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4,800 | Microlith | A microlith is a small stone tool, typically knapped of flint or chert, usually about three centimetres long or less; They are typically one centimetre long and half a centimetre wide when finished. Microliths were either produced from small blades (microblades) or made by snapping normal big blades in a controlled manner, which leaves a very typical piece of waste (microburin). The latter type of microliths are called geometric microliths. They can be formed as various kinds of triangles, lunate shaped, trapezes, etc. The shape of the microlith can be used for dating. Microliths were produced during the middle stone age (Mesolithic) (from the end of the Ice Age (about 9200 BCE) until the introduction of agriculture (8000 BCE)). Some types of microliths, such as trapezes, were used in the Neolithic as well (the Linear Pottery culture and Funnelbeaker culture). They were probably used as barbs on arrows, spears and other composite tools. Microliths are found throughout Europe and Asia. References Literature Crabtree, Don E., "An Introduction to Flint working". Occasional Papers of the Idaho Museum of Natural History, Number 28. Second Edition, Pocatello, (Idaho, 1982) Whittaker, J.C., "Flint knapping: making and understanding stone tools", University of Texas Press, (Austin, 1994) Joachim Hahn|Joachim, Hahn, "Erkennen und Bestimmen von Stein- und Knochenartefakten. Einführung in die Artefaktmorphologie". Archaeologica Venatoria 10, (Tübingen, 1991) (in de) External links Huanghua microlith discovery by Huanghua Archaeological Group, Hebei Rise of Chinese civilization, Carleton University Why Microliths? Microlithization in the Levant Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association Mesolithic microliths from Retreat Field, Topsham Prehistoric Exeter, Exeter City Council | Microlith |@lemmatized microlith:3 small:2 stone:3 tool:3 typically:2 knap:1 flint:3 chert:1 usually:1 three:1 centimetre:3 long:2 less:1 one:1 half:1 wide:1 finish:1 microliths:8 either:1 produce:2 blade:2 microblades:1 make:1 snap:1 normal:1 big:1 controlled:1 manner:1 leave:1 typical:1 piece:1 waste:1 microburin:1 latter:1 type:2 call:1 geometric:1 form:1 various:1 kind:1 triangle:1 lunate:1 shape:2 trapeze:2 etc:1 use:3 date:1 middle:1 age:2 mesolithic:2 end:1 ice:1 bce:2 introduction:2 agriculture:1 neolithic:1 well:1 linear:1 pottery:1 culture:2 funnelbeaker:1 probably:1 barb:1 arrow:1 spear:1 composite:1 find:1 throughout:1 europe:1 asia:1 reference:1 literature:1 crabtree:1 e:1 work:1 occasional:1 paper:2 idaho:2 museum:1 natural:1 history:1 number:1 second:1 edition:1 pocatello:1 whittaker:1 j:1 c:1 knapping:1 making:1 understanding:1 university:2 texas:1 press:1 austin:1 joachim:2 hahn:2 erkennen:1 und:2 bestimmen:1 von:1 stein:1 knochenartefakten:1 einführung:1 die:1 artefaktmorphologie:1 archaeologica:1 venatoria:1 tübingen:1 de:1 external:1 link:1 huanghua:2 discovery:1 archaeological:1 group:1 hebei:1 rise:1 chinese:1 civilization:1 carleton:1 microlithization:1 levant:1 archeological:1 american:1 anthropological:1 association:1 retreat:1 field:1 topsham:1 prehistoric:1 exeter:2 city:1 council:1 |@bigram einführung_die:1 external_link:1 |
4,801 | Metabolism | Structure of the coenzyme adenosine triphosphate, a central intermediate in energy metabolism Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in order to maintain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories. Catabolism breaks down organic matter, for example to harvest energy in cellular respiration. Anabolism, on the other hand, uses energy to construct components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed into another by a sequence of enzymes. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable but thermodynamically unfavorable reactions by coupling them to favorable ones, and because they act as catalysts to allow these reactions to proceed quickly and efficiently. Enzymes also allow the regulation of metabolic pathways in response to changes in the cell's environment or signals from other cells. The metabolism of an organism determines which substances it will find nutritious and which it will find poisonous. For example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals. The speed of metabolism, the metabolic rate, also influences how much food an organism will require. A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways between even vastly different species. For example, the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all organisms, being found in species as diverse as the unicellular bacteria Escherichia coli and huge multicellular organisms like elephants. These striking similarities in metabolism are most likely the result of the high efficiency of these pathways, and of their early appearance in evolutionary history. Key biochemicals Structure of a triacylglycerol lipid Most of the structures that make up animals, plants and microbes are made from three basic classes of molecule: amino acids, carbohydrates and lipids (often called fats). As these molecules are vital for life, metabolism focuses on making these molecules, in the construction of cells and tissues, or breaking them down and using them as a source of energy, in the digestion and use of food. Many important biochemicals can be joined together to make polymers such as DNA and proteins. These macromolecules are essential parts of all living organisms. Some of the most common biological polymers are listed in the table below. Type of moleculeName of monomer formsName of polymer formsExamples of polymer formsAmino acidsAmino acidsProteins (also called polypeptides)Fibrous proteins and globular proteinsCarbohydratesMonosaccharidesPolysaccharidesStarch, glycogen and celluloseNucleic acidsNucleotidesPolynucleotidesDNA and RNA Amino acids and proteins Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by peptide bonds. Many proteins are the enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism. Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as the proteins that form the cytoskeleton, a system of scaffolding that maintains the cell shape. Proteins are also important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, active transport across membranes, and the cell cycle. Lipids Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals. Their main structural uses are as part of biological membranes such as the cell membrane, or as a source of energy. Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules that will dissolve in organic solvents such as benzene or chloroform. The fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol; a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid esters is a triacylglyceride. Several variations on this basic structure exist, including alternate backbones such as sphingosine in the sphingolipids, and hydrophilic groups such as phosphate in phospholipids. Steroids such as cholesterol are another major class of lipids that are made in cells. Carbohydrates alt=The straight chain form consists of four C H O H groups linked in a row, capped at the ends by an aldehyde group C O H and a methanol group C H 2 O H. To form the ring, the aldehyde group combines with the O H group of the next-to-last carbon at the other end, just before the methanol group.|Glucose can exist in both a straight-chain and ring form. Carbohydrates are straight-chain aldehydes or ketones with many hydroxyl groups that can exist as straight chains or rings. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of energy (starch, glycogen) and structural components (cellulose in plants, chitin in animals). The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose, fructose, and most importantly glucose. Monosaccharides can be linked together to form polysaccharides in almost limitless ways. Nucleotides The polymers DNA and RNA are long chains of nucleotides. These molecules are critical for the storage and use of genetic information, through the processes of transcription and protein biosynthesis. This information is protected by DNA repair mechanisms and propagated through DNA replication. A few viruses have an RNA genome, for example HIV, which uses reverse transcription to create a DNA template from its viral RNA genome. RNA in ribozymes such as spliceosomes and ribosomes is similar to enzymes as it can catalyze chemical reactions. Individual nucleosides are made by attaching a nucleobase to a ribose sugar. These bases are heterocyclic rings containing nitrogen, classified as purines or pyrimidines. Nucleotides also act as coenzymes in metabolic group transfer reactions. Coenzymes Structure of the coenzyme acetyl-CoA.The transferable acetyl group is bonded to the sulfur atom at the extreme left. Metabolism involves a vast array of chemical reactions, but most fall under a few basic types of reactions that involve the transfer of functional groups. This common chemistry allows cells to use a small set of metabolic intermediates to carry chemical groups between different reactions. These group-transfer intermediates are called coenzymes. Each class of group-transfer reaction is carried out by a particular coenzyme, which is the substrate for a set of enzymes that produce it, and a set of enzymes that consume it. These coenzymes are therefore continuously being made, consumed and then recycled. One central coenzyme is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the universal energy currency of cells. This nucleotide is used to transfer chemical energy between different chemical reactions. There is only a small amount of ATP in cells, but as it is continuously regenerated, the human body can use about its own weight in ATP per day. ATP acts as a bridge between catabolism and anabolism, with catabolic reactions generating ATP and anabolic reactions consuming it. It also serves as a carrier of phosphate groups in phosphorylation reactions. A vitamin is an organic compound needed in small quantities that cannot be made in the cells. In human nutrition, most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification; for example, all water-soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), a derivative of vitamin B3 (niacin), is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor. Hundreds of separate types of dehydrogenases remove electrons from their substrates and reduce NAD+ into NADH. This reduced form of the coenzyme is then a substrate for any of the reductases in the cell that need to reduce their substrates. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two related forms in the cell, NADH and NADPH. The NAD+/NADH form is more important in catabolic reactions, while NADP+/NADPH is used in anabolic reactions. Structure of hemoglobin. The protein subunits are in red and blue, and the iron-containing heme groups in green. From . Minerals and cofactors Inorganic elements play critical roles in metabolism; some are abundant (e.g. sodium and potassium) while others function at minute concentrations. About 99% of mammals' mass are the elements carbon, nitrogen, calcium, sodium, chlorine, potassium, hydrogen, phosphorus, oxygen and sulfur. The organic compounds (proteins, lipids and carbohydrates) contain the majority of the carbon and nitrogen and most of the oxygen and hydrogen is present as water. The abundant inorganic elements act as ionic electrolytes. The most important ions are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate, and the organic ion bicarbonate. The maintenance of precise gradients across cell membranes maintains osmotic pressure and pH. Ions are also critical for nerves and muscles, as action potentials in these tissues are produced by the exchange of electrolytes between the extracellular fluid and the cytosol. Electrolytes enter and leave cells through proteins in the cell membrane called ion channels. For example, muscle contraction depends upon the movement of calcium, sodium and potassium through ion channels in the cell membrane and T-tubules. The transition metals are usually present as trace elements in organisms, with zinc and iron being most abundant. These metals are used in some proteins as cofactors and are essential for the activity of enzymes such as catalase and oxygen-carrier proteins such as hemoglobin. These cofactors are bound tightly to a specific protein; although enzyme cofactors can be modified during catalysis, cofactors always return to their original state after catalysis has taken place. The metal micronutrients are taken up into organisms by specific transporters and bound to storage proteins such as ferritin or metallothionein when not being used. Catabolism Catabolism is the set of metabolic processes that break down large molecules. These include breaking down and oxidising food molecules. The purpose of the catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by anabolic reactions. The exact nature of these catabolic reactions differ from organism to organism, with organic molecules being used as a source of energy in organotrophs, while lithotrophs use inorganic substrates and phototrophs capture sunlight as chemical energy. However, all these different forms of metabolism depend on redox reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from reduced donor molecules such as organic molecules, water, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide or ferrous ions to acceptor molecules such as oxygen, nitrate or sulfate. In animals these reactions involve complex organic molecules being broken down to simpler molecules, such as carbon dioxide and water. In photosynthetic organisms such as plants and cyanobacteria, these electron-transfer reactions do not release energy, but are used as a way of storing energy absorbed from sunlight. The most common set of catabolic reactions in animals can be separated into three main stages. In the first, large organic molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides or lipids are digested into their smaller components outside cells. Next, these smaller molecules are taken up by cells and converted to yet smaller molecules, usually acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), which releases some energy. Finally, the acetyl group on the CoA is oxidised to water and carbon dioxide in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain, releasing the energy that is stored by reducing the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) into NADH. Digestion Macromolecules such as starch, cellulose or proteins cannot be rapidly taken up by cells and need to be broken into their smaller units before they can be used in cell metabolism. Several common classes of enzymes digest these polymers. These digestive enzymes include proteases that digest proteins into amino acids, as well as glycoside hydrolases that digest polysaccharides into monosaccharides. Microbes simply secrete digestive enzymes into their surroundings, while animals only secrete these enzymes from specialized cells in their guts. The amino acids or sugars released by these extracellular enzymes are then pumped into cells by specific active transport proteins. A simplified outline of the catabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and fats Energy from organic compounds Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units. Carbohydrates are usually taken into cells once they have been digested into monosaccharides. Once inside, the major route of breakdown is glycolysis, where sugars such as glucose and fructose are converted into pyruvate and some ATP is generated. Pyruvate is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways, but the majority is converted to acetyl-CoA and fed into the citric acid cycle. Although some more ATP is generated in the citric acid cycle, the most important product is NADH, which is made from NAD+ as the acetyl-CoA is oxidized. This oxidation releases carbon dioxide as a waste product. In anaerobic conditions, glycolysis produces lactate, through the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase re-oxidizing NADH to NAD+ for re-use in glycolysis. An alternative route for glucose breakdown is the pentose phosphate pathway, which reduces the coenzyme NADPH and produces pentose sugars such as ribose, the sugar component of nucleic acids. Fats are catabolised by hydrolysis to free fatty acids and glycerol. The glycerol enters glycolysis and the fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation to release acetyl-CoA, which then is fed into the citric acid cycle. Fatty acids release more energy upon oxidation than carbohydrates because carbohydrates contain more oxygen in their structures. Amino acids are either used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules, or oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy. The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase. The amino group is fed into the urea cycle, leaving a deaminated carbon skeleton in the form of a keto acid. Several of these keto acids are intermediates in the citric acid cycle, for example the deamination of glutamate forms α-ketoglutarate. The glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis (discussed below). Energy transformations Oxidative phosphorylation Structure of ATP synthase. The proton channel and rotating stalk are shown in blue and the synthase subunits in red. In oxidative phosphorylation, the electrons removed from food molecules in pathways such as the citric acid cycle are transferred to oxygen and the energy released is used to make ATP. This is done in eukaryotes by a series of proteins in the membranes of mitochondria called the electron transport chain. In prokaryotes, these proteins are found in the cell's inner membrane. These proteins use the energy released from passing electrons from reduced molecules like NADH onto oxygen to pump protons across a membrane. Pumping protons out of the mitochondria creates a proton concentration difference across the membrane and generates an electrochemical gradient. This force drives protons back into the mitochondrion through the base of an enzyme called ATP synthase. The flow of protons makes the stalk subunit rotate, causing the active site of the synthase domain to change shape and phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate - turning it into ATP. Energy from inorganic compounds Chemolithotrophy is a type of metabolism found in prokaryotes where energy is obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds. These organisms can use hydrogen, reduced sulfur compounds (such as sulfide, hydrogen sulfide and thiosulfate), ferrous iron (FeII) or ammonia as sources of reducing power and they gain energy from the oxidation of these compounds with electron acceptors such as oxygen or nitrite. These microbial processes are important in global biogeochemical cycles such as acetogenesis, nitrification and denitrification and are critical for soil fertility. Energy from light The energy in sunlight is captured by plants, cyanobacteria, purple bacteria, green sulfur bacteria and some protists. This process is often coupled to the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds, as part of photosynthesis, which is discussed below. The energy capture and carbon fixation systems can however operate separately in prokaryotes, as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria can use sunlight as a source of energy, while switching between carbon fixation and the fermentation of organic compounds. In many organisms the capture of solar energy is similar in principle to oxidative phosphorylation, as it involves energy being stored as a proton concentration gradient and this proton motive force then driving ATP synthesis. The electrons needed to drive this electron transport chain come from light-gathering proteins called photosynthetic reaction centres or rhodopsins. Reaction centers are classed into two types depending on the type of photosynthetic pigment present, with most photosynthetic bacteria only having one type, while plants and cyanobacteria have two. In plants, algae, and cyanobateria, photosystem II uses light energy to remove electrons from water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. The electrons then flow to the cytochrome b6f complex, which uses their energy to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast. These protons move back through the membrane as they drive the ATP synthase, as before. The electrons then flow through photosystem I and can then either be used to reduce the coenzyme NADP+, for use in the Calvin cycle which is discussed below, or recycled for further ATP generation. Anabolism Anabolism is the set of constructive metabolic processes where the energy released by catabolism is used to synthesize complex molecules. In general, the complex molecules that make up cellular structures are constructed step-by-step from small and simple precursors. Anabolism involves three basic stages. Firstly, the production of precursors such as amino acids, monosaccharides, isoprenoids and nucleotides, secondly, their activation into reactive forms using energy from ATP, and thirdly, the assembly of these precursors into complex molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic acids. Organisms differ in how many of the molecules in their cells they can construct for themselves. Autotrophs such as plants can construct the complex organic molecules in cells such as polysaccharides and proteins from simple molecules like carbon dioxide and water. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, require a source of more complex substances, such as monosaccharides and amino acids, to produce these complex molecules. Organisms can be further classified by ultimate source of their energy: photoautotrophs and photoheterotrophs obtain energy from light, whereas chemoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs obtain energy from inorganic oxidation reactions. Carbon fixation Plant cells (bounded by purple walls) filled with chloroplasts (green), which are the site of photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the synthesis of carbohydrates from sunlight and carbon dioxide (CO2). In plants, cyanobacteria and algae, oxygenic photosynthesis splits water, with oxygen produced as a waste product. This process uses the ATP and NADPH produced by the photosynthetic reaction centres, as described above, to convert CO2 into glycerate 3-phosphate, which can then be converted into glucose. This carbon-fixation reaction is carried out by the enzyme RuBisCO as part of the Calvin – Benson cycle. Three types of photosynthesis occur in plants, C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation and CAM photosynthesis. These differ by the route that carbon dioxide takes to the Calvin cycle, with C3 plants fixing CO2 directly, while C4 and CAM photosynthesis incorporate the CO2 into other compounds first, as adaptations to deal with intense sunlight and dry conditions. In photosynthetic prokaryotes the mechanisms of carbon fixation are more diverse. Here, carbon dioxide can be fixed by the Calvin – Benson cycle, a reversed citric acid cycle, or the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA. Prokaryotic chemoautotrophs also fix CO2 through the Calvin – Benson cycle, but use energy from inorganic compounds to drive the reaction. Carbohydrates and glycans In carbohydrate anabolism, simple organic acids can be converted into monosaccharides such as glucose and then used to assemble polysaccharides such as starch. The generation of glucose from compounds like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, glycerate 3-phosphate and amino acids is called gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis converts pyruvate to glucose-6-phosphate through a series of intermediates, many of which are shared with glycolysis. However, this pathway is not simply glycolysis run in reverse, as several steps are catalyzed by non-glycolytic enzymes. This is important as it allows the formation and breakdown of glucose to be regulated separately and prevents both pathways from running simultaneously in a futile cycle. Although fat is a common way of storing energy, in vertebrates such as humans the fatty acids in these stores cannot be converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis as these organisms cannot convert acetyl-CoA into pyruvate; plants do, but animals do not, have the necessary enzymatic machinery. As a result, after long-term starvation, vertebrates need to produce ketone bodies from fatty acids to replace glucose in tissues such as the brain that cannot metabolize fatty acids. In other organisms such as plants and bacteria, this metabolic problem is solved using the glyoxylate cycle, which bypasses the decarboxylation step in the citric acid cycle and allows the transformation of acetyl-CoA to oxaloacetate, where it can be used for the production of glucose. Polysaccharides and glycans are made by the sequential addition of monosaccharides by glycosyltransferase from a reactive sugar-phosphate donor such as uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-glucose) to an acceptor hydroxyl group on the growing polysaccharide. As any of the hydroxyl groups on the ring of the substrate can be acceptors, the polysaccharides produced can have straight or branched structures. The polysaccharides produced can have structural or metabolic functions themselves, or be transferred to lipids and proteins by enzymes called oligosaccharyltransferases. Fatty acids, isoprenoids and steroids Simplified version of the steroid synthesis pathway with the intermediates isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP) and squalene shown. Some intermediates are omitted for clarity. Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl-CoA units. The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the actyl group, reduce it to an alcohol, dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group. The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups, in animals and fungi all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional type I protein, while in plant plastids and bacteria separate type II enzymes perform each step in the pathway. Terpenes and isoprenoids are a large class of lipids that include the carotenoids and form the largest class of plant natural products. These compounds are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate. These precursors can be made in different ways. In animals and archaea, the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl-CoA, while in plants and bacteria the non-mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate as substrates. One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is steroid biosynthesis. Here, the isoprene units are joined together to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol. Lanosterol can then be converted into other steroids such as cholesterol and ergosterol. Proteins Organisms vary in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids. Most bacteria and plants can synthesize all twenty, but mammals can synthesize only the ten nonessential amino acids. Thus, the essential amino acids must be obtained from food. All amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway. Nitrogen is provided by glutamate and glutamine. Amino acid synthesis depends on the formation of the appropriate alpha-keto acid, which is then transaminated to form an amino acid. Amino acids are made into proteins by being joined together in a chain by peptide bonds. Each different protein has a unique sequence of amino acid residues: this is its primary structure. Just as the letters of the alphabet can be combined to form an almost endless variety of words, amino acids can be linked in varying sequences to form a huge variety of proteins. Proteins are made from amino acids that have been activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond. This aminoacyl-tRNA precursor is produced in an ATP-dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase. This aminoacyl-tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome, which joins the amino acid onto the elongating protein chain, using the sequence information in a messenger RNA. Nucleotide synthesis and salvage Nucleotides are made from amino acids, carbon dioxide and formic acid in pathways that require large amounts of metabolic energy. Consequently, most organisms have efficient systems to salvage preformed nucleotides. Purines are synthesized as nucleosides (bases attached to ribose). Both adenine and guanine are made from the precursor nucleoside inosine monophosphate, which is synthesized using atoms from the amino acids glycine, glutamine, and aspartic acid, as well as formate transferred from the coenzyme tetrahydrofolate. Pyrimidines, on the other hand, are synthesized from the base orotate, which is formed from glutamine and aspartate. Xenobiotics and redox metabolism All organisms are constantly exposed to compounds that they cannot use as foods and would be harmful if they accumulated in cells, as they have no metabolic function. These potentially damaging compounds are called xenobiotics. Xenobiotics such as synthetic drugs, natural poisons and antibiotics are detoxified by a set of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes. In humans, these include cytochrome P450 oxidases, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases, and glutathione S-transferases. This system of enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic (phase I) and then conjugate water-soluble groups onto the molecule (phase II). The modified water-soluble xenobiotic can then be pumped out of cells and in multicellular organisms may be further metabolized before being excreted (phase III). In ecology, these reactions are particularly important in microbial biodegradation of pollutants and the bioremediation of contaminated land and oil spills. Many of these microbial reactions are shared with multicellular organisms, but due to the incredible diversity of types of microbes these organisms are able to deal with a far wider range of xenobiotics than multicellular organisms, and can degrade even persistent organic pollutants such as organochloride compounds. A related problem for aerobic organisms is oxidative stress. Here, processes including oxidative phosphorylation and the formation of disulfide bonds during protein folding produce reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide. These damaging oxidants are removed by antioxidant metabolites such as glutathione and enzymes such as catalases and peroxidases. Thermodynamics of living organisms Living organisms must obey the laws of thermodynamics, which describe the transfer of heat and work. The second law of thermodynamics states that in any closed system, the amount of entropy (disorder) will tend to increase. Although living organisms' amazing complexity appears to contradict this law, life is possible as all organisms are open systems that exchange matter and energy with their surroundings. Thus living systems are not in equilibrium, but instead are dissipative systems that maintain their state of high complexity by causing a larger increase in the entropy of their environments. The metabolism of a cell achieves this by coupling the spontaneous processes of catabolism to the non-spontaneous processes of anabolism. In thermodynamic terms, metabolism maintains order by creating disorder. Regulation and control As the environments of most organisms are constantly changing, the reactions of metabolism must be finely regulated to maintain a constant set of conditions within cells, a condition called homeostasis. Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments. Two closely linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled. Firstly, the regulation of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals. Secondly, the control exerted by this enzyme is the effect that these changes in its activity have on the overall rate of the pathway (the flux through the pathway). For example, an enzyme may show large changes in activity (i.e. it is highly regulated) but if these changes have little effect on the flux of a metabolic pathway, then this enzyme is not involved in the control of the pathway. Effect of insulin on glucose uptake and metabolism. Insulin binds to its receptor (1) which in turn starts many protein activation cascades (2). These include: translocation of Glut-4 transporter to the plasma membrane and influx of glucose (3), glycogen synthesis (4), glycolysis (5) and fatty acid synthesis (6). There are multiple levels of metabolic regulation. In intrinsic regulation, the metabolic pathway self-regulates to respond to changes in the levels of substrates or products; for example, a decrease in the amount of product can increase the flux through the pathway to compensate. This type of regulation often involves allosteric regulation of the activities of multiple enzymes in the pathway. Extrinsic control involves a cell in a multicellular organism changing its metabolism in response to signals from other cells. These signals are usually in the form of soluble messengers such as hormones and growth factors and are detected by specific receptors on the cell surface. These signals are then transmitted inside the cell by second messenger systems that often involved the phosphorylation of proteins. A very well understood example of extrinsic control is the regulation of glucose metabolism by the hormone insulin. Insulin is produced in response to rises in blood glucose levels. Binding of the hormone to insulin receptors on cells then activates a cascade of protein kinases that cause the cells to take up glucose and convert it into storage molecules such as fatty acids and glycogen. The metabolism of glycogen is controlled by activity of phosphorylase, the enzyme that breaks down glycogen, and glycogen synthase, the enzyme that makes it. These enzymes are regulated in a reciprocal fashion, with phosphorylation inhibiting glycogen synthase, but activating phosphorylase. Insulin causes glycogen synthesis by activating protein phosphatases and producing a decrease in the phosphorylation of these enzymes. Evolution The central pathways of metabolism described above, such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, are present in all three domains of living things and were present in the last universal ancestor. This universal ancestral cell was prokaryotic and probably a methanogen that had extensive amino acid, nucleotide, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. The retention of these ancient pathways during later evolution may be the result of these reactions being an optimal solution to their particular metabolic problems, with pathways such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle producing their end products highly efficiently and in a minimal number of steps. The first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism may have been parts of purine nucleotide metabolism, with previous metabolic pathways being part of the ancient RNA world. Many models have been proposed to describe the mechanisms by which novel metabolic pathways evolve. These include the sequential addition of novel enzymes to a short ancestral pathway, the duplication and then divergence of entire pathways as well as the recruitment of pre-existing enzymes and their assembly into a novel reaction pathway. The relative importance of these mechanisms is unclear, but genomic studies have shown that enzymes in a pathway are likely to have a shared ancestry, suggesting that many pathways have evolved in a step-by-step fashion with novel functions being created from pre-existing steps in the pathway. An alternative model comes from studies that trace the evolution of proteins' structures in metabolic networks, this has suggested that enzymes are pervasively recruited, borrowing enzymes to perform similar functions in different metabolic pathways (evident in the MANET database) These recruitment processes result in an evolutionary enzymatic mosaic. A third possibility is that some parts of metabolism might exist as "modules" that can be reused in different pathways and perform similar functions on different molecules. As well as the evolution of new metabolic pathways, evolution can also cause the loss of metabolic functions. For example, in some parasites metabolic processes that are not essential for survival are lost and preformed amino acids, nucleotides and carbohydrates may instead be scavenged from the host. Similar reduced metabolic capabilities are seen in endosymbiotic organisms. Investigation and manipulation Metabolic network of the Arabidopsis thaliana citric acid cycle. Enzymes and metabolites are shown as red squares and the interactions between them as black lines. Classically, metabolism is studied by a reductionist approach that focuses on a single metabolic pathway. Particularly valuable is the use of radioactive tracers at the whole-organism, tissue and cellular levels, which define the paths from precursors to final products by identifying radioactively labelled intermediates and products. The enzymes that catalyze these chemical reactions can then be purified and their kinetics and responses to inhibitors investigated. A parallel approach is to identify the small molecules in a cell or tissue; the complete set of these molecules is called the metabolome. Overall, these studies give a good view of the structure and function of simple metabolic pathways, but are inadequate when applied to more complex systems such as the metabolism of a complete cell. An idea of the complexity of the metabolic networks in cells that contain thousands of different enzymes is given by the figure showing the interactions between just 43 proteins and 40 metabolites to the right: the sequences of genomes provide lists containing anything up to 45,000 genes. However, it is now possible to use this genomic data to reconstruct complete networks of biochemical reactions and produce more holistic mathematical models that may explain and predict their behavior. These models are especially powerful when used to integrate the pathway and metabolite data obtained through classical methods with data on gene expression from proteomic and DNA microarray studies. Using these techniques, a model of human metabolism has now been produced, which will guide future drug discovery and biochemical research. These models are now being used in network analysis, to classify human diseases into groups that share common proteins or metabolites. A major technological application of this information is metabolic engineering. Here, organisms such as yeast, plants or bacteria are genetically modified to make them more useful in biotechnology and aid the production of drugs such as antibiotics or industrial chemicals such as 1,3-propanediol and shikimic acid. These genetic modifications usually aim to reduce the amount of energy used to produce the product, increase yields and reduce the production of wastes. History Santorio Santorio in his steelyard balance, from Ars de statica medecina, first published 1614 The term metabolism is derived from the Greek Μεταβολισμός – "Metabolismos" for "change", or "overthrow". The history of the scientific study of metabolism spans several centuries and has moved from examining whole animals in early studies, to examining individual metabolic reactions in modern biochemistry. The concept of metabolism dates back to Ibn al-Nafis (1213-1288), who stated that "the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment, so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change." Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher, Encyclopedia of Islamic World ). The first controlled experiments in human metabolism were published by Santorio Santorio in 1614 in his book Ars de statica medecina. He described how he weighed himself before and after eating, sleep, working, sex, fasting, drinking, and excreting. He found that most of the food he took in was lost through what he called "insensible perspiration". In these early studies, the mechanisms of these metabolic processes had not been identified and a vital force was thought to animate living tissue. Williams, H. S. (1904) A History of Science: in Five Volumes. Volume IV: Modern Development of the Chemical and Biological Sciences Harper and Brothers (New York) Retrieved on 2007-03-26 In the 19th century, when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Louis Pasteur concluded that fermentation was catalyzed by substances within the yeast cells he called "ferments". He wrote that "alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells." This discovery, along with the publication by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828 of the chemical synthesis of urea, proved that the organic compounds and chemical reactions found in cells were no different in principle than any other part of chemistry. It was the discovery of enzymes at the beginning of the 20th century by Eduard Buchner that separated the study of the chemical reactions of metabolism from the biological study of cells, and marked the beginnings of biochemistry. Eduard Buchner's 1907 Nobel lecture at http://nobelprize.org Accessed 2007-03-20 The mass of biochemical knowledge grew rapidly throughout the early 20th century. One of the most prolific of these modern biochemists was Hans Krebs who made huge contributions to the study of metabolism. He discovered the urea cycle and later, working with Hans Kornberg, the citric acid cycle and the glyoxylate cycle. Modern biochemical research has been greatly aided by the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labelling, electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. These techniques have allowed the discovery and detailed analysis of the many molecules and metabolic pathways in cells. See also Anthropogenic metabolism Basal metabolic rate Calorimetry Inborn error of metabolism Iron-sulfur world theory, a "metabolism first" theory of the origin of life. Respirometry Thermic effect of food Water metabolism Sulphur metabolism Antimetabolite References Further reading Introductory and , The Chemistry of Life. (Penguin Press Science, 1999), ISBN 0-14027-273-9 and , Into the Cool: Energy Flow, Thermodynamics, and Life. (University Of Chicago Press, 2005), ISBN 0-22673-936-8 , Oxygen: The Molecule that Made the World. (Oxford University Press, USA, 2004), ISBN 0-19860-783-0 Advanced and , Fundamentals of Enzymology: Cell and Molecular Biology of Catalytic Proteins. (Oxford University Press, 1999), ISBN 0-19850-229-X and , Biochemistry. (W. H. Freeman and Company, 2002), ISBN 0-71674-955-6 and , Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), ISBN 0-71674-339-6 and , Brock's Biology of Microorganisms. (Benjamin Cummings, 2002), ISBN 0-13066-271-2 and , The Biological Chemistry of the Elements: The Inorganic Chemistry of Life. (Clarendon Press, 1991), ISBN 0-19855-598-9 and , Bioenergetics. (Academic Press Inc., 2002), ISBN 0-12518-121-3 External links External links General information Metabolism, Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology at biochemweb.org The Biochemistry of Metabolism Advanced Animal Metabolism Calculators/ Interactive Learning Tools Microbial metabolism Simple overview. School level. Metabolic Pathways of Biochemistry Graphical representations of major metabolic pathways. Chemistry for biologists Introduction to the chemistry of metabolism. School level. Sparknotes SAT biochemistry Overview of biochemistry. School level. MIT Biology Hypertextbook Undergraduate-level guide to molecular biology. Article on metabolism at The Encyclopœdia Britannica Concentrates on human metabolism (Free access). Glossaries and dictionaries Glossary of biochemical terms Glossary of biochemical terms On-line biology dictionary Human metabolism Topics in Medical Biochemistry Guide to human metabolic pathways. School level. THE Medical Biochemistry Page Comprehensive resource on human metabolism. Databases The BioCyc Collection of Pathway/Genome Databases Flow Chart of Metabolic Pathways at ExPASy The KEGG PATHWAY Database IUBMB-Nicholson Metabolic Pathways Chart Reactome - a knowledgebase of biological processes Metabolic pathways Interactive Flow Chart of the Major Metabolic Pathways Metabolism reference Pathway Guide to Glycolysis School level. Downloadable guide to photosynthesis School level. What is Photosynthesis? 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4,802 | George_Harrison | George Harrison Many published sources give Harold as Harrison's middle name: Everett, The Beatles as Musicians: The Quarry Men Through Rubber Soul, p 36; The Lost Lennon Interviews, page 246, Geoffrey Giuliano, John Lennon, Vrnda Devi, Published by Omnibus Press, 1998, ISBN 0-7119-6470-X. Others, however, dispute that, based on the absence of any middle name on Harrison's birth certificate:(). MBE (25 February 1943 – 29 November 2001) was an English rock guitarist, singer-songwriter and film producer. He achieved international fame as lead guitarist in The Beatles, and is listed number 21 in Rolling Stone magazine's list of "The 100 Best Guitarists of All Time". The Acoustic Rock Masters, page 23, H. P. Newquist, Rich Maloof, Backbeat Books, 2003, ISBN 0-87930-761-7 Often referred to as "the quiet Beatle", Harrison embraced Indian mysticism, and helped broaden the horizons of the other Beatles as well as their Western audience. Schaffner, The Boys from Liverpool, pp 77-78. Following the band's breakup, he had a successful career as a solo artist and later as part of the Traveling Wilburys, and also as a film and record producer. Although the majority of The Beatles' songs were written by Lennon and McCartney, Harrison generally wrote one song per side from the Help! album onwards. Handwritten Harrison Beatles lyrics up for auction, CBC Arts, 11 January 2007. Retrieved 13 December 2008 His later compositions with The Beatles include "Here Comes the Sun", "Something", "I Me Mine" and "While My Guitar Gently Weeps". After the band's breakup, Harrison continued writing, releasing the acclaimed and successful triple album, All Things Must Pass, in 1970, from which came two singles and a double A-side single: "My Sweet Lord" backed with Isn't It a Pity". In addition to his solo work, Harrison co-wrote two hits for Ringo Starr, another ex-Beatle, as well as songs for the Traveling Wilburys — the supergroup he formed in 1988 with Bob Dylan, Tom Petty, Jeff Lynne and Roy Orbison. Harrison embraced Indian culture and Hinduism in the 1960s, and helped expand Western awareness of sitar music and of the Hare Krishna movement. With Ravi Shankar he organised a major charity concert with the 1971 Concert for Bangladesh, and is the only Beatle to have published an autobiography, with I Me Mine in 1980. Besides being a musician, he was also a record producer and co-founder of the production company Handmade Films. In his work as a film producer, he collaborated with people as diverse as Madonna and the members of Monty Python. He was married twice, to the model Pattie Boyd in 1966, and to the record company secretary Olivia Trinidad Arias in 1978, with whom he had one son, Dhani Harrison. He was a close friend of Eric Clapton and Eric Idle. Harrison died of lung cancer in 2001. Early years: 1943–1959 Harrison was born in Liverpool, England, on 25 February 1943, Reliable sources and his birth certificate show his birth date as 25 February, though some sources give 24 February. the last of four children to Harold Harrison and his wife Louise, née French. Miles and Badman, The Beatles Diary, p 6. He had one sister, Louise, born 16 August 1931; and two brothers, Harry, born 1934, and Peter, born 20 July, 1940. His mother, Louise (née French), was a Liverpool shop assistant, and his father, Harold Hargreaves Harrison, was a bus conductor who had worked as a ship's steward on the White Star Line. The family was Roman Catholic; Harry, The Beatles Encyclopedia, p 492. his maternal grandfather, John French, was born in County Wexford, emigrating to Liverpool where he married a local girl, Louise Woollam. Harrison was born in the house where he lived for his first six years: 12 Arnold Grove, Wavertree, Liverpool, which was a small 2 up, 2 down terraced house in a cul-de-sac, with an alley to the rear. The only heating was a single coal fire, and the toilet was outside. In 1950 the family were offered a council house, Ingham, Rough Guide to the Beatles, p 328. and moved to 25 Upton Green, Speke. Miles and Badman, The Beatles Diary, p 7. His first school was Dovedale Primary School, very close to Penny Lane, Harrison, I Me Mine, p 28. the same school as John Lennon who was a couple of years ahead of him. Frame, Rockin' Around Britain, p 73. There he passed his 11-plus examination and achieved a place at the Liverpool Institute for Boys (in the building that now houses the Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts), which he attended from 1954 to 1959. Giuliano, Dark Horse, p 9. While at the Liverpool Institute, Harrison formed a skiffle group called The Rebels with his brother Peter and a friend, Arthur Kelly. At this school he met Paul McCartney, one year older, who played in a band called The Quarrymen. Shapiro, Behind Sad Eyes, p 23. The Beatles: 1960–1970 Stuart Sutcliffe and Harrison in Hamburg Harrison became part of The Beatles when they were still a skiffle group called The Quarrymen. McCartney told Lennon about his friend George Harrison, who could play "Raunchy" on his guitar. Davies, The Beatles 1985, pp 44–45. Although Lennon considered him too young to join the band, Harrison hung out with them and filled in as needed. By the time he was 16, Lennon and the others had accepted him as one of the band; because Harrison was the youngest member of the group, he was looked upon as a kid by the others for another few years. Harrison left school at 16 and worked as an apprentice electrician at local department store Blacklers for a while. Davies, The Beatles 1985, p 55. Harrison, I Me Mine, p 29. When The Beatles were offered work in Hamburg in 1960, the musical apprenticeship that Harrison received playing long hours at the Kaiserkeller with the rest of the group, including guitar lessons from Tony Sheridan, laid the foundations of The Beatles' sound, and of Harrison's quiet, professional role within the group; Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps 2006, pp 2-6. this role would contribute to his reputation as "the quiet Beatle". However, the first trip to Hamburg was shortened when Harrison was deported for being underage. Miles and Badman, The Beatles Diary, p 27. When Brian Epstein became The Beatles' manager in December 1961 after seeing them perform at The Cavern Club in November, Schaffner, The Boys from Liverpool,pp 7-10. he changed their image from that of leather-jacketed rock-and-rollers to a more polished look, Babiuk, Lewisohn, and Bacon, Beatles Gear, p 59. and secured them a recording contract with EMI. The first single, "Love Me Do", with Harrison playing a Gibson J-160E, Everett, The Beatles as Musicians: The Quarry Men Through Rubber Soul, p 126. Babiuk, Lewisohn, and Bacon, Beatles Gear, pp 72-73. reached number 17 in the UK chart in October 1962, The Songwriting Secrets of the Beatles, page 560, Dominic Pedler, Omnibus Press, 2003, ISBN 0-7119-8167-1 and by the time their debut album, Please Please Me, was released in early 1963, The Beatles had become famous and Beatlemania had arrived. Greene, Here Comes the Sun, p 34. Harrison was popular with girls, receiving an estimated 30,000 gifts and cards for his 21st birthday. After he revealed in an interview that he liked jelly babies, audiences showered him and the rest of the band with the sweets at live concerts and fans sent boxes of them as gifts. Unfortunately American fans could not obtain this soft British confection, replacing them with the harder jelly beans instead. To the group's discomfort, they were frequently pelted with jelly beans during concerts while in America. The popularity of The Beatles led to a successful tour of America, the making of a film, A Hard Day's Night (during which Harrison met his future wife Pattie Boyd), and in the 1965 Queen's Birthday Honours, all four Beatles were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE). Harrison, whose role within the group was that of the careful musician who checked that the instruments were tuned, Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps 2003, p 13. by 1965 and the Rubber Soul album, was developing into a musical director as he led the others into folk-rock, via his interest in The Byrds and Bob Dylan, Turn! Turn! Turn!: The '60s Folk-rock Revolution, pp 180-181, Richie Unterberger, Backbeat Books, 2002, ISBN 0-87930-703-X and into Indian music with his exploration of the sitar. Contributions to Asian Studies, pp 34 - 36, Jon B Higgins, K Ishwaran, Brill Academic Publishers, 1978, ISBN 90-04-05809-5 Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps 2003, p 14. Harrison's musical involvement and cohesion with the group reached its peak on Revolver in 1966 with his contribution of three songs and new musical ideas. Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps 2003, p 19. Schaffner, The Boys from Liverpool,pp 75-78. By 1967, Harrison's interests appeared to be moving outside The Beatles, and his involvement in Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band consists mainly of his one song, "Within You Without You", on which no other Beatle plays, Everett, The Beatles as Musicians: Revolver through the Anthology, pp 111-112. and which stands out for its difference from the rest of the album. Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps 2006, pp 29-30. During the recording of The White Album in 1968, tensions were present in the band; Babiuk, Lewisohn, and Bacon, Beatles Gear,p 217. these surfaced again during the filming of rehearsal sessions at Twickenham Studios for the album Let It Be. Frustrated by ongoing slights, the poor working conditions in the cold and sterile film studio, and Lennon's creative disengagement from the group, Harrison quit the band on 10 January. He returned on 22 January after negotiations with the other Beatles at two business meetings. Relations among the Beatles were more cordial (though still strained) during recordings for the album Abbey Road. Miles and Badman, The Beatles Diary, p 354. The album included "Here Comes the Sun" and "Something", which was later recorded by Frank Sinatra, who considered it "the greatest love song of the last fifty years". Frank Sinatra: The Man, the Music, the Legend, page 38, Jeanne Fuchs, Ruth Prigozy, Boydell & Brewer, 2007, ISBN 1-58046-251-0 Harrison's increasing productivity, coupled with his difficulties in getting The Beatles to record his music, meant that by the end of the group's career he had amassed a considerable stockpile of unreleased material. Harrison's last recording session with The Beatles was on 4 January 1970. Lennon, who had left the group the previous September, did not attend the session. Guitar work Harrison's guitar work with The Beatles was varied, flexible and occasionally innovative; although not fast or flashy, his guitar playing was solid and typified the more subdued lead guitar style of the early 1960s. The influence of the plucking guitar style of Chet Atkins and Carl Perkins on Harrison gave a country music feel to The Beatle's early recordings. Guitar World Presents the 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time, p 17, Jeff Kitts, Hal Leonard Corporation, 2002, ISBN 0-634-04619-5 Harrison explored several guitar instruments, the twelve-string, the sitar and the slide guitar, and developed his playing from tight eight and twelve bar solos in such songs as "A Hard Day's Night" and "Can't Buy Me Love", to lyrical slide guitar playing, All Music Guide: The Experts Guide to the Best Recordings page 181, Vladimir Bogdanov, Chris Woodstra, Stephen Thomas Erlewine, Backbeat Books, 2001, ISBN 0-87930-627-0 first recorded during an early session of "If Not for You" for Dylan's New Morning in 1970. Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps 2003, p 50. The earliest example of notable guitar work from Harrison was the extended acoustic guitar solo of "Till There Was You", for which Harrison purchased a José Ramírez nylon-stringed classical guitar to produce the sensitivity needed. Everett, The Beatles as Musicians: The Quarry Men Through Rubber Soul, p 182. Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps 2006, p 11. Time 2.40 minutes - 3.50 minutes Harrison's first electric guitar was a Czech built Futurama/Grazioso, which was a popular guitar among British guitarists in the early 1960s. However, the guitars Harrison used on early recordings were mainly Gretsch played through a Vox amp. He used a variety of Gretsch guitars, including a Gretsch Duo Jet - his first Gretsch, which he bought in 1961 second hand off a sailor in Liverpool; a Gretsch Tennessean, Everett, The Beatles as Musicians: The Quarry Men Through Rubber Soul, p 270. and his (first out of two) Gretsch Country Gentleman, bought new for £234 in April 1963 at the Sound City store in London, which he used on "She Loves You", and on The Beatles' 1964 appearance on the Ed Sullivan TV show. 50 Years of Gretsch Electrics, page 65, Tony Bacon, Backbeat Books, 2005, ISBN 0-87930-822-2 During The Beatles' February 1964 trip to the US, Harrison acquired a Rickenbacker 360/12 guitar. He had tried out the 12-string electric guitar during an interview with a Minneapolis radio station, and was given the guitar either by the Rickenbacker company or the radio station. The History of Rickenbacker Guitars, pp 77-79, Richard R. Smith, Centerstream Publications, 1988, ISBN 0-931759-15-3 The 360/12 was an experimental 12-string guitar with the strings reversed so that the lower pitched string was struck first, and with an unusual headstock design that made tuning easier. Babiuk, Lewisohn, and Bacon, Beatles Gear, pp 110-112. Harrison used the guitar extensively during the recording of A Hard Day's Night Fretbase, George Harrison's 12 String Rickenbacker , and the jangly sound became so popular that the Melody Maker termed it "the beat boys' secret weapon". Babiuk, Lewisohn, and Bacon, Beatles Gear, p 120. Roger McGuinn liked the effect Harrison achieved so much that it became his signature guitar sound with the Byrds. Christie's Rock and Pop Memorabilia, page 82, Peter Doggett, Sarah Hodgson, Pavilion, 2003, ISBN 1-86205-538-6 He obtained his first Fender Stratocaster in 1965 and used it for the recording of the Rubber Soul album, most notably on the "Nowhere Man" track, where he played in unison with Lennon who also had a Stratocaster. The Fender Stratocaster, page 22, A. R. Duchossoir, Eric Clapton, Hal Leonard Corporation, 1994, ISBN 0-7935-4735-0 Lennon and Harrison both had Sonic Blue Stratocasters, which were bought second hand by roadie Mal Evans. Babiuk, Lewisohn, and Bacon, Beatles Gear, p 157. Harrison painted his Stratocaster in a psychedelic design that included the word "Bebopalula" painted above the pickguard and the guitar's nickname, "Rocky", painted on the headstock. He played this guitar in the Magical Mystery Tour film and throughout his solo career. After David Crosby of the Byrds introduced him to the work of sitar maestro Ravi Shankar in 1965, Harrison played a sitar on the Rubber Soul track "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)", and expanded the already nascent Western interest in Indian music. Harrison listed his early influences as Carl Perkins, Bo Diddley, Chuck Berry and the Everly Brothers. Song writing and singing Harrison wrote his first song, "Don't Bother Me", while sick in a hotel bed in Bournemouth during August 1963, as an exercise "to see if I could write a song", as he remembered. Everett, The Beatles as Musicians: The Quarry Men Through Rubber Soul, p 193. "Don't Bother Me" appeared on the second Beatles album (With the Beatles) later that year, then on Meet the Beatles! in the US in early 1964, and also briefly in the film A Hard Day's Night. The group did not record another Harrison composition until 1965, when he contributed "I Need You" and "You Like Me Too Much" to the album Help!. Harrison's songwriting improved greatly through the years, but his material did not earn respect from his fellow Beatles until near the group's breakup. McCartney told Lennon in 1969: "George's songs this year are at least as good as ours". Paul McCartney: Many Years From Now, page 554, Barry Miles, Henry Holt and Co., 1998, ISBN 0-8050-5249-6 John Lennon: One Day at a Time: a Personal Biography of the Seventies, page 96, Anthony Fawcett, New English Library, 20 January 1977, ISBN 0-450-03073-3 Harrison had difficulty getting the band to record his songs. Icons of Rock: An Encyclopedia of the Legends who Changed Music Forever, page 174, Scott Schinder, Greenwood Press, 2008, ISBN 0-313-33846-9 The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll: Revised and Updated for the 21st Century, page 413, Holly George-Warren, Patricia Romanowski, Patricia Romanowski Bashe, Jon Pareles, Fireside, 2001, ISBN 0-7432-0120-5 The group's incorporation of Harrison's material reached a peak of three songs on the 1966 Revolver album and four songs on the 1968 double White Album. Harrison performed the lead vocal on all Beatles songs that he wrote by himself. He also sang lead vocal on other songs, including "Chains" and "Do You Want to Know a Secret" on Please Please Me, "Roll Over Beethoven" and "Devil in Her Heart" on With the Beatles, "I'm Happy Just to Dance with You" on A Hard Day's Night, and "Everybody's Trying to Be My Baby" on Beatles for Sale. Solo work: 1968–1987 Before The Beatles split up in 1970, Harrison had already recorded and released two solo albums, Wonderwall Music and Electronic Sound. These albums, however, were mainly instrumental. Wonderwall Music was a soundtrack to the Wonderwall film in which Harrison blended Indian and Western sounds; The Dawn of Indian Music in the West, page 182, Peter Lavezzoli, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006, ISBN 0-8264-1815-5 while Electronic Sound was an experiment in using a Moog synthesiser. All Music Guide to Rock, page 508, Vladimir Bogdanov, Chris Woodstra, Stephen Thomas Erlewine, Backbeat Books, 2002, ISBN 0-87930-653-X It was only when Harrison was free from The Beatles that he released what is regarded as his first "real" solo album, the commercially successful and critically acclaimed All Things Must Pass. Schaffner, The Boys from Liverpool, p 155. All Things Must Pass (1970) After years of being restricted in his song-writing contributions to The Beatles, All Things Must Pass contained such a large outpouring of Harrison's songs that it was released as a triple album, though only two of the discs contained songs - the third contained recordings of Harrison jamming with friends. Sonic Alchemy: Visionary Music Producers and Their Maverick Recordings, pp 36 - 37, David N. Howard, Hal Leonard Corporation, 2004, ISBN 0-634-05560-7 The album is regarded as his best work; All Music Guide: The Experts Guide to the Best Recordings, page 181, Vladimir Bogdanov, Chris Woodstra, Stephen Thomas Erlewine, Backbeat Books, 2001, ISBN 0-87930-627-0 it was a critical and commercial success, topping the charts on both sides of the Atlantic, In early 2007, it was determined that All Things Must Pass should have been noted as a number one album in the United Kingdom when first released in the winter of 1970-71. Because some sales were not properly counted, the album originally peaked at number four in Britain. and producing the number-one hit single "My Sweet Lord" as well as the top-10 single "What Is Life". The album was co-produced by Phil Spector using his "Wall of Sound" approach, Schaffner, The Beatles Forever, p 142. and the musicians included Eric Clapton, Dave Mason, Billy Preston, and Ringo Starr. Harrison was later sued for copyright infringement over the single "My Sweet Lord" because of its similarity to the 1963 Chiffons single "He's So Fine", owned by Bright Tunes. Harrison denied deliberately stealing the song, but he lost the resulting court case in 1976 as the judge accepted that Harrison had "subconsciously" plagiarised "He's So Fine". When considering liable earnings, "My Sweet Lord"'s contribution to the sales of All Things Must Pass and The Best of George Harrison were taken into account, and the judge decided a figure of $1,599,987 was owed to Bright Tunes. The "My Sweet Lord"/"He's So Fine" Plagiarism Suit, Joseph C. Self, The 910, 1993. Retrieved 13 December 2008 The dispute over damages became complicated when Harrison's manager Allen Klein changed sides by buying Bright Tunes and then continuing the suit against Harrison. In 1981, a district judge decided that Klein had acted improperly, and it was agreed that Harrison should pay Klein $587,000, the amount Klein had paid for Bright Tunes - so he would gain nothing from the deal, and that Harrison would take over ownership of Bright Tunes, making him the owner of the rights to both "My Sweet Lord" and "He's So Fine" and thus ending the copyright infringement claim. Though the dispute dragged on into the 1990s, the district judge's decision was upheld. Huntley, Mystical One. The Concert for Bangladesh (1971) Harrison organised a major charity concert, The Concert for Bangladesh, with Ravi Shankar on 1 August 1971, drawing over 40,000 people to two shows in New York's Madison Square Garden. The aim of the event was to raise money to aid the starving refugees during the Bangladesh Liberation War. Ravi Shankar opened the proceedings, which included other popular musicians such as Bob Dylan (who rarely appeared live in the early 1970s), Eric Clapton, who made his first public appearance in months (due to a heroin addiction which began when Derek and the Dominos broke up), Leon Russell, Badfinger, Billy Preston and fellow Beatle Ringo Starr. Tax troubles and questionable expenses tied up many of the concert's proceeds. Apple Corporation released a newly arranged concert DVD and CD in October 2005 (with all artists' sales royalties continuing to go to UNICEF), which contained additional material such as previously unreleased rehearsal footage of "If Not for You", featuring Harrison and Dylan. Living in the Material World to George Harrison (1972–1979) Harrison would not again release an album that came close to the critical and commercial achievements of All Things Must Pass. Although 1973's Living in the Material World initially did well, holding number one spot on the US album chart for 5 weeks and reaching number two in the UK, and the album's single, "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)", was also successful, reaching number one in the US and the top ten in the UK, neither could match the sales of All Things Must Pass and "My Sweet Lord". The album was lavishly produced and packaged, and its dominant message was the power of Harrison's Hindu beliefs. Schaffner, The Beatles Forever, pp 158–159. The one fully secular song, "Sue Me, Sue You Blues", expressed Harrison's disgust with the endless legal squabbling that had overtaken all of the former Beatles. The Dark Horse album of 1974 written after Harrison's breakup with his wife Pattie Boyd and when he was suffering from laryngitis received harsh reviews, Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps 2003, pp 111-112. as did the accompanying tour of North America. Harrison was criticized for poor songwriting and poor vocals on the album, and for over-indulging his love for Indian music during the tour. Greene, Here Comes the Sun, p 213. The album and single "Dark Horse" did briefly make an appearance near the top of the US charts, but both failed to chart in the UK. His final studio album for EMI (and Apple Records) was Extra Texture (Read All About It), featuring a diecut cover. The album spawned two singles, "You" which reached the Billboard top 20 and "This Guitar (Can't Keep From Crying)", which became Apple's final original single release in December 1975. Schaffner The Beatles Forever, pp. 209–210. It was also the first solo Beatles single that failed to chart in the US. Following the former Beatle's departure from Capitol, the record company was in a position to licence releases featuring Beatles and post-Beatles work on the same album, using Harrison for this experiment. The Best of George Harrison (1976) combined his Beatles songs with a selection of his solo Apple work. Thirty Three & 1/3 his first Dark Horse release, was his most successful late-1970s album, reaching number 11 on the US charts in 1976, and producing the singles "This Song" (a satire of the "My Sweet Lord"-"He's So Fine" court case ruling) and "Crackerbox Palace", both of which reached the top 25 in the US. With an emphasis on melody, musicianship, and subtler subject matter rather than the heavy orchestration and didactic messaging of earlier works, he received his best critical notices since All Things Must Pass. Schaffner, The Beatles Forever, p 192. With its surreal humor, "Crackerbox Palace" also reflected Harrison's association with Monty Python's Eric Idle, who directed a comic music video for the song. After his second marriage and the birth of son Dhani Harrison, Harrison's next released a self-titled album. 1979's George Harrison included the singles "Blow Away", "Love Comes to Everyone" and "Faster". Both the album and "Blow Away" made the Billboard top 20. In addition to his own works during this time, between 1971 and 1973 Harrison co-wrote or produced three top ten US and UK hits for Ringo Starr ("It Don't Come Easy", "Back Off Boogaloo", and "Photograph"). Schaffner, The Boys from Liverpool, p 164. Harrison played electric, slide and dobro guitars on five songs on John Lennon's 1971 Imagine album ("How Do You Sleep?", "Oh My Love", "I Don't Want to Be a Soldier", "Crippled Inside" and "Gimme Some Truth"), Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps 2006, pp 108–109. with his stinging slide guitar work on the first of these indicating that he took John's side of the intense Lennon-McCartney feud of the time. Schaffner, The Beatles Forever, p 145. Lennon later said of Harrison's work on the album, "That's the best he's ever fucking played in his life!" Harrison also produced and played slide guitar on the Apple band Badfinger's 1971 top ten US and UK hit "Day After Day". Without You: The Tragic Story of Badfinger, p 136, Dan Matovina, Frances Glover Books, 2000, ISBN 0-9657122-2-2 During the decade, Harrison also worked with Harry Nilsson ("You're Breakin' My Heart", 1972), Shapiro, Behind Sad Eyes, p 219. as well as Billy Preston ("That's the Way God Planned It", Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps 2006, p 59. 1969 and "It's My Pleasure", 1975) and Cheech & Chong ("Basketball Jones", 1973). Shapiro, Behind Sad Eyes, p 220. Somewhere in England to Cloud Nine (1980–1987) Harrison was deeply shocked by the 8 December 1980 murder of John Lennon. The crime reinforced his decades-long worries about safety from stalkers. It was also a deep personal loss, although unlike former bandmates McCartney and Starr, Harrison had had little contact with Lennon in the years before the murder. Harrison modified the lyrics of a song he had written for Starr to make it a tribute song to Lennon. "All Those Years Ago" received substantial radio airplay, reaching number two on the US charts. All three surviving ex-Beatles performed on it, although it was expressly a Harrison single. "Teardrops" was issued as a follow-up single, but was not nearly as successful. Both singles came from the album Somewhere in England, released in 1981. Originally slated for release in late 1980, Warner Bros. rejected the album, ordering Harrison to replace several tracks, and to change the album cover as well. The original album cover that Harrison wanted was used in the 2004 reissue of the album. In 1981, Harrison played guitar on one track of Mick Fleetwood's record The Visitor and Lindsey Buckingham's song "Walk a Thin Line". Aside from a song on the Porky's Revenge soundtrack in 1984 (his version of a little-known Bob Dylan song "I Don't Want To Do It"), Harrison released no new records for five years after 1982's Gone Troppo received apparent indifference. In 1985, Harrison made a rare public appearance on the Showtime special Carl Perkins and Friends along with Starr and Clapton among others. He only agreed to appear because he was a close admirer of Perkins. In 1987 Harrison returned with the critically acclaimed platinum album Cloud Nine, co-produced with Jeff Lynne of Electric Light Orchestra, and enjoyed a hit (number one in the US; number two in the UK) when his rendition of James Ray's early 1960s number "Got My Mind Set on You" was released as a single; another single, "When We Was Fab", a retrospective of The Beatles' days complete with musical flavours for each bandmate, was also a minor hit. MTV regularly played the two videos, and elevated Harrison's public profile with another generation of music listeners. The album reached number eight and number ten on the US and UK charts, respectively. In the US, several tracks also enjoyed high placement on Billboard's Album Rock chart - "Devil's Radio," "This Is Love" and "Cloud 9" in addition to the aforementioned singles. Live performances 1971-1992 On 23 November 1971, Harrison appeared on an episode of The Dick Cavett Show in a band called Wonder Wheel performing a song written by Gary Wright called "Two Faced Man". George Harrison played slide guitar in this band as a favour since Wright had played piano on Harrison's album All Things Must Pass. The episode can be viewed on DVD "The Dick Cavett Show: Rock Icons: Disc 3". Harrison launched a major tour of the United States in 1974. Critical and fan reaction panned the tour for its long mid-concert act of Pandit Ravi Shankar & Friends and for Harrison's hoarse voice. Harrison had hired filmmaker David Acomba to accompany the tour and gather footage for a documentary. Due to Harrison's hoarse voice throughout most of this tour, the film was not released, but in 2007 Acomba placed a newly revised director's cut in the Harrison archive. In 1986, Harrison made a surprise performance at "Heartbeat '86", a concert event to raise money for the Birmingham Children's Hospital. Harrison played and sang the finale "Johnny B. Goode" along with Robert Plant, The Moody Blues, and Electric Light Orchestra, among others. The following year, Harrison appeared at The Prince's Trust concert in Wembley Arena, performing "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" and "Here Comes the Sun" with Ringo Starr, Eric Clapton, and others. Ingham, Rough Guide to the Beatles, p 159. In 1991, Harrison staged a tour of Japan along with Eric Clapton. It was his first tour since the 1974 US tour, but no other tours followed. The Live in Japan recording came from these shows. In October 1992, Harrison played three songs ("If Not for You", "Absolutely Sweet Marie", and "My Back Pages") at a huge Bob Dylan tribute concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City. This was released on the album The 30th Anniversary Concert Celebration in August 1993. Later life: 1988-2001 Early in 1989, Harrison, Lynne and ex-Beatle Ringo Starr all appeared on Tom Petty's "I Won't Back Down" music video, although Starr did not actually play on the track; Tom Petty Harrison played acoustic guitar. The same year also saw the release of Best of Dark Horse 1976–1989, a compilation drawn from his later solo work. This album also included two new songs, "Poor Little Girl", and "Cockamamie Business" (which saw him once again looking wryly upon his Beatle past), as well as "Cheer Down", which had first been released earlier in the year on the soundtrack to the film Lethal Weapon 2, which starred Mel Gibson and Danny Glover. Unlike his previous greatest hits package, Harrison made sure to oversee this compilation. In 1989 Harrison played slide guitar on the "Leave a Light On" song from Belinda Carlisle's third album "Runaway Horses". The song was a commercial success worldwide. In 1996, Harrison recorded, produced and played on "Distance Makes No Difference With Love" with Carl Perkins for his Go-Cat-Go record. Harrison's final television appearance was not intended as such; in fact, he was not the featured artist, and the appearance had been intended to promote Chants of India, another collaboration with Ravi Shankar released in 1997, at the height of interest in chant music. John Fugelsang, then of VH1, conducted the interview, and at one point an acoustic guitar was produced and handed to Harrison. When an audience member asked to hear "a Beatles song," Harrison pulled a sheepish look and answered, "I don't think I know any!" Harrison then played "All Things Must Pass" and "Any Road", a song which subsequently appeared on the 2002 Brainwashed album. In January 1998, Harrison attended the funeral of his boyhood idol, Carl Perkins, in Jackson, Tennessee. Harrison played an impromptu version of Perkins' song "Your True Love" during the service. That same year he attended the public memorial service for Linda McCartney. Also that same year, he appeared on Ringo Starr's Vertical Man, where he played both electric and slide guitars on two tracks. In 2001, Harrison performed as a guest musician on the Electric Light Orchestra album Zoom. He played slide guitar on the song "Love Letters" for Bill Wyman's Rhythm Kings, and remastered and restored unreleased tracks from the Traveling Wilburys. He also co-wrote a new song with his son Dhani, "Horse to the Water". The latter song ended up as Harrison's final recording session, on 2 October. It appeared on Jools Holland's album Small World, Big Band. Harrison's final album, Brainwashed, was completed by Dhani Harrison and Jeff Lynne and released on 18 November 2002. It received generally positive reviews in the United States, and peaked at number 18 on the Billboard charts. A media-only single, "Stuck Inside a Cloud", was heavily played on UK and US radio to promote the album (number 27 on Billboard's Adult Contemporary chart), while the official single "Any Road", released in May 2003, reached number 37 on the British chart. The instrumental track, "Marwa Blues" went on to receive the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Performance, while the single "Any Road" was nominated for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance. The Traveling Wilburys: 1988–1990 In 1988, Harrison played an instrumental role in forming the Traveling Wilburys with Roy Orbison, Jeff Lynne, Bob Dylan, and Tom Petty when they gathered in Dylan's garage to quickly record an additional track for a projected Harrison European single release. Bob Dylan: Performing Artist 1986–1990 & Beyond: Mind Out of Time pp129-138, Paul Williams, Omnibus Press, 2004, ISBN 1-84449-281-8. retrieved 13 December 2008 The record company realised the track ("Handle With Care") was too good for its original purpose as a B-side and asked for a full, separate album. This had to be completed within two weeks, as Dylan was scheduled to start a tour. The album, Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1, was released in October 1988 and recorded under pseudonyms as half-brothers (supposed sons of Charles Truscott Wilbury, Sr.). Harrison's pseudonym on the first album was "Nelson Wilbury"; he would use the name "Spike Wilbury" for the Traveling Wilburys' second album. After the death of Roy Orbison in late 1988 the group recorded as a four-piece. Though Traveling Wilburys Vol. 3 was their second release, the album was mischievously titled Vol. 3 by Harrison. According to Lynne, "That was George's idea. He said, 'Let's confuse the buggers.'" Hurwitz, Matt. "Wilburys set to travel again" USA Today 11 June 2007 It was not as well received as the previous album, but did reach number 14 in the UK and number 11 in the US where it went platinum, while the singles "She's My Baby", "Inside Out", and "Wilbury Twist" got decent air play. The Beatles Anthology: 1994-1996 In 1994–1996, Harrison reunited with the surviving former Beatles, and Traveling Wilburys producer Jeff Lynne for The Beatles Anthology project, which included the recording of two new Beatles songs built around solo vocal and piano tapes recorded by John Lennon in the late 1970s, as well as the lengthy interviews on The Beatles' history. Everett, The Beatles as Musicians: Revolver Through the Anthology, p 286. The single "Free as a Bird", was the first Beatles single since "The Long and Winding Road" in 1970. HandMade Films: 1978-1994 HandMade Films was a British film production and distribution company that Harrison formed in 1978 with his business partner, Denis O'Brien. Davies, The Beatles 1985, pp 362–363. It was created to help out his Monty Python friends by raising £2 million to finish their film Life of Brian after EMI Films, the original financiers, pulled out due to the film's satirical content. Harrison took the name from some handmade paper he had been given on a mill visit. Though the company was formed with the intention of funding just the one film, Harrison and O'Brien bought the rights to The Long Good Friday, which had been faced with various cuts, and released it in its original form. The first film started under the company was Time Bandits in 1981. Harrison produced twenty three films with HandMade, including Mona Lisa, Shanghai Surprise, and Withnail and I. He made several cameo appearances in these movies, including appearing as a nightclub singer in Shanghai Surprise and as Mr Papadopolous in Life of Brian. Handmade Films became a rarity in the British film industry, a production company that was both consistently successful and internationally known. The company was well regarded both for nurturing British talent and for most of its films having British settings or inspirations. Encyclopedia of Contemporary British Culture, Peter Childs and Mike Storry, Taylor & Francis, 1999, ISBN 0-415-14726-3 pp 245–246 Harrison was involved in some creative decisions, approving projects such as Withnail and I Withnail & I: Everything You Ever Wanted to Know But Were Too Drunk to Ask, pp 26–27, Thomas Hewitt-McManus, Lulu.com, 2006, ISBN 1-4116-5821-3 and visiting sets as executive producer to sort out creative problems. Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps 2006, p 243. On the whole, though, Harrison preferred to stay out of the way: "[As a musician] I've been the person who's said of the people with the money, 'What do they know?' and now I'm that person. But I know that unless you give an artist as much freedom as possible, there's no point in using that artist." The bulk of the financial and business decisions were left to O'Brien, who was tasked with making sure that films got made on time and on budget. This eventually resulted in disagreements and lawsuits between the pair as Handmade Films encountered reversals, Ingham, Rough Guide to the Beatles, p 160. and Harrison sold the company in 1994. Everett, The Beatles as Musicians: Revolver through the Anthology, p 284. Interest in Indian culture Sitar and Indian music During the Beatles' American tour in August 1965, Harrison's friend David Crosby of the Byrds introduced him to Indian classical music and the work of sitar maestro Ravi Shankar. Harrison became fascinated with the instrument, immersed himself in Indian music and played a pivotal role in expanding the emerging interest in the sitar in particular and Indian music in general in the West. The Dawn of Indian Music in the West, page 172, Peter Lavezzoli, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006, ISBN 0-8264-1815-5 Buying his own first sitar from a London shop called India Craft later that year (as he recalled during interviews for "The Beatles Anthology"), he played one on the Rubber Soul track "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)", which was influential in the decision to have Ravi Shankar included on the bill at the Monterey Pop Festival in June 1967. After a few initial lessons with Pandit Ravi Shankar, Harrison was placed under the tutelage of Shambhu Das. Everett, The Beatles as Musicians: Revolver Through the Anthology, p 71. Hinduism During the filming of the movie Help!, on location in the Bahamas, a Hindu devotee presented each Beatle with a book about reincarnation. Harrison's interest in Indian culture expanded to Hinduism. During a pilgrimage to Bombay, India with his wife, Harrison studied sitar, met several gurus and visited various holy places, filling the months between the end of the final Beatles tour in 1966 and the commencement of the Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band recording sessions. In 1968, Harrison traveled to India with the other Beatles to study meditation with the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. In the summer of 1969, he produced the single "Hare Krishna Mantra", performed by the devotees of the London Radha Krishna Temple. That same year, he and fellow Beatle John Lennon met A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, founder - acharya of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON). Soon after, Harrison embraced the Hare Krishna tradition (particularly japa-yoga chanting with beads), and he remained associated with it until his death. While during his lifetime, Harrison bequeathed to ISKCON his Letchmore Heath mansion (renamed Bhaktivedanta Manor) north of London, some sources indicate he left nothing to the organisation, others report he did leave a sum of 20 million pounds. Personal life Harrison married model Pattie Boyd on 21 January 1966, at Leatherhead and Esher registry office, with Paul McCartney as best man and only other Beatle present. Huntley, Mystical One, p 86. They had met during the filming for A Hard Day's Night, in which the 19 year old Boyd was cast as a schoolgirl fan. After Harrison and Boyd split up in 1974, she moved in with Eric Clapton and they subsequently married. Harrison married for a second time, to Dark Horse Records secretary Olivia Trinidad Arias on 2 September 1978. They had met at the Dark Horse offices in Los Angeles in 1974. They had one son, Dhani Harrison. After the 1999 stabbing incident in which Olivia subdued Harrison's assailant nearly single-handedly, Harrison received a fax from his close friend Tom Petty that read: "Aren't you glad you married a Mexican girl?" Harrison formed a close friendship with Eric Clapton in the late 1960s, and they co-wrote the song "Badge," which was released on Cream's Goodbye album in 1969. Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps 2003, p 34. Harrison also played rhythm guitar on the song. For contractual reasons, Harrison was required to use the pseudonym "L'Angelo Misterioso", meaning "The Mysterious Angel" in Italian. Harrison wrote one of his compositions for The Beatles' Abbey Road album, "Here Comes the Sun", in Clapton's back garden. Clapton also guested on the Harrison-penned Beatles track "While My Guitar Gently Weeps". Through Clapton, Harrison met Delaney Bramlett, who introduced Harrison to slide guitar. They remained close friends after Pattie Boyd split from Harrison and married Clapton, referring to each other as "husbands-in-law". Through his appreciation of Monty Python he met Python member Eric Idle. The two became close friends, with Harrison appearing on Idle's Rutland Weekend Television series and in his Beatles spoof, The Rutles' All You Need Is Cash. Idle also performed at the Concert for George, held to commemorate Harrison. An accomplished gardener, Harrison restored the English manor house and grounds of Friar Park, Greene, Here Comes the Sun, pp 226-227. which once belonged to Victorian eccentric Sir Frank Crisp. Purchased in 1970, the home is the basis for the song "Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp (Let It Roll)". Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps 2003, p 68. Several Harrison videos were also filmed on the grounds, including "Crackerbox Palace"; in addition, the grounds served as the background for the cover of All Things Must Pass. He employed a staff of ten workers to maintain the 36 acre garden, and both of his older brothers worked on Friar Park as well. Davies, The Beatles 1985, p 360. Harrison took great solace working in the garden and grew to consider himself more a gardener than a musician; his autobiography is dedicated "to gardeners everywhere". Huntley, Mystical One, p 170. That autobiography, I Me Mine, published in 1980, is the only full autobiography by an ex-Beatle. An autobiographical sketch by John Lennon, titled after one of his songs, The Ballad of John and Yoko, was posthumously published in 1986 as part of his collection Skywriting by Word of Mouth. Former Beatles' publicist Derek Taylor helped with the book, which was initially released in a high-priced limited edition by Genesis Publications. The book said little about The Beatles, focusing instead on Harrison's hobbies, such as gardening and Formula One automobile racing. It also included the lyrics to his songs and some photographs with humorous captions. Amazon.com Reviews Harrison had an interest in sports cars and motor racing; he was one of the 100 people who purchased the McLaren F1 road car, Cars of the Super Rich, page 127, Martin Buckley, MotorBooks/MBI Publishing Company, 2004, ISBN 0-7603-1953-7 and would often attend Formula One races. He had collected photos of racing drivers and their cars since he was young; when he was 12 he attended his first race, the 1955 British Grand Prix at Aintree, in which Stirling Moss won his first Grand Prix. He wrote "Faster" as a tribute to the formula 1 racing drivers Jackie Stewart and Ronnie Peterson. Proceeds from its release went to the Gunnar Nilsson cancer charity, set up following the Swedish driver's death from the disease in 1978. Huntley, Mystical One, p 167. Harrison's first "important" car was recently sold at auction in Battersea Park, London. The 1964 Aston Martin DB5 was bought new and delivered to Harrison personally in 1965 at his Kinfauns estate in Esher, Surrey, England. In late 1999 Harrison survived a knife attack by an intruder in his home. At 3:30 AM on 30 December 1999 Michael Abram broke into the Harrisons' Friar Park home in Henley-on-Thames and began loudly calling to Harrison. Harrison left the bedroom to investigate while his wife, Olivia, phoned the police. Abram attacked Harrison with a seven-inch kitchen knife, inflicting seven stab wounds, puncturing a lung and causing head injuries before Olivia Harrison incapacitated the assailant by striking him repeatedly with a fireplace poker. The attack lasted approximately fifteen minutes. The Greedy Bastard Diary: A Comic Tour of America, pp 277-278, Eric Idle, Harper Entertainment, 2005, ISBN 0-06-075864-3 35-year-old Abram, who believed he was possessed by Harrison and was on a "mission from God" to kill him, was later acquitted of attempted murder on grounds of insanity, but was detained for treatment in a secure hospital. He was released in 2002 after 19 months detention. Traumatized by the break-in and attack, Harrison rarely appeared in public afterwards. Death Harrison developed throat cancer, which was discovered in 1997 after a lump on his neck was analysed. Entertainment Celebrities, page 787, Norbert B. Laufenberg, Trafford Publishing, 2005, ISBN 1-4120-5335-8 He attributed it to his smoking in the 1960s. Despite radiotherapy the cancer spread, and he underwent an operation at the Mayo Clinic in the US during the early part of May 2001, to remove a growth from one of his lungs. Three months later, in July 2001, it was revealed that Harrison was receiving radiotherapy for a brain tumour at a clinic in Switzerland. In November 2001, Harrison began radiotherapy at Staten Island University Hospital in New York City. During his treatment there, Dr. Gilbert Lederman, a radiation oncologist, allegedly revealed confidential medical information to the public and forced Harrison to autograph a guitar. The incident led to a lawsuit, which was ultimately settled out of court under the condition that the guitar be "disposed of". Despite the treatments and operations, Harrison died on 29 November 2001 at his Hollywood Hills mansion that was once leased by McCartney and was previously owned by Courtney Love. His death was listed on his Los Angeles County death certificate as "metastatic non-small cell lung cancer". He was cremated at Hollywood Forever Cemetery and his ashes were scattered in the Ganges River by his close family in a private ceremony according to Hindu tradition. The Dawn of Indian Music in the West, page 198, Peter Lavezzoli, International Publishing Group, 2006, ISBN 0-8264-1815-5 Hinduism, page 47, Lynne Gibson, Pat Wootten, 2002, ISBN 0-435-33618-5 He left almost $155 (£105) million in his will. On the first anniversary of Harrison's death in 2002, a Concert For George at the Royal Albert Hall, was organized by Clapton, and included performances by many of Harrison's musical friends. The profits from the concert went to Harrison's charity, the Material World Charitable Foundation. Honours Harrison's first official honour was when The Beatles were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in 1965, and received their insignia from the Queen at an investiture at Buckingham Palace on 26 October. The Beatles: A Diary, page 172, Barry Miles, Chris Charlesworth, Omnibus Press, 1998, ISBN 0-7119-6315-0 Another award with The Beatles came in 1970 when they won an Academy Award for the best Original Song Score for Let It Be. A significant music award as a solo artist was in December 1992, when he became the first recipient of the Billboard Century Award - presented to music artists for significant bodies of work. The minor planet 4149, discovered on 9 March 1984 by B. A. Skiff at the Anderson Mesa Station of the Lowell Observatory, was named after Harrison. In 2003, Harrison was ranked 21st in Rolling Stone's list of The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time. Harrison was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a solo artist on 15 March 2004 by his Traveling Wilburys friends Jeff Lynne and Tom Petty. He was inducted into the Madison Square Garden Walk of Fame on 1 August 2006 for the Concert for Bangladesh. Harrison featured twice on the cover of Time magazine, initially with The Beatles in 1967, then on his own, shortly after his death in 2001. In June 2007, portraits of Harrison and John Lennon were unveiled at The Mirage Hotel on the Las Vegas Strip, where they will be on permanent display. In September 2007, Variety announced that Martin Scorsese would make a film about Harrison's life. On 14 April 2009, the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce awarded Harrison a star on the Walk of Fame in front of the Capitol Records Building. (The Beatles have a group star on the Walk of Fame, but Harrison and John Lennon are presently the only individual members to be honoured with a star.) Musicians Tom Petty, Jeff Lynne and Paul McCartney were among those in attendance when the star was unveiled. http://www.google.com/url?sa=U&start=6&q=http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5hmSUcAyBBlEi3-Y52fBlLn1LsmcAD97IEH6O0&ei=O_TkSbaNFceD_QbayLTKCQ&usg=AFQjCNFe9foCNsaUxGVbJudnXKmA1Xpyrg Harrison's widow Olivia, actor Tom Hanks and comedian Eric Idle made speeches at the ceremony; Harrison's son Dhani uttered the Hare Krishna mantra. After the ceremony, Capitol Records/EMI Records announced that a new career-spanning CD entitled Let It Roll: Songs by George Harrison would be released in mid-June 2009. Solo discography YearAlbumLabelNotesPeak chart positionsCertificationsUS UK NO JP AT SE US UK BPI certified awards were introduced in April 1973. 1968Wonderwall Music Apple/EMISoundtrack49 - - - - -1969Electronic Sound Zapple/EMI191 - - - - -1970All Things Must Pass Apple/EMITriple 1 1 1 4 - -6x Platinum1971 The Concert for Bangladesh Apple/EMI (US)Epic/Sony Music (UK)Live 2 1 1 2 - - Gold1973Living in the Material World Apple/EMI 1 2 4 9 - -Gold1974Dark Horse Apple/EMI 4 - 7 18 10 -GoldSilver 1975Extra Texture (Read All About It) Apple/EMI 8 16 8 9 - -Gold1976Thirty Three & 1/3 Dark Horse 11 35 17 23 - -GoldSilver 1976The Best of George Harrison Parlophone/EMICompilation 31 100 - 51 - -Gold1979George Harrison Dark Horse 14 39 21 38 - -Gold1981Somewhere in England Dark Horse 11 13 2 31 15 131982Gone Troppo Dark Horse 108 - 31 - - -1987Cloud Nine Dark Horse 8 10 8 28 26 5 Platinum Gold 1989Best of Dark Horse 1976–1989 Dark Horse Compilation 132 - - 51 - - 1992 Live in Japan Dark Horse/Warner BrosLive 126 - - 15 - -2002Brainwashed Dark Horse Posthumous 18 29 9 21 62 18 Gold Gold Live performances In addition to touring with The Beatles, Harrison made these live performance appearances during his solo career: 1971 The Concert for Bangladesh 1974 North American Tour 1986 Heartbeat '86, Birmingham 1987 Prince's Trust 1991 Japan Tour 1992 Dylan Tribute Concert, New York Notes References External links GeorgeHarrison.com — Official Site Rolling Stone - George's Greatest Musical Moments Genesis Publications - CONCERT FOR GEORGE: A Celebration of the Life of George Harrison Interview with Paul Cashmere BBC news article on Harrison's death BBC news George Harrison: Life in pictures George and other Beatles at Tittenhurst Hare Krishna temple BBC news UK version with different pictures The Traveling Wilburys fan site | George_Harrison |@lemmatized george:20 harrison:205 many:4 publish:6 source:4 give:8 harold:3 middle:2 name:5 everett:9 beatles:94 musician:16 quarry:5 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4,803 | Atari | Atari is a corporate and brand name owned by several entities since its inception in 1972. It is currently owned by Atari Interactive, a wholly owned subsidiary of the French publisher Infogrames Entertainment SA (IESA). The original Atari Inc. was founded in 1972 by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney. It was a pioneer in arcade games, home video game consoles, and home computers. The company's products, such as Pong and the Atari 2600, helped define the computer entertainment industry from the 1970s to the mid 1980s. In 1984, the original Atari Inc. was split, and the arcade division was turned into Atari Games Inc.. Atari Games received the rights to use the logo and brand name with appended text "Games" on arcade games, as well as rights to the original 1972 - 1984 arcade hardware properties. The Atari Consumer Electronics Division properties were in turn sold to Jack Tramiel's Tramel Technology Ltd., which then renamed itself to Atari Corporation. In 1996, Atari Corporation reverse merged with disk drive manufacturer JT Storage (JTS), becoming a division within the company. Atari Interactive started as a subsidiary of Hasbro Interactive , after Hasbro Interactive acquired all Atari Corporation related properties from JTS in 1998. IESA in turn acquired Hasbro Interactive in 2001, and proceeded to rename it to Infogrames Interactive. In 2003, IESA then changed the company name entirely to Atari Interactive. The company that currently bears the name Atari Inc. was founded in 1993 under the name GT Interactive. IESA acquired a 62% controlling interest in GT Interactive in 1999, and proceeded to rename it Infogrames, Inc. After IESA's acquirement of Hasbro Interactive and its related Atari properties in 2001, Infogrames, Inc. intermittently published Atari branded titles for Infogrames Interactive. In 2003, Infogrames Inc. licensed the Atari name and logo from Atari Interactive and changed its name to Atari Inc. . On October 11, 2008, Infogrames completed its acquisition of Atari, Inc., making it a wholly owned subsidiary. http://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/infogrames-completes-atari-inc-acquisition History Atari Inc. (1972–1984) In 1971, Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney founded an engineering firm, Syzygy Engineering, that designed and built the first arcade video game - Computer Space for Nutting Associates. On June 27, 1972 Atari, Inc. was incorporated and soon hired Al Alcorn as their first design engineer. Bushnell decided to have Alcorn produce as a test of his abilities, an arcade version of the Magnavox Odyssey's Tennis game, http://www.ralphbaer.com/video_game_history.htm which would be named Pong. While Bushnell incorporated Atari in June 1972, Syzygy Company was never formally incorporated. Before Atari's official incorporation, Bushnell wrote down several words from the game Go, eventually choosing atari, a term which in the context of the game means a state where a stone or group of stones is imminently in danger of being taken by one's opponent. In Japanese, atari is the nominalized form of ataru (verb), meaning "to hit the target" or "to receive something fortuitously". The word 'atari' is used in Japanese when a prediction comes true or when someone wins a lottery. The choice of Atari as a brand name was arguably better than Syzygy for most markets in terms of spelling, pronunciation and potential name recognition. Atari was incorporated in the state of California on June 27, 1972. California Secretary of State - California Business Search - Corporation Search Results The third version of the Atari Video Computer System sold from 1980 to 1981 In 1973, Atari secretly spawned a "competitor" called Kee Games, headed by Nolan's next door neighbor Joe Keenan, to circumvent pinball distributors' insistence on exclusive distribution deals; both Atari and Kee could market (virtually) the same game to different distributors, with each getting an "exclusive" deal. Though Kee's relationship to Atari was discovered in 1974, Joe Keenan did such a good job managing the subsidiary that he was promoted to president of Atari that same year. In 1976, Bushnell, through a Grass Valley, CA. engineering firm - Cyan Engineering, started an effort to produce a flexible video game console that was capable of playing all four of Atari's then-current games. The result was the Atari 2600, sometimes called VCS for Video Computer System. Bushnell knew he had another potential hit on his hands, but bringing the machine to market would be extremely expensive. Looking for outside investors, in 1976 Bushnell sold Atari to Warner Communications for an estimated $28 – $32 million, using part of the money to buy the Folgers Mansion. Nolan continued to have disagreements with Warner Management over the direction of the company, the discontinuing of the Pinball division and most importantly, he felt that the Atari 2600 should be discontinued, during a heated argument between Nolan Bushnell and Manny Gerard, Nolan was fired in December 1978. A project to design a successor to the 2600 started as soon as the system shipped. The original development team estimated the 2600 had a lifespan of about three years, and decided to build the most powerful machine they could, given that time frame. Midway into the effort's time-frame, the home computer revolution was taking off, so the new machines were adapted, with the addition of a keyboard and various inputs, to produce the Atari 800, and its smaller cousin, the 400. Although a variety of issues made them less attractive than the Apple II for some users, the new machines had some success when they finally became available in quantity in 1980. In 1982, the Atari 5200 was released, based heavily on the 400 and 800 models, but without a keyboard. Under Warner, Atari Inc. achieved its greatest success, selling millions of 2600s and computers. At its peak, Atari accounted for a third of Warner's annual income and was the fastest-growing company in the history of the United States at the time. However, Atari Inc. ran into problems in the early 1980s. Its home computer, video game console, and arcade divisions operated independently of one another and rarely cooperated. Faced with fierce competition and price wars in the game console and home computer markets, Atari was never able to duplicate the success of the 2600. These problems were followed by the infamous video game crash of 1983, with losses that totaled more than $500 million. Warner's stock price slid from $60 to $20, and the company began searching for a buyer for its troubled division. In 1983, Ray Kassar was forced to leave Atari over an insider stock trading sale, and executives involved in the Famicom lost track of the negotiations, and the deal eventually died. With Atari's further financial problems and the Famicom's runaway success in Japan after its July 16, 1983 release date, Nintendo decided to go it alone. Financial problems continued to mount and Ray's successor, James J. Morgan, had less than a year in which to tackle his predecessor's problems, he began a massive restructuring of the company and worked with Warner Communications in May 1984 to create "NATCO" which stood for New Atari Company which would further lean the company facilities, personnel and spending and make the company profit. Unknown to James Morgan and the senior management of Atari, Warner had been in talks with Tramiel Technologies to buy Atari's Consumer electronics and Home Computer divisions. Negotiating up until close to midnight of July 1, 1984 Jack Tramiel purchased Atari. Warner sold the home computing and game console divisions of Atari to Jack Tramiel for $50 cash and $240 million in promisary notes and stocks, giving Warner a 20% stack in Atari Corporation who then used it to create a new company under the name Atari Corporation. Warner retained the arcade division, continuing it under the name Atari Games, but sold it to Namco in 1985. Warner also sold the fledgling Ataritel to Mitsubishi. Atari Corporation (1984–1996) Atari ST Under Tramiel's ownership, Atari Corp. used the remaining stock of game console inventory to keep the company afloat while they finished development on a 16-bit computer system, the Atari ST. In April 1985, they released the first update to the 8-bit computer line - the Atari 65XE, the Atari XE series. In June 1985 saw the release of the Atari 130XE and Atari User Group's received early sneak-preview samples of the new Atari 520ST's and major retailer shipments hit store shelves in September 1985 of Atari's new 16-bit Atari ST computers. In 1986, Atari launched two consoles designed under Warner - the Atari 2600jr and the Atari 7800 console (which saw limited release in 1984). Atari rebounded, making $25 million profit that year. In 1989, Atari released the Atari Lynx, a handheld console with color graphics, to much fanfare. A shortage of parts kept the system from being released nationwide for the 1989 Christmas season and the Lynx lost market share to Nintendo's Game Boy, which only had a black and white display, but was available. Tramiel emphasized computers over game consoles. At the time Atari like HP personal computers had their own operating systems which fell victim to Microsoft's success. But, gaming revived and Tramiel missed the boat. Also in 1989, Atari Corp. sued Nintendo for $250 million, alleging it had an illegal monopoly. Atari eventually lost the case when it was rejected by a US district court in 1992. In 1993, Atari positioned its Jaguar as the only 64-bit interactive media entertainment system available, and sold around 200,000 units (at $250 each) in its first year on the market. By 1996, a series of successful lawsuits had left Atari with millions of dollars in the bank, but the failure of the Lynx and Jaguar left Atari without a product to sell. Tramiel and his family also wanted out of the business. The result was a rapid succession of changes in ownership. In July 1996, Atari merged with JTS Inc., a short-lived maker of hard disk drives, to form JTS Corp. Sample Contracts - Agreement and Plan of Reorganization - Atari Corp. and JT Storage Inc. - Competitive Intelligence for Investors Atari's role in the new company largely became that of holder for the Atari properties and minor support, and consequently the name largely disappeared from the market. As a division of Hasbro (1998–2001) In March 1998, JTS sold the Atari name and assets to Hasbro Interactive for $5 million—less than a fifth of what Warner Communications had paid 22 years earlier. This transaction primarily involved the brand and intellectual property, which now fell under the Atari Interactive division of Hasbro Interactive. The brand name changed hands again in December 2000 when French software publisher Infogrames took over Hasbro Interactive. Atari Inc., a division of Infogrames (2001 to present) In October 2001 Infogrames announced that it was "reinventing" the Atari brand with the launch of three new games. On May 7, 2003, Infogrames had its majority-owned, but discrete US subsidiary Infogrames NA officially renamed Atari, Inc., renamed its European operations to Atari Europe but kept the original name of the main company Infogrames Entertainment. The original Atari holdings division purchased from Hasbro, Atari Interactive, was also made a separate corporate entity. In November 2006, Atari Melbourne House Pty Ltd. had acquired Melbourne House from Atari and that the studio would be renamed to Krome Studios Melbourne. In November 13, 2007, The US division announces to exit the game development business to concentrate solely on publishing and distribution. On March 6, 2008, Infogrames made an offer to Atari Inc. to buy out all remaining public shares for a value of $1.68 per share, or $11 million total. The offer would make Infogrames sole owner of Atari Inc., thus making it a privately held company. Atari, Inc. Reports Receipt of Non-Binding Offer from Infogrames Entertainment S.A.: Financial News - Yahoo! Finance On April 30, 2008, Atari Inc. announced its intentions to accept Infogrames' buyout offer and to merge with Infogrames. Infogrames Entertainment S.A. and Atari, Inc. Announce Agreement to Merge: Financial News - Yahoo! Finance On October 11, 2008, Infogrames completed its acquisition of Atari Inc., making it a wholly owned subsidiary. On December 9, 2008, Atari announced that it had acquired Cryptic Studios, an MMORPG developer. Atari acquires Cryptic Studios Namco Bandai has purchased a 34% stake in Atari Europe on May 14, 2009, paving the way for its acquisition from Infogrames. Affiliated companies Infogrames Atari Europe Atari UK Ltd. Atari Korea Ltd. Atari Australia Pty Ltd. Atari Melbourne House Pty Ltd. (defunct) Atari Deutschland Atari Brazil Ltd. Atari Nordic Atari Iberica Distribucion Atari Japan Atari ITALIA Atari Hellas EURL Atari France Atari Program Exchange Atari Benelux Atari Corp. (UK) Ltd. Kee Games Cryptic Studios Shiny Entertainment (defunct) Eden Games Paradigm Entertainment (defunct) See also History of video game companies Golden Age of Video Arcade Games Atari Democrat Tengen (company) References External links Atari brand's official global site The Atari History Museum - Atari historical archive site. Atari Times, supporting all Atari consoles. AtariAge.com Atari entry at MobyGames Atari Gaming Headquarters - Atari historical archive site. Atari On Film - List of Atari products in films. 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4,804 | Falconiformes | The order Falconiformes is a group of about 290 species of birds that comprises the diurnal birds of prey. Raptor classification is difficult and the order is treated in several ways. Classification problems Traditionally, all the raptors are grouped into four families in this single order. However, in Europe, it has become common to split the order into two: the falcons and caracaras remain in the order Falconiformes (about 60 species in 4 groups), and the remaining 220-odd species (including the Accipitridae eagles, hawks, and many others) are put in the separate order Accipitriformes. A prehistoric family known only from fossils is the Horusornithidae. The idea that Falconiformes should be divided into many orders comes from the suggestion that the order may not share a single lineage that is exclusive of other birds. The most controversial but best-supported suggestion is that Cathartidae are not Falconiformes but are related to the storks, in the separate order Ciconiiformes. However, morphological evidence supports the common ancestry of the Falconiformes, and the Strigiformes may be very close to the Falconiformes as well. The American Ornithologists' Union provisionally reintegrated the New World vultures (family Cathartidae) into Falconiformes in 2007. This goes against the influential Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, in which all the raptors are placed into Ciconiiformes, but the Cathartids are considered to be outside the lineage that includes other raptors. While the latter may be correct, the "Ciconiiformes" sensu Sibley and Ahlquist are a paraphyletic, artificial assemblage and one of the weakest point of their classification scheme. Karyotype analysis indicates that New World vultures are indeed distinct, and the Accipitridae stand apart from all other falconiform birds in that their microchromosomes show a high degree of merging to medium-sized chromosomes, which is unique in birds (de Boer 1975, Amaral & Jorge 2003, Federico et al. 2005). Whether this has any bearing on the validity of the proposed Accipitriformes is still a matter of dispute, but it at least proves that the accipitrids are a monophyletic group. There is a recent theory Hackett, Shannon J.; Kimball, Rebecca T.; Reddy, Sushma; Bowie, Rauri C. K.; Braun, Edward L.; Braun, Michael J.; Chojnowski, Jena L.; Cox, W. Andrew; Han, Kin-Lan; Harshman, John; Huddleston, Christopher J.; Marks, Ben D.; Miglia, Kathleen J.; Moore, William S.; Sheldon, Frederick H.; Steadman, David W.; Witt, Christopher C.; Yuri, Tamaki: A phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history.Science (journal), p1763, 27 Jun 2008 based on gene studies that the falcons are more closely related to the parrots and passerines than to other birds including the Accipitridae, and that thus the Falconiformes are not monophyletic even if the Cathartidae are excluded. DNA studies mean that it is likely to be some time until a consensus can be achieved. Characteristics Falconiformes are known from the Middle Eocene (the possibly basal genus Masillaraptor from the Messel Pit). They typically have a sharply hooked beak with a cere (soft mass) on the proximodorsal surface, housing the nostrils. Their wings are long and fairly broad, suitable for soaring flight, with the outer 4–6 primaries emarginated. Falconiformes have strong legs and feet with raptorial claws and an opposable hind claw. Almost all Falconiformes are carnivorous, hunting by sight during the day or at twilight. They are exceptionally long-lived, and most have low reproductive rates. The young have a long, very fast-growing fledgling stage, followed by 3–8 weeks of nest care after first flight, and 1 to 3 years as sexually immature adults. Females are bigger than males will be more than twice as heavy the size of her mate. Sexual dimorphism is generally most extreme in specialized bird-eaters, such as the Accipiter hawks and Falco falcons, in which a female may be more than twice as heavy as her mate; it borders on non-existent among the vultures. Monogamy is the general rule, although an alternative mate is often selected if one dies. Falconiformes are among the most diverse orders in size. The smallest species is believed to be the Black-thighed Falconet, small males of which can weigh only 28 g (1 oz), measure 14 cm (5.5 inches) and have a wingspan of 26 cm (10.3 inches). The largest species is the Cinereous Vulture, at up to 14 kg (31 lbs), 118 cm (46 inches) and 3 m (10 feet) across the wings. Systematics Worldwide; 260 species; sometimes all families except Falconidae are separated as Accipitriformes. Falconidae: caracaras, falcons, falconets, hobbies, kestrels Cathartidae: New World vultures, condors Pandionidae: Osprey Accipitridae: buzzards, eagles, harriers, hawks, kites, Old World vultures Sagittaridae: Secretary Bird See also Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy. References Other meanings For the Dutch falconry suppliers called Falconiformes, see http://www.falconiformes.nl External links http://www.eeb.cornell.edu/winkler/botw/falconiformes.html Eaglewatch: Birds of prey and owls around the world | Falconiformes |@lemmatized order:10 falconiformes:15 group:4 specie:6 bird:10 comprise:1 diurnal:1 prey:2 raptor:4 classification:3 difficult:1 treat:1 several:1 way:1 problem:1 traditionally:1 four:1 family:4 single:2 however:2 europe:1 become:1 common:2 split:1 two:1 falcon:4 caracara:2 remain:2 odd:1 include:3 accipitridae:4 eagle:2 hawk:3 many:2 others:1 put:1 separate:3 accipitriformes:3 prehistoric:1 know:2 fossil:1 horusornithidae:1 idea:1 divide:1 come:1 suggestion:2 may:4 share:1 lineage:2 exclusive:1 controversial:1 best:1 support:2 cathartidae:4 relate:2 stork:1 ciconiiformes:3 morphological:1 evidence:1 ancestry:1 strigiformes:1 close:1 well:1 american:1 ornithologist:1 union:1 provisionally:1 reintegrate:1 new:3 world:5 vulture:5 go:1 influential:1 sibley:3 ahlquist:3 taxonomy:2 place:1 cathartid:1 consider:1 outside:1 latter:1 correct:1 sensu:1 paraphyletic:1 artificial:1 assemblage:1 one:2 weak:1 point:1 scheme:1 karyotype:1 analysis:1 indicate:1 indeed:1 distinct:1 stand:1 apart:1 falconiform:1 microchromosomes:1 show:1 high:1 degree:1 merge:1 medium:1 size:3 chromosome:1 unique:1 de:1 boer:1 amaral:1 jorge:1 federico:1 et:1 al:1 whether:1 bearing:1 validity:1 propose:1 still:1 matter:1 dispute:1 least:1 prof:1 accipitrids:1 monophyletic:2 recent:1 theory:1 hackett:1 shannon:1 j:4 kimball:1 rebecca:1 reddy:1 sushma:1 bowie:1 rauri:1 c:2 k:1 braun:2 edward:1 l:2 michael:1 chojnowski:1 jena:1 cox:1 w:2 andrew:1 han:1 kin:1 lan:1 harshman:1 john:1 huddleston:1 christopher:2 mark:1 ben:1 miglia:1 kathleen:1 moore:1 william:1 sheldon:1 frederick:1 h:1 steadman:1 david:1 witt:1 yuri:1 tamaki:1 phylogenomic:1 study:3 reveals:1 evolutionary:1 history:1 science:1 journal:1 jun:1 base:1 gene:1 closely:1 parrot:1 passerine:1 thus:1 even:1 exclude:1 dna:1 mean:1 likely:1 time:1 consensus:1 achieve:1 characteristic:1 middle:1 eocene:1 possibly:1 basal:1 genus:1 masillaraptor:1 messel:1 pit:1 typically:1 sharply:1 hooked:1 beak:1 cere:1 soft:1 mass:1 proximodorsal:1 surface:1 housing:1 nostril:1 wing:2 long:3 fairly:1 broad:1 suitable:1 soar:1 flight:2 outer:1 primary:1 emarginated:1 strong:1 leg:1 foot:2 raptorial:1 claw:2 opposable:1 hind:1 almost:1 carnivorous:1 hunt:1 sight:1 day:1 twilight:1 exceptionally:1 live:1 low:1 reproductive:1 rate:1 young:1 fast:1 grow:1 fledgling:1 stage:1 follow:1 week:1 nest:1 care:1 first:1 year:1 sexually:1 immature:1 adult:1 female:2 big:1 male:2 twice:2 heavy:2 mate:3 sexual:1 dimorphism:1 generally:1 extreme:1 specialized:1 eater:1 accipiter:1 falco:1 border:1 non:1 existent:1 among:2 monogamy:1 general:1 rule:1 although:1 alternative:1 often:1 select:1 die:1 diverse:1 small:2 believe:1 black:1 thighed:1 falconet:1 weigh:1 g:1 oz:1 measure:1 cm:3 inch:3 wingspan:1 large:1 cinereous:1 kg:1 lb:1 across:1 systematics:1 worldwide:1 sometimes:1 except:1 falconidae:2 falconets:1 hobby:1 kestrel:1 condor:1 pandionidae:1 osprey:1 buzzard:1 harrier:1 kite:1 old:1 vultures:1 sagittaridae:1 secretary:1 see:2 also:1 reference:1 meaning:1 dutch:1 falconry:1 supplier:1 call:1 http:2 www:2 nl:1 external:1 link:1 eeb:1 cornell:1 edu:1 winkler:1 botw:1 html:1 eaglewatch:1 owl:1 around:1 |@bigram sibley_ahlquist:3 ahlquist_taxonomy:2 et_al:1 closely_relate:1 passerine_bird:1 sexual_dimorphism:1 non_existent:1 kg_lb:1 http_www:2 external_link:1 cornell_edu:1 |
