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500 | further studies in mutant mice have shown that elevated aβ levels result in spine loss 17 99101 reduction in the number of excitatory synapses 102 and depressed glutamatergic synaptic transmission 103 104 accompanied by glutamate receptor endocytosis | [17360908 19228947 12670422 17145504 17145504 16025111] | the observation that amyloid plaques in vivo are surrounded by hyperactive cells 90 came as a surprise because of the wealth of data showing that ad is associated with synaptic dismantling and synaptic failure Already early histological studies of brain tissue from AD patients were able to reveal neuronal loss shrinkage of dendritic trees and a decrease in the density of synapses | [18802001 12399581] |
501 | despite the fact that epo is a critical modulator of erythropoiesis the presence of a diminished oxygen tension is required rather than a low concentration of red blood cells gene transcription of epo is mediated by the transcription enhancer located in the 3flanking region of the epo gene that specifically binds to hypoxiainducible factor 1 hif1 yet hypoxia is not the only condition that can alter the expression of epo and the epor | [18473829 18396368 18299246 15491780 15632341] | in experimental animal models epo may reduce apoptotic pathways during periods of hyperoxia in the developing brain furthermore clinical disorders may have periods of hyperoxia followed by cerebral hypoperfusion and hypoxia that can lead to cerebral injury with associated oxidative stress in these circumstances epo also may be protective since it can promote neurite outgrowth and also may regulate hemoglobin levels that have recently been associated with cognitive decline in other work elevated epo concentrations during infant maturation have been correlated with increased mental development index scores and epo may prevent toxic effects of agents used to control cognitive function such as haloperidol in addition knowledge that epo and its receptor are present in the neurovascular systems has generated great enthusiasm for the potential clinical applications of epo for ad and related cardiac insufficiency and cardiac transplantation in the nervous system primary sites of epo production and secretion are in the hippocampus internal capsule cortex midbrain cerebral endothelial cells ecs and astrocytes further work has revealed several other organs as secretory tissues for epo that include peripheral ecs myoblasts insulinproducing cells and cardiac tissue the epor also is expressed in primary cerebral ecs as well as in human umbilical veins bovine adrenal capillaries and rat brain capillaries | [19067366 18973793 18502414 18672044 19001795 17805306 17483696 17161060
16309765 17896976 15491780 15632341 15210945 15272145 8171022 10995753
12717230 15632341 17631185 12621307 12769640 8171022 8706759] |
502 | in contrast to epo cytoprotection foxo transcription factors usually lead to apoptosis during oxidative stress for example forkhead transcription factors such as foxo1 and foxo3a must be present for oxidative stress to result in apoptotic cell injury foxo3a in conjunction with jnk also has been shown to modulate an apoptotic ligand activating a fasmediated death pathway in cultured motoneurons to lead to apoptosis through tumornecrosisfactorrelated apoptosisinducing ligand trail and bh3only proteins noxa and bim in neuroblastoma cells and to promote proapoptotic activity of p53 in addition loss of foxo expression during oxidative stress is protective to cells | [18473829 18035477 15569384 16888645 16757565] | with epo it can prevent cell injury during ad and aβ cell injury hypoxia excitotoxicity parasitic disease endotoxin shock free radical exposure cardiac disease amyloid toxicity and pulmonary disease epo also represents a potential option for the prevention of retinal degeneration or neovascularization as well as glaucoma in the cns systemic application of epo also can improve functional outcome and reduce cell loss during spinal cord injury traumatic cerebral edema cortical trauma and epileptic activity epo also can reduce cytokine gene expression in endothelial cells exposed to tumor necrosis factor prevent ulcer progression in cases of scleroderma reduce inflammation in murine arthritis models and block primary microglial activation and proliferation during oxidative stress to prevent phagocytosis of injured cells through pathways that involve cellular membrane ps exposure protein kinase b and the regulation of caspases epo can directly inhibit several proinflammatory cytokines such as il6 tnfα and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 and reduce leukocyte inflammation epo also may foster the preservation of microglial cells for neuronal and vascular restructuring by preventing apoptotic injury in microglia | [17289346 16375720 19268480 18512763 12684267 12460881 16417583 16054296
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16375720 15149850 12684267 12621307 17508273 15632341 15627815 16918383
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503 | the genetic background of ps1 fad mutations has been proposed to correlate with increased vulnerability to oxidative stress and apoptosis possibly due to aberrant ps1 function in maintaining er calcium homeostasis | [11520901 16042546 12419469 16959576 16156741 16042546] | the ps2 mutant cells resembled ps1 mutants in regard to p38 and normal cells in regard to erk while trisomy 21 cells exhibited both bkdependent p38 activation and erk activation that was equivalent to normal fibroblasts despite showing other avenues of signal transduction that are like presenilin ad fibroblasts the functional divergences observed between erk and p38 may relate to upstream steps in this overall pathway differentially linked to presenilin functions that remain to be defined. | [] |
504 | a number of studies used the criteria nincds possible or probable ad or other nonstandard clinical measures data not shown while clinical diagnosis is often used to validate imaging findings and neuropathological diagnosis is the overall gold standard and despite the existence of modern standardized criteria the application of these standards should not be considered free of ambiguity | [9785148 9681644 2642615 4078573 3415196] | thus, for instance, to achieve a specificity greater than 80%, four out. of five studies had to settle for sensitivity lower than 70%. this correlation is depicted in | [] |
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