-Megrahi over for trial, sanctions on Libya authorised by the Security Council were suspended and diplomatic relations with Britain restored. Tony Blair claims the Libyan detente was one of his most important foreign policy victories, and last month, as the long shadow began to fall across his premiership, Blair swung by Tripoli to meet again with Libya’s leader. Gaddafi has always contested that al-Megrahi is not the Lockerbie bomber and that he should be allowed to return home. Maybe the two leaders touched on the prickly topic of what should be done about the compensation paid by Libya, in the event al-Megrahi is exonerated. When al-Megrahi was handed over for trial, Libya declared that it would accept responsibility for his actions. But it never accepted guilt. This distinction was spelled out clearly in Libyan letters to the UN Security Council. In a BBC radio interview in 2004, the Libyan prime minister, Shukri Ghanem, underlined once again that compensation had been paid because this was the ‘price for peace’ and to secure the lifting of sanctions. When asked if Libya did not accept guilt, he said: ‘I agree with that.’
If the court that convicted al-Megrahi now reverses its decision, then Libya would clearly have a case for demanding its money back. Since recovering the compensation from the relatives would be unthinkable, it is more likely Libya would pursue those responsible for the miscarriage of justice. ‘What they might try to do,’ Black suggests, ‘is to recoup the money from the British and American governments, who after all are responsible for the initial farce and the wrongful conviction in the first place. They paid that money on the basis of a miscarriage of justice perpetrated by the British courts.’ Al-Megrahi’s acquittal on appeal would not ipso facto make a compelling case for Libya to have its money back: even if guilt can’t be proved beyond reasonable doubt – the test of the criminal burden of proof – it could still be shown that it was more likely than not (which is the burden applied to civil cases such as compensation cases). If Libya paid the money for purely political reasons then, one could argue, it might have to live with that decision. When I asked the Foreign Office whether Britain would consider reimbursing Libya in the event of al-Megrahi’s exoneration, a spokesman declined to comment.
If al-Megrahi is acquitted, he will also have the right to sue for wrongful conviction. He could claim compensation to the tune of several tens of thousands of pounds. The Crown Office, which is headed by the Scottish lord advocate, is responsible for what happened, which means that al-Megrahi would sue the Scottish Executive. The lord advocate is now one of the ‘Scottish ministers’, whereas previously he – now she – was one of the law officers of the UK Government. The Scottish Executive might refuse to pay, blaming Westminster. Westminster, meanwhile, would argue that Lockerbie is and always has been a Crown Office matter and that the UK government has no say. A political storm is on its way, especially now that the SNP is in charge in Scotland.
Since the case against al-Megrahi was so weak, it is hard to understand how the judges who presided over the trial could have got it so wrong. Black has a view:
It has been suggested to me, very often by Libyans, that political pressure was placed upon the judges. I don’t think for a minute that political pressure of that nature was placed on the judges. What happened, I think, was that it was internal politics in Scotland. Prosecutions in Scotland are brought by the lord advocate. Until just a few years ago, one of the other functions of the lord advocate in Scotland was that he appointed all Scottish judges. I think what influenced these judges was that they thought that if both of the Libyans accused are found not guilty, this will be the most fiendish embarrassment to the lord advocate.
The appointment system for judges has changed since the trial, but another controversial aspect of the al-Megrahi case may also be re-examined: the policies on disclosure. Compared to almost any other similar criminal justice system, Scotland does not have a proper system of disclosure of information. In England and Wales, the Crown has to disclose all material to the defence, according to rules set out in statute. In Scotland the Crown is allowed to modify or withhold evidence if it considers that withholding is in the ‘public interest’. At least the Scottish criminal justice system doesn’t have the death penalty. | <urn:uuid:3a5216b3-89b9-463d-80b8-8e2e51e25f43> | {
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The Schrodinger equation is a linear differential equation used in various fields of physics to describe the time evolution of quantum states. It is a fundamental aspect of quantum mechanics. The equation is named for its discoverer, Erwin Schrodinger.
General time-dependent form
The Schrodinger equation may generally be written
The left side of the equation describes how the wavefunction changes with time; the right side is related to its energy. For the simplest case of a particle of mass m moving in a one-dimensional potential V(x), the Schrodinger equation can be written
The quickest and easiest way to derive Schrodinger's equation is to understand the Hamiltonian operator in quantum mechanics. In classical mechanics, the total energy of a system is given by
where p is the momentum of the particle and V(x) is its potential energy. Applying the quantum mechanical operator for momentum:
and subbing into the classical mechanical form for energy, we get the same Hamiltonian operator in quantum mechanics:
from which Schrodinger's equation and the eigenvalue problem can be easily seen.
In many instances, steady-state solutions to the equation are of great interest. Physically, these solutions correspond to situations in which the wavefunction has a well-defined energy. The energy is then said to be an eigenvalue for the equation, and the wavefunction corresponding to that energy is called an eigenfunction or eigenstate. In such cases, the Schrodinger equation is time-independent and is often written
Here, E is energy, H is once again the Hamiltonian operator, and is the energy eigenstate for E.
One example of this type of eigenvalue problem is an electrons bound inside an atom.
Examples for the time-independent equation
Free particle in one dimension
In this case, and so we see that the solution to the Schrodinger equation must be
with energy given by
Physically, this corresponds to a wave travelling with a momentum given by , where k can in principle take any value.
Particle in a box
Consider a one-dimensional box of width a, where the potential energy is 0 inside the box and infinite outside of it. This means that must be zero outside the box. One can verify (by substituting into the Schrodinger equation) that
is a solution if where n is any integer. Thus, rather than the continuum of solutions for the free particle, for the particle in a box there is a set of discrete solutions with energies given by | <urn:uuid:2f09baea-a46c-4003-b0ee-d19245c5b307> | {
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The Invisible Hand
MARCH 07, 2013
A term coined by Adam Smith that refers to the self-ordering process of the free market. As individuals work to fulfill their own goals, there appears order out of the multitude of individual plans. This is possible because, where property rights are secure and the rule of law prevails, individuals have incentive to trade and cooperate in a manner which benefits all parties involved.