4,805 | Diffusion_pump | Six inch oil diffusion pump. Diffusion pumps use a high speed jet of vapor to direct gas molecules in the pump throat down into the bottom of the pump and out the exhaust. Presented in 1915 by Wolfgang Gaede and using mercury vapor, they were the first type of high vacuum pumps operating in the regime of free molecular flow, where the movement of the gas molecules can be better understood as diffusion than by conventional fluid dynamics. Gaede used the name diffusion pump since his design was based on the finding that gas cannot diffuse against the vapor stream, but will be carried with it to the exhaust. However, the principle of operation might be more precisely described as gas-jet pump, since diffusion plays a role also in other high vacuum pumps. In modern text books, the diffusion pump is categorized as a momentum transfer pump. The diffusion pump is enjoying widespread use both in industrial and research applications. Most modern diffusion pumps use silicone oil as working fluid. Cecil Reginald Burch discovered the possibility of using silicone oil in 1928. Oil diffusion pumps The oil diffusion pump is operated with an oil with low vapor pressure. Its purpose is to achieve higher vacuum (lower pressure) than possible by use of positive displacement pumps alone. Although its use has been mainly associated within the high vacuum range (down to 10-9 mbar), diffusion pumps today can produce pressures approaching 10-10 mbar when properly used with modern fluids and accessories. The features that make the diffusion pump attractive for high and ultra-high vacuum use are its high pumping speed for all gases and low cost per unit pumping speed when compared with other types of pump used in the same vacuum range. Diffusion pumps cannot discharge directly into the atmosphere, so a mechanical forepump is typically used to maintain an outlet pressure around 0.1 mbar. Diffusion pumps used on the Calutron mass spectrometers during the Manhattan Project. Diagram of an oil diffusion pump The high speed jet is generated by boiling the fluid and directing the vapor through a jet assembly. Note that the oil is gaseous when entering the nozzles. Within the nozzles, the flow changes from laminar, to supersonic and molecular. Often several jets are used in series to enhance the pumping action. The outside of the diffusion pump is cooled using either air flow or a water line. As the vapor jet impacts the outer cooled shell of the diffusion pump, the working fluid condenses, is recovered, and directed back to the boiler. The pumped gases continue flowing to the base of the pump at increased pressure, flowing out through the diffusion pump outlet, where they are compressed to ambient pressure by the secondary mechanical forepump and exhausted. Unlike turbomolecular pumps and cryopumps, diffusion pumps have no moving parts and as a result are quite durable and reliable. They can function over pressures ranges of 10-10 to 10-2 mbar. They are driven only by convection and thus have a very high energy efficiency. One major disadvantage of diffusion pumps is the tendency to backstream oil into the vacuum chamber. This oil can contaminate surfaces inside the chamber or upon contact with hot filaments or electrical discharges may result in carbonaceous or siliceous deposits. Due to backstreaming, oil diffusion pumps are not suitable for use with highly sensitive analytical equipment or other applications which require an extremely clean vacuum environment, but mercury diffusion pumps may be in the case of ultra high vacuum chambers used for mercury deposition. Often cold traps and baffles are used to minimize backstreaming, although this results in some loss of pumping ability. Steam ejectors Plot of pumping speed as a function of pressure for a diffusion pump. The steam ejector is a popular form of diffusion pump for vacuum distillation and freeze-drying. A jet of steam entrains the vapour that must be removed from the vacuum chamber. Steam ejectors can have a single or multiple stages, with and without condensers in between the stages. Compressed-air ejectors One class of diffusion vacuum pumps is the multistage compressed-air driven ejector. It is very popular in applications where objects are moved around using suction cups and vacuum lines. References See also Turbomolecular pump Vacuum pump Aspirator External links An oil diffusion pump built from glass by the Arizona State University Main Oil Diffusion pumps by Donald M. Mattox, Technical Director of The Society of Vacuum Coaters Further reading | Diffusion_pump |@lemmatized six:1 inch:1 oil:13 diffusion:27 pump:41 use:19 high:11 speed:5 jet:7 vapor:6 direct:3 gas:6 molecule:2 throat:1 bottom:1 exhaust:3 present:1 wolfgang:1 gaede:2 mercury:3 first:1 type:2 vacuum:15 operate:2 regime:1 free:1 molecular:2 flow:5 movement:1 well:1 understood:1 conventional:1 fluid:5 dynamic:1 name:1 since:2 design:1 base:2 finding:1 cannot:2 diffuse:1 stream:1 carry:1 however:1 principle:1 operation:1 might:1 precisely:1 describe:1 play:1 role:1 also:2 modern:3 text:1 book:1 categorize:1 momentum:1 transfer:1 enjoy:1 widespread:1 industrial:1 research:1 application:3 silicone:2 work:2 cecil:1 reginald:1 burch:1 discover:1 possibility:1 low:3 pressure:8 purpose:1 achieve:1 possible:1 positive:1 displacement:1 alone:1 although:2 mainly:1 associate:1 within:2 range:3 mbar:4 today:1 produce:1 approach:1 properly:1 accessory:1 feature:1 make:1 attractive:1 ultra:2 pumping:1 cost:1 per:1 unit:1 compare:1 discharge:2 directly:1 atmosphere:1 mechanical:2 forepump:2 typically:1 maintain:1 outlet:2 around:2 calutron:1 mass:1 spectrometer:1 manhattan:1 project:1 diagram:1 generate:1 boil:1 assembly:1 note:1 gaseous:1 enter:1 nozzle:2 change:1 laminar:1 supersonic:1 often:2 several:1 series:1 enhance:1 action:1 outside:1 cool:2 either:1 air:3 water:1 line:2 impact:1 outer:1 shell:1 condenses:1 recover:1 back:1 boiler:1 pumped:1 continue:1 increased:1 compress:3 ambient:1 secondary:1 unlike:1 turbomolecular:2 cryopumps:1 moving:1 part:1 result:3 quite:1 durable:1 reliable:1 function:2 drive:1 convection:1 thus:1 energy:1 efficiency:1 one:2 major:1 disadvantage:1 tendency:1 backstream:1 chamber:4 contaminate:1 surface:1 inside:1 upon:1 contact:1 hot:1 filament:1 electrical:1 may:2 carbonaceous:1 siliceous:1 deposit:1 due:1 backstreaming:2 suitable:1 highly:1 sensitive:1 analytical:1 equipment:1 require:1 extremely:1 clean:1 environment:1 case:1 deposition:1 cold:1 trap:1 baffle:1 minimize:1 loss:1 ability:1 steam:4 ejector:5 plot:1 popular:2 form:1 distillation:1 freeze:1 drying:1 entrain:1 vapour:1 must:1 remove:1 single:1 multiple:1 stage:2 without:1 condenser:1 class:1 multistage:1 driven:1 object:1 move:1 suction:1 cup:1 reference:1 see:1 aspirator:1 external:1 link:1 build:1 glass:1 arizona:1 state:1 university:1 main:1 donald:1 mattox:1 technical:1 director:1 society:1 coaters:1 far:1 reading:1 |@bigram diffusion_pump:24 vapor_pressure:1 mass_spectrometer:1 steam_ejector:3 vacuum_distillation:1 external_link:1 |
4,806 | Jane_Shore | The Penance of Jane Shore by William Blake, c.1780. No image of Jane Shore from her lifetime exists. Elizabeth "Jane" Shore (c. 1445 - c. 1527) was one of the many mistresses of King Edward IV of England, the first of the three whom he described respectively as the merriest, the wiliest, and the holiest harlots in his realm, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography "Elizabeth Shore" and later a courtesan to other men of royalty. Early life, first marriage Described as a petite woman of round face and fair complexion, she was more captivating by her wit and conversation than by her beauty. Thomas More, writing when she was still alive, but old, lean, and withered, declared that even then an attentive observer might have discerned in her shrivelled countenance some traces of its lost charms. She was born in London, the daughter of a prosperous merchant named John Lambert and his wife Amy, daughter of a well-off grocer named Robert Marshall. She was christened 'Elizabeth' and took up the name 'Jane' later on, for unknown reasons. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography "Elizabeth Shore" Jane was married very young to a merchant named William Shore, who though young, handsome, and well-to-do, never really won her affections. Their marriage was annulled in 1476 on the grounds of his alleged impotence. Mistress to a king, courtesan, prison, and second marriage She probably became mistress of the king in late 1475 or 1476. Edward did not discard her as he did many of his mistresses, and their relationship lasted until Edward's death in 1483. Afterwards she was mistress of the queen's oldest son Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset, and of William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings, who would later be convicted of treason and executed in the Tower of London on 13 June 1483. The precise order of her relationships with these men is not known with certainty. Jane was required to do an open penance at Paul's Cross for her promiscuous behaviour, by Richard III, though this may have been motivated by the suspicion she had harboured Dorset when he was a fugitive. She accordingly went in her kirtle through the streets one Sunday with a taper in her hand, attracting a lot of male attention all along the way. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography "Elizabeth Shore" While she was in prison for her misconduct, she so captivated the King's Solicitor, Thomas Lynom, that he actually entered into a contract of marriage with her. This we know from a letter of King Richard to his chancellor on the occasion, pardoning Jane so she could be released from prison (into her father's custody), but asking the chancellor to dissuade Lynom from the match, if possible. Nevertheless, they were married and had one daughter. Although Lynom lost his position as King's Solicitor when Henry VII defeated Richard III, he was able to stay on as a mid-level bureaucrat in the new reign. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography "Elizabeth Shore" Fiction Jane Shore is frequently referred to in William Shakespeare's play, Richard III as "Mistress Shore." (She actually appears in Laurence Olivier's 1955 film version, played by Pamela Brown - she has only one line: "Good morrow, my Lord", which is, of course, interpolated into the film.) Edward IV, Thomas Grey, and Lord Hastings, are all characters in the play. The Tragedy of Jane Shore is a 1714 play by Nicholas Rowe. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography "Elizabeth Shore" The Goldsmith's Wife is a 1950 novel by Jean Plaidy based on the story of Jane's life. "Figures in Silk" by Vanora Bennett, pub. 2008, features Jane Shore and her sister Isabel. A performance of a play, Jane Shore was given on Saturday July 30 1796 at a theatre in Sydney, Australia. The pamphlet for the play was printed by a convict in the settlement, George Hughes, who was the operator of Australia's first printing press. The pamphlet for the play is the earliest surviving document printed in Australia. It was presented as a gift to Australia by the Canadian Government and is held at the National Library of Australia in the National Treasures collection in Canberra. There are three films entitled Jane Shore listed on the IMDB database - Jane Shore (1911) Jane Shore (1915) (in which she was played by Blanche Forsyth) Jane Shore (1922) (in which she was played by Sybil Thorndike) References | Jane_Shore |@lemmatized penance:2 jane:16 shore:18 william:4 blake:1 c:3 image:1 lifetime:1 exist:1 elizabeth:7 one:4 many:2 mistress:6 king:6 edward:4 iv:2 england:1 first:3 three:2 describe:2 respectively:1 merry:1 wily:1 holy:1 harlot:1 realm:1 oxford:5 dictionary:5 national:7 biography:5 later:3 courtesan:2 men:2 royalty:1 early:2 life:2 marriage:4 petite:1 woman:1 round:1 face:1 fair:1 complexion:1 captivating:1 wit:1 conversation:1 beauty:1 thomas:4 write:1 still:1 alive:1 old:2 lean:1 wither:1 declare:1 even:1 attentive:1 observer:1 might:1 discern:1 shrivelled:1 countenance:1 trace:1 lose:2 charm:1 bear:1 london:2 daughter:3 prosperous:1 merchant:2 name:4 john:1 lambert:1 wife:2 amy:1 well:2 grocer:1 robert:1 marshall:1 christen:1 take:1 unknown:1 reason:1 marry:2 young:2 though:2 handsome:1 never:1 really:1 win:1 affection:1 annul:1 ground:1 alleged:1 impotence:1 prison:3 second:1 probably:1 become:1 late:1 discard:1 relationship:2 last:1 death:1 afterwards:1 queen:1 son:1 grey:2 marquess:1 dorset:2 hastings:3 baron:1 would:1 convict:2 treason:1 execute:1 tower:1 june:1 precise:1 order:1 know:2 certainty:1 require:1 open:1 paul:1 cross:1 promiscuous:1 behaviour:1 richard:4 iii:3 may:1 motivate:1 suspicion:1 harbour:1 fugitive:1 accordingly:1 go:1 kirtle:1 street:1 sunday:1 taper:1 hand:1 attract:1 lot:1 male:1 attention:1 along:1 way:1 misconduct:1 captivate:1 solicitor:2 lynom:3 actually:2 enter:1 contract:1 letter:1 chancellor:2 occasion:1 pardon:1 could:1 release:1 father:1 custody:1 ask:1 dissuade:1 match:1 possible:1 nevertheless:1 although:1 position:1 henry:1 vii:1 defeat:1 able:1 stay:1 mid:1 level:1 bureaucrat:1 new:1 reign:1 fiction:1 frequently:1 refer:1 shakespeare:1 play:9 appear:1 laurence:1 olivier:1 film:3 version:1 pamela:1 brown:1 line:1 good:1 morrow:1 lord:2 course:1 interpolate:1 character:1 tragedy:1 nicholas:1 rowe:1 goldsmith:1 novel:1 jean:1 plaidy:1 base:1 story:1 figure:1 silk:1 vanora:1 bennett:1 pub:1 feature:1 sister:1 isabel:1 performance:1 give:1 saturday:1 july:1 theatre:1 sydney:1 australia:5 pamphlet:2 print:3 settlement:1 george:1 hughes:1 operator:1 press:1 surviving:1 document:1 present:1 gift:1 canadian:1 government:1 hold:1 library:1 treasure:1 collection:1 canberra:1 entitle:1 list:1 imdb:1 database:1 blanche:1 forsyth:1 sybil:1 thorndike:1 reference:1 |@bigram marriage_annul:1 convict_treason:1 harbour_dorset:1 laurence_olivier:1 jean_plaidy:1 |
4,807 | Euclidean_space | Around 300 BC, the Greek mathematician Euclid undertook a study of relationships among distances and angles, first in a plane (an idealized flat surface) and then in space. An example of such a relationship is that the sum of the angles in a triangle is always 180 degrees. Today these relationships are known as two- and three-dimensional Euclidean geometry. In modern mathematical language, distance and angle can be generalized easily to 4-dimensional, 5-dimensional, and even higher-dimensional spaces. An n-dimensional space with notions of distance and angle that obey the Euclidean relationships is called an n-dimensional Euclidean space. Where n is greater than 3, such spaces are sometimes, but not formally, called hyperspaces. Most of this article is devoted to developing the modern language necessary for the conceptual leap to higher dimensions. An essential property of a Euclidean space is its flatness. Other spaces exist in geometry that are not Euclidean. For example, the surface of a sphere is not; a triangle on a sphere (suitably defined) will have angles that sum to something greater than 180 degrees. In fact, there is essentially only one Euclidean space of each dimension, while there are many non-Euclidean spaces of each dimension. Often these other spaces are constructed by systematically deforming Euclidean space. Intuitive overview One way to think of the Euclidean plane is as a set of points satisfying certain relationships, expressible in terms of distance and angle. For example, there are two fundamental operations on the plane. One is translation, which means a shifting of the plane so that every point is shifted in the same direction and by the same distance. The other is rotation about a fixed point in the plane, in which every point in the plane turns about that fixed point through the same angle. One of the basic tenets of Euclidean geometry is that two figures (that is, subsets) of the plane should be considered equivalent (congruent) if one can be transformed into the other by some sequence of translations, rotations and reflections. (See Euclidean group.) In order to make all of this mathematically precise, one must clearly define the notions of distance, angle, translation, and rotation. The standard way to do this, as carried out in the remainder of this article, is to define the Euclidean plane as a two-dimensional real vector space equipped with an inner product. For then: the vectors in the vector space correspond to the points of the Euclidean plane, the addition operation in the vector space corresponds to translation, and the inner product implies notions of angle and distance, which can be used to define rotation. Once the Euclidean plane has been described in this language, it is actually a simple matter to extend its concept to arbitrary dimensions. For the most part, the vocabulary, formulas, and calculations are not made any more difficult by the presence of more dimensions. (However, rotations are more subtle in high dimensions, and visualizing high-dimensional spaces remains difficult, even for experienced mathematicians.) A final wrinkle is that Euclidean space is not technically a vector space but rather an affine space, on which a vector space acts. Intuitively, the distinction just says that there is no canonical choice of where the origin should go in the space, because it can be translated anywhere. In this article, this technicality is largely ignored. Real coordinate space Let R denote the field of real numbers. For any non-negative integer n, the space of all n-tuples of real numbers forms an n-dimensional vector space over R, which is denoted Rn and sometimes called real coordinate space. An element of Rn is written where each xi is a real number. The vector space operations on Rn are defined by The vector space Rn comes with a standard basis: An arbitrary vector in Rn can then be written in the form Rn is the prototypical example of a real n-dimensional vector space. In fact, every real n-dimensional vector space V is isomorphic to Rn. This isomorphism is not canonical, however. A choice of isomorphism is equivalent to a choice of basis for V (by looking at the image of the standard basis for Rn in V). The reason for working with arbitrary vector spaces instead of Rn is that it is often preferable to work in a coordinate-free manner (that is, without choosing a preferred basis). Euclidean structure Euclidean space is more than just a real coordinate space. In order to apply Euclidean geometry one needs to be able to talk about the distances between points and the angles between lines or vectors. The natural way to obtain these quantities is by introducing and using the standard inner product (also known as the dot product) on Rn. The inner product of any two vectors x and y is defined by The result is always a real number. Furthermore, the inner product of x with itself is always nonnegative. This product allows us to define the "length" of a vector x as This length function satisfies the required properties of a norm and is called the Euclidean norm on Rn. The (non-reflex) angle θ (0° ≤ θ ≤ 180°) between x and y is then given by where cos−1 is the arccosine function. Finally, one can use the norm to define a metric (or distance function) on Rn by This distance function is called the Euclidean metric. It can be viewed as a form of the Pythagorean theorem. Real coordinate space together with this Euclidean structure is called Euclidean space and often denoted En. (Many authors refer to Rn itself as Euclidean space, with the Euclidean structure being understood). The Euclidean structure makes En an inner product space (in fact a Hilbert space), a normed vector space, and a metric space. Rotations of Euclidean space are then defined as orientation-preserving linear transformations T that preserve angles and lengths: In the language of matrices, rotations are special orthogonal matrices. Topology of Euclidean space Since Euclidean space is a metric space it is also a topological space with the natural topology induced by the metric. The metric topology on En is called the Euclidean topology. A set is open in the Euclidean topology if and only if it contains an open ball around each of its points. The Euclidean topology turns out to be equivalent to the product topology on Rn considered as a product of n copies of the real line R (with its standard topology). An important result on the topology of Rn, that is far from superficial, is Brouwer's invariance of domain. Any subset of Rn (with its subspace topology) that is homeomorphic to another open subset of Rn is itself open. An immediate consequence of this is that Rm is not homeomorphic to Rn if m ≠ n — an intuitively "obvious" result which is nonetheless difficult to prove. Generalizations In modern mathematics, Euclidean spaces form the prototypes for other, more complicated geometric objects. For example, a smooth manifold is a Hausdorff topological space that is locally diffeomorphic to Euclidean space. Diffeomorphism does not respect distance and angle, so these key concepts of Euclidean geometry are lost on a smooth manifold. However, if one additionally prescribes a smoothly varying inner product on the manifold's tangent spaces, then the result is what is called a Riemannian manifold. Put differently, a Riemannian manifold is a space constructed by deforming and patching together Euclidean spaces. Such a space enjoys notions of distance and angle, but they behave in a curved, non-Euclidean manner. The simplest Riemannian manifold, consisting of Rn with a constant inner product, is essentially identical to Euclidean n-space itself. If one alters a Euclidean space so that its inner product becomes negative in one or more directions, then the result is a pseudo-Euclidean space. Smooth manifolds built from such spaces are called pseudo-Riemannian manifolds. Perhaps their most famous application is the theory of relativity, where empty spacetime with no matter is represented by the flat pseudo-Euclidean space called Minkowski space, spacetimes with matter in them form other pseudo-Riemannian manifolds, and gravity corresponds to the curvature of such a manifold. Our universe, being subject to relativity, is not Euclidean. This becomes significant in theoretical considerations of astronomy and cosmology, and also in some practical problems such as global positioning and airplane navigation. Nonetheless, a Euclidean model of the universe can still be used to solve many other practical problems with sufficient precision. See also Riemannian geometry Euclidean subspace Cartesian coordinate system Polar coordinate system Hilbert space References | Euclidean_space |@lemmatized around:2 bc:1 greek:1 mathematician:2 euclid:1 undertook:1 study:1 relationship:5 among:1 distance:12 angle:14 first:1 plane:10 idealize:1 flat:2 surface:2 space:57 example:5 sum:2 triangle:2 always:3 degree:2 today:1 know:2 two:5 three:1 dimensional:11 euclidean:43 geometry:6 modern:3 mathematical:1 language:4 generalize:1 easily:1 even:2 high:4 n:11 notion:4 obey:1 call:10 great:2 sometimes:2 formally:1 hyperspaces:1 article:3 devote:1 develop:1 necessary:1 conceptual:1 leap:1 dimension:6 essential:1 property:2 flatness:1 exist:1 sphere:2 suitably:1 define:9 something:1 fact:3 essentially:2 one:11 many:3 non:4 often:3 construct:2 systematically:1 deform:2 intuitive:1 overview:1 way:3 think:1 set:2 point:8 satisfy:2 certain:1 expressible:1 term:1 fundamental:1 operation:3 translation:4 mean:1 shifting:1 every:3 shift:1 direction:2 rotation:7 fixed:2 turn:2 basic:1 tenet:1 figure:1 subset:3 consider:2 equivalent:3 congruent:1 transform:1 sequence:1 reflection:1 see:2 group:1 order:2 make:3 mathematically:1 precise:1 must:1 clearly:1 standard:5 carry:1 remainder:1 real:12 vector:17 equip:1 inner:9 product:13 correspond:2 addition:1 implies:1 use:4 describe:1 actually:1 simple:2 matter:3 extend:1 concept:2 arbitrary:3 part:1 vocabulary:1 formula:1 calculation:1 difficult:3 presence:1 however:3 subtle:1 visualize:1 remain:1 experienced:1 final:1 wrinkle:1 technically:1 rather:1 affine:1 act:1 intuitively:2 distinction:1 say:1 canonical:2 choice:3 origin:1 go:1 translate:1 anywhere:1 technicality:1 largely:1 ignore:1 coordinate:7 let:1 r:3 denote:3 field:1 number:4 negative:2 integer:1 tuples:1 form:5 rn:19 element:1 write:2 xi:1 come:1 basis:4 prototypical:1 v:3 isomorphic:1 isomorphism:2 look:1 image:1 reason:1 work:2 instead:1 preferable:1 free:1 manner:2 without:1 choose:1 preferred:1 structure:4 apply:1 need:1 able:1 talk:1 line:2 natural:2 obtain:1 quantity:1 introduce:1 also:4 dot:1 x:4 result:5 furthermore:1 nonnegative:1 allow:1 u:1 length:3 function:4 required:1 norm:3 reflex:1 θ:2 give:1 cos:1 arccosine:1 finally:1 metric:6 view:1 pythagorean:1 theorem:1 together:2 en:3 author:1 refer:1 understood:1 hilbert:2 normed:1 orientation:1 preserving:1 linear:1 transformation:1 preserve:1 matrix:2 special:1 orthogonal:1 topology:10 since:1 topological:2 induce:1 open:4 contain:1 ball:1 copy:1 important:1 far:1 superficial:1 brouwer:1 invariance:1 domain:1 subspace:2 homeomorphic:2 another:1 immediate:1 consequence:1 rm:1 obvious:1 nonetheless:2 prove:1 generalization:1 mathematics:1 prototype:1 complicated:1 geometric:1 object:1 smooth:3 manifold:10 hausdorff:1 locally:1 diffeomorphic:1 diffeomorphism:1 respect:1 key:1 lose:1 additionally:1 prescribe:1 smoothly:1 varying:1 tangent:1 riemannian:6 put:1 differently:1 patch:1 enjoy:1 behave:1 curved:1 consist:1 constant:1 identical:1 alter:1 become:2 pseudo:4 build:1 perhaps:1 famous:1 application:1 theory:1 relativity:2 empty:1 spacetime:1 represent:1 minkowski:1 spacetimes:1 gravity:1 corresponds:1 curvature:1 universe:2 subject:1 significant:1 theoretical:1 consideration:1 astronomy:1 cosmology:1 practical:2 problem:2 global:1 positioning:1 airplane:1 navigation:1 model:1 still:1 solve:1 sufficient:1 precision:1 cartesian:1 system:2 polar:1 reference:1 |@bigram dimensional_euclidean:2 euclidean_geometry:4 angle_θ:1 θ_θ:1 pythagorean_theorem:1 normed_vector:1 topological_space:2 subset_rn:2 subspace_topology:1 intuitively_obvious:1 smooth_manifold:3 hausdorff_topological:1 riemannian_manifold:5 pseudo_riemannian:2 minkowski_space:1 global_positioning:1 riemannian_geometry:1 cartesian_coordinate:1 polar_coordinate:1 |
4,808 | Myriad | Myriad (μυριάδος, from μύριος, murios, "numberless, countless, infinite", later converted to "myriad" by the Romans) is a classical Greek name for the number 104 = 10,000 . In modern English the word refers to an unspecified large quantity. The term myriad is a progression in the commonly used system of describing numbers using tens and hundreds. Small numbers are named in terms of number of tens plus the remainder; for example 76 is seven tens plus six. Numbers larger than ten tens require a new description, a hundred. Thus, 1776 is seventeen hundred seventy six. Similarly one hundred hundred is a myriad. A myriad myriad, or one hundred million, was left as the largest named number by the Ancient Greeks and is also the largest named number in the Bible. A myriad is primarily a singular cardinal number; just as the "thousand" in "four thousand" is singular (one does not write "four thousands people") the word myriad is used in the same way: "there are four myriad people outside". When used as a noun, meaning "a large number", it follows the same rules as that phrase. However, that is not the case originally in Greek, where there is plural. In English, the term "myriad" is most commonly used to refer to a large number of an unspecified size. In this way "myriad" can be used as either a noun or an adjective. Thus both "there are myriad people outside" and "there is a myriad of people outside" are correct. Merriam-Webster notes, "Recent criticism of the use of myriad as a noun, both in the plural form myriads and in the phrase a myriad of, seems to reflect a mistaken belief that the word was originally and is still properly only an adjective.... however, the noun is in fact the older form, dating to the 16th century. The noun myriad has appeared in the works of such writers as Milton (plural myriads) and Thoreau (a myriad of), and it continues to occur frequently in reputable English. There is no reason to avoid it." Merriam Webster online The English numbering system divides large numbers into groups of three digits, and so the names for such numbers follow this division (10,000 = ten thousand). East Asian numbering divides large numbers into groups of four; so in Chinese, Japanese, or Korean, 30,000 really would be "three myriad" (3,0000 — Japanese san-man). One million is a hundred myriad (100 × 10000 instead of 1000 × 1000); the next uniquely named number after a myriad is 億, which is myriad myriad (10000 × 10000) or a hundred million. Modern Greek still uses the word "myriad" by itself, but also to form the word for million. The word for million is ekatommyrio (hundred myriad — εκατομμύριο); one thousand million is disekatommyrio (twice hundred myriad — δισεκατομμύριο). The largest number named in Ancient Greek was a myriad myriad and Archimedes of Syracuse used this quantity as the basis for a numeration system of large powers of ten, which he needed to count grains of sand, see The Sand Reckoner. There is only slight indication that "myria" has at all been used as a metric prefix for 10,000, e.g., 10 kilometres = 1 myriametre. It does not have official status as an SI prefix. In Sweden and Norway, one mile = 10,000 metres = one myriametre. Before they went metric, one Swedish mile was 10,688 metres and a Norwegian mile was 11,295 metres, so only a small change had to be made to the old mile to make them equal to one myriametre. Even today, Swedes normally use the Swedish mile to refer to travel distances in everyday language. Similarly, one myriometre = 0.0001 metre. In Great Britain, the Ordnance Survey use the term myriad to refer to a 100 km × 100 km area in the National Grid. In other languages Hebrew: revava (רבבה) Chinese: wàn Mandarin and maan6 Cantonese (萬/万) Japanese:man (万/萬) Korean: man (万/만/萬) Chinese, Japanese and Korean also have words for a myriad squared (100,000,000): yì(億) or wànwàn(萬萬) in ancient texts, oku (億), and eok (억/億)(pronounced "ohk"), respectively. A myriad cubed (10,000³ or 1012) is a zhào (兆); chō (兆); a myriad to the fourth power (10,0004 or 1016) is a jīng (京); kei (京). Conversely, Chinese, Japanese and Korean do not have single words for a thousand squared, cubed, etc., unlike English and many other languages of European origin. References See also Chinese numerals Indian numbering system Myriad (unit of area) -yllion | Myriad |@lemmatized myriad:34 μυριάδος:1 μύριος:1 murios:1 numberless:1 countless:1 infinite:1 later:1 convert:1 roman:1 classical:1 greek:5 name:7 number:16 modern:2 english:5 word:8 refer:4 unspecified:2 large:10 quantity:2 term:4 progression:1 commonly:2 used:1 system:4 describe:1 use:11 ten:7 hundred:10 small:2 plus:2 remainder:1 example:1 seven:1 six:2 require:1 new:1 description:1 thus:2 seventeen:1 seventy:1 similarly:2 one:10 million:6 leave:1 ancient:3 also:4 bible:1 primarily:1 singular:2 cardinal:1 thousand:6 four:4 write:1 people:4 way:2 outside:3 noun:5 mean:1 follow:2 rule:1 phrase:2 however:2 case:1 originally:2 plural:3 size:1 either:1 adjective:2 correct:1 merriam:2 webster:2 note:1 recent:1 criticism:1 form:3 seem:1 reflect:1 mistaken:1 belief:1 still:2 properly:1 fact:1 old:2 date:1 century:1 appear:1 work:1 writer:1 milton:1 thoreau:1 continue:1 occur:1 frequently:1 reputable:1 reason:1 avoid:1 online:1 numbering:2 divide:2 group:2 three:2 digit:1 division:1 east:1 asian:1 chinese:5 japanese:5 korean:4 really:1 would:1 san:1 man:3 instead:1 next:1 uniquely:1 億:4 ekatommyrio:1 εκατομμύριο:1 disekatommyrio:1 twice:1 δισεκατομμύριο:1 archimedes:1 syracuse:1 basis:1 numeration:1 power:2 need:1 count:1 grain:1 sand:2 see:2 reckoner:1 slight:1 indication:1 myria:1 metric:2 prefix:2 e:1 g:1 kilometre:1 myriametre:3 official:1 status:1 si:1 sweden:1 norway:1 mile:5 metre:4 go:1 swedish:2 norwegian:1 change:1 make:2 equal:1 even:1 today:1 swede:1 normally:1 travel:1 distance:1 everyday:1 language:3 myriometre:1 great:1 britain:1 ordnance:1 survey:1 km:2 area:2 national:1 grid:1 hebrew:1 revava:1 רבבה:1 wàn:1 mandarin:1 cantonese:1 萬:3 万:3 만:1 square:2 yì:1 wànwàn:1 萬萬:1 text:1 oku:1 eok:1 억:1 pronounce:1 ohk:1 respectively:1 cubed:1 zhào:1 兆:2 chō:1 fourth:1 jīng:1 京:2 kei:1 conversely:1 single:1 cub:1 etc:1 unlike:1 many:1 european:1 origin:1 reference:1 numeral:1 indian:1 unit:1 yllion:1 |@bigram commonly_used:1 myriad_myriad:4 noun_adjective:1 merriam_webster:2 mistaken_belief:1 sand_reckoner:1 si_prefix:1 ordnance_survey:1 mandarin_cantonese:1 |
4,809 | JPEG | In computing, JPEG (, ) is a commonly used method of compression for photographic images. The degree of compression can be adjusted, allowing a selectable tradeoff between storage size and image quality. JPEG typically achieves 10:1 compression with little perceptible loss in image quality. JPEG compression is used in a number of image file formats. JPEG/Exif is the most common image format used by digital cameras and other photographic image capture devices; along with JPEG/JFIF, it is the most common format for storing and transmitting photographic images on the World Wide Web. These format variations are often not distinguished, and are simply called JPEG. The MIME media type for JPEG is image/jpeg (defined in RFC 1341). The JPEG standard The name "JPEG" stands for Joint Photographic Experts Group, the name of the committee that created the standard. The group was organized in 1986, issuing a standard in 1992, which was approved in 1994 as ISO 10918-1. The JPEG standard specifies both the codec, which defines how an image is compressed into a stream of bytes and decompressed back into an image, and the file format used to contain that stream. Typical usage The JPEG compression algorithm is at its best on photographs and paintings of realistic scenes with smooth variations of tone and color. For web usage, where the bandwidth used by an image is important, JPEG is very popular. JPEG/Exif is also the most common format saved by digital cameras. On the other hand, JPEG is not as well suited for line drawings and other textual or iconic graphics, where the sharp contrasts between adjacent pixels cause noticeable artifacts. Such images are better saved in a lossless graphics format such as TIFF, GIF, PNG, or a raw image format. JPEG is also not well suited to files that will undergo multiple edits, as some image quality will usually be lost each time the image is decompressed and recompressed, particularly if the image is cropped or shifted, or if encoding parameters are changed – see digital generation loss for details. To avoid this, an image that is being modified or may be modified in the future can be saved in a lossless format such as PNG, and a copy exported as JPEG for distribution. As JPEG is a lossy compression method, which removes information from the image, it must not be used in astronomical or medical imaging or other purposes where the exact reproduction of the data is required. Lossless formats such as PNG must be used instead. JPEG compression A chart showing the relative quality of various JPEG encoding settings and also compares saving a file as a JPEG normally and using Photoshop's "save for web" option The compression method is usually lossy, meaning that some original image information is lost and cannot be restored (possibly affecting image quality.) There are variations on the standard baseline JPEG that are lossless; however, these are not widely supported. There is also an interlaced "Progressive JPEG" format, in which data is compressed in multiple passes of progressively higher detail. This is ideal for large images that will be displayed while downloading over a slow connection, allowing a reasonable preview after receiving only a portion of the data. However, progressive JPEGs are not as widely supported, and even some software which does support them (such as some versions of Internet Explorer) only displays the image once it has been completely downloaded. There are also many medical imaging systems that create and process 12-bit JPEG images. The 12-bit JPEG format has been part of the JPEG specification for some time, but again, this format is not as widely supported. Lossless editing A number of alterations to a JPEG image can be performed losslessly (that is, without recompression and the associated quality loss) as long as the image size is a multiple 1 MCU block (Minimum Coded Unit) (usually 16 pixels in both directions, for 4:2:0 chroma subsampling). Utilities that implement this include jpegtran, with user interface Jpegcrop, and the JPG_TRANSFORM plugin to IrfanView. Blocks can be rotated in 90 degree increments, flipped in the horizontal, vertical and diagonal axes and moved about in the image. Not all blocks from the original image need to be used in the modified one. The top and left of a JPEG image must lie on a block boundary, but the bottom and right need not do so. This limits the possible lossless crop operations, and also what flips and rotates can be performed on an image whose edges do not lie on a block boundary for all channels. When using lossless cropping, if the bottom or right side of the crop region is not on a block boundary then the rest of the data from the partially used blocks will still be present in the cropped file and can be recovered relatively easily by anyone with a hex editor and an understanding of the format. It is also possible to transform between baseline and progressive formats without any loss of quality, since the only difference is the order in which the coefficients are placed in the file. JPEG files The file format is known as 'JPEG Interchange Format' (JIF), as specified in Annex B of the standard. However, this "pure" file format is rarely used, primarily because of the difficulty of programming encoders and decoders that fully implement all aspects of the standard and because of certain shortcomings of the standard: Color space definition Component sub-sampling registration Pixel aspect ratio definition Several additional standards have evolved to address these issues. The first of these, released in 1992, was JPEG File Interchange Format (or JFIF), followed in recent years by Exchangeable image file format (Exif) and ICC color profiles. There is some confusion between the original 'JPEG Interchange Format' (JIF) and the similarly titled 'JPEG File Interchange Format' (JFIF). In some ways JFIF is a cutdown version of the JIF standard in that it specifies certain constraints (such as standard color space), while in other ways it is an extension of JIF due to the standard Application Segment header. The documentation for the original JFIF standard states: http://www.w3.org/Graphics/JPEG/jfif3.pdf JFIF File Format as PDF JPEG File Interchange Format is a minimal file format which enables JPEG bitstreams to be exchanged between a wide variety of platforms and applications. This minimal format does not include any of the advanced features found in the TIFF JPEG specification or any application specific file format. Nor should it, for the only purpose of this simplified format is to allow the exchange of JPEG compressed images. Image files that employ JPEG compression are commonly called "JPEG files". Most image capture devices (such as digital cameras) and most image editing software programs that write to a "JPEG file" are actually creating a file in the JFIF and/or Exif format. (q. 14: "Why all the argument about file formats?") Strictly speaking, the JFIF and Exif standards are incompatible because they each specify that their header appears first. In practice, most JPEG files in Exif format contain a small JFIF header that precedes the Exif header. This allows older readers to correctly handle the older format JFIF header, while newer readers also decode the following Exif header. JPEG file extensions The most common filename extensions for files employing JPEG compression are .jpg and .jpeg, though .jpe, .jfif and .jif are also used. It is also possible for JPEG data to be embedded in other file types - TIFF encoded files often embed a JPEG image as a thumbnail of the main image. Color profile Many JPEG files embed an ICC color profile (color space). Commonly used color profiles include sRGB and Adobe RGB. Because these color spaces use a non-linear transformation, the dynamic range of an 8-bit JPEG file is about 11 stops. However, many applications are not able to deal with JPEG color profiles and simply ignore them. Syntax and structure A JPEG image consists of a sequence of segments, each beginning with a marker, each of which begins with a 0xFF byte followed by a byte indicating what kind of marker it is. Some markers consist of just those two bytes; others are followed by two bytes indicating the length of marker-specific payload data that follows. (The length includes the two bytes for the length, but not the two bytes for the marker.) Some markers are followed by entropy-coded data; the length of such a marker does not include the entropy-coded data. Note that consecutive 0xFF bytes are used as fill bytes for padding purposes (see JPEG specification section B.1.2.3 for details). Within the entropy-coded data, after any 0xFF byte, a 0x00 byte is inserted by the encoder before the next byte, so that there does not appear to be a marker where none is intended, preventing framing errors. Decoders must skip this 0x00 byte. This technique, called byte stuffing, is only applied to the entropy-coded data, not to marker payload data. + Common JPEG markers Short name Bytes Payload Name Comments SOI 0xFFD8 none Start Of Image SOF0 0xFFC0 variable size Start Of Frame (Baseline DCT) Indicates that this is a baseline DCT-based JPEG, and specifies the width, height, number of components, and component subsampling (e.g., 4:2:0). SOF2 0xFFC2 variable size Start Of Frame (Progressive DCT) Indicates that this is a progressive DCT-based JPEG, and specifies the width, height, number of components, and component subsampling (e.g., 4:2:0). DHT 0xFFC4 variable size Define Huffman Table(s) Specifies one or more Huffman tables. DQT 0xFFDB variable size Define Quantization Table(s) Specifies one or more quantization tables. DRI 0xFFDD 2 bytes Define Restart Interval Specifies the interval between RSTn markers, in macroblocks. This marker is followed by two bytes indicating the fixed size so it can be treated like any other variable size segment. SOS 0xFFDA variable size Start Of Scan Begins a top-to-bottom scan of the image. In baseline DCT JPEG images, there is generally a single scan. Progressive DCT JPEG images usually contain multiple scans. This marker specifies which slice of data it will contain, and is immediately followed by entropy-coded data. RSTn 0xFFD0 … 0xFFD7 none Restart Inserted every r macroblocks, where r is the restart interval set by a DRI marker. Not used if there was no DRI marker. The low 3 bits of the marker code, cycles from 0 to 7. APPn 0xFFEn variable size Application-specific For example, an Exif JPEG file uses an APP1 marker to store metadata, laid out in a structure based closely on TIFF. COM 0xFFFE variable size Comment Contains a text comment. EOI 0xFFD9 none End Of Image There are other Start Of Frame markers that introduce other kinds of JPEG. Since several vendors might use the same APPn marker type, application-specific markers often begin with a standard or vendor name (e.g., "Exif" or "Adobe") or some other identifying string. At a restart marker, block-to-block predictor variables are reset, and the bitstream is synchronized to a byte boundary. Restart markers provide means for recovery after bitstream error, such as transmission over an unreliable network or file corruption. Since the runs of macroblocks between restart markers may be independently decoded, these runs may be decoded in parallel. JPEG codec example Although a JPEG file can be encoded in various ways, most commonly it is done with JFIF encoding. The encoding process consists of several steps: The representation of the colors in the image is converted from RGB to YCbCr, consisting of one luma component (Y), representing brightness, and two chroma components, (Cb and Cr), representing color. This step is sometimes skipped. The resolution of the chroma data is reduced, usually by a factor of 2. This reflects the fact that the eye is less sensitive to fine color details than to fine brightness details. The image is split into blocks of 8×8 pixels, and for each block, each of the Y, Cb, and Cr data undergoes a discrete cosine transform (DCT). A DCT is similar to a Fourier transform in the sense that it produces a kind of spatial frequency spectrum. The amplitudes of the frequency components are quantized. Human vision is much more sensitive to small variations in color or brightness over large areas than to the strength of high-frequency brightness variations. Therefore, the magnitudes of the high-frequency components are stored with a lower accuracy than the low-frequency components. The quality setting of the encoder (for example 50 or 95 on a scale of 0–100 in the Independent JPEG Group's library ) affects to what extent the resolution of each frequency component is reduced. If an excessively low quality setting is used, the high-frequency components are discarded altogether. The resulting data for all 8×8 blocks is further compressed with a loss-less algorithm, a variant of Huffman encoding. The decoding process reverses these steps. In the remainder of this section, the encoding and decoding processes are described in more detail. Encoding Many of the options in the JPEG standard are not commonly used, and as mentioned above, most image software uses the simpler JFIF format when creating a JPEG file, which among other things specifies the encoding method. Here is a brief description of one of the more common methods of encoding when applied to an input that has 24 bits per pixel (eight each of red, green, and blue). This particular option is a lossy data compression method. Color space transformation First, the image should be converted from RGB into a different color space called YCbCr. It has three components Y, Cb and Cr: the Y component represents the brightness of a pixel, the Cb and Cr components represent the chrominance (split into blue and red components). This is the same color space as used by digital color television as well as digital video including video DVDs, and is similar to the way color is represented in analog PAL video and MAC but not by analog NTSC, which uses the YIQ color space. The YCbCr color space conversion allows greater compression without a significant effect on perceptual image quality (or greater perceptual image quality for the same compression). The compression is more efficient as the brightness information, which is more important to the eventual perceptual quality of the image, is confined to a single channel, more closely representing the human visual system. This conversion to YCbCr is specified in the JFIF standard, and should be performed for the resulting JPEG file to have maximum compatibility. However, some JPEG implementations in "highest quality" mode do not apply this step and instead keep the color information in the RGB color model, where the image is stored in separate channels for red, green and blue luminance. This results in less efficient compression, and would not likely be used if file size was an issue. Downsampling Due to the densities of color- and brightness-sensitive receptors in the human eye, humans can see considerably more fine detail in the brightness of an image (the Y component) than in the color of an image (the Cb and Cr components). Using this knowledge, encoders can be designed to compress images more efficiently. The transformation into the YCbCr color model enables the next step, which is to reduce the spatial resolution of the Cb and Cr components (called "downsampling" or "chroma subsampling"). The ratios at which the downsampling can be done on JPEG are 4:4:4 (no downsampling), 4:2:2 (reduce by factor of 2 in horizontal direction), and most commonly 4:2:0 (reduce by factor of 2 in horizontal and vertical directions). For the rest of the compression process, Y, Cb and Cr are processed separately and in a very similar manner. Block splitting After subsampling, each channel must be split into 8×8 blocks of pixels. Depending on chroma subsampling, this yields (Minimum Coded Unit) MCU blocks of size 8×8 (4:4:4 – no subsampling), 16×8 (4:2:2), or most commonly 16×16 (4:2:0). If the data for a channel does not represent an integer number of blocks then the encoder must fill the remaining area of the incomplete blocks with some form of dummy data. Filling the edge pixels with a fixed color (typically black) creates ringing artifacts along the visible part of the border; repeating the edge pixels is a common technique that reduces the visible border, but it can still create artifacts. Discrete cosine transform The 8×8 sub-image shown in 8-bit grayscale Next, each component (Y, Cb, Cr) of each 8×8 block is converted to a frequency-domain representation, using a normalized, two-dimensional type-II discrete cosine transform (DCT). As an example, one such 8×8 8-bit subimage might be: Before computing the DCT of the subimage, its gray values are shifted from a positive range to one centered around zero. For an 8-bit image each pixel has 256 possible values: . To center around zero it is necessary to subtract by half the number of possible values, or 128. Subtracting 128 from each pixel value yields pixel values on The next step is to take the two-dimensional DCT, which is given by: The DCT transforms 64 pixels to a linear combination of these 64 squares. Horizontally is and vertically is . where is the horizontal spatial frequency, for the integers . is the vertical spatial frequency, for the integers . is a normalizing function is the pixel value at coordinates is the DCT coefficient at coordinates If we perform this transformation on our matrix above, and then round to the nearest integer, we get Note the rather large value of the top-left corner. This is the DC coefficient. The remaining 63 coefficients are called the AC coefficients. The advantage of the DCT is its tendency to aggregate most of the signal in one corner of the result, as may be seen above. The quantization step to follow accentuates this effect while simultaneously reducing the overall size of the DCT coefficients, resulting in a signal that is easy to compress efficiently in the entropy stage. The DCT temporarily increases the bit-depth of the image, since the DCT coefficients of an 8-bit/component image take up to 11 or more bits (depending on fidelity of the DCT calculation) to store. This may force the codec to temporarily use 16-bit bins to hold these coefficients, doubling the size of the image representation at this point; they are typically reduced back to 8-bit values by the quantization step. The temporary increase in size at this stage is not a performance concern for most JPEG implementations, because typically only a very small part of the image is stored in full DCT form at any given time during the image encoding or decoding process. Quantization The human eye is good at seeing small differences in brightness over a relatively large area, but not so good at distinguishing the exact strength of a high frequency brightness variation. This allows one to greatly reduce the amount of information in the high frequency components. This is done by simply dividing each component in the frequency domain by a constant for that component, and then rounding to the nearest integer. This is the main lossy operation in the whole process. As a result of this, it is typically the case that many of the higher frequency components are rounded to zero, and many of the rest become small positive or negative numbers, which take many fewer bits to store. A typical quantization matrix, as specified in the original JPEG Standard The JPEG Still Picture Compression Standard, Summary by Gregory K. Wallace (Gzipped PostScript file) , is as follows: The quantized DCT coefficients are computed with where is the unquantized DCT coefficients; is the quantization matrix above; and is the quantized DCT coefficients. (Note that this is in no way matrix multiplication.) Using this quantization matrix with the DCT coefficient matrix from above results in: For example, using −415 (the DC coefficient) and rounding to the nearest integer Entropy coding Zigzag ordering of JPEG image components Entropy coding is a special form of lossless data compression. It involves arranging the image components in a "zigzag" order employing run-length encoding (RLE) algorithm that groups similar frequencies together, inserting length coding zeros, and then using Huffman coding on what is left. The JPEG standard also allows, but does not require, the use of arithmetic coding, which is mathematically superior to Huffman coding. However, this feature is rarely used as it is covered by patents and because it is much slower to encode and decode compared to Huffman coding. Arithmetic coding typically makes files about 5% smaller. The zigzag sequence for the above quantized coefficients are shown below. (The format shown is just for ease of understanding/viewing.) −26 −3 0 −3 −2 −6 2 −4 1 −4 1 1 5 1 2 −1 1 −1 2 0 0 0 0 0 −1 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 If the i-th block is represented by Bi and positions within each block are represented by (p,q) where p = 0, 1, ..., 7 and q = 0, 1, ..., 7, then any coefficient in the DCT image can be represented as Bi(p,q). Thus, in the above scheme, the order of encoding pixels (for the i-th block) is Bi(0,0), Bi(0,1), Bi(1,0), Bi(2,0), Bi(1,1), Bi(0,2), Bi(0,3), Bi(1,2) and so on. Baseline sequential JPEG encoding and decoding processes This encoding mode is called baseline sequential encoding. Baseline JPEG also supports progressive encoding. While sequential encoding encodes coefficients of a single block at a time (in a zigzag manner), progressive encoding encodes similar-positioned coefficients of all blocks in one go, followed by the next positioned coefficients of all blocks, and so on. So, if the image is divided into N 8×8 blocks {B0,B1,B2, ..., Bn-1}, then progressive encoding encodes Bi(0,0) for all blocks, i.e., for all i = 0, 1, 2, ..., N-1. This is followed by encoding Bi(0,1) coefficient of all blocks, followed by Bi(1,0)-th coefficient of all blocks, then Bi(2,0)-th coefficient of all blocks, and so on. It should be noted here that once all similar-positioned coefficients have been encoded, the next position to be encoded is the one occurring next in the zigzag traversal as indicated in the figure above. It has been found that Baseline Progressive JPEG encoding usually gives better compression as compared to Baseline Sequential JPEG due to the ability to use different Huffman tables (see below) tailored for different frequencies on each "scan" or "pass" (which includes similar-positioned coefficients), though the difference is not too large. In the rest of the article, it is assumed that the coefficient pattern generated is due to sequential mode. In order to encode the above generated coefficient pattern, JPEG uses Huffman encoding. JPEG has a special Huffman code word for ending the sequence prematurely when the remaining coefficients are zero. Using this special code word: "EOB", the sequence becomes: −26 −3 0 −3 −2 −6 2 −4 1 −4 1 1 5 1 2 −1 1 −1 2 0 0 0 0 0 −1 −1 EOB JPEG's other code words represent combinations of (a) the number of significant bits of a coefficient, including sign, and (b) the number of consecutive zero coefficients that follow it. (Once you know how many bits to expect, it takes 1 bit to represent the choices {-1, +1}, 2 bits to represent the choices {-3, -2, +2, +3}, and so forth.) In our example block, most of the quantized coefficients are small numbers that are not followed immediately by a zero coefficient. These more-frequent cases will be represented by shorter code words. The JPEG standard provides general-purpose Huffman tables; encoders may also choose to generate Huffman tables optimized for the actual frequency distributions in images being encoded. Compression ratio and artifacts This image shows the pixels that are different between a non-compressed image and the same image JPEG compressed with a quality setting of 50. Darker means a larger difference. Note especially the changes occurring near sharp edges and having a block-like shape. The compressed 8×8-squares are visible in the scaled up picture, together with other visual artifacts of the lossy compression. The resulting compression ratio can be varied according to need by being more or less aggressive in the divisors used in the quantization phase. Ten to one compression usually results in an image that cannot be distinguished by eye from the original. 100 to one compression is usually possible, but will look distinctly artifacted compared to the original. The appropriate level of compression depends on the use to which the image will be put. Those who use the World Wide Web may be familiar with the irregularities known as compression artifacts (commonly known as 'jaggies') that appear in JPEG images. These are due to the quantization step of the JPEG algorithm. They are especially noticeable around sharp corners between contrasting colours (text is a good example as it contains many such corners). They can be reduced by choosing a lower level of compression; they may be eliminated by saving an image using a lossless file format, though for photographic images this will usually result in a larger file size. Compression artifacts make low-quality JPEGs unacceptable for storing heightmaps. The images created with ray-tracing programs have noticeable blocky shapes on the terrain. Compression artifacts are acceptable when the images are used for visualization purpose. Unfortunately subsequent processing of these images usually result in unacceptable artifacts. Image Lossless Compression Lossy Compression Original Processed byCanny edge detector Some programs allow the user to vary the amount by which individual blocks are compressed. Stronger compression is applied to areas of the image that show fewer artifacts. This way it is possible to manually reduce JPEG file size with less loss of quality. Since the quantization stage always results in a loss of information, JPEG standard is always a lossy compression codec. (Information is lost both in quantizing and rounding of the floating-point numbers.) Even if the quantization matrix is a matrix of ones, information will still be lost in the rounding step. Decoding Decoding to display the image consists of doing all the above in reverse. Taking the DCT coefficient matrix (after adding the difference of the DC coefficient back in) and taking the entry-for-entry product with the quantization matrix from above results in which closely resembles the original DCT coefficient matrix for the top-left portion. Taking the inverse DCT (type-III DCT) results in an image with values (still shifted down by 128) and adding 128 to each entry This is the uncompressed subimage and can be compared to the original subimage (also see images to the right) by taking the difference (original − uncompressed) results in error values with an average absolute error of about 5 values per pixels (i.e., ). The error is most noticeable in the bottom-left corner where the bottom-left pixel becomes darker than the pixel to its immediate right. Required precision The JPEG encoding does not fix the precision needed for the output compressed image. On the contrary, the JPEG standard (as well as the derived MPEG standards) have very strict precision requirements for the decoding, including all parts of the decoding process (variable length decoding, inverse DCT, dequantization, renormalization of outputs); the output from the reference algorithm must not exceed: a maximum 1 bit of difference for each pixel component low mean square error over each 8×8-pixel block very low mean error over each 8×8-pixel block very low mean square error over the whole image extremely low mean error over the whole image These assertions are tested on a large set of randomized input images, to handle the worst cases. Look at the IEEE 1180-1990 standard for reference. This has a consequence on the implementation of decoders, and it is extremely critical because some encoding processes (notably used for encoding sequences of images like MPEG) need to be able to construct, on the encoder side, a reference decoded image. In order to support 8-bit precision per pixel component output, dequantization and inverse DCT transforms are typically implemented with at least 14-bit precision in optimized decoders. Effects of JPEG compression JPEG compression artifacts blend well into photographs with detailed non-uniform textures, allowing higher compression ratios. Notice how a higher compression ratio first affects the high-frequency textures in the upper-left corner of the image, and how the contrasting lines become more fuzzy. The very high compression ratio severely affects the quality of the image, although the overall colors and image form are still recognizable. However, the precision of colors suffer less (for a human eye) than the precision of contours (based on luminance). This justifies the fact that images should be first transformed in a color model separating the luminance from the chromatic information, before subsampling the chromatic planes (which may also use lower quality quantization) in order to preserve the precision of the luminance plane with more information bits. Sample photographs For information, the uncompressed 24-bit RGB bitmap image below (73,242 pixels) would require 219,726 bytes (excluding all other information headers). The filesizes indicated below include the internal JPEG information headers and some meta-data. For full quality images (Q=100), about 8.25 bits per color pixel is required. On grayscale images, a minimum of 6.5 bits per pixel is enough (a comparable Q=100 quality color information requires about 25% more encoded bits). The full quality image below (Q=100) is encoded at 9 bits per color pixel, the medium quality image (Q=25) uses 1 bit per color pixel. For most applications, the quality factor should not go below 0.75 bit per pixel (Q=12.5), as demonstrated by the low quality image. The image at lowest quality uses only 0.13 bit per pixel, and displays very poor color, it could only be usable after subsampling to a much lower display size. {| class="wikitable" |+ align="bottom"| NOTE: The above images are not IEEE / CCIR / EBU test images, and the encoder settings are not specified or available. |- ! Image !! Quality !! Size (bytes) !! Compression Ratio !! Comment |- | Image:JPEG example JPG RIP 100.jpg | Full quality (Q = 100) | 83,261 | 2.6:1 | Extremely minor artifacts |- | Image:JPEG example JPG RIP 050.jpg | Average quality (Q = 50) | 15,138 | 15:1 | Initial signs of subimage artifacts |- | Image:JPEG example JPG RIP 025.jpg | Medium quality (Q = 25) | 9,553 | 23:1 | Stronger artifacts; loss of high resolution information |- | Image:JPEG example JPG RIP 010.jpg | Low quality (Q = 10) | 4,787 | 46:1 | Severe high frequency loss; artifacts on subimage boundaries ("macroblocking") are obvious |- | Image:JPEG example JPG RIP 001.jpg | Lowest quality (Q = 1) | 1,523 | 144:1 | Extreme loss of color and detail; the leaves are nearly unrecognizable |} The medium quality photo uses only 4.3% of the storage space but has little noticeable loss of detail or visible artifacts. However, once a certain threshold of compression is passed, compressed images show increasingly visible defects. See the article on rate distortion theory for a mathematical explanation of this threshold effect. Lossless further compression From 2004 to 2008, new research has emerged on ways to further compress the data contained in JPEG images without modifying the represented image. I. Bauermann and E. Steinbacj. Further Lossless Compression of JPEG Images. Proc. of Picture Coding Symposium (PCS 2004), San Francisco, USA, December 15–17, 2004. N. Ponomarenko, K. Egiazarian, V. Lukin and J. Astola. Additional Lossless Compression of JPEG Images, Proc. of the 4th Intl. Symposium on Image and Signal Processing and Analysis (ISPA 2005), Zagreb, Croatia, pp.117–120, September 15–17, 2005. M. Stirner and G. Seelmann. Improved Redundancy Reduction for JPEG Files. Proc. of Picture Coding Symposium (PCS 2007), Lisbon, Portugal, November 7–9, 2007 Ichiro Matsuda, Yukio Nomoto, Kei Wakabayashi and Susumu Itoh. Lossless Re-encoding of JPEG images using block-adaptive intra prediction. Proceedings of the 16th European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO 2008). This has applications in scenarios where the original image is only available in JPEG format, and its size needs to be reduced for archival or transmission. Standard general-purpose compression tools cannot significantly compress JPEG files. Typically, such schemes take advantage of improvements to the naive scheme for coding DCT coefficients, which fails to take into account: Correlations between magnitudes of adjacent coefficients in the same block; Correlations between magnitudes of the same coefficient in adjacent blocks; Correlations between magnitudes of the same coefficient/block in different channels; The DC coefficients when taken together resemble a downscale version of the original image multiplied by a scaling factor. Well-known schemes for lossless coding of continuous-tone images can be applied, achieving somewhat better compression than the Huffman coded DPCM used in JPEG. Some standard but rarely-used options already exist in JPEG to improve the efficiency of coding DCT coefficients: the arithmetic coding option, and the progressive coding option (which produces lower bitrates because values for each coefficient are coded independently, and each coefficient has a significantly different distribution). Modern methods have improved on these techniques by reordering coefficients to group coefficients of larger magnitude together; using adjacent coefficients and blocks to predict new coefficient values; dividing blocks or coefficients up among a small number of independently coded models based on their statistics and adjacent values; and most recently, by decoding blocks, predicting subsequent blocks in the spatial domain, and then encoding these to generate predictions for DCT coefficients. Typically, such methods can compress existing JPEG files between 15 and 25 percent, and for JPEGs compressed at low-quality settings, can produce improvements of up to 65%. A freely-available tool called packJPG is based on the 2007 paper "Improved Redundancy Reduction for JPEG Files." There are also at least two companies selling proprietary tools with similar capabilities, Infima's JPACK and Smith Micro Software's StuffIt, both of which claim to have pending patents on their respective technologies. Derived formats JPEG Stereoscopic (JPS, extension .jps) is a JPEG-based format for stereoscopic images. It contains two images of identical size side by side, one for each eye. J. Siragusa, D. C. Swift, “General Purpose Stereoscopic Data Descriptor”, VRex, Inc., Elmsford, New York, USA, 1997. Tim Kemp, JPS files Patent issues In 2002 Forgent Networks asserted that it owned and would enforce patent rights on the JPEG technology, arising from a patent that had been filed on October 27, 1986, and granted on October 6, 1987 (). The announcement created a furor reminiscent of Unisys' attempts to assert its rights over the GIF image compression standard. The JPEG committee investigated the patent claims in 2002 and were of the opinion that they were invalidated by prior art. Concerning recent patent claims Others also concluded that Forgent did not have a patent that covered JPEG. JPEG and JPEG2000 - Between Patent Quarrel and Change of Technology (Archive) Nevertheless, between 2002 and 2004 Forgent was able to obtain about US$105 million by licensing their patent to some 30 companies. In April 2004, Forgent sued 31 other companies to enforce further license payments. In July of the same year, a consortium of 21 large computer companies filed a countersuit, with the goal of invalidating the patent. In addition, Microsoft launched a separate lawsuit against Forgent in April 2005. In February 2006, the United States Patent and Trademark Office agreed to re-examine Forgent's JPEG patent at the request of the Public Patent Foundation. On May 26, 2006 the USPTO found the patent invalid based on prior art. The USPTO also found that Forgent knew about the prior art, and did not tell the Patent Office, making any appeal to reinstate the patent highly unlikely to succeed. Forgent also possesses a similar patent granted by the European Patent Office in 1994, though it is unclear how enforceable it is. Coding System for Reducing Redundancy As of October 27, 2006, the U.S. patent's 20-year term appears to have expired, and in November 2006, Forgent agreed to abandon enforcement of patent claims against use of the JPEG standard. The JPEG committee has as one of its explicit goals that their standards (in particular their baseline methods) be implementable without payment of license fees, and they have secured appropriate license rights for their upcoming JPEG 2000 standard from over 20 large organizations. Beginning in August 2007, another company, Global Patent Holdings, LLC claimed that its patent (), is infringed by the downloading of JPEG images on either a website or through e-mail. If not invalidated, this patent could apply to any website that displays JPEG images. The patent emerged in July 2007 following a seven-year reexamination by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office in which all of the original claims of the patent were revoked, but an additional claim (claim 17) was confirmed. Ex Parte Reexamination Certificate for U.S. Patent No. 5,253,341 In its first two lawsuits following the reexamination, both filed in Chicago, Illinois, Global Patent Holdings sued the Green Bay Packers, CDW, Motorola, Apple, Orbitz, Officemax, Caterpillar, Kraft and Peapod as defendants. A third lawsuit was filed on December 5, 2007 in Southern Florida against ADT Security Services, AutoNation, Florida Crystals Corp., HearUSA, MovieTickets.com, Ocwen Financial Corp. and Tire Kingdom, and a fourth lawsuit on January 8, 2008 in Southern Florida against the Boca Raton Resort & Club. A fifth lawsuit was filed against Global Patent Holdings in Nevada. That lawsuit was filed by Zappos.com, Inc., who was allegedly threatened by Global Patent Holdings, and seeks a judicial declaration that the '341 patent is invalid and not infringed. The patent owner has also used the patent to sue or threaten outspoken critics of broad software patents, including Gregory Aharonian Rozmanith: Using Software Patents to Silence Critics and the anonymous operator of a website blog known as the "Patent Troll Tracker." A Bounty of $5,000 to Name Troll Tracker: Ray Niro Wants To Know Who Is saying All Those Nasty Things About Him On December 21, 2007, patent lawyer Vernon Francissen of Chicago asked the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office to reexamine the sole remaining claim of the '341 patent on the basis of new prior art. Hunting trolls: USPTO asked to reexamine broad image patent On March 5, 2008, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office agreed to reexamine the '341 patent, finding that the new prior art raised substantial new questions regarding the patent's validity. U.S. Patent Office - Granting Reexamination on 5,253,341 C1 In light of the reexamination, the accused infringers in four of the five pending lawsuits have filed motions to suspend (stay) their cases until completion of the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office's review of the '341 patent. On April 23, 2008, a judge presiding over the two lawsuits in Chicago, Illinois granted the motions in those cases. Judge Puts JPEG Patent On Ice On July 22, 2008, the Patent Office issued the first "Office Action" of the second reexamination, finding the claim invalid based on nineteen separate grounds. JPEG Patent's Single Claim Rejected (And Smacked Down For Good Measure) Standards JPEG (lossy and lossless): ITU-T T.81, ISO/IEC IS 10918-1 JPEG (extensions): ITU-T T.84 JPEG-LS (lossless, improved): ITU-T T.87, ISO/IEC IS 14495-1 JBIG (black and white pictures): ITU-T T.82, ISO/IEC IS 11544-1 JPEG 2000 (successor of JPEG/JPEG-LS): ITU-T T.800, ISO/IEC IS 15444-1 JPEG-2000 (extensions): ITU-T T.801 JPEG XR (formerly called HD Photo) undergoing final voting as ISO/IEC 29199-2 See also Image compression Image file formats Comparison of graphics file formats Windows Picture and Fax Viewer Exchangeable image file format (Exif) JPEG File Interchange Format (JFIF) Design rule for Camera File system (DCF) JPEG 2000 Motion JPEG Graphics editing program GDI+ vulnerability section of GDI article, exploitable bug in JPEG handling code of GDI+ library Comparison of layout engines (graphics) Generation loss PGF PNG Lossless Image Codec FELICS C-Cube an early implementer of JPEG in chip form Libjpeg of Independent JPEG Group Deblocking filter (video), the similar deblocking methods could be applied to JPEG Lenna, the traditional standard image used to test image processing algorithms References External links JPEG Standard (JPEG ISO/IEC 10918-1 ITU-T Recommendation T.81) at W3.org Official Joint Photographic Experts Group site JFIF File Format at W3.org Wotsit.org's entry on the JPEG format Example images over the full range of quantization levels from 1 to 100 at visengi.com | JPEG |@lemmatized compute:3 jpeg:138 commonly:8 use:54 method:10 compression:47 photographic:6 image:130 degree:2 adjust:1 allow:9 selectable:1 tradeoff:1 storage:2 size:22 quality:33 typically:9 achieve:2 little:2 perceptible:1 loss:12 number:12 file:57 format:44 exif:11 common:7 digital:6 camera:4 capture:2 device:2 along:2 jfif:16 store:8 transmit:1 world:2 wide:3 web:4 variation:6 often:3 distinguish:3 simply:3 call:9 mime:1 medium:4 type:5 define:5 rfc:1 standard:34 name:6 stand:1 joint:2 expert:2 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4,810 | Celtic_languages | The Celtic languages are descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic", a branch of the greater Indo-European language family. The term "Celtic" was used to describe this language group by Edward Lhuyd in 1707, having much earlier been used by Greek and Roman writers to describe tribes in central Gaul. During the 1st millennium BC, they were spoken across Europe, from the Bay of Biscay and the North Sea, up the Rhine and down the Danube to the Black Sea and the Upper Balkan Peninsula, and into Asia Minor (Galatia). Today, Celtic languages are limited to a few areas in Great Britain, the Isle of Man, Ireland, Cape Breton Island, Patagonia, and on the peninsula of Brittany in France. The spread to Cape Breton and Patagonia occurred in modern times. In all areas the Celtic languages are now only spoken by minorities. Although Celtic languages were spoken in Australia before federation in 1901, these have died out. Divisions Proto-Celtic apparently divided into four sub-families: Gaulish and its close relatives Lepontic, Noric, and Galatian. These languages were once spoken in a wide arc from France to Turkey and from Belgium to northern Italy. They are now all extinct. Celtiberian, anciently spoken in the Iberian peninsula, Ethnographic Map of Pre-Roman Iberia (circa 200 B.C.) in the areas of modern Northern Portugal, and Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, Aragón, and León in Spain. Lusitanian may also have been a Celtic language. These are now also extinct. Goidelic, including Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx. At one time there were Irish on the coast of southwest England and on the coast of north and south Wales. Brythonic (also called British or Brittonic), including Welsh, Breton, Cornish, Cumbric, the hypothetical Ivernic, and possibly also Pictish though this may be a sister language rather than a daughter of Common Brythonic. The late Kenneth Jackson proposed a non-Indo-European Pictish language existing alongside a Pretenic one. This is no longer accepted by some scholars. See Katherine Forsyth's "Language in Pictland : the case against 'non-Indo-European Pictish'" . See also the introduction by James & Taylor to the "Index of Celtic and Other Elements in W.J.Watson's 'The History of the Celtic Place-names of Scotland'" . Compare also the treatment of Pictish in Price's The Languages of Britain (1984) with his Languages in Britain & Ireland (2000). Before the arrival of Scotti on the Isle of Man in the 9th century there may have been a Brythonic language in the Isle of Man. Kenneth Jackson used the term "Brittonic" for the form of the British language after the changes in the 6th century. Scholarly handling of the Celtic languages has been rather argumentative owing to lack of much primary source data. Some scholars distinguish Continental Celtic and Insular Celtic, arguing that the differences between the Goidelic and Brythonic languages arose after these split off from the Continental Celtic languages. Other scholars distinguish P-Celtic from Q-Celtic, putting most of the Continental Celtic languages in the former group (except for Celtiberian, which is Q-Celtic). The P-Celtic languages (also called Gallo-Brittonic) are sometimes seen as a central innovating area as opposed to the more conservative peripheral Q-Celtic languages. The Breton language is Brythonic, not Gaulish, though there may be some input from the latter. When the Anglo-Saxons moved into Great Britain, several waves of the native Brythons or "Welsh" (from a Germanic word for "foreigners") crossed the English Channel and landed in Brittany. They brought their Brythonic language with them, which evolved into Breton – which is still partially intelligible with Modern Welsh and Cornish. In the P/Q classification scheme the first language to split off from Proto-Celtic was Gaelic. It has characteristics that some scholars see as archaic but others see as also being in the Brythonic languages (see Schmidt). With the Insular/Continental classification scheme the split of the former into Gaelic and Brythonic is seen as being late. The distinction of Celtic into these four sub-families most likely occurred about 900 BC according to Gray and Atkinson but, because of estimation uncertainty, it could be any time between 1200 and 800 BC. However, they only considered Gaelic and Brythonic. The controversial paper by Forster and Toth included Gaulish and put the break-up much earlier at 3200 BC ± 1500 years. They support the Insular Celtic hypothesis. The early Celts were commonly associated with the archaeological Urnfield culture, the Hallstatt culture, and the La Tène culture, though the earlier assumption of association between language and culture is now considered to be less strong. Pronunciation The term Celtic is pronounced either or , but is more common, as the word Celtic is derived from the Greek, Keltoi. The term is sometimes spelled either Keltic or Celtick in old documents. Classifications The Celtic nations where most Celtic speakers are now concentrated There are two main competing schemata of categorization. The older scheme, argued for by Schmidt (1988) among others, links Gaulish with Brythonic in a P-Celtic node, originally leaving just Goidelic as Q-Celtic. The difference between P and Q languages is the treatment of Proto-Celtic *kw, which became *p in the P-Celtic languages but *k in Goidelic. An example is the Proto-Celtic verb root *kwrin- "to buy", which became pryn- in Welsh but cren- in Old Irish. However, a classification based on a single feature is seen as risky by its critics, particularly as the sound change occurs in other language groups (Oscan and Greek). The other scheme, defended for example by McCone (1996), links Goidelic and Brythonic together as an Insular Celtic branch, while Gaulish and Celtiberian are referred to as Continental Celtic. According to this theory, the "P-Celtic" sound change of to occurred independently or areally. The proponents of the Insular Celtic hypothesis point to other shared innovations among Insular Celtic languages, including inflected prepositions, VSO word order, and the lenition of intervocalic to , a nasalized voiced bilabial fricative (an extremely rare sound). There is, however, no assumption that the Continental Celtic languages descend from a common "Proto-Continental Celtic" ancestor. Rather, the Insular/Continental schemata usually considers Celtiberian the first branch to split from Proto-Celtic, and the remaining group would later have split into Gaulish and Insular Celtic. There are legitimate scholarly arguments in favour of both the Insular Celtic hypothesis and the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic hypothesis. Proponents of each schema dispute the accuracy and usefulness of the other's categories. However, since the 1970s the division into Insular and Continental Celtic has become the more widely held view (Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; Schrijver 1995). When referring only to the modern Celtic languages, since no Continental Celtic language has living descendants, "Q-Celtic" is equivalent to "Goidelic" and "P-Celtic" is equivalent to "Brythonic". Within the Indo-European family, the Celtic languages have sometimes been placed with the Italic languages in a common Italo-Celtic subfamily, a hypothesis that is now largely discarded, in favour of the assumption of language contact between pre-Celtic and pre-Italic communities. How the family tree of the Celtic languages is ordered depends on which hypothesis is used - Insular/Continental hypothesis Proto-Celtic or Common Celtic Continental Celtic Gaulish Lepontic Noric Galatian Celtiberian Insular Celtic Goidelic Primitive Irish Old Irish Middle Irish Irish Scottish Gaelic Manx Brythonic Pictish British Cumbric Old Welsh Middle Welsh Welsh Southwestern Brythonic Breton Cornish P-Celtic/Q-Celtic hypothesis Proto-Celtic or Common Celtic P-Celtic Gaulish Lepontic Noric Galatian Brythonic Cumbric Pictish Old Welsh Middle Welsh Welsh Southwestern Brythonic Breton Cornish Q-Celtic Celtiberian Goidelic Primitive Irish Old Irish Middle Irish Irish Scottish Gaelic Manx Characteristics of Celtic languages Although there are many differences between the individual Celtic languages, they do show many family resemblances. While none of these characteristics is necessarily unique to the Celtic languages, there are few if any other languages which possess them all. They include: consonant mutations (Insular Celtic only) inflected prepositions (Insular Celtic only) two grammatical genders (modern Insular Celtic only; Old Irish and the Continental languages had three genders) a vigesimal number system (counting by twenties) verb-subject-object (VSO) word order (probably Insular Celtic only) an interplay between the subjunctive, future, imperfect, and habitual, to the point that some tenses and moods have ousted others an impersonal or autonomous verb form serving as a passive or intransitive Welsh dysgaf "I teach" vs. dysgir "is taught, one teaches", Irish "déanaim" "I do/make" vs. "déantar" "is done" no infinitives, replaced by a quasi-nominal verb form called the verbal noun or verbnoun frequent use of vowel mutation as a morphological device, e.g. formation of plurals, verbal stems, etc. use of preverbal particles to signal either subordination or illocutionary force of the following clause mutation-distinguished subordinators/relativizers particles for negation, interrogation, and occasionally for affirmative declarations infixed pronouns positioned between particles and verbs lack of simple verb for the imperfective "have" process, with possession conveyed by a composite structure, usually BE + preposition use of periphrastic phrases to express verbal tense, voice, or aspectual distinctions distinction by function of the two versions of BE verbs traditionally labelled substantive (or existential) and copula bifurcated demonstrative structure suffixed pronominal supplements, called confirming or supplementary pronouns use of singulars and/or special forms of counted nouns, and use of a singulative suffix to make singular forms from plurals, where older singulars have disappeared Examples: (Irish) Ná bac le mac an bhacaigh is ní bhacfaidh mac an bhacaigh leat. (Literal translation) Don't bother with son the beggar's and not will-bother son the beggar's with-you. bhacaigh is the genitive of bacach. The igh the result of affection; the bh is the lenited form of b. leat is the second person singular inflected form of the preposition le. The order is verb subject object (VSO) in the second half - compare this to English or French which are normally Subject Verb Object in word order. (Welsh) pedwar ar bymtheg a phedwar ugain (literally) four on fifteen and four twenties bymtheg is a mutated form of pymtheg, which is pump ("five") plus deg ("ten"). Likewise, phedwar is a mutated form of pedwar. The multiples of ten are deg, ugain, deg ar hugain, deugain, hanner cant, trigain, deg a thrigain, pedwar ugain, deg a phedwar ugain, cant. Mixed languages Bungee language, a Métis mix of Scottish Gaelic, Cree and other languages. Shelta, a mix of the Irish, English and Romany languages. Some forms of Romany language in Wales, also combined Romany itself with Welsh language and English language forms. Notes References Ball, Martin J. & James Fife (ed.) (1993). The Celtic Languages. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415010357. Borsley, Robert D. & Ian Roberts (ed.) (1996). The Syntax of the Celtic Languages: A Comparative Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521481600. Celtic Linguistics, 1700-1850 (2000). London; New York: Routledge. 8 vol.s comprising 15 texts originally published between 1706 and 1844. Forster, Peter and Toth, Alfred. Towards a phylogenetic chronology of ancient Gaulish, Celtic and Indo-European PNAS Vol 100/13, July 22, 2003. Gray, Russell and Atkinson, Quintin. Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin Nature Vol 426, 27 Nov 2003. Hindley, Reg (1990). The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415043395. Lewis, Henry & Holger Pedersen (1989). A Concise Comparative Celtic Grammar. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 3525261020. Russell, Paul (1995). An Introduction to the Celtic Languages. London; New York: Longman. ISBN 0582100828. See also Language families and languages Celtic League (political organisation) Celtic Congress External links Aberdeen University Celtic Department Ethnologue report for Celtic languages Ethnologue report for Indo-European languages "Labara: An Introduction to the Celtic Languages", by Meredith Richard Celts and Celtic Languages | Celtic_languages |@lemmatized celtic:83 language:60 descend:2 proto:9 common:7 branch:3 great:3 indo:7 european:7 family:7 term:4 use:9 describe:2 group:4 edward:1 lhuyd:1 much:3 earlier:1 greek:3 roman:2 writer:1 tribe:1 central:2 gaul:1 millennium:1 bc:4 speak:5 across:1 europe:1 bay:1 biscay:1 north:2 sea:2 rhine:1 danube:1 black:1 upper:1 balkan:1 peninsula:3 asia:1 minor:1 galatia:1 today:1 limit:1 area:4 britain:4 isle:3 man:3 ireland:2 cape:2 breton:7 island:1 patagonia:2 brittany:2 france:2 spread:1 occur:4 modern:5 time:4 minority:1 although:2 australia:1 federation:1 die:1 division:2 apparently:1 divide:1 four:4 sub:2 gaulish:9 close:1 relative:1 lepontic:3 noric:3 galatian:3 wide:1 arc:1 turkey:1 belgium:1 northern:2 italy:1 extinct:2 celtiberian:6 anciently:1 iberian:1 ethnographic:1 map:1 pre:3 iberia:1 circa:1 b:2 c:1 portugal:1 galicia:1 asturias:1 cantabria:1 aragón:1 león:1 spain:1 lusitanian:1 may:4 also:10 goidelic:8 include:5 irish:16 scottish:4 gaelic:7 manx:3 one:3 coast:2 southwest:1 england:1 south:1 wale:2 brythonic:16 call:4 british:3 brittonic:3 welsh:13 cornish:4 cumbric:3 hypothetical:1 ivernic:1 possibly:1 pictish:6 though:3 sister:1 rather:3 daughter:1 late:2 kenneth:2 jackson:2 propose:1 non:2 exist:1 alongside:1 pretenic:1 longer:1 accept:1 scholar:4 see:9 katherine:1 forsyth:1 pictland:1 case:1 introduction:3 james:2 taylor:1 index:1 element:1 w:1 j:2 watson:1 history:1 place:2 name:1 scotland:1 compare:2 treatment:2 price:1 arrival:1 scotti:1 century:2 form:11 change:3 scholarly:2 handling:1 argumentative:1 owe:1 lack:2 primary:1 source:1 data:1 distinguish:3 continental:13 insular:16 argue:2 difference:3 arise:1 split:5 p:12 q:10 put:2 former:2 except:1 gallo:1 sometimes:3 innovate:1 oppose:1 conservative:1 peripheral:1 input:1 latter:1 anglo:1 saxon:1 move:1 several:1 wave:1 native:1 brythons:1 germanic:1 word:5 foreigner:1 cross:1 english:4 channel:1 land:1 bring:1 evolve:1 still:1 partially:1 intelligible:1 classification:4 scheme:4 first:2 characteristic:3 archaic:1 others:3 schmidt:2 distinction:3 likely:1 accord:2 gray:2 atkinson:2 estimation:1 uncertainty:1 could:1 however:4 consider:3 controversial:1 paper:1 forster:2 toth:2 break:1 early:3 year:1 support:2 hypothesis:8 celt:2 commonly:1 associate:1 archaeological:1 urnfield:1 culture:4 hallstatt:1 la:1 tène:1 assumption:3 association:1 less:1 strong:1 pronunciation:1 pronounce:1 either:3 derive:1 keltoi:1 spell:1 keltic:1 celtick:1 old:9 document:1 nation:1 speaker:1 concentrate:1 two:3 main:1 compete:1 schema:3 categorization:1 among:2 link:3 node:1 originally:2 leave:1 kw:1 become:3 k:1 example:3 verb:7 root:1 kwrin:1 buy:1 pryn:1 cren:1 base:1 single:1 feature:1 risky:1 critic:1 particularly:1 sound:3 oscan:1 defend:1 mccone:2 together:1 refer:2 theory:2 independently:1 areally:1 proponent:2 point:2 shared:1 innovation:1 inflected:1 preposition:4 vso:3 order:4 lenition:1 intervocalic:1 nasalized:1 voiced:1 bilabial:1 fricative:1 extremely:1 rare:1 ancestor:1 usually:2 remain:1 would:1 later:1 legitimate:1 argument:1 favour:2 dispute:1 accuracy:1 usefulness:1 category:1 since:2 widely:1 hold:1 view:1 cowgill:1 schrijver:1 live:1 descendant:1 equivalent:2 within:1 italic:2 italo:1 subfamily:1 largely:1 discard:1 contact:1 community:1 tree:2 ordered:1 depends:1 primitive:2 middle:4 southwestern:2 many:2 individual:1 show:1 resemblance:1 none:1 necessarily:1 unique:1 possess:1 consonant:1 mutation:3 inflect:2 grammatical:1 gender:2 three:1 vigesimal:1 number:1 system:1 count:1 twenty:2 subject:3 object:3 probably:1 interplay:1 subjunctive:1 future:1 imperfect:1 habitual:1 tense:2 mood:1 oust:1 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result:1 affection:1 bh:1 lenited:1 second:2 person:1 half:1 french:1 normally:1 pedwar:3 ar:2 bymtheg:2 phedwar:3 ugain:4 literally:1 fifteen:1 mutated:2 pymtheg:1 pump:1 five:1 plus:1 deg:5 ten:2 likewise:1 multiple:1 hugain:1 deugain:1 hanner:1 cant:2 trigain:1 thrigain:1 mixed:1 bungee:1 métis:1 mix:2 cree:1 shelta:1 romany:3 combine:1 note:1 reference:1 ball:1 martin:1 fife:1 ed:2 london:4 routledge:3 isbn:5 borsley:1 robert:2 ian:1 syntax:1 comparative:2 perspective:1 cambridge:2 university:2 press:1 linguistics:1 new:3 york:3 vol:3 comprise:1 text:1 publish:1 peter:1 alfred:1 towards:1 phylogenetic:1 chronology:1 ancient:1 pnas:1 july:1 russell:2 quintin:1 divergence:1 anatolian:1 origin:1 nature:1 nov:1 hindley:1 reg:1 death:1 qualified:1 obituary:1 lewis:1 henry:1 holger:1 pedersen:1 concise:1 grammar:1 gottingen:1 vandenhoeck:1 ruprecht:1 paul:1 longman:1 league:1 political:1 organisation:1 congress:1 external:1 aberdeen:1 department:1 ethnologue:2 report:2 labara:1 meredith:1 richard:1 |@bigram proto_celtic:8 indo_european:7 edward_lhuyd:1 millennium_bc:1 bay_biscay:1 rhine_danube:1 balkan_peninsula:1 cape_breton:2 iberian_peninsula:1 scottish_gaelic:4 gaelic_manx:3 welsh_breton:1 breton_cornish:3 insular_celtic:12 anglo_saxon:1 hallstatt_culture:1 la_tène:1 tène_culture:1 bilabial_fricative:1 italo_celtic:1 southwestern_brythonic:2 grammatical_gender:1 literal_translation:1 vandenhoeck_ruprecht:1 external_link:1 |
4,811 | Gotland_County | Gotland County (Gotlands län) is a county or län of Sweden. Gotland is located in the Baltic sea to the east of Öland, and is the largest of Sweden's islands. Counties are usually sub-divided into municipalities, but Gotland County only consists of one municipality: Gotland Municipality. The difference between the two are only at an administrative level, as the county council and municipal council serve different tasks. Both have their seat in the largest city Visby, with 22,000 inhabitants. Province Sweden's counties are mainly administrative units, used for inhabitant figures, politics, etc. For the culture and history of the island, see article Gotland. In this case the province, the county and the municipality all have identical borders. Administration The main aim of the County Administrative Board is to fulfil the goals set in national politics by the Parliament and the Government, to coordinate the interests and promote the development of the county, to establish regional goals and safeguard the due process of law in the handling of each case. The County Administrative Board is a Government agency headed by a Governor. See List of Gotland Governors. Gotland is the only Swedish county that does not have a county council, as well as having only one municipality and one area code. Politics Main article: Gotland Municipality The County of Gotland consists of a single municipality and as there is no separate entity for a County Council, those tasks are handled by the municipality. During a trial period the County Council provisions for Gotland has been evolved to provisions for a Regional Council, meaning that it has assumed certain tasks from the County Administrative Board. Similar provisions are applicable to the counties of Västra Götaland and Skåne during the trial period. Heraldry Gotland County inherited its coat of arms from the province of Gotland. When it is shown with a royal crown it represents the County Administrative Board. External links Gotland County Administrative Board Gotland Municipality | Gotland_County |@lemmatized gotland:14 county:20 gotlands:1 län:2 sweden:3 locate:1 baltic:1 sea:1 east:1 öland:1 large:2 island:2 usually:1 sub:1 divide:1 municipality:9 consist:1 one:3 difference:1 two:1 administrative:7 level:1 council:6 municipal:1 serve:1 different:1 task:3 seat:1 city:1 visby:1 inhabitant:2 province:3 mainly:1 unit:1 use:1 figure:1 politics:3 etc:1 culture:1 history:1 see:2 article:2 case:2 identical:1 border:1 administration:1 main:2 aim:1 board:5 fulfil:1 goal:2 set:1 national:1 parliament:1 government:2 coordinate:1 interest:1 promote:1 development:1 establish:1 regional:2 safeguard:1 due:1 process:1 law:1 handling:1 agency:1 head:1 governor:2 list:1 swedish:1 well:1 area:1 code:1 consists:1 single:1 separate:1 entity:1 handle:1 trial:2 period:2 provision:3 evolve:1 mean:1 assume:1 certain:1 similar:1 applicable:1 västra:1 götaland:1 skåne:1 heraldry:1 inherit:1 coat:1 arm:1 show:1 royal:1 crown:1 represent:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram baltic_sea:1 coat_arm:1 external_link:1 |