Lawrence Reed - Adam Smith and the Birth of Economics
Related Freeman Articles
Coincidence or subtle statement?
MARCH 09, 2011 by MARK SKOUSEN
To think that Adam Smith, the renowned absent-minded professor, hid a little "invisible" secret in his tomes is indeed the ultimate irony.
FEBRUARY 24, 2010 by BETTINA BIEN GREAVES
Liberal Market Orders Recognize the Importance of Self-Directedness to Morality
APRIL 01, 2007 by DOUGLAS RASMUSSEN
JULY 01, 1979 by MELVIN D. BARGER
Peaceful actions will lead to desirable ends, violent actions to chaos and disorder.
DECEMBER 01, 1978 by JOHN MONTGOMERY
A timely reminder of the dangers we face if we allow controls to close the market. | <urn:uuid:e1e5143f-88a1-4e19-9d28-7120a37b498e> | {
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Rocky Raccoon: Using Data to explore Carbon in the Rocky MountainsAccess Rocky Raccoon Data.
Use and Relevance
Use in Teaching
- Plant photosynthesis and respiration
- The role of forests in the carbon cycle
- How the carbon cycle changes on daily, seasonal, and yearly timescales
- Factors that have contributed to an increase in carbon dioxide
- The effect of synoptic weather patterns on carbon dioxide concentrations
- Using data to make hypotheses about factors that effect the carbon cycle
- Using the data to make visualizations of temporal changes of the carbon
- Interpreting when photosynthesis and respiration is occurring
- How weather conditions effect the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations
Exploring the Data
Data Type and Presentation
Accessing the Data
Go to the Rocky RACCOON website to access data for each of the four sites. The scroll bar on the left-hand side of the webpage displays the acronyms for the four sites: FEF (Fraser Experimental Forest), NWR (Niwot Ridge), SPL (Storm Peak Laboratory) and HDP (Hidden Peak). Below each of the acronyms are three additional links. For example,FEF
By clicking on the "Full Record" link the user will be directed to a webpage that contains the data file for that location. At the top of this page there is a link to the "Hourly Datafile". This link will bring the user to the complete hourly data record, as described above in the "Data Type and Presentation" section. The "Site Info" link will give the user information on the instrument site location, such as latitude, longitude, and altitude along with several pictures of the site. The "Plots/Diagnostics" link will provide the user with a graph of the full data record and the most recent diurnal data record. Just below the "Diagnostics" graphs is a link to a suite of diagnostic plots that are used to ensure the instrument is working properly.
Manipulating Data and Creating Visualizations
One way to process this data is to create graphs using a spreadsheet application such as Excel. Graphs could be used to visualize the changes of the carbon dioxide concentrations on various time scales.
Once the user reaches the hourly data file it can be saved as a text file by right clicking the mouse and saving it in either Notepad or Wordpad. The user should then open the text file and delete the paragraphs of text which describe the data except for the header just above the data that indicates what each column represents. The data that the user may be interested in is in the column entitled "CO23". This is the carbon dioxide data from the highest inlet height for its respective site. In addition, the "month", "day" and "hour" are also listed. The data are recorded for every hour of the day.
Tools for Data Manipulation
A spreadsheet application such as Excel is the primary data analysis tool.
To make a graph of the data, click on the chart icon in the top toolbar (it looks like a colorful histogram). If it is not on the toolbar, then click on "Tools" and select "Chart".
Further instructions on plotting data in Excel may be found at the following websites:
Physics Laboratory, Excel Tutorial 7: Graphing Data and Curve Fitting
Internet for Classrooms (I4C), Using Excel in a classroom: Creating a Chart or Graph
SERC: How to Use Excel
About the Data
Raw measurements are collected approximately every 2.5 minutes using the Autonomous Inexpensive Robust CO2 Analyzer (AIRCOA). The measurements are then averaged over a period of one hour. The data are transmitted to the Rocky RACCOON website via the internet.
Limitations and Sources of Error
Rocky RACCOON data have been compared with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) carbon dioxide measurements and indicate an intercomparibility of +/- 0.2ppm or better. If and when there are issues with the data indicated by "-999.99", the user may go to the "Notes" link (next to the "Hourly Datafile" link) to see why the data are missing.
References and Resources
Scientific References that Use this Dataset
Rocky RACCOON data will soon be included in NOAA's CarbonTracker.
Other Related Scientific References
Helliker et al., 2005. Regional-scale estimates of forest CO2 and isotope flux based on monthly CO2 budgets of the atmospheric boundary layer. The Carbon Balance of Forest Biomes, 77-92.
Law et al., 2002. Using high temporal frequency data for CO2 inversions. GLOBAL BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES, Vol. 16, NO. 4, 1053.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007 WG1 Chapter 7. Coupling Between Changes in the Climate System and Biogeochemistry. WG1, Chapter 7, 499-588. Download PDF.
North American Carbon Program (NACP):
Guiding documents and other materials
State of the Carbon Cycle Report PDF
Other related Education Resources
Schematic of the AIRCOA instrument | <urn:uuid:aac769a3-d501-4ab1-a831-65dbe951b123> | {
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PHARISEES (Φαρισαῖοι; Aramaic, "Perishaya"; Hebr. "Perushim"):(Redirected from PERUSHIM.)