4,812 | Geography_of_Botswana | Map of Botswana Elevation map of Botswana Botswana is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa, north of South Africa. Botswana occupies an area of 600,370 square kilometres, of which 585,000km² are land. Botswana has land boundaries of combined length 4,013 kilometres, of which the constituent boundaries are shared with Namibia, for 1,360 km; South Africa 1,840 km; Zimbabwe, 813 km and Zambia, less than 1 km. Much of the population of Botswana is concentrated in the eastern part of the country. Physical geography Climate Botswana is semi-arid, due to the short rainy season. However, the relatively high altitude of the country and its continental situation gives it a subtropical climate. The country is remote from moisture-laden air flows for most of the year. The dry season lasts from April to October in the south and to November in the north where, however, rainfall totals are higher. The south of the country is most exposed to cold winds during the winter period (early May to late August)when average temperatures are around 14°C. The whole country has hot summers with average temperatures around 26°C. Sunshine totals are high all year round although winter is the sunniest period. The whole country is windy and dusty during the dry season. General Survey of Climatology, Landsberg (ed.),Elsevier, 2001 Orography The land is predominantly flat to gently undulating tableland, although there is some hilly country, where mining is carried out. The Kalahari Desert is in the central and the southwest. The Okavango Delta, the world's largest inland delta, is in the northwest and the Makgadikgadi Pans, a large salt pan lies in the north-central area. The Makgadikgadi has been established as an early habitation area for primitive man; This large seasonal wetland is composed of several large component pans, the largest being Nwetwe Pan, Sua Pan and Nxai Pan. C. Michael Hogan (2008) Makgadikgadi, Megalithic Portal, ed. A.Burnham Botswana's lowest elevation point is at the junction of the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers, at a height of 513 m. The highest point is Monalanong Hill, at 1,494 m. The country is divided into four drainage regions, which are sometimes indistinct due to the arid nature of the climate: the Chobe River on the border with the Caprivi Strip of Namibia together with a small adjacent swampy area is part of the Zambezi basin; most of the north and central region of the country is part of the Okavango inland drainage basin; the easternmost part of the country falls into the Limpopo drainage basin; the southern and southwestern regions, which are the driest of all, are drained by the Molopo river along the South African border and the Nossob river through the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, and are technically part of the basin of the Orange river. None of these rivers normally flows as far as the Orange, however. (The last recorded confluence was in the 1880s.) Times Comprehensive Atlas, (2007), Times Books, London Except for the Chobe, Okavango, Boteti and Limpopo rivers, most of Botswana's rivers cease to flow during the dry and early rainy seasons. Natural hazards Botswana is affected by periodic droughts, and seasonal August winds blow from the west, carrying sand and dust, which can obscure visibility. Environment Current issues Current issues in Botswana, environmentally speaking, are overgrazing, desertification and the existence of only limited fresh water resources. Research from the University of Botswana has found that the common practice of overstocking cattle to cope with drought losses actually depletes scarce biomass, making ecosystems more vulnerable. The study of the Kgatleng district predicts that by 2050 the cycle of mild drought is likely to become shorter —18 months instead of two years—due to climate change. Sub-Saharan Africa news in brief: 10–22 April 2008 - SciDev.Net International agreements Botswana is a party to the following international agreements: Diamond Industry, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection and Wetlands. 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4,813 | Bletchley_Park | Bletchley Park, also known as Station X, is an estate located in the town of Bletchley, in Buckinghamshire. Since 1967, Bletchley has been part of Milton Keynes, England. During World War II, Bletchley Park was the site of the United Kingdom's main decryption establishment. Ciphers and codes of several Axis countries were decrypted there, most importantly ciphers generated by the German Enigma and Lorenz machines. The high-level intelligence produced at Bletchley Park, codenamed Ultra, is credited with having provided crucial assistance to the Allied war effort and with having shortened the war, though Ultra's precise influence is still studied and debated. Bletchley Park is now a museum run by the Bletchley Park Trust and is open to the public. The main manor house is also available for functions and is licensed for ceremonies. Part of the fees for hiring the facilities go to the Trust for use in maintaining the museum. Early history The lands of the Bletchley Park estate were formerly part of the Manor of Eaton, included in the Domesday Book in 1086. Browne Willis built a mansion in 1711, but this was pulled down by Thomas Harrison, who had acquired the property in 1793. The estate was first known as Bletchley Park during the ownership of Samuel Lipscomb Seckham, who purchased it in 1877. The estate was sold on 4 June 1883 to Sir Herbert Samuel Leon (1850–1926), a financier and Liberal MP. Leon expanded the existing farmhouse into the present mansion. Edward Legg, Early History of Bletchley Park 1235–1937, Bletchley Park Trust Historic Guides series, No. 1, 1999 The architectural style is a mixture of Victorian Gothic, Tudor and Dutch Baroque and was the subject of much bemused comment from those who worked there, or visited, during World War II. Leon's estate covered 581 acres (235 hectares), of which Bletchley Park occupied about 55 acres (22 ha). Leon's wife, Fanny, died in 1937, Valentin Foss "Bletchley Park" and in 1938 the site was sold to a builder, who planned to demolish the mansion and build a housing estate. Before the demolition could take place, Admiral Sir Hugh Sinclair (Director of Naval Intelligence, head of MI6, and founder of the Government Code and Cypher School) bought the site with his own money (£7,500), having failed to persuade any government department to pay for it. The fact that Sinclair, and not the Government, owned the site was not widely known until 1991, when it was nearly sold for redevelopment. To cover their real purpose, the first government visitors to Bletchley Park described themselves as "Captain Ridley's shooting party". The estate was conveniently located on the "Varsity Line" (now largely closed) between the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, which supplied many of the code-breakers, at its junction with the main West Coast railway line from London. It was also chosen for its proximity to a major road (the A5) to London and to a route for telephone trunk lines. Wartime history The cottages in the stableyard were converted from a tack and feed house. Early work on Enigma was performed here by Dilly Knox, John Jeffreys and Alan Turing. The windows at the top of the tower open into a room used by Turing. Five weeks before the outbreak of World War II, in Warsaw, Poland's Biuro Szyfrów (Cipher Bureau) revealed its achievements in decrypting German Enigma ciphers to French and British intelligence. The British used this information as the foundation for their own early efforts to decrypt Enigma. The "first wave" of the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) moved to Bletchley Park on 15 August 1939. The main body of GC&CS, including its Naval, Military and Air Sections, was on the house's ground floor, together with a telephone exchange, a teleprinter room, a kitchen and a dining room. The top floor was allocated to MI6. The prefabricated wooden huts were still being erected, and initially the entire "shooting party" was crowded into the existing house, its stables and cottages. These were too small, so Elmers School, a neighbouring boys' boarding school, was acquired for the Commercial and Diplomatic Sections. Smith, 1998 page 2-3 A wireless room was set up in the mansion's water tower and given the code name "Station X", Bob Watson, "How the Bletchley Park Buildings Took Shape", Appendix in F. H. Hinsley & A. Stripp, Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park, 1993 a term now sometimes applied to the codebreaking efforts at Bletchley as a whole. The "X" simply denotes the number "10" in Roman numerals, as this was the tenth such station to be opened. Due to the long radio aerials stretching from the wireless room, the radio station was moved from Bletchley Park to nearby Whaddon to avoid drawing attention to the site. The Secrets of Bletchley Park - Souvenir Guide, Bletchley Park Trust, 2nd edition, 2003 Listening stations – the Y-stations (such as the ones at Chicksands in Bedfordshire and Beaumanor Hall in Leicestershire, the War Office "Y" Group HQ) – gathered raw signals for processing at Bletchley. Coded messages were taken down by hand and sent to Bletchley on paper by motorcycle couriers or, later, by teleprinter. Bletchley Park is mainly remembered for breaking messages enciphered on the German Enigma cypher machine, but its greatest cryptographic achievement may have been the breaking of the German "Fish" High Command teleprinter cyphers. The intelligence produced from decrypts at Bletchley was code-named "Ultra". It contributed greatly to the Allied success in defeating the U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic, and to the British naval victories of Battle of Cape Matapan and the Battle of North Cape. When the United States joined the war Churchill agreed with Roosevelt to pool resources and a number of American cryptographers were posted to Bletchley Park. Whilst the British continued to work on German cyphers, the Americans concentrated on the Japanese ones. The only direct action that the site experienced was when three bombs, thought to have been intended for Bletchley railway station, were dropped on 20 November 1940 – 21 November 1940. One bomb exploded next to the dispatch riders' entrance, shifting the whole of Hut 4 (the Naval Intelligence hut) two feet on its base. As the huts stood on brick pillars, workmen just winched it back into position whilst work continued inside. An outpost of Bletchley Park was set up at Kilindini, Kenya, to break and decipher Japanese codes. coastweek.com With a mixture of skill and good fortune, this was successfully done: the Japanese merchant marine suffered 90 per cent losses by August 1945, a result of decrypts. After the war, Churchill referred to the Bletchley staff as "My geese that laid the golden eggs and never cackled." Douglas J. Hall, History Lives at Ditchley and Bletchley. Cryptanalysis Most of the messages subjected to cryptanalysis at BP were enciphered with some variation of the Enigma cipher machine. From 1943, Colossus, one of the earliest digital electronic computers, was constructed in order to break the German teleprinter on-line Lorenz cipher known as Tunny. Colossus was designed and built by Tommy Flowers and his team at the Post Office Research Station at Dollis Hill. The Colossus series of machines, of which there were ten by the end of the war, were operated at Bletchley Park in a section named the Newmanry after its head Max Newman. Some 9,000 people were working at Bletchley Park at the height of the codebreaking efforts in January 1945, Smith, 1998, pp. 175–176 and over 10,000 worked there at some point during the war. Among the famous mathematicians and cryptanalysts working there, perhaps the most influential and certainly the best-known in later years was Alan Turing. A number of Bletchley Park employees were recruited for various intellectual achievements, whether they were chess champions, crossword experts, polyglots or great mathematicians. In one, now well known instance, the ability to solve The Daily Telegraph crossword in under 12 minutes was used as a recruitment test. The newspaper was asked to organise a crossword competition, after which each of the successful participants was contacted and asked if they would be prepared to undertake "a particular type of work as a contribution to the war effort". The competition itself was won by F H W Hawes of Dagenham who finished the crossword in less than eight minutes. The Daily Telegraph, "25000 tomorrow" 23 May 2006 After the war At the end of the war, much of the equipment used and its blueprints were destroyed. Although thousands of people were involved in the decoding efforts, the participants remained silent for decades about what they had done during the war, and it was only in the 1970s that the work at Bletchley Park was revealed to the general public. After the war, the site belonged to several owners, including British Telecom, the Civil Aviation Authority BellaOnline "Britain's Best Kept Secret" and PACE (Property Advisors to the Civil Estate). GCHQ (Government Communications Headquarters), the post-war successor organisation to GC&CS, ended training courses at Bletchley Park in 1987. The local headquarters for the GPO was based here and housed all the engineers for the local area together with all the support they needed. The Eastern Region training school was also based in the park and later part of the national BT management college which was relocated here from Horwood House. There was also a teacher-training college. By 1991, the site was nearly empty and the buildings were at risk of demolition for redevelopment. On 10 February 1992, Milton Keynes Borough Council declared most of the Park a conservation area. Three days later, on 13 February 1992, the Bletchley Park Trust was formed to maintain the site as a museum devoted to the codebreakers. The site opened to visitors in 1993, with the museum officially inaugurated by HRH the Duke of Kent, as Chief Patron, in July 1994. On 10 June 1999 the Trust concluded an agreement with the landowner, giving control over much of the site to the Trust. Bletchley Park Trust "Bletchley Park History" The Trust is volunteer-based and relies on public support to continue its efforts. Christine Large was appointed Director of the Trust in March 1998. On 1 March 2006, the Park Trust announced that Simon Greenish had been appointed Director Designate, and would work alongside Large in 2006, Bletchley Park Trust Appoints Director Designate, Bletchley Park News, 1 March 2006 taking over on 1 May 2006. In October 2005, American billionaire Sidney Frank donated £500,000 to Bletchley Park Trust to fund a new Science Centre dedicated to Alan Turing. Action This Day, Bletchley Park News, 28 February 2006 A team headed by Tony Sale has undertaken a reconstruction of a Colossus computer in H block. Tony Sale "The Colossus Rebuild Project" Another team has undertaken a rebuild of the bombe, led by John Harper. John Harper "The British Bombe" On 6 September 2006, the Trust demonstrated The Guardian "Back in action at Bletchley Park, the black box that broke the Enigma code." that the Bombe was back in action. A 1:40 scale model of a German World War II U-boat, used in the film Enigma and later donated to the Bletchley Park museum.In 1994, a team led by Tony Sale began a reconstruction of a Colossus Mark 2 computer at Bletchley Park. Here, in 2006, Sale supervises the breaking of an enciphered message with the completed machine.A project to construct a working replica of a bombe is nearing completion. In 2008, The National Museum of Computing signed a 25 year lease on Block H on the park to establish their museum on the history of computing. Although separate legal entities, the two trusts work closely together. In April 2008 the General Manager of the Radio Society of Great Britain announced that they were moving the Society's "public headquarters" (library, radio station, museum and bookshop) to Bletchley Park. The RSGB intended to open the "RSGB Pavilion" in Bletchley Park in late summer to early autumn 2008. However the building allocated to them was beyond economical repair and there are proposals for the construction of a new building within Bletchley Park. In May 2008 it was announced that the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation turned down a request for funds because the foundation only funds Internet-based technology projects. Since Bletchley Park receives no external funding, it is in dire need of financial support. Simon Greenish, the Bletchley Park Trust's director said: We are just about surviving. Money—or lack of it—is our big problem here. I think we have two to three more years of survival, but we need this time to find a solution to this. ZDNet "Bletchley Park Faces Bleak Future" On 24 July 2008 more than 100 academics signed a letter to The Times condemning the neglect being suffered by the site. The Times Letters "Saving the heritage of Bletchley Park" BBC News "Neglect of Bletchley condemned" In September 2008, PGP, IBM and other technology firms announced a fund-raising campaign to repair the facility. PGP, IBM help Bletchley Park raise funds On 6 November, 2008 it was announced that English Heritage would donate £300,000 to help maintain the buildings at Bletchley Park, and that they were in discussions regarding the donation of a further £600,000 BBC News "New lifeline for Bletchley Park" . Buildings Hut 1 was the first hut to be constructed. Hut 4, sited adjacent to the mansion, was used during wartime for naval intelligence. Today, it has been refurbished as a bar and restaurant for the museum. Hut 6 in 2004. The huts were designated by numbers; in some cases, the hut numbers became associated as much with the work which went on inside the buildings as with the buildings themselves. Because of this, when a section moved from a hut into a larger building, they were still referred to by their "Hut" code name. Some of the hut numbers, and the associated work, are: Hut 1 – the first hut, built in 1939 Tony Sale "Bletchley Park Tour", Tour 3 Hut 3 – intelligence: translation and analysis of Army and Air Force Enigma decrypts Hut 4 – Naval intelligence: analysis of Naval Enigma decrypts Hut 6 – Cryptanalysis of Army and Air Force Enigma Hut 7 – Cryptanalysis of Japanese naval codes F. H. Hinsley and Alan Stripp, eds. Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park, Oxford University Press, 1993 Norman Scott, “Solving Japanese Naval Ciphers 1943 – 45”, Cryptologia, , Vol 21(2), April 1997, pp149–157 Hut 8 – Cryptanalysis of Naval Enigma Hut 10 – Meteorological section David Kahn, 1991, Seizing the Enigma, pp. 189–190 Hut 11 – The first Bombe building Tony Sale "Bletchley Park Tour", Tour 4 Hut 14 – main teleprinter building Beaumanor & Garats Hay Amateur Radio Society "The operational huts" In popular culture Bletchley came to wider public attention from the 1999 documentary series Station X. Station X (1999) (TV) Bletchley featured heavily in Enigma and its 2001 film adaptation The BBC Radio 4 sitcom Hut 33 is also set at Bletchley. BBC Radio 4 - Comedy - Hut 33 The ITV television serial Danger UXB featured the character Steven Mount who was a codebreaker at Bletchley, and was driven to a nervous breakdown (and eventual suicide) by the stressful and repetitive nature of the work. A fictionalized version of Bletchley Park is featured in the novel Cryptonomicon by Neal Stephenson. See also List of people associated with Bletchley Park Newmanry Testery Y-stations Arlington Hall National Cryptologic Museum Danesfield House Beeston Regis, Norfolk Chapter on the Y Station on Beeston Bump Wireless Experimental Centre operated by the Intelligence Corps outside Delhi References Further reading <div class="references-small"> Peter Calvocoressi, Top Secret Ultra, Baldwin, new edn 2001. ISBN 978-0-947712-41-9 Ted Enever, Britain's Best Kept Secret: Ultra's Base at Bletchley Park, 3rd edition, 1999, ISBN 0750923555. F. H. Hinsley and Alan Stripp, eds. Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park, Oxford University Press, 1993, ISBN 0198203276. Christine Large, Hijacking Enigma: The Insider's Tale, 2003, ISBN 0470863463. Hugh Sebag-Montefiore, Enigma: the Battle for the Code, London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2000, ISBN 9780471490357. Michael Smith, Station X, Channel 4 Books, 1998. ISBN 0330419293 or ISBN 0752221892 Doreen Luke, My Road to Bletchley Park. Baldwin, 3rd edn 2005. ISBN 978-0-947712-44-0 Peter Hilton, "Reminiscences of Bletchley Park, 1942–1945", AMS History of Mathematics, Volume 1: A Century of Mathematics in America, AMS, Providence, RI, 1988, </div class> Gordon Welchman, The Hut Six Story: breaking the Enigma codes. Baldwin, new edn 1997, ISBN 978-0-947712-34-1 External links Bletchley Park Trust Bletchley Park — Virtual Tour — by Tony Sale The National Museum of Computing (based at Bletchley Park) "New hope of saving Bletchley Park for nation" (Daily Telegraph 3 March 1997) | Bletchley_Park |@lemmatized bletchley:73 park:63 also:7 know:6 station:14 x:6 estate:8 locate:2 town:1 buckinghamshire:1 since:2 part:4 milton:2 keynes:2 england:1 world:4 war:17 ii:4 site:12 united:2 kingdom:1 main:5 decryption:1 establishment:1 cipher:7 code:12 several:2 axis:1 country:1 decrypt:4 importantly:1 generate:1 german:7 enigma:17 lorenz:2 machine:5 high:2 level:1 intelligence:9 produce:2 codenamed:1 ultra:5 credit:1 provide:1 crucial:1 assistance:1 allied:2 effort:7 shorten:1 though:1 precise:1 influence:1 still:3 study:1 debate:1 museum:11 run:1 trust:17 open:5 public:5 manor:2 house:7 available:1 function:1 license:1 ceremony:1 fee:1 hire:1 facility:2 go:2 use:7 maintain:3 early:6 history:7 land:1 formerly:1 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4,814 | Convention_on_Long-Range_Transboundary_Air_Pollution | The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, often abbreviated as Air Pollution or CLRTAP, is intended to protect the human environment against air pollution and to gradually reduce and prevent air pollution, including long-range transboundary air pollution. The convention opened for signature on 1979-11-13 and entered into force on 1983-03-16. The current parties to the Convention are shown on the map. Map showing Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution signatories (green) and ratifications (dark green) as of July 2007 The Convention, which now has 51 Parties, identifies the Executive Secretary of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) as its secretariat. Since 1979 the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution has addressed some of the major environmental problems of the UNECE region through scientific collaboration and policy negotiation. The Convention has been extended by eight protocols that identify specific measures to be taken by Parties to cut their emissions of air pollutants. The aim of the Convention is that Parties shall endeavour to limit and, as far as possible, gradually reduce and prevent air pollution including long-range transboundary air pollution. Parties develop policies and strategies to combat the discharge of air pollutants through exchanges of information, consultation, research and monitoring. The Parties meet annually at sessions of the Executive Body to review ongoing work and plan future activities including a workplan for the coming year. The three main subsidiary bodies - the Working Group on Effects, the Steering Body to EMEP and the Working Group on Strategies and Review - as well as the Convention's Implementation Committee, report to the Executive Body each year. Currently, the Convention's priority activities include review and possible revision of its most recent protocols, implementation of the Convention and its protocols across the entire UNECE region (with special focus on Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia and South-East Europe) and sharing its knowledge and information with other regions of the world. Source:'' CIA World Factbook, edition See also Critical load Environmental agreements External links CLRTAP Homepage at the UNECE website | Convention_on_Long-Range_Transboundary_Air_Pollution |@lemmatized convention:11 long:5 range:5 transboundary:5 air:11 pollution:9 often:1 abbreviate:1 clrtap:2 intend:1 protect:1 human:1 environment:1 gradually:2 reduce:2 prevent:2 include:4 open:1 signature:1 enter:1 force:1 current:1 party:6 show:2 map:2 signatory:1 green:2 ratification:1 dark:1 july:1 identify:2 executive:3 secretary:1 united:1 nation:1 economic:1 commission:1 europe:3 unece:4 secretariat:1 since:1 address:1 major:1 environmental:2 problem:1 region:3 scientific:1 collaboration:1 policy:2 negotiation:1 extend:1 eight:1 protocol:3 specific:1 measure:1 take:1 cut:1 emission:1 pollutant:2 aim:1 shall:1 endeavour:1 limit:1 far:1 possible:2 develop:1 strategy:2 combat:1 discharge:1 exchange:1 information:2 consultation:1 research:1 monitoring:1 meet:1 annually:1 session:1 body:4 review:3 ongoing:1 work:3 plan:1 future:1 activity:2 workplan:1 coming:1 year:2 three:1 main:1 subsidiary:1 group:2 effect:1 steer:1 emep:1 well:1 implementation:2 committee:1 report:1 currently:1 priority:1 revision:1 recent:1 across:1 entire:1 special:1 focus:1 eastern:1 caucasus:1 central:1 asia:1 south:1 east:1 share:1 knowledge:1 world:2 source:1 cia:1 factbook:1 edition:1 see:1 also:1 critical:1 load:1 agreement:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 website:1 |@bigram range_transboundary:5 transboundary_air:5 external_link:1 |
4,815 | Jeffrey_Dahmer | Jeffrey Lionel Dahmer (May 21, 1960 – November 28, 1994) was an American serial killer and sex offender. Dahmer murdered 17 men and boys – most of whom were of African or Asian descent – between 1978 and 1991, with the majority of the murders occurring between 1987 and 1991. His murders were particularly gruesome, involving rape, torture, dismemberment, necrophilia and cannibalism. On November 28, 1994, Dahmer was beaten to death by fellow Columbia Correctional Institution inmate Christopher Scarver with a bar from a weight machine while on work detail in the prison gym. Early life Dahmer was born in West Allis, Wisconsin, to Lionel, an analytical chemist, and Joyce Dahmer. Seven years later his brother David was born. Dahmer, Lionel. A Father's Story. William Morrow and Co., 1994, ISBN068812156X, p. 61 Joyce Dahmer reportedly had a difficult pregnancy with her elder son. When Jeffrey was eight years old, he moved with his family to Bath, Ohio, where he attended Revere High School. Dahmer's early childhood was normal, but he grew increasingly withdrawn and uncommunicative between the ages of 10 and 15, showing little interests in any hobbies or social interactions. Dahmer, p. 76-79 He biked around his neighborhood looking for dead animals, which he dissected at home, going so far as to put a dog's head on a stake. Dahmer, p. 80 Dahmer began drinking in his teens and was a full-blown alcoholic by the time of his high-school graduation. Dahmer, p. 82 In 1977, Lionel and Joyce Dahmer divorced. Dahmer, p. 90 Dahmer attended Ohio State University, but dropped out after one quarter, having failed to attend most of his classes. Dahmer, p. 103-4 He spent most of his time there drunk. Dahmer, p. 105 Dahmer's father then forced him to enlist in the Army. Dahmer, p. 107 Dahmer did well at first, Dahmer, p. 108-9 but he was discharged after only two years due to his alcoholism. Dahmer, p. 110-1 When the Army discharged Dahmer in 1981, it provided him with a plane ticket to anywhere in the country. Dahmer told police he could not go home to face his father, so he headed to Miami Beach, Florida, because he was "tired of the cold". He spent most of his time there at a hospital, but was kicked out shortly after for drinking. After coming home he continued to drink heavily, and he was arrested for drunk and disorderly conduct later in 1981. Dahmer, p. 114 In 1982, Dahmer moved in with his grandmother in West Allis, Wisconsin, Dahmer, p. 115 where he lived for six years. Dahmer, p. 117 During this time, his behavior grew increasingly strange. Once his grandmother found a fully dressed male mannequin in his closet; Dahmer had stolen it from a store. Dahmer, p. 119-20 On another occasion, she found a .357 Magnum under his bed. Dahmer, p. 122-3 Terrible smells came from the basement; Dahmer told his father that he had brought home a dead squirrel and dissolved it with chemicals. Dahmer, p. 124-6 He was arrested twice for indecent exposure, in 1982 and 1986; Dahmer, p. 131 in his second offense, he masturbated in front of two boys. In summer 1988, Dahmer's grandmother asked him to move out because of his late nights, his strange behavior, and the foul smells from the basement. He then found an apartment on Milwaukee's West side, closer to his job at the Ambrosia Chocolate Factory. Dahmer, p. 132 On September 26, 1988, one day after moving into his apartment, he was arrested for drugging and sexually fondling a 13-year-old boy in Milwaukee named Somsack Sinthasomphone. Dahmer, p. 133-5 He was sentenced to five years probation and one year in a work release camp. He was required to register as a sex offender. Dahmer, p. 138 Dahmer was paroled from the work release camp two months early, and he soon moved into a new apartment. Dahmer, p. 143-4 Shortly thereafter, he began a string of murders that would end with his arrest in 1991. Murders Jeffrey Dahmer committed his first murder in summer 1978. While still living in his father's house, Dahmer picked up a hitchhiker named Steven Hicks, took him home for sex, and bludgeoned him to death with a barbell afterward. Dahmer buried the body in the backyard. Roy, Jody M. Love to Hate NY: Columbia Univ. Press, 2002; pp. 102 et seq. Nine years would pass until Dahmer claimed his next victim, Steven Tuomi. After the Tuomi murder, Dahmer would continue to kill sporadically; two more murders in 1988, and another in early 1989, usually picking up his victims in gay bars and having sex with them before killing them. Roy, Jody M. Love to Hate NY: Columbia Univ. Press, 2002; pp. 103 et seq. He kept the skull of his 1989 victim, Anthony Sears, until he was caught. In May 1990, he moved out of his grandmother's house for the last time and into the apartment that would later become infamous: Apartment 213, 924 North 25th Street, Milwaukee. Dahmer picked up the pace of his killing: four more murders before the end of 1990, two more in February and April 1991, and another in May 1991. In the early morning hours of May 30, 1991, 14-year-old Konerak Sinthasomphone (by chance, the younger brother of the boy whom Dahmer had molested) was discovered on the street, wandering naked, heavily under the influence of drugs and bleeding from his rectum. Two young women from the neighborhood found the dazed boy and called 911. Dahmer chased his victim down and tried to take him away, but the women stopped him. Davis, Donald. The Jeffrey Dahmer Story: An American Nightmare. Macmillan, 1991, ISBN 9780312928407, p. 7 Dahmer told police that Sinthasomphone was his 19-year-old boyfriend, and that they had an argument while drinking. Against the protests of the two women who had called 911, police turned him over to Dahmer. They later reported smelling a strange scent while inside Dahmer's apartment, but did not investigate it. The smell was the body of Tony Hughes, Dahmer's previous victim, decomposing in the bedroom. The two policemen failed to run a background check which would have revealed that Dahmer was a convicted sex offender still under probation. The officers laughed about the incident, one joking that his partner was "going to get deloused." "Milwaukee Murders: Did They All Have to Die?, TIME Magazine, 12 August 1991 Later that night, Dahmer killed and dismembered Sinthasomphone, keeping his skull as a souvenir. John Balcerzak and Joseph Gabrish, two of the three police officers who returned Sinthasomphone to Dahmer, were fired from the Milwaukee Police Department after their actions were widely publicized, including an audiotape of the officers making homophobic statements to their dispatcher and cracking jokes about having reunited the "lovers". The two officers appealed their termination and were reinstated with back pay. They were named officers of the year by the police union for fighting a "righteous" battle to regain their jobs. Balcerzak would go on to be elected president of the Milwaukee Police Association in May 2005. "Cop union and cop image." Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. May 13, 2005 By summer 1991, Dahmer was murdering approximately one person each week. He killed Matt Turner on June 30, Jeremiah Weinberger on July 5, Oliver Lacy on July 12, and finally Joseph Brandehoft on July 19. Dahmer got the idea that he could create "zombies" of his victims, and attempted to do so by drilling holes into their skulls and injecting hydrochloric acid into their brains. Dahmer, p. 211 Other residents of the Oxford Apartments complex noticed terrible smells coming from Apartment 213, as well as the thumps of falling objects and the occasional buzzing of a power saw. "The Little Flat of Horrors", TIME Magazine, 5 August 1991 Arrest On July 22, 1991, Dahmer lured another man, Tracy Edwards, into his home. According to the would-be victim, Dahmer struggled with Edwards in order to handcuff him, and ultimately failed to cuff his wrists together. Davis, p. 151 Wielding a large butcher knife, Dahmer forced Edwards into the bedroom, where Edwards saw pictures of mangled bodies on the wall and noticed the terrible smell coming from a large blue barrel. Davis, p. 152 Eventually, when Dahmer took his eyes off of Edwards, Edwards punched him in the face, kicked him in the stomach, ran for the door and escaped Apartment 213. Davis, p. 153-4 Running through the streets, with the handcuffs still hanging from one hand, Edwards waved for help to a police car driven by Robert Rauth and Rolf Mueller of the Milwaukee police department. Davis, p. 154 Edwards led police back to Dahmer's apartment, where Dahmer at first acted friendly to the officers. However, Edwards remembered that the knife Dahmer had threatened him with was in the bedroom. One of the officers checked the bedroom. He saw the photographs of mangled bodies, and called for his partner to arrest Dahmer. As one officer subdued Dahmer, the other opened the refrigerator and found a human head. Further searching of the apartment revealed three more severed heads, multiple photographs of murdered victims and human remains, severed hands and penises, and photographs of dismembered victims and human remains in his refrigerator. The story of Dahmer's arrest and the inventory in his apartment quickly gained notoriety: several corpses were stored in acid-filled vats, and implements for the construction of an altar of candles and human skulls were found in his closet. Accusations soon surfaced that Dahmer had practiced necrophilia and cannibalism. Seven skulls were found in the apartment. Davis, p. 157 A human heart was in the freezer. Davis, p. 158 Trial Jeffrey Dahmer was officially indicted on 17 murder charges, which were reduced to 15. The murder cases were already so notorious that the authorities never bothered to charge him in the attempted murder of Edwards. His trial began on January 30, 1992. Dahmer, p. 207 With evidence overwhelmingly against him, Dahmer pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity. Dahmer, p. 209-10 The trial lasted two weeks. Dahmer, p. 211 The court found Dahmer sane and guilty on 15 counts of murder and sentenced him to 15 life terms,<ref>"Guilty!", TIME Magazine, 18 May 1992</ref> totaling 957 years in prison. At his sentencing hearing, Dahmer expressed remorse for his actions, and said that he wished for his own death. In May of that year, Dahmer was extradited to Ohio, where he entered a plea of guilty for the murder of his first victim, Steven Hicks. Dahmer, p. 241 Imprisonment and death Dahmer served his time at the Columbia Correctional Institution in Portage, Wisconsin, where he ultimately declared himself a born-again Christian. This conversion occurred after viewing evangelical material sent to him by his father. "'Creation Science' Makes a Difference." CSE Ministry. October 18, 2007. A local preacher from the Churches of Christ, Roy Ratcliff, met with Dahmer and agreed to baptize him. After attending a church service in the prison chapel, an inmate tried to slash Dahmer's throat with a razor blade. Dahmer escaped the incident with superficial wounds. On November 28, 1994, Dahmer and another inmate named Jesse Anderson were severely beaten by fellow inmate Christopher Scarver with a bar from a weight machine while on work detail in the prison gym. Dahmer died of severe head trauma while on his way to the hospital, in an ambulance. "Dahmer Killer Charged", TIME Magazine, 15 December 1994 Aftermath After the murders, the Oxford Apartments at 924 North 25th Street were demolished; the site is now a vacant lot. Plans to convert the site into a memorial garden failed to materialize. In 1994, Lionel Dahmer published a book, A Father's Story, and donated a portion of the proceeds from his book to the victims and their families. Most of the families showed support for Lionel Dahmer and his wife, Shari. He has retired and resides with his wife in Medina County, Ohio. Lionel Dahmer is an advocate for creationism, and his wife was a member of the board of the Medina County Ohio Horseman's Council. Both continue to carry the name Dahmer and say they love Jeffrey despite his crimes. Lionel Dahmer's first wife, Joyce (Flint), died of cancer in 2000 at the age of 64. She was later buried in Atlanta, Georgia. Dahmer's younger brother David changed his last name and lives in anonymity. Dahmer's estate was awarded to the families of 11 of Dahmer's victims who had sued for damages. In 1996, Thomas Jacobson, the lawyer representing eight of the families, announced a planned auction of Dahmer's estate to raise up to $1 million, sparking controversy. Serial killer's property set to go on the auction block." CNN.com. May 8, 1996. Johnson, Dirk. "Bid to Auction Killer's Tools Provokes Disgust." New York Times. May 20, 1996. A civic group, Milwaukee Civic Pride, was quickly established in an effort to raise the funds to purchase and destroy Dahmer's possessions. The group pledged $407,225 including a $100,000 gift by Milwaukee real estate developer Joseph Zilber for purchase of Dahmer's estate; five of the eight families represented by Jacobson agreed to the terms and Dahmer's possessions were destroyed. "Auction of Dahmer Items Is Apparently Off." New York Times. May 29, 1996. O'Flaherty, Sean. "Joseph Zilber - A Gift To Milwaukee." Today's TMJ4. December 15, 2007. In January 2007, evidence surfaced potentially linking Dahmer to Adam Walsh's 1981 abduction and murder in Florida. However Adam's father, John Walsh, believed that another serial killer, Ottis Toole, committed the crime. "'America's Most Wanted' Host Believes Dahmer is Not Son's Killer." FoxNews.com. February 7, 2007. When interviewed about Adam Walsh in the early 1990s, Dahmer repeatedly denied involvement in the crime. In 2008, Florida police declared the Walsh case closed, naming Toole, who died in prison in 1996, as the killer. Almanzar, Yolanne. "Police Expected to Close Adam Walsh Case." New York Times. December 17, 2008. Known victims Name Age BBC - Jeffrey Dahmer, the Milwaukee Cannibal Date of death Stephen Hicks 19 1978-06-18June 6, 1978 Steven Tuomi 26 1987-09-15Sept. 15, 1987 James "Jamie" Doxtator 14 1988-01Jan. 1988 Richard Guerrero 25 1988-03-24March 24, 1988 Anthony Sears 24 1989-03-25March 25, 1989 Eddie Smith 36 1990-06June 1990 Ricky Beeks 27 1990-7-15July 1990 Ernest Miller 22 1990-09September 1990 David Thomas 23 1990-09September 1990 Curtis Straughter 19 1991-02February 1991 Errol Lindsey 19 1991-04April 1991 Tony Hughes 31 1991-05-24May 24, 1991 Konerak Sinthasomphone 14 1991-05-27May 27, 1991 Matt Turner 20 1991-06-30June 30, 1991 Jeremiah Weinberger 23 1991-07-05July 5, 1991 Oliver Lacy 23 1991-07-12July 12, 1991 Joseph Bradehoft 25 1991-07-18July 19, 1991 Media portrayals The movie Jeffrey Dahmer: The Secret Life was released in 1993, starring Carl Crew as Dahmer. In 2002, the biopic Dahmer, starring Jeremy Renner in the title role, premiered in Dahmer's hometown. The film, which portrayed Dahmer in a somewhat sympathetic light, met with protest from the victims' families and quickly went to video. Joyce Carol Oates' novel Zombie was based on Dahmer's life. Johnson, Greg. Invisible Writer: A Biography of Joyce Carol Oates. New York: Dutton, 1998, p. Ύ201 References Further reading Mann, Robert & Williamson, Miryam. Forensic Detective - How I Cracked The World's Toughest Cases. Ballantine Books (March 28 2006) Masters, Brian. The Shrine of Jeffrey Dahmer. Hodder and Stroughton Limited, London 1993 (Paperback Coronet 1993) Pincus, Jonathan H. Base Instincts - What Makes Killers kill?. W.W. Norton & Company, New York 2001 (Paperback 2002) Ratcliff, Roy with Lindy Adams. Dark Journey, Deep Grace: The Story Behind a Serial Killer's Journey to Faith''. Leafwood Publishers, (2006). 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4,816 | Columbanus | Not to be confused with St Columba, also Irish and partly his contemporary. Saint Columbanus (540 – 23 November 615; , meaning the white dove.) was an Irish missionary notable for founding a number of monasteries on the European continent from around 590 in the Frankish and Italian kingdoms, most notably Luxeuil (in present-day France) and Bobbio (Italy), and stands as an exemplar of Irish missionary activity in early medieval Europe. He spread among the Franks a Celtic monastic rule and Celtic penitential practices for those repenting of sins, which emphasized private confession to a priest, followed by penances levied by the priest in reparation for the sin. He is also one of the earliest identifiable Hiberno-Latin writers. Biography Columbanus was born in Nobber, County Meath, Ireland, in the year Saint Benedict died, and from childhood was well instructed. He was handsome and prepossessing in appearance, as reflected in his Irish name 'Colum Ban', which means "the fair Colum". His name is not, therefore, an anglicization. Young Colum's striking looks exposed him to the shameless temptations of several of his countrywomen, so that he had to struggle with his own temptations. At last he went to see a religious woman, who advised him thus: "Twelve years ago I fled from the world, and shut myself up in this cell. Hast thou forgotten Samson, David and Solomon, all led astray by the love of women? There is no safety for thee, young man, except in flight." He thereupon decided to act upon this advice and retire from the world. He encountered opposition, especially from his mother, who strove to detain him by casting herself before him on the threshold of the door. But conquering the feelings of nature, he passed over her prostrate form and left his home forever. His first master was Sinell, Abbot of Cluaninis in Lough Erne. The Irish words "Cluan Innish", which mean "meadow and island", have been contracted to "Cleenish", where the remains of the monastery can be seen at Bellanaleck, County Fermanagh. Under Sinell's instruction, Columbanus composed a commentary on the Psalms (for another identification, see Mo Sinu moccu Min). He then moved to the celebrated monastery of Bangor on the coast of Down, which at that time had for its abbot St. Comgall. There Columbanus embraced the monastic state, and for many years led a life conspicuous for fervour, regularity and learning. At about the age of 40 he seemed to hear incessantly the voice of God bidding him to preach the Gospel in foreign lands. At first his abbot declined to let him go, but at length he consented. Columbanus set sail with twelve companions; their names are believed to be St. Attala, Columbanus the Younger, Cummain, Domgal (Deicolus?), Eogain, Eunan, St. Gall, Gurgano, Libran, Lua, Sigisbert and Waldoleno (Strokes, "Apennines", p. 112). This little band passed over to Britain, landing probably on the Scottish coast. Some contend they may have landed in and crossed Cornwall enroute to Brittany. They remained only a short time in England and then crossed over to France, where they arrived probably in 585. The landing site of Columbanus is marked by a shrine at Carnac in Brittany. At once, they began their apostolic mission. Wherever they went, the people were struck by their modesty, patience and humility. France at that period was in sore need of such a band of monks and preachers. Owing partly to the incursions of barbarians, and partly due to the remissness of the clergy, vice and impiety were prevalent. He and his followers soon made their way to the court of Gontram, King of Burgundy. Jonas calls it the court of Sigisbert, King of Austrasia and Burgundy, but this is manifestly a blunder, for Sigisbert had been slain in 575. The fame of Columbanus had preceded him. Gontram gave him a gracious reception, inviting him to remain in his kingdom. The saint complied, and selected for his abode the half-ruined Roman fortress at Annegray in the solitudes of the Vosges mountains. Here the abbot and his monks led the simplest of lives, their food often consisting of nothing but forest herbs, berries, and the bark of young trees. The fame of Columbanus's sanctity drew crowds to his monastery. Many, both nobles and rustics, asked to be admitted into the community. Sick persons came to be cured through their prayers. But Columbanus loved solitude. Often he would withdraw to a cave seven miles distant, with a single companion who acted as messenger between himself and his brethren. After a few years, the ever-increasing number of his disciples obliged him to build another monastery. Columbanus accordingly obtained from King Gontram the Gallo-Roman castle named "Luxovium" (Luxeuil), some eight miles distant from Annegray. It was in a wild district, thickly covered with pine forests and brushwood. This foundation of the celebrated Luxeuil Abbey took place in 590. But these two monasteries did not suffice for the numbers who came, and a third had to be erected at Fontaines. The superiors of these houses always remained subordinate to Columbanus. It is said that at this time he instituted a perpetual service of praise, known as laus perennis, by which choir succeeded choir, both day and night (Montalembert, Monks of the West II, 405). He wrote his Rule for these flourishing communities, which embodied the customs of Bangor and other Celtic monasteries. For nearly 20 years Columbanus resided in France and, during that time, observed the unreformed paschal computation. But a dispute arose. The Frankish bishops were not well disposed towards this stranger abbot, because of his ever-increasing influence, and at last they showed their hostility. They objected to his Celtic Easter and his exclusion of men as well as women from the precincts of his monasteries. The councils of Gaul held in the first half of the sixth century had given to bishops absolute authority over religious communities, even going so far as to order the abbots to appear periodically before their respective bishops to receive reproof or advice, as might be considered necessary. These enactments, being contrary to the custom of the Celtic monasteries, were readily rejected by Columbanus. In 602 the bishops assembled to judge him. He did not appear, lest, as he tells us, "he might contend in words", but instead addressed a letter to the prelates in which he speaks with a strange mixture of freedom, reverence, and charity. In it he admonishes them to hold synods more frequently, and advises that they pay attention to matters equally important with that of the date of Easter. As to his paschal cycle he says: "I am not the author of this divergence. I came as a poor stranger into these parts for the cause of Christ, Our Saviour. One thing alone I ask of you, holy Fathers, permit me to live in silence in these forests, near the bones of 17 of my brethren now dead." When the Frankish bishops still insisted the abbot was wrong in obedience to St. Patrick's canon, he laid the question before the Pope St. Gregory I. He dispatched two letters to that pontiff, but they never reached him, "through Satan's intervention". The third letter is extant, but no trace of an answer appears in St. Gregory's correspondence, owing probably to the fact that the pope died in 604, about the time it reached Rome. In this letter he defended the Celtic custom with considerable freedom but the tone is affectionate. He prays "the holy Pope, his Father", to direct towards him "the strong support of his authority, to transmit the verdict of his favour". Moreover, he apologizes "for presuming to argue, as it were, with him who sits in the chair of Peter, Apostle and Bearer of the Keys". He directed another epistle to Pope Boniface IV, in which he prays that, if it be not contrary to the Faith, he confirm the tradition of his elders, so that by the papal decision (judicium) he and his monks may be enabled to follow the rites of their ancestors. Before Pope Boniface's answer (which has been lost) was given, Columbanus was outside the jurisdiction of the Frankish bishops. As we hear no further accusation on the Easter question—not even in those brought against his successor at Luxeuil Abbey, Eustasius of Luxeuil in 624—it would appear that after Columbanus had moved to Italy, he gave up the Celtic Easter (cf. Acta SS. O.S.B., II, p. 7). In addition to the Easter question, Columbanus had to wage war against vice in the royal household. The young Theodoric, to whose kingdom Luxeuil belonged, was living a life of debauchery. He was completely in the hands of his grandmother, Queen Brunehault (Brunehild). On the death of King Gontram, the succession passed to his nephew, Childebert II, son of Brunehault. At his death the latter left two sons, Theodebert II and Thierry II, both minors. Theodebert succeeded to Austrasia, Thierry to Burgundy, but Brunehault constituted herself their guardian, and held in her own power the governments of the two kingdoms. As she advanced in years she sacrificed everything to the passion of sovereignty, she encouraged Thierry in the practice of concubinage in order that there might be no rival queen. Thierry, however, had a veneration for Columbanus, and often visited him. On these occasions the saint admonished and rebuked him, but in vain. Brunehault became enraged with Columbanus, stirred up the bishops and nobles to find fault with his Rules regarding monastic enclosure. Finally, Thierry and his party went to Luxeuil and ordered the abbot to conform to the usages of the country. Columbanus refused, whereupon he was taken prisoner to Besançon to await further orders. Taking advantage of the absence of restraint, he speedily returned to his monastery. On hearing this, Thierry and Brunehault sent soldiers to drive him back to Ireland. None but Irish monks were to accompany him. Accordingly, he was hurried to Nevers, made to embark on the Loire, and thus proceed to Nantes. At Tours he visited the tomb of St. Martin and sent a message to Thierry predicting that, within three years, he and his children would perish. At Nantes, before the embarkation, he addressed a letter to his monks, full of affection. It is a memorial of the love and tenderness which existed in that otherwise austere and passionate soul. In it he desires all to obey Attala, whom he requests to abide with the community unless strife should arise on the Easter question. His letter concludes thus "They come to tell me the ship is ready. The end of my parchment compels me to finish my letter. Love is not orderly; it is this which has made it confused. Farewell, dear hearts of mine; pray for me that I may live in God." As soon as they set sail, such a storm arose that ship was driven ashore. The captain would have nothing more to do with these holy men; they were thus free to go where they pleased. Columbanus made his way to the friendly King Clothaire at Soissons in Neustria where he was gladly welcomed. Clothaire in vain pressed him to remain in his territory. Columbanus left Neustria in 611 for the court of King Theodebert of Austrasia. At Metz he received an honourable welcome, and then proceeding to Mainz, he embarked upon the Rhine in order to reach the Suevi and Alamanni, to whom he wished to preach the Gospel. Ascending the river and its tributaries, the Aar and the Limmat, he came to the Lake of Zürich. Tuggen was chosen as a centre from which to evangelize, but the work was not successful. Instead of producing fruit, the zeal of Columbanus only excited persecution. In despair he resolved to pass on by way of Arbon to Bregenz on Lake Constance, where there were still some traces of Christianity. Here the saint found an oratory dedicated to St. Aurelia, into which the people had brought three brass images of their tutelary deities. He commanded St. Gall, who knew the language, to preach to the inhabitants, and many were converted. The images were destroyed, and Columbanus blessed the little church, placing the relics of St. Aurelia beneath the altar. A monastery was erected, and the brethren forthwith observed their regular life. Columbanus is reported to have performed a miracle in Bregenz: The townpeople had placed a large vessel in the town center, filled with beer. They told Columbanus it was intended as a sacrifice to their god Wodan (Illi aiunt se Deo suo Vodano nomine), whom they identified with Roman Mercury. Angrily, Columbanus breathed on the vessel, which broke asunder with a loud noise, spilling the beer. After about a year, in consequence of another rising against the community, Columbanus resolved to cross the Alps into Italy. An additional reason for his departure was the fact that the arms of Thierry had prevailed against Theodebert, and thus the country on the banks of the Upper Rhine had become the property of his enemy. On his arrival at Milan in 612, Columbanus met with a kindly welcome from Lombard King Agilulf and Queen Theodelinda. He immediately began to confute the Arians and wrote a treatise against their teaching, which has been lost. At the request of the king, he wrote a letter to Pope Boniface on the debated subject of "The Three Chapters". These writings were considered to favour Nestorianism. Pope St. Gregory, however, tolerated in Lombardy those persons who defended them, among whom was King Agilulf. Columbanus would probably have taken no active part in this matter had not the king pressed him so to do. But on this occasion his zeal certainly outran his knowledge. The letter opens with all apology that a "foolish Scot" should be charged to write for a Lombard king. He acquaints the pope with the imputations brought against him, and he is particularly severe with the memory of Pope Vigilius. He entreats the pontiff to prove his orthodoxy and assemble a council. He says that his freedom of speech accords with the usage of his country. "Doubtless", Montalembert remarks, "some of the expressions which he employs should be now regarded as disrespectful and justly rejected. But in those young and vigorous times, faith and austerity could be more indulgent" (II, 440). On the other hand, the letter expresses the most affectionate and impassioned devotion to the Holy See. The whole, however, may be judged from this fragment: "We Irish, though dwelling at the far ends of the earth, are all disciples of St. Peter and St. Paul... Neither heretic, nor Jew, nor schismatic has ever been among us; but the Catholic Faith, Just as it was first delivered to us by yourselves, the successors of the Apostles, is held by us unchanged... we are bound [devincti] to the Chair of Peter, and although Rome is great and renowned, through that Chair alone is she looked on as great and illustrious among us ... On account of the two Apostles of Christ, you [the pope] are almost celestial, and Rome is the head of the whole world, and of the Churches". If zeal for orthodoxy caused him to overstep the limits of discretion, his real attitude towards Rome is sufficiently clear. He declares the pope to be: "his Lord and Father in Christ", "The Chosen Watchman", "The Prelate most dear to all the Faithful", "The most beautiful Head of all the Churches of the whole of Europe", "Pastor of Pastors", "The Highest", "The First", "The First Pastor, set higher than all mortals", "Raised near into all the Celestial Beings", "Prince of the Leaders", "His Father", "His immediate Patron", "The Steersman", "The Pilot of the Spiritual Ship" (Allnatt, "Cathedra Petri", 106). But it was necessary that, in Italy, Columbanus should have a settled abode, so the king gave him a tract of land called Bobbio, between Milan and Genoa, near the River Trebbia, situated in a defile of the Apennines. On his way there he taught the Faith in the town of Mombrione, which is called San Colombano to this day. Padre della Torre considers that the saint made two journeys into Italy, which were confounded by Jonas. On the first occasion he went to Rome and received from Pope Gregory many sacred relics (Stokes, Apennines, 132). This may possibly explain the traditional spot in St. Peter's, where St. Gregory and St. Columba are supposed to have met (Moran, Irish SS. in Great Britain, 105). At Bobbio the saint repaired the half-ruined church of St. Peter, and erected his celebrated abbey, which for centuries was stronghold of orthodoxy in Northern Italy. Thither came Clothaire's messengers inviting the aged abbot to return, now that his enemies were dead. But he could not go. He sent a request that the king would always protect his dear monks at Luxeuil. He prepared for death by retiring to his cave on the mountain-side overlooking the Trebbia, where, according to a tradition, he had dedicated an oratory to Our Lady (Montalembert, "Monks of the West", II, 444). He died at Bobbio (in part the model for the great monastery in Umberto Eco's novel The Name of the Rose) in 615. Among his principal miracles are: (1) procuring of food for a sick monk and curing the wife of his benefactor; (2) escape from hurt when surrounded by wolves; (3) obedience of a bear which evacuated a cave at his biddings; (4) producing a spring of water near his cave; (5) repletion of the Luxeuil granary when empty; (6) multiplication of bread and beer for his community; (7) curing of the sick monks, who rose from their beds at his request to reap the harvest; (8) giving sight to a blind man at Orleans; (9) destruction by his breath of a cauldron of beer prepared for a pagan festival; (10) taming a bear, and yoking it to a plough. Columbanus' monastic rule The Monastic Rule of St. Columbanus is much shorter than that of St. Benedict, consisting of only ten chapters. The first six of these treat of obedience, silence, food, poverty, humility, and chastity. In these there is much in common with the Benedictine code, except that the fasting is more rigorous. Chapter VII deals with the Choir Offices. Sunday Matins in winter consisted of seventy-five psalms and twenty-five antiphons-- three psalms to each antiphon. In spring and autumn these were reduced to thirty-six, and in summer to twenty-four, fewer were said on week days. The day hours consisted of Terce, Sext, None and Vespers. Three psalms were said at each of these Offices, except Vespers, when twelve psalms were said. Chapter X regulates penances (often corporal) for offences, and it is here that the Rule of St. Columbanus differs so widely from that of St. Benedict. Stripes or fasts were enjoined for the smallest faults. The habit of the monks consisted of a tunic of undyed wool, over which was worn the cuculla, or cowl, of the same material. A great deal of time was devoted to various kinds of manual labour, not unlike the life in monasteries of other rules. The Rule of St. Columbanus was approved of by the Council of Mâcon in 627, but it was destined before the close of the century to be superseded by that of St. Benedict. For several centuries in some of the greater monasteries the two rules were observed conjointly. Other writings A number of works by Columbanus survive, including a monastic rule (the Regula monachorum), a number of letters, and some poetry (see Columcille the Scribe). These provide some of the earliest evidence for Irish knowledge of Latin. In addition, Columbanus created the Communal Rule which is "very evident of his time"-Mr Pie O hara - Copyright to Caolán Collins Legacy and veneration Like other men, Columbanus was not faultless. In the cause of God he was impetuous and even head-strong, for by nature he was eager, passionate, and dauntless. These qualities were both the source of his power and the cause of mistakes. But his virtues were very remarkable. He shared with other saints a great love for God's creatures. As he walked in the woods, the birds would alight upon his shoulder that he might caress them and the squirrels would run down from the trees and nestle in the folds of his cowl. The fascination of his saintly personality drew numerous communities around him. That he possessed real affection for others is abundantly manifest in his letter to his brethren. Archbishop Healy eulogises him thus: "A man more holy, more chaste, more self-denying, a man with loftier aims and purer heart than Columbanus was never born in the Island of Saints" (Ireland's Ancient Schools, 378). Regarding his attitude towards the Holy See, although with Celtic warmth and flow of words he could defend mere custom, there is nothing in his strongest expressions which implies that, in matters of faith, he for a moment doubted Rome's supreme authority. His influence in Europe was due to the conversions he effected and to the rule that he composed. What gave rise to his apostolate? Possibly the restless energy of the Celtic character, which, not finding sufficient scope in Ireland, directed itself in the cause of Christ to foreign lands. It may be that the example and success of St. Columba in Caledonia stimulated him to similar exertions. The example, however, of Columbanus in the sixth century stands out as the prototype of missionary enterprise towards the countries of Europe, so eagerly followed up from England and Ireland by such men as Saints Killian, Virgilius, Donatus, Wilfrid, Willibrord, Swithbert, Boniface, and Ursicinus of Saint-Ursanne. If Columbanus's abbey at Bobbio in Italy became a citadel of faith and learning, Luxeuil in France became the nursery of saints and apostles. From its walls went forth men who carried his rule, together with the Gospel, into France, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. There are said to have been sixty-three such apostles (Stokes, Forests of France, 254). These disciples of Columbanus are accredited with founding over one hundred different monasteries (ib., 74). The canton and town still bearing the name of St. Gall testify how well one disciple succeeded. Veneration His body has been preserved in the abbey church at Bobbio, and many miracles are said to have been wrought there through his intercession. In 1482 the relics were placed in a new shrine and laid beneath the altar of the crypt, where they are still venerated; the altar and shrine needing to be restored, and for this end in 1907 an appeal was made by Cardinal Logue, and there was every prospect of the work being speedily accomplished. The sacristy at Bobbio possesses a portion of the skull of the saint, his knife, wooden cup, bell, and an ancient water vessel, formerly containing sacred relics and said to have been given to him by St. Gregory. According to certain authorities, twelve teeth of the saint were taken from the tomb in the fifteenth century and kept in the treasury, but these have now disappeared (Stokes, Apennines, p. 183). St. Columbanus is named in the Roman Martyrology on 23 November, but his feast is kept by the Benedictines and throughout Ireland on 24 November. In art St. Columbanus is represented bearded bearing the monastic cowl, he holds in his hand a book with an Irish satchel, and stands in the midst of wolves. Sometimes he is depicted in the attitude of taming a bear, or with sun-beams over his head (Husenheth, "Emblems", p. 33). See also Columbanus is not to be confused with his near contemporary, Saint Columba, otherwise known as Columcille. The Order of the Knights of Saint Columbanus The Missionary Society of St. Columban St. Columban, Ontario Sources and external links The main source for Columbanus's life or vita is recorded by Jonas of Bobbio, an Italian monk who entered the monastery in Bobbio in 618, three years after the saint's death; Jonas wrote the life c. 643. This author lived during the abbacy of Attala, Columbanus's immediate successor, and his informants had been companions of the saint. Mabillon in the second volume of his "Acta Sanctorum O.S.B." gives the life in full, together with an appendix on the miracles of the saint, written by an anonymous member of the Bobbio community. St. Columban, Abbot and Confessor – St. Columban Parish, Loveland, Ohio Knights of St. Columbanus About the Knights of St. Columbanus | Columbanus |@lemmatized confuse:3 st:35 columba:4 also:3 irish:10 partly:3 contemporary:2 saint:19 columbanus:50 november:3 mean:3 white:1 dove:1 missionary:4 notable:1 found:1 number:5 monastery:16 european:1 continent:1 around:2 frankish:4 italian:2 kingdom:4 notably:1 luxeuil:10 present:1 day:5 france:7 bobbio:10 italy:8 stand:3 exemplar:1 activity:1 early:3 medieval:1 europe:4 spread:1 among:5 frank:1 celtic:9 monastic:7 rule:13 penitential:1 practice:2 repenting:1 sin:2 emphasize:1 private:1 confession:1 priest:2 follow:3 penance:2 levy:1 reparation:1 one:4 identifiable:1 hiberno:1 latin:2 writer:1 biography:1 bear:7 nobber:1 county:2 meath:1 ireland:6 year:9 benedict:4 die:3 childhood:1 well:4 instructed:1 handsome:1 prepossess:1 appearance:1 reflect:1 name:7 colum:3 ban:1 fair:1 therefore:1 anglicization:1 young:6 strike:2 look:2 expose:1 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4,817 | Hergé | Georges Prosper Remi (22 May 1907 - 3 March 1983), better known by the pen name Hergé, was a Belgian comics writer and artist. "Hergé" () is the French pronunciation of "RG", his initials reversed. His best known and most substantial work is The Adventures of Tintin, which he wrote and illustrated from 1929 until his death in 1983, which left the twenty-fourth Tintin adventure Tintin and Alph-Art unfinished. His work remains a strong influence on comics, particularly in Europe. He was inducted into the Comic Book Hall of Fame in 2003. The notable qualities of the Tintin stories include their vivid humanism, a realistic feel produced by meticulous and wide ranging research, and Hergé's ligne claire drawing style. Adult readers enjoy the many satirical references to the history and politics of the 20th century. The Blue Lotus, for example, was inspired by the Mukden incident that led to the Chinese-Japanese War of 1934. King Ottokar's Sceptre can be read against the background of Hitler's Anschluss; whilst later albums such as The Calculus Affair depict the Cold War. Hergé has become one of the most famous Belgians worldwide and Tintin is still an international success. Hergé's work was heavily influenced by his involvement since his youth with Scouting. The long-awaited Hergé Museum opens in Louvain-La-Neuve on June 2, 2009. Designed by Pritzker Prize-winning architect Christian de Portzamparc, the museum reflects Hergé's huge corpus of work which has, until now, been sitting in studios and bank vaults. Biography Childhood and early career Georges Prosper Remi was born in 1907 in Etterbeek, in Brussels Belgium to middle class parents, Alexis Remi and his wife Elisabeth Dufour. His four years of primary schooling coincided with World War I (1914-1918), during which Brussels was occupied by the German Empire. Georges, who displayed an early affinity for drawing, filled the margins of his earliest schoolbooks with doodles of the German invaders. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 49. Except for a few drawing lessons which he would later take at l'école Saint-Luc, he never had any formal training in the visual arts. In 1920, he began studying in the collège Saint-Boniface, a secondary school where the teachers were Catholic priests. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 62. Georges joined the Boy Scouts troop of the school, where he was given the totemic name "Renard curieux" (Curious fox). Recently an old strip by him was found on a wall of this school. Old Hergé mural found on the wall of his scout meeting place His first drawings were published in 1922 in Jamais assez, the school's Scout paper, and in Le Boy-Scout Belge, the Scout monthly magazine. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 70. From 1924, he signed his illustrations using the pseudonym "Hergé". Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 92. His subsequent comics work would be heavily influenced by the ethics of the Scouting movement, as well as the early travel experiences he made with the Scout association. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 76. On finishing school in 1925, Georges worked at the Catholic newspaper Le XXe Siècle under the editor Norbert Wallez, a Catholic abbot who kept a photograph of Mussolini in his office. The following year, he published his first cartoon series, Totor, in the Scouting magazine Le Boy-Scout Belge. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 100. In 1928, he was put in charge of producing material for the Le XXe Siècle's new weekly supplement for children, Le Petit Vingtième. He began illustrating The Adventures of Flup, Nénesse, Poussette, and Cochonnet, a strip written by a member of the newspaper's sports staff, but soon became dissatisfied with this series. Wallez asked Remi to create a young hero - a Catholic reporter who would fight for good all over the world. He decided to create a comic strip of his own, which would adopt the recent American innovation of using speech balloons to depict words coming out of the characters' mouths, inspired by the use of them by the established French comics author Alain St. Ogan. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 122. Tintin in the Land of the Soviets (1929) Tintin in the Land of the Soviets, by "Hergé", appeared in the pages of Le Petit Vingtième on 10 January 1929, and ran until 8 May 1930. The strip chronicled the adventures of a young reporter named Tintin and his pet fox terrier Snowy (Milou) as they journeyed through the Soviet Union. The character of Tintin was partly inspired by Georges' brother Paul Remi, an officer in the Belgian army. In January 1930, Hergé introduced Quick & Flupke (Quick et Flupke), a new comic strip about two street urchins from Brussels, in the pages of Le Petit Vingtième. For many years, Hergé would continue to produce this less well-known series in parallel with his Tintin stories. In June, he began the second Tintin adventure, Tintin in the Congo (then the colony of Belgian Congo), followed by Tintin in America and Cigars of the Pharaoh. On 20 July 1932, he married Germaine Kieckens, the secretary of the director of the Le XXe Siècle, whom he had first met in 1927. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 108. They had no children, and would eventually divorce in 1977. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 934. The early Tintin adventures each took about a year to complete, upon which they were released in book form by Le Petit Vingtième and from 1934 on by the Casterman publishing house. Hergé would continue revising these stories in subsequent editions, including a later conversion to color. The Blue Lotus (1936) Hergé reached a watershed with The Blue Lotus, the fifth Tintin adventure. At the close of the previous story, Cigars of the Pharaoh, he had mentioned that Tintin's next adventure would bring him to China. Father Gosset, the chaplain to the Chinese students at the Catholic University of Leuven, wrote to Hergé urging him to be sensitive about what he wrote about China. Hergé agreed, and in the spring of 1934 Gosset introduced him to Chang Chong-jen (Chang Chongren), a young sculpture student at the Brussels Académie des Beaux-Arts. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 200. The two young artists quickly became close friends, and Chang introduced Hergé to Chinese culture, and the techniques of Chinese art. As a result of this experience, Hergé would strive in The Blue Lotus, and in subsequent Tintin adventures, to be meticulously accurate in depicting the places which Tintin visited. As a token of appreciation, he added a fictional "Chang Chong-Chen" to The Blue Lotus, a young Chinese boy who meets and befriends Tintin. At the end of his studies in Brussels, Chang returned home to China, and Hergé lost contact with him during the invasion of China by Japan and the subsequent civil war. More than four decades would pass before the two friends would meet again. World War II The Second World War broke out on 1 September 1939 with the Nazi invasion of Poland. Hergé was mobilized as a reserve lieutenant, and had to interrupt Tintin's adventures in the middle of Land of Black Gold. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 256. By the summer of 1940, Belgium had fallen to Germany along with most of Continental Europe. Le Petit Vingtième, in which Tintin's adventures had until then been published, was shut down by the Nazi occupation. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 260. However, Hergé accepted an offer to produce a new Tintin strip in Le Soir, Brussels' leading French daily, which had been appropriated as the mouthpiece of the occupation forces. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 261. He had to leave The Land of the Black Gold unfinished, launching instead into The Crab with the Golden Claws, the first of six Tintin stories which he would produce during the war. As the war progressed, two factors arose that led to a revolution in Hergé's style. Firstly, paper shortages forced Tintin to be published in a daily three or four-frame strip, rather than two full pages every week which had been the practice on Le Petit Vingtième. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 280. In order to create tension at the end of each strip rather than the end of each page, Hergé had to introduce more frequent gags and faster-paced action. Secondly, Hergé had to move the focus of Tintin's adventures away from current affairs, in order to avoid controversy. He turned to stories with an escapist flavour: an expedition to a meteorite (The Shooting Star), a treasure hunt (The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham's Treasure), and a quest to undo an ancient Inca curse (The Seven Crystal Balls and Prisoners of the Sun). In these stories, Hergé placed more emphasis on characters than plot, and indeed Tintin's most memorable companions, Captain Haddock and Cuthbert Calculus (In French Professeur Tryphon Tournesol), were introduced at this time. Haddock debuted in The Crab with the Golden Claws and Calculus in Red Rackham's Treasure. In 1943, Hergé met Edgar P. Jacobs, another comics artist, whom he hired to help revise the early Tintin albums. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 290. Jacobs' most significant contribution would be his redrawing of the costumes and backgrounds in the revised edition of King Ottokar's Sceptre. He also began collaborating with Hergé on a new Tintin adventure, The Seven Crystal Balls (see above). Post-war troubles The occupation of Brussels ended on 3 September 1944. Tintin's adventures were interrupted toward the end of The Seven Crystal Balls when the Allied authorities shut down Le Soir. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 325. During the chaotic post-occupation period, Hergé was arrested four times by different groups. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 331. He was publicly accused of being a Nazi/Rexist sympathizer, a claim which was largely unfounded, as the Tintin adventures published during the war were scrupulously free of politics (the only dubious point occurring in The Shooting Star, which showed a rival scientific expedition flying the Flag of the United States and sponsored by a man called Blumenstein). In fact, one or two stories published before the war had been critical of fascism; most prominently, King Ottokar's Sceptre showed Tintin working to defeat a coup attempt that could be seen as an allegory of the Anschluss, Nazi Germany's takeover of Austria. Nevertheless, like other former employees of the Nazi-controlled press, Hergé found himself barred from newspaper work. He spent the next two years working with Jacobs, as well as a new assistant, Alice Devos, adapting many of the early Tintin adventures into colour. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 345. Tintin's exile ended on 26 September 1946. The publisher and wartime resistance fighter Raymond Leblanc provided the financial support and anti-Nazi credentials to launch the comics magazine titled Tintin with Hergé. The weekly publication featured two pages of Tintin's adventures, beginning with the remainder of The Seven Crystal Balls, as well as other comic strips and assorted articles. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 365. It became highly successful, with circulation surpassing 100,000 every week. Tintin had always been credited as simply "by Hergé", without mention of Edgar Pierre Jacobs and Hergé's other assistants. As Jacobs' contribution to the production of the strip increased, he asked for a joint credit in 1944, which Hergé refused. They continued to collaborate intensely until 1946, when Jacobs went on to produce his own comics for Tintin magazine, including the widely-acclaimed Blake and Mortimer. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 373. Personal crisis The increased demands which Tintin magazine placed on Hergé began to take their toll. In 1947, Prisoners of the Sun was interrupted for two months when an exhausted Hergé took a long vacation. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 393. Hergé, disillusioned by his treatment and that of many of his colleagues and friends after the war, planned to migrate with his wife Germaine to Argentina, but later abandoned the plan again when he became unfaithful to his wife. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 420. In 1949, while working on the new version of Land of Black Gold (the first version had been left unfinished by the outbreak of World War II), Hergé suffered a nervous breakdown and was forced to take an abrupt four month-long break. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 462. He suffered another breakdown in early 1950, while working on Destination Moon. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 489. In order to lighten Hergé's workload, the Hergé Studios was set up on 6 April 1950. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 484. The studio employed a variety of assistants to aid Hergé in the production of The Adventures of Tintin. Foremost among these was the artist Bob de Moor, who would collaborate with Hergé on the remaining Tintin adventures, filling in details and backgrounds such as the spectacular lunar landscapes in Explorers on the Moon. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 506. With the aid of the studio, Hergé managed to produce The Calculus Affair from 1954 until 1956, followed by The Red Sea Sharks in 1956-1957. By the end of this period, his personal life was again in crisis. His marriage with Germaine was breaking apart after twenty-five years; he had fallen in love with Fanny Vlaminck, a young artist who had recently joined the Hergé Studios. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 567. Furthermore, he was plagued by recurring nightmares filled with whiteness. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 632. He consulted a Swiss psychoanalyst, who advised him to give up working on Tintin. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 656. Instead, he finished Tintin in Tibet, started the year before. Published in Tintin magazine from September 1958 to November 1959 Tintin in Tibet sent Tintin to the Himalaya in search of Chang Chong-Chen, the Chinese boy he had befriended in The Blue Lotus. The adventure allowed Hergé to confront his nightmares by filling the book with austere alpine landscapes, giving the adventure a powerfully spacious setting. The normally rich cast of characters was pared to a minimum — Tintin, Captain Haddock, and the sherpa Tharkey — as the story focused on Tintin's dogged search for Chang. Hergé came to regard this highly personal and emotionally riveting Tintin adventure as his favorite. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 657. The completion of the story seemed also to signal an end to his problems: he was no longer troubled by nightmares, divorced Germaine in 1977 (they had separated in 1960), and finally married Fanny Vlaminck on 20 May of the same year. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 934. Last years The last three complete Tintin adventures were produced at a much reduced pace: The Castafiore Emerald in 1961, Flight 714 to Sydney in 1966, and Tintin and the Picaros only in 1975. However, by this time Tintin had begun to move into other media. From the start of Tintin magazine, Raymond Leblanc had used Tintin for merchandising and advertisements. In 1961, the second Tintin film was made: Tintin and the Golden Fleece, starring Jean-Pierre Talbot as Tintin Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 695. (an earlier stop motion-animated film was made in 1947 called The Crab with the Golden Claws, but it was screened publicly only once). Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 404. Several traditionally-animated Tintin films have also been made, beginning with The Calculus Case in 1961. The financial success of Tintin allowed Hergé to devote more of his time to travel. He traveled widely across Europe, and in 1971 visited America for the first time, meeting some of the Native Americans whose culture had long been a source of fascination for him. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 834. In 1973, he visited Taiwan, accepting an invitation offered three decades before by the Kuomintang government, in appreciation of The Blue Lotus. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 887. In a remarkable instance of life mirroring art, Hergé managed to resume contact with his old friend Chang Chong-jen, years after Tintin rescued the fictional Chong-chen Chang in the closing pages of Tintin in Tibet. Chang had been reduced to a street sweeper by the Cultural Revolution, before becoming the head of the Fine Arts Academy in Shanghai during the 1970s. He returned to Europe for a reunion with Hergé in 1981, and he would settle in Paris in 1985, where he died in 1989. Tintin's new adventure in HollywoodThe First Post Hergé died on 3 March 1983, aged 75. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 975. Hergé had been severely sick for several years, but the nature of his disease was unclear, possibly leukemia or a form of porphyria. His death was ultimately hastened by the HIV he had acquired during his weekly blood transfusions. Goddin, Philippe (2008). Op. cit., 973. He left the twenty-fourth Tintin adventure, Tintin and Alph-Art, unfinished. Following his expressed desire not to have Tintin handled by another artist, it was published posthumously as a set of sketches and notes in 1986. In 1987, Fanny closed the Hergé Studios, replacing it with the Hergé Foundation. In the year 1988, Tintin magazine was discontinued. A cartoon version of Hergé makes a number of cameo appearances in Ellipse-Nelvana's The Adventures of Tintin TV cartoon series. Hergé gave all rights to the creation of dolls and merchandise after his death to Michel Aroutcheff. Michel was Hergé's neighbour and a good friend. Aroutcheff then sold on these rights only keeping the right to make Tintin's red rocket when he goes to the moon. Bibliography Only the works marked * are translated into English WorkYearRemarksTotor1926-1930Hergé's first work, published in Le Boy Scout Belge, about a brave scout. Flup, Nénesse, Poussette and Piglet1928 Written by a sports reporter, published in Le Petit Vingtième'Le Sifflet' strips1928-19297 almost forgotten one-page strips drawn by Hergé for this paper The Adventures of Tintin *1929-1983 24 volumes, one unfinishedQuick and Flupke *1930-194012 volumes, 11 translated to Englishearly 1930sA short series Hergé made for his small advertising company Atelier Hergé. Only 4 pages. See Benoit Peeters' book Tintin and the World of Herge, page 148 Fred and Mile1931The Adventures of Tim the Squirrel out West1931The Amiable Mr. Mops1932The Adventures of Tom and Millie1933Two stories written. Popol out West *1934 Dropsy1934 Jo, Zette and Jocko *1936-19575 volumes Mr. Bellum1939 Thompson and Thomson, Detectives1943 Written by Paul Kinnet, appeared in Le SoirThey Explored the Moon1969 A short comic charting the moon landings published in Paris Match Appropriation In 1989, an Anarchist graphic novel entitled Breaking Free was published in England under the pseudonym "Jack Daniels". The propaganda story is not related to any of the original Tintin novels, but mimics Hergé's style and includes several Tintin characters. Since the book was published without copyright and was released into the public domain, Hergé's estate could take no legal action. This was just one of many cases of unofficial books being released, though often, as in the case of Tintin in Thailand, Hergé's estate were able to take legal action. For a list of such books see List of Tintin parodies and pastiches. Awards and recognition 100 Anniversary of Hergé's birth commemorative coin 1971: Adamson Awards, Sweden 1972: Yellow Kid "una vita per il cartooning" (lifetime award) at the festival of Lucca 1973: Grand Prix Saint Michel of the city of Brussels 1999: Included in the Harvey Award Jack Kirby Hall of Fame 2003: Included in the Eisner Award Hall of Fame as the Judge's choice 2005: Included in the running for De Grootste Belg (The Greatest Belgian). In the Flemish version he ended on 24th place. In the Walloon version he came 8th. 2007: Selected as the main motif for a high value commemorative coin: the 100 Anniversary of Hergé's birth commemorative coin minted in 2007, with a face value of 20 euro. In the obverse, a self portrait of Hergé can be seen to the left. To the right of the portrait, there is a portrait of Tintin. In the bottom of the coin, Hergé's signature is depicted. According to the UNESCO's Index Translationum, Hergé is the 9th most often translated French language author, the second most often translated Belgian author behind Georges Simenon, and the second most often translated French language comics author behind René Goscinny. Index Translationum French top 10 1652 Hergé, an asteroid of the main belt is named after him (see also 1683 Castafiore). Sources Further reading Pierre Sterckx (Textes) / André Soupart (Photos), Hergé. Collectionneur d'Art, Brussels/Belgium (Tournesol Conseils SA-Renaissance du Livre) 2006, 84 p. ISBN: 2-87415-668-x External links Official site Hergé biography on À la découverte de Tintin Hergé on Lambiek Comiclopedia Herge - mini profile and time line on Tintinologist.org Hergé publications in Belgian Tintin and French Tintin BDoubliées | Hergé |@lemmatized george:6 prosper:2 remi:5 may:3 march:2 well:5 know:3 pen:1 name:4 hergé:71 belgian:7 comic:13 writer:1 artist:6 french:8 pronunciation:1 rg:1 initial:1 reverse:1 best:1 substantial:1 work:14 adventure:29 tintin:77 write:7 illustrate:2 death:3 leave:4 twenty:3 fourth:2 alph:2 art:8 unfinished:4 remain:2 strong:1 influence:3 particularly:1 europe:4 induct:1 book:7 hall:3 fame:3 notable:1 quality:1 story:12 include:7 vivid:1 humanism:1 realistic:1 feel:1 produce:8 meticulous:1 wide:1 range:1 research:1 ligne:1 claire:1 draw:3 style:3 adult:1 reader:1 enjoy:1 many:5 satirical:1 reference:1 history:1 politics:2 century:1 blue:7 lotus:7 example:1 inspire:3 mukden:1 incident:1 lead:3 chinese:6 japanese:1 war:13 king:3 ottokar:3 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4,818 | Marsupial | Marsupials are an infraclass of mammals, characterized by a distinctive pouch (called the marsupium), in which females carry their young through early infancy. History Isolated petrosals of Djarthia murgonensis, Australia's oldest marsupial fossils http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0001858;jsessionid=A57F0FDB595AC49992E2B5A390FA104C It was once commonly believed that marsupials were a primitive forerunner of modern placental mammals, but fossil evidence, first presented by researcher M.J. Spechtt in 1982, conflicts with this assumption. Instead, both main branches of the mammal tree appear to have evolved concurrently toward the end of the Mesozoic era. In the absence of soft tissues, such as the pouch and reproductive system, fossil marsupials can be distinguished from placentals by the form of their teeth; primitive marsupials possess four pairs of molar teeth in each jaw, whereas placental mammals never have more than three pairs. Using this criterion, the earliest known marsupial is Sinodelphys szalayi, which lived in China around 125 million years ago. Rincon, P., Oldest Marsupial Ancestor Found, BBC, Dec 2003 Pickrell, J., Oldest Marsupial Fossil Found in China, National Geographic, December 2003 Klinger, M.A., Sinodelphys szalayi, Carnegie Mellon Natural History, 2003 This makes it almost contemporary to the earliest placental fossils, which have been found in the same area. Ji, Q., et al., The Earliest Known Eutherian Mammal, Nature, 416, Pages 816-822, Apr 2002 The discovery of Chinese marsupials appears to support the idea that marsupials reached Australia via Southeast Asia. Harrison, L., The Migration Route of the Australian Marsupial Fauna, Australian Zoologist, Volume 3, Pages 247-263, 1924 There are a few species of marsupials still living in Asia, especially in the Sulawesi region of Indonesia. These marsupials coexist with primates, hooved mammals and other placentals. On most continents, placental mammals were much more successful and no marsupials survived, though in South America the opossums retained a strong presence, and the Tertiary saw the genesis of marsupial predators such as the borhyaenids and the saber-toothed Thylacosmilus. In Australia, however, marsupials displaced placental mammals entirely, and have since dominated the Australian ecosystem. Marsupial success over placental mammals in Australia has been attributed to their comparatively low metabolic rate, a trait which would prove helpful in the hot Australian climate. As a result, native Australian placental mammals (such as hopping mice) are more recent immigrants. Description An early birth removes a developing marsupial from its parent's body much sooner than in placental mammals, and thus marsupials have not developed a complex placenta to protect the embryo from its mother's immune system. Though early birth places the tiny newborn marsupial at a greater environmental risk, it significantly reduces the dangers associated with long pregnancies, as there is no need to carry a large fetus to full-term in bad seasons. Because newborn marsupials must climb up to their mother's nipples, their front limbs are much more developed than the rest of the body at the time of birth. It is possible that this requirement has resulted in the limited range of locomotor adaptations in marsupials compared to placentals. Marsupials must develop a grasping forepaw during their early youth, making the transition from this limb into a hoof, wing, or flipper, as some groups of placental mammals have done, far more difficult. There are about 334 species of marsupial, and over 200 are native to Australia and neighboring northern islands. There are also 100 extant American species; these are centered mostly in South America, but the Great American Interchange has provided Central America with 13 species, and North America with one (the Virginia Opossum). A feature of marsupials (and also monotremes) is that they don't have a gross communication (corpus callosum) between the right and left brain hemisphere. Reproductive system Marsupials' reproductive systems differ markedly from those of placental mammals (Placentalia). Females have two lateral vaginas, which lead to separate uteruses, but both open externally through the same orifice. A third canal, the median vagina, is used for birth. This canal can be transitory or permanent. The males generally have a two-pronged penis, which corresponds to the females' two vaginas. Iowa State University Biology Dept. Discoveries about Marsupial Reproduction Anna King 2001. webpage] (note shows code, html extension omitted) The penis is used only for discharging semen into females, and is urogenital sac used to store waste before expulsion. Pregnant females develop a kind of yolk sac in their wombs, which delivers nutrients to the embryo. Marsupials give birth at a very early stage of development (about 4–5 weeks); after birth, newborn marsupials crawl up the bodies of their mothers and attach themselves to a nipple, which is located inside the marsupium. There they remain for a number of weeks, attached to the nipple. The offspring are eventually able to leave the marsupium for short periods, returning to it for warmth, protection and nourishment. Taxonomy Taxonomically, there are two primary divisions of Marsupialia: American marsupials and the Australian marsupials. The Order Microbiotheria (which has only one species, the Monito del Monte) is found in South America but is believed to be more closely related to the Australian marsupials. There are many small arboreal species in each group. The term opossums is properly used to refer to the American species (though possum is a common diminutive), while similar Australian species are properly called possums. The Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) The Common Brushtail Possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) The Sugar Glider (Petaurus breviceps) The Virginia Opossum (Didelphis virginiana), the only North American marsupial Superorder Ameridelphia Order Didelphimorphia (93 species) Family Didelphidae: opossums Order Paucituberculata (6 species) Family Caenolestidae: shrew opossums Superorder Australidelphia Order †Yalkaparidontia Order Microbiotheria (1 species) Family Microbiotheriidae: Monito del Monte Order Dasyuromorphia (71 species) Family †Thylacinidae: Thylacine Family Dasyuridae: antechinuses, quolls, dunnarts, Tasmanian Devil, and relatives Family Myrmecobiidae: Numbat Order Peramelemorphia (24 species) Family Thylacomyidae: bilbies Family †Chaeropodidae: Pig-footed Bandicoot Family Peramelidae: bandicoots and allies Order Notoryctemorphia (2 species) Family Notoryctidae: marsupial moles Order Diprotodontia (137 species) Family Phascolarctidae: Koala Family Vombatidae: wombats Family †Diprotodontidae: diprotodon Family Phalangeridae: brushtail possums and cuscuses Family Burramyidae: pygmy possums Family Tarsipedidae: Honey Possum Family Petauridae: Striped Possum, Leadbeater's Possum, Yellow-bellied Glider, Sugar Glider, Mahogany Glider, Squirrel Glider Family Pseudocheiridae: ringtailed possums and relatives Family Potoridae: potoroos, rat kangaroos, bettongs Family Acrobatidae: Feathertail Glider and Feather-tailed Possum Family Hypsiprymnodontidae: Musky Rat-kangaroo Family Macropodidae: kangaroos, wallabies, and relatives Family †Thylacoleonidae: marsupial lions Order †Sparassodonta † indicates extinction See also Metatheria References Tim Flannery (1994),The Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the Australasian Lands and People, pages 67–75. ISBN 0-8021-3943-4 ISBN 0-7301-0422-2 Tim Flannery, Country: a continent, a scientist & a kangaroo, pages 196–200. ISBN 1-920885-76-5 Austin, C.R. ed. Reproduction in Mammals. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press,1982. Bronson, F. H. Mammalian Reproductive Biology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989. Dawson, Terrence J. Kangaroos: Biology of Largest Marsupials. New York: Cornell University Press, 1995. Frith, H. J. and J. H. Calaby. Kangaroos. New York: Humanities Press, 1969. Gould, Edwin and George McKay. Encyclopedia of Mammals. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998. Hunsaker, Don. The Biology of Marsupials. New York: Academic Press, 1977. Johnson, Martin H. and Barry J. Everitt. Essential Reproduction. Boston: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1984. Knobill, Ernst and Jimmy D. Neill ed. Encyclopedia of Reproduction. V. 3 New York: Academic Press, 1998 McCullough, Dale R. and Yvette McCullough. Kangaroos in Outback Australia: Comparative Ecology and Behavior of Three Coexisting Species. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. Taylor, Andrea C. and Paul Sunnucks. Sex of Pouch Young Related to Maternal Weight in Macropus eugeni and M. parma. Australian Journal of Zoology 1997 V. 45 pp. 573–578 External links The Marsupial Ring Western Australian Mammal Species Researchers Publish First Marsupial Genome Sequence The National Institutes of Health May 2007 First marsupial genome released. 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4,819 | Harbor | Port Jackson, Sydney, Australia A harbor or harbour (see spelling differences), or haven, is a place where ships may shelter from the weather or are stored. Harbors can be man-made or natural. A man-made harbor will have sea walls or breakwaters and may require dredging. A natural harbor is surrounded on most sides by land. Harbors and ports are often confused. A port is a man-made coastal or riverine facility where boats and ships can load and unload. It may consist of quays, wharfs, jetties, piers and slipways with cranes or ramps. A port may have magazine buildings or warehouses for storage of goods and a transport system, such railway, road transport or pipeline transport facilities for relaying goods inland. Artificial harbors Artificial harbors are frequently built for use as ports. The largest artificially created harbor is in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. Natural harbors A natural harbor in Vizhinjam, India A natural harbor is a landform where a part of a body of water is protected and deep enough to furnish anchorage. Natural harbors have long been of great strategic and economic importance. Many of the great cities of the world are located on a natural harbor. Having a protected harbor reduces or eliminates the use of breakwaters as it will result in calmer waves inside the harbor. Ice-free harbors For harbors near the poles, being ice-free is an important advantage, ideally all-year round. Examples are Murmansk (Russia), Petsamo (Russia, formerly Finland), Hammerfest, Vardø, and Prince Rupert (Canada). The southern-most harbor, at Antarctica's Winter Quarters Bay (77°50′S), presents a potentially ice-free harbor, dependent on summer pack ice conditions. U.S. Polar Programs National Science Foundation FY2000. Temporary harbors St. John's harbour, Newfoundland Sometimes a harbor is needed where one isn't available due to damage, such as in times of war. In this case a temporary harbor may be built and transported in pieces to the location. The most notable of these were the two Mulberry harbours used during the D-Day invasion of Normandy in World War II. Tidal harbor A tidal harbor is a type of harbor that can only be entered or exited at certain tidal levels. Port Cities - tide harbour Important harbors The tiny harbour at the village of Clovelly, Devon, England Although the world's busiest port is a hotly contested title, in 2006 the world's busiest harbor by cargo tonnage was the Port of Shanghai. AAPA World Port Rankings 2006 The following are large natural harbors: Baltimore's Inner Harbor, Maryland, United States Boston Harbor, Massachusetts, United States Bridgetown, Barbados Cartagena, Colombia Charleston, South Carolina, United States Cork Harbour, Ireland Duluth, Minnesota, United States Durban, South Africa Falmouth, Cornwall, England Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India Freetown Harbour, Sierra Leone Golden Horn, Istanbul, Turkey Gothenburg, Sweden Grand Harbour, Malta Halifax Harbour, Nova Scotia Canada Hamburg Harbour, Germany Kingston, Jamaica Kobe Harbour, Kobe, Japan Kochi, India Mahon, Minorca, Spain Manila Bay, Philippines Milford Haven, Wales Montevideo, Uruguay Mumbai, India New York Harbor, United States Oslofjord, Norway Pearl Harbor, Honolulu, Hawaii Plymouth Sound, Devon, England Poole Harbour, Dorset, England Port Jackson, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Port Phillip, Victoria, Australia Rio de Janeiro, Guanabara Bay, Brazil Salvador, Brazil San Diego Bay, San Diego, California, United States San Francisco Bay, California, United States Tokyo Bay, Tokyo, Japan Trincomalee, Sri Lanka Vancouver, Canada Victoria Harbour, Hong Kong Wellington Harbour, New Zealand Willemstad, Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles Capri harbour, Italy seen from Anacapri Other notable harbors include: Belém, Brazil Hampton Roads, Virginia, United States Kahului, Hawaii, United States Kaipara Harbour, New Zealand Kaohsiung, Taiwan Keelung, Taiwan Kilindini Harbour, Kenya Keppel Harbour, Singapore Manukau Harbour, Auckland, New Zealand New Haven Harbor, Connecticut, United States Port of Antwerp, Flanders, Belgium Port of Bruges-Zeebrugge, Flanders, Belgium Port of Genoa, Italy Portland Harbour, Dorset, England Trondheim, Norway See also Boyd's Automatic tide signalling apparatus Dock Dockyard Ice pier Marina, List of Marinas Port Roadstead Quay Seaport, List of seaports Wharf Inland harbor Notes | Harbor |@lemmatized port:15 jackson:2 sydney:2 australia:3 harbor:35 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kochi:1 mahon:1 minorca:1 spain:1 manila:1 philippine:1 milford:1 wale:2 montevideo:1 uruguay:1 mumbai:1 new:6 york:1 oslofjord:1 norway:2 pearl:1 honolulu:1 hawaii:2 plymouth:1 sound:1 poole:1 dorset:2 phillip:1 victoria:2 rio:1 de:1 janeiro:1 guanabara:1 brazil:3 salvador:1 san:3 diego:2 california:2 francisco:1 tokyo:2 trincomalee:1 sri:1 lanka:1 vancouver:1 hong:1 kong:1 wellington:1 zealand:3 willemstad:1 curaçao:1 antilles:1 capri:1 italy:2 anacapri:1 include:1 belém:1 hampton:1 virginia:1 kahului:1 kaipara:1 kaohsiung:1 taiwan:2 keelung:1 kilindini:1 kenya:1 keppel:1 singapore:1 manukau:1 auckland:1 connecticut:1 antwerp:1 flanders:2 belgium:2 bruges:1 zeebrugge:1 genoa:1 portland:1 trondheim:1 also:1 boyd:1 automatic:1 signal:1 apparatus:1 dock:1 dockyard:1 marina:2 list:2 roadstead:1 seaport:2 note:1 |@bigram load_unload:1 prince_rupert:1 hotly_contest:1 bridgetown_barbados:1 duluth_minnesota:1 falmouth_cornwall:1 andhra_pradesh:1 sierra_leone:1 istanbul_turkey:1 gothenburg_sweden:1 nova_scotia:1 kingston_jamaica:1 montevideo_uruguay:1 pearl_harbor:1 honolulu_hawaii:1 harbour_dorset:2 de_janeiro:1 san_diego:2 san_francisco:1 sri_lanka:1 hong_kong:1 netherlands_antilles:1 kaohsiung_taiwan:1 |
4,820 | Flying_car_(aircraft) | The Waterman Aerobile at the Smithsonian. A flying car or roadable aircraft is a vehicle which can travel on roads and in the air. It is both an aircraft and an automobile. All the working examples have required some manual or automated process of conversion between the two modes of operation. A slightly different concept that is sometimes referred to as a "flying car", particularly in science fiction, is that of an aircraft that would be practical enough for every day travel, but would not necessarily be drivable on the roads. http://www.theregister.co.uk/2007/10/10/transition_flying_car_quite_realistic/ History Early experiments Glenn Curtiss, the Wrights' chief rival, was the first to design a flying car. The first flying car to actually fly was built by Waldo Waterman. Waterman became associated with Curtiss while Curtiss was pioneering naval aviation at North Island on San Diego Bay in the 1910s. However, it was not until March 21, 1937 that Waterman's Aerobile first took to the air. The Aerobile was a development of Waterman's tailless aircraft, the Whatsit. It had a wingspan of 38 feet (11 m) and a length of 20 feet 6 inches (6.25 m). On the ground and in the air it was powered by a Studebaker engine. It could fly at 112 mph (180 km/h) and drive at 56 mph (90 km/h). In 1926, Henry Ford displayed an experimental single-seat aeroplane that he called the "sky flivver". The project was abandoned two years later when a test flight crashed, killing the pilot. Popular Science: Looking back at Henry Ford's Flivver: A plane-car for the man of average means, December 2001 Post-war development In the 1950s, the western world was recovering from World War II and everything seemed possible. The flying car was a vision of transportation in the 21st century, and a common feature of science fiction futures. Several designs (such as the Convair flying car) have flown, none have enjoyed commercial success and those that have flown are not widely known about by the general public. The most successful example, in that several were made and one is still flying, is the 1949 Taylor Aerocar. One notable design, Henry Smolinski's Mizar, made by mating the rear end of a Cessna Skymaster with a Ford Pinto, disintegrated during test flights, killing Smolinski and the pilot. In the 1950s, Ford Motor Company performed a serious feasibility study for a flying car product. They concluded that such a product was technically feasible, economically manufacturable, and had significant realistic markets. The markets explored included ambulance services, police and emergency services, military uses, and initially, luxury transportation. Some of these markets are now served by light helicopters. However, the flying car explored by Ford should have been at least fiftyfold less expensive. When Ford approached the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) about regulatory issues, the critical problem was that the (then) known forms of air traffic control were inadequate for the volume of traffic Ford proposed. At the time, air traffic control consisted of flight numbers, altitudes and headings written on little slips of paper and placed in a case. Quite possibly computerized traffic control, or some form of directional allocation by altitude could resolve the problems. Other problems would also need to be resolved in some ways, however, including intoxicated drivers or motorists that drive without a license. Furthermore, there would be serious concerns among the public in built up urban areas, that malfunctioning or incorrectly operated flying cars could crash into houses, shopping districts or pedestrian areas, severely damaging buildings or killing civilians. Historic flying cars and roadable aircraft Waterman Aerobile - 1937 two examples in museums as of 2004 Fulton Airphibian - 1946, one example in Canada Aviation Museum. Aerocar - 1949, one example still flying as of 2006; two examples in museums Aerauto PL.5C - early 1950s AVE Mizar - 1973, Cessna Skymaster/Ford Pinto hybrid. Crashed, killing developer. Roadable Times web site details many more. Modern development There is an active movement in the search for a practical flying car. Several conventions are held yearly to discuss and review current flying car projects. Two notable events are the Flying Car forum held at the world-famous EAA Airventure at Oshkosh, Wisconsin, and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) conventions held at various cities. Flying cars fall into one of two styles; integrated (all the pieces can be carried in the vehicle), or modular (the pieces to fly are left at the airport when the vehicle is driven). Current development examples A number of companies are developing vehicles. Few have demonstrated a full-sized vehicle capable of free flight. The Parajet Skycar utilises a paramotor for propulsion and a parafoil for lift. The main body consists of a modified dune buggy. It has a top speed of 80 mph and a maximum range of 180 miles in flight. On the ground it has a top speed of 112 mph and a maximum range of 249 miles. Parajet flew and drove its prototype from London to Timbuktu in January 2009. The company intends to produce a commercial version which would cost £50,000. Terrafugia, a private company founded by MIT graduates, is developing the Transition, Terrafugia, Inc a roadable aircraft that the company describes as a "Personal Air Vehicle". The aircraft can fold its wings in 30 seconds and drive the front wheels, enabling it to operate as a traditional road vehicle and as a general aviation aeroplane. The Transition "Personal Air Vehicle" is expected to be released to customers in late 2011. An operational prototype was displayed at Oshkosh in 2008 and its first flight occurred on 2009-03-05. The estimated purchase price is $194,000. Owners will drive the car from their garage to an airport where they will then be able to fly within a range of to . It will carry two people plus luggage and its Rotax 912S engine operates on a single tank of premium unleaded gas. StrongMobile's Magic Dragon Aircar StrongMobile "Magic Dragon" Flying Car Project has been developed by retired Air Force pilot-engineer Rich Strong over a 50-year period. The design uses an automobile-type lifting body fuselage and automotive suspension. Flight propulsion uses a front-mounted ducted fan with side outlets. Automatic conversion uses a combination of folding and swinging to stow the wings into the body. The current design envisions a core market of frequent regional business travellers whose time savings make using the StrongMobile virtually revenue neutral. LaBiche Aerospace's LaBiche FSC-1 LaBiche Aerospace: The FSC-1 is a developmental prototype Flying Car and is an example of a practical flying car capable of utilizing today's automotive and aviation infrastructure to provide true "door-to-door" travel. The vehicle can be parked in any garage or parking space available for cars. The FSC-1 is the first known vehicle capable of automatic conversion from aircraft to car at the touch of a button. LaBiche has flown a 1/10th scale model, tested a ¼-scale model and is currently finishing the FSC-1 prototype for road and air testing, as of 2006. Currently, the FSC-1 requires a pilot and driver's license to operate. However, upon approval from the FAA, development is underway for utilizing a new satellite-navigation "hands free" flight system to travel from airport to airport that will eliminate the need for a pilot's license. Numerous safety systems and fail safes are also employed on the FSC-1, such as a recovery parachute. The Haynes Aero Skyblazer Skyblazer Flying Car - a Roadable aircraft is a development stage vehicle that uses a single turbofan engine to provide thrust in the air and to generate electricity to power electric motors for ground travel. In "car mode", a patented mechanism allows the wings to fold into the body of the vehicle, which is designed to fit into a single car garage and regular parking space. In "aircraft mode" the vehicle will have STOL capabilities and be able to use almost any public use airfield. It is expected to have a top speed of and a range of . The skyblazer team has completed wind tunnel, stability and control testing and flown a 1/6th scale model. The Milner AirCar Milner Motors | Transforming Transportation is an advanced composite four-door, four-passenger roadable aircraft (flying car) with foldable main wing at the rear and foldable canard in the front. The AirCar has a wingspan of , maximum gross weight of and a total of from dual ducted fans. Cruise airspeed and range are expected to be for . After landing the wings fold to a width of so the vehicle can drive on public roads. A drive-able, but non-flyable prototype is complete. The Moller Skycar M400 ::Moller:: is a prototype personal VTOL (vertical take-off and landing) aircraft that some refer to as a flying car, although it cannot be driven as an automobile. However, the Skycar is a good demonstration of the technological barriers to developing the VTOL flying car. Moller International continues to develop the Skycar M400, which is powered by four pairs of in-tandem Wankel rotary engines, and is approaching the problems of satellite-navigation, incorporated in the proposed Small Aircraft Transportation System. Moller also advises that, currently, the Skycar would only be allowed to fly from airports & heliports. Moller has been developing VTOL craft since the late 1960s, but no Moller vehicle has ever achieved free flight out of ground effect. The proposed Autovolantor model has an all-electric version powered by Altairnano batteries. Urban Aeronautics' X-Hawk Urban Aeronautics is a VTOL aircraft which operates much like a tandem rotor helicopter, however it doesn't have the exposed rotors which make helicopters dangerous for personal use. This is accomplished by containing the rotors in large 'ducts' which make up most of the body of the craft; the requisite decrease in rotor size also decreases fuel efficiency. The X-Hawk is being promoted for rescue and utility functions. It is expected to be available for about $3 million around 2010. Macro Industries Skyrider, SkyRider Main Page is a prototype of a flying car developed by Macro industries, which is similar to the Moller Skycar except lighter. MotoPOD LLC, MotoPOD LLC Homepage advocates the combined use of airplanes and motorcycles to achieve door-to-door transportation. The company has developed a Motorcycle Pod that allows pilots to carry a street-legal motorcycle beneath their airplane. After landing, it takes only a few minutes to remove the motorcycle, unfold the handlebars and ride away. The company believes this modular solution will appeal to pilots who currently enjoy airplanes and motorcycles separately. PAL-V Europe BV: the PAL-V ONE PAL-V is a hybrid of a gyrocopter with a car. It has 3 wheels and a top speed of on land and air. It can run on petrol, biodisel or bio-ethanol and will cost $US75 000. The vehicle has a very short take of and vertical landing capability. At less than 70 decibels it is quieter than a helicopter due to the slower rotation of the main rotor. The PAL-V ONE has one seat. The Volante Aircraft. Flying Car from Volante Aircraft The Wolff AeroCycle. The Wolff AeroCycle is a motorcycle that can have the airplane parts attached in order to fly, and then detached to drive on the road. The SkyBike, SkyBike by SAMSON MOTORWORKS LLC is a three-wheel concept with telescoping wings. First introduced at AirVenture 2008, the SkyBike is to utilize a single Wankel rotary engine and ducted fan to keep the propeller out of harms way on the ground. The wheels and propeller are to be powered by the same engine, but wheel-power only to be utilized on the ground. Development is ongoing at Swift Engineering of San Clemente, with flying prototype targeted for 2009. A predicted top speed of 110 mph on the ground is nearly as fast as the anticipated 130 mph in the air. No parts are left at the airport after conversion from aircraft to ground vehicle, as the main wing and tail retract into the vehicle body. The vehicle leans into the turns on the ground, to impart the feeling of being 'flown' on the ground as well. See also Flying car (fiction) Future of the car Personal Air Vehicle CarterCopter Motorcycle Pod Intermodal passenger transport References External links Roadable Times - pictures and descriptions of over 70 designs of flying cars and roadable aircraft, past and present Waterman Aerobile at the Smithsonian Flying cars in 25 years (BBC News Online) How Flying Cars Will Work from HowStuffWorks Tales of Future Past X-Hawk from HowStuffWorks Future Flying Cars | Flying_car_(aircraft) |@lemmatized waterman:7 aerobile:5 smithsonian:2 fly:38 car:36 roadable:8 aircraft:18 vehicle:20 travel:5 road:6 air:13 automobile:3 work:2 example:7 require:2 manual:1 automated:1 process:1 conversion:4 two:7 mode:3 operation:1 slightly:1 different:1 concept:2 sometimes:1 refer:2 particularly:1 science:3 fiction:3 would:6 practical:3 enough:1 every:1 day:1 necessarily:1 drivable:1 http:1 www:1 theregister:1 co:1 uk:1 history:1 early:2 experiment:1 glenn:1 curtis:3 wright:1 chief:1 rival:1 first:6 design:7 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clemente:1 target:1 predicted:1 nearly:1 fast:1 anticipated:1 tail:1 retract:1 lean:1 turn:1 impart:1 feeling:1 well:1 see:1 cartercopter:1 intermodal:1 transport:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 picture:1 description:1 past:2 present:1 bbc:1 news:1 online:1 howstuffworks:2 tale:1 |@bigram car_roadable:4 roadable_aircraft:6 science_fiction:2 http_www:1 san_diego:1 mph_km:2 cessna_skymaster:2 ford_pinto:2 ford_motor:1 turbofan_engine:1 wankel_rotary:2 airport_heliport:1 vtol_aircraft:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 |