Party representing the religious views, practises, and hopes of the kernel of the Jewish people in the time of the Second Temple and in opposition to the priestly Sadducees. They were accordingly scrupulous observers of the Law as interpreted by the Soferim, or Scribes, in accordance with tradition. No true estimate of the character of the Pharisees can be obtained from the New Testament writings, which take a polemical attitude toward them (see New Testament), nor from Josephus, who, writing for Roman readers and in view of the Messianic expectations of the Pharisees, represents the latter as a philosophical sect. "Perisha" (the singular of "Perishaya") denotes "one who separates himself," or keeps away from persons or things impure, in order to attain the degree of holiness and righteousness required in those who would commune with God (comp., for "Perishut" and "Perisha," Tan., Wayeẓe, ed. Buber, p. 21; Abot iii. 13; Soṭah ix. 15; Midr. Teh. xv. 1; Num. R. x. 23; Targ. Gen. xlix. 26).
The Pharisees formed a league or brotherhood of their own ("ḥaburah"), admitting only those who, in the presence of three members, pledged themselves to the strict observance of Levitical purity, to the avoidance of closer association with the 'Am ha-Areẓ (the ignorant and careless boor), to the scrupulous payment of tithes and other imposts due to the priest, the Levite, and the poor, and to a conscientious regard for vows and for other people's property (Dem. ii. 3; Tosef., Dem. ii. 1). They called their members "ḥaberim" (brothers), while they passed under the name of "Perishaya," or "Perushim." Though originally identical with the Ḥasidim, they reserved the title of "ḥasid" for former generations ("ḥasidim ha-rishonim"; see Essenes), retaining, however, the name "Perishut" (='Αμιξία = "separation," in contradistinction to 'Επιμιξία = "intermingling") as their watch word from the time of the Maccabean contest (see II Macc. xiv. 37; comp. verse 3). Yet, while the more rigorous ones withdrew from political life after the death of Judas Maccabeus, refused to recognize the Hasmonean high priests and kings as legitimate rulers of the Temple and of the state, and, as Essenes, formed a brotherhood of their own, the majority took a less antagonistic attitude toward the Maccabean dynasty, who, like Phinehas, their "father," had obtained their title by zeal for God (I Macc. ii. 54); and they finally succeeded in infusing their own views and principles into the political and religious life of the people.Principle of Democracy.
It was, however, only after a long and protracted struggle with the Sadducees that they won their lasting triumph in the interpretation and execution of the Law. The Sadducees, jealously guarding the privileges and prerogatives established since the days of Solomon, when Zadok, their ancestor, officiated as priest, insisted upon the literal observance of the Law; the Pharisees, on the other hand, claimed prophetic or Mosaic authority for their interpretation (Ber. 48b; Shab. 14b; Yoma 80a; Yeb. 16a; Nazir 53a; Ḥul. 137b; et al.), at the same time asserting the principles of religious democracy and progress. With reference to Ex. xix. 6, they maintained that "God gave all the people the heritage, the kingdom, the priesthood, and the holiness" (II Macc. ii. 17, Greek). As a matter of fact, the idea of the priestly sanctity of the whole people of Israel in many directions found its expression in the Mosaic law; as, for instance, when the precepts concerning unclean meat, intended originally for the priests only (Ezek. xliv. 31; comp. verse 14 and Judges xiii. 4), were extended to the whole people (Lev. xi.; Deut. xiv. 3-21); or when the prohibition of cutting the flesh in mourning for the dead was extended to all the people as "a holy nation" (Deut. xiv. 1-2; Lev. xix. 28; comp. Lev. xxi. 5); or when the Law itself was transferred from the sphere of the priesthood to every man in Israel (Ex. xix. 29-24; Deut. vi. 7, xi. 19; comp. xxxi. 9; Jer. ii. 8, xviii. 18).
The very institution of the synagogue for common worship and instruction was a Pharisaic declaration of the principle that the Torah is "the inheritance of the congregation of Jacob" (Deut. xxxiii. 3, Hebr.). In establishing schools and synagogues everywhere and enjoining each father to see that his son was instructed in the Law (Yer. Ket. vii. 32c; Ḳid. 29a; Sifre, Deut. 46), the Pharisees made the Torah a power for the education of the Jewish people all over the world, a power whose influence, in fact, was felt even outside of the Jewish race (see R.Meïr in Sifra, Aḥare Mot, 13; Matt. xxiii. 15; comp. Gen. R. xxviii.; Jellinek, "B. H." vi., p. xlvi.). The same sanctity that the priests in the Temple claimed for their meals, at which they gathered with the recitation of benedictions (I Sam. ix. 13) and after ablutions (see Ablution), the Pharisees established for their meals, which were partaken of in holy assemblies after purifications and amidst benedictions (Geiger, "Urschrift," pp. 121-124). Especially were the Sabbath and holy days made the means of sanctification (see Ḳiddush), and, as at the sacrifices, wine was used in honor of the day. A true Pharisee observed the same degree of purity in his daily meals as did the priest in the Temple (Tosef., Dem. ii. 2; so did Abraham, according to B. M. 87a), wherefore it was necessary that he should avoid contact with the 'am ha-areẓ (Ḥag. ii. 7).
From Temple practise were adopted the mode of slaughtering (Sifre, Deut. 75; Ḥul. 28a) and the rules concerning "ta'arubot" (the mingling of different kinds of food; comp. Hag. ii. 12; Zeb. viii.; Ḥul. viii. 1) and the "shi'urim" (the quantities constituting a prohibition of the Law; Yoma 80a). Though derived from Deut. vi. 7 (comp. Josephus, "Ant." iv. 8, § 3), the daily recital of the "Shema'," as well as the other parts of the divine service, is a Pharisaic institution, the Pharisees having established their ḥaburah, or league, in each city to conduct the service (Ber. iv. 7; comp. "Ant." xviii. 2, § 3; Geiger, "Urschrift," p. 379). The tefillin, or Phylacteries, as a symbolical consecration of head and arm, appear to be a counterpart of the high priest's diadem and breastplate; so with the Mezuzah as a symbolical consecration of the home, though both were derived from Scripture (Deut. vi. 8-9, xi. 18-19; Sanh. x. [xi.] 3), the original talismanic character having been forgotten (comp. Ex. xii. 13; Isa. lvii. 8).In the Temple Service.
In the Temple itself the Pharisees obtained a hold at an early date, when they introduced the regular daily prayers besides the sacrifice (Tamid v. 1) and the institution of the "Ma'amadot" (the representatives of the people during the sacrifices). Moreover, they declared that the priests were but deputies of the people. On the great Day of Atonement the high priest was told by the elders that he was but a messenger of the Sanhedrin and must officiate, therefore, in conformity with their (the Pharisees') rulings (Yoma i. 5; comp. Josephus, "Ant." xviii. 1, § 4). While the Sadducean priesthood regarded the Temple as its domain and took it to be the privilege of the high priest to offer the daily burnt offering from his own treasury, the Pharisees demanded that it be furnished from the Temple treasury, which contained the contributions of the people (Sifra, Ẓaw, 17; Emor, 18). Similarly, the Pharisees insisted that the meal-offering which accompanied the meat-offering should be brought to the altar, while the Sadducees claimed it for themselves (Meg. Ta'an. viii.). Trivial as these differences appear, they are survivals of great issues. Thus the high priests, who, as may be learned from the words of Simon the Just (Lev. R. xxi., close; comp. Ber. 7a; Yoma v. 1, 19b), claimed to see an apparition of the Shekinah when entering the Holy of Holies, kindled the incense in their censers outside and thus were enveloped in the cloud when entering, in order that God might appear in the cloud upon the mercy-seat (Lev. xvi. 2). The Pharisees, discountenancing such claims, insisted that the incense must be kindled by the high priest within the Holy of Holies (Sifra, Aḥare Mot, 3; Tosef., Yoma i. 8; Yoma 19b; Yer. Yoma i. 39a).
On the other hand, the Pharisees introduced rites in the Temple which originated in popular custom and were without foundation in the Law. Such was the water-procession of the people, on the night of Sukkot, from the Pool of Siloam, ending with the libation of water in the morning and the final beating of the willow-trees upon the altar at the close of the feast. The rite was a symbolic prayer for the year's rain (comp. Zach. xiv. 16-18; Isa. xiii. 3, xxx. 29; Tosef., Suk. iii. 18); and while the Ḥasidim took a prominent part in the outbursts of popular rejoicing to which it gave rise, the Sadducean priesthood was all the more averse to it (Suk. iv. 9-v. 4; 43b, 48b; Tosef., Suk. iii.). In all these practises the Pharisees obtained the ascendency over the Sadducees, claiming to be in possession of the tradition of the fathers ("Ant." xiii. 10, § 6; 16, § 2; xviii. 1, §§ 3-4; Yoma 19b).A Party of Progress.
Yet the Pharisees represented also the principle of progress; they were less rigid in the execution of justice ("Ant." xiii. 10, § 6), and the day when the stern Sadducean code was abolished was made a festival (Meg. Ta'an. iv.). While the Sadducees in adhering to the letter of the law required "an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth," the Pharisees, with the exception of Eliezer b. Hyrcanus, the Shammaite, interpreted this maxim to mean due compensation with money (Mek., Mishpaṭim, 8; B. Ḳ. 84b; comp. Matt. v. 38). The principle of retaliation, however, was applied consistently by the Sadducees in regard to false witnesses in cases involving capital punishment; but the Pharisees were less fair. The former referred the law "Thou shalt do unto him as he had intended unto his brother" (Deut. xix. 19, Hebr.) only to a case in which the one falsely accused had been actually executed; whereas the Pharisees desired the death penalty inflicted upon the false witness for the intention to secure the death of the accused by means of false testimony (Sifre, Deut. 190; Mark i. 6; Tosef., Sanh. vi. 6; against the absurd theory, in Mak. 5b, that in case the accused has been executed the false witness is exempt from the death penalty, see Geiger, l.c. p. 140). But in general the Pharisees surrounded the penal laws, especially the death penalty, with so many qualifications that they were rarely executed (see Sanh. iv. 1, vi. 1; Mak. i. 10; see Capital Punishment; Hatra'ah).
The laws concerning virginity and the levirate (Deut. xxii. 17, xxv. 9) also were interpreted by the Pharisees in accordance with the dictates of decency and common sense, while the Sadducees adhered strictly to the letter (Sifre, Deut. 237, 291; Yeb. 106b; instead of "Eliezer b. Jacob" [as siding with the Sadducees] probably "Eliezer ben Hyrcanus" should be read). The difference concerning the right of inheritance by the daughter as against the son's daughter,which the Sadducees granted and the Pharisees denied (Yad. iv. 7; Meg. Ta'an. v.; Tosef., Yad. ii. 20; Yer. B. B. vii. 16a), seems to rest on differing practises among the various classes of people; the same is true with regard to the difference as to the master's responsibility for damage done by a slave or a beast (Yad. iv. 7; B. Ḳ. viii. 4; but see Geiger, l.c. pp. 143-144).Sabbaths and Festivals.
Of decisive influence, however, were the great changes wrought by the Pharisees in the Sabbath and holy days, inasmuch as they succeeded in lending to these days a note of cheerfulness and domestic joy, while the Sadducees viewed them more or less as Temple festivals, and as imposing a tone of austerity upon the common people and the home. To begin with the Day of Atonement, the Pharisees wrested the power of atoning for the sins of the people from the high priest (see Lev. xvi. 30) and transferred it to the day itself, so that atonement was effected even without sacrifice and priest, provided there was genuine repentance (Yoma viii. 9; Sifra, Aḥare Mot, 8). So, too, the New Moon of the seventh month was transformed by them from a day of trumpet-blowing into a New-Year's Day devoted to the grand ideas of divine government and judgment (see New-Year). On the eve of Passover the lessons of the Exodus story, recited over the wine and the maẓẓah, are given greater prominence than the paschal lamb (Pes. x.; See Haggadah [Shel Pesaḥ]). The Biblical command enjoining a pilgrimage to the Temple in the festival season is fulfilled by going to greet the teacher and listen to his instruction on a festal day, as in former days people went to see the prophet (Suk. 27b, after II Kings iv. 23; Beẓah 15; Shab. 152a; Sifra to Lev. xxiii. 44).