4,821 | Telecommunications_in_Cambodia | Communications in Cambodia, specifically the postal, telegraph and telegram services under the Ministry of Communications, Transport and Posts were restored throughout most of the country in the early 1980s during the People's Republic of Kampuchea regime after being disrupted under the Khmer Rouge. In January 1987, the Soviet-aided Intersputnik space communications station began operation in Phnom Penh and established two-way telecommunication links between the Cambodian capital and the cities of Moscow, Hanoi, Vientiane and Paris. The completion of the earth satellite station (built on the grounds of Phnom Penh's old Roman Catholic cathedral) restored the telephone and telex links among Phnom Penh, Hanoi, and other countries for the first time since 1975. Although telecommunications services were initially limited to the government, these advances in communications helped break down the country's isolation, both internally and internationally. Today, with the availability of mobile phones, communications are open to all, though the country's Prime Minister Hun Sen decreed that 3G mobile phones would be not be allowed to support video calling and did not ban them completely as previously reported on this page. Cellular communications towers and building in central Kompong Thom, Cambodia. Telephones The government state communications corporation is Telecom Cambodia, founded in 2006 as an expansion of the telecom operating department of the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications. Landline service in Phnom Penh and other provincial cities is available; mobile phone coverage is rapidly expanding in rural areas. International calling access is adequate but expensive. Landline and mobile service is available to all countries from Phnom Penh and major provincial cities. Main lines in use: 32,800 (2006) Mobile cellular: 2,500,000(2008) Satellite earth station - 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region) International access code: 855 Mobile networks Cam GSM (MobiTel, 012, 092, 017, 089) Cambodia Advance Communication Co.Ltd (Cadcomms (013,080,083, 084) Mfone Co. Ltd. (Mfone, 011, 099, 085) GT-Tell (Cambodia) Investment Company Ltd. - (Excell, 018) Metfone (097) one of the Viettel brand Star-Cell (098) Telekom Malaysia International (Cambodia) Co., Ltd - TMIC (Hello GSM, 016, 015, 081) Latelz Co.,LTD (010,093) Beeline (090) Radio Broadcast stations Phnom Penh Apsara Radio FM 97 MHz National Radio Kampuchea (RNK) Phnom Penh Radio FM 103 MHz Radio Beehive FM 105 MHz Radio FM 90.5 MHz Radio FM 99 MHz Voice of America Khmer Radio Free Asia Radio Khmer FM 107 MHz Radio Love FM 97.5 MHz Royal Cambodia Armed Forces Radio FM 98 MHz Women's Media Centre (WMC) Radio FM 102 MHz Provincial, municipal stations There are radio stations in each of the following provinces or municipalities: Banteay Meanchey, Battambang Province, Kampot Province, Kandal Province, Kampong Cham Province, Kampong Thom Province, Pailin, Preah Vihear Province, Siem Reap, Sihanoukville and Svay Rieng Province Television Broadcast stations Nationwide 11 (including two TV relay stations with French and Vietnamese broadcasts); 12 regional low power TV stations (2006) Phnom Penh broadcast and cable television stations Apsara Television (TV11) Bayon Television Cambodia Cable Television (CCTV) Cambodian Television Network (CTN) National Television of Cambodia (TVK) Phnom Penh Municipal Cable Television (PPCTV) Phnom Penh Television (TV3) Royal Cambodia Armed Forces Television (TV5) DTV STAR Provincial television stations Kandal Province - Broadcasting on channel 27, Bayon Television is Cambodia's only UHF channel. A private television company belonging to Prime Minister Hun Sen, it also operates Bayon Radio FM 95 MHz. It was established in January 1998. Mondulkiri - Established in 1999, relays TVK on channel 10. Preah Vihear - Established in 2006, broadcasts on channel 7. Ratanakiri - Established in 1993, relays TVK on channel 7. Siem Reap - Established in 2002, relays TV3 on channel 12. Internet Internet service providers Internet service providers in Cambodia include: Camintel, Telecom Cambodia's Camnet, Camshin.net, Citylink Everyday, Online, TeleSURF, AngkorNet, PPCTV Broadband Internet Service, iS1 Internet Service, and DTV STAR . Internet hosts 1,315 (2005) Internet users 41,000 (2005) Country code Top-level domain: KH See also Cinema of Cambodia Current events in Southeast Asia Media of Cambodia Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, Cambodia References "3G phones banned in anti-porn drive", Reuters, May 26, 2006. External links Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications Cambodia Cultural Profile (Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts/Visiting Arts) | Telecommunications_in_Cambodia |@lemmatized communication:8 cambodia:17 specifically:1 postal:1 telegraph:1 telegram:1 service:8 ministry:5 transport:1 post:4 restore:2 throughout:1 country:6 early:1 people:1 republic:1 kampuchea:2 regime:1 disrupt:1 khmer:3 rouge:1 january:2 soviet:1 aid:1 intersputnik:2 space:1 station:11 begin:1 operation:1 phnom:10 penh:10 establish:6 two:2 way:1 telecommunication:5 link:3 cambodian:2 capital:1 city:3 moscow:1 hanoi:2 vientiane:1 paris:1 completion:1 earth:2 satellite:2 build:1 ground:1 old:1 roman:1 catholic:1 cathedral:1 telephone:2 telex:1 among:1 first:1 time:1 since:1 although:1 initially:1 limit:1 government:2 advance:2 help:1 break:1 isolation:1 internally:1 internationally:1 today:1 availability:1 mobile:6 phone:4 open:1 though:1 prime:2 minister:2 hun:2 sen:2 decree:1 would:1 allow:1 support:1 video:1 call:2 ban:2 completely:1 previously:1 report:1 page:1 cellular:2 tower:1 building:1 central:1 kompong:1 thom:2 state:1 corporation:1 telecom:3 found:1 expansion:1 operate:2 department:1 landline:2 provincial:4 available:2 coverage:1 rapidly:1 expand:1 rural:1 area:1 international:3 access:2 adequate:1 expensive:1 major:1 main:1 line:1 use:1 indian:1 ocean:1 region:1 code:2 network:2 cam:1 gsm:2 mobitel:1 co:4 ltd:5 cadcomms:1 mfone:2 gt:1 tell:1 investment:1 company:2 excell:1 metfone:1 one:1 viettel:1 brand:1 star:3 cell:1 telekom:1 malaysia:1 tmic:1 hello:1 latelz:1 beeline:1 radio:14 broadcast:5 apsara:2 fm:10 mhz:10 national:2 rnk:1 beehive:1 voice:1 america:1 free:1 asia:2 love:1 royal:2 arm:2 force:2 woman:1 medium:2 centre:1 wmc:1 municipal:2 following:1 province:9 municipality:1 banteay:1 meanchey:1 battambang:1 kampot:1 kandal:2 kampong:2 cham:1 pailin:1 preah:2 vihear:2 siem:2 reap:2 sihanoukville:1 svay:1 rieng:1 television:13 nationwide:1 include:2 tv:2 relay:4 french:1 vietnamese:1 regional:1 low:1 power:1 cable:3 bayon:3 cctv:1 ctn:1 tvk:3 ppctv:2 dtv:2 broadcasting:1 channel:6 uhf:1 private:1 belong:1 also:2 mondulkiri:1 ratanakiri:1 internet:7 provider:2 camintel:1 camnet:1 camshin:1 net:1 citylink:1 everyday:1 online:1 telesurf:1 angkornet:1 broadband:1 host:1 user:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 kh:1 see:1 cinema:1 current:1 event:1 southeast:1 reference:1 anti:1 porn:1 drive:1 reuters:1 may:1 external:1 cultural:1 profile:1 culture:1 fine:1 art:2 visit:1 |@bigram khmer_rouge:1 phnom_penh:10 mobile_phone:3 prime_minister:2 hun_sen:2 landline_mobile:1 mobile_cellular:1 siem_reap:2 broadband_internet:1 southeast_asia:1 external_link:1 |
4,822 | Alan_Kay | Alan Curtis Kay (born May 17, 1940) is an American computer scientist, known for his early pioneering work on object-oriented programming and windowing graphical user interface design. He is the president of the Viewpoints Research Institute, and an Adjunct Professor of Computer Science at the University of California, Los Angeles. He is also on the advisory board of TTI/Vanguard. Until mid 2005, he was a Senior Fellow at HP Labs, a Visiting Professor at Kyoto University, and an Adjunct Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). HP converting storied garage into recycling center | Good Morning Silicon Valley - Posted by John Paczkowski on July 21st, 2005 Early life and work Originally from Springfield, Massachusetts, Kay attended the University of Colorado at Boulder, earning a Bachelor's degree in Mathematics and Molecular Biology. Before and during this time, he worked as a professional jazz guitarist. In 1966, he began graduate school at the University of Utah College of Engineering, earning a Master's degree and a Ph.D. degree. There, he worked with Ivan Sutherland, who had done pioneering graphics programs including Sketchpad. This greatly inspired Kay's evolving views on objects and programming. As he grew busier with ARPA research, he quit his career as a professional musician. In 1968, he met Seymour Papert and learned of the Logo programming language, a dialect of Lisp optimized for educational use. This led him to learn of the work of Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky, and of Constructionist learning. These further influenced his views. In 1970, Kay joined Xerox Corporation's Palo Alto Research Center, PARC. In the 1970s he was one of the key members there to develop prototypes of networked workstations using the programming language Smalltalk. These inventions were later commercialized by Apple Computer in their Lisa and Macintosh computers. Kay is one of the fathers of the idea of object-oriented programming, which he named, along with some colleagues at PARC and predecessors at the Norwegian Computing Center. He conceived the Dynabook concept which defined the conceptual basics for laptop and tablet computers and E-books, and is the architect of the modern overlapping windowing graphical user interface (GUI) . Because the Dynabook was conceived as an educational platform, Kay is considered to be one of the first researchers into mobile learning, and indeed, many features of the Dynabook concept have been adopted in the design of the One Laptop Per Child educational platform, with which Kay is actively involved. After 10 years at Xerox PARC, Kay became Atari's chief scientist for three years. Recent work and recognition Starting in 1984, Kay was an Apple Fellow at Apple Computer until the closing of the ATG (Advanced Technology Group), one of the company's R&D divisions. He then joined Walt Disney Imagineering as a Disney Fellow and remained there until Disney ended its Disney Fellow program. After Disney, in 2001 he founded Viewpoints Research Institute, a non-profit organization dedicated to children, learning, and advanced software development. Later, Kay worked with a team at Applied Minds, then became a Senior Fellow at Hewlett-Packard until HP disbanded the Advanced Software Research Team on July 20 2005. He is currently head of Viewpoints Institute. Squeak, Etoys, and Croquet In December 1995, when he was still at Apple, Kay collaborated with many others to start the open source Squeak dynamic media software, and he continues to work on it. In this time, in November 1996, his team began research on what became the Etoys system. More recently he started, along with David A. Smith, David P. Reed, Andreas Raab, Rick McGeer, Julian Lombardi, and Mark McCahill, the Croquet Project, which is an open source networked 2D and 3D environment for collaborative work. Tweak In 2001, it became clear that the Etoy architecture in Squeak had reached its limits in what the Morphic interface infrastructure could do. Andreas Raab was a researcher working in Kay's group, then at Hewlett-Packard. He proposed defining a "script process" and providing a default scheduling mechanism that avoids several more general problems . The result was a new user interface, proposed to replace the Squeak Morphic user interface in the future. Tweak added mechanisms of islands, asynchronous messaging, players and costumes, language extensions, projects, and tile scripting . Its underlying object system is class-based, but to users (during programming) it acts like it is prototype-based. Tweak objects are created and run in Tweak project windows. Children's Machine In November 2005, at the World Summit on the Information Society, the MIT research laboratories unveiled a new laptop computer, for educational use around the world. It has many names: the $100 Laptop, the One Laptop per Child program, the Children's Machine, and the XO-1. The program was begun and is sustained by Kay's friend, Nicholas Negroponte, and is based on Kay's Dynabook ideal. Kay is a prominent co-developer of the computer, focusing on its educational software using Squeak and Etoys. Reinventing programming Kay has lectured extensively on the idea that the Computer Revolution is very new, and all of the good ideas have not been universally implemented. Lectures at OOPSLA 1997 conference and his ACM Turing award talk, entitled "The Computer Revolution Hasn't Happened Yet" were informed by his experiences with Sketchpad, Simula, Smalltalk, and the bloated code of commercial software. On 31 August 2006, Kay's proposal to the United States National Science Foundation, NSF, was granted, thus funding Viewpoints Research Institute for several years. The proposal title is: Steps Toward the Reinvention of Programming: A compact and Practical Model of Personal Computing as a Self-exploratorium Proposal to NSF – Granted on August 31st 2006 - Steps Toward The Reinvention of Programming - A Compact And Practical Model of Personal Computing As A Self-Exploratorium - Alan Kay, Dan Ingalls, Yoshiki Ohshima, Ian Piumarta, Andreas Raab] . A sense of what Kay is trying to do comes from this quote, from the abstract of a seminar on this given at Intel Research Labs, Berkeley: "The conglomeration of commercial and most open source software consumes in the neighborhood of several hundreds of millions of lines of code these days. We wonder: how small could be an understandable practical "Model T" design that covers this functionality? 1M lines of code? 200K LOC? 100K LOC? 20K LOC?" The system being developed makes extensive use of parsing via a bottom up rewrite grammar . Besides Kay, several key persons are working on this effort. Ted Kaehler and Dan Ingalls are former Xerox PARC researchers who have worked with Kay for decades; Ingalls now works at Sun Microsystems. Ian Piumarta is a former INRIA researcher , with Alessandro (Alex) Warth, a UCLA Ph.D. computer science student ; both now work at Viewpoints. Piumarta's work is documented on his website , and includes the Virtual Virtual Machine, a multi-language, hardware independent execution platform . Andreas Raab led the Tweak effort while working at Impara GmbH Impara GmbH , he now works for Qwaq Inc Qwaq Inc . Yoshiki Ohshima , a former student at Tokyo Institute of Technology, ported Squeak to Sharp Zaurus, maintains the iPAQ port, and made a multilingual Squeak. Awards and honors Alan Kay has received many awards and honors. Among them: 2001: UdK 01-Award UdK 01-Award in Berlin, Germany for pioneering the GUI; J-D Warnier Prix D'Informatique; NEC C&C Prize. 2002: Telluride Tech Festival Award of Technology in Telluride, Colorado. 2003: ACM Turing Award for work on object-oriented programming. 2004: Kyoto Prize; Charles Stark Draper Prize with Butler W. Lampson, Robert W. Taylor and Charles P. Thacker. Honorary doctorates: 2002: Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan (Royal Institute of Technology) in Stockholm. 2005: Georgia Institute of Technology. 2005: Columbia College Chicago. 2007: Laurea Honoris Causa in Informatica - Università di Pisa, Italy. 2008: University of Waterloo Honorary Professor, Berlin University of the Arts. Elected Fellow of: American Academy of Arts and Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, Royal Society of Arts, Computer History Museum, Association for Computing Machinery (2008). Other honors: J-D Warnier Prix d’Informatique, ACM Systems Software Award, NEC Computers & Communication Foundation Prize, Funai Foundation Prize, Lewis Branscomb Technology Award, ACM SIGCSE Award for Outstanding Contributions to Computer Science Education. Personal background Kay is an avid and skilled musician who plays keyboard instruments and guitar. He has a special interest in early keyboard instruments like the baroque pipe organ and old guitars. He was a former professional jazz and rock and roll guitarist. He is married to Bonnie MacBird, a writer, actress, artist and television producer who shares his passion for music. References Articles "Computers, Networks and Education" - Scientific American Special Issue on Communications, Computers, and Networks, September, 1991. External links TED Talks: Alan Kay shares a powerful idea about ideas at TED in 2007 Alan Kay biography Detailed Alan Kay bibliography Personal Dynamic Media – By Alan Kay and Adele Goldberg Doing with Images Makes Symbols: Communicating with Computers Video lecture by Alan Kay with lots of examples of early graphic user interfaces The Computer "Revolution" Hasn't Happened Yet! talk at EDUCOM 1998 (computers in education) Predicting the Future remarks from 1989 Stanford Computer Forum Education in the Digital Age talk A Conversation with Alan Kay Big talk with the creator of Smalltalk—and much more. From Dynabook to Squeak - A Study in Survivals listof links tracing the evolution of Kay's vision The Early History of Smalltalk The Best Way to Predict the Future is to Prevent It The $100 Laptop, Learners, and Powerful Ideas Association for Computing Machinery Video Interview with Alan Kay Turing Award lecture: "The Computer Revolution Hasn't Happened Yet" Diamond Management and Technology Consultants , where Alan is a board member. Viewpoints Research Institute Transcript: The Computer Revolution Hasn't Happened Yet, OOPSLA 1997 Alan Kay's Viewpoints from Black and White Program Alan Kay on Education (His comments on Mark Guzdial Blog) | Alan_Kay |@lemmatized alan:13 curtis:1 kay:33 bear:1 may:1 american:3 computer:22 scientist:2 know:1 early:5 pioneering:1 work:18 object:6 orient:3 programming:6 windowing:2 graphical:2 user:6 interface:5 design:3 president:1 viewpoint:7 research:10 institute:9 adjunct:2 professor:4 science:5 university:6 california:1 los:1 angeles:1 also:1 advisory:1 board:2 tti:1 vanguard:1 mid:1 senior:2 fellow:6 hp:3 lab:2 visiting:1 kyoto:2 massachusetts:2 technology:8 mit:2 convert:1 storied:1 garage:1 recycle:1 center:3 good:2 morning:1 silicon:1 valley:1 post:1 john:1 paczkowski:1 july:2 life:1 originally:1 springfield:1 attend:1 colorado:2 boulder:1 earn:2 bachelor:1 degree:3 mathematics:1 molecular:1 biology:1 time:2 professional:3 jazz:2 guitarist:2 begin:3 graduate:1 school:1 utah:1 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4,823 | Metallocene | A metallocene is a compound with the general formula (C5H5)2M consisting of two cyclopentadienyl anions (Cp, which is C5H5-) bound to a metal center (M) in the oxidation state II. Closely related to the metallocenes are the metallocene derivatives, e.g. titanocene dichloride. Certain metallocenes and their derivatives exhibit catalytic properties, although metallocenes are rarely used industrially. Cationic group 4 metallocene derivatives related to [Cp2ZrCH3]+ catalyze olefin polymerization. Metallocenes are a subset of a broader class of organometallic compounds called sandwich compounds. In the structure shown at right, the two pentagons are the cyclopentadienyl anions with circles inside them indicating they are aromatically stabilized. Here they are shown in a staggered conformation. Definition The general name metallocene is derived from ferrocene, (C5H5)2Fe or Cp2Fe , systematically named bis(η5-cyclopentadienyl)iron(II). According to the IUPAC definition, a metallocene contains a transition metal and two cyclopentadienyl ligands coordinated in a sandwich structure, i. e., the two cyclopentadienyl anions are co-planar with equal bond lengths and strengths. Using the nomenclature of "hapticity," the equivalent bonding of all 5 carbon atoms of a cyclopentadienyl ring is denoted as η5, pronounced "pentahapto." In metallocene names, the prefix before the -ocene ending indicates what metallic element is between the Cp groups. For example in ferrocene, iron(II) or ferrous is present. In contrast to the more strict definition proposed by IUPAC, which requires a d-block metal and a sandwich structure, the term metallocene and thus the denotation -ocene, is applied in the chemical literature also to non-transition metal compounds, such as Cp2Ba, or structures where the aromatic rings are not co-planar, such as found in manganocene or titanocene dichloride, Cp2TiCl2. Physical properties and structures of metallocenes A notable feature of some metallocenes is their high thermal stability. Charge-neutral metallocenes are soluble in common organic solvents and can generally be purified by vacuum sublimation. In metallocenes of the type (C5R5)2M, the two cyclopentadienyl rings can be either eclipsed or staggered, as indicated by single crystal X-ray diffraction studies. For non-substituted metallocenes the energy difference between the staggered and eclipsed conformations is only a few kJ/mol. Ferrocene and osmocene exhibit eclipsed conformations at low temperatures, whereas in the related bis(pentamethylcyclopentadienyl) complexes the rings are in a staggered conformation to minimize steric hindrance between the methyl groups. Derivatives ansa metallocenes: Derivatives of metallocenes include structures with an intramolecular bridge between the two cyclopentadienyl rings (ansa-metallocenes) Triple decker complexes: compounds with three Cp anions and two metal cations in alternating order, e.g. [Ni2Cp3]+. metallocenium cations: the most famous example is ferrocenium, [Fe(C5H5)2]+, derived from oxidation of ferrocene. References Robert H. Crabtree The Organometallic Chemistry of the Transition Metals 4th ed. Wiley-Interscience: 2005. | Metallocene |@lemmatized metallocene:7 compound:5 general:2 formula:1 consist:1 two:7 cyclopentadienyl:8 anion:4 cp:3 bound:1 metal:6 center:1 oxidation:2 state:1 ii:3 closely:1 related:2 metallocenes:12 derivative:5 e:3 g:2 titanocene:2 dichloride:2 certain:1 exhibit:2 catalytic:1 property:2 although:1 rarely:1 use:2 industrially:1 cationic:1 group:3 relate:1 catalyze:1 olefin:1 polymerization:1 subset:1 broad:1 class:1 organometallic:2 call:1 sandwich:3 structure:6 show:2 right:1 pentagon:1 circle:1 inside:1 indicate:3 aromatically:1 stabilize:1 staggered:3 conformation:4 definition:3 name:3 derive:2 ferrocene:4 systematically:1 bi:2 iron:2 accord:1 iupac:2 contain:1 transition:3 ligand:1 coordinate:1 co:2 planar:2 equal:1 bond:1 length:1 strength:1 nomenclature:1 hapticity:1 equivalent:1 bonding:1 carbon:1 atom:1 ring:5 denote:1 pronounce:1 pentahapto:1 prefix:1 ocene:2 end:1 metallic:1 element:1 example:2 ferrous:1 present:1 contrast:1 strict:1 propose:1 require:1 block:1 term:1 thus:1 denotation:1 apply:1 chemical:1 literature:1 also:1 non:2 aromatic:1 find:1 manganocene:1 physical:1 notable:1 feature:1 high:1 thermal:1 stability:1 charge:1 neutral:1 soluble:1 common:1 organic:1 solvent:1 generally:1 purify:1 vacuum:1 sublimation:1 type:1 either:1 eclipse:1 stagger:1 single:1 crystal:1 x:1 ray:1 diffraction:1 study:1 substitute:1 energy:1 difference:1 eclipsed:2 kj:1 mol:1 osmocene:1 low:1 temperature:1 whereas:1 pentamethylcyclopentadienyl:1 complexes:1 minimize:1 steric:1 hindrance:1 methyl:1 ansa:2 include:1 intramolecular:1 bridge:1 triple:1 decker:1 complex:1 three:1 cation:2 alternate:1 order:1 metallocenium:1 famous:1 ferrocenium:1 fe:1 reference:1 robert:1 h:1 crabtree:1 chemistry:1 ed:1 wiley:1 interscience:1 |@bigram closely_related:1 organometallic_compound:1 staggered_conformation:2 carbon_atom:1 aromatic_ring:1 organic_solvent:1 ray_diffraction:1 kj_mol:1 steric_hindrance:1 organometallic_chemistry:1 wiley_interscience:1 |
4,824 | Edward_de_Vere,_17th_Earl_of_Oxford | Edward de Vere - 17th Earl of Oxford - from an engraving by J. Brown after G.P. Harding 1575 Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford (12 April 1550 – 24 June 1604) was an Elizabethan courtier, playwright, poet, sportsman, patron of numerous writers, and sponsor of at least two acting companies, Oxford's Men and Oxford's Boys, http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/deverebio.htm and a company of musicians. http://link.library.utoronto.ca/reed/troupehits.cfm?PeopleListID=550 He was born at Castle Hedingham to the 16th Earl of Oxford and the former Margery Golding. Oxford is most famous today as the strongest alternative candidate proposed for the authorship of Shakespeare's plays, Edward de Vere, 17th earl of Oxford - Britannica Online Encyclopedia a claim that most historians and literary scholars reject but which is supported by a number of researchers and theatre practitioners. For further information on this topic, see Oxfordian theory. Early life After his father died unexpectedly on 3 August 1562, the twelve-year-old Lord Bulbeck (as he had been styled from birth) became the 17th Earl of Oxford and Lord Great Chamberlain of England. At some point during the next fourteen months his mother married a Gentleman Pensioner and former horse-master for the Dudley family named Charles Tyrell. Letter from the Dowager Countess of Oxford to William Cecil dated 11 October 1563, thanking him for his “Gentylnes and fatherlye fryndshyppe towerdes my Sunne”, in which she referred to herself and “Mr Tyrell” in a domestic matter as “wee … bothe” and “vs boothe”, i.e., “we … both” and “us both” (British Library MS Lansdowne 6/34, fos. 96-7). Control of the young Lord Oxford's ancestral lands was granted to the Earl of Leicester by Queen Elizabeth I. While still a minor, Oxford was made a royal ward and was placed in the household of Sir William Cecil (later Lord Burghley), the Lord High Treasurer, a member of Queen Elizabeth's Privy Council, and her closest and most trusted advisor. In view of Oxford's theatrical activities, it is interesting to note that Lord Burghley is regarded by most Elizabethan scholars as the prototype for the character of Polonius in Hamlet. Under Burghley's stewardship, Oxford was trained in French, Latin, writing and drawing, cosmography, music and dance, horsemanship, combat, falconry, and hunting. His known tutors included the classical scholar and diplomat Sir Thomas Smith, and Laurence Nowell, one of the founding fathers of Anglo-Saxon studies. Nowell was hired to tutor Oxford in 1563, the same year that Nowell signed his name on the only known copy of the Beowulf manuscript (also known as the "Nowell Codex"). There has been speculation, not without reason, that Oxford was taught Latin by his maternal uncle, Arthur Golding, and may have even assisted him in the first English translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses. Charlton Ogburn, The Mystery of Willam Shakespeare, 1984, pgs384-393 In 1564, while both were living at Burghley House, Golding wrote of his young nephew in the dedicatory epistle to Th’ Abridgement of the Histories of Trogus Pompeius, collected and written in the Latin tongue by the famous historiographer Justin: "It is not unknown to others, and I have had experience thereof myself, how earnest a desire Your Honor hath naturally graffed in you to read, peruse, and communicate with others, as well as the histories of ancient times and things done long ago, as also the present estate of things in our days, and that not without a certain pregnancy of wit and ripeness of understanding." (STC 24290) Court years Oxford entered the Royal Court in the late 1560s, upon which one contemporary wrote that he would have surpassed all other courtiers in the Queen's favour, were it not for his "fickle head". Oxford nevertheless gained great favour and went on to become a tilting champion in several Elizabethan tournaments. He obtained a bachelor's degree from the University of Cambridge in 1564, a master's degree from the University of Oxford in 1566, and legal training at Gray's Inn circa 1567. Stratfordian Alan Nelson, an Oxford biographer, claims that Oxford's university degrees were “unearned” and that “no academic accomplishment or desert is to be imputed to any recipient” who was so-honored at the foregoing commencements, although most Oxford biographers disagree with that assessment and point to what John Brooke had to say of Oxford in his dedicatory epistle of The Staff of Christian Faith, published in 1577: "For if in the opinion of all men, there can be found no one more fitte, for patronage and defence of learning, then the skilfull: for that he is both wyse and able to iudge and discerne truly thereof. I vnderstanding righte well that your honor hathe continually, euen from your tender yeares, bestowed your time and trauayle towards the attayning of the same, as also the vniuersitie of Cambridge hath acknowledged in graunting and giuing vnto you such commendation and prayse thereof, as verily by righte was due vnto your excellent vertue and rare learning. Wherin verily Cambridge the mother of learning, and learned men, hath openly confessed: and in this hir confessing made knowen vnto al men, that your honor being learned and able to iudge as a safe harbor and defence of learning, and therefore one most fitte to whose honorable patronage I might safely commit this my poore and simple labours." (STC 12476) On 23 July 1567, the seventeen-year-old Oxford killed an unarmed under-cook by the name of Thomas Brincknell while practicing fencing with Edward Baynam, a merchant tailor, in the backyard of Cecil's house in the Strand. In the ensuing trial it was alleged the victim had run upon the point of Oxford's sword and was thereby condemned as a suicide. (Interestingly, the English chronicler and Shakespeare source Raphael Holinshed was one of the jurors at this trial.) In an arranged wedding on 19 December 1571, Oxford married Lord Burghley's fifteen-year-old daughter, Anne Cecil — a surprising choice since Oxford was of the oldest nobility in the kingdom whereas Anne was not originally of noble birth, her father having only been raised to the peerage that year by Queen Elizabeth to enable the marriage of social inequals. At the age of twenty-one, Oxford regained control of some of his ancestral lands. His marriage produced five children, including three daughters who survived infancy. The Earl's three daughters all married into the peerage: Elizabeth married the Earl of Derby; Bridget married the Earl of Berkshire; Susan married the Earl of Montgomery, one of the “INCOMPARABLE PAIRE OF BRETHREN” to whom William Shakespeare's First Folio would be dedicated. He toured France, Germany and Italy in 1575, and was thought to be of Roman Catholic sympathies, as were many of the old nobility. On his return across the English Channel, Oxford's ship was hijacked by pirates, who stripped him naked, apparently with the intention of murdering him, until they were made aware of his noble status, upon which he was allowed to go free, albeit without most of his possessions. Further controversy ensued after he found that his wife had given birth to a daughter during his journey, and separated from her on grounds of adultery, complaining that she had become "the fable of the world". Francis Osborne (1593–1659) included a bed-trick anecdote about Oxford in his Historical Memoires on the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James (1658). According to Osborne (who had been a servant to the Herberts), the Earl of Montgomery was struck in the face by a Scottish courtier named Ramsey at a horse race at Croydon. Montgomery, who did not strike back, "was left nothing to testifie his Manhood but a Beard and Children, by that Daughter of the last great Earl of Oxford, whose Lady was brought to his Bed under the notion of his Mistress, and from such a vertuous deceit she [that is, Montgomery's wife] is said to proceed." In 1580, Oxford accused several of his Catholic friends of treason, and denounced them to the Queen, asking mercy for his own Catholicism, which he repudiated. These same friends in turn denounced Oxford, accusing him of a laundry list of crimes, including plotting to murder a host of courtiers, such as Sir Philip Sidney and the Earl of Leicester. The charges were not taken seriously, although Oxford never completely recovered the Queen's favour and his reputation was thereafter tarnished. He fathered an illegitimate child by Anne Vavasour, Sir Edward Vere, in 1581, and was briefly imprisoned in the Tower of London. The illicit congress with Vavasour led to a prolonged quarrel with Sir Thomas Knyvett, her uncle, resulting in three deaths and several other injuries. Oxford himself was seriously wounded in one of the duels, possibly leading to the "lameness" mentioned later in several of his letters. The imbroglio was put to an end when the Queen threatened to jail all those involved. By Christmas of 1581, Oxford had reconciled with Anne Cecil and once again cohabited with her. Later years Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford In 1585, Lord Oxford was given a military command in the Netherlands, and served during the Battle of the Spanish Armada in 1588. His first wife Anne Cecil died in 1588 at the age of 32. In 1591, Oxford married Elizabeth Trentham, one of the Queen's Maids of Honour. This marriage produced his heir, Henry, Lord Vere, later the 18th Earl of Oxford. Mismanagement of Oxford's finances reduced him to penury, and in 1586 he was granted an annual pension of £1,000 by the Queen, which continued to be paid by her successor, King James I. It has been suggested that the annuity may also have been granted for his services in maintaining a group of writers and a company of actors (from 1580), and that the obscurity of his later life is to be explained by his immersion in literary and dramatic pursuits. He was indeed a notable patron of writers including Edmund Spenser, as well as Arthur Golding, Robert Greene, Thomas Churchyard, Thomas Watson and John Lyly (author of the novel Euphues), and Anthony Munday, both whom he employed as secretaries for many years. http://www.authorshipstudies.org/articles/oxford_shakespeare.cfm Interestingly, orthodox scholars have named both Lyly and Munday as Shakespearean sources. In 1603, Oxford was granted his decades-long suit for the Stewardship of Waltham Forest and Havering-atte-Bower, but enjoyed the privilege for less than a year. He died in 1604 of unknown causes at King's Hold, Hackney Wick, Middlesex, England, and was apparently buried at Hackney, although his cousin, Percival Golding (son of Arthur Golding), reported a few years later that he was buried at Westminster Abbey. Writing Oxford was described as both a poet and a playwright in his own lifetime, but little of his poetry, Elizabethan Authors - Poems of Edward de Vere and none of his plays has survived, at least under his own name, bearing in mind the testament of the anonymously published Arte of English Poesie (1589), in which the author, possibly George Puttenham, observed: "So as I know very many notable gentlemen in the Court that have written commendably and suppressed it agayne, or els sufred it to be publisht without their own names to it, as it were a discredit for a gentleman, to seeme learned, and to show himselfe amorous of any good Art." Further along in the book, the author continued: "And in her Majesties time that now is are sprong up an other crew of Courtly makers Noble men and Gentlemen of her Majesties owne servauntes, who have written excellently well as it would appeare if their doings could be found out and made publicke with the rest, of which number is first that noble Gentleman Edward Earle of Oxford” (STC 20519). Oxford's status as a dramatist is also based on the testimony of Francis Meres, in whose Palladis Tamia (1598) Oxford is listed among "the best for comedy" (STC 17834). Only a small corpus of Oxford’s poems and songs are extant under his own name, the dates of which (and, in some cases, the authorship) are uncertain; most of these are signed "Earle of Oxenforde" or "E.O.". The Poems of Edward de Vere During his lifetime, Oxford was lauded by other English poets, though mostly in regard to his patronage (for example, see one of the epistolary sonnets to Edmund Spenser's Faerie Queene). Oxford’s existing letters are focused mainly on business affairs concerning such matters as the Cornish tin monopoly and his ongoing desire for several royal monopolies and stewardships. Oxford Letters (oxlets) Oxford maintained both adult and children's theatre companies, and a letter from the Privy Council in March 1602 shows his active involvement on behalf of a "third" acting company who liked to play at "the Bores head": Chambers, Elizabethan Stage, Vol. 4, p. 334, cxxx. "beinge joyned by agreement togeather in on Companie (to whom, upon noteice of her Maiesties pleasure at the suit of the Earl of Oxford, tolleracion hath ben thought meete to be graunted, notwithstandinge the restraint of our said former Orders), doe no tye them selfs to one certaine place and howse, but do chainge their place at there owne disposition, which is as disorderly and offensive as the former offence of many howses, and as the other Companies that are allowed . . . be appointed there certine howses and one and no more to each Company. Soe we do straighly require that this third Companie be likewise to one place and because we are informed the house called the Bores head is the place they have especially used and doe best like of, we doe pray and require yow that the said howse . . . may be assigned to them, and that they be very straightlie Charged to use and exercise there plays in no other but that howse, as they looke to have that tolleracion continued and avoid farther displeasure." Two of Oxford’s “literary” letters were published in 1571 (1572 (New style)) and 1573. The first of these was written in Latin as a dedicatory epistle to Bartholomew Clerke's Latin translation of Baldassare Castiglione’s Il Cortegiano (The Courtier), while the second, written in English with accompanying verses, was an epistle to Thomas Bedingfield's English translation of Cardanus' Comfort (from the Latin of De consolatione libri tres by the Italian mathematician and physician Girolamo Cardano). The latter book, published at Oxford’s command, has sometimes been cited by scholars as “Hamlet’s book” (possibly the same book where Hamlet found “words, words, words”) due to several close verbal parallels between it and Shakespeare’s play, particularly a passage on the unsavoriness of old men’s company, to which Hamlet seems to refer in his satirical banter with Polonius (re: plum-tree gum, plentiful lack of wit, most weak hams, etc), as well a passage with remarkable similarities to Hamlet’s “To be, or not to be” soliloquy. The Shakespearean authorship question The Shakespeare authorship question is the debate, dating back to the 18th century, about whether the works attributed to William Shakespeare of Stratford-upon-Avon were actually written by another writer, or a group of writers. In 1920, J. Thomas Looney advanced the hypothesis that Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford, was the actual author of Shakespeare's plays due to: Oxford's advanced education; knowledge of aristocratic life, the military and the law; background in the theatre; the praise accorded Oxford's plays and poems; and abundant similarities between Oxford's life and the plays. According to the hypothesis, Oxford had no choice but to publish under a pseudonym, since it would have been considered disgraceful for an aristocrat to be writing for the public theatre, a claim considered by Renaissance scholar Steven W. May, to be incongruous with Elizabethan print histories, but which has been defended by both orthodox scholars ("Stratfordians", in the jargon of Oxfordians) and anti-Stratfordians (those who doubt the standard theory of Shakespeare authorship). Oxfordian researcher Diana Price states, "Many members on the top rungs of the Tudor aristocracy had outstanding reputations as poets. But none of them published their creative work. The earl of Surrey's attributed poems were published in miscellanies after his death. None of Sir Philip Sidney, Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir Edward Dyer, and Sir Fulke Greville, all of whom also earned reputations as writers, published his work either. Like those of their social betters, the relatively few poems that appeared in print turned up in miscellanies". Shakespeare's Unorthodox Biography - New Evidence of an Authorship Problem by Diana Price Notable Oxfordians include Sigmund Freud, diplomat and Presidential Medal of Freedom recipient Paul Nitze, Supreme Court Justices Harry Blackmun and John Paul Stevens, columnist Joseph Sobran, former British judge Christmas Humphreys, biographer and historian David McCullough, as well as actors Orson Welles, Sir John Gielgud, Michael York, Jeremy Irons, Mark Rylance (former Artistic Director of the Globe Theatre) and Sir Derek Jacobi, who supports the "group theory" with Oxford as the lead writer. Honor Roll of Skeptics Debate over the Oxfordian theory of Shakespearean authorship remains contentious. Evidentiary gaps within, and problems with, the Oxfordian hypothesis have prevented many academics from considering its viability. For example, Stratfordians argue that Oxford's 1604 death prevents him from witnessing certain events (for instance the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 and the wreck of the Sea Venture in Bermuda in 1609) thought to be alluded to in Shakespearean dramas such as Macbeth and The Tempest, respectively. Contemporary poetic tributes to Shakespeare from writers such as Ben Jonson and Leonard Digges (who refer to Shakespeare as "Sweet swan of Avon!" and mention his "Stratford Moniment" in the First Folio), and William Basse (who explicitly mentions Shakespeare dying in 1616), "The Shakspere Allusion-Book: a collection of allusions to Shakspere from 1591-1700. / Originally compiled by C. M. Ingleby, Miss L. Toulmin Smith, and Dr. F. J. Furnivall, with the assistance of the New Shakspere Society: re-edited, rev., and re-arr., with an introd., by John Munro (1909), and now re-issued with a pref. by Sir Edmund Chambers" (1932), Vol. 1, p. 286. seem to provide some of the clearest evidence for the Stratford Shakespeare's status as a reputed poet. Oxfordians respond that modern research shows that not one of Shakespeare's plays has a proven source published after 1604. Furthermore, Oxfordian biographers William Farina McFarland - Publisher of Reference and Scholarly Books and Mark Anderson "Shakespeare" By Another Name by Mark Anderson have provided research demonstrating that the regular publication of Shakespeare's plays stopped in 1604 and have cited several examples that imply that Shakespeare (the playwright) was deceased prior to 1609, when SHAKE-SPEARES SONNETS were published with the reference "by our ever-living poet". Farina, "De Vere as Shakespeare, An Oxfordian Reading of the Canon" (2006), 280pp; Anderson, "Shakespeare by Another Name" (2005), pp. 397-403. Other candidates who have been put forward as the actual author of the Shakespeare works include Francis Bacon, Christopher Marlowe, and Oxford's son-in-law, the Earl of Derby. All of the primary candidates (except Shakespeare of Stratford) were known to each other and traveled in the same circles, and are also mentioned as members of a "group" that may have been responsible for the Shakespearean canon. All candidates and theories are predominantly rejected by the academic establishment, although interest by academics and theatre practitioners continues to increase [http://www.doubtaboutwill.org/ Welcome | Shakespeare Authorship Coalition at DoubtAboutWill.org . Further insights and debating points from the Stratfordian perspective may be viewed at The Shakespeare Authorship website Shakespeare Authorship and from the Oxfordian perspective at The Shakespeare Fellowship website. State of the Debate Sample poems by Oxford Footnotes References Anderson, Mark. "Shakespeare" by Another Name: The Life of Edward de Vere, Earl of Oxford, The Man Who Was Shakespeare. Gotham, 2005 (expanded paperback edition 2006). Anderson, Verily. The De Veres of Castle Hedingham. Terence Dalton, 1993 . ISBN-13: 978-0861380626 Nelson, Alan H. Monstrous Adversary: The Life of Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford. Liverpool English Texts and Studies 40. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2003. Ward, B.M. The Seventeenth Earl of Oxford, 1550-1604: From Contemporary Documents. London: John Murray, 1928. External links De Vere's Patronage of Theater: Patrons and Performances Web Site Index entry for Edward de Vere at Poets' Corner | Edward_de_Vere,_17th_Earl_of_Oxford |@lemmatized edward:14 de:14 vere:14 earl:22 oxford:65 engraving:1 j:3 brown:1 g:1 p:3 harding:1 april:1 june:1 elizabethan:6 courtier:5 playwright:3 poet:7 sportsman:1 patron:3 numerous:1 writer:8 sponsor:1 least:2 two:2 act:2 company:8 men:6 boy:1 http:4 www:3 luminarium:1 org:4 renlit:1 deverebio:1 htm:1 musician:1 link:2 library:2 utoronto:1 ca:1 reed:1 troupehits:1 cfm:2 peoplelistid:1 bear:2 castle:2 hedingham:2 former:6 margery:1 golding:6 famous:2 today:1 strong:1 alternative:1 candidate:4 propose:1 authorship:10 shakespeare:28 play:10 britannica:1 online:1 encyclopedia:1 claim:3 historian:2 literary:3 scholar:7 reject:2 support:2 number:2 researcher:2 theatre:6 practitioner:2 information:1 topic:1 see:2 oxfordian:7 theory:5 early:1 life:6 father:4 die:4 unexpectedly:1 august:1 twelve:1 year:10 old:6 lord:9 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4,825 | Dia_(software) | Dia ( ) is free software/open source general-purpose diagramming software, developed as part of the GNOME project's office suite and was originally created by Alexander Larsson. Dia uses a controlled single document interface (CSDI) similar to GIMP and Sodipodi. Dia has a modular design with several shape packages available for different needs: flowchart, network diagrams, circuit diagrams, etc. It does not restrict symbols and connectors from various categories from being placed together. Dia can be used to draw many different kinds of diagrams. It currently has special objects to help draw entity-relationship models (tedia2sql can be used to create the SQL DDL), UML diagrams, flowcharts, network diagrams, and simple electrical circuits. It is also possible to add support for new shapes by writing simple XML files, using a subset of SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) to draw the shape. Dia loads and saves diagrams to a custom XML format (gzipped by default, to save space) and can print diagrams including very large diagrams that span multiple pages. It can also be scripted using the Python programming language. Exports Dia can export diagrams to various formats including the following: EPS (Encapsulated PostScript) SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) DXF (Autocad's Drawing Interchange format) CGM (Computer Graphics Metafile defined by ISO standards) WMF (Windows Meta File) PNG (Portable Network Graphics) JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) VDX (Microsoft's XML for Visio Drawing) Maintainers Currently, Dia is primarily maintained by four people: Hans Breuer Lars Clausen Steffen Macke Sameer Sahasrabuddhe See also Inkscape List of UML tools List of vector graphics editors Kivio Graphviz ATLAS Transformation Language -- Dia diagrams may be generated by ATL model transformations Wikipedia:How to draw a diagram with Dia References External links Dia Project Homepage Dia Tutorial written by Harry George Introductory Dia Tutorial Dia Shapes for Website Diagrams Dia Shapes for Network Diagrams Dia for Windows Dia for Mac OS X (via Darwin Ports) | Dia_(software) |@lemmatized dia:16 free:1 software:2 open:1 source:1 general:1 purpose:1 diagram:14 develop:1 part:1 gnome:1 project:2 office:1 suite:1 originally:1 create:2 alexander:1 larsson:1 use:5 controlled:1 single:1 document:1 interface:1 csdi:1 similar:1 gimp:1 sodipodi:1 modular:1 design:1 several:1 shape:5 package:1 available:1 different:2 need:1 flowchart:2 network:4 circuit:2 etc:1 restrict:1 symbol:1 connector:1 various:2 category:1 place:1 together:1 draw:6 many:1 kind:1 currently:2 special:1 object:1 help:1 entity:1 relationship:1 model:2 sql:1 ddl:1 uml:2 simple:2 electrical:1 also:3 possible:1 add:1 support:1 new:1 write:2 xml:3 file:2 subset:1 svg:2 scalable:2 vector:3 graphic:5 load:1 save:2 custom:1 format:3 gzipped:1 default:1 space:1 print:1 include:2 large:1 span:1 multiple:1 page:1 script:1 python:1 programming:1 language:2 export:2 following:1 eps:1 encapsulate:1 postscript:1 dxf:1 autocad:1 interchange:1 cgm:1 computer:1 metafile:1 define:1 iso:1 standard:1 wmf:1 window:2 meta:1 png:1 portable:1 jpeg:1 joint:1 photographic:1 expert:1 group:1 vdx:1 microsoft:1 visio:1 maintainer:1 primarily:1 maintain:1 four:1 people:1 han:1 breuer:1 lars:1 clausen:1 steffen:1 macke:1 sameer:1 sahasrabuddhe:1 see:1 inkscape:1 list:2 tool:1 editor:1 kivio:1 graphviz:1 atlas:1 transformation:2 may:1 generate:1 atl:1 wikipedia:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 tutorial:2 harry:1 george:1 introductory:1 website:1 mac:1 x:1 via:1 darwin:1 port:1 |@bigram scalable_vector:2 interchange_format:1 external_link:1 |
4,826 | Geography_of_Chad | Map of Chad Chad is a land-locked country in north central Africa measuring 1,284,000 square kilometers (496,000 sq. mi.), roughly three times the size of California. Most of its ethnically and linguistically diverse population lives in the south, with densities ranging from 54 persons per square kilometers in the Logone River basin to 0.1 persons in the northern B.E.T. desert region, which is larger than France. The capital city of N'Djaména, situated at the confluence of the Chari and Logone Rivers, is cosmopolitan in nature, with a current population in excess of 700,000 people. Chad has four bioclimatic zones. The northernmost Saharan zone averages less than 200 mm (8 inches) of rainfall annually. The sparse human population is largely nomadic, with some livestock, mostly small ruminants and camels. The central Sahelian zone receives between 200 and 600 mm (24 inches) rainfall and has vegetation ranging from grass/shrub steppe to thorny, open savanna. The southern zone, often referred to as the Sudanian zone, receives between 600 and 1000 mm (39 inches), with woodland savanna and deciduous forests for vegetation. Rainfall in the Guinea zone, located in Chad's southwestern tip, ranges between 1000 and 1200 mm (47 inches). The country's topography is generally flat, with the elevation gradually rising as one moves north and east away from Lake Chad. The highest point in Chad is Emi Koussi, a mountain that rises 3100 meters (10,200 ft.) in the northern Tibesti Mountains. The Ennedi Plateau and the Ouaddaï highlands in the east complete the image of a gradually sloping basin, which descends towards Lake Chad. There are also central highlands in the Guera region rising to 1500 meters (4900 feet). Lake Chad is the second largest lake in west Africa and is one of the most important wetlands on the continent. Home to 120 species of fish and at least that many species of birds, the lake has shrunk dramatically in the last four decades due to the increased water from an expanding population usage and low rainfall. Bordered by Chad, Niger, Nigeria, and Cameroon, Lake Chad currently covers only 1350 square kilometers, down from 25,000 square kilometers in 1963. The Chari and Logone Rivers, both of which originate in the Central African Republic and flow northward, provide most of the surface water entering Lake Chad. Geographical setting Satellite image of Chad Topographic map of Chad Located in north-central Africa, Chad stretches for about 1,800 kilometers from its northernmost point to its southern boundary. Except in the far northwest and south, where its borders converge, Chad's average width is about 800 kilometers. Its area of 1,284,000 square kilometers is roughly equal to the combined areas of Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, and Arizona. Chad's neighbors include Libya to the north, Niger and Nigeria to the west, Sudan to the east, Central African Republic to the south, and Cameroon to the southwest. Chad exhibits two striking geographical characteristics. First, the country is landlocked. N'Djamena, the capital, is located more than 1,100 kilometers northeast of the Atlantic Ocean; Abéché, a major city in the east, lies 2,650 kilometers from the Red Sea; and Faya-Largeau, a much smaller but strategically important center in the north, is in the middle of the Sahara Desert, 1,550 kilometers from the Mediterranean Sea. These vast distances from the sea have had a profound impact on Chad's historical and contemporary development. The second noteworthy characteristic is that the country borders on very different parts of the African continent: North Africa, with its Islamic culture and economic orientation toward the Mediterranean Basin; West Africa, with its diverse religions and cultures and its history of highly developed states and regional economies; Northeast Africa, oriented toward the Nile Valley and Red Sea region; and Central or Equatorial Africa, some of whose people have retained classical African religions while others have adopted Christianity, and whose economies were part of the great Congo River system. Although much of Chad's distinctiveness comes from this diversity of influences, since independence the diversity has also been an obstacle to the creation of a national identity. The Land Although Chadian society is economically, socially, and culturally fragmented, the country's geography is unified by the Lake Chad Basin. Once a huge inland sea (the Pale-Chadian Sea) whose only remnant is shallow Lake Chad, this vast depression extends west into Nigeria and Niger. The larger, northern portion of the basin is bounded within Chad by the Tibesti Mountains in the northwest, the Ennedi Plateau in the northeast, the Ouaddaï Highlands in the east along the border with Sudan, the Guéra Massif in central Chad, and the Mandara Mountains along Chad's southwestern border with Cameroon. The smaller, southern part of the basin falls almost exclusively in Chad. It is delimited in the north by the Guéra Massif, in the south by highlands 250 kilometers south of the border with Central African Republic, and in the southwest by the Mandara Mountains. Lake Chad, located in the southwestern part of the basin at an altitude of 282 meters, surprisingly does not mark the basin's lowest point; instead, this is found in the Bodele and Djourab regions in the north-central and northeastern parts of the country, respectively. This oddity arises because the great stationary dunes (ergs) of the Kanem region create a dam, preventing lake waters from flowing to the basin's lowest point. At various times in the past, and as late as the 1870s, the Bahr el Ghazal Depression, which extends from the northeastern part of the lake to the Djourab, acted as an overflow canal; since independence, climatic conditions have made overflows impossible. North and northeast of Lake Chad, the basin extends for more than 800 kilometers, passing through regions characterized by great rolling dunes separated by very deep depressions. Although vegetation holds the dunes in place in the Kanem region, farther north they are bare and have a fluid, rippling character. From its low point in the Djourab, the basin then rises to the plateaus and peaks of the Tibesti Mountains in the north. The summit of this formation--as well as the highest point in the Sahara Desert--is Emi Koussi, a dormant volcano that reaches 3,414 meters above sea level. The basin's northeastern limit is the Ennedi Plateau, whose limestone bed rises in steps etched by erosion. East of the lake, the basin rises gradually to the Ouaddaï Highlands, which mark Chad's eastern border and also divide the Chad and Nile watersheds. Southeast of Lake Chad, the regular contours of the terrain are broken by the Guéra Massif, which divides the basin into its northern and southern parts. South of the lake lie the floodplains of the Chari and Logone rivers, much of which are inundated during the rainy season. Farther south, the basin floor slopes upward, forming a series of low sand and clay plateaus, called koros, which eventually climb to 615 meters above sea level. South of the Chadian border, the koros divide the Lake Chad Basin from the Ubangi-Zaire river system. Water systems Permanent streams do not exist in northern or central Chad. Following infrequent rains in the Ennedi Plateau and Ouaddaï Highlands, water may flow through depressions called enneris and wadis. Often the result of flash floods, such streams usually dry out within a few days as the remaining puddles seep into the sandy clay soil. The most important of these streams is the Batha, which in the rainy season carries water west from the Ouaddaï Highlands and the Guéra Massif to Lake Fitri. Chari RiverChad's major rivers are the Chari and the Logone and their tributaries, which flow from the southeast into Lake Chad. Both river systems rise in the highlands of Central African Republic and Cameroon, regions that receive more than 1,250 millimeters of rainfall annually. Fed by rivers of Central African Republic, as well as by the Bahr Salamat, Bahr Aouk, and Bahr Sara rivers of southeastern Chad, the Chari River is about 1,200 kilometers long. From its origins near the city of Sarh, the middle course of the Chari makes its way through swampy terrain; the lower Chari is joined by the Logone River near N'Djamena. The Chari's volume varies greatly, from 17 cubic meters per second during the dry season to 340 cubic meters per second during the wettest part of the year. The Logone River is formed by tributaries flowing from Cameroon and Central African Republic. Both shorter and smaller in volume than the Chari, it flows northeast for 960 kilometers; its volume ranges from five to eighty-five cubic meters per second. At N'Djamena the Logone empties into the Chari, and the combined rivers flow together for thirty kilometers through a large delta and into Lake Chad. At the end of the rainy season in the fall, the river overflows its banks and creates a huge floodplain in the delta. The seventh largest lake in the world (and the fourth largest in Africa), Lake Chad is located in the sahelian zone, a region just south of the Sahara Desert. The Chari River contributes 95 percent of Lake Chad's water, an average annual volume of 40 billion cubic meters, 95% of which is lost to evaporation. The size of the lake is determined by rains in the southern highlands bordering the basin and by temperatures in the Sahel. Fluctuations in both cause the lake to change dramatically in size, from 9,800 square kilometers in the dry season to 25,500 at the end of the rainy season. Lake Chad also changes greatly in size from one year to another. In 1870 its maximum area was 28,000 square kilometers. The measurement dropped to 12,700 in 1908. In the 1940s and 1950s, the lake remained small, but it grew again to 26,000 square kilometers in 1963. The droughts of the late 1960s, early 1970s, and mid-1980s caused Lake Chad to shrink once again, however. The only other lakes of importance in Chad are Lake Fitri, in Batha Prefecture, and Lake Iro, in the marshy southeast. Climate The Lake Chad Basin embraces a great range of tropical climates from north to south, although most of these climates tend to be dry. Apart from the far north, most regions are characterized by a cycle of alternating rainy and dry seasons. In any given year, the duration of each season is determined largely by the positions of two great air masses--a maritime mass over the Atlantic Ocean to the southwest and a much drier continental mass. During the rainy season, winds from the southwest push the moister maritime system north over the African continent where it meets and slips under the continental mass along a front called the "intertropical convergence zone". At the height of the rainy season, the front may reach as far as Kanem Prefecture. By the middle of the dry season, the intertropical convergence zone moves south of Chad, taking the rain with it. This weather system contributes to the formation of three major regions of climate and vegetation. Saharan region Sandstorm at Abéché airport, Chad (2005).The Saharan region covers roughly the northern third of the country, including Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Prefecture along with the northern parts of Kanem, Batha, and Biltine prefectures. Much of this area receives only traces of rain during the entire year; at Faya Largeau, for example, annual rainfall averages less than three centimeters. Scattered small oases and occasional wells provide water for a few date palms or small plots of millet and garden crops. In much of the north, the average daily maximum temperature is about 32 °C during January, the coolest month of the year, and about 45 °C during May, the hottest month. On occasion, strong winds from the northeast produce violent sandstorms. In northern Biltine Prefecture, a region called the Mortcha plays a major role in animal husbandry. Dry for nine months of the year, it receives 350 millimeters or more of rain, mostly during July and August. A carpet of green springs from the desert during this brief wet season, attracting herders from throughout the region who come to pasture their cattle and camels. Because very few wells and springs have water throughout the year, the herders leave with the end of the rains, turning over the land to the antelopes, gazelles, and ostriches that can survive with little groundwater. Sahelian region The semiarid sahelian zone, or Sahel, forms a belt about 500 kilometers wide that runs from Lac and Chari-Baguirmi prefectures eastward through Guéra, Ouaddaï, and northern Salamat prefectures to the Sudanese frontier. The climate in this transition zone between the desert and the southern soudanian zone is divided into a rainy season (from June to early September) and a dry period (from October to May). In the northern Sahel, thorny shrubs and acacia trees grow wild, while date palms, cereals, and garden crops are raised in scattered oases. Outside these settlements, nomads tend their flocks during the rainy season, moving southward as forage and surface water disappear with the onset of the dry part of the year. The central Sahel is characterized by drought-resistant grasses and small woods. Rainfall is more abundant there than in the Saharan region. For example, N'Djamena records a maximum annual average rainfall of 580 millimeters, while Ouaddaï Prefecture receives just a bit less. During the hot season, in April and May, maximum temperatures frequently rise above 40 °C. In the southern part of the Sahel, rainfall is sufficient to permit crop production on unirrigated land, and millet and sorghum are grown. Agriculture is also common in the marshlands east of Lake Chad and near swamps or wells. Many farmers in the region combine subsistence agriculture with the raising of cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry. Soudanian region The humid soudanian zone includes the southern prefectures of Mayo-Kebbi, Tandjilé, Logone Occidental, Logone Oriental, Moyen-Chari, and southern Salamat. Between April and October, the rainy season brings between 750 and 1,250 millimeters of precipitation. Temperatures are high throughout the year. Daytime readings in Moundou, the major city in the southwest, range from 27 °C in the middle of the cool season in January to about 40 °C in the hot months of March, April, and May. The soudanian region is predominantly savanna, or plains covered with a mixture of tropical or subtropical grasses and woodlands. The growth is lush during the rainy season but turns brown and dormant during the five-month dry season between November and March. Over a large part of the region, however, natural vegetation has yielded to agriculture. Area Area: total: 1.284 million km² land: 1,259,200 km² water: 24,800 km² Area - comparative: slightly more than three times the size of California Boundaries Land boundaries: total: 5,968 km border countries: Cameroon 1,094 km, Central African Republic 1,197 km, Libya 1,055 km, Niger 1,175 km, Nigeria 87 km, Sudan 1,360 km Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) Maritime claims: none (landlocked) Elevation extremes: lowest point: Djourab Depression 160 m highest point: Emi Koussi 3,415 m Land use and resources Natural resources: petroleum, uranium, natron, kaolin, fish (Chari River, Logone River and Lake Chad) Land use: arable land: 3% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 36% forests and woodland: 26% other: 35% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 140 km² (1993 est.) Environmental issues Natural hazards: hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds occur in north; periodic droughts; locust plagues Environment - current issues: inadequate supplies of potable water; improper waste disposal in rural areas contributes to soil and water pollution; desertification Environment - international agreements: party to: \ Another problem facing Chad today is the growing Sahara Desert. Desertification is a huge issue in all Saharan countries References External links Geo-links for Geography of Chad Detailed map of Chad from www.izf.net | Geography_of_Chad |@lemmatized map:3 chad:48 land:10 locked:1 country:9 north:16 central:16 africa:8 measure:1 square:8 kilometer:19 sq:1 mi:1 roughly:3 three:4 time:3 size:5 california:2 ethnically:1 linguistically:1 diverse:2 population:4 life:1 south:11 density:1 range:6 person:2 per:4 logone:11 river:18 basin:18 northern:10 b:1 e:1 desert:7 region:21 large:7 france:1 capital:2 city:4 n:5 djaména:1 situate:1 confluence:1 chari:15 cosmopolitan:1 nature:1 current:2 excess:1 people:2 four:2 bioclimatic:1 zone:13 northernmost:2 saharan:5 average:6 less:3 mm:4 inch:4 rainfall:9 annually:2 sparse:1 human:1 largely:2 nomadic:1 livestock:1 mostly:2 small:8 ruminant:1 camel:2 sahelian:4 receive:6 vegetation:5 grass:3 shrub:2 steppe:1 thorny:2 open:1 savanna:3 southern:9 often:2 refer:1 sudanian:1 woodland:3 deciduous:1 forest:2 guinea:1 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4,827 | Geography_of_Finland | Map of Finland - click to enlarge The geography of Finland differs from that of other Nordic countries. Bordering the Baltic Sea, Gulf of Bothnia, and Gulf of Finland, between Sweden and Russia, Finland is the northernmost country on the European continent. Although other countries have points extending farther north, virtually all of Finland is north of 60 degrees north latitude; nearly a quarter of the land area and fully one-third of the latitudinal extent of the country lie north of the Arctic Circle. Size, external boundaries, and geology Finland's total area is 338,144 km² (130,558 sq. miles). Finland is the seventh largest country in Europe after Russia, Ukraine, France, Spain, Sweden and Germany. Of this area 10% is water, 69% forest, 8% cultivated land and 13% other. The most predominant influences on Finland's geography were the continental glaciers that scoured and gouged the country's surface. When the glaciers receded about 10,000 years ago, they left behind them moraines, drumlins, and eskers. Other indications of their presence are the thousands of lakes they helped to form in the southern part of the country. The force of the moving ice sheets gouged the lake beds, and meltwaters helped to fill them. The recession of the glaciers is so recent (in geologic terms) that modern-day drainage patterns are immature and poorly established. The direction of glacial advance and recession set the alignment of the lakes and streams in a general northeast to southwest lineation. The two Salpausselkä Ridges, which run parallel to each other about twenty-five kilometers apart, are the terminal moraines. At their greatest height they reach an elevation of about 200 meters, the highest point in southern Finland. Landform regions Many countries of the world can be divided into distinct geographic regions, in each of which some physical characteristic is dominant, almost to the exclusion of others. In Finland, the same physical characteristics are common to each of the four geographic regions into which the country is divided. Regional differences in Finland lie, therefore, in subtle combinations of physical qualities. In archipelago Finland, rock and water are dominant. Coastal Finland consists of broad clay plains where agriculture plays a leading role. The interior Finnish lake district supports extensive forests. Upland Finland is covered by Arctic scrub. Archipelago Finland, consisting of thousands of islands and skerries, extends from the southwestern coast out into the Baltic Sea. It includes the strategically significant Åland Islands, positioned at the entrance to the Gulf of Bothnia. After World War I, both Finland and Sweden laid claim to the islands, which are culturally more Swedish than Finnish. For strategic reasons, however, the League of Nations awarded the Åland Islands to Finland in 1921 . A principal reason for this decision was that, during the winter, the islands are physically linked to Finland by the frozen waters of the sea and are thus essential for the country's defense. These forest-covered and bare bedrock islands were, and continue to be, formed by the process of uplift following the last glaciation. The rest of the country is also still emerging from the sea. The weight of the continental glaciers depressed the land over which they moved, and even now, a hundred centuries after their recession, Finland is rising up from this great load through the process of isostatic rebound. In the south and the southwest, this process is occurring slowly, at a rate of twenty-five to thirty centimeters a century. Farther north in the Ostrobothnia area, uplift is more rapid, it amounts to eighty or ninety centimeters a century. The process also means that Finland is growing about seven square kilometers yearly as land emerges from the sea. Coastal Finland consists of broad clay plains extending from the coast inland, for no more than 100 kilometers. These plains slope southward from the morainic Salpausselkä Ridges in southern Finland. Along the Gulf of Bothnia coast, the plains slope southwest from upland areas. The land of coastal Finland is used for agriculture and dairy farming. The interior lake district is the largest geographic region, and it is perhaps what most foreigners think of when they imagine Finland. The district is bounded to the south by the Salpausselkä Ridges. Behind the ridges extend networks of thousands of lakes separated by hilly forested countryside. This landscape continues to the east and extends into Russia. As a consequence, there is no natural border between the two countries. Because no set definition of what constitutes a lake and no procedures for counting the number of lakes exist, it has been impossible to ascertain exactly how many lakes the region has. There are, however, at least 55,000 lakes that are 200 or more meters wide. The largest is Lake Saimaa, which, with a surface area of more than 4,400 square kilometers, is the fifth largest lake in Europe. The deepest lake has a depth of only 100 meters; the depth of the average lake is 7 meters. Because they are shallow, these many lakes contain only slightly more water than Finland's annual rainfall. The hilly, forest-covered landscape of the lake plateau is dominated by drumlins and by long sinuous eskers, both glacial remnants. Upland Finland extends beyond the Arctic Circle. The extreme north of this region is known as Lapland. The highest points in upland Finland reach an elevation of about 1,000 meters, and they are found in the Kilpisjärvi area of the Scandinavian Keel Ridge. In the southern upland region the hills are undulating, while in the north they are rugged. Much of upland Finland is not mountainous, but consists of bogs. Finland's longest and most impressive rivers are in the north. The Kemijoki has the largest network of tributaries. Farther south the Oulujoki drains the beginning of the north country. Climate Latitude is the principal influence on Finland's climate. Because of Finland's northern location, winter is the longest season. On the average, winter lasts from early December to mid March in the archipelago and the southwestern coast and from early October to early May in Lapland. This means that southern portions of the country are snow-covered about three to four months of the year and the northern, about seven months. The long winter causes about half of the annual of precipitation in the north to fall as snow. Precipitation in the south amounts to about annually. Like that of the north, it occurs all through the year, though not so much of it is snow. The Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Eurasian continent to the east interact to modify the climate of the country. The warm waters of the Gulf Stream and the North Atlantic Drift Current, which warm Norway and Sweden, also warm Finland. Westerly winds bring the warm air currents into the Baltic areas and to the country's shores, moderating winter temperatures, especially in the south. These winds, because of clouds associated with weather systems accompanying the westerlies, also decrease the amount of sunshine received during the summer. By contrast, the continental high pressure system situated over the Eurasian continent counteracts the maritime influences, causing severe winters and occasionally high temperatures in the summer. The highest ever recorded temperature is (Turku, July 1914). The lowest, (Kittilä, January 1999). The annual middle temperature is relatively high in the southwestern part of the country (5.0–7.5 °C), with quite mild winters and warm summers, and low in the northeastern part of Lapland (0 – −4 °C). Temperature extremes for every month Ilmatieteen laitos. Lämpötilan ennätykset <http://www.fmi.fi/saa/tilastot_11.html> Retrieved 10 April 2009. : Extreme highs: January: (January 6, 1973, Maarianhamina, Åland) February: (February 28, 1943, Helsinki, Southern Finland) March: (March 27, 2007, Helsinki-Vantaa, Southern Finland) April: (April 27, 1921, Jyväskylä, Central Finland) May: (May 30/31, 1995, Lapinjärvi, Southern Finland) June: (June 24, 1934, Ähtäri, Central Finland) July: (July 9, 1914, Turku, Southern Finland) August: (August 5, 1912, Sulkava, Eastern Finland) September: (September 6, 1968, Rauma, Western Finland) October: (October 2, 1985, Helsinki, Southern Finland) November: (November 2, 1999, Maarianhamina, Åland) December: (December 6, 2006, Salo, Southern Finland) Extreme lows: January: (January 28, 1999, Kittilä, Lapland) February: (February 5, 1912, Sodankylä, Lapland) March: (March 1, 1971, Salla, Lapland) April: (April 9, 1912, Kuusamo, Oulu region) May: (May 1, 1971, Enontekiö, Lapland) June: (June 3, 1962, Inari, Lapland) July: (July 12, 1958, Kilpisjärvi, Lapland) August: (August 26, 1980, Salla, Lapland) September: (September 26, 1968, Sodankylä, Lapland) October: (October 25, 1968, Sodankylä, Lapland) November: (November 30, 1915, Sodankylä, Lapland) December: (December 21, 1919, Pielisjärvi, Eastern Finland) Area and boundaries Area: total: 337,030 km² land: 305,470 km² water: 31,560 km² Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Germany Land boundaries: total: 2,628 km border countries: Norway 729 km, Sweden 586 km, Russia 1,313 km Coastline: 1,126 km (excludes islands and coastal indentations) Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 6 nautical miles (11 km) continental shelf: 200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation exclusive fishing zone: 12 nautical miles (22 km) territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km), 3 nautical miles (6 km) in the Gulf of Finland Elevation extremes: lowest point: Baltic Sea 0 m highest point: Haltitunturi 1,328 m Resources and land use Natural resources: timber, copper, zinc, iron ore, silver Land use: arable land: 8% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: 76% other: 16% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 640 km² (1993 est.) Environmental concerns Natural hazards: Cold periods in winter pose a threat to the unprepared. Environment - current issues: air pollution from manufacturing and power plants contributing to acid rain; water pollution from industrial wastes, agricultural chemicals; habitat loss threatens wildlife populations Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling, Air Pollution–Persistent Organic Pollutants (signed 2001, ratified 2002) More Nations Ratify POPs – But Bush Stalls U.S. Effort , Climate Change–Kyoto Protocol (signed May 1998, ratified together with 14 other EU countries May 31 2002) Fourth National Communication . Geography - note: long boundary with Russia; Helsinki is northernmost national capital on European continent; population concentrated on small southwestern coastal plain See also Extreme points of Finland Finland Population of Finland References | Geography_of_Finland |@lemmatized map:1 finland:47 click:1 enlarge:1 geography:3 differs:1 nordic:1 country:19 border:3 baltic:4 sea:8 gulf:6 bothnia:3 sweden:5 russia:5 northernmost:2 european:2 continent:4 although:1 point:6 extend:6 far:1 north:12 virtually:1 degree:1 latitude:2 nearly:1 quarter:1 land:11 area:11 fully:1 one:1 third:1 latitudinal:1 extent:1 lie:2 arctic:3 circle:2 size:1 external:1 boundary:4 geology:1 total:3 sq:1 mile:5 seventh:1 large:5 europe:2 ukraine:1 france:1 spain:1 germany:2 water:7 forest:6 cultivate:1 predominant:1 influence:3 continental:4 glacier:4 scour:1 gouge:2 surface:2 recede:1 year:3 ago:1 leave:1 behind:2 moraine:2 drumlin:2 esker:2 indication:1 presence:1 thousand:3 lake:15 help:2 form:2 southern:11 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4,828 | Foreign_relations_of_Guinea | The foreign relations of Guinea, including those with its West African neighbors, have improved steadily since 1985. Background Note: Guinea, US Department of State, February 2009 Guinea reestablished relations with France and West Germany in 1975, and with neighboring Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal in 1978. Guinea has been active in efforts toward regional integration and cooperation, especially regarding the Organization of African Unity and the Economic Organization of West African States (ECOWAS). Guinea participates actively in the deliberations and decisions of a variety of international organizations. Guinea has participated in both diplomatic and military efforts to resolve conflicts in Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea-Bissau, and contributed contingents of troops to peacekeeping operations in all three countries as part of ECOMOG, the Military Observer Group of ECOWAS. ECOMOG: peacekeeper or participant?, BBC News Online, February 11, 1998 Guinea has offered asylum to over 700,000 Liberian, Sierra Leonean, and Bissauan refugees since 1990, despite the economic and environmental costs involved. Guinea is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the United States military (as covered under Article 98). Status of US Bilateral Immunity Agreements (BIAs). Coalition of the International Criminal Court 2009 ambassador recall On 5 May 2009, President Moussa Dadis Camara, who seized power in a bloodless coup which followed the 22 December 2008 death of President Lansana Conté, announced the recall of 30 of Guinea's ambassadors to other countries. The order was made by a presidential decree on state television and is the first major diplomatic move made by the new leader. The decision affects ambassadors to the United States, the People's Republic of China, France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Egypt, South Africa, Italy, Japan, Brazil, Cuba, Switzerland, Serbia, Malaysia, Iran, the United Arab Emirates, Senegal, Nigeria, Libya, Ghana, Algeria, Morocco, Gabon, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea-Bissau, comprising almost all of Guinea's foreign embassies. The Guinean representatives to the European Union, the United Nations and the African Union are also affected. No reason has been stated for the recall. The Tocqueville Connection states: "Most of the ambassadors were appointed by former prime minister Lansana Kouyaté, in office from February 2007 until May 2008," raising the possibility that the recall was an attempt on the part of Camara to distance himself from the previous government. In late March 2009, the Guinean ambassador to Serbia faced expulsion for personal involvement in cigarette smuggling but avoided arrest due to diplomatic immunity (although he was declared as persona non grata); in his BMW, 1000 packs of cigarettes were found. Ambasador Gvineje švercovao cigarete See also List of diplomatic missions in Guinea List of diplomatic missions of Guinea References | Foreign_relations_of_Guinea |@lemmatized foreign:2 relation:2 guinea:14 include:1 west:3 african:4 neighbor:1 improve:1 steadily:1 since:2 background:1 note:1 u:2 department:1 state:7 february:3 reestablish:1 france:2 germany:1 neighboring:1 côte:1 ivoire:1 senegal:2 active:1 effort:2 toward:1 regional:1 integration:1 cooperation:1 especially:1 regard:1 organization:3 unity:1 economic:2 ecowas:2 participates:1 actively:1 deliberation:1 decision:2 variety:1 international:3 participate:1 diplomatic:5 military:3 resolve:1 conflict:1 liberia:2 sierra:3 leone:2 bissau:2 contribute:1 contingent:1 troop:1 peacekeeping:1 operation:1 three:1 country:2 part:2 ecomog:2 observer:1 group:1 peacekeeper:1 participant:1 bbc:1 news:1 online:1 offer:1 asylum:1 liberian:1 leonean:1 bissauan:1 refugee:1 despite:1 environmental:1 cost:1 involve:1 also:3 member:1 criminal:2 court:2 bilateral:2 immunity:3 agreement:2 protection:1 united:5 cover:1 article:1 status:1 bias:1 coalition:1 ambassador:5 recall:4 may:2 president:2 moussa:1 dadis:1 camara:2 seize:1 power:1 bloodless:1 coup:1 follow:1 december:1 death:1 lansana:2 conté:1 announce:1 order:1 make:2 presidential:1 decree:1 television:1 first:1 major:1 move:1 new:1 leader:1 affect:2 people:1 republic:1 china:1 kingdom:1 russia:1 egypt:1 south:1 africa:1 italy:1 japan:1 brazil:1 cuba:1 switzerland:1 serbia:2 malaysia:1 iran:1 arab:1 emirate:1 nigeria:1 libya:1 ghana:1 algeria:1 morocco:1 gabon:1 comprise:1 almost:1 embassy:1 guinean:2 representative:1 european:1 union:2 nation:1 reason:1 tocqueville:1 connection:1 appoint:1 former:1 prime:1 minister:1 kouyaté:1 office:1 raise:1 possibility:1 attempt:1 distance:1 previous:1 government:1 late:1 march:1 faced:1 expulsion:1 personal:1 involvement:1 cigarette:2 smuggling:1 avoid:1 arrest:1 due:1 although:1 declare:1 persona:1 non:1 grata:1 bmw:1 pack:1 find:1 ambasador:1 gvineje:1 švercovao:1 cigarete:1 see:1 list:2 mission:2 reference:1 |@bigram côte_ivoire:1 liberia_sierra:2 sierra_leone:2 leone_guinea:2 guinea_bissau:2 bbc_news:1 bilateral_immunity:2 moussa_dadis:1 dadis_camara:1 bloodless_coup:1 lansana_conté:1 arab_emirate:1 prime_minister:1 diplomatic_immunity:1 non_grata:1 pack_cigarette:1 diplomatic_mission:2 |
4,829 | Aleutian_Islands | The Aleutian Islands (possibly from Chukchi aliat, "island") are a chain of more than 300 small volcanic islands forming a volcanic arc in the Northern Pacific Ocean, occupying an area of 6,821 sq mi (17,666 km²) and extending about 1,200 mi (1,900 km) westward from the Alaska Peninsula toward the Kamchatka Peninsula. Crossing longitude 180°, they are the westernmost part of the United States (and by one definition the easternmost; see Extreme points of the United States). Nearly all the archipelago is part of Alaska and usually considered as being in the "Alaskan Bush", but at the extreme western end the small, geologically-related, and remote Commander Islands are in Russia. The islands, with their 57 volcanoes, are in the northern part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The Alaska Marine Highway passes through the islands. Physiographically, they are a distinct section of the larger Pacific Border province, which in turn is part of the larger Pacific Mountain System physiographic division. Geography Aleutians seen from space Unalaska Island in the Aleutian Islands The islands, known before 1867 as the Catherine Archipelago, comprise five groups (east to west): the Fox, Islands of Four Mountains, Andreanof, Rat, and Near island groups (with Buldir Island halfway between Favian and Diana Islands, but part of neither group). They are all located between 52° and 55° N latitude and 172° E and 163° W longitude. The axis of the archipelago near the mainland of Alaska has a southwest trend, but near the 179th meridian its direction changes to the northwest. This change of direction corresponds to a curve in the line of volcanic fissures that have contributed their products to the building of the islands. Such curved chains are repeated about the Pacific Ocean in the Kuril Islands, the Japanese chain, and in the Philippines. All these island arcs are at the edge of the Pacific Plate and experience a lot of seismic activity, but are still habitable; the Aleutians lie between the Pacific and North American tectonic plates. The general elevation is greatest in the eastern islands and least in the western. The island chain is a western continuation of the Aleutian Range on the mainland. Active Aleutian volcanoes The great majority of the islands bear evident marks of volcanic origin, and there are numerous volcanic cones on the north side of the chain, some of them active; many of the islands, however, are not wholly volcanic, but contain crystalline or sedimentary rocks, and also amber and beds of lignite. The coasts are rocky and surf-worn, and the approaches are exceedingly dangerous, the land rising immediately from the coasts to steep, bold mountains. Makushin Volcano (5691 ft/1,735 m) located on Unalaska Island, is not quite visible from within the town of Unalaska, though the steam rising from its cone is visible on a (rare) clear day. Denizens of Unalaska need only to climb one of the smaller hills in the area, such as Pyramid Peak or Mt. Newhall, to get a good look at the snow-covered cone. The volcanic Bogoslof and Fire Islands, which rose from the sea in 1796 and 1883 respectively, lie about 30 miles (48 km) west of Unalaska Bay. Climate The climate of the islands is oceanic, with moderate and fairly uniform temperatures and heavy rainfall. Fogs are almost constant. Summer weather is much cooler than Southeast Alaska (Sitka), but the winter temperature of the islands and of the Alaska Panhandle is very nearly the same. The mean annual temperature for Unalaska, the most populated island of the group, is about 38 °F (3.4 °C), being about 30 °F (−1.1 °C) in January and about 52 °F (11.1 °C) in August. The highest and lowest temperatures recorded on the islands are 78 °F (26 °C) and 5 °F (−15 °C) respectively. The average annual rainfall is about 80 in (2,030 mm), and Unalaska, with about 250 rainy days per year, is said to be one of the rainiest places within the United States. Flora The growing season lasts about 135 days, from early in May till late in September, but agriculture is limited to the raising of a few vegetables. With the exception of some stunted willows, the vast majority of the chain is destitute of native trees. On some of the islands, such as Adak and Amaknak, there are a few coniferous trees growing, remnants of the Russian period. While tall trees grow in many cold climates, Aleutian conifers—some of them estimated to be two hundred years old—rarely reach a height of even ten feet, and many of them are still less than five feet tall. This is because the islands, much like the Falklands and other islands of similar latitudes, experience such strong winds that taller trees are vulnerable to snapping off. Instead of trees, the islands are covered with a luxuriant, dense growth of herbage, including grasses, sedges, and many flowering plants. Economy On the less mountainous islands, the raising of sheep and reindeer was once believed to be practicable. There are Bison on islands near Sand Point. Sheep raising seems to have died off with the advent of synthetic fibers which lowered the value of wool. During the 1980s, there were some llama being raised on Unalaska. Today, the economy is primarily based upon fishing, and, to a lesser extent, the presence of American military. The only crop is potato. Chickens are raised in barns under protection from cold. Demographics The native people refer to themselves as Unangan, and are now generally known by most non-natives as the "Aleut". The Aleut language is one of the two main branches of the Eskimo-Aleut language family. This family is not known to be related to any others. In the 2000 census, there was a population of 8,162 on the islands, of whom 4,283 were living in the main settlement of Unalaska. History Prehistory Because of the location of the islands, stretching like a broken bridge from Asia to America, many anthropologists believe they were a route of the first human occupants of the Americas. The earliest known evidence of human occupation in the Americas is much further south; the early human sites in Alaska have probably been submerged by rising waters during the current interglacial period. People living in the Aleutian Islands developed fine skills in hunting, fishing, and basketry. Hunters made their weapons and watercraft. The baskets are noted for being finely woven with carefully shredded stalks of beach rye. Russian period Explorers, traders and missionaries arrived from Russia beginning in 1741. In 1741 the Russian government sent Vitus Bering, a Dane in the service of Russia, and Aleksei Chirikov, a Russian, in the ships Saint Peter and Saint Paul on a voyage of discovery in the Northern Pacific. After the ships were separated by a storm, Chirikov discovered several eastern islands of the Aleutian group, and Bering discovered several of the western islands, finally being wrecked and losing his life on the island of the Komandorskis (Commander Islands) that now bears his name (Bering Island). The survivors of Bering's party reached the Kamchatka Peninsula in a boat constructed from the wreckage of their ship, and reported that the islands were rich in fur-bearing animals. Siberian fur hunters flocked to the Commander Islands and gradually moved eastward across the Aleutian Islands to the mainland. In this manner, Russia gained a foothold on the northwestern coast of North America. The Aleutian Islands consequently belonged to Russia, until that country transferred all its possessions in North America to the United States in 1867. The Russians were ruthless in their expansion, using technology and cruelty to enslave the Aleuts, especially for sea otter hunting. The Russians captured otter pelts from the Aleutian Islands, through the Gulf of Alaska, along the Alaska Panhandle, and south, even to California. Some Aleuts were moved to the Pribilof Islands so that fur seals could be captured there as well. By 1760, the Russian merchant Andrian Tolstykh had made a detailed census in the vicinity of Adak and extended Russian citizenship to the Aleuts. Despite some attempts to eliminate slavery and reduce cruel treatment in the 1790s, the Shelikhov company depended on the labor of Aleut hunters to collect sea otter pelts. During his third and last voyage, in 1778, Captain James Cook surveyed the eastern portion of the Aleutian archipelago, accurately determined the position of some of the more important islands, and corrected many errors of former navigators. Christian influences Among the first Christian missionaries to arrive in the Aleutian Islands was a party of ten Russian Orthodox monks and priests, who arrived in 1793. Within two years, a monk named Herman was the only survivor of that party. He settled on Spruce Island, near Kodiak Island, and often defended the rights of the Aleuts against the Russian trading companies. He is now known in the Orthodox Church as Saint Herman of Alaska. Another early Christian missionary of the Russian Orthodox Church was Father Veniaminov who arrived in Unalaska in 1824. He was named Bishop Innokentii in 1840 and moved to Sitka. He is now known in the Orthodox Church as Saint Innocent of Alaska. The principal settlements were on Unalaska Island. The oldest was Iliuliuk (also called Unalaska), settled in 1760-1775, with a customs house and an Orthodox church. U.S. possession After the American purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867, further development took place. New buildings included a Methodist mission and orphanage, and the headquarters for a considerable fleet of United States revenue cutters which patrolled the sealing grounds of the Pribilof Islands. The first public school in Unalaska opened in 1883. The U.S. Congress extended American citizenship to all Natives (and this law has been held to include the indigenous peoples of Alaska) in 1924. A hospital was built in Unalaska in 1933 by the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs. World War II During World War II, small parts of the Aleutian islands were occupied by Japanese forces, when Attu and Kiska were invaded in order to divert American forces away from the main Japanese attack at Midway Atoll. The U.S. Navy, having broken the Japanese naval codes, knew that this was just a diversion, and it did not expend large amounts of effort in defending the islands. A few Americans were taken to Japan as prisoners of war. Most of the civilian population of the Aleutians were interned by the United States in camps in the Alaska Panhandle. During the Aleutian Islands Campaign, American and Canadian forces invaded Japanese-held Attu and defeated the Japanese, and subsequently regained control of all the islands. The islands were also a stopping point for hundreds of aircraft sent from California to Russia as part of the war effort. Monday, June 3, 2002 was celebrated as Dutch Harbor Remembrance Day. The governor of Alaska ordered state flags lowered to half-staff to honor the 78 soldiers who died during the two-day Japanese air attack in 1942. The Aleutian World War II National Historic Area Visitors Center opened in June 2002. Recent and miscellaneous developments The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act became law in 1971. In 1977, the Ounalashka Corporation (from Unalaska) declared a dividend. This was the first village corporation to declare and pay a dividend to its shareholders. In 1906 a new volcanic cone rose between the islets of Bogoslof and Grewingk, near Unalaska, followed by another in 1907. These cones were nearly demolished by an explosive eruption on September 1, 1907. Nuclear Testing on Amchitka The United States Department of Energy (DOE) conducted underground tests of nuclear weapons on Amchitka Island from 1965 to 1971 as part of the Vela Uniform program. The final detonation, the Cannikin, was the largest underground nuclear explosion by the United States. See also 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake Aleutian Islands Campaign Aleutians East Borough, Alaska Aleutians West Census Area, Alaska List of Aleutian Island volcanoes List of Aleutian Islands Peter the Aleut Image:AleutianIslands.jpegWestern Aleutian Islands, from a 1916 map of the Alaska Territory References Total area of from Encyclopædia Britannica Online Further reading Gibson, Daniel D., and G. Vernon Byrd. Birds of the Aleutian Islands, Alaska. Cambridge, Mass: Nuttall Ornthological Club, 2007. ISBN 9780943610733 Ivanov, Vi︠a︡cheslav Vsevolodovich. The Russian Orthodox Church of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands and Its Relation to Native American Traditions-- An Attempt at a Multicultural Society, 1794-1912. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1997. ISBN 0160487811 Jochelson, Waldemar. Archaeological Investigations in the Aleutian Islands. Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1925. 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4,830 | Gregorio_Allegri | Gregorio Allegri Gregorio Allegri (1582 – 7 February 1652) was an Italian composer and priest of the Roman School of composers. He mainly lived in Rome, and died there. Life He studied music under Giovanni Maria Nanini, the intimate friend of Palestrina. Being intended for the Church, he obtained a benefice in the cathedral of Fermo. Here he composed a large number of motets and other sacred music, which, being brought to the notice of Pope Urban VIII, obtained for him an appointment in the choir of the Sistine Chapel at Rome. He held this from December 1629 until his death. In character, he was regarded as singularly pure and benevolent. Among the musical compositions of Allegri were two volumes of concerti for five voices, published in 1618 and 1619; two volumes of motets for six voices, published in 1621; an edition of four-part sinfonia; five masses, two settings of the Lamentations of Jeremiah, as well as numerous motets which were not published in his lifetime. He was one of the earliest composers for stringed instruments, and Athanasius Kircher has given one specimen of this class of his works in the Musurgia. Most of Allegri's published music is in the more progressive early Baroque concertato style, especially the instrumental music. However, his work for the Sistine Chapel is descended from the Palestrina style, and in some cases strips even this refined, simple style of all ornament. The Miserere By far the most celebrated composition of Allegri is the Miserere mei, Deus, a setting of Vulgate Psalm 50. It is written for two choirs, the one of five and the other of four voices, and has obtained considerable celebrity. One of the choirs sings a simple fauxbordon based on the original plainsong chant for the Tonus peregrinus; the other choir sings a similar fauxbordon with pre-existing elaborations and the use of cadenzas. The Miserere has for many years been sung annually during Holy Week in the Sistine Chapel. Many have cited this work as an example of the stile antico or prima pratica. However, its constant use of the dominant seventh chord and its emphasis on polychoral techniques certainly put it out of the range of "prima pratica". A more accurate comparison would be to the works of Giovanni Gabrieli. The Miserere is one of the most often-recorded examples of late Renaissance music, although it was actually written during the chronological confines of the Baroque era; in this regard it is representative of the music of the Roman School of composers, who were stylistically conservative. The work acquired a considerable reputation for mystery and inaccessibility between the time of its composition and the era of modern recording; the Vatican, wanting to preserve its aura of mystery, forbade copies, threatening any publication or attempted copy with excommunication. They were not prepared, however, for a special visit in 1770 from a 14-year-old Mozart, who, on a visit to Rome with his father, heard it but twice and transcribed it faithfully from memory, thus creating the first "bootleg" copy. In 1771 Mozart's copy was procured and published in England by the famous traveler and music historian Dr. Burney. However, Burney's edition does not show the ornamentation for which the work was famous. The music itself is rather basic—church music at the time placed a large gap between written and performance practice—embellishments were largely placed in the hands of the performers' tastes, although the Vatican score itself was altered largely by performers and visitors over the years. The music as it is performed today includes a strange error by a copyist in the 1880s. The curious 'trucker's gear change' from G minor to C minor is because the second half of the verse is the same as the first half, but transposed up a fourth. The original never had a Top C. ed. Rutter, J. European Sacred Music. OUP 1996 The entire music performed at Rome in Holy Week, Allegri's Miserere included, has been issued at Leipzig by Breitkopf and Härtel. Interesting accounts of the impression produced by the performance at Rome may be found in the first volume of Felix Mendelssohn's letters and in Miss Taylor's Letters from Italy. References External links A Biography and detailed essay on his "Miserere mei" Brief biography of Gregorio Allegri on ClassicalNet Article on Gregorio Allegri's Misere on ClassicalNet | Gregorio_Allegri |@lemmatized gregorio:4 allegri:8 february:1 italian:1 composer:4 priest:1 roman:2 school:2 mainly:1 live:1 rome:5 die:1 life:1 study:1 music:12 giovanni:2 maria:1 nanini:1 intimate:1 friend:1 palestrina:2 intend:1 church:2 obtain:3 benefice:1 cathedral:1 fermo:1 compose:1 large:2 number:1 motet:3 sacred:2 bring:1 notice:1 pope:1 urban:1 viii:1 appointment:1 choir:4 sistine:3 chapel:3 hold:1 december:1 death:1 character:1 regard:2 singularly:1 pure:1 benevolent:1 among:1 musical:1 composition:3 two:4 volume:3 concerto:1 five:3 voice:3 publish:5 six:1 edition:2 four:2 part:1 sinfonia:1 mass:1 setting:2 lamentation:1 jeremiah:1 well:1 numerous:1 lifetime:1 one:5 early:2 stringed:1 instrument:1 athanasius:1 kircher:1 give:1 specimen:1 class:1 work:6 musurgia:1 progressive:1 baroque:2 concertato:1 style:3 especially:1 instrumental:1 however:4 descend:1 case:1 strip:1 even:1 refine:1 simple:2 ornament:1 miserere:6 far:1 celebrated:1 mei:2 deus:1 vulgate:1 psalm:1 write:3 considerable:2 celebrity:1 sing:1 fauxbordon:2 base:1 original:2 plainsong:1 chant:1 tonus:1 peregrinus:1 sings:1 similar:1 pre:1 exist:1 elaboration:1 use:2 cadenza:1 many:2 year:3 sung:1 annually:1 holy:2 week:2 cite:1 example:2 stile:1 antico:1 prima:2 pratica:2 constant:1 dominant:1 seventh:1 chord:1 emphasis:1 polychoral:1 technique:1 certainly:1 put:1 range:1 accurate:1 comparison:1 would:1 gabrieli:1 often:1 record:1 late:1 renaissance:1 although:2 actually:1 chronological:1 confines:1 era:2 representative:1 stylistically:1 conservative:1 acquire:1 reputation:1 mystery:2 inaccessibility:1 time:2 modern:1 recording:1 vatican:2 want:1 preserve:1 aura:1 forbade:1 copy:4 threaten:1 publication:1 attempt:1 excommunication:1 prepared:1 special:1 visit:2 old:1 mozart:2 father:1 hear:1 twice:1 transcribe:1 faithfully:1 memory:1 thus:1 create:1 first:3 bootleg:1 procure:1 england:1 famous:2 traveler:1 historian:1 dr:1 burney:2 show:1 ornamentation:1 rather:1 basic:1 place:2 gap:1 performance:2 practice:1 embellishment:1 largely:2 hand:1 performer:2 taste:1 score:1 alter:1 visitor:1 perform:2 today:1 include:2 strange:1 error:1 copyist:1 curious:1 trucker:1 gear:1 change:1 g:1 minor:2 c:2 second:1 half:2 verse:1 transpose:1 fourth:1 never:1 top:1 ed:1 rutter:1 j:1 european:1 oup:1 entire:1 issue:1 leipzig:1 breitkopf:1 härtel:1 interesting:1 account:1 impression:1 produce:1 may:1 find:1 felix:1 mendelssohn:1 letter:2 miss:1 taylor:1 italy:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 biography:2 detailed:1 essay:1 brief:1 classicalnet:2 article:1 misere:1 |@bigram gregorio_allegri:4 sistine_chapel:3 stringed_instrument:1 prima_pratica:2 breitkopf_härtel:1 felix_mendelssohn:1 external_link:1 |
4,831 | Monogamy | Monogamy is the state of having only one husband, wife, or sexual partner at any one time. The word monogamy comes from the Greek word monos "μονός", which means one or alone, and the Greek word gamos "γάμος", which means marriage or union. In many cases, the word "monogamy" is used to specifically refer to marital monogamy. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/monogamy Social monogamy refers to two persons/creatures who live together, have sex with one another, and cooperate in acquiring basic resources such as food, clothes, and money. Sexual monogamy refers to two persons/creatures who remain sexually exclusive with one another and have no outside sex partners. Genetic monogamy refers to two partners that only have offspring with one another. Marital monogamy refers to marriages of only two people. Varieties of monogamy Recent discoveries have led biologists to talk about the three varieties of monogamy: social monogamy, sexual monogamy, and genetic monogamy. The distinction between these three are important to the modern understanding of monogamy. Monogamous pairs of animals are not always sexually exclusive. Many animals that form pairs to mate and raise offspring regularly engage in sexual activities with partners other than their primary mate. This is called extra-pair copulation. Ågren, G., Zhou, Q. & Zhong, W. (1989). Ecology and social behaviour of Mongolian gerbils Meriones unguiculatus, at Xiliuhot, Inner Mongolia, China. Animal Behaviour, 37, 11-27. Barash, D.P. (1981). Mate guarding and gallivanting by male hoary marmots (Marmota caligata). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 9, 187-193. Birkhead, T.R. & Møller, A.P. (1995). Extra-pair copulations and extra-pair paternity in birds. Animal Behaviour, 49, 843-848. Birkhead, T.R. & Møller, A.P. (1996). Monogamy and sperm competition in birds. In J. M. Black (Ed.), Partnerships in Birds: The Study of Monogamy (pp. 323-343). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Foltz, D.W. (1981). Genetic evidence for long-term monogamy in a small rodent, Peromyscus polionotus. American Naturalist, 117, 665-675. Gursky, S.L. (2000). Sociality in the spectral tarsier, Tarsius spectrum. American Journal of Primatology, 51, 89-101. Hasselquist, D. S. & Sherman, P.W. (2001). Social mating systems and extrapair fertilizations in passerine birds. Behavioral Ecology, 12, 457-66. Hubrecht, R.C. (1985). Home range size and use and territorial behavior in the common marmoset, Callithrix jacchus jacchus, at the Tapacura Field Station, Recife, Brazil. International Journal of Primatology, 6, 533-550. Mason, W.A. (1966). Social organization of the South American monkey, Callicebus moloch: a preliminary report. Tulane Studies in Zoology, 13, 23-28. McKinney, F., Derrickson, S.R., & Mineau, P. (1983). Forced copulation in waterfowl. Behaviour, 86, 250-294. Reichard, U. (1995). Extra-pair Copulations in a Monogamous Gibbon (Hylobates lar). Ethology, 100, 99-112. Reichard, U.H. (2002). Monogamy—A variable relationship. Max Planck Research, 3, 62-67. Richardson, P.R.K. (1987). Aardwolf mating system: overt cuckoldry in an apparently monogamous mammal. South African Journal of Science, 83, 405-412. Welsh, D. & Sedinger, J.S. (1990). Extra-Pair copulations in Black Brant. The Condor, 92, 242-244. Westneat, D.F. & Stewart, I.R.K. (2003). Extra-pair paternity in birds: causes, correlates, and conflict. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 34, 365-396. Sometimes these extra-pair sexual activities lead to offspring. Genetic tests frequently show that some of the offspring raised by a monogamous pair come from the female mating with an extra-pair male partner. Owens, I.P.F. & Hartley, I.R. (1998). Sexual dimorphism in birds: why are there so many different forms of dimorphism? Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, B265, 397–407. Solomon, N.G., Keane, B., Knoch, L.R., & Hogan, P.J. (2004). Multiple paternity in socially monogamous prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster). Canadian Journal of Zoology, 82, 1667-1671. These discoveries have led biologists to adopt new ways of talking about monogamy: "Social monogamy refers to a male and female's social living arrangement (e.g., shared use of a territory, behaviour indicative of a social pair, and/or proximity between a male and female) without inferring any sexual interactions or reproductive patterns. In humans, social monogamy equals monogamous marriage. Sexual monogamy is defined as an exclusive sexual relationship between a female and a male based on observations of sexual interactions. Finally, the term genetic monogamy is used when DNA analyses can confirm that a female-male pair reproduce exclusively with each other. A combination of terms indicates examples where levels of relationships coincide, e.g., sociosexual and sociogenetic monogamy describe corresponding social and sexual, and social and genetic monogamous relationships, respectively." (Reichard, 2003, page 4) Reichard, U.H. (2003). Monogamy: Past and present. In U.H. Reichard and C. Boesch (Eds.), Monogamy: Mating strategies and partnerships in birds, humans, and other mammals (pp.3-25).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Whatever makes a pair of animals socially monogamous does not necessarily make them sexually or genetically monogamous. Social monogamy, sexual monogamy, and genetic monogamy can occur in different combinations. When applying these terms to people, it's important to remember that social monogamy does not always involve marriage. A married couple is almost always a socially monogamous couple. But couples who choose to cohabit without getting married can also be socially monogamous. Serial monogamy Serial monogamy is characterized by a series of long- or short-term, exclusive sexual relationships entered into consecutively over the lifespan. Definition by Health24's sex glossary. This does not refer to a fourth variety of monogamy in regards to the three main types, but is a type of monogamy that can describe any of the three varieties. In common usage referring to humans, the two partners need not be married, but may be involved in a sexually monogamous relationship. This behavior is sometimes referred to as a form of, Mary Amir Ali, Ph.D. refers to the practice as serial polygamy or replacement for, Serial Monogamy, Serial Polygamy, or Worse? suggests that some rich men only practice serial monogamy because polygamy is illegal. polygamy. In animal sexuality, serial monogamy often means that an animal will have a different, but exclusive, breeding partner each mating season. Generally, any animals that do not mate with one partner for life can be considered serially monogamous, including those who find a second mate only upon the death of the first. Western culture Within Western culture, several academics have put forth the position that serial monogamy is considered more fundamental than "full" monogamy. Serena Petrella (Department of Sociology, Carleton University, Canada) declares serial monogamy a "norm" in her article Only with You – Maybe – If You Make Me Happy: A Genealogy of Serial Monogamy as Governance and Self- Governance.</ref> Feminism and The Moral Animal states: "We do not actually live in a society built on monogamy, but on serial monogamy." Divorce Serial monogamy has always been closely linked to divorce practices. Whenever procedures for obtaining divorce have been simple and easy, serial monogamy has been found. It is said to have been "rife" in ancient Rome Alternative Forms of Marriage Serial Monogamy at Trivia-Library.com. As divorce has continued to become more accessible, more individuals have availed themselves of it, and many go on to remarry. In Canada, 46% of divorcées will remarry according to Till death do us part? The risk of first and second marriage dissolution by Warren Clark and Susan Crompton. It has been suggested, however, that high mortality rates in centuries past accomplished much the same result as divorce, enabling remarriage (of one spouse) and thus serial monogamy. Robert L. Griswold, Family and Divorce in California, 1850-1890: Victorian illusions and everyday realities. State University of New York Press, Albany, N.Y., 1983. Pp. 7-8. Noreen Goldman, "Changes in Widowhood and Divorce and Expected Durations of Marriage" Demography 21(3):297-307 (1984). Timothy J. Owston, Divorce. 2nd edition, April, 2006 Animals Mating system Monogamy is one of several mating systems observed in animals. The amount of social monogamy in animals varies across taxa, with over 90 percent of birds engaging in social monogamy but only 7 percent of mammals engaging in social monogamy. The incidence of sexual monogamy appears quite rare in the animal kingdom. It is becoming clear that even animals that are socially monogamous engage in extra-pair copulations. Evolution in animals Socially monogamous species are scattered throughout the animal kingdom: A few insects, a few fish, a large number of birds, and a few mammals are socially monogamous. These species did not inherit social monogamy from a common ancestor. Instead, social monogamy has evolved independently in different species. Psychology of monogamy Incidence of monogamy in humans A large majority of human beings around the world enter socially monogamous relationships at some point in their lives. The amount of sexual monogamy varies across cultures. Genetic monogamy also varies across cultures but is generally high overall. Incidence of social monogamy The United Nations World Fertility Report of 2003 reports that 89% percent of all people get married before age forty-nine. United Nations (2004). World Fertility Report: 2003. Retrieved April 26, 2006 from http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/worldfertility/World_Fertility_Report.htm . The percent of women and men who marry before age forty-nine drops to nearly 50% in some nations and reaches 100% in other nations. United Nations (2000). World Marriage Patterns 2000. Retrieved April 26, 2006 from http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/worldmarriage/worldmarriagepatterns2000.pdf . Not all marriages are socially monogamous. Anthropological studies have reported that 80-85% of societies allow polygamous marriage. Murdock, G.P. (1967). Ethnographic Atlas. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. White, D.R. & Veit, C. (1999). White-Veit EthnoAtlas. Retrieved April 28, 2006 from http://eclectic.ss.uci.edu/~drwhite/ethnoatlas/nindex.html. Murdock, G. P. (1981). Atlas of World Cultures. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. Yet, most of the men in societies that allow polygamy do not obtain sufficient wealth or status to have multiple wives, so the majority of marriages in these societies involve one husband and one wife. Murdock has estimated that 80% of marriages in societies that allow polygamy involve only one husband and one wife. White has analyzed the distribution of husbands by number of wives in societies that allow polygamy (see Table 1 in White, 1988, pages 535-539). White, D.R. (1988). Rethinking polygyny: Co-wives, codes, and cultural systems. Current Anthropology, 29, 572. His analysis also supports the claim that around 80% of marriages in these societies involve only one husband and one wife. In fact, so many marriages are socially monogamous that Murdock had years earlier stated: "An impartial observer employing the criterion of numerical preponderance, consequently, would be compelled to characterize nearly every known human society as monogamous, despite the preference for and frequency of polygyny in the overwhelming majority.” (Murdock, 1949, pages 27-28) Murdock, G.P. (1949). Social Structure. New York: Free Press. Incidence of sexual monogamy The incidence of sexual monogamy can be roughly estimated as the percentage of married people who do not engage in extramarital sex. Several studies have looked at the percentage of people who engage in extramarital sex. These studies have shown that extramarital sex varies across cultures and across genders. The Standard Cross-Cultural Sample describes the amount of extramarital sex by men and women in over 50 pre-industrial cultures. Divale, W. (2000). Pre-Coded Variables for the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample, Volume I and II. Jamaica, NY: York College, CUNY. Distributed by World Cultures at http://worldcultures.org/SCCS1.pdf. See Variable 170 and Variable 171. Murdock, G.P., & White, D.R. (1969). Standard cross-cultural sample. Ethnology, 8, 329-369. The amount of extramarital sex by men is described as "universal" in 6 cultures, "moderate" in 29 cultures, "occasional" in 6 cultures, and "uncommon" in 10 cultures. The amount of extramarital sex by women is described as "universal" in 6 cultures, "moderate" in 23 cultures, "occasional" in 9 cultures, and "uncommon" in 15 cultures. These findings support the claim that the amount of extramarital sex differs across cultures and across genders. Recent surveys conducted in non-Western nations have also found cultural and gender differences in extramarital sex. A study of sexual behavior in Thailand, Tanzania and Côte d'Ivoire suggests about 16-34% of men engage in extramarital sex while a much smaller (unreported) percentage of women engage in extramarital sex. O’Connor, M.L. (2001). Men who have many sexual partners before marriage are more likely to engage in extramarital intercourse. International Family Planning Perspectives, 27, 48-49. Studies in Nigeria have found around 47-53% of men and to 18-36% of women engage in extramarital sex. Isiugo-Abanihe, U.C. (1994). Extramarital relations and perceptions of HIV/AIDS in Nigeria. Health Transition Review, 4, 111-125 Ladebo, O.J., & Tanimowo, A.G. (2002). Extension personnel's sexual behaviour and attitudes toward HIV/AIDS in South-Western Nigeria. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 6, 51-59. A 1999 survey of married and cohabiting couples in Zimbabwe reports that 38% of men and 13% of women engaged in extra-couple sexual relationships within the last 12 months. National AIDS Council, Ministry of Health and Child Welfare, The MEASURE Project, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC/Zimbabwe). AIDS in Africa During the Nineties: Zimbabwe. A review and analysis of survey and research results. Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2002. Nowhere has extramarital sex been examined more frequently than in the United States. Many surveys asking about extramarital sex in the United States have relied on convenience samples. A convenience sample means surveys are given to whomever happens to be easily available (e.g., volunteer college students or volunteer magazine readers). Convenience samples do not accurately reflect the population of the United States as a whole, which can cause serious biases in survey results. It should not be surprising, therefore, that surveys of extramarital sex in the United States have produced widely differing results. A few studies relying on convenience samples have tried to compensate for biases by surveying large numbers of people. These studies report that about 12-26% of married women and 15-43% of married men engage in extramarital sex. Hunt, M. (1974). Sexual behavior in the 1970s. Chicago: Playboy Press. Blumstein, P., & Schwartz, P. (1983). American Couples: Money, Work, Sex. New York, NY: William Morrow and Company. Janus, S.S. & Janus, C.L. (1993). The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Although surveying large numbers of people helps to counteract the biases of convenience samples, the only way to get scientifically reliable estimates of extramarital sex is to use nationally representative samples. Three studies have used nationally representative samples. These studies have found that about 10-15% of women and 20-25% of men engage in extramarital sex. Clements, M. (1994, August 7). Sex in America today: A new national survey reveals how our attitudes are changing. Parade Magazine, 4-6. Laumann, E. O., Gagnon, J. H., Michael, R. T, & Michaels, S. (1994). The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Wiederman, M. W. (1997). Extramarital sex: Prevalence and correlates in a national survey. Journal of Sex Research, 34, 167-174. A majority of married people remain sexually monogamous during their marriages. The number of married partners who engage in extramarital sex never exceeds 50 percent in studies using large or nationally representative samples. Yet, the incidence of sexual monogamy varies across cultures. People in some cultures are more sexually monogamous than people in other cultures. Women also appear to be more sexually monogamous than men. Incidence of genetic monogamy The incidence of genetic monogamy may be estimated from rates of extrapair paternity. Unfortunately, rates of extrapair paternity have not been extensively studied in people. Many reports of extrapair paternity are little more than quotes based on hearsay, anecdotes, and unpublished findings. Macintyre, S. & Sooman, A. (1991). Non-paternity and prenatal genetic screening. Lancet, 338, 869-871. Simmons, Firman, Rhodes, and Peters reviewed 11 published studies of extra-pair paternity from various locations in the United States, France, Switzerland, United Kingdom, Mexico, and the Yanomamo Indians in South America. Simmons, L.W., Firman, R.E.C., Rhodes, G., & Peters, M. (2004). Human sperm competition: testis size, sperm production and rates of extrapair copulations. Animal Behaviour, 68, 297-302. The rates of exptrapair paternity ranged from 0.03% to 11.8% although most of the locations had low percentages of extrapair paternity. The median rate of extrapair paternity was 1.8%. A separate review of 17 studies by Bellis, Hughes, Hughes, and Ashton found slightly higher rates of extrapair paternity. Bellis, M.A., Hughes, K., Hughes, S., & Ashton, J.R. (2005). Measuring paternal discrepancy and its public health consequences. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 59, 749-754 The rates varied from 0.8% to 30% in these studies, with a median rate of 3.7% extrapair paternity. A range of 1.8% to 3.7% extrapair paternity implies a range of 96% to 98% genetic monogamy. Although the incidence of genetic monogamy may vary from 70% to 99% in different cultures or social environments, a large percentage of couples remain genetically monogamous during their relationships. A review paper surveying 67 other studies of nonpaternity reporting rates of nonpaternity in different societies ranging from 0.4% to over 50% was recently published by Kermyt G. Anderson.<ref>[http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/A/Kermyt.G.Anderson-1/papers/worldwidepc.pdf How Well Does Paternity Confidence Match Actual Paternity? Evidence from Worldwide Nonpaternity Rates, Kermyt G. Anderson, Current Anthropology 48(3): 511-518. 2006.] Pedigree errors are a well-known source of error in medical studies. When attempts are made to try to study medical afflictions and their genetic components, it becomes very important to understand nonpaternity rates and pedigree errors. There are numerous software packages and procedures that exist for correcting research data for pedigree errors. Enhanced Pedigree Error Detection, Lei Suna, Kenneth Wildera, Mary Sara McPeeka, Human Heredity 2002;54:99-110 (DOI: 10.1159/000067666) PedCheck: a program for identification of genotype incompatibilities in linkage analysis, J R O'Connell and D E Weeks, Am J Hum Genet. 1998 July; 63(1): 259–266. Evaluating pedigree data. I. The estimation of pedigree error in the presence of marker mistyping, Lathrop GM, Hooper AB, Huntsman JW, Ward RH, Am J Hum Genet, Vol. 35, No. 2. (March 1983), pp. 241-262. Value of monogamy Some cultures value monogamy as an ideal form of family organization. However, many cultures prefer other forms of family organization. Anthropological data suggests a majority of societies prefer polygamous marriage as a cultural ideal. There are multiple forms of nonmonogamy that are used to organize families, as well multiple forms of monogamy such as marriage, cohabitation and extended families. People disagree strongly about the value of monogamy and monogamy has been criticized and supported. Two common criticisms of monogamy are that socially monogamous marriage oppresses women and that lifelong sexual monogamy is unnatural and unrealistic. Supporters of monogamy have argued that a society that supports monogamous marriage can promote women's equality and that sexual monogamy facilitates intimate and lasting relationships. See also Affair Animal sexuality Cohabitation Cuckold Divorce Fluid monogamy Free love Group marriage Human bonding Hypergamy - 'marrying up' Jealousy Marriage Mating system Non-monogamy Open marriage Polyamory Polyfidelity Polygamy Pair bonding Psychology of sexual monogamy Sexual conflict Sexual revolution Swinging Value of monogamy References Further reading Barash, David P., and Lipton, Judith Eve. The Myth of Monogamy: Fidelity and Infidelity in Animals and People. New York: W. H. Freeman and Co./Henry Hold and Co., 2001. ISBN 0805071369. Kleiman, Devra G. "Monogamy in Mammals". The Quarterly Review of Biology, 52.1 (March 1977): 39–69. Accessed 21 July 2008. Lehrman, Sally. "The Virtues of Promiscuity". July 22, 2002. AlterNet. Accessed 21 July 2008. On studies showing social and genetic benefits of promiscuity. Lim, Miranda M., et al. "Enhanced Partner Preference in a Promiscuous Species by Manipulating the Expression of a Single Gene". Nature 429 (17 June 2004), 754–757. DOI:10.1038/nature02539. Accessed 21 July 2008. Reichard, Ulrich H., and Christophe Boesch (eds.). Monogamy: Mating Strategies and Partnerships in Birds, Humans and Other Mammals. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0521819733, ISBN 0521525772. External links The Myth of Monogamy UK website on childsupport and paternity with many links to studies of paternity, nonpaternity and pedigree error rates Evaluating pedigree data. II. Identifying the cause of error in families with inconsistencies, Lathrop GM, Huntsman JW, Hooper AB, Ward RH, Hum Hered. 1983;33(6):377-89. | Monogamy |@lemmatized monogamy:84 state:10 one:15 husband:5 wife:7 sexual:30 partner:11 time:1 word:4 come:2 greek:2 mono:1 μονός:1 mean:4 alone:1 gamos:1 γάμος:1 marriage:23 union:1 many:10 case:1 use:8 specifically:1 refer:4 marital:2 http:6 www:3 merriam:1 webster:1 com:2 dictionary:1 social:23 refers:6 two:6 person:2 creature:2 live:2 together:1 sex:25 another:3 cooperate:1 acquire:1 basic:1 resource:1 food:1 clothes:1 money:2 remain:3 sexually:7 exclusive:5 outside:1 genetic:15 offspring:4 people:13 variety:4 recent:2 discovery:2 lead:3 biologist:2 talk:2 three:5 distinction:1 important:3 modern:1 understanding:1 monogamous:26 pair:17 animal:19 always:4 form:8 mate:5 raise:2 regularly:1 engage:14 activity:2 primary:1 call:1 extra:11 copulation:7 ågren:1 g:15 zhou:1 q:1 zhong:1 w:8 ecology:4 behaviour:7 mongolian:1 gerbil:1 meriones:1 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4,832 | Concord,_Michigan | Concord is a village in Jackson County in the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 1,101 at the 2000 census. The village is located at , west of Spring Arbor, Michigan. Government Concord is a general-law village incorporated within the Township of Concord. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1.6 square miles (4.1 km²), of which, 1.5 square miles (3.8 km²) of it is land and 0.1 square miles (0.3 km²) of it (6.37%) is water. The village is located within the T3S R3W survey township. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 1,101 people, 428 households, and 308 families residing in the village. The population density was 748.4 per square mile (289.2/km²). There were 499 housing units at an average density of 339.2/sq mi (131.1/km²). The racial makeup of the village was 97.91% White, 0.09% Black or African American, 0.27% Native American, 0.73% Asian, 0.64% from other races, and 0.36% from two or more races. 0.82% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 428 households out of which 34.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.9% were married couples living together, 10.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.0% were non-families. 25.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 3.09. In the village the population was spread out with 28.1% under the age of 18, 7.5% from 18 to 24, 28.2% from 25 to 44, 21.7% from 45 to 64, and 14.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 92.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.7 males. The median income for a household in the village was $46,500, and the median income for a family was $54,531. Males had a median income of $39,167 versus $23,594 for females. The per capita income for the village was $19,348. About 4.8% of families and 5.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.1% of those under age 18 and 7.1% of those age 65 or over. Concord Community Schools (Enrollment 975) participate in Class C division of MHSAA athletics. Their teams are known as the Yellowjackets and play in the Big 8 Conference. The schools' colors are purple and gold. References External links Public School System Jackson County online | Concord,_Michigan |@lemmatized concord:4 village:10 jackson:2 county:2 u:1 state:2 michigan:2 population:5 census:3 locate:2 west:1 spring:1 arbor:1 government:1 general:1 law:1 incorporate:1 within:2 township:2 geography:1 accord:1 united:1 bureau:1 total:1 area:1 square:4 mile:4 land:1 water:1 survey:1 demographic:1 people:1 household:5 family:5 reside:1 density:2 per:2 housing:1 unit:1 average:3 sq:1 mi:1 racial:1 makeup:1 white:1 black:1 african:1 american:2 native:1 asian:1 race:3 two:1 hispanic:1 latino:1 child:1 age:8 living:1 marry:1 couple:1 live:2 together:1 female:4 householder:1 husband:1 present:1 non:1 make:1 individual:1 someone:1 alone:1 year:3 old:2 size:2 spread:1 median:4 every:2 male:3 income:4 versus:1 capita:1 poverty:1 line:1 include:1 community:1 school:3 enrollment:1 participate:1 class:1 c:1 division:1 mhsaa:1 athletics:1 team:1 know:1 yellowjackets:1 play:1 big:1 conference:1 color:1 purple:1 gold:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 public:1 system:1 online:1 |@bigram arbor_michigan:1 census_bureau:1 density_sq:1 sq_mi:1 mi_racial:1 racial_makeup:1 hispanic_latino:1 latino_race:1 female_householder:1 householder_husband:1 male_median:2 median_income:3 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 external_link:1 |
4,833 | The_Three_Stigmata_of_Palmer_Eldritch | The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch is a 1965 novel by American science fiction writer Philip K. Dick. It was nominated for the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1965. Like many of Dick's novels, The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch utilizes an array of science fiction concepts and features several layers of reality and unreality. It is one of Dick's first works to explore religious themes. Plot introduction The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch takes place some time in the twenty-first century. Under the authority of the United Nations, humankind has colonized every habitable planet and moon in the solar system. Life for most colonists is physically daunting and psychologically monotonous so the UN must draft individuals to colonize. Most colonists entertain themselves using Barbie-like "Perky Pat" dolls and the multitude of accessories manufactured by Earth-based P.P. Layouts. The company also secretly creates Can-D, an illegal but widely available hallucinogen that allows the user to "translate" into Perky Pat (if the user is female) or her boyfriend Walt (if male). This allows colonists to experience an idealized version of life on Earth in a collective unconscious hallucination. P.P. Layouts employs several precogs to determine if possible new Perky Pat accessories will be popular. Life on Earth is also harsh as the global temperature has risen to a level where one can no longer be outdoors without a personal air conditioning unit and Antarctica is the only suitable vacation spot. Wealthy people often undergo “evolution therapy,” performed in the clinics of Dr. Willy Denkmal (German for Monument). This allows them to skip several stages of human evolution. Their craniums become large and bubble-like and the therapy may increase their intelligence, although the narrative insinuates that the extra brainpower is superficial. Devolution is also possible and occurs in some cases. At the novel's beginning, renegade industrialist Palmer Eldritch has traveled to the inhabited Proxima Centauri star system in search of a sellable product. He has been gone for a decade. Plot summary Barney Mayerson, P.P. Layout's top precognitive in New York City, has been drafted to colonize Mars. Mayerson has just entered a sexual relationship with his assistant Roni Fugate, although he is still bitter about his divorce to his first wife Emily, a ceramic pot artist. Emily's second husband tries to sell her pot designs to P.P. Layouts as possible Perky Pat accessories but Barney recognizes them as Emily's and rejects them out of bitterness. Meanwhile, the UN rescues Palmer Eldritch's ship from a crash on Pluto. Leo Bulero, head of P.P. Layouts and an "evolved" human, hears rumors that Eldritch discovered an alien hallucinogen in the Prox system and plans to market it as "Chew-Z," with U.N. approval, on off-world colonies. This would effectively destroy P.P. Layouts. Bulero tries to contact Eldritch but he is quarantined at a U.N. hospital. Both Mayerson and Fugate have precognitions of Bulero murdering Eldritch. Meanwhile, Emily and her second husband sell her pots to Eldritch and undergo evolution therapy. This causes Emily to devolve and unknowingly recreate pots she previously concocted. Under the guise of a reporter, Bulero travels to the artificial satellite of Earth where Eldritch holds a press conference. Bulero is kidnapped and forced to take Chew-Z intravenously. He enters a psychic netherworld over which both he and Eldritch seemingly have some control. After wrangling about business with Eldritch, Bulero comes to a seeming future Earth. Evolved humans identify him as a ghost and show him a monument to himself where he is to have killed Eldritch, an "enemy of the Sol System." Bulero returns to Earth and fires Mayerson because Mayerson was afraid to travel to the satellite to rescue him. Mayerson accepts his conscription to Mars but Bulero recruits him as a double agent. Mayerson is to inject himself with a virus after taking Chew-Z, which will deceive the UN into thinking Chew-Z is harmful and cause them to ban it. On Mars, Mayerson buys some Chew-Z from Eldritch, who appears in holographic form beamed down from a starship. Mayerson tries to hallucinate a world where he is still with Emily but finds that he does not control his "hallucination." Like Bulero, he finds himself in the future. Mayerson arrives in New York two years hence where he speaks with Bulero, Fugate and his own future self about the death of Palmer Eldritch. He also encounters several manifestations of Eldritch, identifiable by their robotic right hand (alienation), artificial eyes (blurred reality) and steel teeth (despair). Eldritch offers to help Mayerson “become” whatever he wants. When a despairing Mayerson chooses death, he becomes one with Eldritch and Eldritch plans to allow him to die when Bulero kills Eldritch. Eldritch, meanwhile, intends to live on in Mayerson's form and enjoy the simple if arduous life of a Martian colonist. Mayerson, stuck in Eldritch's body and mistaken for him, is indeed nearly killed by Bulero in the near future, but before the fatal shot can be fired he is awakened from his Chew-Z trance in the present—by Bulero, who has just arrived on Mars. Bulero is willing to take Mayerson back to Earth but refuses to after learning that Mayerson did not inject himself with the virus as instructed. Mayerson is now confident that Bulero will kill Eldritch and stop him that way, so the sacrifice of taking the virus in order to ruin Eldritch's business is unnecessary; but he doesn't try to convince Bulero of this. Later, Mayerson discusses his experience with a Neo-Christian colonist and they conclude that either Eldritch became a god in the Prox system or some god-like being has taken his place. Mayerson is convinced some aspect of Eldritch is still inside him, and that as long he refuses to take Chew-Z again, it is Eldritch who will actually be killed by Bulero in the near future; Mayerson is half-resigned, half-hopeful about taking on the life of a Martian colonist without reprieve—after all, the Eldritch creature, with all its Godlike powers and history, seemed to covet that simple life. Mayerson considers the possibility of Eldritch being what humans have always thought of as God, but inimical, or perhaps merely an inferior aspect of a bigger and better sort of God. Although he and the other Chew-Z users are still "unclean," occasionally tainted with Eldritch stigmata, everything Mayerson has heard and learned from his and Bulero's future experiences suggests that once Bulero kills Eldritch bodily, the Eldritch creature's influence and semblance will slowly fade from the universe, though it will take a long time; by choosing a boring but real life over Chew-Z, Mayerson will help bring this about. As unconventional as the story has been, here it actually approaches closure on the space opera level: the "good guys" who care about what happens to humankind will win, the Eldritch creature ultimately fail. The final scene does not contradict this happy ending, but does black-humorously suggest some doubt. Bulero is returning to Earth, having realized that although the virus plot has failed, he still has a chance of assassinating Eldritch, just as Mayerson has foreseen. But meanwhile he and everyone around him has suddenly developed artificial right hands, Jensen visors (artificial eyes), and steel teeth. This is not inconsistent with Mayerson's scenario—Eldritch is not yet dead, so the universe is still tainted—but reminds us that Mayerson may be wrong about how it will turn out, that there's also a chance Eldritch will triumph. For one thing, in the last instance of one of the book's running gags, the allegedly extra-evolved Bulero frequently seems more stupid than smart, and the fate of humanity now depends on his addled consciousness. In addition, it is mentioned earlier in the book that one of the Eldritch creature's favourite tricks is to meet people disembarking at airports and spaceports, to demonstrate precisely how inescapable it is; the novel finishes before the space flight lands, and so we never know whether Eldritch appears at the spaceport to mock Bulero. Major themes Chew-Z is marketed with the slogan, God promises eternal life. We can deliver it. Those who take the drug have experiences akin to the afterlife in both western and eastern religions. Chew-Z allows a person to live “eternally” in that it seemingly eliminates time and space; a trip that actually lasts only minutes can seem to last hours, days or possibly years. It also is akin to reincarnation in that it allows a person to experience his or her surroundings as a new life form, a point that appealed to the novel's United Nations Secretary-General, a Buddhist. All who try Chew-Z seem to have visions of Eldritch who appears to have control over their "afterlife." The title of the novel refers to Eldritch's "three stigmata," his robotic right hand, artificial eyes (made, according to the book itself, by "Brazilian oculists") and steel teeth. Eldritch does not develop typical stigmata; the mysterious development of wounds similar to those of Christ during the crucifixion. Instead others develop a robotic right hand, artificial eyes and steel teeth: the "three stigmata of Palmer Eldritch." Eldritch may be a Satanic figure in that he appears to be conniving and power-hungry, states himself to be a competitor to God (God promises eternal life. We can deliver it) and utilizes holy and otherworldly appearances for dubious ends. Mayerson theorizes that Eldritch is some aspect of God. In some theological views, Satan is one aspect of God or a necessary part of his court. Eldritch may also be a Gnostic figure, reminiscent of the corrupting "blind god" Samael. Like Samael, Eldritch takes the existing world and changes it into his vision, thereby introducing "error," including suffering, unreality and entropy. Dick explored this perception of reality, the creation of a corrupting deity, in VALIS, The Divine Invasion and other works. Eldritch's three stigmata might bear a resemblance to the three aspects of the corrupting divinity of gnosticism. However, in many Gnostic tellings, the world is perfect before the arrival of Samael. The world of The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch is not perfect before the arrival of Eldritch (it is indeed a stark and unwelcoming setting), and the Chew-Z dream world is less entropic than the real world (God promises eternal life. We can deliver it). It is possible that Eldritch is a reverse Samael, bringing the world out of a corrupted, entropic existence into an eternal one, but this too is a double-edged sword as Eldritch takes complete control of the dream world. The novel also makes reference to Eucharist. Mayerson theorizes that it is perhaps not proper for the lesser being to consume the greater being and that the greater being should consume the lesser; i.e. the way Eldritch "takes over" those who take Chew-Z and the novel's final scene, in which all people possess his "stigmata." However, the taking of Chew-Z could not be an inversion of the Eucharist if Chew-Z is Eldritch; the lesser beings are "consuming" him. But this could be another of Eldritch's devilish tricks. Mild adult humor Dick had a talent for showing the funny or ironic side of his creations. In this story Barney and Roni, both precogs, foresaw that they would be lovers as soon as they met, so naturally they decided to skip the preliminaries and get on with it. Among the Martian colonists, a man and a woman embark on a clandestine affair, which they will consummate as Perky Pat and Walt, using the drug Can-D. However, the other colonists soon take the drug and begin to share the experience. Disgusted, the lovers recover from their trances, and decide to do in reality what they could not do in unreality, before the others wake up. Comparisons with Dick's life and other work There are parallels between the enthousiasmos Dick believed he experienced in February/March 1974 (the 2-3-74 experiences) and the themes of The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch, which Dick continued to explore in a series of novels and short stories: "The Days of Perky Pat" (1963) is a short story in which Perky Pat dolls first appear, although they are the prize objects of people on a post-apocalyptic Earth, not Mars and the story does not involve drugs. Dick experienced a "vision of the face of Palmer Eldritch" while writing the story, prompting him to write The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch Martian Time-Slip (1964) also features the UN as a tyrannical organization lording over off-world colonies. It presents a more pleasant, although hardly idealized, version of life on Mars "Faith of Our Fathers" (1967) also portrays a godlike being who is amoral and all-consuming Ubik (1969) and The Minority Report (1956) feature the exploitation of precognition for commercial or government gain A Maze of Death (1970) also portrays the lives of planetary colonists as drab and boring and features an authoritative organization that conscripts them to go to new worlds. It also supposes that God's nature may be different on other planets. A Scanner Darkly (1977) features a dark-haired woman (a major theme in most of Dick's work) named Donna Hawthorne. A female character of similar traits appears here, named Anne Hawthorne. It could be speculated whether the two characters have any form of relation, although this could be coincidence. "Rautavaara's Case" (1980) also features an inverted Eucharist of sorts where the greater being consumes the lesser. This story also involves creatures from the Proxima Centauri star system and thus may take place in the same continuity of The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch. The Divine Invasion (1981) features a scenario in which Satanic forces have clouded the Earth and God has been exiled into an outer star system. Ceramics play a part in other Dick novels: the protagonist of Galactic Pot-Healer (1969) is a potter, and Horselover Fat, Dick's author surrogate in VALIS (1981), greatly values a pot he received as a gift from a young drug dealer he is infatuated with. Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said (1974) features a vase which has been made by someone and given as a gift. Adaptations In 2006, the book was adapted to a stage play by Polish director Jan Klata. 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4,834 | Arizona_Cardinals | The Arizona Cardinals are a professional American Football team based in Glendale, Arizona. The Cardinals are members of the Western Division of the National Football Conference (NFC) in the National Football League (NFL). The Cardinals were founded in 1898, and are the oldest continuously run professional American football club in the United States. Arizona Cardinals team history, azcardinals.com The team was established in Chicago in 1898 and was a charter member of the NFL in 1920. The club moved to St. Louis, Missouri in 1960 and played in that city through 1987. Before the 1988 NFL season, the team moved to Tempe, Arizona, an eastern suburb of Phoenix, and played their home games for the next 18 years at Arizona State University's Sun Devil Stadium. In the club began playing all home games at the newly constructed University of Phoenix Stadium in the northwestern suburb of Glendale. The franchise's lone NFL championship game victory came in 1947 while they were based in Chicago, and came two decades before the first Super Bowl game was ever played. The club's other NFL championship occurred in 1925, eight years before the league began holding a championship game, and is a controversial title to this day. The much contested title was believed to belong to the Pottsville Maroons but was given to the Cardinals instead in what is called the 1925 NFL Championship controversy. In the six-plus decades since winning the championship in 1947, the Cardinals have qualified for the playoffs only six times and have won only five playoff games, three of which were achieved during their run in the 2008-09 NFL Playoffs in which they reached Super Bowl XLIII. Overview The Cardinals are the oldest professional American football club in the United States. "NFL History 1896-1910", NFL.com Arizona Cardinals team history, azcardinals.com Arizona Cardinals team history, profootballhof.com The team now known as the Arizona Cardinals was originally formed in 1898 as the Morgan Athletic Club in Chicago. The club's name changed to the Racine Normals, because they were originally located in Normal Park on Chicago's Racine Avenue (not Racine, Wisconsin, as mistaken in the notes from an early APFA meeting). Their name was changed to the Racine Cardinals after the club started wearing dark reddish uniforms inherited from the collegiate Chicago Maroons. After becoming a charter member of the NFL in , the club was renamed the Chicago Cardinals, in part to distinguish them from a new franchise in Racine, Wisconsin. In 1944, during manpower shortages caused by World War II, the Cardinals merged with the Pittsburgh Steelers, called Card-Pitt in the standings, for that single season. The Cardinals moved to St. Louis, Missouri in , becoming the St. Louis Cardinals. The club was sometimes called "The Football Cardinals" or "Big Red" to distinguish them from the baseball team, and were also called "The Cardiac Cards" during brushes with success in the 1970s. After an unsuccessful campaign for a new football-only stadium in St. Louis, the club relocated to the Phoenix metropolitan area in , first playing at Sun Devil Stadium on the campus of Arizona State University in the suburb of Tempe. The team was known as the Phoenix Cardinals before it switched to using "Arizona" in its name in . Despite moving to St. Louis and then to Arizona, for decades the Cardinals remained in either an Eastern conference or division. When the league was divided into Eastern and Western conferences prior to the 1953 season, the Cardinals were placed in the East while the Chicago Bears were placed in the West. After the AFL-NFL Merger, the team was placed in the NFC East. The Cardinals were finally moved to the NFC West, despite the club's objection, as part of the 2002 realignment. Despite being the oldest existing professional football franchise in the United States, the Cardinals have a remarkably lean postseason history. They were NFL Champions in 1925 and and prior to 2008 they had last played for the NFL title in --the longest-such drought in NFL history. The team has also won only three division titles (, , and ) since their 1947-1948 NFL championship game appearances. In addition, the club in 2008 became the last NFC team since the 1970 AFL-NFL merger to reach the Conference Championship Game. The team has also played only three home playoff games in its long history, two of which came in 2008. The team's futility has also been attributed to a sports-related curse placed onto the team because their 1925 title was the result of a disputed, controversial ruling by the NFL. (See 1925 NFL Championship controversy for more details). The Cardinals conduct their annual summer training camp at Northern Arizona University in Flagstaff. Franchise history Chicago years (1898–1959) The Cardinals began as an amateur athletic club team in Chicago named the Morgan Athletic Club, which was founded by Chicago painter/builder Chris O'Brien in 1898. Early in the 20th century (by 1913), the team turned professional. O'Brien later moved them to Chicago's Normal Park and renamed them the Racine Normals, since Normal Park was located on Racine Avenue in Chicago. In 1901, O'Brien bought used maroon uniforms from the University of Chicago, the colors of which had by then faded, leading O'Brien to exclaim, "That's not maroon, it's cardinal red!" It was then that the team changed its name to the Racine Cardinals. The team disbanded in 1906 mostly for lack of local competition, but reformed in 1913. They were forced to suspend operations for a second time in 1918 because of World War I and the outbreak of the Spanish Flu Pandemic. They resumed operations later in the year, and have since operated continuously. In 1920, the team became a charter member of the American Professional Football Association (which became the NFL in ), for a franchise fee of $100USD. The Cardinals and the Bears (originally founded as the Decatur Staleys before moving to Chicago in 1921) are the only charter members of the NFL still in existence, though the Green Bay Packers, who joined the league in 1921, existed prior to the formation of the NFL. The person keeping the minutes of the first league meeting, unfamiliar with the nuances of Chicago football, recorded the Cardinals as Racine, Wisconsin. The team was renamed the Chicago Cardinals in 1922, after the NFL placed a team in the Wisconsin city. That season the Cardinals moved to Comiskey Park. The Cardinals won their first NFL championship in 1925, finishing the season with a record of 11-2-1. In a controversial ruling by the league, the Pottsville Maroons, the team with the best record, had their franchise revoked for violating the territorial rights of the Frankford Yellow Jackets. Thus, the Cardinals won the 1925 title by default. The Cardinals posted a winning record only twice in the twenty years ( and ) after their championship—including 10 straight losing seasons from to . Dr. David Jones bought the team from O'Brien in . In the team was purchased by Charles Bidwill, then a vice president of the Chicago Bears. The team has been under the ownership of the Bidwill family since then. In on October 25 the Cardinals would lose their first of 29 straight games against the Cleveland Rams, finishing out their season with a 3–8 record, losing their last 6 games. In the Cardinals would record their first of two winless seasons going 0-10 in both the 1943 and seasons. In 1944, owing to player shortages caused by World War II, the Cardinals and Pittsburgh Steelers merged for one year and were known as the "Card-Pitt", or derisively as the "Carpets". In after losing their first three games, the Cardinals would end their 29 game losing streak by winning against the Chicago Bears on October 14 in almost 4 years of futility, while finishing their season with a 1–9 record. The Cardinals won their last NFL championship game in 1947 (28–21 over the Philadelphia Eagles) with their "Million-Dollar Backfield", which included quarterback Paul Christman, halfback Charley Trippi, halfback Elmer Angsman, and fullback Pat Harder, piling up 282 rushing yards. It was the franchise's first home playoff game, but Bidwill was not around to see it; he'd died before the season, leaving the team to his wife Violet. He had, however, beaten the Chicago Rockets of the upstart All-America Football Conference for the rights to Trippi. This signing is generally acknowledged as the final piece in the championship puzzle. They advanced to the championship game the next season, but lost 7–0 in a rematch with the Eagles, played in a heavy snowstorm that almost completely obscured the field. The next year, Violet Bidwill married St. Louis businessman Walter Wolfner. The 1950s were dismal for the team, with only 33 victories for the decade. Most years found the Cardinals in last place and in their best year of the decade (1956), they finished second with a 7–5 record. Following the 1958 season, they traded their star running back Ollie Matson to the Los Angeles Rams for an unprecedented nine players, but this did little to improve the Cardinals. The team's poor performances, coupled with the near-mythic status of the crosstown Bears, resulted in a decline in attendance and revenue. The season, the Cardinals last in Chicago, saw the team decline to a 2–10 record. They left their long-time Comiskey Park home to play four games at Soldier Field on Chicago's lakefront plus two "neutral site" games in Minneapolis. That did not improve attendance as Bidwill started looking elsewhere to move her team. Eventually, the Bidwills engineered a deal with the NFL which sent the Cardinals to St. Louis beginning with the 1960 season, a move which also blocked St. Louis as a market against the emerging American Football League. St. Louis years (1960–1987) Coincidentally, St. Louis already had a baseball team called the "Cardinals". The established National League team eventually decided against pressing a formal objection to another sports team in the city using the same name. Sports fans and local news broadcasters called the team "The St. Louis Football Cardinals" or "The Big Red" to distinguish the two teams. The new "St. Louis Football Cardinals" were much improved, and the team was competitive for much of the 1960s. New stars emerged, such as Larry Wilson, Charley Johnson, Jim Bakken, Sonny Randle, and Jim Hart. However, in an era when only two or four teams qualified for the NFL playoffs, the Cardinals' playoff drought continued, though the team did advance to the Playoff Bowl in 1964. Violet Bidwill Wolfner died in 1962, and her sons, Bill and Charles, Jr. took control. Bill Bidwill became sole owner in 1972 and still owns the team today. Only the Pittsburgh Steelers, New York Giants and Chicago Bears have been in the hands of one family longer than the Cardinals. In , Don Coryell became head coach and the Cardinals registered a 7–0 record to open the 1974 season. They won the NFC East then and in 1975, losing in the divisional playoffs both times. During this period, the Cardinals boasted an effective offense in the wake of a record-setting offensive line which included standouts Dan Dierdorf, Conrad Dobler, and Tom Banks. This period for the franchise was characterized by exciting close games, come-from-behind nailbiters, and several frustrating near-misses. The press and league fans began to call the team the "Cardiac Cardinals". Team stars from the 1970s included Pro Football Hall of Fame cornerback Roger Wehrli, wide receiver Mel Gray, and running backs Terry Metcalf and Jim Otis. The Cardinals experienced several years of notoriously poor drafts and unfortunate personnel moves in the late 1970s, typified by the first-round selection of kicker Steve Little and hiring of college coaching legend Bud Wilkinson in . However, the Cardinals had some success in the early 1980s, posting three consecutive winning seasons from 1982 to 1984. The heart of this squad was the prolific trio of quarterback Neil Lomax, wide receiver Roy Green, and running back Ottis Anderson. In 1987, the team's last in St. Louis, on November 8, the Cardinals had the 12th greatest comebacks in NFL history when trailing the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 28–3, the Cardinals scored 28 unanswered points in the 4th quarter to win the game 31–28. During the Cardinals' 28-year stay in St. Louis, they advanced to the playoffs just three times (1974, 1975, 1982), never hosting or winning in any appearance. The team left St. Louis before the 1988 season, after Bidwill was unable to convince the city to build a new stadium. Arizona years (1988–Present) In 1988, the Cardinals moved to Arizona, and the Phoenix Cardinals started playing home games in Sun Devil Stadium on the campus of Arizona State University. Before the 1994 season, in order to better market the franchise to a statewide fan base, the name of the team was changed to the Arizona Cardinals. 1990s The Cardinals spent most of their first decade in Arizona as a cellar-dweller. In 1996, the team served as the backdrop for a popular romantic comedy, Jerry Maguire. The team's record of futility figured prominently in the screenplay by Cameron Crowe: the eponymous hero is a struggling sports agent whose only client is a flamboyant Cardinals wide receiver. Cuba Gooding, Jr. won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of the fictional Cardinal wide receiver Rod Tidwell. Things began to look up during the 1998 season as Jake Plummer enjoyed his greatest stretch of success during his tenure with the franchise, in terms of victories at least, as his quarterback rating was still an average 75.0. The team during that time had once again been dubbed the Cardiac Cards by the local and national media "'Boys wary of cardiac Cards", ESPN.com December 29, 1998 as eight of their 16 regular-season games were decided by three points or less, and seven of those games ended in favor of the Cardinals. With a 6–7 record going into the 15th week, the team won 3 straight games to clinch a playoff spot, including one overtime win, with a total margin of those 3 victories a mere 8 points. It was only the team's second non-losing season since 1984. The fact that none of their victories had been against teams with winning records made them heavy underdogs going into their Wild Card Playoff game against the Dallas Cowboys. Considering their two regular season losses to the Cowboys and the fact that they had been on the losing end of 16 of the last 17 games against their division rivals, including 9 straight losses at Texas Stadium, the "Team of the Nineties" seemed to have history, among other forces, on their side. To further the situation, the Cardinals franchise had not won a single playoff game since their title year of 1947, resulting in the longest active drought in professional sports history. The Cardinals won the game 20–7; however, the game wasn't even that close, as Arizona thoroughly dominated the Cowboys on both ends of the football throughout the game. The Cardinals jumped out to a 10-0 halftime lead. The Cardinals would later increase that lead to 20-0 in the final minutes of the 4th quarter. The Cowboys' only score was a touchdown late in the 4th quarter, and the Cardinals held on for the upset. The Cardinals, who had suffered for 51 years as the NFL's doormat, finally had a playoff win. However, the distinction was short lived as the Cardinals fell in the divisional round of the playoffs to the Minnesota Vikings who possessed a 15-1 record as well as the highest-scoring offense in NFL history, a record which was broken by the 2007 New England Patriots. The Vikings won the game 41-21 in the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in downtown Minneapolis. The Cardinals would not have another winning record until 2008. Coming off their playoff run in 1998, the Cardinals were expected to do bigger and better things in 1999, but a tough schedule ranked in the top 5 as well as key injuries resulted in what would be another disappointing season, getting off to a 2–6 start. However, the Cards would make another run winning 4 straight to get back into the playoff chase, but it was not meant to be as Arizona lost their last 4 to finish with a disappointing 6–10 record. The team finished with 5–11 records in 2005 and 2006. 2000s In 2000, Maricopa County voters passed a ballot initiative by a margin of 51% to 49%, providing funding for a new Cardinals stadium (as well as for improvements to Major League Baseball spring training facilities in the greater Phoenix region; and youth recreation). After some legal obstacles, the Cardinals began construction of their new facility in April 2003, in Glendale, one of the western suburbs of Phoenix. University of Phoenix Stadium features a retractable roof and a slide-out grass surface, which is good for the hot desert weather; the new stadium has a state-of-the-art air-conditioning system and high-back seats. In 2002, the NFL realignment moved the Cardinals to the more geographically correct NFC West. Their current division rivals are the St. Louis Rams (the Cardinals' first trip to St. Louis since the realignment was a nationally televised game on ESPN), San Francisco 49ers, and the Seattle Seahawks. The 2006 season was one that gave many Cards fans optimism as the team drafted highly touted quarterback Matt Leinart and signed free agent running back Edgerrin James. However the lofty expectations were not to be as the team was plagued with inconsistency as the Cards struggled out of the gate with a record of 1–8. A notable low point of the season was in a home game against the Chicago Bears, the Cards squandered a 20 point lead to lose the game 24–23. The game was notable for coach Dennis Green's post-game conference outburst in which he made the now famous line "They are who we thought they were!". The Cards went 4–3 down the stretch to finish the season at 5–11, but it wasn't enough to save Green's job, as he was fired at season's end. The Ken Whisenhunt Era During the 2007 NFL offseason, the Arizona Cardinals announced the firing of coach Dennis Green. The leading candidate to coach the Cardinals after the firing was Pittsburgh Steelers offensive coordinator Ken Whisenhunt. He was hired on January 14, 2007, with a contract of $2.5 million annually for four years. 2007 In 2007, the Arizona Cardinals announced the firing of coach Dennis Green. The leading candidate to coach the Cardinals after the firing was Pittsburgh Steelers offensive coordinator Ken Whisenhunt. He was hired on January 14, 2007, with a contract of $2.5 million annually for four years. The Cardinals started their first 10 games at 5–5, and ended the season at 8–8, barely missing the playoffs in Whisenhunt's first season as head coach. 2008 In 2008, the Cardinals started out with one of the best offenses in the league, led by former NFL MVP quarterback Kurt Warner and wide receivers Larry Fitzgerald and Anquan Boldin. The Cardinals' decision to approach the 2008 season with Kurt Warner at quarterback instead of Leinart drew criticism, but majorly contributed to their qualifying for the playoffs that year, with Warner passing for 4,583 yards and 30 touchdowns.. "The Cost of Contending", The Good Point At the halfway point of the season, the Cardinals led their division, for the first time since 1998, with a record of 7–3. Celebration after Cards win NFC championship game, 18 Jan., 2009 On December 7, 2008, the Cardinals won the NFC West Division by beating the St. Louis Rams 34–10. In the process, they clinched their first playoff berth since 1998, and their first division title since 1975 (and third of the post-merger era). However, they proceeded to lose two of their last three regular season games, to the Minnesota Vikings and the New England Patriots, in blowout losses. On January 3, 2009, the Cardinals won their first playoff game since 1998 and their second since moving to Arizona by beating the Atlanta Falcons 30–24. This was also only the second home playoff game in franchise history, the first being the 1947 title game. In fact, the Cardinals never hosted a playoff game in St. Louis despite winning two division titles. On January 10, 2009, the Cardinals, as 10-point road underdogs, won their second playoff game since 1998 and their third since moving to Arizona, by beating the Carolina Panthers 33–13. The defense was a major part of this victory, forcing 6 turnovers and holding the Panthers much praised running duo of Jonathan Stewart and DeAngelo Williams to 73 yards on the ground. After the Philadelphia Eagles beat the New York Giants, the Cardinals hosted their first NFC Championship game in Arizona. There they defeated the Eagles 32–25 and won the first NFC Championship game in team history, but lost to the Pittsburgh Steelers in Super Bowl XLIII 27–23. 2009 In the first round of the 2009 NFL Draft the Cardinals selected Chris "Beanie" Wells, a highly touted running back out of Ohio State University. Logo and uniforms Arizona Cardinals uniform combinations Chicago Cardinals logo. Arizona Cardinals uniform: 1989-1995 Arizona Cardinals uniform: 1996-2004 The team has used the cardinal red jerseys since Chris O'Brien bought them for the club in 1901. And for most of its history, the Cardinals have used the same basic uniform design of white helmets, white pants with red stripes on the sides, and either red or white jerseys. Starting in 1947, the team had a logo of a cardinal bird perched on the stitches of a football. However, the club did not attach a logo to their helmets until they debuted a cardinal-head logo in 1960, the year the franchise moved from Chicago to St. Louis. When the Cardinals moved to Arizona in 1988, the flag of Arizona was added to the sleeves. And in 1990, the team began wearing red pants with their white jerseys. In , the team unveiled its first major changes in a century. The cardinal-head logo was updated to be sleeker and more menacing than its predecessor, which had been derisively called a "parakeet." "Arizona brushes up logo of outdated bird", MSNBC.com January 29, 2005 Black was added as an accent color, while trim lines were added to the outside shoulders and sleeves, and the sides of the jerseys and pants. Both the red and white jerseys have the option of red or white pants. Hoping to break a six-game losing streak, the Cardinals wore the red pants for the first time on October 29, 2006 in a game at Lambeau Field against the Green Bay Packers. The Packers won 31-14, and the Cards headed into their bye week with a 1-7 mark. Following their bye week, the Cardinals came out in their all-red combination at home against the Dallas Cowboys and lost, 27-10. Arizona did not wear the red pants since that loss to the Cowboys, and managed to win four of their last seven games. However, the following season, in 2007, the Cardinals again wore their red pants for some of their games. They wore red pants with their white jersey in games on the road at the Cincinnati Bengals and Seattle Seahawks. They paired red pants with the red jersey, wearing the all-red combination for home games against the Detroit Lions, San Francisco 49ers, Cleveland Browns, and St. Louis Rams. In 2008, the red pants have not been worn. In the Madden NFL video game series, the Cardinals were outfitted in the all-red combination at home and the all-white combination on the road. In some versions of game, the red jersey-white pants and white jersey-red pants combinations appear as alternates. For their first 18 years in Arizona, the Cardinals, like many other NFL teams in warm climates, wore their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season—forcing opponents to suffer in their darker-colored jerseys during Arizona autumns that frequently see temperatures over 100 °F (38 °C). However, this tradition did not continue when the Cardinals moved from Sun Devil Stadium to University of Phoenix Stadium in 2006, as early-season games (and other day home games not in the early portion of the season where the temperature outside the stadium is still very warm) are played with the roof closed (except for home games with the temperature outside the stadium at a more comfortable level along with night games excluding preseason). With the temperature inside at a comfortable 70°F (21°C), Green opted to have the Cardinals wear their red jerseys at home full-time. In 2008, the Cardinals did wear their white jersey at home though, for the first time in University of Phoenix Stadium on August 29, 2008 in a preseason game against the Denver Broncos. Although the team does sell its previous team colored jersey as an alternate "fashion jersey" and even has it listed as the team's "alternate jersey", the team has yet to wear them in a game as a third jersey since retiring the jersey in 2005. Season-by-season records Single-season records Points Scored: 427 (2008) Passing Passing Yards: 4,583 Kurt Warner (2008) Passing Touchdowns: 30 Kurt Warner (2008) Passes Completed: 401 Kurt Warner (2008) Passes Attempted: 598 Kurt Warner (2008) Longest Completed Pass Thrown: 98 Yards Doug Russell (1932) / Ogden Compton (1957) / Jim Hart (1972) Consecutive Games With a Touchdown Pass : 22 Kurt Warner (2007-2008) Rushing Rushing Yards: 1605 Ottis Anderson (1979) Rushing Attempts: 337 Edgerrin James (2006) Rushing Touchdowns: 14 John David Crow (1962) Rushing Touchdowns (Rookie) : 10 Tim Hightower (2008) Longest Rushing Attempt : 83 yards John David Crow (1958) Rushing Yards Per Game : 100.3 yards Ottis Anderson (1979) Receiving Receptions: 103 Larry Fitzgerald (2005) Receiving Yards: 1,596 David Boston (2001) Receiving Touchdowns: 15 Sonny Randle (1960) Returns Punt Returns in a Season: 44 Vai Sikahema (1987) Longest Punt Returns: 95 yards Frank Bernardi (1956) Kicking Field Goals: 40* Neil Rackers (2005) Extra Points Made: 53 Pat Harder (1948) * NFL Record Cardinals career records Passing Yards: 34,639 Jim Hart(1966–1983) Passing Touchdowns: 209 Jim Hart(1966–1983) Rushing Yards: 7,999 Ottis Anderson (1979–1986) Receptions: 535 Larry Centers (1991–1998) Receiving Yards: 8,496 Roy Green (1979–1990) Pass Interceptions: 54 Larry Wilson (1960–2002)[49] Field Goals Made: 282 Jim Bakken(1962-1978) Points: 1,380 Jim Bakken (1962-1978) Total Touchdowns: 69 Roy Green (1979–1990) Punt Return Average: 17.7 Red Cochran (1947–1949) Kickoff Return Average: 28.5 Ollie Matson (1952–1958) Punting Average: 45.0 Jerry Norton (1959–1961) Sacks: 66.5 Freddie Joe Nunn (1985–1993) Players of note Current roster Pro Football Hall of Famers Chicago Cardinals Charles Bidwill, team owner 1 Jimmy Conzelman, QB-CB, head coach 1 John "Paddy" Driscoll, QB-S-K-P, head coach 2 Walt Kiesling, G-DT, head coach 4 Ernie Nevers, RB-S 13 Guy Chamberlin, TE-DE 33 Ollie Matson, RB 62 Charley Trippi, RB-QB 81 Dick "Night Train" Lane, CB St. Louis Cardinals 8 Larry Wilson, S 22 Roger Wehrli, CB 72 Dan Dierdorf, OT 81 Jackie Smith, TE Wilson, Dierdorf, Smith, Conrad Dobler (66, G), Jim Hart (17, QB), and Jim Hanifan (head coach) have been inducted into the Missouri Sports Hall of Fame. Retired numbers 8 Larry Wilson (St. Louis) 40 Pat Tillman (Arizona) 77 Stan Mauldin (Chicago) 88 J. V. Cain (St. Louis) 99 Marshall Goldberg (Chicago) Ring of Honor The Cardinals' Ring of Honor was started in 2006 to mark the opening of University of Phoenix Stadium. It honors former Cardinal greats from all eras of the franchise's history. Following is a list of inductees and the dates that they were inducted. Charles Bidwill, Owner (8/12/2006) Jimmy Conzelman, Coach (8/12/2006) Dan Dierdorf, T (10/16/2006) John "Paddy" Driscoll, QB (8/12/2006) Marshall Goldberg, HB (8/12/2006) Dick "Night Train" Lane, DB (8/12/2006) Ollie Matson, HB (8/12/2006) Ernie Nevers, FB (8/12/2006) Charley Trippi, HB/QB (8/12/2006) Roger Wehrli, CB (10/14/2007) Larry Wilson, S (9/10/2006) Pat Tillman, S (11/12/2006) Aeneas Williams, CB (11/09/2008) First-round draft picks The Chicago Years, 1936-1959 NFL 2001 Record and Fact Book, Edited by Randall Liu, pp. 393, Workman Publishing, 2001, ISBN 0-7611-2480-2 YearPlayerCollegePosition1936Jim LawrenceTCUBack1937Ray BuividMarquetteBack1938Jack RobbinsArkansasBack1939Charles (Ki) AldrichTCUCenter 1940s YearPlayerCollegePosition1940George CafegoTennesseeBack1941John KimbroughTexas A&MBack1942Steve LachDukeBack1943Glenn DobbsTulsaBack1944Pat HarderWisconsinBack1945Charley TrippiGeorgiaBack1946Dub JonesLSUBack1947DeWit (Tex) CoulterArmyTackle1948Jim SpavitalOklahoma A&MBack1949Bill FischerNotre DameGuard 1950s YearPlayerCollegePosition1950No 1st Rd Pick, Jack Jennings, (2nd Round)Ohio StateTackle1951Jerry GroomNotre DameCenter1952Ollie MatsonSan FranciscoBack1953John OlszewskiCaliforniaBack1954Lamar McHanArkansasBack1955Max BoydstonOklahomaEnd1956Joe ChildressAuburnBack1957Jerry TubbsOklahomaCenter1958King HillRiceBack1958John David CrowTexas A&MBack1959Bill StacyMississippi StateBack The St. Louis Years, 1960-1987 YearPlayerCollegePosition1960George IzoNotre DameQuarterback1961Ken RiceAuburnTackle1962Fate EcholsNorthwesternDefensive Tackle1962Irv GoodeKentuckyCenter1963Jerry StovallLSUSafety1963Don BrummPurdueDefensive End1964Ken KortasLouisvilleDefensive Tackle1965Joe NamathAlabamaQuarterback1966Carl McAdamsOklahomaLinebacker1967Dave WilliamsWashingtonWide Receiver1968MacArthur LaneUtah StateRunning Back1969Roger WehrliMissouriDefensive Back 1970s YearPlayerCollegePosition1970Larry StegentTexas A&MRunning Back1971Norm ThompsonUtahCornerback1972Bobby MooreOregonRunning Back/Wide Receiver1973Dave ButzPurdueDefensive Tackle1974J. V. CainColoradoTight End1975Tim GrayTexas A&MDefensive Back1976Mike DawsonArizonaDefensive Tackle1977Steve PisarkiewiczMissouriQuarterback1978Steve LittleArkansasKicker1978Ken GreeneWashington StateDefensive Back1979Ottis AndersonMiamiRunning Back 1980s YearPlayerCollegePosition1980Curtis GreerMichiganDefensive End1981E. J. JuniorAlabamaLinebacker1982Luis SharpeUCLATackle1983Leonard SmithMcNeese StateDefensive Back1984Clyde DuncanTennesseeWide Receiver1985Freddie Joe NunnMississippiLinebacker1986Anthony BellMichigan StateLinebacker1987Kelly StoufferColorado StateQuarterback The Arizona Years, 1988-present YearPlayerCollegePosition1988Ken HarveyCaliforniaLinebacker1989Eric HillLSULinebacker1989Joe WolfBoston CollegeGuard1990No 1st Rd Pick, Anthony Thompson (2nd Round)IndianaRunning Back1991Eric SwannNo CollegeDefensive End1992No 1st Rd Pick, Tony Sacca, (2nd Round)Penn StateQuarterback1993Garrison HearstGeorgiaRunning Back1993Ernest DyeSouth CarolinaTackle1994Jamir MillerUCLALinebacker1995No 1st Rd Pick, Frank Sanders, (2nd Round)AuburnWide Receiver1996Simeon RiceIllinoisDefensive End1997Tom KnightIowaDefensive Back1998Andre WadsworthFlorida StateDefensive End1999David BostonOhio StateWide Receiver1999L.J. SheltonEastern MichiganTackle 2000s YearPlayerCollegePosition2000Thomas JonesVirginiaRunning Back2001Leonard DavisTexasTackle2002Wendell BryantWisconsinDefensive Tackle2003Bryant JohnsonPenn StateWide Receiver2003Calvin PaceWake ForestDefensive End2004Larry FitzgeraldPittsburghWide Receiver2005Antrel RolleMiamiCornerback2006Matt LeinartSouthern CaliforniaQuarterback2007Levi BrownPenn StateLeft Tackle2008Dominique Rodgers-CromartieTennessee StateCornerback2009Chris WellsOhio StateRunning Back Coaches of note Head coaches Current staff Radio and television The Cardinals' flagship radio station was KMVP, "ESPN Radio 860." KMVP assumed the broadcast rights in 2006 after many years on KSLX-FM and KDUS. Dave Pasch, Ron Wolfley, and Paul Calvisi handle the radio broadcast. Most preseason games are televised on KNXV, channel 15, the local ABC affiliate. Mike Goldberg and Bill Lewis are the TV announcers. On New Year's Day 2007, KMVP began a simulcast of KTAR, which switched to an all-sports format (the news/talk station became 92.3, KTAR-FM). For the 2007 season, KTAR was the official flagship station; however, some broadcasts were also be heard on 92.3 FM because of conflicts with Arizona Diamondbacks baseball games on 620 AM. Team Headquarters Arizona Cardinals Tempe Facility 8701 S Hardy Dr Tempe, AZ Notes and references External links Arizona Cardinals official web site Sports E-Cyclopedia.com Cardinals coverage on The Arizona Republic/azcentral.com | Arizona_Cardinals |@lemmatized arizona:39 cardinal:115 professional:7 american:5 football:18 team:67 base:3 glendale:3 member:5 western:3 division:9 national:4 conference:6 nfc:10 league:11 nfl:37 found:3 old:3 continuously:2 run:10 club:17 united:3 state:8 history:16 azcardinals:2 com:8 establish:2 chicago:29 charter:4 move:18 st:25 louis:25 missouri:3 play:10 city:4 season:42 tempe:4 eastern:3 suburb:4 phoenix:11 home:16 game:64 next:3 year:26 university:11 sun:4 devil:4 stadium:16 begin:9 newly:1 construct:1 northwestern:1 franchise:14 lone:1 championship:16 victory:6 come:6 two:9 decade:6 first:27 super:3 bowl:4 ever:1 occur:1 eight:2 hold:3 controversial:3 title:10 day:3 much:4 contest:1 believe:1 belong:1 pottsville:2 maroon:5 give:2 instead:2 call:8 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4,835 | Norman_Hackerman | Norman Hackerman (March 2 1912 – June 16 2007) was an American chemist, internationally known as an expert in metal corrosion, and a former president of both the University of Texas at Austin (1967 – 1970) and Rice University (1970 – 1985). Born in Baltimore, Maryland, he was the only son of Jacob and Ann Raffel Hackerman, immigrants from regions of the Russian Empire that later became Estonia and Latvia, respectively. Hackerman earned his bachelor's degree in 1932 and his doctor's degree in chemistry in 1935 from Johns Hopkins University. He taught at Johns Hopkins, Loyola College in Baltimore and the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg, Virginia, before working on the Manhattan Project in World War II. He joined the University of Texas in 1945 as an assistant professor of chemistry, became an associate professor in 1946, a full professor in 1950, a department chair in 1952, dean of research in 1960, vice president and provost in 1961, and vice chancellor for academic affairs for the University of Texas System in 1963. Hackerman left the University of Texas in 1970 for Rice, where he retired 15 years later. He was named professor emeritus of chemistry at the University of Texas in 1985 and taught classes until the end of his life. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Among his many honors are the Palladium Medal of the Electrochemical Society, the Gold Medal of the American Institute of Chemists, the Charles Lathrop Parsons Award, the Vannevar Bush Award and the National Medal of Science. Hackerman served on advisory committees and boards of several technical societies and government agencies, including the National Science Board, the Texas Governor's Task Force on Higher Education and the Scientific Advisory Board of the Welch Foundation. He also served as editor of the Journal of Electrochemistry and as president of the Electrochemical Society. In 2000 the Welch Foundation created the Norman Hackerman Award in Chemical Research to recognize the work of young researchers in Texas. The Rice Board of Trustees established the Norman Hackerman Fellowship in Chemistry in honor of Hackerman's 90th birthday in 2002. Hackerman's wife of 61 years, the late Gene Coulbourn, died in 2002. The Hackermans had three daughters and one son. References External links Norman Hackerman Award in Chemical Research Electrochemical Society Norman Hackerman Young Author Award | Norman_Hackerman |@lemmatized norman:5 hackerman:11 march:1 june:1 american:3 chemist:2 internationally:1 know:1 expert:1 metal:1 corrosion:1 former:1 president:3 university:8 texas:7 austin:1 rice:3 bear:1 baltimore:2 maryland:1 son:2 jacob:1 ann:1 raffel:1 immigrant:1 region:1 russian:1 empire:1 later:2 become:2 estonia:1 latvia:1 respectively:1 earn:1 bachelor:1 degree:2 doctor:1 chemistry:4 john:2 hopkins:2 teach:1 loyola:1 college:1 virginia:2 polytechnic:1 institute:2 state:1 blacksburg:1 work:2 manhattan:1 project:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 join:1 assistant:1 professor:4 associate:1 full:1 department:1 chair:1 dean:1 research:3 vice:2 provost:1 chancellor:1 academic:1 affair:1 system:1 leave:1 retire:1 year:2 name:1 emeritus:1 taught:1 class:1 end:1 life:1 member:1 national:3 academy:2 science:4 art:1 among:1 many:1 honor:2 palladium:1 medal:3 electrochemical:3 society:4 gold:1 charles:1 lathrop:1 parson:1 award:5 vannevar:1 bush:1 serve:2 advisory:2 committee:1 board:4 several:1 technical:1 government:1 agency:1 include:1 governor:1 task:1 force:1 high:1 education:1 scientific:1 welch:2 foundation:2 also:1 editor:1 journal:1 electrochemistry:1 create:1 chemical:2 recognize:1 young:2 researcher:1 trustee:1 establish:1 fellowship:1 birthday:1 wife:1 late:1 gene:1 coulbourn:1 die:1 hackermans:1 three:1 daughter:1 one:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 author:1 |@bigram norman_hackerman:5 texas_austin:1 baltimore_maryland:1 estonia_latvia:1 earn_bachelor:1 bachelor_degree:1 polytechnic_institute:1 vice_president:1 vice_chancellor:1 professor_emeritus:1 gold_medal:1 vannevar_bush:1 advisory_committee:1 advisory_board:1 board_trustee:1 external_link:1 |
4,836 | Los_Altos,_California | Los Altos () is a town at the southern end of the San Francisco Peninsula, in the San Francisco Bay Area. The city is in Santa Clara County, California, United States. The population was 27,693 according to the 2000 census. Most of the city's growth occurred between 1950 and 1980. Originally an agricultural town with many summer cottages, Los Altos is now an affluent bedroom community. Los Altos has several distinctive features. Commercial zones are strictly limited to the downtown area and small shopping and office parks lining Foothill Expressway and El Camino Real. Los Altos' low crime rate, excellent schools and proximity to coastal foothills make it one of the area's premier cities. Geography Los Altos is located at (37.36819, -122.097511). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 6.3 square miles (16.4 km²). All of it is land. Demographics Main Street in downtown Los Altos As of the census of 2000, there were 27,693 people, 10,462 households, and 8,024 families residing in the city. The population density was 4,360.7 people per square mile (1,683.8/km²). There were 10,727 housing units at an average density of 1,689.1/sq mi (652.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 80.35% White, 15.42% Asian, 0.47% African American, 0.17% Native American, 0.16% Pacific Islander, 0.66% from other races, and 2.44% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race constituted 3.76% of the population. Of 10,462 households, 33.6% had minor children living with them, 69.4% were married couples living together, 5.4% had a female head with no husband present, and 23.3% were non-families. 18.7% were singles including 9.8% 65 or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 2.98. The median age was 44 years, much higher than the 35.3 national figure. 23.7% were under 18, 3.5% from 18 to 24, 24.5% from 25 to 44, 29.1% from 45 to 64, and 19.3% were 65 years of age or older. For every 100 females there were 93.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.0 males. According to a 2007 estimate, the median household income was $158,745, and the median income for a family was $185,848. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ACSSAFFFacts?_event=Search&geo_id=16000US0639248&_geoContext=01000US%7C04000US06%7C16000US0639248&_street=&_county=los+altos&_cityTown=los+altos&_state=04000US06&_zip=&_lang=en&_sse=on&ActiveGeoDiv=geoSelect&_useEV=&pctxt=fph&pgsl=160&_submenuId=factsheet_1&ds_name=ACS_2007_3YR_SAFF&_ci_nbr=null&qr_name=null®=null%3Anull&_keyword=&_industry= This puts it third on the list of the most affluent neighborhoods in 2007. http://finance.yahoo.com/real-estate/article/106273/America's-Most-Afflu Males had a median income of $100,000 versus $67,332 for females. The per capita income for the city was $66,776. About 1.1% of families and 2.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.2% of those under age 18 and 1.5% of those age 65 or over. Politics In the state legislature Los Altos is located in the 11th Senate District, represented by Democrat Joe Simitian, and in the 21st Assembly District, represented by Democrat Ira Ruskin. Nationally, Los Altos is located in California's 14th congressional district, which has a Cook PVI of D +18 and is represented by Democrat Anna Eshoo. Education Public education Primary and middle school students attend schools in the Los Altos School District, the Cupertino Union School District, or Bullis Charter School (K-6). Los Altos School District has the highest average API scores in the South Bay. High school students attend either schools from the Mountain View-Los Altos Union High School District or Homestead High School. All of the public schools are highly regarded, Blitzer, Carol. "Building on Success." San Jose Business Journal, 6 March 1995, sec. S, p. 3. and most graduates of Los Altos area high schools continue their education at well-known universities. Private education Los Altos is also served by highly regarded private and religious schools. St. Nicholas School, St. Simon School, and the Lower and Middle Campuses (K-6th) of Pinewood School, are located within city limits. Others nearby include St. Francis High School (Mountain View) and Kings Academy (Sunnyvale). Other schools farther away with students from Los Altos include Mitty High School, Castilleja School, and Bellarmine College Preparatory, among others. Library Los Altos Library is in the downtown civic center off San Antonio Road. Smaller Woodland Library is on Foothill Expressway near Grant Park. Both libraries are part of the Santa Clara County Library System. Culture Sports Los Altos prides itself on a variety of youth-oriented sports organizations, programs, and after-school activities. The Mountain View Los Altos Soccer Club (MVLASC) has been providing competitive soccer for the MVLA community since 1972. It is a member of the California Youth Soccer Association (CYSA)and plays in the Foothill Youth Soccer League. Its goal is to provide an environment in which players and teams can improve in ability, increase their love of the game and develop good sportsmanship. MVLASC participates in the community, working with and providing funds to the local school districts for school field development. They also provide an avenue for after-school sports for over 600 community children. MVLASC has over 40 great boys and girls teams and is the #1 ranked girls program on the SF Peninsula. The club has won 14 State Championships and one National Championship. Organization: About our club. MVLASC. 04/22/2008 13:40:27. 06/20/08. http://www.mvlasc.org/Organization.html Los Altos-Mountain View Pony Baseball is for boys and girls aged 5 to 19. LA-MVPB is the largest youth baseball program in the San Francisco Bay Area, and a chartered league of PONY Baseball, Inc. The PONY program provides flexible rules and incremental levels of competitive play, which are specifically designed for the physical development and safety requirements of each age group. The league is committed to balanced teams and fair play and to provide a clean, supportive, and competitive atmosphere. About LA-MV PONY. LA-MV Pony Baseball. June 17 07:16:35 2008. June 20, 2008. http://www.lamvpb.org/index.html West Valley Pop Warner is in its 31st year of offering cheerleading and football programs to local youth. Their continued objective is to introduce boys and girls to the fundamentals of football and cheerleading in a safe, supervised setting. About WVPW. West Valley Pop Warner. 06/19/2008. June 20, 2008. http://www.wvpw.com/2005about.htm Players in the El Camino YMCA Youth Basketball League know the score and a lot more thanks to 200 coaches and referees who volunteer their time each season to teach children in kindergarten through eighth grade. The program serves more than 1,200 children. Participants learn basic basketball skills, as well as the YMCA's core values. All children play at least two quarters per game. "It's a great opportunity for children to learn a sport in a non-competitive setting," said El Camino YMCA Program Director Heidi Lisbona. "Everyone is a star whether they are scoring a basket or just learning how to dribble. We strive to make everyone feel special." Volunteers coach the teams, referee the games, register the players and help schedule the games. Town Crier Staff Report. "Youth Basketball League is a slam dunk for area kids". Los Altos Town Crier. 03/16/1998. June 20, 2008. Media The Los Altos Town Crier is the primary newspaper for the town, "serving the Hometown of Silicon Valley since 1947." Los Altos Town Crier Design and planning Los Altos strives to maintain a semi-rural atmosphere. Los Altos has few sidewalks except in commercial zones and along arterial roads. Minimum lot size for most residential housing is one-quarter of an acre. Most roads have broad dirt shoulders and little or no street lighting. The civic center sits in the middle of an orchard, a remnant of those that once covered the area. The downtown is a triangle with arterials on all sides that enable most through traffic to bypass Main Street. Many Los Altos homes fetch $2 million and higher, putting the city (along with neighboring Los Altos Hills, with which it shares ZIP codes) at numbers 24 and 28 on Forbes' "Most Expensive ZIP Codes in America" list in 2007. Since the mid-1990s, downtown Los Altos has experienced mild economic difficulties due to competition from nearby shopping centers and chain stores, as well as its lack of a hotel or movie theater. Revitalizing downtown is a major issue in city politics. McPherson, Sarah. "Small Town, Hard Sell: Village leader trying to pump up downtown." San Jose Mercury News, 6 April 2005, sec. B, p. 1. Los Altos may have a legitimate claim to having the first scientifically designed sound baffle in the year 1970. Santa Clara County undertook a seminal study to calculate the effects of alternate soundwall designs along Foothill Expressway. Hogan, C. Michael and Harry Seidman. "Design of Noise Abatement Structures along Foothill Expressway, Los Altos, California" County of Santa Clara Public Works Department, dir. Jim Pott, Oct., 1970 The resulting wall brought about the predicted reduction of seven to ten decibels in noise pollution levels experienced by adjacent homes. Neighboring cities Cupertino, CA Sunnyvale, CA Los Altos Hills, CA Palo Alto, CA Mountain View, CA Los Altos History Museum Located in one of Santa Clara Valley's few remaining apricot orchards, the Los Altos History Museum explores the rich history of local people and how the use of the land over time has transformed the agricultural paradise once known as the "Valley of Heart's Delight" into the technology hub that is today's Silicon Valley. Opened in spring of 2001 adjacent to the Los Altos Library, the Los Altos History Museum occupies an building – built entirely with private donations; ownership went to the town in 2002. The Museum features a changing exhibits gallery as well as the permanent exhibit, "Crown of the Peninsula". With the mission to "collect, preserve and interpret the history of the Los Altos area," the Museum includes interactive exhibits and hands-on activities to encourage children and adults to learn about the community. Other programs include third and fourth grade tours and curricula for local school children, oral history collections, a traveling Ohlone kit, and much more. There's more history just across the lushly landscaped courtyard in the landmark J. Gilbert Smith House. Built in 1905 and refurbished, the home nestles under majestic heritage oaks and replicates a 1930s farmhouse. Visitors are welcome to enjoy the gardens and picnic tables even when the House and Museum are closed. Natural Disasters A store in disarray following the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Earthquakes Los Altos is near the San Andreas Fault and subject to earthquakes. 1906 San Francisco Earthquake - Although Los Altos was hit extremely hard (VIII on the intensity level),<ref>Los Altos Shake map for SF Earthquake Choose Los Altos and then San Andreas (1906 Quake) to see map.</ref> the main local effort was to help rebuild nearby Santa Cruz, which was nearly destroyed. 1989 — On October 17, Los Altos experienced the Loma Prieta earthquake, but avoided major damage. Los Altos and its churches combined efforts to clean up hard-hit areas such as Watsonville and Santa Cruz. Parades/activities Los Altos Kiwanis Club Pet Parade Halloween Festival Main Street Parade Los Altos Rotary Club Fine Art Show Downtown Los Altos Arts & Wine Festival, Los Altos Village Association Los Altos Fall Festival, Los Altos Chamber of Commerce California Country Annual Fall Antique Americana Show & Sale, June & October, Los Altos History Museum Festival of Lights Parade (held the Sunday night of Thanksgiving weekend) Los Altos High School Homecoming Parade (every year on the Friday of LAHS's homecoming week.) Famous residents Current well-known residents of Los Altos include: Gaurav Dhillon (founder of Jaman and co-founder of Informatica) Charles Geschke (co-founder of Adobe Systems) Jen-Hsun Huang (co-founder, president, and CEO of Nvidia) Michael Koch (noted Swiss actor) Paul Mockapetris (inventor or co-inventor of the Domain Name System) Dave Righetti (pitching coach for the San Francisco Giants) John Warnock (co-founder of Adobe Systems) Jerry Yang (co-founder of Yahoo!) Others who are from/have inhabited Los Altos and have achieved fame include: Alan Cranston (former U.S. senator) John M. R. Hope (friend of Alan Cranston and first city manager of Los Altos) Lorrie Fair (member of 1999 Women's World Cup Champion US National Soccer Team) Juli Inkster (renowned LPGA golfer) Steve Jobs (CEO of Apple Computer) Lauren McFall (member of bronze-winning 2004 Olympic synchronized swimming team) Terence McKenna (Writer, Philosopher, and Ethnobotanist) Scott McNealy (co-founder of Sun Microsystems) Raj Mathai (NBC Bay Area/KNTV Sportscaster) Jim Morrison (lead singer of The Doors) George Seifert (former head coach of NFL team San Francisco 49ers) William F. Sharpe (Nobel prize winner in Economics, 1990) Nick and Starr Spangler, winners of The Amazing Race 13 Nick Swinmurn (founder of Zappos.com) Alison Waite (model, Playboy'' Playmate) Lee Woodall (former NFL linebacker for the San Francisco 49ers, Carolina Panthers, and Denver Broncos) Steve Young (former quarterback for the San Francisco 49ers and current Hall-of-Famer) Sister cities Los Altos has four sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International: Bendigo, Australia Syktyvkar, Russia Shilin, Taiwan Rustington, References External links Los Altos History Museum Los Altos Town Crier - city newspaper | Los_Altos,_California |@lemmatized los:56 alto:30 town:10 southern:1 end:1 san:13 francisco:8 peninsula:3 bay:4 area:11 city:16 santa:7 clara:5 county:4 california:5 united:2 state:4 population:4 accord:3 census:4 growth:1 occur:1 originally:1 agricultural:2 many:2 summer:1 cottage:1 affluent:2 bedroom:1 community:5 several:1 distinctive:1 feature:2 commercial:2 zone:2 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4,837 | Odense | The city of Odense (Danish, ) is the third largest city in Denmark. The name Odense comes from the Norse god Odin. Odense city has 158,163 inhabitants, as of January 1, 2008 and is the main city of the island of Funen. It is the seat of Odense Municipality and was the seat of Odense County until 1970, and Funen County from 1970 until January 1, 2007 when the county became part of Region Syddanmark. History For the Catholic ecclesiastical history, see Roman Catholic bishopric of Odense Odense (from Odins Vé, meaning "Odin's shrine", referring to the god Odin of Denmark's indigenous Norse mythology), is one of the oldest cities of Denmark and had its 1000th anniversary in 1988. To celebrate this, a forest named "the Thousand Year Forest" (Danish: Tusindårsskoven) was cultivated. The shrine of Saint Canute () in Saint Canute's Cathedral held great attraction for pilgrims throughout the Middle Ages. In the 16th century the town was the meeting-place of several parliaments, and down to 1805 it was the seat of the provincial assembly of Funen. Odense's most famous landmark was Odinstårnet (The Odin Tower) constructed in 1935, as the second-tallest tower in Europe, only surpassed by the Eiffel Tower. Odinstårnet was blown up by a Danish Nazi group in 1944 and has never been rebuilt. However, a miniature model of it now stands in the residential area Odinsparken in the area where the original tower was. Until the beginning of the Danish industrial revolution, Odense was also the 2nd largest city in modern Denmark, but has in recent times been overtaken by Aarhus. Famous residents of Odense author and poet Hans Christian Andersen Classical composer Carl Nielsen was also born near Odense. King Canute IV, (ca. 1043 - July 17, 1086), also known as Canute the Saint and Canute the Holy Industrialist, banker and philanthropist Carl Frederik Tietgen Inventor and industrialist Thomas B. Thrige Handball player, Anja Andersen The cartoonist Henrik Rehr was born and grew up in Odense Her Royal Highness Birgitte, The Duchess of Gloucester was born and raised in Odense. Peter Eastgate, winner of the Main Event at the 2008 World Series of Poker Musician Kim Larsen Business Odense Palace Sign post Pavement decoration from the 2005 Hans Christian Andersen year Several large industries are located in or near Odense. Denmark's biggest shipyard, Odense Steel Shipyard owned by the A.P. Møller-Mærsk Group is situated in the neighbouring town Munkebo. The biggest sales auction of vegetables, fruits and flowers (GASA) in Denmark is situated here. The Albani Brewery brews the local Odense Pilsner amongst others. The commercial national television company TV 2 is based in Odense. In the South-eastern part of Odense the Rosengårdscentret shopping mall is located. The mall is one of the oldest and biggest in Denmark with 98,000 m2 of commercially used area. The city's central location in Denmark makes it one of the nationwide convention and congress centers. Education The main campus of the University of Southern Denmark is located in Odense. Sports Odense is the home of a number of football clubs, the most important are OB, FC FYN, B1909, B1913, FC Campus and Dalum FC. Tourist attractions Saint Canute's Cathedral () was formerly connected with the great Benedictine monastery of the same name, and is one of the largest and finest buildings of its kind in Denmark. It is constructed of brick in a pure Gothic style. Originally dating from 1081–1093, it was rebuilt in the 13th century. Under the altar lies Canute (Danish: Knud), the patron saint of Denmark, who had planned to conquer England from William of Normandy. He was slain in an insurrection at Odense in 1086. Odense is also the see of the bishop of Funen. * The cathedral has the skeletons of both the Saint/King and his brother on public display, it also boasts of one of Denmark's finest altarpieces, a magnificent triptych by Claus Berg. A large fragment of Byzantine cloth is displayed next to the two skeletons. Kings John () and Christian II are buried in the city. Our Lady's Church, built in the 13th century and restored in 1851–1852 and again in 1864, contains a carved 16th century altarpiece by Claus Berg of Lübeck. Odense Palace was erected by King Frederick IV, who died there in 1730. There is a theatre as well as a symphony orchestra, a zoo, and the Funen Village (Den Fynske Landsby) which is an open air museum with old houses typical for Funen. The City Hall has a small scar from a battle between Germans and members of the Danish Resistance on 5 May 1945. The city's coat of arms - located above the main entrance to City Hall - is damaged. On close inspection, the kneecap of Saint Canute is penetrated by a bullet. The 4 most visited attractions in 2007 were: 1. Odense Zoo - 420,254 visitors 2. The Funen Village - 105,040 visitors 3. Danish Railway museum - 97,759 visitors 4. H.C. Andersens House - 80,622 visitors Odense Municipality Statistisk 10 års oversigt 2008 -Tabel 40 Other attractions: Odense City Museums Hans Christian Andersen Museum Hans Christian Andersen's Childhood home The Funen Village Odense Theatre Odense Fjord Churches & Cathedrals Saint Knud's Cathedral Saint Albani Church Vor Frue Church Saint Hans Church Odense Zoo Odense Central Library Odense Sportspark University of Southern Denmark previously known as Odense University Odense Symphony Orchestra Odense Music School Danish Railway Museum Nonnebakken Transport The city lies close to Odense Fjord on the Odense River (Odense Å). Its railway station lies on the route between Copenhagen and Jutland, the peninsular mainland. A 7.5 metre (25 ft) deep canal, dug from 1796 to 1806 , gives access to the town from the fjord. Accessibility to Odense was greatly increased when the ferry service between the two main Danish islands, Zealand and Funen, was replaced by the Great Belt Bridge - opened in 1997 for rail traffic, 1998 for road traffic. When the bridge opened, it was the second longest suspension bridge in the world. Its construction greatly cut transportation time between Odense and the Danish capital, Copenhagen. Copenhagen can now be reached by trains from Odense in 1 hour and 15 minutes. Odense is served by Odense Airport. Population The land area of Odense is 304 km2, with a population density of 611 per km2 (2005 figures from Helsingin Seudun Aluesarjat). The population of Odense city, per January 1 of a given year, according to Danmarks Statistik. YearPopulationYearPopulation 1976 Statistics Denmark tabel BEF4A 1976-2004 138,348 1999 144,940 1981 136,646 2000 145,062 1986 137,286 2001 144,849 1989 138,339 2002 144,636 1990 138,986 2003 145,374 1992 140,886 2004 145,554 1994 143,029 2006 Statistics Denmark tabel BEF44 2006- 152,060 1996 144,518 2007 158,453 1997 145,354 2008 158,163 1998 145,296 2009 158,678 Twin cities For a full list of twin cities, see Odense Municipality See also Odense municipality Odense Airport Roman Catholic bishopric of Odense Tourism in Denmark The Funen Village References External links Odense - City of Hans Christian Andersen The City of Odense | Odense |@lemmatized city:18 odense:51 danish:10 third:1 large:5 denmark:16 name:3 come:1 norse:2 god:2 odin:5 inhabitant:1 january:3 main:5 island:2 funen:10 seat:3 municipality:4 county:3 become:1 part:2 region:1 syddanmark:1 history:2 catholic:3 ecclesiastical:1 see:4 roman:2 bishopric:2 vé:1 mean:1 shrine:2 refer:1 indigenous:1 mythology:1 one:5 old:3 anniversary:1 celebrate:1 forest:2 thousand:1 year:3 tusindårsskoven:1 cultivate:1 saint:10 canute:8 cathedral:5 hold:1 great:3 attraction:4 pilgrim:1 throughout:1 middle:1 age:1 century:4 town:3 meeting:1 place:1 several:2 parliament:1 provincial:1 assembly:1 famous:2 landmark:1 odinstårnet:2 tower:4 construct:2 second:2 tall:1 europe:1 surpass:1 eiffel:1 blow:1 nazi:1 group:2 never:1 rebuild:2 however:1 miniature:1 model:1 stand:1 residential:1 area:4 odinsparken:1 original:1 beginning:1 industrial:1 revolution:1 also:6 modern:1 recent:1 time:2 overtake:1 aarhus:1 resident:1 author:1 poet:1 han:5 christian:6 andersen:7 classical:1 composer:1 carl:2 nielsen:1 bear:3 near:2 king:4 iv:2 ca:1 july:1 know:2 holy:1 industrialist:2 banker:1 philanthropist:1 frederik:1 tietgen:1 inventor:1 thomas:1 b:1 thrige:1 handball:1 player:1 anja:1 cartoonist:1 henrik:1 rehr:1 grow:1 royal:1 highness:1 birgitte:1 duchess:1 gloucester:1 raise:1 peter:1 eastgate:1 winner:1 event:1 world:2 series:1 poker:1 musician:1 kim:1 larsen:1 business:1 palace:2 sign:1 post:1 pavement:1 decoration:1 industry:1 locate:4 big:3 shipyard:2 steel:1 p:1 møller:1 mærsk:1 situate:2 neighbouring:1 munkebo:1 sale:1 auction:1 vegetable:1 fruit:1 flower:1 gasa:1 albani:2 brewery:1 brew:1 local:1 pilsner:1 amongst:1 others:1 commercial:1 national:1 television:1 company:1 tv:1 base:1 south:1 eastern:1 rosengårdscentret:1 shopping:1 mall:2 commercially:1 use:1 central:2 location:1 make:1 nationwide:1 convention:1 congress:1 center:1 education:1 campus:2 university:3 southern:2 sport:1 home:2 number:1 football:1 club:1 important:1 ob:1 fc:3 fyn:1 dalum:1 tourist:1 formerly:1 connect:1 benedictine:1 monastery:1 fine:2 building:1 kind:1 brick:1 pure:1 gothic:1 style:1 originally:1 date:1 altar:1 lie:3 knud:2 patron:1 plan:1 conquer:1 england:1 william:1 normandy:1 slay:1 insurrection:1 bishop:1 skeleton:2 brother:1 public:1 display:2 boast:1 altarpiece:2 magnificent:1 triptych:1 claus:2 berg:2 fragment:1 byzantine:1 cloth:1 next:1 two:2 john:1 ii:1 bury:1 lady:1 church:5 build:1 restore:1 contain:1 carved:1 lübeck:1 erect:1 frederick:1 die:1 theatre:2 well:1 symphony:2 orchestra:2 zoo:3 village:4 den:1 fynske:1 landsby:1 open:3 air:1 museum:5 house:2 typical:1 hall:2 small:1 scar:1 battle:1 german:1 member:1 resistance:1 may:1 coat:1 arm:1 entrance:1 damage:1 close:2 inspection:1 kneecap:1 penetrate:1 bullet:1 visited:1 visitor:4 railway:3 h:1 c:1 statistisk:1 års:1 oversigt:1 tabel:3 hans:1 childhood:1 fjord:3 vor:1 frue:1 library:1 sportspark:1 previously:1 music:1 school:1 nonnebakken:1 transport:1 river:1 å:1 station:1 route:1 copenhagen:3 jutland:1 peninsular:1 mainland:1 metre:1 ft:1 deep:1 canal:1 dug:1 give:2 access:1 accessibility:1 greatly:2 increase:1 ferry:1 service:1 zealand:1 replace:1 belt:1 bridge:3 rail:1 traffic:2 road:1 long:1 suspension:1 construction:1 cut:1 transportation:1 capital:1 reach:1 train:1 hour:1 minute:1 serve:1 airport:2 population:3 land:1 density:1 per:2 figure:1 helsingin:1 seudun:1 aluesarjat:1 accord:1 danmark:1 statistik:1 yearpopulationyearpopulation:1 statistic:2 twin:2 full:1 list:1 tourism:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram norse_mythology:1 saint_canute:5 eiffel_tower:1 royal_highness:1 vegetable_fruit:1 shopping_mall:1 tourist_attraction:1 benedictine_monastery:1 patron_saint:1 symphony_orchestra:2 coat_arm:1 metre_ft:1 suspension_bridge:1 copenhagen_copenhagen:1 external_link:1 |