But the most significant change was that which the Feast of Weeks underwent in its transformation from a Feast of Firstlings into a Feast of the Giving of the Law (Mek., Yitro, Baḥodesh, 3; Ex. R. xxxi.; see Jubilees, Book of). The Boethusians, as the heirs of the Sadducees, still retained a trace of the agricultural character of the feast in adhering to the letter of the law which places the offering of the 'omer (sheaf of the wave-offering) on the morrow after the Sabbath and the Shabu'ot feast on the morrow after the seventh Sabbath following (Lev. xxiii. 15-16); whereas the Pharisees, in order to connect the Shabu'ot feast with Passover and lend it an independent historical character, boldly interpreted the words "the morrow after Sabbath" as signifying "the day following the first Passover day," so that Shabu'ot always falls upon the close of the first week of Siwan (Meg. Ta'an. i.; Men. 65a, b; Shab. 88a).
Especially significant are the Pharisaic innovations in connection with the Sabbath. One of them is the special duty imposed upon the mistress of the home to have the light kindled before Sabbath (Shab. ii. 7), whereas the Samaritans and Karaites, who were in many ways followers of Sadducean teachings, saw in the prohibition against kindling fire on Sabbath (Ex. xxxv. 3) a prohibition also against light in the home on Sabbath eve. The Samaritans and Karaites likewise observed literally the prohibition against leaving one place on Sabbath (Ex. xvi. 29), while the Pharisees included the whole width of the Israelitish camp—that is, 2,000 ells, or a radius of one mile—in the term "place," and made allowance besides for carrying things (which is otherwise forbidden; see Jer. xvii. 21-24) and for extending the Sabbath limit by means of an artificial union of spheres of settlement (see 'Erub; Sabbath). Their object was to render the Sabbath "a delight" (Isa. lviii. 13), a day of social and spiritual joy and elevation rather than a day of gloom. The old Ḥasidim, who probably lived together in large settlements, could easily treat these as one large house (see Geiger, "Jüd. Zeit." ii. 24-27). Yet while they excluded the women from their festal gatherings, the Pharisees, their successors, transformed the Sabbath and festivals into seasons of domestic joy, bringing into increasing recognition the importance and dignity of woman as the builder and guardian of the home (comp. Niddah 38a, b; and Book of Jubilees, i. 8, with Ezra's injunction; B. Ḳ. 82a).
In regard to the laws of Levitical purity, which, in common with primitive custom, excluded woman periodically, and for weeks and months after child-birth, from the household (Lev. xii. 4-7, xv. 19-24), to which laws the ancient Ḥasidim adhered with austere rigor (Shab. 64b; Horowitz, "Uralte Toseftas," iv.-v.; "Pitḥe Niddah," pp. 54-56; Geiger, l.c. ii. 27-28), the Pharisees took the common-sense course of encouraging the wife, despite the letter of the Law, to take her usual place in the home and appear in her wonted dignity before her husband and children (Ket. 61a; Shab. 64b). So, too, it was with the Pharisaic leader Simeon b. Shetaḥ, who, in the reign of Queen Salome Alexandra, introduced the marriage document (Ketubah) in order to protect the wife against the caprice of the husband; and while the Shammaites would not allow the wife to be divorced unless she gave cause for suspicion of adultery (Sifre, 269; Giṭ. ix. 10, 90b; comp. Matt. v. 32), the Hillelites, and especially Akiba, in being more lenient in matters of divorce, had in view the welfare and peace of the home, which should be based upon affection (see Friedmann, "Pseudo-Seder Eliyahu Zuṭa," xv. 3). Many measures were taken by the Pharisees to prevent arbitrary acts on the part of the husband (Giṭ. iv. 2-3 et al.). Possibly in order to accentuate the legal character of the divorce they insisted, against Sadducean custom, on inserting in the document the words "according to the law of Moses and of Israel" (Yad. iv. 8; but comp. Meg. Ta'an. vii.).
It was on account of such consideration for the welfare of the home that they stood in high favor with the Jewish women ("Ant." xvii. 2, § 4). They discountenanced also the Sadducean custom of special purifications for the officiating priest (Parah iii. 7; Tosef., ii. 1), and laid more stress upon the purification of the Temple vessels and upon the holiness of the Scripture scrolls, which, according to them, transmitted their holiness to the hands which touched them so as to make them "defile" (i.e., make "taboo") the things touched by them (Yad. iv. 6; Tosef., ii. 20; Tosef., Ḥag. iii. 35; see Geiger, "Urschrift," pp. 134-136).Aristocracy of the Learned.
Most of these controversies, recorded from thetime previous to the destruction of the Temple, are but faint echoes of the greater issues between the Pharisaic and Sadducean parties, the latter representing the interests of the Temple, while the former were concerned that the spiritual life of the people should be centered in the Torah and the Synagogue. While the Sadducean priesthood prided itself upon its aristocracy of blood (Sanh. iv. 2; Mid. v. 4; Ket. 25a; Josephus, "Contra Ap." i., § 7), the Pharisees created an aristocracy of learning instead, declaring a bastard who is a student of the Law to be higher in rank than an ignorant high priest (Hor. 13a), and glorying in the fact that their most prominent leaders were descendants of proselytes (Yoma 71b; Sanh. 96b). For the decision of their Scribes, or "Soferim" (Josephus, σοπισταί; N. T., γραμματεἴς), consisting originally of Aaronites, Levites, and common Israelites, they claimed the same authority as for the Biblical law, even in case of error (Sifre, Deut. 153-154); they endowed them with the power to abrogate the Law at times (see Abrogation of Laws), and they went so far as to say that he who transgressed their words deserved death (Ber. 4a). By dint of this authority, claimed to be divine (R. H. 25a), they put the entire calendric system upon a new basis, independent of the priesthood. They took many burdens from the people by claiming for the sage, or scribe, the power of dissolving vows (Ḥag. i. 8; Tosef., i.).