4,838 | Astatine | Astatine ( or ) is a radioactive chemical element with the symbol At and atomic number 85. It is the heaviest of the discovered halogens. Although astatine is produced by radioactive decay in nature, due to its short half life it is found only in minute amounts. Astatine was first produced by Dale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, and Emilio Segrè in 1940. Three years passed before traces of astatine were also found in natural minerals. Until recently most of the physical and chemical characteristics of astatine were inferred from comparison with other elements. Some astatine isotopes are used as alpha-particle emitters in science applications, and medical applications for astatine 211 have been tested. Characteristics This highly radioactive element has been confirmed by mass spectrometers to behave chemically much like other halogens, especially iodine (it would probably accumulate in the thyroid gland like iodine), though astatine is thought to be more metallic than iodine. Researchers at the Brookhaven National Laboratory have performed experiments that have identified and measured elementary reactions that involve astatine; however, chemical research into astatine is limited by its extreme rarity, which is a consequence of its extremely short half-life. Its most stable isotope has a half-life of around 8.3 hours. The final products of the decay of astatine are isotopes of lead. The halogens get darker in color with increasing molecular weight and atomic number. Thus, following the trend, astatine would be expected to be a nearly black solid, which, when heated, sublimes into a dark, purplish vapor (darker than iodine). Astatine is expected to form ionic bonds with metals such as sodium, like the other halogens, but it can be displaced from the salts by lighter, more reactive halogens. Astatine can also react with hydrogen to form hydrogen astatide, which when dissolved in water, forms the exceptionally strong hydroastatic acid. Astatine is the least reactive of the halogens, being less reactive than iodine. History The existence of "eka-iodine" had been predicted by Mendeleev. Astatine (after Greek αστατος astatos, meaning "unstable") was first synthesized in 1940 by Dale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, and Emilio Segrè at the University of California, Berkeley by bombarding bismuth with alpha particles. As the periodic table of elements was long known, several scientists tried to find the element following iodine in the halogen group. The unknown substance was called Eka-iodine before its discovery because the name of the element was to be suggested by the discoverer. The claimed discovery in 1931 at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute (now Auburn University) by Fred Allison and associates, led to the spurious name for the element as alabamine (Ab) for a few years. This discovery was later shown to be an erroneous one. The name Dakin was proposed for this element in 1937 by the chemist Rajendralal De working in Dhaka, Bangladesh. 85 Astatine The name Helvetium was chosen by the Swiss chemist Walter Minder, when he announced the discovery of element 85 in 1940, but changed his suggested name to Anglohelvetium in 1942. It took three years before astatine was found as product of the natural decay processes. The short-lived element was found by the two scientists Berta Karlik and Traude Bernert. Occurrence Astatine occurs naturally in three natural radioactive decay series, but because of its short half-life is found only in minute amounts. Astatine-218 (218At) is found in the uranium series, 216At is in the thorium series, and 215At as well as 219At are in the actinium series . The most long-lived of these naturally-occurring astatine isotopes is 210At with a half-life of 8.3 hours. Astatine is the rarest naturally-occurring element, with the total amount in Earth's crust estimated to be less than 1 oz (28 g) at any given time. This amounts to less than one teaspoon of the element. Guinness World Records has dubbed the element the rarest on Earth, stating: "Only around 0.9 oz (25 g) of the element astatine (At) occurring naturally". Isaac Asimov, in a 1957 essay on large numbers, scientific notation, and the size of the atom, wrote that in "all of North and South America to a depth of ten miles", the number of astatine atoms at any time is "only a trillion". http://ia331335.us.archive.org/1/items/onlyatrillion017765mbp/onlyatrillion017765mbp_djvu.txt Production for alpha particles of 26 MeV for alpha particles of 40 MeV for alpha particles of 60 MeV. Astatine is produced by bombarding bismuth with energetic alpha particles to obtain relatively long-lived 209At - 211At, which can then be distilled from the target by heating in the presence of air. Compounds Multiple compounds of astatine have been synthesized in microscopic amounts and studied as intensively as possible before their inevitable radioactive disintegration. The reactions are normally tested with dilute solutions of astatine mixed with larger amounts of iodine. The iodine acts as a carrier, ensuring that there is sufficient material for laboratory techniques such as filtration and precipitation to work. While these compounds are primarily of theoretical interest, they are being studied for potential use in nuclear medicine. Astatine is expected to form ionic bonds with metals such as sodium, like the other halogens, but it can be displaced from the salts by lighter, more reactive halogens. Astatine can also react with hydrogen to form hydrogen astatide (HAt), which when dissolved in water, forms hydroastatic acid. Some examples of astatic compounds are: NaAt or sodium astatide MgAt2 or magnesium astatide CAt4 or carbon tetrastatide (tetraastatide) Isotopes Astatine has 33 known isotopes, all of which are radioactive; the range of their mass numbers is from 191 to 223. There exist also 23 metastable excited states. The longest-lived isotope is 210At, which has a half-life of 8.1 hours; the shortest-lived known isotope is 213At, which has a half-life of 125 nanoseconds. Applications The least stable isotopes of astatine have no practical applications other than scientific study due to their extremely short life, but heavier isotopes have medical uses. Astatine 211 is an alpha emitter with a physical half-life of 7.2 h. These features have led to its use in radiation therapy. An investigation of the efficacy of astatine-211—tellurium colloid for the treatment of experimental malignant ascites in mice reveals that this alpha-emitting radiocolloid can be curative without causing undue toxicity to normal tissue. By comparison, beta-emitting phosphorus-32 as colloidal chromic phosphate had no antineoplastic activity. The most compelling explanation for this striking difference is the dense ionization and short range of action associated with alpha-emission. These results have important implications for the development and use of alpha-emitters as radiocolloid therapy for the treatment of human tumors. Precautions Since astatine is radioactive, it should be handled with care. Because of its extreme rarity, it is not likely that the general public will be exposed. Astatine is a halogen, and standard precautions apply. It is reactive, but they share similar chemical characteristics with iodine. There are toxicologic studies of astatine-211 on mice indicates that the radioactive poisoning is the major effect on living organisms. References External links WebElements.com - Astatine Doc Brown's Chemistry Clinic - Group 7 The Halogens | Astatine |@lemmatized astatine:37 radioactive:8 chemical:4 element:14 symbol:1 atomic:2 number:5 heavy:2 discovered:1 halogen:11 although:1 produce:3 decay:4 nature:1 due:2 short:7 half:8 life:9 find:7 minute:2 amount:6 first:2 dale:2 r:2 corson:2 kenneth:2 ross:2 mackenzie:2 emilio:2 segrè:2 three:3 year:3 pass:1 trace:1 also:4 natural:3 mineral:1 recently:1 physical:2 characteristic:3 infer:1 comparison:2 isotope:9 use:4 alpha:10 particle:6 emitter:3 science:1 application:4 medical:2 test:2 highly:1 confirm:1 mass:2 spectrometer:1 behave:1 chemically:1 much:1 like:4 especially:1 iodine:11 would:2 probably:1 accumulate:1 thyroid:1 gland:1 though:1 think:1 metallic:1 researcher:1 brookhaven:1 national:1 laboratory:2 perform:1 experiment:1 identify:1 measure:1 elementary:1 reaction:2 involve:1 however:1 research:1 limit:1 extreme:2 rarity:2 consequence:1 extremely:2 stable:2 around:2 hour:3 final:1 product:2 lead:3 get:1 darker:2 color:1 increase:1 molecular:1 weight:1 thus:1 follow:2 trend:1 expect:3 nearly:1 black:1 solid:1 heat:2 sublime:1 dark:1 purplish:1 vapor:1 form:6 ionic:2 bond:2 metal:2 sodium:3 displace:2 salt:2 light:2 reactive:5 react:2 hydrogen:4 astatide:4 dissolve:2 water:2 exceptionally:1 strong:1 hydroastatic:2 acid:2 least:2 less:3 history:1 existence:1 eka:2 predict:1 mendeleev:1 greek:1 αστατος:1 astatos:1 mean:1 unstable:1 synthesize:2 university:2 california:1 berkeley:1 bombard:2 bismuth:2 periodic:1 table:1 long:4 know:2 several:1 scientist:2 try:1 group:2 unknown:1 substance:1 call:1 discovery:4 name:5 suggest:1 discoverer:1 claimed:1 alabama:1 polytechnic:1 institute:1 auburn:1 fred:1 allison:1 associate:2 spurious:1 alabamine:1 ab:1 later:1 show:1 erroneous:1 one:2 dakin:1 propose:1 chemist:2 rajendralal:1 de:1 work:2 dhaka:1 bangladesh:1 helvetium:1 choose:1 swiss:1 walter:1 minder:1 announce:1 change:1 suggested:1 anglohelvetium:1 take:1 process:1 live:4 two:1 berta:1 karlik:1 traude:1 bernert:1 occurrence:1 occur:4 naturally:4 series:4 uranium:1 thorium:1 well:1 actinium:1 lived:1 rare:1 total:1 earth:2 crust:1 estimate:1 oz:2 g:2 give:1 time:2 teaspoon:1 guinness:1 world:1 record:1 dub:1 rarest:1 state:2 isaac:1 asimov:1 essay:1 large:2 scientific:2 notation:1 size:1 atom:2 write:1 north:1 south:1 america:1 depth:1 ten:1 mile:1 trillion:1 http:1 u:1 archive:1 org:1 item:1 txt:1 production:1 mev:3 energetic:1 obtain:1 relatively:1 distil:1 target:1 presence:1 air:1 compound:4 multiple:1 microscopic:1 study:4 intensively:1 possible:1 inevitable:1 disintegration:1 normally:1 dilute:1 solution:1 mix:1 act:1 carrier:1 ensure:1 sufficient:1 material:1 technique:1 filtration:1 precipitation:1 primarily:1 theoretical:1 interest:1 potential:1 nuclear:1 medicine:1 hat:1 example:1 astatic:1 naat:1 magnesium:1 carbon:1 tetrastatide:1 tetraastatide:1 isotopes:1 range:2 exist:1 metastable:1 excite:1 known:1 nanosecond:1 practical:1 us:1 h:1 feature:1 radiation:1 therapy:2 investigation:1 efficacy:1 tellurium:1 colloid:1 treatment:2 experimental:1 malignant:1 ascites:1 mouse:2 reveals:1 emit:2 radiocolloid:2 curative:1 without:1 cause:1 undue:1 toxicity:1 normal:1 tissue:1 beta:1 phosphorus:1 colloidal:1 chromic:1 phosphate:1 antineoplastic:1 activity:1 compelling:1 explanation:1 striking:1 difference:1 dense:1 ionization:1 action:1 emission:1 result:1 important:1 implication:1 development:1 human:1 tumor:1 precaution:2 since:1 handle:1 care:1 likely:1 general:1 public:1 expose:1 standard:1 apply:1 share:1 similar:1 toxicologic:1 indicates:1 poisoning:1 major:1 effect:1 living:1 organism:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 webelements:1 com:1 doc:1 brown:1 chemistry:1 clinic:1 |@bigram radioactive_decay:2 emilio_segrè:2 mass_spectrometer:1 thyroid_gland:1 brookhaven_national:1 stable_isotope:2 iodine_astatine:1 periodic_table:1 polytechnic_institute:1 dhaka_bangladesh:1 earth_crust:1 isaac_asimov:1 mev_alpha:2 iodine_iodine:1 alpha_emitter:2 external_link:1 link_webelements:1 webelements_com:1 |
4,839 | Jabberwocky | The Jabberwock, as illustrated by John Tenniel. "Jabberwocky" is a poem of nonsense verse written by Lewis Carroll, originally featured as a part of his novel Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There (1871). It is considered by many to be one of the greatest nonsense poems written in the English language. The poem is sometimes used in primary schools to teach students about the use of portmanteaux and nonsense words in poetry, as well as use of nouns and verbs. The poem Glossary The first verse originally appeared in Mischmasch—a periodical which Carroll wrote and edited for the amusement of his family—claiming to be a piece of Anglo-Saxon poetry. Several of the words in the poem are nonce words of Carroll's own invention, many of them portmanteau. In the book, the character of Humpty Dumpty gives definitions for the nonsense words in the first stanza. In later writings, Lewis Carroll explained several of the others. The rest of the nonsense words were never explicitly defined by Carroll, who claimed that he did not know what some of them meant. An extended analysis of the poem is given in the book The Annotated Alice, including writings from Carroll about how he formed some of his idiosyncratic words. A few words that Carroll invented in this poem (namely "chortled" and "galumphing") have entered the English language. The word jabberwocky itself is sometimes used to refer to nonsense language. Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe; All mimsy were the borogoves, And the mome raths outgrabe. Bandersnatch – A swift moving creature with snapping jaws, capable of extending its neck. From The Hunting of the Snark Beamish - Radiantly beaming, happy, cheerful. Borogove – A thin shabby-looking bird with its feathers sticking out all round, "something like a live mop". Defined by Humpty Dumpty in Through the Looking-Glass. The initial syllable of borogove is pronounced as in boring rather than as in burrow. From the preface to The Hunting of the Snark, available at http://larrymikegarmon.com/engiv/jabberwock_puff.rtf . Brillig – Four o'clock in the afternoon: the time when you begin broiling things for dinner. According to Mischmasch, it is derived from the verb to bryl or broil. Burbled – Possibly a mixture of "bleat", "murmur", and "warble". According to Carroll in a letter. Burble is also a pre-existing word, circa 1303, meaning to form bubbles as in boiling water. Chortled - Combination of chuckle and snort. Frabjous - Probably a blend of fair, fabulous, and joyous. Definition from Oxford English Dictionary, credited to Lewis Carroll. Frumious – Combination of "fuming" and "furious." Galumphing - Perhaps a blend of "gallop" and "triumphant". Used to describe a way of "trotting" down hill, while keeping one foot further back than the other. This enables the Galumpher to stop quickly. Gimble – To make holes as does a gimlet. Gyre – To go round and round like a gyroscope. Gyre is an actual word, circa 1566, meaning a circular or spiral motion or form; especially a giant circular oceanic surface current. However, Carroll also wrote in Mischmasch that it meant to scratch like a dog. The g is pronounced like the /g/ in gold, not like gem. From the preface to Through the Looking-Glass. Available at http://larrymikegarmon.com/engiv/jabberwock_puff.rtf . Jubjub – A desperate bird that lives in perpetual passion. Manxome – Fearsome; the word is of unknown origin. Mimsy – Combination of "miserable" and "flimsy". Mome – Possibly short for "from home," meaning that the raths had lost their way. Outgrabe (past tense; present tense outgribe) – Something between bellowing and whistling, with a kind of sneeze in the middle. Humpty Dumpty says "outgribing" when explaining the meaning. Outgrabe is, actually, the past tense; the present tense is outgribe. Rath – A sort of green pig. (See Origin and structure for further details.) Snicker-snack: An onomatopoeia of unclear meaning, possibly referring to sharpness. Slithy – Combination of "slimy" and "lithe." The i is long, as in writhe. Tove – A combination of a badger, a lizard, and a corkscrew. They are very curious looking creatures which make their nests under sundials and eat only cheese. Pronounced so as to rhyme with groves. Note that "gyre and gimble," i.e. rotate and bore, is in reference to the toves being partly corkscrew by Humpty Dumpty's definitions. Tulgey - Thick, dense, dark. Uffish – A state of mind when the voice is gruffish, the manner roughish, and the temper huffish. Vorpal - See vorpal sword. Wabe – The grass plot around a sundial. It is called a "wabe" because it goes a long way before it, and a long way behind it, and a long way beyond it on each side. Pronunciation In the Preface to The Hunting of the Snark, Carroll wrote: Also, in an author's note (dated Christmas 1896) about Through the Looking-Glass, Carroll wrote: Origin and structure The poem was written during Lewis Carroll's stay with relatives at Whitburn, near Sunderland, although the first stanza was written in Croft on Tees, close to nearby Darlington, where Carroll lived as a boy. The North East England History Pages. Accessed 2007-07-22. The story may have been inspired by the local Sunderland area legend of the Lambton Worm, as noted in "A Town Like Alice's" by Michael Bute (1997 Heritage Publications, Sunderland) and as later adapted in "Alice in Sunderland" by Brian Talbot. The first stanza of the poem originally appeared in Mischmasch, a periodical that Carroll wrote and illustrated for the amusement of his family. It was entitled "Stanza of Anglo-Saxon Poetry." Carroll also gave translations of some of the words which are different from Humpty Dumpty's. For example, a "rath" is described as a species of land turtle that lived on swallows and oysters. Also, "brillig" is spelled with two ys rather than with two is. Roger Lancelyn Green, in the Times Literary Supplement (March 1, 1957), and later in The Lewis Carroll Handbook (1962), suggests that the rest of the poem may have been inspired by an old German ballad, "The Shepherd of the Giant Mountains". In this epic poem, "a young shepherd slays a monstrous Griffin". It was translated into English by Lewis Carroll's relative Menella Bute Smedley in 1846, many years before the appearance of the Alice books. English computer scientist and historian Sean B. Palmer notes a possible Shakespearean source. http://miscoranda.com/150 The inspiration for the Jabberwock allegedly came from a tree in the gardens of Christ Church, Oxford, where Carroll was a mathematician under his right name of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson. The tree in question is large and ancient with many sprawling, twisted branches somewhat suggestive of tentacles, or of the Hydra of Greek mythology. Although the poem contains many nonsensical words, its structure is perfectly consistent with classic English poetry. The sentence structure is accurate (another aspect that has been challenging to reproduce in other languages), the poetic forms are observed (e.g. quatrain verse, rhymed, iambic meter), and a "story" is somewhat discernible in the flow of events. According to Alice in Through the Looking-Glass, "Somehow it seems to fill my head with ideas – only I don't exactly know what they are!". The narrative contained in the middle four verses of the poem may be considered as an example of the monomyth. Translations "Jabberwocky" has become famous around the world, with translations into many languages. Lim, Keith. Jabberwocky Variations: Translations. Accessed 2007-10-21. The task of translation is the more notable and difficult because many of the principal words of the poem are nonce words simply made up by Carroll, having had no previous meaning. Translators have generally dealt with these words by inventing words of their own. Sometimes these are similar in spelling or sound to Carroll's words while respecting the morphology of the language to be translated into. For example in Frank L. Warrin's French translation "'Twas brillig" is translated as "Il brilgue". In cases like this both the original and the invented words may echo actual words in the lexicon, but not necessarily ones with similar meanings. Translators have also invented words which draw on root words with meanings similar to the English roots used by Carroll. As Douglas Hofstadter has noted the word "slithy" echoes English words including "slimy", "slither", "slippery", "lithe" and "sly". The same French translation uses "lubricilleux" for "slithy", evoking French words like "lubrifier" (to lubricate) to give a similar impression of the meaning of the invented word. It makes a great difference whether the poem is translated in isolation or as part of a translation of the novel. In the latter case the translator must, through Humpty Dumpty, supply explanations of the invented words in the first stanza. Full translations of "Jabberwocky" into French and German can be found in Martin Gardner's The Annotated Alice along with a discussion of why some translation decisions were made. Yuen Ren Chao, a Chinese linguist, translated "Jabberwocky" into Chinese by inventing characters to imitate what Rob Gifford describes as the "slithy toves that gyred and gimbled in the wabe of Carroll's original". Gifford, Rob. "The Great Wall of the Mind." China Road. 237. Satyajit Ray, the famous film-maker, translated this poem in Bengali. Reception of the poem "Jabberwocky" was meant by Carroll as a parody designed to show how not to write a poem. Jabberwocky, and other parodies, in Roger Lancelyn Green: The Lewis Carroll Handbook, Dawson of Pall Mall, London 1970 The poem has since transcended Carroll's purpose, becoming now the subject of serious study. This transformation of perception was in a large part predicted by G. K. Chesterton. G. K. Chesterton: Lewis Carroll, in A Handful of Authors, ed. by Dorothy Collins, Sheed and Ward, London 1953 According to Chesterton and Green, among others, the original purpose of "Jabberwocky" was to satirize pretentious poetry and ignorant literary critics, but has itself been the subject of pedestrian translations and explanations as well as being incorporated into classroom learning. Chesterton wrote in 1932, In the following years, individuals have taken to analyzing Carroll's nonsense words and seriously interpreting his instructions on the "correct" pronunciation of these words. The reach of the poem "Jabberwocky" has been the source of countless parodies and tributes. In most cases the writers simply change the nonsense words into words relating to the parodied subject (e.g. Frank Jacobs's "Lewis Carroll as a TV Critic" in For Better or Verse). Other writers use the poem as a poetic form, much like a sonnet, and create their own nonsense words and glossaries (e.g. "Strunklemiss" by S. K. Azoulay). Derivative works Since its creation, "Jabberwocky" has taken on some qualities of a folkloric myth or legend. The creatures and characters of the poem are often referenced or cited in popular culture, leading to many appearances in many media since its writing. Notable examples include: Publishing In 1948, the Gaberbocchus Press was founded in London by Stefan and Franciszka Themerson, and named after the Latin word for 'Jabberwocky', from a later translation made by Lewis Carroll's uncle, Hassard Dodgson. In 31 years the Gaberbocchus Press published over sixty titles, including works by Alfred Jarry, Kurt Schwitters, Bertrand Russell and the Themersons themselves. Alfred Jarry’s Ubu Roi became one of the most celebrated plays and was published in many editions. Literature In 1943, Henry Kuttner, writing with his wife C. L. Moore as Lewis Padgett, published a science fiction short story called Mimsy Were the Borogoves in the magazine Astounding, and has since been republished in several anthologies. It posits that the poem is actually a communication with hidden meaning from the future. The story was the inspiration for the 2007 film The Last Mimzy. In 1951, noted mystery writer Fredric Brown drew substantively on the poem for the comic mystery novel Night of the Jabberwock, in which the narrator learns that the Alice novels are not fiction but are an encoded report detailing the existence of another plane of reality. In 1962, in his short story "Naudsonce," H. Beam Piper used a blend of the first few lines from "Jabberwocky" and Robert W. Service's "The Shooting of Dan McGrew" as a demonstration to a newly encountered alien race that humans use a spoken language. The contact team member stood before the alien assemblage and solemnly intoned "'Twas brillig and the slithy toves were whooping it up in the Malemute Saloon, and the kid that handled the music box did gyre and gimble in the wabe, and back of the bar in a solo game all mimsy were the borogoves, and the mome raths outgrabe the lady that's known as Lou". Roger Zelazny's Chronicles of Amber series had a vivid scene where Luke has an acid trip and winds up in the poem and Merlin must save him. A character in the book Alien vs Predator: Hunter's Planet by David Bischoff and Stephani Perry, on numerous occasions remembers bits and pieces of the poem, first as a way to pass the time, then as a comparison to the grotesque form of the Xenomorph. Military science fiction author John Ringo has based a certain portion of his Space Bubble series of books around the Jabberwocky, partially in reference to the nonsensical nature of quantum physics that the characters end up dealing with. The first novel of the series was named Into the looking Glass as a number of the Higgs Boson portals within the book were named for Carroll's portal. The following books were named Vorpal Blade and Manxome Foe. The next book is due to be The Claws that Catch. The Jabberwock has a body like that of a dragon and its head is like that of an insect; an image probably inspired by the book's original illustration (see above). Film and TV In 1934, a Betty Boop short titled Betty in Blunderland was released featuring the Jabberwock as the antagonist. The 1941 film Pimpernel Smith quotes the poem in a humorous discussion of the differences between British and German culture. In the 1951 Disney version of Alice in Wonderland, the Cheshire Cat is heard singing the poem before he materializes in front of Alice. In 1971, film director Jan Švankmajer made a 14 minute short film called Jabberwocky (Žvahlav aneb šaticky Slaměného Huberta) which features the whole poem. As the poem is read out, various toys come to life, dancing around. The only thing that seems to stop the toys is a black cat that appears. This animation film is available on the DVD Cinema 16: European Short Films. In a 1976 episode of Saturday Night Live, host Desi Arnaz plays a character who recites the Jabberwocky poem and is so baffled by its language shouts "Who the hell talks like this?!", throws the book down and walks off stage muttering Spanish. In 1977, Terry Gilliam directed a movie called Jabberwocky. A poster for the movie featured a coloured version of the Jabberwocky illustration, and the first stanza of the poem is recited at the start of the film. The movie's plot very loosely resembles that of the poem. In 1986 an episode of "The Real Ghostbusters" entitled "The Grundel" featured a Jabberwocky-like Ghost while the 'busters themselves recited part of the poem as they captured it. Mr T provided the voice for the Jabberwock in the 1987 animated TV film adaptation of "Alice Through the Looking Glass". In 1995, the vampire-cop drama Forever Knight featured an episode called "Curiouser and Curiouser," where Nick enters a delusional world where everyone is opposite and his vampiric father LaCroix (Nigel Bennett) recites lines from the Carroll poetry. In the final confrontation, a visibly-stabbed LaCroix recites the second-to-last stanza from the Jabberwocky poem, the Jabberwock referring to himself and the "beamish boy" referring to his son Nick, who attempted patricide in a previous episode. An episode of The Muppet Show adapted most of Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass, including this poem, for which special muppets of slithy toves, borogoves, mome raths, and the Jabberwock were designed, all based on Tenniel's illustrations. Music Michael Hedges often performed yoga moves on stage while reciting this poem. The American Psychobilly band Th' Legendary Shack Shakers quote the poem on their release, Swampblood (the title track includes the line "Well T'was Brillig and the Slithey Toves I bid the World Goodbye by the Dead Bog Oaks". René Clausen and Jan Moeyaert composed a choral piece titled Jabberwocky out of this poem. A recitation of "Jabberwocky" is included on A Book of Human Language, hip hop MC Aceyalone's sophomore album. Donovan set the poem to music on his album HMS Donovan. A full recitation of "Jabberwocky" is included on Ambrosia's 1975 self-titled album, in the song "Mama Frog". English band Hatcham Social have recorded their own rendition of the poem. The band Dzeltenie Pastnieki based the opening track on their 1984 album Alise around a Latvian translation of the poem, titled "Džabervokijs". The band The Crüxshadows quoted the poem on their Tears album in 2001. The band Forgive Durden released "Beware The Jubjub Bird And Shun The Frumious Bandersnatch", their first single, in 2006. The band The Books feature excerpts from "Jabberwocky" frequently in their song "Vogt Dig For Kloppervok". The band Fear Before wrote a song named "Jabberwocky" which features many of the concepts from the poem, and is found on the self-titled album as track 5. The folk-band Omnia wrote music with the poem in a song named "Jabberwocky". Games and toys Due to its popularity as a poem, a multitude of role-play and video games have used the artifacts and characters of the poem in their respective universes. In particular, the "vorpal swords" or "vorpal blades" are used in Dungeons & Dragons and numerous computer games and video games. Games based around this poem are also popular in the classroom. One activity that can be used to teach is to take all the nonsense words out and ask students to guess what they mean. In Pikmin for the Nintendo GameCube and Wii, Captain Olimar states that his wife's warning to not gain weight on his vacation (which had become a survival situation) "made me chortle." In Pikmin 2 he finds an item called a "Vorpal Platter". The Monster in My Pocket toy line includes the Jabberwock (#50), which is made in the likeness of John Tenniel's illustration. The Jabberwock is a major antagonist in the computer game American McGee's Alice representing Alice's subconscious guilt. Having been rebuilt as a sub-mechanical creature by a deranged Mad Hatter, the Jabberwock seeks to drive Alice into insanity. He kills the Gryphon, and is then killed himself by Alice. See also Works influenced by Alice in Wonderland Notes External links More about the origins and original meanings of the poem Character description of the Jabberwock Jabberwocky Reading (video) | Jabberwocky |@lemmatized jabberwock:12 illustrate:2 john:3 tenniel:3 jabberwocky:27 poem:49 nonsense:10 verse:5 write:14 lewis:11 carroll:32 originally:3 feature:8 part:4 novel:5 look:10 glass:8 alice:17 find:4 consider:2 many:11 one:5 great:3 english:9 language:9 sometimes:3 use:13 primary:1 school:1 teach:2 student:2 portmanteau:2 word:34 poetry:6 well:3 noun:1 verb:2 glossary:2 first:10 appear:3 mischmasch:4 periodical:2 edit:1 amusement:2 family:2 claim:2 piece:3 anglo:2 saxon:2 several:3 nonce:2 invention:1 book:12 character:8 humpty:6 dumpty:6 give:4 definition:3 stanza:7 late:2 writing:3 explain:2 others:2 rest:2 never:1 explicitly:1 define:2 know:3 meant:1 extended:1 analysis:1 annotated:2 include:9 form:6 idiosyncratic:1 invent:4 namely:1 chortle:3 galumph:2 enter:2 refer:4 twas:3 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4,840 | Declaration_(poker) | There are several actions in poker called declaration, in which a player formally expresses his intent to take some action (which he may perform at a later point). For example, one may verbally declare an action (fold, call, raise) while in turn, which obligates the player to complete that action. One may declare a number of cards to draw in a draw poker game (which is typically not binding), or one may declare some other choice specific to the variant being played. But most commonly, the term refers to the declaration in the final phase of a high-low split game, in which players indicate whether their hands are to be evaluated as high hands, low hands, or both at showdown. This is only one option for high-low split games; the other is known as "cards speak", in which players simply reveal their hands at showdown and award the pot to the highest and lowest hands shown (possibly subject to qualifications). Cards speak is used commonly in casinos because it is the much simpler method. High-low with declaration is common in home games. Methods of declaration First, declarations can be made either in turn or simultaneously. Games with verbal in-turn declarations are uncommon, because the positional value of declaring last is so great that it makes the game unfair. Simultaneous declarations are commonly done by the "chips in hand" method. Each player remaining in the game takes two chips or coins below the table, then brings up a closed hand containing zero, one, or two of the chips. After all players have brought their closed hands above the table, they all then open their hands to reveal their choices: for example, no chips in the hand means the player is declaring "low", one chip "high", and two chips "swing" (both ways). Awarding the pot After declaration and showdown, half of the pot is awarded to the highest hand among those players who declared high, and half to the lowest hand among those who declared low. If no one declared in one direction, the whole pot is awarded to the other (for example, if all players declared low, the lowest hand is awarded the whole pot). If any player declared "swing", then that player must have both the high and low hands to take any part of the pot, though there are several rule variations covering the specifics. First, if the rules specify that ties are acceptable, then a player declaring swing must win or tie both directions to win anything, but if he does, he is entitled to his appropriate share. For example, if the swing player has the clearly highest hand but shares the lowest hand with another player, he wins three-fourths of the pot and the other low hand wins one-fourth. If the rules specify that ties are not acceptable, then a swing player must clearly win both directions: even a tie in one direction means he wins nothing. "No ties" is probably the more common rule, but this makes swing declarations so dangerous that they are rare, and therefore makes the game less interesting, so the ties-acceptable rule is preferred by some professionals. Finally, if a swing player fails for half the pot, the half that he would have otherwise won can be awarded either to the second-best hand in that direction, or to the player who defeated him in the other. The latter rule is generally preferred, as it affords more strategic possibilities in declaration. For example, if a player declaring swing has the best high hand but loses for low (or ties for low with a no-ties rule), the whole pot is awarded to the low hand that defeated him. | Declaration_(poker) |@lemmatized several:2 action:4 poker:2 call:2 declaration:10 player:18 formally:1 express:1 intent:1 take:3 may:4 perform:1 late:1 point:1 example:5 one:10 verbally:1 declare:12 fold:1 raise:1 turn:3 obligate:1 complete:1 number:1 card:3 draw:2 game:8 typically:1 bind:1 choice:2 specific:2 variant:1 play:1 commonly:3 term:1 refers:1 final:1 phase:1 high:11 low:16 split:2 indicate:1 whether:1 hand:20 evaluate:1 showdown:3 option:1 know:1 speak:2 simply:1 reveal:2 award:7 pot:9 show:1 possibly:1 subject:1 qualification:1 use:1 casino:1 much:1 simpler:1 method:3 common:2 home:1 first:2 make:4 either:2 simultaneously:1 verbal:1 uncommon:1 positional:1 value:1 last:1 great:1 unfair:1 simultaneous:1 chip:6 remain:1 two:3 coin:1 table:2 bring:2 closed:2 contain:1 zero:1 open:1 mean:2 swing:8 way:1 half:4 among:2 direction:5 whole:3 must:3 part:1 though:1 rule:7 variation:1 cover:1 specify:2 tie:8 acceptable:3 win:7 anything:1 entitle:1 appropriate:1 share:2 clearly:2 another:1 three:1 fourth:2 even:1 nothing:1 probably:1 dangerous:1 rare:1 therefore:1 less:1 interesting:1 prefer:2 professional:1 finally:1 fail:1 would:1 otherwise:1 second:1 best:2 defeat:2 latter:1 generally:1 afford:1 strategic:1 possibility:1 lose:1 |@bigram |
4,841 | Multiprotocol_Label_Switching | MPLS redirects here. For other uses, see Mpls In computer networking and telecommunications, Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) refers to a mechanism which directs and transfers data between Wide Area Networks (WANs) nodes with high performance, regardless of the content of the data. MPLS makes it easy to create "virtual links" between nodes on the network, regardless of the protocol of their encapsulated data. It is a highly scalable, protocol agnostic, data-carrying mechanism. In an MPLS network, data packets are assigned labels. Packet-forwarding decisions are made solely on the contents of this label, without the need to examine the packet itself. This allows one to create end-to-end circuits across any type of transport medium, using any protocol. The primary benefit is to eliminate dependence on a particular Data Link Layer technology, such as ATM, frame relay, SONET or Ethernet, and eliminate the need for multiple Layer 2 networks to satisfy different types of traffic. MPLS belongs to the family of packet-switched networks. MPLS operates at an OSI Model layer that is generally considered to lie between traditional definitions of Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) and Layer 3 (Network Layer), and thus is often referred to as a "Layer 2.5" protocol. It was designed to provide a unified data-carrying service for both circuit-based clients and packet-switching clients which provide a datagram service model. It can be used to carry many different kinds of traffic, including IP packets, as well as native ATM, SONET, and Ethernet frames. A number of different technologies were previously deployed with essentially identical goals, such as frame relay and ATM. MPLS technologies have evolved with the strengths and weaknesses of ATM in mind. Many network engineers agree that ATM should be replaced with a protocol that requires less overhead, while providing connection-oriented services for variable-length frames. MPLS is currently replacing some of these technologies in the marketplace. It is highly possible that MPLS will completely replace these technologies in the future, thus aligning these technologies with current and future technology needs. Applied Data Communications (A Business-Oriented Approach) James E. Goldman & Phillip T. Rawles, 2004 (ISBN 0-471-34640-3) In particular, MPLS dispenses with the cell-switching and signaling-protocol baggage of ATM. MPLS recognizes that small ATM cells are not needed in the core of modern networks, since modern optical networks (as of 2008) are so fast (at 40 Gbit/s and beyond) that even full-length 1500 byte packets do not incur significant real-time queuing delays (the need to reduce such delays — e.g., to support voice traffic — was the motivation for the cell nature of ATM). At the same time, MPLS attempts to preserve the traffic engineering and out-of-band control that made frame relay and ATM attractive for deploying large-scale networks. While the traffic management benefits of migrating to MPLS are quite valuable (better reliability, increased performance), there is a significant loss of visibility and access into the MPLS cloud for IT departments. Routers Hold key to MPLS Measurement History MPLS was originally proposed by a group of engineers from Ipsilon Networks, but their "IP Switching" technology, which was defined only to work over ATM, did not achieve market dominance. Cisco Systems, Inc., introduced a related proposal, not restricted to ATM transmission, called "Tag Switching". It was a Cisco proprietary proposal, and was renamed "Label Switching". It was handed over to the IETF for open standardization. The IETF work involved proposals from other vendors, and development of a consensus protocol that combined features from several vendors' work. One original motivation was to allow the creation of simple high-speed switches, since for a significant length of time it was impossible to forward IP packets entirely in hardware. However, advances in VLSI have made such devices possible. Therefore the advantages of MPLS primarily revolve around the ability to support multiple service models and perform traffic management. MPLS also offers a robust recovery framework Framework for Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS)-based Recovery,RFC 3469, V. Sharma & F. Hellstrand, February 2003 that goes beyond the simple protection rings of synchronous optical networking (SONET/SDH).. How MPLS works MPLS works by prefixing packets with an MPLS header, containing one or more 'labels'. This is called a label stack. Each label stack entry contains four fields: A 20-bit label value. a 3-bit Traffic Class field for QoS (Quality of Service) priority (experimental) and ECN (Explicit Congestion Notification). a 1-bit bottom of stack flag. If this is set, it signifies that the current label is the last in the stack. an 8-bit TTL (time to live) field. These MPLS-labeled packets are switched after a Label Lookup/Switch instead of a lookup into the IP table. As mentioned above, when MPLS was conceived, Label Lookup and Label Switching were faster than a RIB lookup because they could take place directly within the switched fabric and not the CPU. The entry and exit points of an MPLS network are called Label Edge Routers (LER), which, respectively, push an MPLS label onto an incoming packet and pop it off the outgoing packet. Routers that perform routing based only on the label are called Label Switch Routers (LSR). In some applications, the packet presented to the LER already may have a label, so that the new LSR pushes a second label onto the packet. For more information see Penultimate Hop Popping. Labels are distributed between LERs and LSRs using the “Label Distribution Protocol” (LDP). Label Switch Routers in an MPLS network regularly exchange label and reachability information with each other using standardized procedures in order to build a complete picture of the network they can then use to forward packets. Label Switch Paths (LSPs) are established by the network operator for a variety of purposes, such as to create network-based IP Virtual Private Networks or to route traffic along specified paths through the network. In many respects, LSPs are not different from PVCs in ATM or Frame Relay networks, except that they are not dependent on a particular Layer 2 technology. In the specific context of an MPLS-based Virtual Private Network (VPN), LSRs that function as ingress and/or egress routers to the VPN are often called PE (Provider Edge) routers. Devices that function only as transit routers are similarly called P (Provider) routers. See RFC 2547. The job of a P router is significantly easier than that of a PE router, so they can be less complex and may be more dependable because of this. When an unlabeled packet enters the ingress router and needs to be passed on to an MPLS tunnel, the router first determines the forwarding equivalence class (FEC) the packet should be in, and then inserts one or more labels in the packet's newly-created MPLS header. The packet is then passed on to the next hop router for this tunnel. When a labeled packet is received by an MPLS router, the topmost label is examined. Based on the contents of the label a swap, push (impose) or pop (dispose) operation can be performed on the packet's label stack. Routers can have prebuilt lookup tables that tell them which kind of operation to do based on the topmost label of the incoming packet so they can process the packet very quickly. In a swap operation the label is swapped with a new label, and the packet is forwarded along the path associated with the new label. In a push operation a new label is pushed on top of the existing label, effectively "encapsulating" the packet in another layer of MPLS. This allows hierarchical routing of MPLS packets. Notably, this is used by MPLS VPNs. In a pop operation the label is removed from the packet, which may reveal an inner label below. This process is called "decapsulation". If the popped label was the last on the label stack, the packet "leaves" the MPLS tunnel. This is usually done by the egress router, but see PHP below. During these operations, the contents of the packet below the MPLS Label stack are not examined. Indeed transit routers typically need only to examine the topmost label on the stack. The forwarding of the packet is done based on the contents of the labels, which allows "protocol-independent packet forwarding" that does not need to look at a protocol-dependent routing table and avoids the expensive IP longest prefix match at each hop. At the egress router, when the last label has been popped, only the payload remains. This can be an IP packet, or any of a number of other kinds of payload packet. The egress router must therefore have routing information for the packet's payload, since it must forward it without the help of label lookup tables. An MPLS transit router has no such requirement. In some special cases, the last label can also be popped off at the penultimate hop (the hop before the egress router). This is called Penultimate Hop Popping (PHP). This may be interesting in cases where the egress router has lots of packets leaving MPLS tunnels, and thus spends inordinate amounts of CPU time on this. By using PHP, transit routers connected directly to this egress router effectively offload it, by popping the last label themselves. MPLS can make use of existing ATM network infrastructure, as its labeled flows can be mapped to ATM virtual circuit identifiers, and vice versa. Installing and removing MPLS paths There are two standardized protocols for managing MPLS paths: CR-LDP (Constraint-based Routing Label Distribution Protocol) and RSVP-TE, an extension of the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) for traffic engineering. As of February 2003 the IETF MPLS working group deprecated CR-LDP and decided to focus purely on RSVP-TE. RFC 3468 Furthermore, there exist extensions of the BGP protocol that can be used to manage an MPLS path. starting with RFC 2547 Carrying Label Information in BGP-4, RFC 3107, Rekhter Y and Rosen E, May 2001. Graceful Restart Mechanism for BGP with MPLS, RFC4781, Yakov Rekhter and Rahul Aggarwal, January 2007. An MPLS header does not identify the type of data carried inside the MPLS path. If one wants to carry two different types of traffic between the same two routers, with different treatment by the core routers for each type, one has to establish a separate MPLS path for each type of traffic. MPLS and IP MPLS cannot be compared to IP as a separate entity because it works in conjunction with IP and IP's IGP routing protocols. MPLS gives IP networks simple traffic engineering, the ability to transport Layer 3 (IP) VPNs with overlapping address spaces, and support for Layer 2 pseudowires (with Any Transport Over MPLS, or ATOM - see Martini draft). Routers with programmable CPUs and without LSP can be explicitly configured hop by hop, dynamically routed by the Constrained Shortest Path First CSPF algorithm, or configured as a loose route that avoids a particular IP or that is partly explicit and partly dynamic. In a pure IP network, the shortest path to a destination is chosen even when it becomes more congested. Meanwhile, in an IP network with MPLS Traffic Engineering CSPF routing, constraints such as the RSVP bandwidth of the traversed links can also be considered, such that the shortest path with available bandwidth will be chosen. MPLS Traffic Engineering relies upon the use of TE extensions to OSPF or IS-IS and RSVP. Besides the constraint of RSVP bandwidth, users can also define their own constraints by specifying link attributes and special requirements for tunnels to route (or to not route) over links with certain attributes. MPLS local protection (Fast Reroute) In the event of a network element failure when recovery mechanisms are employed at the IP layer, restoration may take several seconds which is unacceptable for real-time applications such as VoIP. In contrast, MPLS local protection meets the requirements of real-time applications with recovery times comparable to those of SONET rings of less than 50 ms. MPLS and Multicast Multicast was for the most part an after-thought in MPLS design. It was introduced by point-to-multipoint RSVP-TE. RFC 4461: Extensions to Resource Reservation Protocol — Traffic Engineering (RSVP-TE) for Point-to-Multipoint TE Label Switched Paths (LSPs), R. Aggarwal, D. Papadimitriou, S. Yasukawa, Eds. It was driven by Service Provider requirements to transport broadband video over MPLS. Since the inception of RFC 4875 there has been tremendous surge in interest and deployment of MPLS multicast and this has lead to several new developments both in the IETF and in shipping products. Comparison of MPLS versus Frame Relay Frame relay aimed to make more efficient use of existing physical resources, which allow for the underprovisioning of data services by telecommunications companies (telcos) to their customers, as clients were unlikely to be utilizing a data service 100 percent of the time. In more recent years, frame relay has acquired a bad reputation in some markets because of excessive bandwidth overbooking by these telcos. Telcos often sell frame relay to businesses looking for a cheaper alternative to dedicated lines; its use in different geographic areas depended greatly on governmental and telecommunication companies' policies. AT&T is currently (as of June 2007) the largest frame relay service provider in the United States, with local networks in 22 states, plus national and international networks. This number is expected to change between 2007 and 2009 when most of these frame relay contracts expire. Many customers are likely to migrate from frame relay to MPLS over IP or Ethernet within the next two years, which in many cases will reduce costs and improve manageability and performance of their wide area networks. "AT&T — Frame Relay and IP-Enabled Frame Relay Service (Product Advisor)", Research and Markets, June 2007. Comparison of MPLS versus ATM While the underlying protocols and technologies are different, both MPLS and ATM provide a connection-oriented service for transporting data across computer networks. In both technologies, connections are signaled between endpoints, connection state is maintained at each node in the path, and encapsulation techniques are used to carry data across the connection. Excluding differences in the signaling protocols (RSVP/LDP for MPLS and PNNI:Private Network-to-Network Interface for ATM) there still remain significant differences in the behavior of the technologies. The most significant difference is in the transport and encapsulation methods. MPLS is able to work with variable length packets while ATM transports fixed-length (53 byte) cells. Packets must be segmented, transported and re-assembled over an ATM network using an adaptation layer, which adds significant complexity and overhead to the data stream. MPLS, on the other hand, simply adds a label to the head of each packet and transmits it on the network. Differences exist, as well, in the nature of the connections. An MPLS connection (LSP) is uni-directional - allowing data to flow in only one direction between two endpoints. Establishing two-way communications between endpoints requires a pair of LSPs to be established. Because 2 LSPs are required for connectivity, data flowing in the forward direction may use a different path from data flowing in the reverse direction. ATM point-to-point connections (Virtual Circuits), on the other hand, are bi-directional, allowing data to flow in both directions over the same path (bi-directional are only SVC ATM connections; PVC ATM connections are uni-directional). Both ATM and MPLS support tunneling of connections inside connections. MPLS uses label stacking to accomplish this while ATM uses Virtual Paths''. MPLS can stack multiple labels to form tunnels within tunnels. The ATM Virtual Path Indicator (VPI) and Virtual Circuit Indicator (VCI) are both carried together in the cell header, limiting ATM to a single level of tunnelling. The biggest single advantage that MPLS has over ATM is that it was designed from the start to be complementary to IP. Modern routers are able to support both MPLS and IP natively across a common interface allowing network operators great flexibility in network design and operation. ATM's incompatibilities with IP require complex adaptation, making it comparatively less suitable for today's predominantly IP networks. MPLS deployment MPLS is currently in use in large "IP Only" networks, and is standardized by IETF in RFC 3031. In practice, MPLS is mainly used to forward IP datagrams and Ethernet traffic. Major applications of MPLS are Telecommunications traffic engineering and MPLS VPN. Competitors to MPLS MPLS can exist in both IPv4 environment (IPv4 routing protocols) and IPv6 environment (IPv6 routing protocols). The major goal of MPLS development - the increase of routing speed - is no longer relevant because of the usage of ASIC, TCAM and CAM-based switching. Therefore the major usage of MPLS is to implement limited traffic engineering and Layer 3/Layer 2 “service provider type” VPNs over existing IPv4 networks. The main competitors to MPLS are Provider Backbone Bridges (PBB), and MPLS-TP that also provide services such as service provider Layer 2 and Layer 3 VPNs. L2TPv3 has been suggested as a competitor, but has not reached any wider success. IEEE 1355 is a completely unrelated technology that does something similar in hardware. IPv6 references: Grossetete, Patrick, IPv6 over MPLS, Cisco Systems 2001; Juniper Networks IPv6 and Infranets White Paper; Juniper Networks DoD's Research and Engineering Community White Paper. Access to MPLS networks MPLS supports a range of access technologies, including T1, ATM and frame relay. In April 2008, New Edge Networks announced traffic prioritization on its MPLS network available via less expensive DSL access. Previously, traffic prioritization was not possible across DSL connections. See also IPv4 IPv6 VPLS, virtual private LAN service over MPLS. Major Vendors of MPLS equipment Adtran Alcatel-Lucent Cisco Systems ECI Telecom Ericsson (Redback) Foundry Networks Huawei Juniper Networks MikroTik MRV Communications Nokia Siemens Networks Nortel Tellabs ZTE MPLS test equipment vendors Agilent Anritsu Mu Dynamics Spirent References Books "Deploying IP and MPLS QoS for Multiservice Networks: Theory and Practice" by John Evans, Clarence Filsfils (Morgan Kaufmann, 2007, ISBN 0-12-370549-5) Rick Gallaher's MPLS Training Guide (ISBN 1932266003) External links MPLS Working Group, IETF. | Multiprotocol_Label_Switching |@lemmatized mpls:94 redirects:1 us:1 see:6 computer:2 networking:2 telecommunication:4 multiprotocol:1 label:53 switching:6 refers:1 mechanism:4 direct:1 transfer:1 data:19 wide:2 area:3 network:47 wan:1 node:3 high:2 performance:3 regardless:2 content:5 make:7 easy:2 create:4 virtual:9 link:7 protocol:21 encapsulate:2 highly:2 scalable:1 agnostic:1 carrying:2 packet:38 assign:1 forwarding:2 decision:1 solely:1 without:3 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4,842 | Hedeby | Site of the former town of Hedeby. Map of Viking Denmark with Hedeby at the southern edge. Hedeby (, Old Norse Heiðabýr, from heiðr = heathland, and býr = yard, thus "heath yard"), mentioned by Alfred the Great as aet Haethe (at the heath), in German Haddeby and Haithabu, a modern spelling of the runic Heiðabý(r) was an important trading settlement in the Danish-northern German borderland during the Viking Age. It flourished from the 8th to the 11th centuries. The site is located towards the southern end of the Jutland Peninsula. It developed as a trading centre at the head of a narrow, navigable inlet known as the Schlei, which connects to the Baltic Sea. The location was favorable because there is a short portage of less than 15 km to the Treene River, which flows into the Eider with its North Sea estuary, making it a convenient place where goods and ships could be ported overland for an almost uninterrupted seaway between the Baltic and the North Sea and avoid a dangerous circumnavigation of Jutland. Hedeby was the largest Nordic city during the Viking Age and used to be the oldest city in Denmark until the site became part of Germany. The oldest town in modern Denmark is Ribe, first mentioned in 854. The city of Schleswig was later founded on the other side of the Schlei, and gave the duchy its name. Old records mention two bridges connecting the two towns. Hedeby was abandoned after its destruction in 1066. The site of Hedeby is located in the Duchy of Schleswig-Holstein, which was traditionally the personal territory of the kings of Denmark. But the Kingdom of Denmark lost the area to the Austria and Prussia in 1864 in the Second Schleswig War, and it is now in Germany. Haddeby is now by far the most important archaeological site in Schleswig-Holstein. The Haithabu Museum was opened next to the site in 1985. Naming Both in Viking times and in modern European languages, the names and spellings used for Hedeby have been varied and confusing. Research opinions on the naming issues differ slightly. The version given is based primarily on , p.13 Hedeby is the accepted modern English and Danish spelling. Heiðabýr is derived from old Scandinavian sources and is the oldest known name. Heithabyr is an English spelling of the Old Norse name. Heidiba is a Latin form. Haithabu is the modern German spelling used when referring to the historical settlement. It is a revival of the Old Norse name, but whereas this language is usually rendered in its Latin spelling, curiously, in this case a transliteration of the spelling on a rune stone has been preferred. This is reflected in the name of the museum now located at the site. Another local rune stone, however, spells it "Hithabu". Haddeby is the modern German spelling for the administrative district around the site of the original town. Heddeby is also found. Ancient names for the nearby town of Schleswig are: Sliesthorp in the earliest Saxon and Frankish texts. Sliaswich in later Saxon and Frankish texts. It is possible that the two names were used interchangeably for the same settlement, depending on which language was being used. However, the fact that two settlements came into existence very close together creates further difficulties. While the settlement today referred to as Hedeby/Haithabu lies on the south side of the Schlei inlet, the settlement that grew up at around the same time on the north side has had a continuous history of habitation to modern times, and has now grown into the town known as Schleswig and given its name to the surrounding province. History Two reconstructed houses at Hedeby Origins Hedeby is first mentioned in the Frankish chronicles of Einhard (804) who was in the service of Charlemagne, but was probably founded around 770. In 808 the Danish king Godfred (Lat. Godofredus) destroyed a competing Slav trade centre named Reric, and it is recorded in the Frankish chronicles that he moved the merchants from there to Hedeby. This may have provided the initial impetus for the town to develop. The same sources record that Godfred strengthened the Danevirke, an earthen wall that stretched across the south of the Jutland peninsula. The Danevirke joined the defensive walls of Hedeby to form an east-west barrier across the peninsula, from the marshes in the west to the Schlei inlet leading into the Baltic in the east. The town itself was surrounded on its three landward sides (north, west, and south) by earthworks. At the end of the 9th century the northern and southern parts of the town were abandoned for the central section. Later a 9-metre (29-ft) high semi-circular wall was erected to guard the western approaches to the town. On the eastern side, the town was bordered by the innermost part of the Schlei inlet and the bay of Haddebyer Noor. Timeline based on Elsner 793Viking raid on Lindisfarne - traditional date for the beginning of the Viking Age.804First mention of Hedeby808Destruction of Reric and migration of tradespeople to Hedebyc.850Construction of a church at Hedeby886The Danelaw is established in England, following Viking migration911The Vikings settle in Normandy948Hedeby becomes a bishopric965Visit of Al-Tartushi to Hedeby974Hedeby falls to the Holy Roman Empire983Hedeby returns to Danish controlc.1000The Viking Leif Erikson explores Vinland, probably in Newfoundland1016-1042Danish kings rule in England1050The Norwegian King Harald Hardrada destroys Hedeby1066Final destruction of Hedeby by a Slavic army.1066Traditional end of the Viking Age Rise Hedeby became a principal marketplace because of its geographical location on the major trade routes between the Frankish Empire and Scandinavia (north-south), and between the Baltic and the North Sea (east-west). Between 800 and 1000 the growing economic power of the Vikings led to its dramatic expansion as a major trading centre. The following indicate the importance achieved by the town: The town was described by visitors from England (Wulfstan - 9th C.) and the Mediterranean (Al-Tartushi - 10th C.). Hedeby became the seat of a bishop (948) and belonged to the Archbishopric of Hamburg and Bremen. The town minted its own coins (from 825?). Adam of Bremen (11th C.) reports that ships were sent from this portus maritimus to Slavic lands, to Sweden, Samland (Semlant) and even Greece. A Swedish dynasty founded by Olof the Brash is said to have ruled Hedeby during the last decades of the 9th century and the first part of the 10th century. This was told to Adam of Bremen by the Danish king Sweyn Estridsson, and it is supported by three runestones found in Denmark. Two of them were raised by the mother of Olof's grandson Sigtrygg Gnupasson. The third runestone, discovered in 1796, is from Hedeby, the Stone of Eric (). It is inscribed with Norwegian-Swedish runes. It is, however, possible that Danes also occasionally wrote with this version of the younger futhark. Lifestyle Life was short and crowded in Hedeby. The small houses were clustered tightly together in a grid, with the east-west streets leading down to jetties in the harbour. People rarely lived beyond 30 or 40, and archaeological research shows that their later years were often painful due to crippling diseases such as tuberculosis. Yet make-up for men and rights for women provide surprises to the modern understanding. Ibrahim ibn Yaqub al-Tartushi, a late 10th-century traveller from al-Andalus, provides one of the most colourful and often quoted descriptions of life in Hedeby. Al-Tartushi was from Cordoba in Spain, which had a significantly more wealthy and comfortable lifestyle than Hedeby. While Hedeby may have been significant by Scandinavian standards, Al-Tartushi was unimpressed: "Slesvig (Hedeby) is a very large town at the extreme end of the world ocean.... The inhabitants worship Sirius, except for a minority of Christians who have a church of their own there.... He who slaughters a sacrificial animal puts up poles at the door to his courtyard and impales the animal on them, be it a piece of cattle, a ram, billygoat or a pig so that his neighbors will be aware that he is making a sacrifice in honor of his god. The town is poor in goods and riches. People eat mainly fish which exist in abundance. Babies are thrown into the sea for reasons of economy. The right to divorce belongs to the women.... Artificial eye make-up is another peculiarity; when they wear it their beauty never disappears, indeed it is enhanced in both men and women. Further: Never did I hear singing fouler than that of these people, it is a rumbling emanating from their throats, similar to that of a dog but even more bestial." Destruction The town was sacked in 1050 by King Harald Hardrada of Norway during a conflict with King Sweyn II of Denmark. He set the town on fire by sending several burning ships into the harbour, the charred remains of which were found at the bottom of the Schlei during recent excavations. A Norwegian skald, quoted by Snorri Sturluson, describes the sack as follows: Burnt in anger from end to end was Hedeby [..] High rose the flames from the houses when, before dawn, I stood upon the stronghold's arm After Harald's sack of Hedeby, Slavs plundered and again destroyed the town in 1066. The inhabitants then abandoned Hedeby and moved across the Schlei inlet to the town of Schleswig. Archaeology 20th century excavations After the settlement was abandoned, rising waters contributed to the complete disappearance of all visible structures on the site. It was even forgotten where the settlement had been. This proved to be fortunate for later archaeological work at the site. View of the Viking Museum Archaeological work began at the site in 1900 after the rediscovery of the settlement. Excavations were conducted for the next 15 years. Further excavations were carried out between 1930 and 1939. Archaeological work on the site was productive for two main reasons: that the site had never been built on since its destruction some 840 years earlier, and that the permanently waterlogged ground had preserved wood and other perishable materials. After the Second World War, in 1959, archaeological work was started again and has continued intermittently ever since. The embankments surrounding the settlement were excavated, and the harbour was partially dredged, during which the wreck of a Viking ship was discovered. Despite all this work, only 5% of the settlement (and only 1% of the harbour) has as yet been investigated. The most important finds resulting from the excavations are now on display in the adjoining Haithabu Museum. Reconstructed houses 21st century reconstructions In 2005 an ambitious archaeological reconstruction program was initiated on the original site. Based on the results of archaeological analyses, exact copies of some of the original Viking houses have been built. See also Viking Age Towns: Jelling, Birka, Ribe, Schleswig, Reric People: Wulfstan of Hedeby, Al-Tartushi, Adam of Bremen, Harold Hardrada, Rurik, Godfred (Danish King) Hedeby stones, Schlei Notes Bibliography and media A number of short archaeological films relating to Hedeby and produced by researchers during the 1980s are available on DVD from the University of Kiel's Archaelogical Film Project. Most publications on Hedeby are in German. See Wikipedia's German-language article on Hedeby. External links Website of the Haithabu Viking Museum Flickr Photo Gallery: Viking houses and museum | Hedeby |@lemmatized site:14 former:1 town:21 hedeby:31 map:1 viking:16 denmark:7 southern:3 edge:1 old:8 norse:3 heiðabýr:2 heiðr:1 heathland:1 býr:1 yard:2 thus:1 heath:2 mention:5 alfred:1 great:1 aet:1 haethe:1 german:6 haddeby:3 haithabu:6 modern:8 spelling:7 runic:1 heiðabý:1 r:1 important:3 trading:3 settlement:11 danish:6 northern:2 borderland:1 age:5 flourish:1 century:7 locate:3 towards:1 end:6 jutland:3 peninsula:3 develop:2 centre:3 head:1 narrow:1 navigable:1 inlet:5 know:3 schlei:8 connect:2 baltic:4 sea:5 location:2 favorable:1 short:3 portage:1 less:1 km:1 treene:1 river:1 flow:1 eider:1 north:6 estuary:1 make:4 convenient:1 place:1 good:2 ship:4 could:1 port:1 overland:1 almost:1 uninterrupted:1 seaway:1 avoid:1 dangerous:1 circumnavigation:1 large:2 nordic:1 city:3 use:5 become:3 part:4 germany:2 ribe:2 first:3 schleswig:8 later:3 found:3 side:5 give:3 duchy:2 name:11 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4,843 | Politics_of_Estonia | Politics of Estonia takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Estonia is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Legislative power is vested in the parliament. Executive power is exercised by the Government which is led by the Prime Minister. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Estonian civil service is relatively young. Over 50% of civil servants aged under 40 and a third aged under 30. 42 % of civil servants are male and 58% female. Around half of civil servants have a tertiary degree. [http://www.riigikantselei.ee/failid/Public_administration_in_Estonia.pdf Public Administration in Estonia] Estonia has a relatively low number of bureaucrats, 18,998 in the central government and 4500 in local governments. Central government institutions include: 11 Ministries (2,593 employees), 33 Administrative agencies, Boards and Inspectorates (14,790 employees), 6 Constitutional Institutions (805 employees), 15 County Governments (810 employees), and other institutions (National Archives, Prosecutor's Office etc.). There are 241 local government authorities employing about 4500 public servants. History The Estonian Declaration of Independence was issued in 1918. A parliamentary republic was formed by the Estonian Constituent Assembly and the first Constitution of Estonia was adopted on June 15 1920. The parliament Riigikogu (State Assembly) elected a Riigivanem who acted both as Head of Government and Head of State. During the Era of Silence political parties were banned and the parliament was not in session between 1934 and 1938 as the country was ruled by decree by Konstantin Päts, who was elected as the first President of Estonia in 1938. In 1938 a new constitution was passed and Riigikogu was convened once again, this time bicamerally, consisting of Riigivolikogu (upper house) and Riiginõukogu (lower house), both meaning State Council in direct translation. In 1940 Estonia was occupied by the Soviet Union. A year later, the Soviet occupation was taken over by a Nazi German one. During the course of the two occupations legal institutions, elected according to the constitution approved by the people, were removed from power. In September 1944, after German forces left, legal power was briefly restored as Otto Tief formed a new government in accordance with the 1938 constitution. The Tief government, though, lasted for only 5 days, as Estonia was again occupied by the Soviet Union. In 1991 the Republic of Estonia was restored on the basis of continuity with the constitution prior to 1938, with the public approving a new constitution in 1992. The contemporary Estonian government follows the principles of separation of power and its people elect a 101-member Riigikogu every four years. Only Estonian citizens may participate in parliamentary elections. Estonia uses a voting system based on proportional representation. A party must exceed a national threshold of 5% of all votes to gain entry to the parliament. The Parliament elects a president, who can be in office for a five year period for a maximum of two terms in succession. As a rule, the president asks the party leader who has collected the most votes to form the new government, who then must gain the approval of Riigikogu. The parliament also appoints the president of the Estonian National Bank, the Chief of the Headquarters of the Estonian Defense, the Comptroller General of Estonia, the Chancellor of Justice of Estonia and the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Estonia, all on the proposal of the President of Estonia. In the years shortly following the restoration of independence, there were dozens of parties to represent a population of only 1.3 million; at present 6 main parties are in the parliament. The local authorities have developed in much the same direction. All permanent residents of voting age (18) may participate in local elections. Estonia does not have a state church, religious freedom is guaranteed by the constitution. Political developments since regaining independence On June 28, 1992, Estonian voters approved the constitutional assembly's draft constitution and implementation act, which established a parliamentary government with a president as chief of state and with a government headed by a prime minister. The Riigikogu, a unicameral legislative body, is the highest organ of state authority. It initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister. The prime minister has full responsibility and control over his cabinet. Parliamentary and presidential elections were held on September 20, 1992. Approximately 68% of the country's 637,000 registered voters cast ballots. Lennart Meri, an outstanding writer and former Minister of Foreign Affairs, won this election and became president. He chose 32-year-old historian and Christian Democratic Party founder Mart Laar as prime minister. In February 1992, and with amendments in January 1995, the Riigikogu renewed Estonia's 1938 citizenship law, which also provides equal civil protection to resident aliens. In 1996, Estonia ratified a border agreement with Latvia and completed work with Russia on a technical border agreement. President Meri was re-elected in free and fair indirect elections in August and September in 1996. During parliamentary elections in 1999, the seats in Riigikogu were divided as follows: the Centre Party received 28, the Pro Patria Union 18, the Reform Party 18, the People's Party Moderates (election cartel between Moderates and People's Party) 17, Coalition Party 7, Country People's Party (now People's Union) 7, United People's Party's electoral cartel 6 seats. Pro Patria Union, the Reform Party, and the Moderates formed a government with Mart Laar as prime minister whereas the Centre Party with the Coalition Party, People's Union, United People's Party, and Members of Parliament who were not members of factions formed the opposition in the Riigikogu. The Moderates joined with the People's Party on 27 November 1999, forming the People's Party Moderates. In fall 2001 Arnold Rüütel became the President of the Republic of Estonia. In January 2002 Prime Minister Laar stepped down and President Rüütel appointed Siim Kallas the new prime minister. On January 28, 2002 the new government was formed from a coalition with The Reform Party and the Centre Party. Following parliamentary elections in 2003, the seats were allocated as follows: Centre 28, Res Publica 28, the Reform Party 19, the People's Union 13, the Pro Patria Union 7 and the Moderates 6 seats. The United People's Party failed to meet the 5% threshold. Res Publica, the Reform Party and the Peoples Union formed the government. From this coalition President Rüütel chose the leader of the Res Publica party, Juhan Parts, to form a government. On 14 September 2003, following negotiations that began in 1998, the citizens of Estonia were asked in a referendum whether or not they wished to join the European Union. With 64% of the electorate turning out the referendum passed with a 66.83% margin in favor, 33.17% against. Accession to the EU took place on 1 May of the following year. In February 2004 the People's Party Moderates renamed themselves as Social Democratic Party of Estonia. On the 8 May, 2004, a defection of several Centre Party members to form a new party, the Social Liberal Party, over a row concerning the Centrists' "no" stance to joining the European Union changed the allocation of the seats in Riigikogu. Social-liberals had 8 seats, but a hope to form a new party disappeared by the 10 May 2005, because most members in the social-liberal group joined other parties. On 24 March Prime Minister Juhan Parts announced his resignation following a vote of no confidence in the Riigikogu against Minister of Justice Ken-Marti Vaher, which was held on the 21 March. Result: 54 pro (Social Democrats, Social Liberals, People's Union, Pro Patria Union and Reform Party) without no against or neutral MPs. 32 MPs (Res Publica and Centre Party) did not take part. On 4 April 2005, President Rüütel nominated Reform party leader Andrus Ansip as Prime Minister designate by and asked him to form a new government, the 8th in 12 years. Ansip formed a government out of a coalition of his Reform Party with the People’s Union and the Centre Party. Approval by the Riigikogu, which by law must decide within 14 days of his nomination, came on 12 April 2005. Ansip was backed by 53 out of 101 members of the Estonian parliament. Forty deputies voted against his candidature. The general consensus in the Estonian media seems to be that the new cabinet, on the level of competence, is not necessarily an improvement over the old one. The new government is colloquially called the "Garlic Coalition", because the agreement between the party leaders was reached at the Tallinn restaurant "Balthasar", which specialises in garlic dishes. On 18 May, 2005, Estonia signed a border treaty with the Russian Federation in Moscow. The treaty was ratified by the Riigikogu on 20 June, 2005. However, in the end of June the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs informed that it did not intend to become a party to the border treaty and did not consider itself bound by the circumstances concerning the object and the purposes of the treaty because Riigikogu had attached a preambula to the ratification act that referenced earlier documents that mentioned the Soviet occupation and the uninterrupted legal continuity of the Republic of Estonia during the Soviet period. The issue remains unsolved and is in focus of European level discussions. Internet voting has already been used in local elections in Estonia, and the lawmakers in Estonia have authorized internet voting for parliamentary elections as well. (see COM). On 4 April, 2006, Fatherland Union and Res Publica decided to form a united right-conservative party. The two parties joining was approved on 4 June by both parties in Pärnu. The joined party name is Isamaa ja Res Publica Liit (Union of Pro Patria and Res Publica). Partyorientation (ideology)Centre Party Reform PartyRes PublicaPro Patria UnionPeople's UnionSocial Democratic PartyCoalition Party Centre Party centre-left ('social liberal')*2002-2003; 2005- - - 2005- - 1995 Reform Party 1992-1994 its forerunner Liberal Democratic Party centre-right (classical liberal)2002-2003; 2005-*2003-20051992-95; 1999-2002 2003- 1999-2002 1995-1997 Res Publicacentre-right (conservative) - 2003-2005 * - 2003-2005 - - Pro Patria Unioncentre-right (national conservative) - 1992-1995, 1999-2002 - * - 1992-1995, 1999-2002 - People's Unioncentre-left (agrarian)1995, 2005-1995-1997, 2005- - - * - 1995-1999 Social Democratic Party from 1992 to 1999 Moderates (an election cartel), 1999 to 2004 People's Party Moderates centre-left ('social democratic') - 1992-1994, 1999-2002 - 1992-1994, 1999-2002 - * - Coalition Party centre (centrist) 1995 1995-1997 - - 1995-1999 - * Executive branch |President |Toomas Hendrik Ilves |SDP |October 9 2006 |- |Prime Minister |Andrus Ansip |Ref |April 5 2007 |- |Coalition partners | |IRL, SDP | |} The President of Estonia is elected by Parliament (Riigikogu) for a five-year term; if he or she does not secure two-thirds of the votes after three rounds of balloting, then an electoral assembly (made up of Parliament plus members of local governments) elects the president, choosing between the two candidates with the largest percentage of votes. The Prime Minister of Estonia (Estonian: Eesti Vabariigi Peaminister) is the head of government of the Republic of Estonia. The prime minister is chosen by the President and conferred by Parliament. This is usually the leader of the largest party or coalition in the Parliament. The activity of the government is directed by the Prime Minister, who is the de facto political head of state. He does not head any specific ministry, but is, in accordance with the constitution, the supervisor of the work of the government. The Prime Minister’s significance and role in the government and his relations with other ministries often depend on the position of the party led by the prime minister in vis-à-vis the coalition partners, and on how much influence the prime minister possesses within his own party. If the prime minister has a strong position within his party, and the government is made up solely of representatives of that party, he can enjoy considerable authority. In all crucial national questions, however, the final word rests with Riigikogu as the legislative power. Legislative branch The State Council (Riigikogu) has 101 members, elected for a four year term by proportional representation. Political parties and elections Judicial branch The supreme judiciary court is the National Court or Riigikohus, with 19 justices whose chairman is appointed by the parliament for life on nomination by the president. Administrative divisions Estonia numbers 15 main administrative subdivisions. Due to the geographical and demographic size of these subdivisions, they are to be considered counties rather than states (Estonian: pl. maakonnad; sg. - maakond). International organization participation Estonia is member of the BIS, CBSS, CE, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, ITUC, NATO, OPCW, OSCE, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNTSO, UPU, WCO, WEU (associate partner), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO References and notes Source Estonica : Estonia in brief : Political system: External links Erik Herron's Guide to Politics of East Central Europe and Eurasia | Politics_of_Estonia |@lemmatized politics:2 estonia:30 take:4 place:2 framework:1 parliamentary:8 representative:2 democratic:7 republic:6 whereby:1 prime:19 minister:21 head:7 government:27 multi:1 party:58 system:3 legislative:4 power:6 vest:1 parliament:14 executive:3 exercise:1 lead:2 judiciary:2 independent:1 legislature:1 estonian:12 civil:5 service:1 relatively:2 young:1 servant:4 age:3 third:2 male:1 female:1 around:1 half:1 tertiary:1 degree:1 http:1 www:1 riigikantselei:1 ee:1 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4,844 | Chechnya | View of a gorge in the Caucasus Mountains in Chechnya, photographed at some point between 1905 and 1915 The Chechen Republic (; , Chechenskaya Respublika; , Noxçiyn Respublika), or, informally, Chechnya (; ; , Noxçiyçö), sometimes referred to as Ichkeria, Chechnia, Chechenia or Noxçiyn, is a federal subject of Russia. It is located in the Northern Caucasus mountains, in the Southern Federal District. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Chechen-Ingush ASSR was split into two — the Republic of Ingushetia and Republic of Chechnya. The latter proclaimed the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, which sought independence. Following the First Chechen War with Russia, Chechnya gained de facto independence as the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. Russian federal control was restored during the Second Chechen War. Since then there has been a systematic reconstruction and rebuilding process, though sporadic fighting continues in the mountains and southern regions of the republic. See "Chechen people" for etymology of the name. In 2006 the former president, Alu Alkhanov, proposed changing the official name of the republic to Noxçiyn (or Nokhchiin) which is a transcription of the name in the Chechen language. History Early history In classical times the northern slopes of the Caucasus mountains were inhabited by the Circassians on the west and the Avars on the east. In between them, the Zygians occupied Zyx, the areas of north Ossetia, the Balkar, the Ingush and the Chechen republics today. Chechnya is a region in the Northern Caucasus which has been in almost constant battle against foreign rule since their conflict with the Ottoman Turks in the 15th century. Eventually the Chechens converted to Islam and tensions began to die down with the Turks; however conflicts with their Christian neighbours, the Georgians and the Cossacks, as well as with their Buddhist Kalmyks neighbours intensified. The Russian Terek Cossack Host was secretly established in Chechnya in 1577 by free Cossacks resettled from the Volga to the Terek River. Caucasian Wars In 1783, Russia and the eastern Georgian kingdom of Kartl-Kakheti (which was devastated by Turkish and Persian invasions) signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, according to which Kartl-Kakheti received protection by Russia. In order to secure communications with Georgia and other regions of the Transcaucasia, the Russian Empire began spreading its influence into the Caucasus mountains. The current resistance to Russian rule has its roots in the late 18th century (1785–1791), a period when Russia expanded into territories formerly under the dominion of Turkey and Persia (see also the Russo-Turkish Wars and Russo-Persian War, 1804-13), under Mansur Ushurma—a Chechen Naqshbandi (Sufi) Sheikh—with wavering support from other North Caucasian tribes. Mansur hoped to establish a Transcaucasus Islamic state under shari'a law, but was unable to do so because of Russian resistance and opposition from many Chechens (many of whom had not been converted to Islam at the time). Its banner was again picked up by the Avar Imam Shamil, who fought against the Russians from 1834 until 1859. Soviet rule The Mountain ASSR and the districts established after the Russian Civil War Chechen rebellion would characteristically flare up whenever the Russian state faced a period of internal uncertainty. Rebellions occurred during the Russo-Turkish War, the Russian Revolution of 1905, the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Russian Civil War (see Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus), and Collectivization. Under Soviet rule, Chechnya was combined with Ingushetia to form the autonomous republic of Chechen-Ingushetia in the late 1930s. The Chechens again rose up against Soviet rule during the 1940s (see 1940-1944 Chechnya insurgency), resulting in the deportation of the entire ethnic Chechen and Ingush populations to the Kazakh SSR (later Kazakhstan) and Siberia in 1944 near the end of World War II (see Population transfer in the Soviet Union). Remembering Stalin's deportations Stalin and others argued this was punishment to the Chechens for providing assistance to the German forces. Although the German front never made it to the border of Chechnya, an active guerrilla movement threatened to undermine the Soviet defenses of the Caucasus (noted writer Valentin Pikul claims that while the city of Grozny was preparing for a siege in 1942, all of the air bombers stationed on the Caucasian front had to be re-directed towards quelling the Chechen insurrection instead of fighting Germans at the siege of Stalingrad). Chechen-Ingushetia was abolished and the Chechens were allowed to return to their homeland after 1956 during de-Stalinization under Nikita Khrushchev. The Russification policies towards Chechens continued after 1956, with Russian language proficiency required in many aspects of life and for advancement in the Soviet system. Recent events With the impending collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, an independence movement, initially known as the Chechen National Congress, was formed and led by ex-Soviet Air Force general and new Chechen President Dzhokhar Dudayev. This movement was ultimately opposed by Boris Yeltsin's Russian Federation, which first argued that Chechnya had not been an independent entity within the Soviet Union—as the Baltic, Central Asian, and other Caucasian States had—but was part of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and hence did not have a right under the Soviet constitution to secede; second, that other republics of Russia, such as Tatarstan, would consider seceding from the Russian Federation if Chechnya were granted that right; and third, that Chechnya was a major hub in the oil infrastructure of the Federation and hence its secession would hurt the country's economy and control of oil resources. In the ensuing decade, the territory was locked in an ongoing struggle between various factions, usually fighting unconventionally and forgoing the position held by the several successive Russian governments through the current administration. Various demographic factors including religious ones have continued to keep the area in a near constant state of war. First Chechen War The First Chechen War occurred in a two year period lasting from 1994 to 1996, when Russian forces attempted to stop Chechnya from seceding. Despite overwhelming manpower, weaponry and air support, the Russian forces were unable to establish effective control over the mountainous area due to many successful Chechen guerrilla raids. The Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis in 1995 shocked the Russian public and discredited Chechen guerrillas. Widespread demoralization of the Russian forces in the area prompted Russian President Boris Yeltsin to declare a ceasefire in 1996 and sign a peace treaty a year later. The war was disastrous for both sides. Most estimates give figures of between 3,500 and 7,500 Russian military dead, between 3,000 and 15,000 Chechen militants dead, and no fewer than 35,000 civilian deaths—a total of at least 41,500 dead. Others have cited figures in the range of 80,000 to 100,000. Inter-war period After the war, parliamentary and presidential elections took place in January 1997 in Chechnya and brought to power new President Aslan Maskhadov, chief of staff and prime minister in the Chechen coalition government, for a five-year term. Maskhadov sought to maintain Chechen sovereignty while pressing Moscow to help rebuild the republic, whose formal economy and infrastructure were virtually destroyed. Chechnya, reference article by Freedom House publications. Russia continued to send money for the rehabilitation of the republic; it also provided pensions and funds for schools and hospitals. Most of these funds were taken by Chechen authorities and divided between favoured warlords. Leon Aron. Chechnya, New Dimensions of the Old Crisis. AEI, 01.02.2003 Nearly half a million people (40% of Chechnya's prewar population) have been internally displaced and lived in refugee camps or overcrowded villages. Alex Goldfarb and Marina Litvinenko. "Death of a Dissident: The Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko and the Return of the KGB." Free Press, New York, 2007. ISBN 978-1416551652. The economy was destroyed. Two Russian brigades were permanently stationed in Chechnya. In lieu of the devastated economic structure, kidnapping emerged as the principal source of income countrywide, procuring over $200 million during the three year independence of the chaotic fledgling state, Tishkov, Valery. Chechnya: Life in a War-Torn Society. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. Page 114. although victims were rarely killed. Four Western hostages beheaded in Chechnya In 1998, 176 people were kidnapped, 90 of whom were released, according to official accounts. President Maskhadov started a major campaign against hostage-takers, and on October 25, 1998, Shadid Bargishev, Chechnya's top anti-kidnapping official, was killed in a remote-controlled car bombing. Bargishev's colleagues then insisted they would not be intimidated by the attack and would go ahead with their offensive. Political violence and religious extremism, blamed on "Wahhabism", was rife. In 1998, Grozny authorities declared a state of emergency. Tensions led to open clashes between the Chechen National Guard and Islamist militants, such as the July 1998 confrontation in Gudermes. Second Chechen War In August 1999, the IIPB began an unsuccessful incursion into the neighbouring Russian republic of Dagestan in favor of the Shura of Dagestan who sought independence from Russia. (see Dagestan War). In September, a series of apartment bombings took place in several Russian cities, including Moscow, which were blamed on the Chechens. In response, after a prolonged air campaign of retaliatory strikes against the Ichkerian regime, a ground offensive began in October 1999 which marked the beginning of the Second Chechen War. Much better organized and planned than the first Chechen War, the military actions by the Russian Federal forces enabled them to re-establish control over most regions. After the re-capture of Grozny in February 2000, the Ichkerian regime fell apart. Russia has severely disabled the Chechen rebel movement, although violence still occurs throughout the North Caucasus. Russia - CIA Factbook Nonetheless, Russia was successful in installing a pro-Moscow Chechen regime, and the most prominent separatist leaders were killed, including former president Aslan Maskhadov and radical warlord Shamil Basayev. Geography Situated in the eastern part of the North Caucasus, partially in Eastern Europe, Chechnya is surrounded on nearly all sides by Russian Federal territory. In the west, it borders North Ossetia and Ingushetia, in the north, Stavropol Krai, in the east, Dagestan, and to the south, Georgia. Its capital is Grozny. Area: Borders: Internal Russian: Republic of Dagestan (NE) Republic of Ingushetia (W) Republic of North Ossetia-Alania (W) Stavropol Krai (NW) Foreign: Georgia (S) Rivers: Terek Sunzha Argun River Cities with over 20,000 people Grozny (Грозный) (capital) Avtury (Автуры) Kurchaloy (Курчалой) Shali (Шали) Urus-Martan (Урус-Мартан) Ustargardoyn-Evl' (Аргун) Time zone Chechnya is located in the Moscow Time Zone (MSK/MSD). UTC offset is +0300 (MSK)/+0400 (MSD). Politics Since 1990, the Chechen Republic has had many legal, military, and civil conflicts involving separatist movements and pro-Russian authorities. Today, Chechnya is a relatively stable federal republic, although there is still some separatist movement activity. Its regional constitution entered into effect on April 2, 2003 after an all-Chechen referendum was held on March 23, 2003. The independent observers alleged that the officially reported voter turnout seemed to be much higher than the reality. Some Chechens were controlled by regional teips, or clans, despite the existence of pro- and anti-Russian political structures. Chechnya and Caucasus map Russian and Chechen motivations in these conflicts are complicated. Russia believes that if Chechnya becomes independent more territories will break away leading to Russia's disintegration. Economic interest (specifically oil) is another longstanding factor. There are various rebel groups within Chechnya fighting the Russians, each with different political, economic and/or ideological motivations. Some of these derive from a desire for revenge for past Russian military and political action in the region, especially the forced relocation in the 1940s of the entire population to Middle Asia, resulting in the estimated death of a quarter of the population. Adding in Chechnya's military culture, unemployment and poverty, it is easy to see why the cycle of violence and hatred common to regional conflicts of this nature exists. Regional government The former separatist religious leader (mufti) Akhmad Kadyrov, looked upon as a traitor by many separatists, was elected president with 83% of the vote in an internationally monitored election on October 5, 2003. Incidents of ballot stuffing and voter intimidation by Russian soldiers and the exclusion of separatist parties from the polls were subsequently reported by the OSCE monitors. On May 9, 2004, Kadyrov was assassinated in Grozny football stadium by a landmine explosion that was planted beneath a VIP stage and detonated during a parade, and Sergey Abramov was appointed to the position of acting prime minister after the incident. However, since 2005 Ramzan Kadyrov (son of Akhmad Kadyrov) has been caretaker prime minister, and in 2007 was appointed a new president. Many allege he is the wealthiest and most powerful man in the republic, with control over a large private militia referred to as the Kadyrovtsy. The militia, which began as his father's security force, has been accused of killings and kidnappings by human rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch. In 2009, the American organization Freedom House included Chechnya in the “Worst of the Worst” list of most repressive societies in the world, together with South Ossetia and China’s Tibet. Worst of the Worst: The World’s Most Repressive Societies (PDF), Freedom House, March 2009 Separatist government In addition to the Russian regional government, there was a separatist Ichkeria government that was not recognized by any state (although members have been given political asylum in European and Arab countries, as well as the United States). The separatist government was recognised for a short while by Georgia (when Georgian President was Zviad Gamsakhurdia and Chechen President was Dzhokhar Dudaev). In 1999 the Taliban government of Afghanistan recognized independent Chechnya and opened an embassy in Kabul on 16 January 2000; recognition ceased with the fall of the Taliban in 2001. The president of this government was Aslan Maskhadov, the Foreign Minister was Ilyas Akhmadov, who was the spokesman for Maskhadov. Aslan Maskhadov had been elected in an internationally monitored election in 1997 for 4 years, which took place after signing a peace agreement with Russia. In 2001 he issued a decree prolonging his office for one additional year; he was unable to participate in the 2003 presidential election, since separatist parties were barred by the Russian government, and Maskhadov faced accusations of terrorist offences in Russia. Maskhadov left Grozny and moved to the separatist-controlled areas of the south at the onset of the Second Chechen War. Maskhadov was unable to influence a number of warlords who retain effective control over Chechen territory, and his power was diminished as a result. Russian forces killed Maskhadov on March 8, 2005, and the assassination of Maskhadov was widely criticized since it left no legitimate Chechen separatist leader to conduct peace talks with. Akhmed Zakayev, Deputy Prime Minister and a Foreign Minister under Maskhadov, was appointed shortly after the 1997 election and is currently living under asylum in England. He and others chose Abdul Khalim Saidullayev, a relatively unknown Islamic judge who was previously the host of an Islamic program on Chechen television, to replace Maskhadov following his death. On June 17, 2006, it was reported that Russian special forces killed Abdul Khalim Saidullayev in a raid in a Chechen town Argun. The successor of Saidullayev became Doku Umarov. On October 31, 2007 Umarov abolished the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria and its presidency and in its place proclaimed the Caucasian Emirate with himself as its Emir. This change of status has been rejected by many Chechen politicians and military leaders who continue to support the existence of the republic. Human rights Human Rights Watch reports that pro-Moscow Chechen forces under the effective command of President Ramzan Kadyrov, as well as federal police personnel, used torture to get information about separatist forces. "If you are detained in Chechnya, you face a real and immediate risk of torture. And there is little chance that your torturer will be held accountable," said Holly Cartner, Director Europe and Central Asia division of HRW. Human Rights Watch:Chechnya: Research Shows Widespread and Systematic Use of Torture Human rights groups criticized the conduct of the 2005 parliamentary elections as unfairly influenced by the central Russian government and military. Chechnya Holds Parliamentary Vote, Morning Edition, NPR, 28 November 2005. The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre reports that after hundreds of thousands fled their homes following inter-ethnic and separatist conflicts in Chechnya in 1994 and 1999, more than 150,000 people still remain displaced in Russia today. Government efforts help only some IDPs rebuild their lives, IDMC, 13 August 2007 On February 1, 2009, the New York Times released extensive evidence to support allegations of consistent torture and executions under the Kadyrov government. The accusations were sparked by the assassination in Austria of a former Chechen rebel who had gained access to Kadyrov's inner circle, 27-year old Umar Israilov. New York Times:Slain Exile Detailed Chechen Ruler’s Systematic Cruelty, 01 February 2009. There is persecution of Christians. http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_pers.htm Administrative divisions Demographics According to the 2004 estimates, the population of Chechnya is approximately 1.1 million. As per 2002 Census, Chechens at 1,031,647 make up 93.5% of the republic's population. Other groups include Russians (40,645, or 3.7%), Kumyks (8,883, or 0.8%), Ingush (2,914 or 0.3%) and a host of smaller groups, each accounting for less than 0.5% of the total population. Birth rate was 25.41 in 2004. (25.7 in Achkhoi Martan, 19.8 in Groznyy, 17.5 in Kurchaloi, 28.3 in Urus Martan and 11.1 in Vedeno). According to the Chechen State Statistical Committee, Chechnya's population had grown to 1.205 million in January 2006. Chechnya - The week in brief: 4 - 11 Feb 2008 At the end of the Soviet era, ethnic Russians comprised about 23% of the population (269,000 in 1989). Due to widespread lawlessness and ethnic cleansing under the government of Dzhokhar Dudayev most non-Chechens (and many Chechens as well) fled the country during the 1990s or were killed. Sokolov-Mitrich, Dmitryi. "Забытый геноцид". Izvestia. Retrieved on July 17, 2002. Chechnya Advocacy Network. Refugees and Diaspora Jennifer Jackson Preece, ETHNIC CLEANSING AND THE NORMATIVE TRANSFORMATION OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY The languages used in the Republic are Chechen and Russian. Chechen belongs to the Vaynakh or North-central Caucasian linguistic family, which also includes Ingush and Batsb. Some scholars place it in a wider Iberian-Caucasian super-family. Chechnya has one of the youngest populations in the generally ageing Russian Federation; in the early 1990s, it was among the few regions experiencing natural population growth. Population: 1,103,686 (2002) - numbers are disputed Urban: 373,177 (33.8%) Rural: 730,509 (66.2%) Male: 532,724 (48.3%) Female: 570,962 (51.7%) Average age: 22.7 years Urban: 22.8 years Rural: 22.7 years Male: 21.6 years Female: 23.9 years Number of households: 195,304 (with 1,069,600 people) Urban: 65,741 (with 365,577 people) Rural: 129,563 (with 704,023 people) Vital statistics (2005) Births: 28,652 (birth rate 24.9) Deaths: 5,857 (death rate 5.1) For the first half of 2007, the birth rate was 26.4 В первом полугодии продолжалось умеренное повышение числа рождений 1926 census 1939 census 2002 census Chechens 293,190 (72.0%) 360,598 (64.4%) 1,031,647 (93.5%) Russians 77,274 (19.0%) 157,621 (28.1%) 40,645 (3.7%) Kumyks 2,217 (0.5%) 3,305 (0.6%) 8,883 (0.8%) Ingushes 154 (0.0%) 4,336 (0.8%) 2,914 (0.3%) Others 34,112 (8.4%) 34,088 (6.1%) 19,597 (1.8%) Most Chechens are Sunni Muslim, the country having converted to that religion between the 16th and the 19th centuries. Most of the population follows either the Shafi'i, Hanafi, or Maliki schools of jurisprudence. The Shafi'i school of jurisprudence has a long tradition among the Chechens, Chechnya, Wahhabism and the invasion of Dagestan Djihad in the Northern Caucus Ch3 and thus it remains the most practiced. Chechnya Weekly -- Volume 7, Issue 34 (September 8, 2006) The once-strong Russian minority in Chechnya, mostly Terek Cossacks, are predominately Russian Orthodox, although presently only one church exists in Grozny. The Armenian community, which used to number around 20,000 in Grozny alone, has dwindled to a couple of families. Economy During the war, the Chechen economy fell apart. Gross domestic product, if reliably calculable, would be only a fraction of the prewar level. Problems with the Chechen economy had an effect on the federal Russian economy — a number of financial crimes during the 1990s were committed using Chechen financial organizations. Chechnya has the highest ratio within Russian Federation of financial operations made in U.S. dollar to operations in Russian rubles. There are many counterfeit U.S. dollars printed there. In 1994, the separatists planned to introduce a new currency, the nahar, but that did not happen due to Russian troops re-taking Chechnya in the Second Chechen War. As an effect of the war, approximately 80% of the economic potential of Chechnya was destroyed. Much of the money spent by the Russian federal government to rebuild Chechnya has been wasted. According to the Russian government, over $2 billion was spent on the reconstruction of the Chechen economy since 2000. However, according to the Russian central economic control agency (Schyotnaya Palata), not more than $350 million was spent as intended. That being said, the economic situation in Chechnya has improved considerably since 2000. According to the New York Times, major efforts to rebuild Grozny have been made, and improvements in the political situation have led some officials to consider setting up a tourism industry, though there are claims that construction workers are being irregularly paid and that poor people have been displaced. See the main article Grozny. See also History of Chechnya List of active autonomist and secessionist movements List of revolutions and rebellions Peoples of the Caucasus Music of Chechnya Anna Politkovskaya Chris Giannou Beslan school hostage crisis Akhmed Kadyrov Ibn al-Khattab Moscow theater hostage crisis October 2005 Nalchik attack Shahidka References Sources Further reading Khassan Baiev. The Oath: A Surgeon Under Fire. ISBN 0-8027-1404-8 Vyacheslav Mironov. Ya byl na etoy voyne. (I was in this war) Biblion — Russkaya Kniga, 2001. Partial translation available online Matthew Evangelista, The Chechen Wars: Will Russia Go the Way of the Soviet Union?. ISBN 0-8157-2499-3. Roy Conrad. A few days... Available online Olga Oliker, Russia's Chechen Wars 1994–2000: Lessons from Urban Combat. ISBN 0-8330-2998-3. (A strategic and tactical analysis of the Chechen Wars.) Charlotta Gall & Thomas de Waal. Chechnya: A Small Victorious War. ISBN 0-330-35075-7 Paul J., Ph. D. Murphy. The Wolves of Islam: Russia and the Faces of Chechen Terror. ISBN 1-57488-830-7 Anatol Lieven. Chechnya : Tombstone of Russian Power ISBN 0-300-07881-1 John B Dunlop. Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict ISBN 0-521-63619-1 Paul Khlebnikov. Razgovor s varvarom (Interview with a barbarian). ISBN 5-89935-057-1. Marie Benningsen-Broxup. The North Caucasus Barrier: The Russian Advance Towards the Muslim World. ISBN 1-85065-069-1 Anna Politkovskaya. A Small Corner of Hell: Dispatches from Chechnya ISBN 0-226-67432-0 Chris Bird. "To Catch a Tartar: Notes from the Caucasus" [ISBN 0-7195-6506-5] Carlotta Gall, Thomas de Waal, Chechnya: Calamity in the Caucasus [ISBN 0-8147-3132-5] Yvonne Bornstein and Mark Ribowsky, "Eleven Days of Hell: My True Story Of Kidnapping, Terror, Torture And Historic FBI & KGB Rescue" AuthorHouse, 2004. ISBN 1-4184-9302-3. Ali Khan, The Chechen Terror: The Play within the Play Hunter Hammer and Heaven, Journeys to Three World's Gone Mad, by Robert Young Pelton (ISBN 1-58574-416-6) Arkady Babchenko "One Soldier's War In Chechnya" Portobello, London ISBN 978 1 84627 039 0 Asne Seirstad. The Angel of Grozny. ISBN 1-84408-395-4 Scott Anderson. The Man Who Tried to Save the World. ISBN 0-385-48666-9 Chechnya: The Case For Independence by Tony Wood Book review in The Independent, 2007 External links Map of Grozny (interactive) at the Yellow Pages of the Chechen Republic | Chechnya |@lemmatized view:1 gorge:1 caucasus:14 mountains:2 chechnya:56 photograph:1 point:1 chechen:71 republic:26 chechenskaya:1 respublika:2 noxçiyn:3 informally:1 noxçiyçö:1 sometimes:1 refer:2 ichkeria:5 chechnia:1 chechenia:1 federal:9 subject:1 russia:20 locate:2 northern:5 mountain:4 southern:2 district:2 collapse:2 soviet:14 union:5 ingush:5 assr:2 split:1 two:3 ingushetia:6 latter:1 proclaim:2 seek:3 independence:6 follow:4 first:6 war:30 gain:2 de:4 facto:1 russian:55 control:9 restore:1 second:6 since:8 systematic:3 reconstruction:2 rebuild:5 process:1 though:2 sporadic:1 fight:5 continue:5 region:6 see:9 people:10 etymology:1 name:3 former:4 president:12 alu:1 alkhanov:1 propose:1 change:2 official:4 nokhchiin:1 transcription:1 language:3 history:3 early:2 classical:1 time:7 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4,845 | Guild | A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade. The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers. They were organized in a manner something between a trade union, a cartel and a secret society. They often depended on grants of letters patent by an authority or monarch to enforce the flow of trade to their self-employed members, and to retain ownership of tools and the supply of materials. A lasting legacy of traditional guilds are the guildhalls constructed and used as meeting places. The modern patent system was set up to break the power of the guilds. Early guilds AD 300 - 600 In pre-industrial cities, craftsmen tended to form associations based on their trades, confraternities of textile workers, masons, carpenters, carvers, glassworkers, each of whom controlled secrets of traditionally imparted technology, the "arts" or "mysteries" of their crafts. Usually the founders were free independent master craftsmen. During the Indian Gupta-period (AD 300 - 600) Indian craftmen's associations, which may have had archaic antecedents, were known as shreni. Greek organizations in Ptolemaic Egypt were called koinon. Starting from their third century BC. origins the Roman collegia spread with the extension of the Empire. The Chinese hanghui probably existed already during the Han Dynasty (206 BC - AD 220):, but certainly they were present in the Sui Dynasty (589 - 618 AD). Roman craftsmen's organizations continued to develop in Italy of the Middle Ages under the name ars. In Germany they are first mentioned in the tenth century. The German name is Zunft (plural Zünfte). Métiers in France and craft gilds in England emerged in the twelfth century. Craft organizations (senf, sinf) stemmed from the tenth century in Iran, and were seen to spread also in Arabia and Turkish regions under the name futuwwah or fütüvvet. 900 of the carvers of Benin are said to have founded their own organization. In the neighbouring tribes of Yoruba and Nupe the organizations were given the names egbe and efakó. Specifically, within the medieval Oyo Empire of present day southwestern Nigeria and Benin, separate guilds developed for professional dancers, mask carvers, and musicians associated with egungun ancestral masquerade performances often regarded as the predecessor to the traveling Alarinjo theatre. Brockett, Oscar History of the Theatre: 8th Edition Needham Heights, 1999 European history In the Early Middle Ages most of the Roman craft organizations, originally formed as religious confraternities, had disappeared, with the apparent exceptions of stonecutters and perhaps glassmakers. Gregory of Tours tells a miraculous tale of a builder whose art and techniques suddenly left him, but were restored by an apparition of the Virgin Mary in a dream. Michel Rouche Rouche, 1987 pp 431ff. remarks that the story speaks for the importance of practically transmitted journeymanship. The early egalitarian communities called "guilds" (for the gold deposited in their common funds) were denounced by Catholic clergy for their "conjurations"—the binding oaths sworn among artisans to support one another in adversity and back one another in feuds or in business ventures. The occasion for the drunken banquets at which these oaths were made was December 26, the pagan feast of Jul: Bishop Hincmar, in 858, sought vainly to Christianize them. Rouche, 1987 p 432. By about 1100, European guilds (or gilds) and livery companies began their medieval evolution into an approximate equivalent to modern-day business organizations such as institutes or consortia. The guilds were termed corps de métiers in France, where the more familiar term corporations did not appear until the Le Chapelier Law of 1791 that abolished them, according to Fernand Braudel Braudel 1982, p 314ff et passim The guild system reached a mature state in Germany circa 1300 and held on in the German cities into the nineteenth century, with some special privileges for certain occupations remaining today. The latest guilds to develop in Western Europe were the of Spain that signalled the progress of the Reconquista: Barcelona (1301), Valencia (1332) and Toledo (1426). Not all city economies were controlled by guilds; some cities were "free". Where guilds were in control they shaped labour, production and trade; they had strong controls over instructional capital, and the modern concepts of a lifetime progression of apprentice to craftsman, journeyer, and eventually to widely-recognized master and grandmaster began to emerge. As production became more specialized, trade guilds were divided and subdivided, eliciting the squabbles over jurisdiction that produced the paperwork by which economic historians trace their development: there were 101 trades in Paris by 1260, Braudel 1982. and earlier in the century the metalworking guilds of Nuremberg were already divided among dozens of independent trades, in the boom economy of the thirteenth century. In Ghent as in Florence the woolen textile industry developed as a congeries of specialized guilds. The appearance of the European guilds was tied to the emergent money economy, and to urbanization. Before this time it was not possible to run a money-driven organization, as commodity money was the normal way of doing business. A center of urban government: the Guildhall, London (engraving, ca 1805) The guild was at the center of European handicraft organization into the sixteenth century. In France, a resurgence of the guilds in the second half of the seventeenth century is symptomatic of the monarchy's concerns to impose unity, control production and reap the benefits of transparent structure in the shape of more efficient taxation. Although many people believe there were guilds for food to travel to soldiers, in Europe during the 16th century there were only craft making guilds The guilds were identified with organizations enjoying certain privileges (letters patent), usually issued by the king or state and overseen by local town business authorities (some kind of chamber of commerce). These were the predecessors of the modern patent and trademark system. The guilds also maintained funds in order to support infirm or elderly members, as well as widows and orphans of guild members, funeral benefits, and a 'tramping' allowance for those needing to travel to find work. As the guild system of the City of London decayed during the seventeenth century, the Livery Companies devolved into mutual assistance fraternities along such lines. European guilds imposed long standardized periods of apprenticeship, and made it difficult for those lacking the capital to set up for themselves or without the approval of their peers to gain access to materials or knowledge, or to sell into certain markets, an area that equally dominated the guilds' concerns. These are defining characteristics of mercantilism in economics, which dominated most European thinking about political economy until the rise of classical economics. The guild system survived the emergence of early capitalists, which began to divide guild members into "haves" and dependent "have-nots". The civil struggles that characterize the fourteenth century towns and cities were struggles in part between the greater guilds and the lesser artisanal guilds, which depended on piecework. "In Florence, they were openly distinguished: the Arti maggiori and the Arti minori—already there was a popolo grasso and a popolo magro". Braudel 1982, p. 316. Fiercer struggles were those between essentially conservative guilds and the merchant class, which increasingly came to control the means of production and the capital that could be ventured in expansive schemes, often under the rules of guilds of their own. German social historians trace the Zunftrevolution, the urban revolution of guildmembers against a controlling urban patriciate, sometimes reading into them, however, perceived foretastes of the class struggles of the nineteenth century. In the countryside, where guild rules did not operate, there was freedom for the entrepreneur with capital to organize cottage industry, a network of cottagers who spun and wove in their own premises on his account, provided with their raw materials, perhaps even their looms, by the capitalist who reaped the profits. Such a dispersed system could not so easily be controlled where there was a vigorous local market for the raw materials: wool was easily available in sheep-rearing regions, whereas silk was not. Organization The structures of the craftsmen's associations tended everywhere in similar directions: a governing body, assisting functionaries and the members' assembly. The governing body consisted of the leader and deputies. In Ptolemeic Egypt the presidents were known as presbyter, in Roman Egypt as proestotes, egoymenos or archonelates, in Byzantine Egypt epistates, in the Roman Empire as decurio, in Florence of the Middle Ages as consul, officialis or rector, in France as consul, recteur, baile or surposé, in Germany Zunftmeister or Kerzenmeister, in England alderman, graceman or master, in Iran as rish safid or pishavaran, in India as adhyaksha, mukhya, pamukkha or jettaka, in Tibet as dbu chen mo, in China as hangshou, hangtou or hanglao, in the West African Yoruba region as bale or baba egbe and in the Nupe region as dakodza, muku or ndakó, depending on the type of craft. The guild was made up by experienced and confirmed experts in their field of handicraft. They were called master craftsmen. Before a new employee could rise to the level of mastery, he had to go through a schooling period during which he was first called an apprentice. After this period he could rise to the level of journeyman. Apprentices would typically not learn more than the most basic techniques until they were trusted by their peers to keep the guild's or company's secrets. Like journey, the distance that could be travelled in a day, the title 'journeyman' derives from the French words for 'day' (jour and journée) from which came the middle English word journei. Journeymen were able to work for other masters, unlike apprentices, and generally paid by the day and were thus day labourers. After being employed by a master for several years, and after producing a qualifying piece of work, the apprentice was granted the rank of journeyman and was given documents (letters or certificates from his master and/or the guild itself) which certified him as a journeyman and entitled him to travel to other towns and countries to learn the art from other masters. These journeys could span large parts of Europe and were an unofficial way of communicating new methods and techniques, though by no means all journeymen made such travels - they were most common in Germany and Italy, and in other countries jorneymen from small cities would often visit the capital. After this journey and several years of experience, a journeyman could be received as master craftsman, though in some guilds this step could be made straight from apprentice. This would typically require the approval of all masters of a guild, a donation of money and other goods (often omitted for sons of existing members), and the production of a so-called masterpiece, which would illustrate the abilities of the aspiring master craftsman; this was often retained by the guild. The medieval guild was established by charters or letters patent or similar authority by the city or the ruler and normally held a monopoly on trade in its craft within the city in which it operated: handicraft workers were forbidden by law to run any business if they were not members of a guild, and only masters were allowed to be members of a guild. Before these privileges were legislated, these groups of handicraft workers were simply called 'handicraft associations'. The town authorities might be represented in the guild meetings and thus had a means of controlling the handicraft activities. This was important since towns very often depended on a good reputation for export of a narrow range of products, on which not only the guild's, but the town's, reputation depended. Controls on the association of physical locations to well-known exported products, e.g. wine from the Champagne and Bordeaux regions of France, tin-glazed earthenwares from certain cities in Holland, lace from Chantilly, etc., helped to establish a town's place in global commerce — this led to modern trademarks. In many German and Italian cities, the more powerful guilds often had considerable political influence, and sometimes attempted to control the city authorities. In the 14th century, this led to numerous bloody uprisings, during which the guilds dissolved town councils and detained patricians in an attempt to increase their influence. The example of Chester In Chester England the earl had given a charter to the guild merchants at the end of the 12th century assuring them of the exclusive rights for retail sales within the city (excepting fairs and some markets where 'foreigners' could pay for the privilege of selling). Guildsmen had to be freemen of the city. They had to take an oath to serve the city and the king. There were four ways to become a freeman: by apprenticeship of five or seven years, by being born as the son of a freeman (in 1453 dues were remitted to a token 10 shillings 1/2 denarius), by purchasing membership (in 1453 this was 26s8d), or by becoming an honorary freeman as a gift of the assembly. As well as running local government, by electing the 78 common councillors, the guilds took responsibility for the welfare of their members and their families. They put on the Chester Mystery Plays and the Chester Midsummer Watch Parade. Guildsmen had to attend meetings, often in local inns or in the towers on the city walls. No person of any 'arte, mystery syence, occupacion, or crafte' could 'intermeddle' or practice another trade. In the 15th century the Innkeepers threatened to brew their own beer and the Brewers took them to court and won. Charters of incorporation were given to each guild, the earliest to the Bakers in 1462. Of the original 25, 19 companies were recorded in 1475. In 1533 another company formed. This was the Merchant Venturers who were the only traders allowed to merchandise in foreign ports and, at first, they were not able to do any manual trade or retail in the city. In 1694 rules were regularly being broken and it was ordered that 'No man shall have any commerce, Trade or Dealing with any man that shall sett up Stale (stall) or Hake in the street of ye said Citie neither at the ffaire or market but to dispose of his goods at his shoppe or house he keeps all the yeare'. But this was the beginning of the end for the guild's monopoly of city trade. Fall of the guilds Despite its advantages for agricultural and artisan producers, the guild became a target of much criticism towards the end of the 1700s and the beginning of the 1800s. They were believed to oppose free trade and hinder technological innovation, technology transfer and business development. According to several accounts of this time, guilds became increasingly involved in simple territorial struggles against each other and against free practitioners of their arts. An example of the last of the British Guilds meeting rooms c1820 Two of the most outspoken critics of the guild system were Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Adam Smith, and all over Europe a tendency to oppose government control over trades in favour of laissez-faire free market systems was growing rapidly and making its way into the political and legal system. Karl Marx in his Communist Manifesto also criticized the guild system for its rigid gradation of social rank and the relation of oppressor/oppressed entailed by this system. From this time comes the low regard in which some people hold the guilds to this day. For example, Smith writes in The Wealth of Nations (Book I, Chapter X, paragraph 72): It is to prevent this reduction of price, and consequently of wages and profit, by restraining that free competition which would most certainly occasion it, that all corporations, and the greater part of corporation laws, have been established. (...) and when any particular class of artificers or traders thought proper to act as a corporation without a charter, such adulterine guilds, as they were called, were not always disfranchised upon that account, but obliged to fine annually to the king for permission to exercise their usurped privileges. In part due to their own inability to control unruly corporate behavior, the tide turned against the guilds. Because of industrialization and modernization of the trade and industry, and the rise of powerful nation-states that could directly issue patent and copyright protections — often revealing the trade secrets — the guilds' power faded. After the French Revolution they fell in most European nations through the 1800s, as the guild system was disbanded and replaced by free trade laws. By that time, many former handicraft workers had been forced to seek employment in the emerging manufacturing industries, using not closely guarded techniques but standardized methods controlled by corporations. This was not uniformly viewed as a public good: Karl Marx criticized the alienation of the worker from the products of work that this created, and the exploitation possible since materials and hours of work were closely controlled by the owners of the new, large scale means of production. Influence of guilds Guilds are sometimes said to be the precursors of modern trade unions, and also, paradoxically, of some aspects of the modern corporation. Guilds, however, were groups of self-employed skilled craftsmen with ownership and control over the materials and tools they needed to produce their goods. Guilds were, in other words, small business associations and thus had very little in common with trade unions. If anything, guilds were more like cartels than they were like trade unions (Olson 1982). However, the journeymen organizations, which were at the time illegal, may have been influential. The exclusive privilege of a guild to produce certain goods or provide certain services was similar in spirit and character with the original patent systems that surfaced in England in 1624. These systems played a role in ending the guilds' dominance, as trade secret methods were superseded by modern firms directly revealing their techniques, and counting on the state to enforce their legal monopoly. Some guild traditions still remain in a few handicrafts, in Europe especially among shoemakers and barbers. Some of the ritual traditions of the guilds were conserved in order organizations such as the Freemasons. These are, however, not very important economically except as reminders of the responsibilities of some trades toward the public. Modern antitrust law could be said to derive in some ways from the original statutes by which the guilds were abolished in Europe. Modern guilds Modern guilds exist in different forms around the world. In many European countries guilds have had a revival as local organizations for craftsmen, primarily in traditional skills. They may function as forums for developing competence and are often the local units of a national employers organization. In the United States guilds exist in several fields. The Screen Actors Guild, Writers Guild of America, East and the Writers Guild of America, West are capable of exercising very strong control in Hollywood because a very strong and rigid system of intellectual property rights exists. These guilds exclude other actors and writers who do not abide by the strict rules for competing within the film and television industry in America. The Newspaper Guild is a labor union for journalists and other newspaper workers, with over 30,000 members in North America. Quilting guilds are also very common and are found in almost all areas of the United States. Real estate brokerage is an excellent example of a modern American guild. Telltale signs of guild behavior are on display in real estate brokerage: standard pricing (6% of the home price), strong affiliation among all practitioners, self-regulation (see National Association of Realtors), strong cultural identity (see Realtor), little price variation with quality differences, and traditional methods in use by all practitioners. In September 2005, the U.S. Department of Justice filed an antitrust lawsuit against the National Association of Realtors challenging NAR practices that, DOJ asserts, prevent competition from practitioners who use different methods. The DOJ and the Federal Trade Commission in 2005 advocated against state laws, supported by NAR, that disadvantage new kinds of brokers. For a description of the DOJ action, see . U.S. v. National Assoc. of Realtors, Civil Action No. 05C-5140 (N.D. Ill. Sept. 7, 2005). The practice of law in the United States is also an example of modern guilds at work. Every state maintains its own bar association, supervised by that state's highest court. The court decides the criteria for being admitted to, and remaining a member of, the legal profession. In most states, every attorney must be a member of that state's bar association in order to practice law. State laws forbid any person from engaging in the unauthorized practice of law and practicing attorneys are subject to rules of professional conduct that are enforced by the state's high court. Other associations which a minority considers to be guilds, though it isn't evident in their names, include the American Medical Association, the American Dental Association, etc. Scholars from the history of ideas have noticed that consultants play a part similar to that of the journeymen of the guild systems: they often travel a lot, work at many different companies and spread new practices and knowledge between companies and corporations. Many professional organizations similarly resemble the guild structure. Professions such as architecture, engineering, geology, and land surveying require varying lengths of apprenticeships before one can be granted a 'professional' certification. These certifications hold great legal weight and are required in most states as a prerequisite to doing business there. Thomas Malone of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology champions a modern variant of the guild structure for modern "e-lancers", professionals who do mostly telework for multiple employers. Insurance including any professional liability, intellectual capital protections, an ethical code perhaps enforced by peer pressure and software, and other benefits of a strong association of producers of knowledge, benefit from economies of scale, and may prevent cut-throat competition that leads to inferior services undercutting prices. And, as with historical guilds, resist foreign competition. The free software community has from time to time explored a guild-like structure to unite against competition from Microsoft, e.g. Advogato assigns journeyer and master ranks to those committing to work only or mostly on free software. Debian also publishes a list of what constitutes free software. In the City of London, the ancient guilds survive as Livery Companies, most of which play a ceremonial role. Guilds also survive in the UK in Preston, Lancashire as the Preston Guild Merchant where among other celebrations descendants of Burgesses are still admitted into membership. In 1878 the London Livery companies established the City and Guilds of London Institute the forerunner of the engineering school (still called City and Guilds college) at Imperial College London. The aim of the City and Guilds of London Institute was the Advancement of Technical Education. Today City and Guilds is an examining and accreditation body for vocational, managerial and engineering qualifications from entry level craft and trade skills up to post doctoral achievement. The Guild of Master Craftsmen continues a great tradition established by the guilds of medieval Europe. The earliest of these were "frith" or "peace" guilds - groups bonded together for mutual protection following the breakdown of the kins, which were groups related by blood ties. Merchant guilds - associations of international trades - were powerful in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, but lost their ascendancy with the rise of the craft guilds - associations of master craftsmen, journeymen, apprentices and the various trades connected with a particular craft. Undoubtedly, there's much need today for a guild to represent skilled craftspeople as there has ever been. The world-renowned College of Arms in London awarded the coat of arms of The Guild of Master Craftsmen in 1992, after four years of assessment. Designed by heraldic expert Peter Greenhill to reflect the many categories of Guild membership, it features: three escutcheons (shields) to represent artists, painters and stainers; a pair of compasses opened in chevron for building, construction and carpenters; a dovetail (separating the top third of the shield from the rest) to represent cabinetmaking, woodworking and joinery; and a gavel and chisel for masons and stoneworkers. The southern keep of Lewes Castle, which overlooks the Guild’s headquarters, is featured above the helmet as the crest. In Australia there exists the Guild of Commercial Filmmakers, a collection of commercial, short film and feature filmmakers. In online computer games players form groups called player guilds. See also Trade union Guild of Saint Luke - Painter's Guilds Jāti -guilds (of mediaeval origin) in India Hanseatic League Notes References Braudel, Fernand: The Wheels of Commerce 1982, vol. II of Civilization and Capitalism Dolven, Arne S.: Vocational Education in Europe in Dolven, Arne S. and Gunnar Pedersen (eds): Fagopplaeringsboka 2004, Oslo: Kommuneforlaget 2004 (in Norwegian) Eggerer, Elmar W.: Sworn Brethren and Sistren — Britische Gilden und Zünfte von der normannischen Eroberung bis 1603, München 1993 (in German) Söderlund, Ernst: Den svenska arbetarklassens historia — Hantverkarna II frihetstiden och den gustavianska tiden Stockholm 1949 (in Swedish) Rouche, Michel, "Private life conquers state and society," in A History of Private Life vol I, Paul Veyne, editor, Harvard University Press 1987 ISBN 0-674-39974-9 Thomas Weyrauch: Handwerkerorganisationen in der vorindustriellen Stadt. Wettenberg/Germany (VVB Laufersweiler) 1996 ISBN 3-930954-02-8 Thomas Weyrauch: Craftsmen and their Associations in Asia, Africa and Europe. Wettenberg/Germany (VVB Laufersweiler) 1999 ISBN 3-89687-537-X Further reading Gordon Emery, Curious Chester (1999) ISBN 1-872265-94-4 Liza Picard, Elizabeth's London (2003) ISBN 0-297-60729-4 Steven Epstein, Wage Labor & Guilds In Medieval Europe (1991) ISBN 0-8078-4498-5 Mancur Olson, The rise and decline of nations: economic growth, staglaction, and social rigidities (New Haven & London 1982). St. Eloy's Hospice, the last Guild House in Utrecht, Netherlands External links Medieval guilds Fine Art Trade GuildUnited Kingdom and New Zealand The Guild of Master Craftsmen United Kingdom guild for craftsmen and tradesmen St. Eloy's Hospice The last Guild House in Utrecht Netherlands The Guild of Commercial Filmmakers in Australia | Guild |@lemmatized guild:118 association:18 craftsman:17 particular:3 trade:29 early:7 form:6 confraternities:3 worker:7 organize:2 manner:1 something:1 union:6 cartel:2 secret:5 society:2 often:12 depend:5 grant:3 letter:4 patent:7 authority:5 monarch:1 enforce:4 flow:1 self:3 employed:1 member:12 retain:2 ownership:2 tool:2 supply:1 material:6 lasting:1 legacy:1 traditional:3 guildhall:2 construct:1 use:4 meeting:4 place:2 modern:15 system:16 set:2 break:2 power:2 ad:4 pre:1 industrial:1 city:23 tend:2 base:1 textile:2 mason:2 carpenter:2 carver:3 glassworker:1 control:16 traditionally:1 impart:1 technology:3 arts:1 mystery:3 craft:10 usually:2 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4,846 | Organized_crime | Organized crime or criminal organizations comprise groups or operations run by criminals, most commonly for the purpose of generating a monetary profit. The Organized Crime Control Act (U.S., 1970) defines organized crime as "The unlawful activities of [...] a highly organized, disciplined association [...]". Mafia is a term used to describe a number of criminal organizations around world. The first organization to bear the label was the Sicilian Mafia, known to its members as Cosa Nostra. In the United States, "the Mafia" generally refers to the Italian-American Mafia. Other organizations described as mafias include the Russian Mafia, the Chinese Triads, the Albanian Mafia, the Japanese Yakuza, the Neapolitan Camorra, the Mexican Mafia , and the French "Milieu". Some criminal organizations, such as terrorist organizations, are politically motivated (see VNSA). Gangs sometimes become "disciplined" enough to be considered "organized". An organized gang or criminal set can also be referred to as a mob. The act of engaging in criminal activity as a structured group is referred to in the United States as racketeering. In the U.S., organized crime is often prosecuted federally under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) Act. Origins and conceptual background "If we take a global rather than strictly domestic view, it becomes evident even crime of the organized kind has a long if not necessarily noble heritage. The word 'thug' dates to early 13th-century India, when Thugs, or gangs of criminals, roamed from town to town, looting and pillaging. Smuggling and drug-trafficking rings are as old as the hills in Asia and Africa, and extant criminal organizations in Italy and Japan trace their histories back several centuries..." Sullivan, Robert, ed. Mobsters and Gangsters: Organized Crime in America, from Al Capone to Tony Soprano. New York: Life Books, 2002 Today, crime is thought of as an urban phenomenon, but for most of human history it was the rural world that was crime-ridden. Pirates, highwaymen and bandits attacked trade routes and roads, at times severely disrupting commerce, raising costs, insurance rates and prices to the consumer. According to criminologist Paul Lunde, "Piracy and banditry were to the pre-industrial world what organized crime is to modern society." Paul Lunde, Organized Crime, 2004 Organized crime is deeply linked to the moral problem of integrating subcivilized energy into civilized state building. The early Christian world was dubious about an unqualified legitimacy of nation-states. St. Augustine famously defined them as what would now be called kleptocracies, states founded on theft: "If justice be disregarded, what are states but large bandit bands, and what are bandit bands but small states? ... Indeed, that was an apt and true reply which was given to Alexander the Great by a pirate who had been seized. For when that king had asked the man what he meant by keeping hostile possession of the sea, he answered with bold pride, 'What you mean by seizing the whole earth; but because I do it with a petty ship, I am called a robber, while you who does it with a great fleet are styled emperor.'" , additional text. A later North African writer, Ibn Khaldun, observing the predatorial conquests of the Mongol leader Tamerlane in the 14th century, developed a theory of state formation based on the periodic conquest of civilized states by barbarians, who are quickly acculturated by urban life, lose their warlike qualities and succumb in turn to conquest by yet another wave of barbarians [cf. Franz Oppenheimer's "conquest theory" of state-formation], additional text. . As Lunde states, "Barbarian conquerors, whether Vandals, Goths, Norsemen, Turks or Mongols are not normally thought of as organized crime groups, yet they share many features associated with successful criminal organizations. They were for the most part non-ideological, predominantly ethnically based, used violence and intimidation, and adhered to their own codes of law." Paul Lunde, Organized Crime, 2004 Although medieval feudal lords were not usually engaged in what moderns would consider "criminal activities" (except for irregular robber barons, self-enthroned Viking adventurers, and mercenary "free company" leaders), their hierarchical courts, monopoly of violence, extension of protection to their serfs in exchange for labor and a percentage of harvests and durability are structurally similar to classic organized crime groups like the Mafia. In the modern world, it is difficult to distinguish some corrupt and lawless governments from organized crime gangs. These regimes, characteristic of some of the newly independent states of the former Soviet Union, use the state apparatus to control organized crime for their own ends. Organized crime dynamics In order for a criminal organization to prosper, some degree of support is required from the society in which it lives. Thus, it is often necessary to corrupt some of its respected members, most commonly achieved through bribery, blackmail, and the establishment of symbiotic relationships with legitimate businesses. Judicial and police officers and legislators are especially targeted for control by organized crime via bribes. Organized crime most typically flourishes when legitimate government and civil society is disorganized, weak, absent or untrusted. This may occur in a society facing periods of political, economic or social turmoil or transition, such as a change of government or a period of rapid economic development, particularly if the society lacks strong and established institutions and the rule of law. Under these circumstances, criminal organizations can operate with less fear of interference from law enforcement and may serve to provide their "customers" with a semblance of order and predictability that would otherwise be unavailable. For similar reasons, organized crime also often takes root in many countries among ethnic minority communities or other socially marginalized groups whose members may not trust local governments or their agents. This lack of trust serves both to insulate the criminal organization from the risk that law enforcement will find cooperative witnesses, as well as to encourage community members to trust the criminal organizations rather than the police to handle disputes and protect the community. The existence of a black market, either due to market failure or to legal impediments, also tends to promote the formation of criminal organizations as well. An example of this would be the rise in organized crime under Prohibition in the United States during the 1920s. Lacking much of the paperwork that is common to legitimate organizations, criminal organizations can usually evolve and reorganize much more quickly when the need arises. They are quick to capitalize on newly-opened markets, and quick to rebuild themselves under another guise when caught by authorities. This is especially true of organized groups that engage in human trafficking. The newest growth sectors for organized crime are identity theft and online extortion. These activities are troubling because they discourage consumers from using the Internet for e-commerce. E-commerce was supposed to level the playing ground between small and large businesses, but the growth of online organized crime is leading to the opposite effect; large businesses are able to afford more bandwidth (to resist denial-of-service attacks) and superior security. Furthermore, organized crime using the Internet is much harder to trace down for the police (even though they increasingly deploy cybercops) since most police forces and law enforcement agencies operate within a local or national jurisdiction while the Internet makes it easier for criminal organizations to operate across such boundaries without detection. In the past criminal organizations have naturally limited themselves by their need to expand. This has put them in competition with each other. This competition, often leading to violence, uses valuable resources such as manpower (either killed or sent to prison), equipment and finances. In the United States, the Irish Mob boss of the Winter Hill Gang (in the 1980s) turned informant for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). He used this position to eliminate competition and consolidate power within the city of Boston which led to the imprisonment of several senior organized crime figures including Gennaro "Jerry" Anguilo underboss of the Patriarca crime family. Infighting sometimes occurs within an organization, such as the Castellamarese war of 1930–31 and the Boston Irish Mob Wars of the 1960s and 1970s. Today criminal organizations are increasingly working together, realizing that it is better to work in cooperation rather than in competition with each other. This has led to the rise of global criminal organizations such as Mara Salvatrucha. The Sicilian Mafia in the U.S. have had links with organized crime groups in Italy such as the Camorra, the 'Ndrangheta and the Sacra Corona Unita. The Sicilian Mafia has also been known to work with the Irish Mob (John Gotti of the Gambino family and James Coonan of the Westies are known to have worked together, with the Westies operating as a contract hit squad for the Gambino family after they helped Coonan come to power), the Japanese Yakuza and the Russian Mafia. The FBI estimates that global organized crime makes $1 trillion per year. This rise in cooperation between criminal organizations has meant that law enforcement agencies are increasingly having to work together. The FBI operates an organized crime section from its headquarters in Washington and is known to work with other national (e.g. Polizia di Stato and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police), federal (e.g., Drug Enforcement Administration and the United States Coast Guard), state (e.g., Massachusetts State Police Special Investigation Unit and the New York State Police Bureau of Criminal Investigation) and city (e.g., New York Police Department Organized Crime Unit and the Los Angeles Police Department Special Operations Division) law enforcement agencies. Notable criminal organizations Perhaps the best known criminal organizations are the Sicilian and American Cosa Nostra, most commonly known as the Mafia. The Neopolitan Camorra, the Calabrian 'Ndrangheta and the Apulian Sacra Corona Unita are similar Italian organized crime groups. Other organized criminal enterprises include the Russian Mafia, the Israeli Mafia, the Albanian Mafia, Mexican and Colombian Drug Cartels, the Indian Mafia, the Chinese Triads, Irish Mob, the Japanese Yakuza, the Jamaican-British Yardies, the Turkish Mafia and other crime syndicates. On a lower level in the criminal food chain are many street gangs, such as the Surenos, Nortenos, Latin Kings, MS-13, Gangster Disciples, Vice Lords, Bloods and Crips. As of December 2008, there is rumored to be a large war in the American underworld between various Italian-American Mafia families and the U.S. Yakuza Outfit. Criminal organizations may function both inside and outside of prison, such as the Mexican Mafia, Folk Nation, and the Brazilian PCC. Biker gangs such as the Hells Angels are also involved in organized crime. World leaders throughout history who have been accused of running their country like a criminal organization include Adolf Hitler of Germany, Idi Amin of Uganda, Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire, Nicolae Ceauşescu of Romania, Francisco Franco of Spain, Hugo Banzer of Bolivia, Kim Jong Il of North Korea, Slobodan Milošević of Serbia and Yugoslavia, Alberto Fujimori of Peru (in league with his advisor Vladimiro Montesinos), Than Shwe of Burma (also known as Myanmar) and various other dictators and military juntas. Corrupt political leaders may have links to existing organized crime groups, either domestic or international, or else may simply exercise power in a manner that duplicates the functioning and purpose of organized crime. Human rights law Another use of the term "criminal organization" exists in human rights law and refers to an organization which has been found guilty of crimes against humanity. Once an organization has been determined to be a criminal organization, one must only demonstrate that an individual belonged to that organization to be punished and not that the individual actually individually committed illegal acts. This concept of the criminal organization came into being during the Nuremberg Trials. Several public sector organizations of Nazi Germany such as the SS and Gestapo were judged to be criminal organizations, while other organizations such as the German Army High Command were indicted but acquitted of charges. This conception of criminal organizations was, and continues to be, controversial, and has not been used in human rights law since the trials at Nuremberg. Ideological crime In addition to what is considered traditional organized crime involving direct crimes of fraud swindles, scams, racketeering and other RICO predicate acts motivated for the accumulation of monetary gain, there is also non-traditional organized crime which is engaged in for political or ideological gain or acceptance. Such crime groups are often labeled terrorist organizations and include such groups as Al-Qaeda, Animal Liberation Front, Earth Liberation Front, Hamas, Hezbollah, Irish Republican Army, Lashkar e Toiba, Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia and Taliban. Typical activities Organized crime often victimize businesses through the use of extortion or theft and fraud activities like hijacking cargo trucks, robbing goods, committing bankruptcy fraud (also known as "bust-out"), insurance fraud or stock fraud (inside trading). Organized crime groups also victimize individuals by car theft (either for dismantling at "Chop shops" or for export), burglary, credit card fraud, and stock fraud ("pump and dump" scam). Some organized crime groups defraud national, state, or local governments by bid-rigging public projects, counterfeiting money, smuggling or manufacturing untaxed alcohol (bootlegging) or cigarettes (buttlegging), and providing immigrant workers to avoid taxes. Organized crime groups seek out corrupt public officials in executive, law enforcement, and judicial roles so that their activities can avoid, or at least receive early warnings about, investigation and prosecution. Organized crime groups also provide a range of illegal services and goods, such as loansharking of money at very high interest rates, bookmaking and gambling, prostitution, drug trafficking, gunrunning, providing murder for hire, illegal dumping of toxic waste, people smuggling and trafficking in human beings . Organized crime groups also do a range of business and labor racketeering activities, such as skimming casinos, insider trading, setting up monopolies in industries such as garbage collecting, construction and cement pouring, bid rigging, getting "no-show" and "no-work" jobs, money laundering, political corruption, bullying and ideological clamping. See also Assassination Arms trafficking American Mafia Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives Camorra Chechen mafia Contract killing Counterfeit Crime in Chicago Crimes against humanity Crime in New York City Crimestoppers Criminal tattoo DEA Dictator Drug Cartel Extremist Five Families FBI French Connection Gang Hells Angels Human rights law Indian Mafia Informant Irish Mob Italian organized crime Jacky Imbert List of criminal organizations List of Mafia crime families Mafia, Mob Mafia-Camorra War MS-13 Omertà Outlaw motorcycle gang Palermo Convention Paramilitary Piracy Prison gang Raubwirtschaft Racket RICO Rum running Russian Mafia Secret Service Terrorism Timeline of organized crime Transnational organized crime Triad society Yakuza United States Marshals Service Vendetta War Crimes White Collar Crime Winter Hill Gang Footnotes External links BBC radio series on global crime (including audio files) UN Office on Drugs and Crime — Sub-section dealing with organized crime worldwide Organized Crime Research — Has a vast collection of definitions of organized crime, reviews of books on organized crime, research papers, and other material Extensive page of links relating to organized crime Hungary emerges as base for foreign organized crime groups Jane's Intelligence Review, July 2006 Organized crime killings shock Ireland Crimestoppers — Pass on information about crime anonymously to the crime-fighting charity | Organized_crime |@lemmatized organize:53 crime:67 criminal:35 organization:38 comprise:1 group:17 operation:2 run:3 commonly:3 purpose:2 generate:1 monetary:2 profit:1 organized:1 control:3 act:5 u:4 defines:1 unlawful:1 activity:8 highly:1 discipline:1 association:1 mafia:27 term:2 use:10 describe:2 number:1 around:1 world:6 first:1 bear:1 label:1 sicilian:4 know:7 member:4 cosa:2 nostra:2 united:6 state:21 generally:1 refer:3 italian:4 american:5 include:6 russian:4 chinese:2 triad:3 albanian:2 japanese:3 yakuza:5 neapolitan:1 camorra:5 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4,847 | Chamaeleon | Chamaeleon (, genitive Chamaeleontis ) is a small constellation in the southern sky. It is named after the chameleon, a form of lizard. It was first defined in the sixteenth century. In Australia it is sometimes unofficially called "the Frying Pan" when finding the south by the stars. History Chamaeleon was one of twelve constellations created by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. It first appeared on a 35-cm diameter celestial globe published in 1597 (or 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius and Jodocus Hondius. The first depiction of this constellation in a celestial atlas was in Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603. Notable features In 1999, a nearby open cluster was discovered centered on the star η Chamaeleontis. The cluster, known as either the Eta Chamaeleontis cluster or Mamajek 1, is 8 million years old, and lies 316 light years from Earth. Luhman, K.L. & Steeghs, D. 2004, ApJ, 609, 917 The constellation contains a number of molecular clouds (the Chamaeleon dark clouds) that are forming low-mass T Tauri stars. The cloud complex lies some 400 to 600 light years from Earth, and contains tens of thousands of solar masses of gas and dust. The most prominent cluster of T Tauri stars and young B-type stars are in the Chamaeleon I cloud, and are associated with the reflection nebula IC 2631. Citations References Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Chamaeleon "The eta Chamaeleontis Cluster: A Remarkable New Nearby Young Open Cluster" (Mamajek, Lawson, & Feigelson 1999) "WEBDA open cluster database entry for Mamajek 1" Star Tales – Chamaeleon | Chamaeleon |@lemmatized chamaeleon:6 genitive:1 chamaeleontis:4 small:1 constellation:5 southern:1 sky:1 name:1 chameleon:1 form:2 lizard:1 first:3 define:1 sixteenth:1 century:1 australia:1 sometimes:1 unofficially:1 call:1 frying:1 pan:1 find:1 south:1 star:7 history:1 one:1 twelve:1 create:1 petrus:1 plancius:2 observation:1 pieter:1 dirkszoon:1 keyser:1 frederick:1 de:1 houtman:1 appear:1 cm:1 diameter:1 celestial:2 globe:1 publish:1 amsterdam:1 jodocus:1 hondius:1 depiction:1 atlas:1 johann:1 bayer:1 uranometria:1 notable:1 feature:1 nearby:2 open:3 cluster:7 discover:1 center:1 η:1 know:1 either:1 eta:2 mamajek:3 million:1 year:3 old:1 lie:2 light:2 earth:2 luhman:1 k:1 l:1 steeghs:1 apj:1 contain:2 number:1 molecular:1 cloud:4 dark:1 low:1 mass:2 tauri:2 complex:1 ten:1 thousand:1 solar:1 gas:1 dust:1 prominent:1 young:2 b:1 type:1 associate:1 reflection:1 nebula:1 ic:1 citation:1 reference:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 planet:1 guide:2 collins:1 london:1 isbn:2 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 deep:1 photographic:1 remarkable:1 new:1 lawson:1 feigelson:1 webda:1 database:1 entry:1 tale:1 |@bigram frying_pan:1 molecular_cloud:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1 |
4,848 | Burgess_Shale | The Burgess Shale Formation is one of the world's most celebrated fossil localities, and is famous for the exceptional preservation of the fossils found within it, in which the soft parts are preserved. It is (Middle Cambrian) in age, making it one of the earliest fossil beds to preserve the soft parts of animals. The pre-Cambrian fossil record of animals is sparse and ambiguous. The rock unit is a black shale, and crops out at a number of localities near the town of Field in the Canadian Rockies in the Yoho National Park of British Columbia, Canada History and significance The Burgess Shale was discovered by Charles Walcott in 1909, towards the end of the season's fieldwork. He returned in 1910 with his sons, establishing a quarry on the flanks of Fossil ridge. The significance of soft bodied preservation, and the range of organisms he recognised as new to science, led him to return to the quarry almost every year until 1924. At this point, aged 74, he had amassed over 65,000 specimens. Describing the fossils was a vast task, pursued by Walcott until his death in 1927. Walcott, led by scientific opinion at the time, attempted to categorise all fossils into living taxa; as a result, the fossils were regarded as little more than curiosities at the time. It was not until 1962 that a first-hand reinvestigation of the fossils was attempted, by Alberto Simonetta. This led scientists to recognise that Walcott had barely scratched the surface of information available in the Burgess Shale, and also made it clear that the organisms did not fit comfortably into modern groups. Excavations were resumed at the Walcott quarry by the Geological Survey of Canada under the persuasion of trilobite expert Harry Blackmore Whittington, and a new quarry, the Raymond, was established about 20 metres higher up Fossil ridge. Whittington, with the help of research students Derek Briggs and Simon Conway Morris of the University of Cambridge, began a thorough reassessment of the Burgess Shale, and revealed that the fauna represented were much more diverse and unusual than Walcott had recognized. Indeed, many of the animals present had bizarre anatomical features and only the sketchiest resemblance to other known animals. Examples include Opabinia with five eyes and a snout like a vacuum cleaner hose; Nectocaris, which resembles either a crustacean with fins or a vertebrate with a shell; and Hallucigenia, which was originally reconstructed upside down, walking on bilaterally symmetrical spines. With Parks Canada and UNESCO recognising the significance of the Burgess Shale, collecting fossils became politically more difficult from the mid 1970s. Collections continued to be made by the Royal Ontario Museum. The curator of invertebrate palaeontology, Desmond Collins, identified a number of additional outcrops, stratigraphically both higher and lower than the original Walcott quarry. These localities continue to yield new organisms faster than they can be studied. Stephen Jay Gould's book Wonderful Life, published in 1989, brought the Burgess Shale fossils to the public's attention. Gould suggests that the extraordinary diversity of the fossils indicate that life forms at the time were much more diverse than those that survive today, and that many of the unique lineages were evolutionary experiments that became extinct. He suggests that this interpretation supports his hypothesis of evolution by punctuated equilibrium. Gould's interpretation of the diversity of Cambrian fauna relied heavily on Simon Conway Morris' reinterpretation of Charles Walcott's original publications. However, Conway Morris strongly disagreed with Gould's conclusions, arguing that almost all the Cambrian fauna could be classified into modern day phyla. The Crucible of Creation: The Burgess Shale and the Rise of Animals , Simon Conway Morris The first complete Anomalocaris fossil found Geological setting The fossiliferous deposits of the Burgess Shale correlate to the Stephen formation, a collection of slightly calcareous dark mudstones, about old. The beds were deposited at the base of a cliff about 160 m tall, below the depth agitated by waves during storms. This vertical cliff was composed of the calcareous reefs of the Cathedral formation, which probably formed shortly before the deposition of the Burgess shale. The precise formation mechanism is not known for certain, but the most widely accepted hypothesis suggests that the edge of the Cathedral formation reef became detached from the rest of the reef, slumping and being transported some distance — perhaps kilometers — away from the reef edge. Later reactivation of faults at the base of the formation led to its disintegration from about . This would have left a steep cliff, the bottom of which would be protected, because the limestone of the Cathedral formation is difficult to compress, from tectonic decompression. This protection explains why fossils preserved further from the Cathedral formation are impossible to work with — tectonic squeezing of the beds has produced a vertical cleavage that fractures the rocks, so they split perpendicular to the fossils. The Walcott quarry produced such spectacular fossils because it was so close to the Stephen formation — indeed the quarry has now been excavated to the very edge of the Cambrian cliff. It was originally thought that the Burgess Shale was deposited in anoxic conditions, but mounting research shows that oxygen was continually present in the sediment. The anoxic setting had been thought to not only protect the newly dead organisms from decay, but it also created chemical conditions allowing the preservation of the soft parts of the organisms. Further, it reduced the abundance of burrowing organisms — burrows and trackways are found in beds containing soft-bodied organisms, but they are rare and generally of limited vertical extent. Brine seeps are an alternative hypothesis - see Burgess Shale type preservation for a more thorough discussion. Stratigraphy The Burgess Shale Formation comprises 10 members, the most famous being the Walcott Quarry Shale Member comprising the greater phyllopod bed. Taphonomy and diagenesis Please expand this section There are many other comparable Cambrian lagerstätten; indeed such assemblages are far more common in the Cambrian than in any other period. This is mainly due to the limited extent of burrowing activity; as such bioturbation became more prevalent throughout the Cambrian, environments capable of preserving organisms' soft parts became much rarer. Biota The biota of the Burgess Shale appears to be typical of Middle Cambrian deposits. Although the hard-part bearing organisms make up as little as 14% of the community, these same organisms are found in similar proportions in other Cambrian localities. This means that there is no reason to assume that the organisms without hard parts are exceptional in any way; indeed, many appear in other lagerstätten of different age and locations. The biota consists of a range of organisms. Free-swimming () organisms are relatively rare, with the majority of organisms being bottom dwelling (benthic) — either moving about (vagrant) or permanently attached to the sea floor (sessile). About two-thirds of the Burgess Shale organisms lived by feeding on the organic content in the muddy sea floor, while almost a third filtered out fine particles from the water column. Under 10% of organisms were predators or scavengers, although since these organisms were larger, the biomass was split equally between each of the filter feeding, deposit feeding, predatory and scavenging organisms. See also Body form Invertebrate paleontology History of invertebrate paleozoology List of fossil sites (with link directory) List of notable fossils References Further reading Gould and Conway Morris debating the significance of the Burgess Shale: Simon Conway Morris, The Crucible of Creation: The Burgess Shale and the Rise of Animals, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998 (paperback 1999) ISBN 0-19-850197-8 (hbk), ISBN 0-19-286202-2 (pbk) Richard Fortey, Trilobite: Eyewitness to Evolution, Flamingo, 2001. ISBN 0-00-655138-6 Stephen Jay Gould, Wonderful Life: Burgess Shale and the Nature of History, Vintage, 2000. ISBN 0-09-927345-4 Derek E. G. Briggs, Douglas H. Erwin, & Frederick J. Collier, The Fossils of the Burgess Shale, Smithsonian, 1994. ISBN1-56098-364-7 Sources The Burgess Shale Geoscience Foundation — official website The Burgess Shale — Evolution's Big Bang — Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture web pages resourcing an exhibition devoted to the Burgess Shale Burgess Shale Fossils The Cambrian Explosion — BBC Radio 4 broadcast, In Our Time, 17 February 2005, hosted by Melvyn Bragg (includes links to resource pages) Paleobiology Database The Burgess Shale (skeletonized fauna), Stephen Fm., British Columbia, Canada: St Davids, British Columbia Paleobiology Database Hanburia gloriosa, Phyllopod Bed, Burgess Shale, Canada — Whittington 1998: St Davids — Merioneth, British Columbia Smithsonian Museum Species index from the Smithsonian Institution | Burgess_Shale |@lemmatized burgess:24 shale:26 formation:10 one:2 world:1 celebrated:1 fossil:20 locality:4 famous:2 exceptional:2 preservation:4 find:4 within:1 soft:6 part:6 preserve:4 middle:2 cambrian:11 age:3 make:4 early:1 bed:6 animal:6 pre:1 record:1 sparse:1 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4,849 | Lower_Mainland | Lower Mainland, loosely defined by orange outline. The Lower Mainland is a name commonly applied to the region surrounding Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. In 2007, 2,524,113 people live in the region; sixteen of the province's thirty most populous municipalities are located there. While the term Lower Mainland has been recorded from the earliest period of non-native settlement in British Columbia, it has never been officially defined in legal terms. However, the term has historically been in popular usage for over a century to describe a region that extends from Horseshoe Bay south to the Canada – United States border and east to Hope at the eastern end of the Fraser Valley. Gentilcore, R.L., ed. 1993. Historical Atlas of Canada, Vol II, The Land Transformed 1800-1891. Plate 36, "Lower Mainland 1881." Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-3447-0. Population In 2007 there were 2,524,113 people living in the communities of the Lower Mainland, of whom: 274,388 lived in the Fraser Valley Regional District 2,249,725 lived in the Greater Vancouver Regional District (since renamed to Metro Vancouver) The population in the Lower Mainland was up 10.4% from the 2001 Census figures. This is among the highest trends in the continent. Communities Fraser Valley Regional District Abbotsford Chilliwack Kent/Agassiz Mission Hope Metro Vancouver Anmore Belcarra Bowen Island Burnaby Coquitlam Delta Langley City Langley District Metro Vancouver (cont.) Lions Bay Maple Ridge New Westminster North Vancouver City North Vancouver District Pitt Meadows Port Coquitlam Port Moody Richmond Surrey Vancouver West Vancouver White Rock Regional Districts and First Nations territories Today, the Lower Mainland includes two Regional Districts: Metro Vancouver and the Fraser Valley Regional District (FVRD). Both regional districts, however, include areas outside the traditional limits of the Lower Mainland. Metro Vancouver is made up of 21 municipalities. Metro Vancouver is bordered on the west by the Strait of Georgia, to the north by the Squamish-Lillooet Regional District, on the east by the Fraser Valley Regional District, and to the south by Whatcom County, Washington, in the United States. The traditional territories of the Musqueam and Tsleil'waututh lie completely within the metro area; the southern portion of Squamish First Nation traditional territory is also in the metro area — its claims overlap those of the Tsleil-waututh, Musqueam, and Kway-quiht-lum. Other peoples whose territories lie within the regional district are the Katzie, Kwantlen, Tsawwassen and Semiahmoo, some of whose territories overlap with those of the Musqueam. The Fraser Valley Regional District lies east of Metro Vancouver, comprises the cities of Abbotsford and Chilliwack, the district municipalities of Mission, Kent, and Hope, and the village of Harrison Hot Springs. It also includes a series of electoral areas throughout the Fraser Valley and along the west side of the Fraser Canyon. The traditional territory of various Sto:lo bands is partly within this regional district, as is the entirety of the Chehalis First Nation (who are not Sto:lo). Sto:lo traditional territory more or less exactly coincides with the traditional conception of the Lower Mainland, except for their inclusion of Port Douglas, at the head of Harrison Lake which is in In-SHUCK-ch territory. Natural threats Flooding The Lower Mainland is considered to have a high vulnerability to flood risk. There have been two major floods, the largest in 1894 and the second largest in 1948. According to the Fraser Basin Council, scientists predict a one-in-three chance of a similar-sized flood occurring in the next 50 years. In the spring of 2007, the Lower Mainland was on high alert for flooding. Higher than normal snow packs in the British Columbia Interior prompted the municipal governments to start emergency measures in the region. Dikes along the Fraser River are regulated to handle about 8.5 metres at the Mission Gauge (the height above sea level of the dykes at Mission). Warmer than normal weather in the interior caused large amounts of snow to melt prematurely, resulting in higher than normal water levels, which, nevertheless, remained well below flood levels. Nguyen, Linda (June 07, 2007). Lower Mainland at flood risk for weeks yet. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved on: June 18, 2008. Flooding can cover much of the Lower Mainland. Cloverdale, Barnston Island, Low-lying areas of Maple Ridge, west of Hope, White Rock, Richmond, parts of Vancouver and parts of Surrey are potentially at risk. In 2007, the Lower Mainland was largely spared, although northern regions of the province, along the Skeena and Nechako Rivers experienced floods. Climate scientists predict that increasing temperatures will mean wetter winters and more snow at the high elevations. This will increase the likelihood of snowmelt floods. The provincial government maintains an Integrated Flood Hazard Management program and an extensive flood protection infrastructure in the Lower Mainland. The infrastructure consists of dikes, pump stations, floodboxes, riprap and relief wells. Earthquakes While earthquakes are common in British Columbia and adjacent coastal waters, most are minor in energy release or are sufficiently remote to have little effect on populated areas. Nevertheless, earthquakes with a magnitude of up to 7.3 have occurred within 150 kilometres of the lower mainland. Based on geological evidence, however, the possibility of earthquakes with a more massive release of energy is a generally accepted possibility. Such massive earthquakes appear to have occurred at approximately 600-year intervals. Thus there is a probability that there will be a major earthquake within the next 200 years within the region. British Columbia. Provincial Emergency Program. (1999). British Columbia Earthquake Response Plan, Appendix 2-The Earthquake Threat. ISBN 0-7726-3924-8. Retrieved on: April 7, 2008. In April 2008, the United States Geological Survey released information concerning a newly-found fault line south of downtown Abbotsford, called the Boulder Creek fault. Scientists now believe this fault line is active and capable of producing earthquakes in the 6.8 magnitude range. McClatchy Washington Bureau. Earthquake risk. Retrieved on 2009-05-12. Lower Mainland Ecoregion "Lower Mainland" is also the name of an ecoregion — a biogeoclimatic region — that comprises the eastern part of the Georgia Depression and extends from Powell River on the Sunshine Coast to Hope at the eastern end of the Fraser Valley. The Lower Mainland Ecoregion is a part of the Pacific Maritime Ecozone Environment Canada "Narrative Descriptions of Terrestrial Ecozones and Ecoregions of Canada". Accessed 2006-06-08. The provincial Ministry of Environment bases its Lower Mainland Region on this ecoregion, rather than on the traditional Lower Mainland alone. 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4,850 | Apollo_program | Apollo program insignia The Apollo Program was a human spaceflight program undertaken by NASA during the years 1961–1975 with the goal of conducting manned moon landing missions. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy announced a goal of landing a man on the moon by the end of the decade. It was accomplished on July 20, 1969 by the landing of astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, with Michael Collins orbiting above during the Apollo 11 mission. Five other Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last one in 1972. These six Apollo spaceflights are the only times humans have landed on another celestial body. 30th Anniversary of Apollo 11, Manned Apollo Missions, NASA, 1999. The Apollo program, specifically the lunar landings, is often cited as the greatest achievement in human history. 30th Anniversary of Apollo 11, NASA, 1999. 30th Anniversary of Apollo 11, BBC, 23 July 1999. Apollo was the third human spaceflight program undertaken by NASA, the space agency of the United States. It used Apollo spacecraft and Saturn launch vehicles, which were later used for the Skylab program and the joint American-Soviet Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. These later programs are thus often considered to be part of the overall Apollo program. The goal of the program, as articulated by President Kennedy, was accomplished with only two major failures. The first failure resulted in the deaths of three astronauts, Gus Grissom, Ed White and Roger Chaffee, in the Apollo 1 launchpad fire. The second was an in-space explosion on Apollo 13, which badly damaged the spacecraft on the moonward leg of its journey. The three astronauts aboard narrowly escaped with their lives, thanks to the efforts of flight controllers, project engineers, backup crew members and the skills of the astronauts themselves. The program set major milestones in the history of human spaceflight. This program stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit. Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while Apollo 17 marks the time of the last moonwalk and also the last manned mission beyond low Earth orbit. The major space exploration milestones leading up to the moon landing include: (Note: not all of these were accomplished by NASA.) first sub-orbital flight (1942) first orbital flight (1957) first unmanned lunar mission (1959) first man in space (1961) first manned lunar mission (1968). first manned lunar landing (1969). The program spurred advances in many areas of technology peripheral to rocketry and manned spaceflight. These include major contributions in the fields of avionics, telecommunications, and computers. The program sparked interest in many fields of engineering, including pioneering work using statistical methods to study the reliability of complex systems made from component parts. The physical facilities and machines which were necessary components of the manned spaceflight program remain as landmarks of civil, mechanical, and electrical engineering. Many objects and artifacts from the program are on display at various locations throughout the world, notably at the Smithsonian's Air and Space Museums. Background The Apollo program was originally conceived early in 1960, during the Dwight Eisenhower administration, as a follow-up to America's Mercury program. While the Mercury capsule could only support one astronaut on a limited earth orbital mission, the Apollo spacecraft was intended to be able to carry three astronauts on a circumlunar flight and perhaps even on a lunar landing. The program was named after the Greek god of light and music by NASA manager Abe Silverstein, who later said that "I was naming the spacecraft like I'd name my baby." Murray and Cox, Apollo, p. 55. While NASA went ahead with planning for Apollo, funding for the program was far from certain, particularly given Eisenhower's equivocal attitude to manned spaceflight. Murray and Cox, Apollo, p. 60. In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected President after a campaign that promised American superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of space exploration and missile defense. Using space exploration as a symbol of national prestige, he warned of a "missile gap" between the two nations, pledging to make the U.S. not "first but, first and, first if, but first period." Beschloss, 'Kennedy and the Decision to Go to the Moon,' in Launius and McCurdy, eds., Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership. Despite Kennedy's rhetoric, he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he was elected President. He knew little about the technical details of the space program, and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a manned moon landing. Sidey, John F. Kennedy, pp. 117-118. When NASA Administrator James Webb requested a thirty percent budget increase for his agency, Kennedy supported an acceleration of NASA's large booster program but deferred a decision on the broader issue. Beschloss, 'Kennedy and the Decision to Go to the Moon,' p. 55. On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first man to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union. At a meeting of the U.S. House Committee on Science and Astronautics held only one day after Gagarin's flight, many congressmen pledged their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would catch up. "Discussion of Soviet Man-in-Space Shot," Hearing before the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U.S. House of Representatives, 87th Congress, First Session, April 13, 1961. Kennedy, however, was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on America's response to the Soviets. Sidey, John F. Kennedy, p. 114 On April 20 Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, asking Johnson to look into the status of America's space program, and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity to catch up. Kennedy to Johnson, "Memorandum for Vice President," April 20, 1961. Johnson responded on the following day, concluding that "we are neither making maximum effort nor achieving results necessary if this country is to reach a position of leadership." Johnson to Kennedy, "Evaluation of Space Program," April 21, 1961. His memo concluded that a manned moon landing was far enough in the future to make it possible that the United States could achieve it first. The Decision to Go to the Moon: President John F. Kennedy's May 25, 1961 speech before a Joint Session of Congress On May 25, 1961, Kennedy announced his support for the Apollo program as part of a special address to a joint session of Congress: At the time of Kennedy's speech, only one American had flown in space — less than a month earlier — and NASA had not yet sent a man into orbit. Even some NASA employees doubted whether Kennedy's ambitious goal could be met. Murray and Cox, Apollo, pp. 16-17. Answering President Kennedy's challenge and landing men on the moon by the end of 1969 required the most sudden burst of technological creativity, and the largest commitment of resources ($25 billion), ever made by any nation in peacetime. At its peak, the Apollo program employed 400,000 people and required the support of over 20,000 industrial firms and universities. NASA Langley Research Center's Contributions to the Apollo Program, NASA Langley Research Center. President John F. Kennedy delivers a speech at Rice University on the subject of the American space program, September 12, 1962. Choosing a mission mode Once Kennedy had defined a goal the Apollo mission planners were faced with the challenge of designing a set of flights that could meet this stated goal while minimizing risk to human life, cost, and demands on technology and astronaut skill. Four possible mission modes were considered: Early Apollo configuration for Direct Ascent and Earth Orbit Rendezvous - 1961 (NASA) Direct Ascent: A spacecraft would travel directly to the Moon, landing and returning as a unit. This plan would have required a very powerful booster, the planned Nova rocket. Earth Orbit Rendezvous (EOR): Multiple rockets (up to fifteen in some claims) would be launched, each carrying various parts of a Direct Ascent spacecraft and propulsion units that would have enabled the spacecraft to escape earth orbit. After a docking in earth orbit, the spacecraft would have landed on the Moon as a unit. Lunar Surface Rendezvous: Two spacecraft would be launched in succession. The first, an automated vehicle carrying propellants, would land on the Moon and would be followed some time later by the manned vehicle. Propellant would be transferred from the automated vehicle to the manned vehicle before the manned vehicle could return to Earth. Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR): One Saturn V would launch a spacecraft that was composed of modular parts. A command module would remain in orbit around the moon, while a lunar module would descend to the moon and then return to dock with the command module while still in lunar orbit. In contrast with the other plans, LOR required only a small part of the spacecraft to land on the Moon, thereby minimizing the mass to be launched from the Moon's surface for the return trip. In early 1961, direct ascent was generally the mission mode in favor at NASA. Many engineers feared that a rendezvous -- let alone a docking -- neither of which had been attempted even in Earth orbit, would be extremely difficult in lunar orbit. However, dissenters including John Houbolt at Langley Research Center emphasized the important weight reductions that were offered by the LOR approach. Throughout 1960 and 1961, Houbolt campaigned for the recognition of LOR as a valid and practical option. Bypassing the NASA hierarchy, he sent a series of memos and reports on the issue to Associate Administrator Robert Seamans; while acknowledging that he spoke "somewhat as a voice in the wilderness," Houbolt pleaded that LOR should not be discounted in studies of the question. Brooks, Grimwood and Swenson, Chariots for Apollo, p. 71. Seamans' establishment of the Golovin committee in July 1961 represented a turning point in NASA's mission mode decision. Hansen, Enchanted Rendezvous, p 21 While the ad-hoc committee was intended to provide a recommendation on the boosters to be used in the Apollo program, it recognized that the mode decision was an important part of this question. The committee recommended in favor of a hybrid EOR-LOR mode, but its consideration of LOR — as well as Houbolt's ceaseless work — played an important role in publicizing the workability of the approach. In late 1961 and early 1962, members of NASA's Space Task Group at the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston began to come around to support for LOR. The engineers at Marshall Space Flight Center took longer to become convinced of its merits, but their conversion was announced by Wernher von Braun at a briefing in June 1962. NASA's formal decision in favor of LOR was announced on July 11, 1962. Space historian James Hansen concludes that: Additionally, the selection of the LOR method would be further validated when Apollo 13's service module was stricken while on a trajectory towards the moon. Without the secondary, independent life support system found in the Lunar module, the astronauts would have perished Spacecraft The decision in favor of lunar orbit rendezvous dictated the basic design of the Apollo spacecraft. It would consist of two main sections: the Command/Service Module (CSM), in which the crew would spend most of the mission, and the Lunar Module (LM), which would descend to and return from the lunar surface. Command/service module Apollo CSM in lunar orbit. The command module (CM) was conical in shape, and was designed to carry three astronauts from launch into lunar orbit and back from the moon to splashdown. Equipment carried by the command module included reaction control engines, a docking tunnel, guidance and navigation systems and the Apollo Guidance Computer. Attached to the command module was the service module (SM), which housed the service propulsion system and its propellants, the fuel cell power system, four maneuvering thruster quads, the S-band antenna for communication with Mission Control, and storage tanks for water and air. On Apollo 15, 16 and 17 it also carried a scientific instrument package. The two sections of the spacecraft would remain attached until just prior to re-entry, at which point the service module would be discarded. Only the command module was provided with a heat shield that would allow it and its passengers to survive the intense heat of re-entry. After re-entry it would deploy parachutes that would slow its descent through the atmosphere, allowing a smooth splashdown in the ocean. Under the leadership of Harrison Storms, North American Aviation won the contract to build the CSM for NASA. Relations between North American and NASA were strained during the Apollo program, particularly after the Apollo 1 fire during which three astronauts died. The cause of the accident was determined to be an electrical short in the wiring of the command module; while determination of responsibility for the accident was complex, the review board concluded that "deficiencies existed in Command Module design, workmanship and quality control." Report of the Apollo 204 Review Board, Findings and Recommendations Lunar module Apollo LM on lunar surface The Lunar Module (LM) (also known as Lunar Excursion Module, or LEM), was designed solely to land on the moon, and to ascend from the lunar surface to the command module. It had a limited heat shield and was of a construction so lightweight that it would not have been able to fly in Earth gravity. It carried two crewmembers and consisted of two stages, a descent and an ascent stage. The descent stage incorporated compartments in which cargo such as the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package and Lunar Rover could be carried. The contract for design and construction of the lunar module was awarded to Grumman, and the project was overseen by Tom Kelly. There were also problems with the lunar module; due to delays in the test program, the LM became what was known as a "pacing item," meaning that it was in danger of delaying the schedule of the whole Apollo program. Chariots for Apollo, Ch 7-4 Due to these issues, the Apollo missions were rescheduled so that the first manned mission with the lunar module would be Apollo 9, rather than Apollo 8 as was originally planned. Boosters When the team of engineers led by Wernher von Braun began planning for the Apollo program, it was not yet clear what sort of mission their rocket boosters would have to support. Direct ascent would require a booster, the planned Nova rocket, which could lift a very large payload. NASA's decision in favor of lunar orbit rendezvous re-oriented the work of Marshall Spaceflight Center towards the development of the Saturn 1B and Saturn V. While these were less powerful than the Nova would have been, the Saturn V was still much more powerful than any booster developed before—or since. Saturn V The Saturn V rocket launched Apollo 11 and her crew on its journey to the Moon, July 16, 1969.Saturn V diagram from the Apollo 6 press kitThe Saturn V consisted of three stages and an Instrument Unit which contained the booster's guidance system. The first stage, the S-IC, consisted of five F-1 engines arranged in a cross pattern, which produced a total of 7.5 million pounds of thrust. They burned for only 2.5 minutes, accelerating the spacecraft to a speed of approximately 6000 miles per hour (2.68 km/s). Saturn V News Reference: First Stage Fact Sheet During development, the F-1 engines were plagued by combustion instability—if the combustion of propellants was not uniform across the flame front of an engine, pressure waves could build which would cause the engine to destroy itself. The problem was solved in the end through trial and error, fine-tuning the engines through numerous tests so that even small charges set off inside the engine would not induce instability. Murray and Cox, Apollo, pp. 145-51, 179-81. The second stage, the S-II, used five J-2 engines. They burned for approximately six minutes, taking the spacecraft to a speed of 15,300 miles per hour (6.84 km/s) and an altitude of about 115 miles (185 km). Saturn V News Reference: Second Stage Fact Sheet At this point the S-IVB third stage took over, putting the spacecraft into orbit. Its one J-2 engine was designed to be restarted in order to make the translunar injection burn. Saturn V News Reference: Third Stage Fact Sheet Saturn IB The Saturn IB was an upgraded version of the earlier Saturn I. It consisted of a first stage made up of eight H-1 engines and a second S-IVB stage which was identical to the Saturn V's third stage. The Saturn IB had only 1.6 million pounds of thrust in its first stage—compared to 7.5 million pounds for the Saturn V—but was capable of putting a command and lunar module into earth orbit. Saturn IB News Reference: Saturn IB Design Features It was used in Apollo test missions and in both the Skylab program and the Apollo-Soyuz Test Program. In 1973 a refitted S-IVB stage, launched by a Saturn V, became the Skylab space station. Missions Mission types In September 1967, the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Texas, proposed a series of missions that would lead up to a manned lunar landing. Seven mission types were outlined, each testing a specific set of components and tasks; each previous step needed to be completed successfully before the next mission type could be undertaken. These were: A - Unmanned Command/Service Module (CSM) test B - Unmanned Lunar Module (LM) test C - Manned CSM in low Earth orbit D - Manned CSM and LM in low Earth orbit E - Manned CSM and LM in an elliptical Earth orbit with an apogee of 4600 mi (7400 km) F - Manned CSM and LM in lunar orbit G - Manned lunar landing Later added to this were H missions, which were short duration stays on the Moon with two LEVAs ("moonwalks"). These were followed by the J missions, which were longer three day stays, with three LEVAs and the use of the lunar rover. Apollo 18 to 20 would have been J missions, as Apollo 15 to 17 were. In addition, a further group of flights — the I missions — were planned, which would have been long duration orbital missions using a Service Module bay loaded with scientific equipment. When it became obvious that later flights were being cancelled, such mission plans were brought into the J missions that were actually flown. Unmanned missions Preparations for the Apollo program began long before the manned Apollo missions were flown. Test flights of the Saturn I booster began in October 1961 and lasted until September 1964. Three further Saturn I launches carried boilerplate models of the Apollo command/service module. Two pad abort tests of the launch escape system took place in 1963 and 1965 at the White Sands Missile Range. The only unmanned missions to officially include Apollo as part of their name rather than serial number were Apollo 4, Apollo 5 and Apollo 6. Murray and Cox, Apollo, p. 238. Apollo 4 was the first test flight of the Saturn V booster. Launched on November 9, 1967, Apollo 4 exemplified George Mueller's strategy of "all up" testing. Rather than being tested stage by stage, as most rockets were, the Saturn V would be flown for the first time as one unit. The mission was a highly successful one. Walter Cronkite covered the launch from a broadcast booth about 4 miles (6 km) from the launch site. The extreme noise and vibrations from the launch nearly shook the broadcast booth apart- ceiling tiles fell and windows shook. At one point, Cronkite was forced to dampen the booth's plate glass window to prevent it from shattering. Murray and Cox, Apollo, p. 248. This launch showed that additional protective measures were necessary to protect structures in the immediate vicinity. Future launches used a damping mechanism directly at the launchpad which proved effective in limiting the generated noise. Apollo 6 was the last in the series of unmanned Apollo missions. It launched on April 4, 1968, and landed back on Earth almost ten hours later at 21:57:21 UTC. Manned missions This image shows Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin with the U.S. flag. The illusion of a breeze was caused by the horizontal rod intended to hold the flag flat failing to telescope out completely, thus leaving ripples in the fabric like those seen in a flag in the wind. On each manned mission there were three astronauts: a commander, a command module pilot (CMP), and a lunar module pilot (LMP). In the case of a moon landing the commander and the LMP descended to the Moon, while the CMP remained in lunar orbit. Apollo 7, launched on October 11, 1968 was the first manned mission in the Apollo program. It was an eleven-day Earth-orbital mission intended to test the redesigned command module. It was the first manned launch of the Saturn IB launch vehicle, and the first three-man American space mission. A mounted camera captures Neil Armstrong as he becomes the first human to step on the moon. By the summer of 1968 it became clear to program managers that a fully functional LM would not be available for the Apollo 8 mission. Rather than perform a simple earth orbiting mission, they chose to send Apollo 8 around the moon during Christmas. The original idea for this switch was the brainchild of George Low. Although it has often been claimed that this change was made as a direct response to Soviet attempts to fly a piloted Zond spacecraft around the moon, there is no evidence that this was actually the case. NASA officials were aware of the Soviet Zond flights, but the timing of the Zond missions does not correspond well with the extensive written record from NASA about the Apollo 8 decision. It is relatively certain that the Apollo 8 decision was primarily based upon the LM schedule, rather than fear of the Soviets beating the Americans to the moon. Between December 21, 1968 and May 18, 1969, NASA launched three Apollo missions (8, 9, and 10) using the Saturn V launch vehicle. Each mission had a crew of three astronauts, and the last two included Lunar Modules, but none of these were intended as Moon landing missions. Astronaut Harrison H. Schmitt, December 13, 1972. This image was taken during the Apollo 17 mission, the last human lunar landing to date. The next two flights (11 and 12) included successful Moon landings. The Apollo 13 mission was aborted before the landing attempt, but the crew returned safely to Earth. The four subsequent Apollo missions (14 through 17) included successful Moon landings. The last three of these were J-class missions that included the use of Lunar Rovers. Apollo 17 launched December 7, 1972 and was the last Apollo mission to the moon. Mission commander Eugene Cernan was the last person to leave the Moon's surface. The crew returned safely to Earth on December 19, 1972. Apollo applications program Following the success of the Apollo program, both NASA and its major contractors investigated several post-lunar applications for the Apollo hardware. The "Apollo Extension Series", later called the "Apollo Applications Program", proposed up to thirty flights to earth orbit. Many of these would use the space that the lunar module took up in the Saturn rocket to carry scientific equipment. Of all the plans, only two were implemented: the Skylab space station (May 1973 – February 1974), and the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (July 1975). Skylab's fuselage was constructed from the second stage of a Saturn IB, and the station was equipped with the Apollo Telescope Mount, itself based on a lunar module. The station's three crews were ferried into orbit atop Saturn IBs, riding in CSMs; the station itself had been launched with a modified Saturn V. Skylab's last crew departed the station on February 8, 1974, while the station itself returned prematurely to Earth in 1979, by which time it had become the oldest operational Apollo component. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project involved a docking in Earth orbit between a CSM and a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft. The mission lasted from July 15 to July 24, 1975. Although the Soviet Union continued to operate the Soyuz and Salyut space vehicles, NASA's next manned mission would not be until STS-1 on April 12, 1981. Samples returned LunarMissionSampleReturnedRepresentativeSampleApollo 1122 kgApollo 1234 kgApollo 1443 kgApollo 1577 kgThe most famous of the Moon rocks recovered, the Genesis Rock, was discovered and returned from the Apollo 15 mission.Apollo 1695 kgFerroan Anorthosite moon rock, collected by Apollo 16. The only sources of moon rocks on Earth are those collected from the Apollo program, the former Soviet Union's Luna missions, and lunar meteorites. Future missions manned or unmanned would provide the opportunity to collect more.Apollo 17111 kg The Apollo program returned 381.7 kg (841.5 lb) of rocks and other material from the Moon, much of which is stored at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory in Houston. In general the rocks collected from the Moon are extremely old compared to rocks found on Earth, as measured by radiometric dating techniques. They range in age from about 3.2 billion years old for the basaltic samples derived from the lunar mare, to about 4.6 billion years for samples derived from the highlands crust. As such, they represent samples from a very early period in the development of the Solar System that is largely missing from Earth. One important rock found during the Apollo Program was the Genesis Rock, retrieved by astronauts James Irwin and David Scott during the Apollo 15 mission. This rock, called anorthosite, is composed almost exclusively of the calcium-rich feldspar mineral anorthite, and is believed to be representative of the highland crust. A geochemical component called KREEP was discovered that has no known terrestrial counterpart. Together, KREEP and the anorthositic samples have been used to infer that the outer portion of the Moon was once completely molten (see lunar magma ocean). Almost all of the rocks show evidence for having been affected by impact processes. For instance, many samples appear to be pitted with micrometeoroid impact craters, something which is never seen on earth due to its thick atmosphere. Additionally, many show signs of being subjected to high pressure shock waves that are generated during impact events. Some of the returned samples are of impact melt, referring to materials that are melted in the vicinity of an impact crater. Finally, all samples returned from the Moon are highly brecciated as a result of being subjected to multiple impact events. Analysis of composition of the lunar samples support the giant impact hypothesis, that the Moon was created through a "giant impact" of a large astronomical body with the Earth. Program costs and cancellation In March 1966, NASA told Congress the "run-out cost" of the Apollo program to put men on the moon would be an estimated $22.718 Billion for the 13-year program which eventually accomplished six successful missions between July 1969 and December 1972. According to Steve Garber, the NASA History website curator, the final cost of project Apollo was between $20 and $25.4 billion in 1969 dollars (or approximately $135 billion in 2005 dollars). The costs associated with the Apollo spacecraft and Saturn rockets amounted to about $83 billion [Apollo spacecraft: $28 billion (Command/Service Module: $17 billion; Lunar Module: $11-billion), Saturn I, Saturn IB, Saturn V launch vehicles: about $46 billion] in 2005 dollars. Canceled missions Originally three additional lunar landing missions had been planned, as Apollo 18 through Apollo 20. In light of the drastically shrinking NASA budget and the decision not to produce a second batch of Saturn Vs, these missions were canceled to make funds available for the development of the Space Shuttle, and to make their Apollo spacecraft and Saturn V launch vehicles available to the Skylab program. Only one of the remaining Saturn Vs was actually used to launch the Skylab orbital laboratory in 1973; the others became museum exhibits at the John F. Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida, George C. Marshall Space Center in Huntsville, Alabama, Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, Louisiana, and Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. Scientific and engineering legacy Unflown command module CM-007 at the Museum of Flight in Seattle The Apollo program stimulated many areas of technology. The flight computer design used in both the lunar and command modules was, along with the Minuteman Missile System, the driving force behind early research into integrated circuits. The fuel cell developed for this program was the first practical fuel cell. Computer-controlled machining (CNC) was pioneered in fabricating Apollo structural components. and How Apollo Has Influenced Society Influence on future human space exploration Several nations have planned future human lunar missions, and several space agencies also intend to build lunar bases. Neil Armstrong, the commander of the first successful landing Apollo 11, is often asked by the press for his views on the future of spaceflight. In 2005, he said that a human voyage to Mars will be easier than the lunar challenge of the 1960s: "I suspect that even though the various questions are difficult and many, they are not as difficult and many as those we faced when we started the Apollo (space program) in 1961." Constellation program In a speech on January 14, 2004, President Bush announced a new Vision for Space Exploration, which included plans for the United States to return astronauts to the Moon no later than 2020 (with the first human landing -- Orion 15 -- currently planned for 2019). This mission would be a part of the Constellation program, NASA's program to create a new generation of spacecraft for human spaceflight. Replacing the Space Shuttle following its retirement in 2010 will be the Orion crew capsule, which closely resembles the Apollo command module in its aerodynamic shape. NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin has described the capsule as "Apollo on steroids," and the New Scientist magazine reports that "some critics... say the whole Orion program is little more than a throwback to Apollo-era technology." NASA to boldly go... with Lockheed Martin - space - September 1, 2006 - New Scientist Space In other respects, however—including its cockpit displays and its heatshield—Orion will be employing new technology. Technology Review: Part Apollo, Part Boeing 787 More closely based on Apollo designs is the upper stage of the Ares I, the launch vehicle designed to take Orion into orbit. It will be based on a J-2X engine, a redesigned version of the J-2 engine used in the Saturn family of boosters. In working on the J-2X, NASA engineers have visited museums, searched for Apollo-era documentation and consulted with engineers who worked on the Apollo program. "The mechanics of landing on the moon and getting off the moon to a large extent have been solved," said Constellation program manager Jeff Hanley. "That is the legacy that Apollo gave us." NASA is borrowing ideas from the Apollo - USATODAY.com Like Apollo, Orion will fly a lunar orbit rendezvous mission profile, but unlike Apollo, the lander, known as Altair, will be launched separately on the Ares V rocket, a rocket based on both Space Shuttle and Apollo technologies. Orion will be launched separately and will link up with Altair in low earth orbit like that of the Skylab program. Also, Orion, unlike Apollo, will remain unmanned in lunar orbit while the entire crew lands on the lunar surface, with the lunar polar regions in mind instead of the equatorial regions explored by Apollo. Constellation will also employ an Earth orbit rendezvous mission profile, which was dropped in favor of lunar orbit rendezvous in Apollo. Cultural legacy A world wide audience The Apollo 8 crew's 1968 Christmas Eve broadcast was the most widely watched television broadcast up until that time. The broadcast's historic significance and worldwide impact is discussed here. Approximately one fifth of the population of the world watched the live transmission of the first Apollo moonwalk. Psychological impact on the astronauts "We went to explore the Moon, and in fact discovered the Earth." -Eugene Cernan "Everything that I ever knew - my life, my loved ones, the Navy - everything, the whole world was behind my thumb." -James Lovell Many astronauts and cosmonauts have commented on the profound effects that seeing Earth from space has had on them. One of the most important legacies of the Apollo program was the now-common, but not universal, view of Earth as a fragile, small planet, captured in the photographs taken by the astronauts during the lunar missions. The most famous of these photographs, taken by the Apollo 17 astronauts, is "The Blue Marble" (see image at right). These photographs have also motivated many people toward environmentalism. Documentaries There have been numerous documentary films covering the Apollo project and the space race including: For All Mankind (1989) From the Earth to the Moon (TV miniseries) (1998) "Moon" from the BBC miniseries The Planets (TV series) (1999) Magnificent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D (2005) In the Shadow of the Moon (2007) When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions (miniseries) (2008) See also Apollo 1 - unflown mission Apollo 2, Apollo 3, Apollo 4, Apollo 5, Apollo 6 - unmanned missions Apollo 18, Apollo 19, Apollo 20 - cancelled missions Project Mercury Project Gemini Apollo Moon Landing hoax conspiracy theories Apollo TV camera Extra-vehicular activity List of artificial objects on the Moon Pad Abort Tests Soviet Moonshot Notes References "Discussion of Soviet Man-in-Space Shot," Hearing before the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U.S. House of Representatives, 87th Congress, First Session, April 13, 1961. Further reading Kranz, Gene, Failure is Not an Option. Factual, from the standpoint of a chief flight controller during the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space programs. ISBN 0-7432-0079-9 Chaikin, Andrew. A Man on the Moon. ISBN 0-14-027201-1. Chaikin has interviewed all the surviving astronauts, plus many others who worked with the program. French, Francis and Burgess, Colin, In the Shadow of the Moon: A Challenging Journey to Tranquility, 1965-1969. ISBN 978-0-8032-1128-5. History of the Apollo program from Apollo 1-11, including many interviews with the Apollo astronauts. Cooper, Henry S. F. Jr. Thirteen: The Flight That Failed. ISBN 0-8018-5097-5. Although this book focuses on Apollo 13, it is extremely well-researched and provides a wealth of background information on Apollo technology and procedures. Wilhelms, Don E. To a Rocky Moon. ISBN 0-8165-1065-2. Tells the history of Lunar exploration from a geologist's point of view. Robert C. Seamans, Jr. Project Apollo: The Tough Decisions. ISBN: 0-1607-4954-9. Presents the history of the manned space program from September 1, 1960 to January 5, 1968. Pellegrino, Charles R.; Stoff, Joshua. Chariots for Apollo: The Untold Story Behind the Race to the Moon. ISBN 0-380-80261-9. Tells Grumman's story of building the Lunar Modules. Lovell, Jim; Kluger, Jeffrey. Lost Moon: The perilous voyage of Apollo 13 aka Apollo 13: Lost Moon. ISBN 0-618-05665-3. Details the flight of Apollo 13. Collins, Michael. Carrying the Fire; an Astronaut's journeys. Astronaut Mike Collins autobiography of his experiences as an astronaut, including his flight aboard Apollo 11, the first landing on the Moon Orloff, Richard W. SP-4029 Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference Slayton, Donald K.; Cassutt, Michael. Deke! An Autobiograpy''. ISBN 0-312-85918-X. This is an excellent account of Deke Slayton's life as an astronaut and of his work as chief of the astronaut office, including selection of the crews which flew Apollo to the Moon. From origin to November 7, 1962 November 8, 1962 - September 30, 1964 October 1, 1964 - January 20, 1966 January 21, 1966 - July 13, 1974 External links Official Apollo program website Apollo photo gallery at NASA Human Spaceflight website (includes videos/animations) Audio recording and transcript of President John F. Kennedy, NASA administrator James Webb et al. discussing the Apollo agenda (White House Cabinet Room, November 21, 1962) U.S. Spaceflight History- Apollo Program Apollo Image Atlas almost 25,000 lunar images, Lunar and Planetary Institute Project Apollo at NASA History Division The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal The Apollo Flight Journal Project Apollo Drawings and Technical Diagrams Apollo Program Summary Report (Technical) The Apollo Program (National Air and Space Museum) Apollo 35th Anniversary Interactive Feature (in Flash) Exploring the Moon: Apollo Missions Apollo Archive - large repository of information about the Apollo program. Apollo Flight Film Archive - repository of scanned Apollo flight film (in high resolution). 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4,851 | Laches_(equity) | Laches () (f. French, lachesse, laches ) [[OED|Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd Ed., (1989)]] is an equitable defense, or doctrine. The person invoking laches is asserting that an opposing party has "slept on its rights," and that, as a result of this delay, that other party is no longer entitled to its original claim. Put another way, failure to assert one’s rights in a timely manner can result in a claim's being barred by laches. Laches is a form of estoppel for delay. In Latin, Vigilantibus non dormientibus æquitas subvenit. Equity aids the vigilant, not the negligent (that is, those who sleep on their rights). In most contexts, an essential element of laches is the requirement that the party invoking the doctrine has changed its position as a result of the delay. In other words, the defendant is in a worse position now than at the time the claim should have been brought. For example, the delay in asserting the claim may have caused a great increase in the potential damages to be awarded, or assets that could earlier have been used to satisfy the claim may have been distributed in the meantime, or the property in question may already have been sold, or evidence or testimony may no longer be available to defend against the claim. A defense lawyer raising the defense of laches against a motion for injunctive relief (a form of equitable relief) might argue that the plaintiff comes "waltzing in at the eleventh hour" when it is now too late to grant the relief sought, at least not without causing great harm that the plaintiff could have avoided. In certain types of cases (for example, cases involving time-sensitive matters, such as elections), a delay of even a few days is likely to be met with a defense of laches, even where the applicable statute of limitations might allow the type of action to be commenced within a much longer time period. A successful defense of laches will find the court denying the request for equitable relief. However, even if equitable relief is not available, the party may still have an action at law if the statute of limitations has not run out. Under the United States Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, laches is an affirmative defense, which means that the burden of proving laches is on the party asserting it (normally the defendant). Compared to statute of limitations The defense of laches resembles, but is not entirely analogous to, a plea that the period of time allowed under a statute of limitations has expired. Laches essentially alleges prejudicial delay and unfairness in the context of a particular situation, whereas statutes of limitation tend to define a specific legally prescribed period of time (after the cause of action has accrued) within which a lawsuit for a particular type of cause of action may be commenced or after which the right to recovery is barred. Moreover, although a lawsuit commenced within the time allowed by a limitations period is valid no matter how long it takes for the action to proceed to trial, laches can sometimes be applied even in a situation where a lawsuit has been commenced and any delays would otherwise be reasonable. It is generally allowed by a court when a defendant could reasonably have believed that the plaintiff was not going to exercise his or her legal rights and acted on that belief to his or her detriment. See also Adverse possession Estoppel by acquiescence Equitable tolling Submarine patent References External links Nair, Manisha Singh (2006) "Laches and Acquiescence" in Indian intellectual property law | Laches_(equity) |@lemmatized laches:15 f:1 french:1 lachesse:1 oed:1 oxford:1 english:1 dictionary:1 ed:1 equitable:5 defense:7 doctrine:2 person:1 invoke:2 assert:4 oppose:1 party:5 sleep:2 right:5 result:3 delay:7 longer:2 entitle:1 original:1 claim:6 put:1 another:1 way:1 failure:1 one:1 timely:1 manner:1 bar:2 form:2 estoppel:2 latin:1 vigilantibus:1 non:1 dormientibus:1 æquitas:1 subvenit:1 equity:1 aid:1 vigilant:1 negligent:1 context:2 essential:1 element:1 requirement:1 change:1 position:2 word:1 defendant:3 bad:1 time:6 bring:1 example:2 may:6 cause:4 great:2 increase:1 potential:1 damage:1 award:1 asset:1 could:3 earlier:1 use:1 satisfy:1 distribute:1 meantime:1 property:2 question:1 already:1 sell:1 evidence:1 testimony:1 available:2 defend:1 lawyer:1 raise:1 motion:1 injunctive:1 relief:5 might:2 argue:1 plaintiff:3 come:1 waltz:1 eleventh:1 hour:1 late:1 grant:1 seek:1 least:1 without:1 harm:1 avoid:1 certain:1 type:3 case:2 involve:1 sensitive:1 matter:2 election:1 even:4 day:1 likely:1 meet:1 applicable:1 statute:5 limitation:6 allow:4 action:5 commence:4 within:3 much:1 long:2 period:4 successful:1 find:1 court:2 deny:1 request:1 however:1 still:1 law:2 run:1 united:1 state:1 federal:1 rule:1 civil:1 procedure:1 affirmative:1 mean:1 burden:1 prove:1 normally:1 compare:1 resembles:1 entirely:1 analogous:1 plea:1 expire:1 essentially:1 allege:1 prejudicial:1 unfairness:1 particular:2 situation:2 whereas:1 tend:1 define:1 specific:1 legally:1 prescribed:1 accrue:1 lawsuit:3 recovery:1 moreover:1 although:1 valid:1 take:1 proceed:1 trial:1 sometimes:1 apply:1 would:1 otherwise:1 reasonable:1 generally:1 reasonably:1 believe:1 go:1 exercise:1 legal:1 act:1 belief:1 detriment:1 see:1 also:1 adverse:1 possession:1 acquiescence:2 toll:1 submarine:1 patent:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 nair:1 manisha:1 singh:1 indian:1 intellectual:1 |@bigram defense_laches:4 injunctive_relief:1 equitable_relief:3 statute_limitation:5 external_link:1 |