On the whole, however, they added new restrictions to the Biblical law in order to keep the people at a safe distance from forbidden ground; as they termed it, "they made a fence around the Law" (Ab. i. 1; Ab. R. N. i.-xi.), interpreting the words "Ye shall watch my watch" (Lev. xviii. 30, Hebr.) to mean "Ye shall place a guard around my guard" (Yeb. 21a). Thus they forbade the people to drink wine or eat with the heathen, in order to prevent associations which might lead either to intermarriage or to idolatry (Shab. 17b). To the forbidden marriages of the Mosaic law relating to incest (Lev. xviii.-xx.) they added a number of others (Yeb. ii. 4). After they had determined the kinds of work prohibited on the Sabbath they forbade the use of many things on the Sabbath on the ground that their use might lead to some prohibited labor (see Sabbath). It was here that the foundation was laid of that system of rabbinic law which piled statute upon statute until often the real purpose of the Law was lost sight of (see Nomism). But such restrictions are not confined to ritual laws. Also in regard to moral laws there are such additional prohibitions, as, for instance, the prohibition against what is called "the dust of slanderous speech" (Yer. Peah i. 16a) or "the dust of usury" (B. M. 61b), or against unfair dealings, such as gambling, or keeping animals that feed on property of the neighbors (Tosef., B. Ḳ. vii. 8; Tosef., Sanh. v. 2, 5; Sanh. 25b, 26b).Doctrines of the Pharisees.
The aim and object of the Law, according to Pharisaic principles, are the training of man to a full realization of his responsibility to God and to the consecration of life by the performance of its manifold duties: the one is called "'ol malkut shamayim" (the yoke of God's Kingship) and the other "'ol hamiẓwot" (the yoke of His commandments). Every morning and evening the Jew takes both upon himself when reciting the "Shema'" (Ber. ii. 2). "The Torah preaches: Take upon yourselves the yoke of God's Kingdom; let the fear of God be your judge and arbiter, and deal with one another according to the dictates of love" (Sifre, Deut. 323). So says Josephus: "For the Jewish lawgiver all virtues are parts of religion" ("Contra Ap." ii., §§ 17, 19; comp. Philo, "De Opificio Mundi," §§ 52, 55). Cain and the generation of the Flood sinned in that they denied that there are a Judgment and a Judge and a future of retribution (Targ. Yer. to Gen. iv. 8; Gen. R. xxvi.). The acceptance of God's Kingship implies acceptance of His commandments also, both such as are dictated by reason and the human conscience and such as are special decrees of God as Ruler (Sifra, Aḥare Mot, 13). It means a perfect heart that fears the very thought of sin (Sifra, Ḳedoshim, 2); the avoidance of sin from love of God (ib. 11); the fulfilment of His commandments without expectation of reward ('Ab. Zarah 19a); the avoidance of any impure thought or any act that may lead to sin (ib. 20b, with reference to Deut. xxiii. 10). The acceptance of God's Kingship implies also recognition of His just dealing with man, and a thankful attitude, even in misfortune (Sifre, Deut. 32, 53; Sifra, Shemini, 1; Mek., Yitro, 10; Ber. ix. 5, 60b). God's Kingship, first proclaimed by Abraham (Sifre, Deut. 313) and accepted by Israel (Mek., Yitro, Baḥodesh, 2-3), shall be universally recognized in the future.The Future Life.
This is the Messianic hope of the Pharisees, voiced in all parts of the synagogal liturgy; but it meant also the cessation of the kingdom of the worldly powers identified with idolatry and injustice (Mek., 'Amalek). In fact, for the ancient Ḥasidim, God's Kingship excluded that of any other ("Ant." xviii. 1, § 6). The Pharisees, who yielded to the temporary powers and enjoined the people to pray for the government (Abot iii. 2), waited nevertheless for the Kingdom of God, consoling themselves in the meantime with the spiritual freedom granted by the study of the Law (Abot vi. 2). "He who takes upon himself the yoke of the Torah, the yoke of the worldly kingdom and of worldly care, will be removed from him" (Abot iii. 5). Josephus ("B. J." ii. 8, § 14; "Ant." xiii. 5, § 9; xviii. 1, § 3) carefully avoids mentioning the most essential doctrine of the Pharisees, the Messianic hope, which the Sadducees did not share with them; while for the Essenes time and conditions were predicted in their apocalyptic writings. Instead, Josephus merely says that "they ascribe everything to fate without depriving man of his freedom of action." This idea is expressed by Akiba: "Everything is foreseen [that is, predestined]; but at the same time freedom is given" (Abot iii. 15). Akiba, however, declares, "The world is judged by grace [not by blind fate nor by the Pauline law], and everything is determined by man's actions [not by blind acceptance of certain creeds]." Similar to Josephus' remark is the rabbinical saying, "All is decreed by God except fear of God" (Ber. 33b). "Man may act either virtuously or viciously, and his rewards or punishmentsin the future shall be accordingly" ("Ant." xviii. 1, § 3). This corresponds with the "two ways of the Jewish teaching" (Ab. R. N. xxv.; see Didache). But it was not the immortality of the soul which the Pharisees believed in, as Josephus puts it, but the resurrection of the body as expressed in the liturgy (see Resurrection), and this formed part of their Messianic hope (see Eschatology).
In contradistinction to the Sadducees, who were satisfied with the political life committed to their own power as the ruling dynasty, the Pharisees represented the views and hopes of the people. The same was the case with regard to the belief in angels and demons. As Ecclesiastes and Ecclesiasticus indicate, the upper classes adhered for a long time to the Biblical view concerning the soul and the hereafter, caring little for the Angelology and Demonology of the Pharisees. These used them, with the help of the Ma'aseh Bereshit and Ma'aseh Merkabah, not only to amplify the Biblical account, but to remove from the Bible anthropomorphisms and similarly obnoxious verbiage concerning the Deity by referring them to angelic and intermediary powers (for instance, Gen. i. 26), and thereby to gradually sublimate and spiritualize the conception of God.Ethics.
The Pharisees are furthermore described by Josephus as extremely virtuous and sober, and as despising luxuries; and Ab. R. N. v. affirms that they led a life of privation. The ethics of the Pharisees is based upon the principle "Be holy, as the Lord your God is holy" (Lev. xix. 2, Hebr.); that is, strive to imitate God (Sifra and Tan., Ḳedoshim, 1; Mek., Shirah, 3; Sifre, Deut. 49; comp. Matt. v. 48: "Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect"). So "Love thy neighbor as thyself" is declared by them to be the principal law (Shab. 30a; Ab. R. N., text B, xxvi. [ed. Schechter, p. 53]; Sifra, Ḳedoshim, 4) and, in order to demonstrate its universality, to be based on the verse declaring man to be made in the image of God (Gen. v. 1). "As He makes the sun shine alike upon the good and the evil," so does He extend His fatherly love to all (Shir ha-Shirim Zuṭa, i.; Sifre, Num. 134, Deut. 31, 40). Heathenism is hated on account of the moral depravity to which it leads (Sifre, Num. 157), but the idolater who becomes an observer of the Law ranks with the high priest (Sifra, Aḥare Mot, 13). It is a slanderous misrepresentation of the Pharisees to state that they "divorced morality and religion," when everywhere virtue, probity, and benevolence are declared by them to be the essence of the Law (Mak. 23b-24a; Tosef., Peah, iv. 19; et al.; see Ethics).The Charge of Hypocrisy.
Nothing could have been more loathsome to the genuine Pharisee than Hypocrisy. "Whatever good a man does he should do it for the glory of God" (Ab. ii. 13; Ber. 17a). Nicodemus is blamed for having given of his wealth to the poor in an ostentatious manner (Ket. 66b). An evil action may be justified where the motive is a good one (Ber. 63a). Still, the very air of sanctity surrounding the life of the Pharisees often led to abuses. Alexander Jannæus warned his wife not against the Pharisees, his declared enemies, but against "the chameleon- or hyena- ["ẓebo'im"-] like hypocrites who act like Zimri and claim the reward of Phinehas:" (Soṭah 22b). An ancient baraita enumerates seven classes of Pharisees, of which five consist of either eccentric fools or hypocrites: (1) "the shoulder Pharisee," who wears, as it were, his good actions. ostentatiously upon his shoulder; (2) "the wait-a-little Pharisee," who ever says, "Wait a little, until I have performed the good act awaiting me"; (3), "the bruised Pharisee," who in order to avoid looking at a woman runs against the wall so as to bruise himself and bleed; (4) "the pestle Pharisee," who walks with head down like the pestle in the mortar; (5) "the ever-reckoning Pharisee," who says, "Let me know what good I may do to counteract my neglect"; (6) "the God-fearing Pharisee," after the manner of Job; (7) "the God-loving Pharisee," after the manner of Abraham (Yer. Ber. ix. 14b; Soṭah 22b; Ab. R. N., text A, xxxvii.; text B, xlv. [ed. Schechter, pp. 55, 62]; the explanations in both Talmuds vary greatly; see Chwolson, "Das Letzte-Passahmahl," p. 116). R. Joshua b. Hananiah, at the beginning of the second century, calls eccentric Pharisees "destroyers of the world" (Soṭah iii. 4); and the term "Pharisaic plagues" is frequently used by the leaders of the time (Yer. Soṭah iii. 19a).
It is such types of Pharisees that Jesus had in view when hurling his scathing words of condemnation against the Pharisees, whom he denounced as "hypocrites," calling them "offspring of vipers" ("hyenas"; see
Only in regard to intercourse with the unclean and "unwashed" multitude, with the 'am ha-areẓ, the publican, and the sinner, did Jesus differ widely from the Pharisees (Mark ii. 16; Luke v. 30, vii. 39, xi. 38, xv. 2, xix. 7). In regard to the main doctrine he fully agreed with them, as the old version (Mark xii. 28-34) still has it. Owing, however, to the hostile attitude taken toward the Pharisaic schools by Pauline Christianity, especially in the time of the emperor Hadrian, "Pharisees" was inserted in the Gospels wherever the high priests and Sadducees or Herodians were originally mentioned as the persecutors of Jesus (see New Testament), and a false impression, which still prevails in Christian circles and among all Christian writers, was created concerning the Pharisees.History of the Pharisees.
It is difficult to state at what time the Pharisees, as a party, arose. Josephus first mentions them inconnection with Jonathan, the successor of Judas Maccabeus ("Ant." xiii. 5, § 9). Under John Hyrcanus (135-105) they appear as a powerful party opposing the Sadducean proclivities of the king, who had formerly been a disciple of theirs, though the story as told by Josephus is unhistorical ("Ant." xiii. 10, § 5; comp. Jubilees, Book of, and Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs). The Hasmonean dynasty, with its worldly ambitions and aspirations, met with little support from the Pharisees, whose aim was the maintenance of a religious spirit in accordance with their interpretation of the Law (see Psalms of Solomon). Under Alexander Jannæus (104-78) the conflict between the people, siding with the Pharisees, and the king became bitter and ended in cruel carnage ("Ant." xiii. 13, § 5; xiv. 1, § 2). Under his widow, Salome Alexandra (78-69), the Pharisees, led by Simeon ben Shetaḥ, came to power; they obtained seats in the Sanhedrin, and that time was afterward regarded as the golden age, full of the blessing of heaven (Sifra, Beḥuḳḳotai, i.; Ta'an. 23a). But the bloody vengeance they took upon the Sadducees led to a terrible reaction, and under Aristobulus (69-63) the Sadducees regained their power ("Ant." xiii. 16, § 2-xiv. 1, § 2).
Amidst the bitter struggle which ensued, the Pharisees appeared before Pompey asking him to interfere and restore the old priesthood while abolishing the royalty of the Hasmoneans altogether ("Ant." xiv. 3, § 2). The defilement of the Temple by Pompey was regarded by the Pharisees as a divine punishment of Sadducean misrule (Psalms of Solomon, i., ii., viii. 12-19). After the national independence had been lost, the Pharisees gained in influence while the star of the Sadducees waned. Herod found his chief opponents among the latter, and so he put the leaders of the Sanhedrin to death while endeavoring by a milder treatment to win the favor of the leaders of the Pharisees, who, though they refused to take the oath of allegiance, were otherwise friendly to him ("Ant." xiv. 9, § 4; xv. 1, § 1; 10, § 4; 11, §§ 5-6). Only when he provoked their indignation by his heathen proclivities did the Pharisees become his enemies and fall victims (4
Henceforth Jewish life was regulated by the teachings of the Pharisees; the whole history of Judaism was reconstructed from the Pharisaic point of view, and a new aspect was given to the Sanhedrin of the past. A new chain of tradition supplanted the older, priestly tradition (Abot i. 1). Pharisaism shaped the character of Judaism and the life and thought of the Jew for all the future. True, it gave the Jewish religion a legalistic tendency and made "separatism" its chief characteristic; yet only thus were the pure monotheistic faith, the ethical ideal, and the intellectual and spiritual character of the Jew preserved in the midst of the downfall of the old world and the deluge of barbarism which swept over the medieval world.
- J. Elbogen, Die Religionsanschauung der Pharisäer, Berlin, 1904;
- Geiger, Urschrift, Breslau, 1857;
- idem. Sadducäer und Pharisäer, in Jüd. Zeit. 1863;
- Schürer, Gesch. 3d ed., ii. 380-419 (where list of the whole literature is given);
- Wellhausen, Die Pharisäer und Sadducäer, Göttingen, 1874. | <urn:uuid:8ec665f4-dbfa-47fa-bb09-51658ed0bad8> | {
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The Isle of Arran, situated off the South West coast of Scotland, is accessible yet remote and, as such, is a wonderful place for the tracking and discovery of some of Britain’s nature and wildlife.
The variety within the Arran landscape is largely responsible for the great variety of its flora and fauna, as is the mild year-round temperature. From mountains and bog-land to farmland, coastline, moorland and forested areas, the island’s habitats are many. This is what makes Arran’s landscape so compelling.
The Isle of Arran is a wonderful location from which to base a bird spotting trip. Ptarmigans are beautiful birds and thrive on Arran, developing an almost entirely white plumage in Winter months. Breeding on Arran’s mountains, the ptarmigans tend to remain in the peaks but sometimes do move to forests when the weather is particularly bad.
Both the golden eagle and white-tailed eagle (the two largest birds of prey in the British Isles) are both appreciative of the wild habitat available on Arran. The golden eagle prefers the mountains and moorland, while the white-tailed prefers cliffs and coastal mountains. It was pretty much extinct in the early 19th century throughout Britain, but Rum and other islands have been at the forefront of the species’ reintroduction. Red kites have also been reintroduced to Scotland, initially in the Black Isle. They prefer a habitat of deciduous woodland with neighbouring farmland. Peregrine falcons can be found on coastal uplands, nesting on craggy cliffs, while hen harriers live on heather moor uplands, moving to lowland areas when the weather turns colder.
The Osprey is amongst those species which pass through Arran, present in Spring and Autumn following their migration. Other birds such as the shelduck, heron and eider are permanent visitors, and still other feathered visitors are only on Arran during the Winter months.
So, wherever you are on Arran, you can be sure to have opportunities to catch a glimpse of some incredible and fascinating birds.
Rare throughout other parts of the British Isles, red squirrels have a healthy stronghold on the Isle of Arran, there being no grey squirrels to pass on disease and compete for food sources. They are visible throughout the island, particularly in the grounds of Brodick Castle.
The most majestic and largest wild animal you’re likely to see during a stay on Arran, is the red deer, as there are around 2,000 living on the island. Males and females live in separate groups on the high moorland areas but come together for mating purposes in Autumn. They are relatively visible but you’ll be lucky to see an albino – the legendary White Stag.
Eurasian otters are populous on the North and West coasts of Scotland, though it isn’t always easy to spot them as they’re shy and generally keep away from people, so otter watching requires patience. Their numbers have been in decline throughout Britain over the last sixty years or so, but this area’s population has remained strong.
The mild climate on Arran is due to the Gulf Stream, giving the plants a year-round diversity, even in Winter. Up to 50 species of wild flowers can be seen, even in Winter months, including Gorse which flowers all Winter long. Notable also are the yellow irises beside the road running from Brodick to Corrie. Obviously, most of the plant variety can be found in the wetter and more lowland areas of the island – the moorland areas tend to mainly be inhabited by bilberry, bracken and heather. Many beautiful flowering plants are also thriving on the seashore or cliff areas – for example, thrift, navelwort and sea campion.
Seals, basking sharks, bottlenose dolphins, porpoises and minke whales may all be spotted by visitors to the coastline. Seals will often bask on rocky outcrops just out to sea.
Stay in Arran
Arran is within easy reach of the Scottish mainland, Glasgow and other areas of great interest. We can offer wonderful accommodation within these areas to suit the needs of all travellers – self-catering, hotels, and cottages, to name but a few. Do take a look below for more information on our Arran properties and latest nearby offers. | <urn:uuid:cd99530a-003d-41a1-934b-17703f6875bb> | {
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