4,852 | Ira_Gershwin | Ira Gershwin (December 6, 1896 – August 17, 1983) was an American lyricist who collaborated with his younger brother, composer George Gershwin, to create some of the most memorable songs of the 20th century. With George he wrote more than a dozen Broadway shows, featuring songs such as "I Got Rhythm", "Embraceable You", "The Man I Love" and "Someone to Watch Over Me", and the opera Porgy and Bess. The success the brothers had with their collaborative works has often overshadowed the creative role that Ira played. However, his mastery of songwriting continued after the early death of George. He wrote additional hit songs with composers Jerome Kern ("Long Ago (and Far Away)"), Kurt Weill and Harold Arlen. His critically acclaimed book Lyrics on Several Occasions of 1959, an amalgam of autobiography and annotated anthology, is an important source for studying the art of the lyricist in the golden age of American popular song. Ira Gershwin biographypbs.org, March 17, 2009 Biography Gershwin was born Israel Gershovitz in New York City to Morris and Rose Gershovitz who changed the family name to Gershwin well before their children rose to fame. Shy in his youth, he spent much of his time at home reading, but from grammar school through college, he played a prominent part in several school newspapers and magazines. He graduated from Townsend Harris High School in 1914, where he met Yip Harburg. He attended City College of New York but dropped out. Furia, pp.3-4, 11 Ira Gershwin biographyallmusic.com, accessed March 17, 2009 While his younger brother began composing and "plugging" in Tin Pan Alley from the age of eighteen, Ira worked as a cashier in his father's Turkish baths. Furia, p. 26 It was not until 1921 that Ira became involved in the music business. Alex Aarons signed Ira to write the music for his next show, Two Little Girls in Blue (written under the pseudonym "Arthur Francis"), ultimately produced by Abraham Erlanger, with co-composers Vincent Youmans and Paul Lannin. Gershwin's lyrics were well received and allowed him to successfully enter the theatre world with just one show. It was not until 1924 that Ira and George Gershwin teamed up to write the music for their first Broadway hit Lady, Be Good!. Once the brothers joined together, their combined talents became one of the most influential forces in the history of American Musical Theatre. "When the Gershwins teamed up to write songs for Lady, Be Good, the American musical found its native idiom". Furia, p. 45 Together, they wrote the music for more than twelve shows and four films. Some of their more famous works include "The Man I Love", "Fascinating Rhythm", "Someone to Watch Over Me", "I Got Rhythm", "Summertime", and "They Can't Take That Away from Me". Their partnership continued until George's sudden death from a brain tumor in 1937. Following his brother's death, Ira waited nearly three years before writing again. After this interlude, he teamed up with such accomplished composers as Jerome Kern (Cover Girl); Kurt Weill (Where Do We Go from Here? and Lady in the Dark); and Harold Arlen (A Star Is Born). Over the next fourteen years, Gershwin continued to write the lyrics for many film scores and a few Broadway shows. But the failure of Park Avenue in 1946, a "smart" show about divorce, co-written with composer Arthur Schwartz, was his farewell to Broadway. The Stage As he wrote at the time, "Am reading a couple of stories for possible musicalization (if there is such a word) but I hope I don't like them as I think I deserve a long rest." Ira Gershwin quoted by Edward Jablonski in Gershwin: A Biography, New York: Simon & Schuster (1988) ISBN 0-671-69931-8 American singer, pianist, musical historian Michael Feinstein worked for Gershwin in the lyricist's latter years, helping him with his archive. Several lost musical treasures were unearthed during this period, and Feinstein performed some of the material. Feinstein biographymusicianguide.com, accessed March 17, 2009 Private life He married Lenore (nee Strunsky) in 1926. Brennan, p.100 He died in Beverly Hills, California, and is interred at Westchester Hills Cemetery, Hastings-on-Hudson, New York. Awards and honors Three Ira Gershwin songs were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song, though none won: "They Can't Take That Away From Me" (1937), "Long Ago and Far Away" (1944) and "The Man That Got Away" (1954). Gershwin (1959) Ira Gershwin, with George S. Kaufman and Morrie Ryskind, received the 1932 Pulitzer Prize for Drama for Of Thee I Sing. Brennan, Elizabeth A., "Who's who of Pulitzer Prize winners" (1999), Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 1573561118, p. 100 The George and Ira Gershwin Lifetime Musical Achievement Award was established in 1988 by UCLA to honor the brothers for their contribution to music and for their gift to UCLA of the fight song "Strike Up the Band for UCLA". Past winners have included Angela Lansbury (1988), Ray Charles (1991), Mel Torme (1994), Bernadette Peters (1995), Frank Sinatra (2000), Stevie Wonder (2002), k.d. lang (2003), James Taylor (2004), Babyface (2005), Burt Bacharach (2006), Quincy Jones (2007), Lionel Richie (2008) and Julie Andrews (2009). Gershwin Award Winnersuclalumni.net, accessed May 11, 2009 Legacy The work of Ira and George Gershwin runs deep in the American consciousness. The opening clarinet glissando from George's Rhapsody in Blue, the taxi horn theme from his An American in Paris and the brothers' songs – "I Got Rhythm", "Embraceable You", "The Man I Love", "Someone to Watch Over Me", "Fascinating Rhythm", and many others – are instantly recognizable. Ira Gershwin was a joyous listener to the sounds of the modern world. "He had a sharp eye and ear for the minutae of living." He noted in a diary: "Heard in a day: An elevator's purr, telephone's ring, telephone's buzz, a baby's moans, a shout of delight, a screech from a 'flat wheel', hoarse honks, a hoarse voice, a tinkle, a match scratch on sandpaper, a deep resounding boom of dynamiting in the impending subway, iron hooks on the gutter." Rosenberg, p.31 In 1987, Ira's widow, Lenore Gershwin, established the Ira Gershwin Literacy Center at University Settlement, a century-old institution at 185 Eldridge Street on the Lower East Side, New York City. The Center is designed to give English-language programs to primarily Hispanic and Chinese Americans. Ira and his younger brother George spent many after-school hours at the Settlement. Staff.Widow of Ira Gershwin Endows Literacy Center",The New York Times, March 25, 1987 The George and Ira Gershwin Collection is at the Library of Congress Music Division. The Library of Congress Gershwin CollectionThe Library of Congress, accessed March 17, 2009 The Edward Jablonski and Lawrence D. Stewart Gershwin Collection at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin holds a number of Ira's manuscripts and other material. Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin In 2007, the Library of Congress named its Prize for Popular Song after him and his brother George. Recognizing the profound and positive effect of popular music on the world's culture, the prize will be given annually to a composer or performer whose lifetime contributions exemplify the standard of excellence associated with the Gershwins. On March 1, 2007, the Library of Congress announced that Paul Simon, one of America's most respected songwriters and musicians, was the first recipient of the annual Library of Congress Gershwin Prize for Popular Song. LoC: "Paul Simon To Be Awarded First Annual Gershwin Prize for Popular Song by Library of Congress" The second Gershwin Prize for Popular Song was awarded to Stevie Wonder by U.S. President Barack Obama on February 25, 2009. LoC: "President Obama Gives Gershwin Prize for Popular Song to Stevie Wonder Feb. 25" Notable songs "But Not For Me" "Embraceable You" "I Can't Get Started" "I Got Rhythm" "The Man I Love" "Someone to Watch Over Me" "'S Wonderful" References Sources External links Library of Congress Gershwin collection Ira Gershwin Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin Official Gershwin site Gershwin fan site | Ira_Gershwin |@lemmatized ira:22 gershwin:35 december:1 august:1 american:8 lyricist:3 collaborate:1 young:3 brother:9 composer:6 george:12 create:1 memorable:1 song:15 century:2 write:11 dozen:1 broadway:4 show:6 feature:1 get:6 rhythm:6 embraceable:3 man:5 love:4 someone:4 watch:4 opera:1 porgy:1 success:1 collaborative:1 work:5 often:1 overshadow:1 creative:1 role:1 played:1 however:1 mastery:1 songwriting:1 continue:3 early:1 death:3 additional:1 hit:2 jerome:2 kern:2 long:3 ago:2 far:2 away:5 kurt:2 weill:2 harold:2 arlen:2 critically:1 acclaim:1 book:1 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4,853 | Area | Area is a quantity expressing the two-dimensional size of a defined part of a surface, typically a region bounded by a closed curve. The term surface area refers to the total area of the exposed surface of a 3-dimensional solid, such as the sum of the areas of the exposed sides of a polyhedron. Area is an important invariant in the differential geometry of surfaces. Units Units for measuring area include: area (a) = 100 square meters (m²) hectare (ha) = 100 ares (a) = 10000 square meters (m²) square kilometre (km²) = 100 hectars (ha) = 10000 ares (a) = 1000000 square metres (m²) square megametre (Mm²) = 1012 square metres square foot = 144 square inches = 0.09290304 square metres (m²) square yard = = 0.83612736 square metres (m²) square perch = 30.25 square yards = 25.2928526 square metres (m²) acre = 10 square chains (also one furlong by one chain); or 160 square perches; or 4840 square yards; or = 4046.8564224 square metres (m²) square mile = = 2.5899881103 square kilometers (km²) Formulæ + Common formulæ for area: Shape Equation VariablesSquare is the length of one side of the square.Regular triangle (equilateral triangle) is the length of one side of the triangle.Regular hexagon is the length of one side of the hexagon.Regular octagon is the length of one side of the octagon. Any regular polygon is the apothem, or the radius of an inscribed circle in the polygon, and is the perimeter of the polygon.Any regular polygon is the sidelength and is the number of sides.Any regular polygon (using degree measure) is the sidelength and is the number of sides.Rectangle and are the lengths of the rectangle's sides (length and width).Parallelogram (in general) and are the length of the base and the length of the perpendicular height, respectively.Rhombus and are the lengths of the two diagonals of the rhombus.Triangle and are the base and altitude (measured perpendicular to the base), respectively.Triangle and are any two sides, and is the angle between them.Circle is the radius and the diameter.Ellipse and are the semi-major and semi-minor axes, respectively.Trapezoid and are the parallel sides and the distance (height) between the parallels.Total surface area of a Cylinder and are the radius and height, respectively.Lateral surface area of a cylinder and are the radius and height, respectively.Total surface area of a Cone and are the radius and slant height, respectively.Lateral surface area of a cone and are the radius and slant height, respectively.Total surface area of a Sphere and are the radius and diameter, respectively.Total surface area of an ellipsoid See the article.Circular sector and are the radius and angle (in radians), respectively.Square to circular area conversion is the area of the square in square units.Circular to square area conversion is the area of the circle in circular units. The above calculations show how to find the area of many common shapes. The area of irregular polygons can be calculated using the "Surveyor's formula". http://www.maa.org/pubs/Calc_articles/ma063.pdf Additional formulæ Areas of 2-dimensional figures a triangle: (where B is any side, and h is the distance from the line on which B lies to the other vertex of the triangle). This formula can be used if the height h is known. If the lengths of the three sides are known then Heron's formula can be used: (where a, b, c are the sides of the triangle, and is half of its perimeter) If an angle and its two included sides are given, then area=absinC where C is the given angle and a and b are its included sides. If the triangle is graphed on a coordinate plane, a matrix can be used and is simplified to the absolute value of (x1y2+ x2y3+ x3y1 - x2y1- x3y2- x1y3) all divided by 2. This formula is also known as the shoelace formula and is an easy way to solve for the area of a coordinate triangle by substituting the 3 points, (x1,y1) (x2,y2) (x3,y 3). The shoelace formula can also be used to find the areas of other polygons when their vertices are known. Another approach for a coordinate triangle is to use Infinitesimal calculus to find the area. Area in calculus The area between two graphs can be evaluated by calculating the difference between the integrals of the two functions the area between the graphs of two functions is equal to the integral of one function, f(x), minus the integral of the other function, g(x). an area bounded by a function r = r(θ) expressed in polar coordinates is . the area enclosed by a parametric curve with endpoints is given by the line integrals (see Green's theorem) or the z-component of Surface area of 3-dimensional figures cube: , where s is the length of the top side rectangular box: the length divided by height cone: , where r is the radius of the circular base, and h is the height. That can also be rewritten as where r is the radius and l is the slant height of the cone. is the base area while is the lateral surface area of the cone. prism: 2 * Area of Base + Perimeter of Base * Height General formula The general formula for the surface area of the graph of a continuously differentiable function where and is a region in the xy-plane with the smooth boundary: Even more general formula for the area of the graph of a parametric surface in the vector form where is a continuously differentiable vector function of : Area minimisation Given a wire contour, the surface of least area spanning ("filling") it is a minimal surface. Familiar examples include soap bubbles. The question of the filling area of the Riemannian circle remains open. See also Equi-areal mapping Integral Orders of magnitude (area)—A list of areas by size. Volume References External links Area formulas Conversion cable diameter to circle cross-sectional area and vice versa be-x-old:Плошча | Area |@lemmatized area:43 quantity:1 express:2 two:7 dimensional:4 size:2 defined:1 part:1 surface:16 typically:1 region:2 bound:2 closed:1 curve:2 term:1 refers:1 total:5 exposed:2 solid:1 sum:1 side:16 polyhedron:1 important:1 invariant:1 differential:1 geometry:1 unit:4 measure:3 include:3 square:25 meter:2 hectare:1 ha:2 kilometre:1 hectars:1 metre:6 megametre:1 foot:1 inch:1 yard:3 perch:2 acre:1 chain:2 also:5 one:7 furlong:1 mile:1 kilometer:1 formulæ:3 common:2 shape:2 equation:1 variablessquare:1 length:12 regular:6 triangle:11 equilateral:1 hexagon:2 octagon:2 polygon:7 apothem:1 radius:10 inscribed:1 circle:5 perimeter:3 sidelength:2 number:2 use:7 degree:1 rectangle:2 width:1 parallelogram:1 general:4 base:7 perpendicular:2 height:11 respectively:9 rhombus:2 diagonal:1 altitude:1 angle:4 diameter:3 ellipse:1 semi:2 major:1 minor:1 ax:1 trapezoid:1 parallel:2 distance:2 cylinder:2 lateral:3 cone:5 slant:3 sphere:1 ellipsoid:1 see:3 article:1 circular:5 sector:1 radian:1 conversion:3 calculation:1 show:1 find:3 many:1 irregular:1 calculate:2 surveyor:1 formula:10 http:1 www:1 maa:1 org:1 pub:1 pdf:1 additional:1 figure:2 b:4 h:3 line:2 lie:1 vertex:2 know:4 three:1 heron:1 c:2 half:1 give:4 absinc:1 included:1 graph:5 coordinate:4 plane:2 matrix:1 simplify:1 absolute:1 value:1 divide:2 shoelace:2 easy:1 way:1 solve:1 substitute:1 point:1 another:1 approach:1 infinitesimal:1 calculus:2 evaluate:1 difference:1 integral:5 function:7 equal:1 f:1 x:3 minus:1 g:1 r:4 θ:1 polar:1 enclose:1 parametric:2 endpoint:1 green:1 theorem:1 z:1 component:1 cube:1 top:1 rectangular:1 box:1 rewrite:1 l:1 prism:1 continuously:2 differentiable:2 xy:1 smooth:1 boundary:1 even:1 vector:2 form:1 minimisation:1 wire:1 contour:1 least:1 span:1 fill:1 minimal:1 familiar:1 example:1 soap:1 bubble:1 question:1 filling:1 riemannian:1 remain:1 open:1 equi:1 areal:1 mapping:1 order:1 magnitude:1 list:1 volume:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 cable:1 cross:1 sectional:1 vice:1 versa:1 old:1 плошча:1 |@bigram differential_geometry:1 square_kilometre:1 square_kilometer:1 equilateral_triangle:1 regular_polygon:3 slant_height:3 angle_radian:1 http_www:1 heron_formula:1 infinitesimal_calculus:1 polar_coordinate:1 parametric_curve:1 continuously_differentiable:2 xy_plane:1 external_link:1 cross_sectional:1 vice_versa:1 |
4,854 | Agner_Krarup_Erlang | Agner Krarup Erlang (January 1, 1878 – February 3, 1929) was a Danish mathematician, statistician and engineer, who invented the fields of traffic engineering and queueing theory. Life Erlang was born at Lonborg (Lønborg), near Tarm, in Jutland. He was the son of a schoolmaster, and a descendant of Thomas Fincke on his mother's side. A distant relative provided free board and lodging, and Erlang prepared for and took the University of Copenhagen entrance examination in 1896, and passed with distinction. He won a scholarship to the University and majored in mathematics, and also studied astronomy, physics and chemistry. He graduated in 1901 with an MA and over the next 7 years taught at several schools including the Milton House School of Statistics and the St John's Centre for Resource Planning. He maintained his interest in mathematics, and received an award for a paper that he submitted to the University of Copenhagen. He was a member of the Danish Mathematicians' Association (TBMI) and through this met amateur mathematician Johan Jensen, the Chief Engineer of the Copenhagen Telephone Company ( KTAS in Danish), an offshoot of the International Bell Telephone Company. Erlang worked for the CTC (KTAS) from 1908 for almost 20 years, until his death in Copenhagen after an abdominal operation. He was an associate of the British Institution of Electrical Engineers. Contributions While working for the CTC, Erlang was presented with the classic problem of determining how many circuits were needed to provide an acceptable telephone service. His thinking went further by finding how many telephone operators were needed to handle a given volume of calls. Most telephone exchanges then used human operators and cord boards to switch telephone calls by means of jack plugs. Out of necessity, Erlang was a hands-on researcher. He would conduct measurements and was prepared to climb into street manholes to do so. He was also an expert in the history and calculation of the numerical tables of mathematical functions, particularly logarithms. He devised new calculation methods for certain forms of tables. He developed his theory of telephone traffic over several years. His significant publications include: In 1909 - "The Theory of Probabilities and Telephone Conversations" - which proves that the Poisson distribution applies to random telephone traffic. In 1917 - "Solution of some Problems in the Theory of Probabilities of Significance in Automatic Telephone Exchanges" - which contains his classic formulae for loss and waiting time. These and other notable papers were translated into English, French and German. His papers were prepared in a very brief style and can be difficult to understand without a background in the field. One researcher from Bell Telephone Laboratories is said to have learned Danish to study them. The British Post Office accepted his formula as the basis for calculating circuit facilities. A unit of measurement, statistical distribution and programming language listed below have been named in his honour. See also Erlang - a unit of communication activity Erlang distribution - a statistical probability distribution Erlang programming language - developed by Ericsson for large industrial real-time systems Queueing theory Teletraffic engineering External links E. Brockmeyer, H.L. Halstrøm and Arne Jensen "The Life and Works of A.K. Erlang", (Collected works of A. K. Erlang) Biography - from Millennium Mathematics Project Erlang Distribution An Introduction to Erlang B and Erlang C by Ian Angus (PDF Document - Has terms and formulae plus biography) "Telefon-Ventetider. Et Stykke Sandsynlighedsregning", in Matematisk Tidsskrift, B, 1920 (a paper on telephone waiting times, in Danish, digitized by Project Runeberg) | Agner_Krarup_Erlang |@lemmatized agner:1 krarup:1 erlang:14 january:1 february:1 danish:5 mathematician:3 statistician:1 engineer:3 invent:1 field:2 traffic:3 engineering:2 queue:2 theory:5 life:2 bear:1 lonborg:1 lønborg:1 near:1 tarm:1 jutland:1 son:1 schoolmaster:1 descendant:1 thomas:1 fincke:1 mother:1 side:1 distant:1 relative:1 provide:2 free:1 board:2 lodging:1 prepared:1 take:1 university:3 copenhagen:4 entrance:1 examination:1 pass:1 distinction:1 win:1 scholarship:1 major:1 mathematics:3 also:3 study:2 astronomy:1 physic:1 chemistry:1 graduate:1 next:1 year:3 taught:1 several:2 school:2 include:2 milton:1 house:1 statistic:1 st:1 john:1 centre:1 resource:1 planning:1 maintain:1 interest:1 receive:1 award:1 paper:4 submit:1 member:1 association:1 tbmi:1 meet:1 amateur:1 johan:1 jensen:2 chief:1 telephone:12 company:2 ktas:2 offshoot:1 international:1 bell:2 work:4 ctc:2 almost:1 death:1 abdominal:1 operation:1 associate:1 british:2 institution:1 electrical:1 contribution:1 present:1 classic:2 problem:2 determine:1 many:2 circuit:2 need:2 acceptable:1 service:1 think:1 go:1 find:1 operator:2 handle:1 give:1 volume:1 call:2 exchange:2 use:1 human:1 cord:1 switch:1 mean:1 jack:1 plug:1 necessity:1 hands:1 researcher:2 would:1 conduct:1 measurement:2 prepare:2 climb:1 street:1 manhole:1 expert:1 history:1 calculation:2 numerical:1 table:2 mathematical:1 function:1 particularly:1 logarithm:1 devise:1 new:1 method:1 certain:1 form:1 develop:2 significant:1 publication:1 probability:3 conversation:1 prove:1 poisson:1 distribution:5 applies:1 random:1 solution:1 significance:1 automatic:1 contain:1 formula:3 loss:1 wait:2 time:3 notable:1 translate:1 english:1 french:1 german:1 brief:1 style:1 difficult:1 understand:1 without:1 background:1 one:1 laboratory:1 say:1 learn:1 post:1 office:1 accept:1 basis:1 calculate:1 facility:1 unit:2 statistical:2 programming:1 language:2 list:1 name:1 honour:1 see:1 communication:1 activity:1 program:1 ericsson:1 large:1 industrial:1 real:1 system:1 teletraffic:1 external:1 link:1 e:1 brockmeyer:1 h:1 l:1 halstrøm:1 arne:1 k:2 collect:1 biography:2 millennium:1 project:2 introduction:1 b:2 c:1 ian:1 angus:1 pdf:1 document:1 term:1 plus:1 telefon:1 ventetider:1 et:1 stykke:1 sandsynlighedsregning:1 matematisk:1 tidsskrift:1 digitize:1 runeberg:1 |@bigram poisson_distribution:1 probability_distribution:1 external_link:1 project_runeberg:1 |
4,855 | Ambrose_of_Alexandria | Ambrose of Alexandria (d. ca. 250) was a friend of the Christian theologian Origen. Ambrose was attracted by Origen's fame as a teacher, and visited the Catechetical School of Alexandria in 212. Through Origen's teaching, Ambrose rejected the gnostic theology of Valentinius, to which he had earlier subscribed. Eusebius, Church History, 6.18.1. He was wealthy and provided his teacher with books for his studies and secretaries to lighten the labor of composition. Eusebius, Church History, 6.18.1-2; and also Jerome's De Viris Illustribus # 61. He suffered during the persecution under Maximinus Thrax in 235. Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History, 6.18. He was later released and died a confessor. The last mention of Ambrose in the historical record is in Origen's Contra Celsum, which the latter wrote at the solicitation of Ambrose. Origen often speaks of Ambrose in affectionately as a man of education with excellent literary and scholarly tastes. All of Origen's works written after 218 are dedicated to Ambrose. Veneration Ambrose is venerated as a saint by some branches of Christianity. His feast day in the Roman Catholic Church falls on 17 March. References | Ambrose_of_Alexandria |@lemmatized ambrose:8 alexandria:2 ca:1 friend:1 christian:1 theologian:1 origen:6 attract:1 fame:1 teacher:2 visit:1 catechetical:1 school:1 teaching:1 reject:1 gnostic:1 theology:1 valentinius:1 earlier:1 subscribe:1 eusebius:3 church:4 history:3 wealthy:1 provide:1 book:1 study:1 secretary:1 lighten:1 labor:1 composition:1 also:1 jerome:1 de:1 viris:1 illustribus:1 suffer:1 persecution:1 maximinus:1 thrax:1 caesarea:1 later:1 release:1 die:1 confessor:1 last:1 mention:1 historical:1 record:1 contra:1 celsum:1 latter:1 write:2 solicitation:1 often:1 speak:1 affectionately:1 man:1 education:1 excellent:1 literary:1 scholarly:1 taste:1 work:1 dedicate:1 veneration:1 venerate:1 saint:1 branch:1 christianity:1 feast:1 day:1 roman:1 catholic:1 fall:1 march:1 reference:1 |@bigram theologian_origen:1 alexandria_origen:1 maximinus_thrax:1 eusebius_caesarea:1 |
4,856 | Isaac | Isaac (Hebrew: Yitzchak יִצְחָק, Yiddish: Yitzchok יִצְחָק, Standard , Tiberian ; Arabic: إسحٰق' ; "he will laugh") was the only child of Abraham and Sarah, and the father of Jacob and Esau, described in the Hebrew Bible. He is regarded as one of the three patriarchs of the Jewish people. According to the Book of Genesis, Abraham was 100 years old when Isaac was born. Isaac died when he was 180 years old, which made him the longest-living patriarch. He was also the only one whose name was not changed, and the only one who did not leave Canaan (although he once tried to leave and God told him not to do so). Compared to Abraham and Jacob, his story is less colorful, relating few incidents of his life. The New Testament contains several references to Isaac. The early Christian church viewed Abraham's willingness to follow God's command to sacrifice Isaac as an example of faith and obedience. Muslims honor Ishaq (Isaac) as a prophet of Islam. A few of the children of Isaac appear in the Qur'an. The Qur'an views Isaac as a righteous man, a servant of God, and the father of the Israelites. The Qur'an states that Isaac and his progeny are blessed as long as they uphold their covenant with God. This view, however, ceased to find support among Muslim scholars in later centuries. Some academic scholars have described Isaac as "a legendary figure", while others view him as "a figure representing tribal history, though as a historical individual" or as "a seminomadic leader". Etymology and meaning The Anglicized name Isaac is a transliteration of the Hebrew term , "he who will laugh," an abbreviation of "Yitzhakel", meaning "El will laugh" or "May El laugh." The name is purportedly given because the the one-hundred-year-old Abraham laughs when told by God that that he would have a son by his ninety-year-old wife Sarah (or alternatively, it is Sarah herself who laughs - both explanations are given); in fact it is a Canaanite name derived from the god , Avner Falk, "A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews", p.71 and Ugaritic texts from the 13th century BCE refer to the benevolent smile of the deity. Biblical narrative The angel hinders the offering up of Isaac, by Rembrandt Isaac (Yitschaq, Yischaq) is mentioned by name 80 times in the King James Version of Genesis, 32 times in the remainder of the Hebrew Bible, and 20 times in the New Testament. Strong's Concordance, Strong, James, ed., Isaac, Isaac's, 3327, 3446, 2464. In the narrative, God calls Isaac the "only son" of Abraham (, , cf. ), though Abraham's sons also include Ishmael and six others. Variations of the formula "Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob" occur 23 times in the Hebrew Bible. Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, Isaac, p. 647. Isaac is first prophesied at , is born at , dies at , and is remembered at . According to the documentary hypothesis, use of names of God indicates authorship, and form critics variously assign passages like to the Yahwist source, and , , and to the Elohist source; this source-critical approach has admitted problems, in that the name "Yahweh" appears in Elohist material. According to the compilation hypothesis, the formulaic use of the word toledoth (generations) indicates that is Isaac's record through Abraham's death (with Ishmael's record appended), and is Jacob's record through Isaac's death (with Esau's records appended). When Sarah was beyond child-bearing age, God told Abraham and Sarah that she would still give birth, at which she privately laughed (). Isaac was born when Abraham was 100, and Abraham circumcised Isaac when the boy was eight days old (). Isaac was Sarah's first and only child, but Abraham had had another son, Ishmael, thirteen years earlier, borne by Sarah's maidservant, Hagar (). After Isaac had been weaned, Sarah saw Ishmael mocking, and urged her husband to banish Hagar and Ishmael so that Isaac would be Abraham's only heir. Abraham was hesitant, but at God's order he listened to his wife's request (). Later, God tested Abraham by commanding him to sacrifice his son. Abraham obeyed and took Isaac to mount Moriah. Catholic Encyclopedia, Isaac. Without murmuring, Isaac let Abraham bind him and lay him upon the altar as a sacrifice. Abraham took the knife and raised his hand to kill his son; at the last minute, the angel of the prevented him from doing so. Instead of Isaac, Abraham sacrificed a ram that was trapped in a thicket nearby. (According to Islam, the Biblical narrative is incorrect and these events happened to Ishmael instead.) When Isaac was 40, Abraham sent Eliezer, his steward, into Mesopotamia to find a wife for Isaac, from his nephew Bethuel's family. Eliezer chose Rebekah for Isaac. After many years of marriage to Isaac, Rebekah had still not given birth to a child and was believed to be barren. Isaac prayed for her and she conceived (). Rebekah gave birth to twin boys, Esau and Jacob. Isaac was 60 years old when his two sons were born (). Isaac favored Esau, and Rebekah favored Jacob. As Abraham grew rich, Isaac stayed with his father, and was about 75 when his father died. Like Abraham, Isaac deceived Abimelech about his wife, and Isaac built his business by digging wells, unstopping those that his father had dug and the Philistines had stopped up. Isaac had a vision of God at Beersheba and made a treaty with Abimelech there. Isaac grew old and became blind. He called his son Esau and directed him to procure some venison for him, in order to receive Isaac's blessing. While Esau was hunting, Jacob deceptively misrepresented himself as Esau to his blind father and obtained his father's blessing, making Jacob Isaac's primary heir, and leaving Esau in an inferior position. Isaac sent Jacob into Mesopotamia to take a wife of his own family. After 20 years working for Laban, Jacob returned home, and he and Esau buried Isaac when Isaac died at the age of 180 (). Jewish Encyclopedia, Isaac. Jewish traditions Isaac Blessing Jacob, painting by Govert Flinck (Rijksmuseum Amsterdam) In rabbinical tradition the age of Isaac at the time of binding is taken to be 37 which contrasts with common portrayals of Isaac as a child. The New Encyclopedia of Judaism, Isaac. The rabbis also thought that the reason for the death of Sarah was the news of the intended sacrifice of Isaac. The sacrifice of Isaac was cited in appeals for the mercy of God in the later Jewish traditions. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Isaac. The post-Biblical Jewish interpretations often elaborate the role of Isaac beyond the Biblical description and largely focus on Abraham's intended sacrifice of Isaac, called the aqedah("binding"). According to a version of these interpretations, Isaac died in the sacrifice and was revived. According to many accounts of Aggadah, unlike the Bible, it is Satan who is testing Isaac and not God. Brock, Sebastian P., Brill's New Pauly, Isaac. Isaac's willingness to follow God's command at the cost of his death has been a model for many Jews who preferred martyrdom to violation of the Jewish law. According to the Jewish tradition Isaac instituted the afternoon prayer. This tradition is based on ("Isaac went out to meditate in the field at the eventide"). Isaac was the only patriarch who stayed in Canaan during his whole life and though once he tried to leave, God told him not to do so (). Rabinnic tradition gave the explanation that Isaac was almost sacrificed and anything dedicated as a sacrifice may not leave the Land of Israel. Isaac was the oldest of the Biblical patriarchs at the time of his death, and the only patriarch whose name was not changed. Easton, M. G., Illustrated Bible Dictionary, 3rd ed., Isaac. Rabbinic literature also linked Isaac's blindness in old age, as stated in the Bible, to the sacrificial binding: Isaac's eyes went blind because the tears of angels present at the time of his sacrifice fell on Isaac's eyes. New Testament In the New Testament, there are references to Isaac having been "offered up" by his father, and to his blessing his sons. Paul contrasted Isaac, symbolizing Christian liberty, with the rejected older son Ishmael, symbolizing slavery (); Encyclopedia of Religion, Isaac. Hagar is associated with the Sinai covenant, while Sarah is associated with the covenant of grace, into which her son Isaac enters. states that the sacrifice of Isaac shows that justification (in the Johannine sense) requires both faith and works. Encyclopedia of Christianity, Bowden, John, ed., Isaac. In the early Christian church, Abraham's willingness to follow God's command to sacrifice Isaac was used as an example of faith () and of obedience (). views the release of Isaac from sacrifice as analogous to the resurrection of Jesus, the idea of the sacrifice of Isaac being a prefigure of the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross. Islam Ishaq (Isaac) is a prophet in Islam, mentioned in a number of Qur'anic passages. Encyclopedia of Islam, Ishaq. E.g., appraisals: , , , , , ; prophecy: , , , , , , , , , . Like many other Hebrew prophets, the Qur'anic references to Isaac assume the audience is already familiar with him and his stories. There is little narrative of Isaac in the Qur'an. Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Isaac. The Qur'an recalls that Isaac was given to Sarah, when she and her husband Abraham were both old (). God gave Abraham the good news of the birth of Isaac, "a prophet, one of the Righteous" (), via messengers sent against the people of Lut. Sarah, however, is said to have laughed at the glad tidings of Isaac, and after him, of Jacob. Several other verses of the Qur'an speak of Isaac and Jacob being given to Abraham (, , ), and say that God "made prophethood and the Book to be among his offspring" (cf. , ). The formula "We gave Abraham Isaac and Jacob" has been "thought by some scholars to demonstrate that in the early revelations Jacob was considered to be a son of Abraham and not his grandson." Encyclopedia of Islam, Jacob. In some instances, the Qur'an joins together Isaac and Ishmael and "Abraham praises God for giving him the two although he was old" (). In other instances Isaac's name occurs in lists (, , ). Isaac is also mentioned alongside the twelve asbat (meaning tribes), who were the descendants of Isaac from Jacob. . Fresco with image of Ibrahim ready to sacrifice his son, in Shiraz. The Qur'an states that Abraham was commanded to sacrifice his son. The son is not however named in the Qur'an (e.g., ). In early Islam, there was a dispute over the identity of the son. However, Muslim scholars came to endorse that it was Ishmael. The argument of those early scholars who believed it was Isaac rather than Ishmael (notably Ibn Ḳutayba, and al-Ṭabarī) was that "God's perfecting his mercy on Abraham and Isaac" () referred to his making Abraham his friend and saving him from the burning bush, and to his rescuing Isaac. The other parties held that the promise to Sarah was of a son, Isaac, and a grandson, Jacob (), excluded the possibility of a premature death of Isaac. The early dispute was more concerned with Persian rather than Jewish rivalry with Arabs, since the Persians claimed to be of descendants of Isaac. Al-Masudi, for example, reports a Persian poet (902 C.E.) who claimed superiority over Arabs through descent from Isaac. Academic view Some scholars have described Isaac as "a legendary figure" while others view him "as a figure representing tribal history, though as a historical individual" or "as a seminomadic leader." Eerdmans Encyclopedia of Christianity, Isaac, p. 744. The stories of Isaac, like other patriarchal stories of Genesis, are generally believed in liberal Western scholarship to have "their origin in folk memories and oral traditions of the early Hebrew pastoralist experience." Columbia Encyclopedia, Isaac. Conservative Western scholarship believes the stories of Isaac, and other patriarchal stories in Genesis, to be factual. The Cambridge Companion to the Bible'' makes the following comment on the Biblical stories of the patriarchs: Yet for all that these stories maintain a distance between their world and that of their time of literary growth and composition, they reflect the political realities of the later periods. Many of the narratives deal with the relationship between the ancestors and peoples who were part of Israel’s political world at the time the stories began to be written down (eighth century B.C.E.). Lot is the ancestor of the Transjordanian peoples of Ammon and Moab, and Ishmael personifies the nomadic peoples known to have inhibited north Arabia, although located in the Old Testament in the Negev. Esau personifies Edom (36:1), and Laban represents the Aramean states to Israel’s north. A persistent theme is that of difference between the ancestors and the indigenous Canaanites… In fact, the theme of the differences between Judah and Israel, as personified by the ancestors, and the neighboring peoples of the time of the monarchy is pressed effectively into theological service to articulate the choosing by God of Judah and Israel to bring blessing to all peoples.” The Cambridge Companion to the Bible, p. 59. According to Martin Noth, a scholar of the Hebrew Bible, the narratives of Isaac date back to an older cultural stage than that of the West-Jordanian Jacob. At that era, the Israelite tribes were not yet sedentary. In the course of looking for grazing areas, they had come in contact in southern Palestine with the inhabitants of the settled countryside. The Biblical historian, A. Jopsen, believes in the connection between the Isaac traditions and the North and in support of this theory adduces Amos 7:9 ("the high places of Isaac"). Albrecht Alt and Martin Noth hold that, "The figure of Isaac was enhanced when the theme of promise, previously bound to the cults of the 'God the Fathers' was incorporated into the Israelite creed during the southern-Palestinian stage of the growth of the Pentateuch tradition." According to Martin Noth, at the Southern Palestinian stage of the growth of the Pentateuch tradition, Isaac became established as one of the Biblical patriarchs, but his traditions were receded in the favor of Abraham. Testament The Testament of Isaac is a pseudonymous text which was most likely composed in Greek in Egypt after 100 C.E. It is also dependent on the Testament of Abraham. In this testament, God sends the angel Michael to Isaac in order to inform him of his impending death. Isaac accepts God's decree but Jacob resists. Isaac in his bed-chamber tells Jacob of the inevitability of death. Isaac has a tour of heaven and hell shortly before his death in which God's compassion to repentant sinners is emphasized. In this testament, Isaac also talks with the crowds on the subjects of priesthood, asceticism, and the moral life. In art The earliest Christian portrayal of Isaac is found in the Roman catacomb frescoes. Excluding the fragments, Alison Moore Smith classifies these artistic works in three categories: "Abraham leads Isaac, bearing faggots, towards the altar; or Isaac approaches with the bundle of sticks, Abraham having preceded him to the place of offering .... Abraham is upon a pedestal and Isaac stands near at hand, both figures in orant attitude .... Abraham is shown about to sacrifice Isaac while the latter stands or kneels on the ground beside the altar. Sometimes Abraham grasps Isaac by the hair. Occasionally the ram is added to the scene and in the later paintings the Hand of God emerges from above." See also Abraham Ishmael Jacob Biblical narratives and the Qur'an Prophets of Islam Notes References External links Isaac in Jewish Encyclopedia Abraham's son as the intended sacrifice (Al-Dhabih, Qur'an 37:99, Qur'an 37:99–113): Issues in qur'anic exegesis, journal of Semitic Studies XXX1V/ Spring 1989 Sister projects | Isaac |@lemmatized isaac:122 hebrew:8 yitzchak:1 י:2 צ:2 ח:2 ק:2 yiddish:1 yitzchok:1 standard:1 tiberian:1 arabic:1 إسح:1 ق:1 laugh:8 child:6 abraham:43 sarah:13 father:9 jacob:22 esau:10 describe:3 bible:10 regard:1 one:6 three:2 patriarch:7 jewish:9 people:7 accord:9 book:2 genesis:4 year:8 old:14 bear:5 die:4 make:6 long:2 living:1 also:8 whose:2 name:10 change:2 leave:5 canaan:2 although:3 try:2 god:27 tell:5 compare:1 story:9 less:1 colorful:1 relate:1 incident:1 life:3 new:6 testament:10 contain:1 several:2 reference:4 early:8 christian:4 church:2 view:7 willingness:3 follow:3 command:5 sacrifice:20 example:3 faith:3 obedience:2 muslim:3 honor:1 ishaq:3 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4,857 | Oliver_Stone | William Oliver Stone (born September 15, 1946) is an American film director and screenwriter. Stone came to prominence as a director with a series of films about the Vietnam War, in which he had participated as an American infantry soldier, and his work continues to focus frequently on contemporary political and cultural issues, often controversially. His work has earned him three Academy Awards. His first Oscar was for Best Adapted Screenplay for Midnight Express (). He won Academy Awards for Directing Platoon () and Born on the Fourth of July (), both of which were centered on the Vietnam War. A notable feature of his directing style is the use of many different cameras and film formats, from VHS to 8 mm film to 70 mm film. He sometimes uses several formats in a single scene, as in JFK () and Natural Born Killers (). Some of Stone's films have been criticized for promoting conspiracy theories and for glorifying violence. Biography Stone was born in New York City, the son of Jacqueline (née Goddet) and Louis Stone, a stockbroker. Oliver Stone Biography (1946-) He grew up affluent and lived in townhouses in Manhattan and Stamford, Connecticut. His father was Jewish and his mother a Roman Catholic of French birth, and Stone was raised an Episcopalian as a compromise The religion of director Oliver Stone but has since converted to Buddhism. Stone attended Trinity School before his parents sent him away to attend The Hill School, an exclusive college-preparatory school in Pottstown, Pennsylvania. His parents divorced while he was away at The Hill School, and only then did Stone learn of his father's extramarital affairs with the wives of several family friends. Stone's father was also influential in obtaining jobs for his son including work on a financial exchange in France, where Stone often spent his summer vacation with his maternal grandparents, a job that proved inspirational to Stone for his movie Wall Street. Stone eventually graduated from The Hill School in 1964. Stone was then admitted into Yale University, where he subsequently dropped out after one year. Yale Daily News - Famous Failures Stone had become inspired by Joseph Conrad's novel Lord Jim as well as by Zorba the Greek and George Harrison's music to teach English at the Free Pacific Institute in South Vietnam. Stone taught in Vietnam for six months after which he worked as a wiper on a United States Merchant Marine ship, traveling to Oregon and Mexico, before returning to Yale, where he dropped out a second time. While at Yale, Stone and long-time friend Lloyd Kaufman, worked on an early Troma Entertainment production "The Battle of Love's Return" (1971). Both also acted in the movie, Stone in a cameo role. M.J. Simpson Interview with Lloyd Kaufman. Stone eventually graduated from film school at New York University (where he was mentored by director Martin Scorsese) in , after his service in Vietnam. A veteran of the Vietnam war, Stone served with the U.S. Army from April 1967 to November 1968. He specifically requested combat duty as an infantryman and was assigned to the 25th Infantry Division and the 1st Cavalry Division, and was wounded twice in action. His personal awards include the Bronze Star with "V" device for valor for "extraordinary acts of courage under fire", and the Purple Heart with one Oak Leaf Cluster. He has made three films about Vietnam – Platoon (), Born on the Fourth of July (), and Heaven & Earth (). He has called these films a trilogy, though they each deal with different aspects of the war. Platoon is a semi-autobiographical film about Stone's experience in combat. Born on the Fourth of July is based on the autobiography of Ron Kovic. Heaven & Earth is derived from the memoir When Heaven and Earth Changed Places, the true story of Le Ly Hayslip, a Vietnamese girl whose life is drastically affected by the war. During this same period, Stone directed Wall Street (), which earned Michael Douglas an Academy Award for Best Actor; Eric Bogosian's Talk Radio (), and The Doors (), starring Val Kilmer as Jim Morrison. Stone has won three Academy Awards. His first Oscar was for Best Adapted Screenplay for Midnight Express (). He won Academy Awards for Directing Platoon and Born on the Fourth of July. For Year of the Dragon () he received a Razzie nomination in the category Worst Screenplay. Other films whose screenplays he participated in are Conan the Barbarian (), Scarface (), 8 Million Ways to Die () and Evita (). In addition, he has written or taken part in the writing of every film he has directed, except for U Turn (). The very first film that he directed professionally was the obscure horror picture Seizure (). 1990s–2000s In the past decade, Stone has directed U-Turn (), which he describes as a small film that he would enjoy seeing as a teenager, Any Given Sunday (), a film about power struggles within and surrounding an American football team, and Alexander (), a biographical film about Alexander the Great. After Alexander, Stone went on to direct World Trade Center, which centered on two Port Authority Police Department (PAPD) cops during the September 11, 2001 attacks. The main undercurrent of the film is hope through times of trial. As of December 19, 2006, the worldwide box office for World Trade Center was $161,735,806. He is slated to direct Pinkville, a Vietnam war drama about the infamous killings set to star Bruce Willis and Channing Tatum. The film's plot was to focus on the investigation into the 1968 My Lai Massacre of Vietnamese civilians. It would have been Stone's fourth Vietnam film, after Platoon, Born on the Fourth of July and Heaven & Earth. The film was to have been made for the newly reformed United Artists. Stone headed to 'Pinkville' along with UA However, United Artists halted its December 2007 production start because of the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. Stone's latest film is a biopic about George W. Bush, named W. Stone indicated that it would be a "fair, but true portrait of the man", portraying the controversial President's childhood, relationship with his father, struggles with alcoholism, subsequent conversion to Christianity, his political career and presidency up through the invasion of Iraq. The film is based on a screenplay by Stone and Stanley Weiser, who had co-written Wall Street (). Josh Brolin was cast in the role of Bush, Variety James Cromwell as Bush Sr. and Elizabeth Banks as his wife. Filming began on May 12, 2008 in Shreveport, Louisiana and wrapped in June. W. was released on October 17 . Controversy Stone's films often have been criticized for promoting conspiracy theories and historical inaccuracies. JFK, for instance, hypothesizes many high-level government officials having a hand in the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. In , he showed the film to Congress on Capitol Hill, which helped lead to passage of the Assassination Materials Disclosure Act Search Results - THOMAS (Library of Congress) of 1992. The Assassination Records Review Board (created by Congress to end the secrecy surrounding Kennedy's assassination) discussed the film, including Stone's observation at the end of the film, about the dangers inherent in government secrecy. Final Report of the Assassination Records Review Board Stone published an annotated version of the screenplay, in which he cites references for his claims, shortly after the film's release. Stone's screenplay Midnight Express was criticised for portraying the Turkish people in an overly negative light. The original author, Billy Hayes, around whom the film is set, has spoken out against the film, protesting that he had many Turkish friends while in jail. Stone's film The Doors received criticism from Ray Manzarek (keyboardist–bass player) during a question and answer session at Indiana University East (in Richmond, Indiana) in 1997. During the discussion Manzarek stated that he sat down with Stone about The Doors and Jim Morrison for over 12 hours. He said none of the content of the discussion - such as details on important events in the history of The Doors and Morrison's personal life - was present in the film. Manzarek went on to say that Stone's film was highly inaccurate about Morrison and The Doors. Patricia Kennealy Morrison, a well known rock critic and author, and a high school friend of Billy Hayes), is on record publicly and privately with criticism of Stone's film. She was a consultant on the movie, in which she also has a cameo appearance, but she writes in her memoir Strange Days: My Life With and Without Jim Morrison (Dutton, 1992) that Stone ignored everything she told him and proceeded with his own version of events. From the moment the movie was released, she blasted it as untruthful and inaccurate. "She Slams 'Doors' on Portrayal", New York Post, (March 1991) Surviving members of the band: John Densmore, and Robby Krieger also cooperated with the filming of 'Doors' but distanced themselves from the work before the film's release. Natural Born Killers is filmed and edited in a frenzied style where animation, grainy black-and-white 8 mm film, color 35 mm film, and VHS are intercut and juxtaposed in a psychedelic montage of images showing not only the story's action, but also conveying the thoughts and feelings of the characters. The film was criticized by some for its apparent glorification of violence. Stone refutes this claim, saying that it is a satire of the American media's glorification of violence and violent people. The original screenwriter, Quentin Tarantino, was unhappy with the end result of the film because of the attention Stone gave to the aspects of the story involving the media, and asked that his name be removed from the credits. Tarantino was credited with "Story By" on the final film. In , a book about the making of the film, Killer Instinct was written by Jane Hamsher and published by Broadway Books. Also in 1997, Stone was one of 34 celebrities to sign an open letter to then-German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, published as a newspaper advertisement in the International Herald Tribune, which protested the treatment of Scientologists in Germany and compared it to the Nazis' oppression of Jews in the 1930s. Drozdiak, William (1997-01-14). U.S. Celebrities Defend Scientology in Germany, The Washington Post, p. A11 Other signatories included Dustin Hoffman and Goldie Hawn. In , Stone travelled to Cuba where he interviewed Fidel Castro for three days. The result was the documentary Comandante where Stone and Castro talk about politics, the Cuban Missile Crisis, Fidel's personal beliefs, the Cuban Revolution, important events from the past 50 years and Castro's views on the future of the revolution. The film was scheduled to air in May on HBO but was put on hold after an incident where hijackers threatened to kill passengers on a Cuban ferry if they were not taken to the United States. The hijackers were subsequently executed and in response to loud protests from the Miami Cuban lobby HBO pulled the film. To this day it has not been released in the United States and is only available on imported DVDs from Britain. Stone returned to Cuba and shot Looking for Fidel, a documentary dealing with conditions on the island and the relationship between Cuba and the United States. That film was aired on HBO in early . Stone has said he admires the Cuban Revolution and supports Cuba's rights as a sovereign nation free from U.S. influence. Drug use Stone loosely based Scarface on his own addiction to cocaine which he had to kick while writing the screenplay. On the DVD of Natural Born Killers: The Director's Cut, one of the producers, Jane Hamsher, recounts stories of taking psilocybin mushrooms with Stone and some of the cast and crew and almost getting pulled over by a police officer—a situation which Stone later wrote into the film. In , Stone was arrested and pleaded guilty to "alcohol and drug charges". He was ordered into a rehabilitation program. He was arrested again on the night of May 27, in Los Angeles for possession of a small amount of marijuana. Attempted meeting with FARC In a January interview with The Observer, Stone expressed disgust for the ongoing presumed U.S.-supported paramilitary violence in Colombia's "war on drugs". He accompanied Hugo Chavez, Venezuela's president and self-appointed negotiator with the Colombian guerilla group known as Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia, or FARC, in the release of three hostages held for over six years, another episode in the humanitarian exchange affair. The visit was part of his research for an upcoming film he will be directing which addresses the crisis. The Observer, ¨Stone: My Part in Baby Hostage Drama,¨ January 6, 2008. The FARC, designated a terrorist organization by the European Union and the United States, was described in a 2005 United Nations report as responsible for "grave" human rights violations, including "murders of protected persons, torture and hostage-taking¨ against ¨women, returnees, boys and girls, and ethnic groups." Commission on Human Rights, "Report of the High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Colombia." February 28, 2005. During The Observer interview, Stone refused to condemn the FARC outright, but seemingly supported them. "I do think that by the standards of Western civilization they go too far; they kidnap innocent people. On the other hand, they're fighting a desperate battle against highly financed, American-supported forces who have been terrorising the countryside for years and kill most of the people. Farc is fighting back as best it can and grabbing hostages is the fashion in which they can finance themselves and try to achieve their goals, which are difficult. They're a peasant army; I see them as a Zapata-like army. I think they are heroic to fight for what they believe in and die for it, as was Castro in the hills of Cuba." The Observer, "Stone: My Part in Baby Hostage Drama", January 6, 2008. Stone made the comments shortly after returning from a trip to Colombia, where he was to have filmed footage of the expected release of three FARC hostages, including a young child named Emanuel. Despite the breakup of the international commission appointed to oversee the release, FARC ultimately released two of the hostages despite their refusal to identify the hostages' exact location. It was subsequently revealed that the FARC could not have released the child because they no longer held him. Instead the child had been placed in foster care and subsequently adopted by the Colombian welfare system (the ICBF) because of signs of child abuse. The purported hostage release had been a FARC ruse all along. Associated Press, "DNA Shows Colombia Boy was Rebel Hostage", Joshua Goodman, January 4, 2008. Nevertheless, Stone blamed the Colombian government and the United States for the fiasco. The incident caused a wave of comments on Oliver Stone's official website, mostly by Colombian citizens who were noticeably upset with what was perceived as his support for FARC. Other work In , Stone produced a mini series for ABC Television called Wild Palms. In a cameo, Stone appears on a television in the show discussing how the theories in his film JFK had been proven correct (the series took place in a hypothetical future, ). Wild Palms has developed a moderate cult following in the years since it aired, and has recently been released on DVD. That same year, he also spoofed himself in the comedy hit Dave, espousing a conspiracy theory about the President's replacement by a near-identical double. In , Stone published A Child's Night Dream, a largely autobiographical novel first written in 1966-1967. After several unsuccessful attempts to get the work published, he "threw several sections of the manuscript into the East River one cold night, and, as if surgically removing the memory of the book from my mind, volunteered for Vietnam in 1967." Eventually, he dug out the remaining pages, rewrote the manuscript, and published it. In , Stone made two documentary films: Persona Non Grata, about the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and Comandante, about Cuban President Fidel Castro. In , he made a second documentary on Castro, titled Looking for Fidel. (See also Controversy, above.) Stone is directing a short film about the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, where the games were held. He was recently admitted permission by Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to make a documentary about him. Stone had been previously refused permission by the Iranian government when the President's media advisor, Mehdi Kalhor, denounced Stone as being part of the "Great Satan" of American culture, despite his opposition to the Bush administration. However, Ahmadinejad approved permission a month later, saying he had "no objections" provided the documentary was based on accurate facts. Stone is due to visit Tehran to negotiate the production of the film with Iranian officials, possibly the president himself. Stone and known independent filmmaker Lloyd Kaufman were childhood friends, and have since collaborated on a number of projects. In 2008, Stone was named the Artistic Director of New York University's Tisch School of the Arts Asia. Future projects The future of Pinkville remains currently unknown, though Stone is expected to return to the project, following the completion of W. In , Stone was reported to have turned down an invitation to direct a sequel to Wall Street, but in April 2009, it was confirmed that he would in fact direct the Wall Street sequel. Original star Charlie Sheen will also be absent, but Michael Douglas is to reprise his role as Gordon Gekko. The Wall Street sequel is set for release in 2010. Filmography As director Last Year in Viet Nam (, short) Seizure (also known as Queen of Evil, ) Madman of Martinique (, short) The Hand () Salvador () Platoon () Wall Street () Talk Radio () Born on the Fourth of July () The Doors () JFK (1991) Heaven & Earth (1993) Natural Born Killers () Nixon () U-Turn () Any Given Sunday () Comandante () Alexander () World Trade Center () W. ()Pinkville (postponed)Wall Street 2 () Other workMidnight Express (screenwriter) ()Conan the Barbarian (screenwriter) () Scarface (screenwriter) ()Year of the Dragon (screenwriter) ()8 Million Ways to Die (screenwriter) ()Dave (cameo) ()Evita (screenwriter) ()Escobar (producer) (2009) (announced) Awards and achievements References Notes Bibliography Hamburg, Eric. Nixon: An Oliver Stone Film. Hyperion Books. ISBN 0786881577 Riordan, James. Stone: The Biography. (1996) Stone, Oliver. JFK: The Book of the Film. Applause Books. ISBN 1557831270 External links Oliver Stone fansite The first chapter of A Child's Night Dream by Oliver Stone at the New York Times site. Online bibliographies A biography of Oliver Stone Oliver Stone Bibliography (via UC Berkeley) Interviews 1987 Cineaste magazine Can Oliver Stone Rock the Vote? -- Maxim Magazine, November 2008 Controversial Russell Brand interviews Stone On Radio 2 October 25 2008 DVD Talk Radio interview with Oliver Stone Roger Ebert interviews Stone Guardian Unlimited interview with Stone; L.A. Weekly interview Part two The Onion A.V. 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4,858 | Gnumeric | Gnumeric is a free spreadsheet program that is part of the GNOME desktop and has Windows installers available. It is intended to be a free replacement for proprietary spreadsheet programs such as Microsoft Excel, which it broadly and openly emulates. Gnumeric was created and developed by Miguel de Icaza, but he has since moved on to other projects. The current maintainer is Jody Goldberg. Gnumeric has the ability to import and export data in several file formats, including CSV, Microsoft Excel, HTML, LaTeX, Lotus 1-2-3, OpenDocument and Quattro Pro; its native format is the Gnumeric file format (.gnm or .gnumeric), an XML file compressed with gzip. Gnumeric XML File Format from The Gnumeric Manual. It includes all of the spreadsheet functions of the North American edition of Microsoft Excel and many functions unique to Gnumeric. Pivot tables and conditional formatting are not yet supported but are planned for future versions. Gnumeric's accuracy “Fixing Statistical Errors in Spreadsheet Software: The Cases of Gnumeric and Excel”, B. D. McCullough, 2004 (http://www.csdassn.org/software_reports/gnumeric.pdf). (The most recent versions given a full analysis in this freely-available report are Microsoft Excel XP and Gnumeric 1.1.2., and the author has more-limited data on then-new Excel 2003). “On the accuracy of statistical procedures in Microsoft Excel 2003”, B. D. McCullough, 2005 Computational Statistics & Data Analysis Volume 49, Issue 4, 15 June 2005, Pages 1244-1252. In this journal article, after a more complete analysis of Excel 2003, McCullough concludes that "Excel 2003 is an improvement over previous versions, but not enough has been done that its use for statistical purposes can be recommended." has helped it to establish a niche among people using it for statistical analysis and other scientific tasks. For improving the accuracy of Gnumeric, the developers are cooperating with the R Project. Gnumeric has a different interface for the creation and editing of graphs than the competing software. For editing a graph, Gnumeric displays a window where all the elements of the graph are listed. Other spreadsheet programs typically require the user to select the individual elements of the graph in the graph itself in order to edit them. Gnumeric version 1.0 was released December 31, 2001. The current stable release is version 1.8.x, the first to have basic Microsoft Office Open XML support. Gnumeric in Windows References See also GNOME Office EditGrid - an online spreadsheet which uses Gnumeric as its back-end List of spreadsheets Comparison of spreadsheets External links Official site GNOMEDesktop.org: Gnumeric news feed The Gnumeric file format DesktopLinux.com interviews Gnumeric project leader Jody Goldberg Open Mag interviews Jody Goldberg on Gnumeric Linux Productivity Magazine: A full issue on Gnumeric | Gnumeric |@lemmatized gnumeric:23 free:2 spreadsheet:8 program:3 part:1 gnome:2 desktop:1 window:3 installers:1 available:2 intend:1 replacement:1 proprietary:1 microsoft:6 excel:9 broadly:1 openly:1 emulates:1 create:1 develop:1 miguel:1 de:1 icaza:1 since:1 move:1 project:3 current:2 maintainer:1 jody:3 goldberg:3 ability:1 import:1 export:1 data:3 several:1 file:5 format:5 include:2 csv:1 html:1 latex:1 lotus:1 opendocument:1 quattro:1 pro:1 native:1 gnm:1 xml:3 compress:1 gzip:1 manual:1 function:2 north:1 american:1 edition:1 many:1 unique:1 pivot:1 table:1 conditional:1 formatting:1 yet:1 support:2 plan:1 future:1 version:5 accuracy:3 fix:1 statistical:4 error:1 software:2 case:1 b:2 mccullough:3 http:1 www:1 csdassn:1 org:2 pdf:1 recent:1 give:1 full:2 analysis:4 freely:1 report:1 xp:1 author:1 limit:1 new:1 procedure:1 computational:1 statistic:1 volume:1 issue:2 june:1 page:1 journal:1 article:1 complete:1 concludes:1 improvement:1 previous:1 enough:1 use:3 purpose:1 recommend:1 help:1 establish:1 niche:1 among:1 people:1 scientific:1 task:1 improve:1 developer:1 cooperate:1 r:1 different:1 interface:1 creation:1 editing:1 graph:5 compete:1 edit:2 display:1 element:2 list:2 typically:1 require:1 user:1 select:1 individual:1 order:1 release:2 december:1 stable:1 x:1 first:1 basic:1 office:2 open:2 reference:1 see:1 also:1 editgrid:1 online:1 back:1 end:1 comparison:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 gnomedesktop:1 news:1 fee:1 desktoplinux:1 com:1 interview:2 leader:1 mag:1 linux:1 productivity:1 magazine:1 |@bigram gnome_desktop:1 microsoft_excel:5 de_icaza:1 quattro_pro:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
4,859 | Coca-Cola | The Las Vegas Strip World of Coca-Cola museum in 2000 Coca-Cola is a carbonated soft drink sold in stores, restaurants and vending machines worldwide. The Coca-Cola Company claims that the beverage is sold in more than 200 countries. It is produced by The Coca-Cola Company in Atlanta, Georgia, and is often referred to simply as Coke or (in European and American countries) as cola, pop, or in some parts of the U.S., soda. Originally intended as a patent medicine when it was invented in the late 19th century by John Pemberton, Coca-Cola was bought out by businessman Asa Griggs Candler, whose marketing tactics led Coke to its dominance of the world soft-drink market throughout the 20th century. The company produces concentrate, which is then sold to various licensed Coca-Cola bottlers throughout the world. The bottlers, who hold territorially exclusive contracts with the company, produce finished product in cans and bottles from the concentrate in combination with filtered water and sweeteners. The bottlers then sell, distribute and merchandise Coca-Cola in cans and bottles to retail stores and vending machines. Such bottlers include Coca-Cola Enterprises, which is the largest single Coca-Cola bottler in North America and western Europe. The Coca-Cola Company also sells concentrate for fountain sales to major restaurants and food service distributors. The Coca-Cola Company has, on occasion, introduced other cola drinks under the Coke brand name. The most common of these is Diet Coke, which has become a major diet cola. However, others exist, including Caffeine-Free Coca-Cola, Diet Coke Caffeine-Free, Coca-Cola Cherry, Coca-Cola Zero, Coca-Cola Vanilla, and special editions with lemon, lime, or coffee. In response to consumer insistence on a more natural product, the company is in the process of phasing out E211, or sodium benzoate, the controversial additive used in Diet Coke and linked to DNA damage and hyperactivity in children. The company has stated that it plans to remove the controversial additive from its other products, including Sprite and Oasis, as soon as a satisfactory alternative is discovered. History The first Coca-Cola recipe was invented in a drugstore in Columbus, Georgia by John Pemberton, originally as a cocawine called Pemberton's French Wine Coca in 1885. He may have been inspired by the formidable success of Vin Mariani, a European cocawine. In 1886, when Atlanta and Fulton County passed prohibition legislation, Pemberton responded by developing Coca-Cola, essentially a non-alcoholic version of French Wine Cola. The first sales were at Jacob's Pharmacy in Atlanta, Georgia, on May 8, 1886. It was initially sold as a patent medicine for five cents a glass at soda fountains, which were popular in the United States at the time due to the belief that carbonated water was good for the health. Pemberton claimed Coca-Cola cured many diseases, including morphine addiction, dyspepsia, neurasthenia, headache, and impotence. Pemberton ran the first advertisement for the beverage on May 29 of the same year in the Atlanta Journal. By 1888, three versions of Coca-Cola—sold by three separate businesses—were on the market. Asa Griggs Candler acquired a stake in Pemberton's company in 1887 and incorporated it as the Coca Cola Company in 1888. Mark" Pendergrast (2000). For God, Country and Coca-Cola. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-05468-4. The same year, while suffering from an ongoing addiction to morphine, Pemberton sold the rights a second time to four more businessmen: J.C. Mayfield, A.O. Murphey, C.O. Mullahy and E.H. Bloodworth. Meanwhile, Pemberton's alcoholic son Charley Pemberton began selling his own version of the product. In an attempt to clarify the situation, John Pemberton declared that the name "Coca-Cola" belonged to Charley, but the other two manufacturers could continue to use the formula. So, in the summer of 1888, Candler sold his beverage under the names Yum Yum and Koke. After both failed to catch on, Candler set out to establish a legal claim to Coca-Cola in late 1888, in order to force his two competitors out of the business. Candler purchased exclusive rights to the formula from John Pemberton, Margaret Dozier and Woolfolk Walker. However, in 1914, Dozier came forward to claim her signature on the bill of sale had been forged, and subsequent analysis has indicated John Pemberton's signature was most likely a forgery as well. Old German Coca-Cola bottle opener In 1892, Candler incorporated a second company, The Coca-Cola Company (the current corporation), and in 1910, Candler had the earliest records of the company burned, further obscuring its legal origins. Regardless, Candler began marketing the product, although the efficacy of his concerted advertising campaign would not be realized until much later. By the time of its 50th anniversary, the drink had reached the status of a national icon for the USA. In 1935, it was certified kosher by Rabbi Tobias Geffen, after the company made minor changes in the sourcing of some ingredients. Coca-Cola was sold in bottles for the first time on March 12, 1894. The first outdoor wall advertisement was painted in the same year as well in Cartersville, Georgia. First painted wall sign to advertise Coca-Cola : Cartersville, GA - Waymarking Cans of Coke first appeared in 1955. The first bottling of Coca-Cola occurred in Vicksburg, Mississippi, at the Biedenharn Candy Company in 1891. Its proprietor was Joseph A. Biedenharn. The original bottles were Biedenharn bottles, very different from the much later hobble-skirt design that is now so familiar. Asa Candler was tentative about bottling the drink, but two entrepreneurs from Chattanooga, Tennessee, Benjamin F. Thomas and Joseph B. Whitehead, proposed the idea and were so persuasive that Candler signed a contract giving them control of the procedure for only one dollar. Candler never collected his dollar, but in 1899 Chattanooga became the site of the first Coca-Cola bottling company. However, the loosely termed contract proved to be problematic for the company for decades to come. Legal matters were not helped by the decision of the bottlers to subcontract to other companies, effectively becoming parent bottlers. Coke concentrate, or Coke syrup, was and is sold separately at pharmacies in small quantities, as an over-the-counter remedy for nausea or mildly upset stomach. New Coke On April 23, 1985, Coca-Cola, amid much publicity, attempted to change the formula of the drink with "New Coke." Follow-up taste tests revealed that most consumers preferred the taste of New Coke to both Coke and Pepsi. Coca-Cola management was unprepared, however, for the nostalgic sentiments the drink aroused in the American public. The new Coca-Cola formula caused a public backlash. Protests caused the company to return to the old formula under the name Coca-Cola Classic on July 10, 1985. 21st century On February 7, 2005, the Coca-Cola Company announced that in the second quarter of 2005 they planned a launch of a Diet Coke product sweetened with the artificial sweetener sucralose ("Splenda"), the same sweetener currently used in Pepsi One. On March 21, 2005, it announced another diet product, "Coca-Cola Zero", sweetened partly with a blend of aspartame and acesulfame potassium. Recently Coca-Cola has begun to sell a new "healthy soda": Diet Coke with vitamins B6, B12, Magnesium, Niacin, and Zinc, marketed as "Diet Coke Plus." On July 5, 2005, it was revealed that Coca-Cola would resume operations in Iraq for the first time since the Arab League boycotted the company in 1968. Cola wars as Coke moves on Baghdad - The Guardian In April 2007, in Canada, the name "Coca-Cola Classic" was changed back to "Coca-Cola." The word "Classic" was truncated because "New Coke" was no longer in production, eliminating the need to differentiate between the two. According to a Coca-Cola customer-service representative. The formula remained unchanged. In January 2009, Coca-Cola stopped printing the word "Classic" on the labels of 16-ounce bottles sold in parts of the southeastern United States. The change is part of a larger strategy to rejuvenate the product's image. Use of stimulants in formula When launched Coca-Cola's two key ingredients were cocaine (benzoylmethyl ecgonine) and caffeine. The cocaine was derived from the coca leaf and the caffeine from kola nut, leading to the name Coca-Cola (the "K" in Kola was replaced with a "C" for marketing purposes). Coca-cola Coca — Cocaine Pemberton called for five ounces of coca leaf per gallon of syrup, a significant dose; in 1891, Candler claimed his formula (altered extensively from Pemberton's original) contained only a tenth of this amount. Coca-Cola did once contain an estimated nine milligrams of cocaine per glass, but in 1903 it was removed. Liebowitz, Michael, R. (1983). The Chemistry of Love. Boston: Little, Brown, & Co. Coca-Cola still contains coca flavoring. After 1904, instead of using fresh leaves, Coca-Cola started using "spent" leaves—the leftovers of the cocaine-extraction process with cocaine trace levels left over at a molecular level. To this day, Coca-Cola uses as an ingredient a cocaine-free coca leaf extract prepared at a Stepan Company plant in Maywood, New Jersey. In the United States, Stepan Company is the only manufacturing plant authorized by the Federal Government to import and process the coca plant. May, Clifford D. "How Coca-Cola Obtains Its Coca", The New York Times, July 1, 1998. Accessed December 4, 2007 Stepan laboratory in Maywood, New Jersey is the nation's only legal commercial importer of coca leaves, which it obtains mainly from Peru and, to a lesser extent, Bolivia. Besides producing the coca flavoring agent for Coca-Cola, Stepan Company extracts cocaine from the coca leaves, which it sells to Mallinckrodt, a St. Louis, Missouri pharmaceutical manufacturer that is the only company in the United States licensed to purify cocaine for medicinal use. Stepan Company buys about 100 metric tons of dried Peruvian coca leaves each year, according to Marco Castillo, spokesman for Peru's state-owned National Coca Co. Kola Nuts — Caffeine Kola nuts act as a flavoring in Coca-Cola, but they are also the beverage's source of caffeine. In Britain, for example, the ingredient label states "Flavourings (Including Caffeine)." Coca-Cola Your Health - You and Your Family's GDA Questions Answered Kola nuts contain about 2 to 3.5 percent caffeine, are of bitter flavor and are commonly used in cola soft drinks. In 1911 The U.S. government initiated United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola, hoping to force Coca-Cola to remove caffeine from its formula. The case was decided in favor of Coca-Cola. Subsequently, in 1912 the U.S. Pure Food and Drug Act was amended, adding caffeine to the list of "habit-forming" and "deleterious" substances which must be listed on a product's label. Coca-Cola contains 34 mg of caffeine per 12 fluid ounces, while Diet Coke Caffeine-Free contains 0 mg. Caffeine may be used by athletes, as an ergogenic aid, to increase the capacity for mental or physical labor. The ergogenic qualities of caffeine are contested, although there is strong evidence that it may significantly enhance endurance. For this reason, caffeine is listed as a restricted substance by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Nevertheless, Coca-Cola was the leading sponsor of the 1996 summer Olympic games. Gene A. Spiller, "Caffeine" CRC Press, 1997, pg.234 and 363 Production Bottles of Coca-Cola Zero and Coca-Cola Light Formula The exact formula of Coca-Cola is a famous trade secret. The original copy of the formula is held in SunTrust Bank's main vault in Atlanta. Its predecessor, the Trust Company, was the underwriter for the Coca-Cola Company's initial public offering in 1919. A popular myth states that only two executives have access to the formula, with each executive having only half the formula. The truth is that while Coca-Cola does have a rule restricting access to only two executives, each knows the entire formula and others, in addition to the prescribed duo, have known the formulation process. Franchised production model The actual production and distribution of Coca-Cola follows a franchising model. The Coca-Cola Company only produces a syrup concentrate, which it sells to various bottlers throughout the world who hold Coca-Cola franchises for one or more geographical areas. The bottlers produce the final drink by mixing the syrup with filtered water and sugar (or artificial sweeteners) and then carbonate it before filling it into cans and bottles, which the bottlers then sell and distribute to retail stores, vending machines, restaurants and food service distributors. The Coca-Cola Company owns minority shares in some of its largest franchises, like Coca-Cola Enterprises, Coca-Cola Amatil, Coca-Cola Hellenic Bottling Company (CCHBC) and Coca-Cola FEMSA, but fully independent bottlers produce almost half of the volume sold in the world. Since independent bottlers add sugar and sweeteners, the sweetness of the drink differs in various parts of the world, to cater for local tastes. Brand portfolio Name Launched Discontinued Notes Picture Coca-Cola 1886 Caffeine-Free Coca-Cola 1983Coca-Cola Cherry 1985 Was available in Canada starting in 1996.Coca-Cola with Lemon 2001 2005Still available in: American Samoa, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, China, Denmark, Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Finland, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Iceland, Korea, Luxembourg, Macau, Malaysia, Mongolia, Netherlands, Norway, Réunion, Romania, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Taiwan, Tunisia, United Kingdom, United States, and West Bank-Gaza Coca-Cola Vanilla 2002 2005 Still available in: Austria, Australia, China, Germany, Hong Kong, South Africa, New Zealand (600ml and 350 ml only) Malaysia, Sweden (Imported) and Russia 2007It was reintroduced in June 2007 by popular demandCoca-Cola C2 2003 2007 Was only available in Japan, Canada, and the United States.Coca-Cola with Lime 2005 Still available in Belgium, Netherlands, Singapore, and CanadaCoca-Cola Raspberry June 2005 End of 2005 Was only available in New Zealand.Coca-Cola Zero 2005Coca-Cola M5 2005Only available in Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Italy, Spain, Mexico and BrazilCoca-Cola Black Cherry Vanilla 2006 Middle of 2007Was replaced by Vanilla Coke in June 2007Coca-Cola Blāk 2006 Beginning of 2008Only available in the United States, France, Canada, Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria and LithuaniaCoca-Cola Citra 2006Only available in Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, New Zealand and Japan.Coca-Cola Light Sango 2006Only available in France and Belgium.Coca-Cola Orange 2007Only available in the United Kingdom and Gibraltar Logo design |U.S. containers in 2008. Various sizes from 8-67.6 (237 mL-2 L) shown in can, glass and plastic bottles The famous Coca-Cola logo was created by John Pemberton's bookkeeper, Frank Mason Robinson, in 1885. Robinson came up with the name and chose the logo's distinctive cursive script. The typeface used, known as Spencerian script, was developed in the mid 19th century and was the dominant form of formal handwriting in the United States during that period. Robinson also played a significant role in early Coca-Cola advertising. His promotional suggestions to Pemberton included giving away thousands of free drink coupons and plastering the city of Atlanta with publicity banners and streetcar signs. The Coca-Cola "contour bottle" design The equally famous Coca-Cola bottle, called the "contour bottle" within the company, but known to some as the "hobble skirt" bottle, was created in 1915 by bottle designer Earl R. Dean. In 1915, the Coca-Cola Company launched a competition among its bottle suppliers to create a new bottle for the beverage that would distinguish it from other beverage bottles, "a bottle which a person could recognize even if they felt it in the dark, and so shaped that, even if broken, a person could tell at a glance what it was." Earl R.Dean's original 1915 concept drawing of the contour Coca-Cola bottle Chapman J. Root, president of the Root Glass Company, turned the project over to members of his supervisory staff, including company auditor T. Clyde Edwards, plant superintendent Alexander Samuelsson, and Earl R. Dean, bottle designer and supervisor of the bottle molding room. Root and his subordinates decided to base the bottle's design on one of the soda's two ingredients, the coca leaf or the kola nut, but were unaware of what either ingredient looked like. Dean and Edwards went to the Emeline Fairbanks Memorial Library and were unable to find any information about coca or kola. Instead, Dean was inspired by a picture of the gourd-shaped cocoa pod in the Encyclopædia Britannica, which Chapman Root approved as the model for the prototype.The prototype never made it to production since its middle diameter was larger than its base, making it unstable on conveyor belts. Faced with the upcoming scheduled maintenance of the mold-making machinery, over the next 24 hours Dean sketched and created the mold for the bottle. Dean then molded a small number of bottles before the glass-molding machinery was turned off. Chapman Root approved the prototype bottle and a design patent was issued on the bottle in November, 1915. The bottle was chosen over other entries at the bottler's convention in 1916 and was on the market the same year. By 1920, Dean's contoured bottle became the standard for the Coca-Cola Company. Today, the contour Coca-Cola bottle is one of the world's most recognized packages on the planet..."even in the dark!". Dean reduced the middle diameter, creating the famed Contour Coca-Cola bottle.As a reward for his efforts, Dean was offered a choice between a $500 bonus or a lifetime job at the Root Glass Company. He chose the lifetime job and kept it until the Owens-Illinois Glass Company bought out the Root Glass Company in the mid-1930s. Dean went on to work in other Midwestern glass factories. Although endorsed by some, this version of events is not considered authoritative by many who cite its implausibility as difficult to believe. One alternative depiction has Raymond Loewy as the inventor of the unique design, but, while Loewy did serve as a designer of Coke cans and bottles in later years, he was in the French Army the year the bottle was invented and did not migrate to the United States until 1919. Others have attributed inspiration for the design not to the cocoa pod, but to a Victorian hooped dress. Snopes urban legend of the Coca-Cola bottle shape. In 1944, Associate Justice Roger J. Traynor of the Supreme Court of California took advantage of a case involving a waitress injured by an exploding Coca-Cola bottle to articulate the doctrine of strict liability for defective products. Traynor's concurring opinion in Escola v. Coca-Cola Bottling Co. is widely recognized as a landmark case in U.S. law today. See, e.g., Lawrence M. Friedman, American Law in the 20th Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 356-357, and Jay M. Feinman, Law 101: Everything You Need to Know About the American Legal System, rev. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 165-168. In 1997, Coca-Cola also introduced a "contour can," similar in shape to its famous bottle, on a few test markets, including Terre Haute, Indiana. However, the new can was never widely released. A new slim and tall can began to appear in Australia as of December 20, 2006, which costs an average of $2AUD. The cans have a distinct resemblance to energy drinks that are popular with the teenage demographic. It is unknown if the design is of limited edition or may soon replace the current 355 mL cans that have been used in the past (the new slim cans are 300 mL, making the volume to cost ratio even smaller). In January 2007, Coca-Cola Canada changed "Coca-Cola Classic" labeling, removing the "Classic" designation, leaving only "Coca-Cola." Coca-Cola stated this is merely a name change and the product remains the same. The cans still bear the "Classic" logo in the United States. Coca-Cola is a registered trademark in most countries. The U.S. trademark was registered in the United States Patent Office on January 31, 1893. In the UK, Coca-Cola was registered with the UK Patent Office on July 11, 1922, under registration number 427817. Coca-Cola in the new aluminum bottle. In 2007, Coca-Cola introduced an aluminum can that is designed to look like the original glass Coca-Cola bottles. In 2007, the company's logo on cans and bottles changed. The cans and bottles retained the red color and familiar typeface, but the design was simplified, leaving only the logo and a plain white swirl (the "dynamic ribbon"). In 2008 in some parts of the world, the plastic bottles for all Coke varieties (including the larger 1.25- and 2-liter bottles) was changed to include a new plastic screw cap and a contoured bottle shape designed to evoke the old glass bottles. Local competitors Pepsi is often second to Coke in terms of sales but outsells Coca-Cola in some markets. Around the world, some local brands do compete with Coke. In South and Central America, Kola Real, known as Big Cola in Mexico, is a fast-growing competitor to Coca-Cola. On the French island of Corsica, Corsica Cola, made by brewers of the local Pietra beer, is a growing competitor to Coca-Cola. In the French region of Bretagne, Breizh Cola is available. In Peru, Inca Kola outsells Coca-Cola. However, The Coca-Cola Company purchased the brand in 1999. In Sweden, Julmust outsells Coca-Cola during the Christmas season. "About Kristall Beverage". Retrieved June 14, 2006. In Scotland, the locally-produced Irn-Bru was more popular than Coca-Cola until 2005, when Coca-Cola and Diet Coke began to outpace its sales. Murden, Terry (January 30, 2005). Coke adds life to health drinks sector. Scotland on Sunday. Retrieved February 14, 2006. In India, Coca-Cola ranked third behind the leader, Pepsi-Cola, and local drink Thums Up. However, The Coca-Cola Company purchased Thums Up in 1993. Kripalani, Manjeet and Mark L. Clifford (February 10, 2003) "Finally, Coke Gets It Right in India". BusinessWeek. Retrieved August 9, 2006. As of 2004, Coca-Cola held a 60.9% market-share in India. "Fizzical Facts: Coke claims 60% mkt share in India", Times News Network, August 5, 2005 Tropicola, a domestic drink, is served in Cuba instead of Coca-Cola due to a United States embargo. French brand Mecca Cola and British brand Qibla Cola, popular in the Middle East, are competitors to Coca-Cola. In Turkey, Cola Turka is a major competitor to Coca-Cola. In Iran and also many countries of Middle East, Zam Zam Cola and Parsi Cola are major competitors to Coca-Cola. In some parts of China, Future cola is a competitor. In Slovenia, the locally-produced Cockta is a major competitor to Coca-Cola, as is the inexpensive Mercator Cola, which is sold only in the country's biggest supermarket chain, Mercator. In Israel, RC Cola is an inexpensive competitor. In Madagascar, Classiko Cola, made by Tiko Group, the largest manufacturing company in the country, is a serious competitor to Coca-Cola in many regions. On the Portuguese island of Madeira, Laranjada is the top-selling soft drink. In the UK, Coca-Cola stated that Pepsi was not its main rival, but rather Robinsons drinks. Advertising An 1890s advertisement showing model Hilda Clark in formal 19th century attire. The ad is entitled Drink Coca-Cola 5¢. Coca-Cola's advertising has had a significant impact on American culture, and it is frequently credited with the "invention" of the modern image of Santa Claus as an old man in a red-and-white suit; however, while the company did in fact start promoting this image in the 1930s with its winter advertising campaigns illustrated by Haddon Sundblom, it was already common before that. Barbara Mikkelson and David P. Mikkelson, "The Claus That Refreshes," snopes.com, February 27, 2001 (accessed June 10, 2005). In fact, Coca-Cola was not even the first soft drink company to use the modern image of Santa Claus in its advertising: White Rock Beverages used Santa in advertisements for its ginger ale in 1923 after first using him to sell mineral water in 1915. The White Rock Collectors Association, "Did White Rock or The Coca-Cola Company create the modern Santa Claus Advertisement?," whiterocking.org, 2001 (accessed January 19, 2007). White Rock Beverages, "Coca-Cola's Santa Claus: Not The Real Thing!," BevNET.com, December 18, 2006 (accessed January 19, 2007). Before Santa Claus, however, Coca-Cola relied on images of smartly-dressed young women to sell its beverages. Coca-Cola's first such advertisement appeared in 1895 and featured a young Bostonian actress named Hilda Clark as its spokesperson. 1941 saw the first use of the nickname "Coke" as an official trademark for the product, with a series of advertisements informing consumers that "Coke means Coca-Cola". Coca-Cola Conversations: Coke means Coca-Cola In the 1970s, a song from a Coca-Cola commercial called "I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing," produced by Billy Davis, became a popular hit single. Coke's advertising is rather pervasive, as one of Woodruff's stated goals was to ensure that everyone on Earth drank Coca-Cola as their preferred beverage. This is especially true in southern areas of the United States, such as Atlanta, where Coke was born. Some of the memorable Coca-Cola television commercials between 1960 through 1986 were written and produced by former Atlanta radio veteran Don Naylor (WGST 1936–1950, WAGA 1951–1959) during his career as a producer for the McCann Erickson advertising agency. Many of these early television commercials for Coca-Cola featured movie stars, sports heroes, and popular singers of the day. During the 1980s, Pepsi-Cola ran a series of television advertisements showing people participating in taste tests essentially demonstrating that, according to the commercials, "fifty percent of the participants who said they preferred Coke actually chose the Pepsi." Statisticians were quick to point out the problematic nature of a 50/50 result: most likely, all the taste tests really showed was that in blind tests, most people simply cannot tell the difference between Pepsi and Coke. Coca-Cola ran ads to combat Pepsi's ads in an incident sometimes referred to as the cola wars; one of Coke's ads compared the so-called Pepsi challenge to two chimpanzees deciding which tennis ball was furrier. Thereafter, Coca-Cola regained its leadership in the market. Selena was a spokesperson for Coca-Cola from 1989 till the time of her death. She filmed three commercials for the company. In 1994, to commemorate her five years with the company, Coca-Cola issued special Selena coke bottles. Orozco, Cynthia E. Quintanilla Perez, Selena. The Handbook of Texas online. Retrieved on June 5, 2006 In an attempt to broaden its portfolio, The Coca-Cola Company purchased Columbia Pictures in 1982. Columbia provided subtle publicity through Coke product placements in many of its films while under Coke's ownership. However, after a few early successes during that time, Columbia began to under-perform, and the company sold the studio to Sony in 1989. Coca-Cola has gone through a number of different advertising slogans in its long history, including "The pause that refreshes," "I'd like to buy the world a Coke," and "Coke is it" (see Coca-Cola slogans). In 2006, Coca-Cola introduced My Coke Rewards, a customer loyalty campaign where consumers earn virtual "points" by entering codes from specially-marked packages of Coca-Cola products into a website. These points can in turn be redeemed for various prizes or sweepstakes entries. My Coke Rewards (Official Site) "Holidays are coming!" The "Holidays are coming!" advertisement features a train of red delivery trucks, emblazoned with the Coca-Cola name and decorated with electric lights, driving through a snowy landscape and causing everything that they pass to light up and people to watch as they pass through. The advertisement fell into dis-use in 2001, as the Coca-Cola company restructured its advertising campaigns so that advertising around the world was produced locally in each country, rather than centrally in the company's headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia. However, in 2007, the company brought back the campaign after, according to the company, many consumers telephoned its information center saying that they considered it to mark the beginning of Christmas. The advertisement was created by U.S. advertising agency Doner and has been part of the company's global advertising campaign for many years. Keith Law, a producer and writer of commercials for Belfast CityBeat, was not convinced by Coca-Cola's reintroduction of the advertisement in 2007, saying that "I don't think there's anything Christmassy about HGVs and the commercial is too generic." In 2001, singer Melanie Thornton recorded the campaign's advertising jingle as a single, Wonderful Dream (Holidays are Coming), which entered the pop-music charts in Germany at no. 9. In 2005, Coca-Cola expanded the advertising campaign to radio, employing several different variations of the jingle. Sponsorship of sporting events Coca-Cola was the first-ever sponsor of the Olympic games, at the 1928 games in Amsterdam, and has been an Olympics sponsor ever since. This corporate sponsorship included the 1996 Summer Olympics hosted in Atlanta, which allowed Coca-Cola to spotlight its hometown. Since 1978 Coca-Cola has sponsored each FIFA World Cup and other competitions organised by FIFA. In fact, one of the FIFA tournament trophy: FIFA World Youth Championship from Tunisia in 1977 to Malaysia in 1997 was called "FIFA — Coca Cola Cup". In addition, Coca-Cola sponsors the annual Coca-Cola 600 and Coke Zero 400 for the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series at Lowe's Motor Speedway in Charlotte, North Carolina and Daytona International Speedway in Daytona, Florida. Coca-Cola has a long history of sports marketing relationships, which over the years have included Major League Baseball, the National Football League, National Basketball Association and the National Hockey League, as well as with many teams within those leagues. Coca-Cola is the official soft drink of many collegiate football teams throughout the nation. In India Coca-Cola was one of the official Sponsors of the 1996 Cricket World Cup. In England, Coca-Cola is the main sponsor of The Football League, a name given to the three professional divisions below the Premier League in football (soccer). It is also responsible for the renaming of these divisions — until the advent of Coca-Cola sponsorship, they were referred to as Divisions One, Two and Three. Since 2004, the divisions have been known as The Championship (equiv. of Division 1), League One (equiv. of Div. 2) and League 2 (equiv. of Division 3). This renaming has caused unrest amongst some fans who see it as farcical that the third tier of English Football is now called "League One." In 2005 Coca-Cola launched a competition for the 72 clubs of the football league — it was called "Win a Player". This allowed fans to place 1 vote per day for their beloved club, with 1 entry being chosen at random earning £250,000 for the club. This was repeated in 2006. The "Win A Player" competition was very controversial, as at the end of the 2 competitions, Leeds United AFC had the most votes by more than double, yet they did not win any money to spend on a new player for the club. In 2007 the competition changed to "Buy a Player". This competition allowed fans to buy a bottle of Coca-Cola Zero or Coca-Cola and submit the code on the wrapper on the Coca-Cola website {www.coca-colafootball.co.uk}. This code could then earn anything from 50p to £100,000 for a club of their choice. This competition was favored over the old "Win A Player" competition as it allowed all clubs to win some money, instead of all the money going to one winning club. In mass media Coca-Cola has been prominently featured in countless films and television programs. It was a major plot element in films such as One, Two, Three, The Coca-Cola Kid, and The Gods Must Be Crazy. It provides a setting for comical corporate shenanigans in the novel Syrup by Maxx Barry. The company also owned Columbia Pictures and its properties during the 1980s, then sold it to Sony. Health effects Since there are indications that "soda and sweetened drinks are the main source of calories in [the] American diet," www.sciencedaily.com most nutritionists advise that Coca-Cola and other soft drinks can be harmful if consumed excessively, particularly to young children whose soft drink consumption competes with, rather than complements, a balanced diet. Studies have shown that regular soft drink users have a lower intake of calcium, magnesium, ascorbic acid, riboflavin, and vitamin A. Jacobson, Michael F. (2005). "Liquid Candy: How Soft Drinks are Harming Americans' Health". Retrieved June 10, 2005. The drink has also aroused criticism for its use of caffeine, due to the possibility of physical dependence. Center for Science in the Public Interest (1997). "Label Caffeine Content of Foods, Scientists Tell FDA." Retrieved June 10, 2005. A link has been shown between long-term regular cola intake, of which Coca-Cola is the most consumed brand worldwide, and osteoporosis in older women (but not men). This was thought to be due to the presence of phosphoric acid, and the risk was found to be same for caffeinated and noncaffeinated colas, as well as the same for diet and sugared colas. The use of coca-cola has also been associated with increse of tumors as found by the Ramazzini Foundation in 2006. A common criticism of Coke based on its allegedly toxic acidity levels has been found to be baseless by researchers; lawsuits based on these criticisms have been dismissed by several American courts for this reason. Although numerous court cases have been filed against The Coca-Cola Company since the 1920s, alleging that the acidity of the drink is dangerous, no evidence corroborating this claim has been found. Under normal conditions, scientific evidence indicates Coca-Cola's acidity causes no immediate harm. Mikkelson, Barbara & Mikkelson, David P. (2004). "Acid Slip". Retrieved June 10, 2005. Since 1985 in the U.S., Coke has been made with high fructose corn syrup, instead of sugar glucose or fructose, to reduce costs. This has come under criticism because of concerns that the corn used to produce corn syrup may come from genetically altered plants. Forristal, Linda Joyce (2003). "The Murky World of High Fructose Corn Syrup". Retrieved May 16, 2006. Some nutritionists also caution against consumption of high fructose corn syrup because of possible links to obesity and type-2 diabetes. "Single food ingredient the cause of obesity ? New study has industry up in arms". (April 26, 2004). FoodNavigator.com. Retrieved February 27, 2007. In India, there exists a major controversy concerning pesticides and other harmful chemicals in bottled products including Coca-Cola. In 2003, the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), a non-governmental organization in New Delhi, said aerated waters produced by soft drinks manufacturers in India, including multinational giants PepsiCo and Coca-Cola, contained toxins including lindane, DDT, malathion and chlorpyrifos — pesticides that can contribute to cancer and a breakdown of the immune system. Tested products included Coke, Pepsi, and several other soft drinks, many produced by The Coca-Cola Company. CSE found that the Indian produced Pepsi's soft drink products had 36 times the level of pesticide residues permitted under European Union regulations; Coca-Cola's soft drink was found to have 30 times the permitted amount. CSE said it had tested the same products sold in the U.S. and found no such residues. PTF (2003). "Pepsi, Coke contain pesticides: CSE". Retrieved June 12, 2006. After the pesticide allegations were made in 2003, Coca-Cola sales declined by 15%. In 2004, an Indian parliamentary committee backed up CSE's findings, and a government-appointed committee was tasked with developing the world's first pesticide standards for soft drinks. The Coca-Cola Company has responded that its plants filter water to remove potential contaminants and that its products are tested for pesticides and must meet minimum health standards before they are distributed. Coca-Cola website (2006). "The Coca-Cola Company addresses allegations made about our business in India". Retrieved June 12, 2006. In the Indian state of Kerala, sale and production of Coca-Cola, along with other soft drinks, was initially banned, before the High Court in Kerala overturned the ban ruling that only the federal government can ban food products. Coca-Cola has also been accused of excessive water usage in India. Coca-Cola and Water - An Unsustainable Relationship Criticisms The Coca-Cola Company has been criticized for its business practices as well as the alleged adverse health effects of its flagship product. Coca-Cola in popular culture Coca-Cola as a spermicide The 2008 Ig Nobel Prize (a parody of the Nobel Prizes) in Chemistry was awarded to Sheree Umpierre, Joseph Hill, and Deborah Anderson, for discovering that Coca-Cola is an effective spermicide, and to C.Y. Hong, C.C. Shieh, P. Wu, and B.N. Chiang for proving it is not. Coca-Cola as a political and corporate symbol Coca-Cola advertising in the High Atlas mountains (Morocco). The Coca-Cola drink has a high degree of identification with the United States, being considered by some an "American Brand" or to a small extent as an item representing America. The identification with the spread of American culture has led to the pun "Coca-Colanization". The drink is also often a metonym for the Coca-Cola Company. There are some consumer boycotts of Coca-Cola in Arab countries due to Coke's early investment in Israel during the Arab League boycott of Israel (this contrasts sharply with Pepsi which stayed out of Israel). Mecca Cola and Pepsi have been successful in the Middle East as an alternative. See also The World of Coca-Cola OpenCola I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing List of Coca-Cola brands Fanta Coca-Cola Hellenic Bottling Company (CCHBC) Coca-Cola variations Coca-Cola New Coke (renamed Coke II) Diet Coke (also known as Coca-Cola Light) Diet Coke Plus Coca-Cola C2 Coca-Cola Zero Coca-Cola Cherry Zero Coca-Cola Cherry Diet Coke Cherry Coca-Cola with Lemon Diet Coke with Lemon Coca-Cola Vanilla Zero Coca-Cola Vanilla Diet Coca-Cola Vanilla Coca-Cola with Lime Diet Coke with Lime Coca-Cola Raspberry Diet Coke Raspberry Coca-Cola Black Cherry Vanilla Diet Coke Cherry Vanilla Coca-Cola Blāk Diet Coca-Cola with Citrus (Lemon and Lime) Coca-Cola with Orange (Out June 2007 in the UK) TaB (original Diet Coke, still available in some countries) Passover Coca-Cola — a Kosher for Passover Coke made with pure cane sugar instead of corn syrup. . The ingredients label will still read "high fructose corn syrup or sucrose" Passover Coke is identifiable because it is bottled with a yellow cap. Notes External links CocaCola.com Coca-Cola website Coke.mobi Coca-Cola mobile website The Contour Bottle - MySpace Chapman J. Root Biography Urban Legends Reference Pages: Cokelore Ronen Liwski's Coca-Cola cans collection Kinescope of a live 1954 TV commercial for Coca-Cola (Internet Archive) | Coca-Cola |@lemmatized la:1 vega:1 strip:1 world:19 coca:229 cola:244 museum:1 carbonated:1 soft:16 drink:35 sell:24 store:3 restaurant:3 vend:3 machine:3 worldwide:2 company:63 claim:7 beverage:11 country:10 produce:16 atlanta:10 georgia:5 often:3 refer:3 simply:2 coke:62 european:3 american:11 pop:2 part:7 u:9 soda:5 originally:2 intend:1 patent:5 medicine:2 invent:3 late:3 century:6 john:6 pemberton:17 buy:6 businessman:1 asa:3 griggs:2 candler:12 whose:2 marketing:2 tactic:1 lead:4 dominance:1 market:10 throughout:4 concentrate:5 various:5 license:2 bottler:13 hold:4 territorially:1 exclusive:2 contract:3 finish:1 product:21 bottle:53 combination:1 filtered:2 water:8 sweetener:5 distribute:3 merchandise:1 retail:2 include:16 enterprise:2 large:6 single:4 north:2 america:3 western:1 europe:1 also:14 fountain:2 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4,860 | Katherine_MacLean | Ron Miller's cover on the June 1950 issue of Astounding Science Fiction, featuring MacLean's novelette "Incommunicado". Katherine Anne MacLean (born January 22, 1925) is an American science fiction author best known for her short stories of the 1950s which examined the impact of technological advances on individuals and society. Brian Aldiss noted that she could "do the hard stuff magnificently," while Theodore Sturgeon observed that she "generally starts from a base of hard science, or rationalizes psi phenomena with beautifully finished logic." Although her stories have been included in numerous anthologies and a few have had radio and television adaptations, The Diploids and Other Flights of Fancy (1962) is her only collection of short fiction. Born in Glen Ridge, New Jersey, MacLean concentrated on mathematics and science in high school. At the time her earliest stories were being published in 1949-50, she received a B.A. in economics from Barnard College (1950), followed by postgraduate studies in psychology at various universities. Her 1951 marriage to Charles Dye ended in divorce a year later. She married David Mason in 1956. Their son, Christopher Dennis Mason, was born in 1957, and they divorced in 1962. MacLean taught literature at the University of Maine and creative writing at the Free University of Portland. Over decades, she has continued to write while employed in a wide variety of jobs -- as book reviewer, economic graphanalyst, editor, EKG technician, food analyst, laboratory technician in penicillin research, nurse's aide, office manager and payroll bookkeeper. photographer, pollster, public relations, publicist and store detective. It was while she worked as a laboratory technician in 1947 that she began writing science fiction. Strongly influenced by Ludwig von Bertalanffy's General Systems Theory, her fiction has often demonstrated a remarkable foresight in scientific advancements. Awards MacLean received a Nebula Award in 1971, and she was a Professional Guest of Honor at the first WisCon in 1977. She was honored in 2003 by the Science Fiction Writers of America as an SFWA Author Emeritus. Short stories and novelettes "Defense Mechanism" (1949). This tale of hidden telepathic abilities was Katherine MacLean's first story to see print when it was published in Astounding Science Fiction (October, 1949). "And Be Merry" (1950). Originally in Astounding Science Fiction (February, 1950), this story was first anthologized in Groff Conklin's Omnibus of Science Fiction (Crown, 1952) and has also been published under the title "The Pyramid in the Desert." In January, 2006, MacLean reflected on the science behind the story: "And Be Merry" (Eat Drink and Be Merry for Tomorrow We Die) A lab biologist, female, takes advantage of her husband going off on an archeology trip, to use the privacy to experiment on herself for rejuvenation by a severe and dangerous method. Succeeding, she contemplates immortality, finding that safety from accidental death has become so valuable to her that she becomes a coward, cowering from all possible risk, seeing shelter in a hospital, and is only rescued from mindless panic by her husband finding her, realizing the source of her terror and rescuing her from immortality by claiming she has a slow growing tumor in an unreachable part of the body. Finding she has no chance of evading eventual death, she immediately loses her obsession with safety, becomes interested in biochemistry again, and invents a new theory. (New at the time.) Mutation from background radiation does not just strike the sperm and egg making chromosome changes in the embryo and mutated progeny, it also strikes the chromosomes in each cell of any living creature, damages and mutates them also, and produces cancer. This cannot be prevented. She called it "somatic mutation" and used the new concept of body deterioration by slow radiation damage (age) to underpin her rediscovered recklessness, and be happy. Even now most biotechs have not fully accepted the implication that every cell in the body can generate an entire copy of the person. But perhaps a copy will be changed and mutated for the worse by exposure to ambient radiation and other mutagens. Perhaps a cell needs to generate a placenta around it to develop into an entire body. Something like that is holding up the biochemists from successfully making copies of individuals from body or blood cells. Not for long! I wrote three more stories with novel genetic ideas before 1953. Some have not been followed up by scientists yet. Dictionary of Literary Biography: Katherine MacLean. Thompson Gale, 2006. "Incommunicado" (1950). In this novelette about communication and computers, written by MacLean in 1947, she demonstrated an ability to foresee the future evolution of personal computers. Passages in this story anticipate such latter-day digital configurations as Google Book Search, Google Video Search, PDA devices, podcasting and mp3 players. At a space station operated by a computer, the station's workers begin to unconsciously develop a musical rapport with their computer in a feedback loop. When published in the June 1950 issue of Astounding Science Fiction, cover artist Miller contributed one of the more striking Astounding covers of the 1950s, blending an emotional musical performance with cyber technology. The story was reprinted a decade later in Groff Conklin's anthology, Six Great Short Science Fiction Novels (Dell, 1960), followed by MacLean's collection, The Diploids (Avon, 1962). In January, 2006, MacLean recalled the reaction of electronic engineers to the story: In the 1930s and 1940s, scientists and boys planning to be scientists read Astounding (Analog) with close attention to the hottest most promising ideas and took them up as soon as they could get funded lab space. They did not openly express their gratitude to science fiction, because the funding depended on keeping claim to have originated the ideas they had put so much work into testing and verifying. A few years after the publication of my first written story, "Incommunicado," written 1947 and published 1950, I was taking a break from two weeks of typing, walking down Fifth Avenue, noticing vaguely that there were no coffee shops, and the storefronts were closed and it was dark. Passed a white granite entrance with signs announcing a convention of electronic engineers, and turned in hoping to find coffee, and a demo of hi-fi advances, and found a deserted desk, with signs announcing that one must sign in with name, industry and invitation number. A bit unwelcoming to a stray writer with no credentials in heavily funded industrial research and no formal invitation. Being stubborn and not wanting to return to the typewriter so early, I hastily looked around for a door to a lecture hall where I could sneak some listening time and get a line on current research, and be out of sight before the desk was reoccupied by the guardian of the gate. Too late, a man built like a fullback in a business suit was bearing down on me. "I see you don't have your badge. May I have your name? I'll look it up in the registry." He was huge, like John Campbell, the editor of Astounding. Just as intense and tight and unrelaxed. Wearing a formal suit. Behind him, chatting to each other and drifiting closer were two or three other impressive ambitious tense men in business suits. Definitely not the harmless willowy professor type. Industrial researchers were apparently built like Vikings and aggressive. I became aware I had not showered or even combed my hair since god knows when. I felt sticky, but I bluffed it out, extended my sweaty hand with matching vigor and said. "Katherine MacLean, I came in because I am interested in--" He interrupted. "Katherine MacLean! Are you that Katherine MacLean?" He gripped my hand and hung on. Who was that Katherine Maclean? Was I being mistaken for someone else? "Are you the Katherine MacLean who wrote 'Incommunicado'?" Speechless with relief, I nodded. I would not be arrested or thrown out if they would accept me as a science fiction writer. He kept his grip on my hand and turned around and bellowed to his group of chatting friends, "Guess who I've got here. The little woman who wrote 'Incommunicado'!" He turned me around and wanted me to shake my sticky hand with all of them. I wiped it on my jacket and stepped back. My hair felt sticky. My face felt sticky. I was ashamed of being so disheveled and unprepared to discuss electronic theory. While they were suggesting coffee and sitting down to talk, I explained I had a hot story on the typewriter and had to get back to it before I lost the train of ideas and escaped. I had not been aware that my playing with communication ideas would attract the attention of prestigious Bell Telephone researchers. I had left radio and wavelength theory to my Dad as one of his hobbies and learned early that I could get a nasty shock from playing with his wiring. I could not account for their enthusiasm. I went back to the typewriter and lost myself in the story again. The point is, that scientists not only read Astounding-Analog, they were fans of the writers and understood all the Ideas, even the obscure Ideas that were merely hinted at. "Feedback" (1951). A sociological setback occurs when conformity becomes a closed circle, prompting even more conformity; a teacher who speaks in favor of individuality is regarded as subversive. Originally in Astounding Science Fiction (July, 1951). "Syndrome Johnny" (1951). Published before it was even certain that DNA carried genetic information, this story is about a series of engineered retroviral plagues, initially propagated by blood transfusion, that are genetically re-engineering the human race. First published in Galaxy Science Fiction (July, 1951). "Pictures Don't Lie'" (1951). Radio contact with extraterrestrial ship arriving on Earth. Originally in Galaxy Science Fiction (August, 1951), it was adapted to radio, television and comic books. The adaptation on the UK series Out of This World was telecast August 11, 1962. The EC Comics version of this story was "Chewed Out!", illustrated by Joe Orlando for Weird Science 12 (March-April 1952). In expanding the basic premise and adding comedic elements, scripter Al Feldstein established the setting as Blytheville, Arkansas. On several occasions MacLean noted that she ranked EC's interpretation as superior to her own story. "The Snowball Effect" (1952). A sociology professor, challenged to prove his theories of the dynamic growth of organizations, rewrites the rules of a smalltown sewing circle to have "more growth drive than the Roman Empire." He is far more successful than he ever anticipated. Originally in Galaxy Science Fiction (September, 1952). "Games" (1953). A boy becomes the characters in his make-believe games. Originally in Galaxy Science Fiction (March, 1953). "The Diploids" (1953). In this novella, a young lawyer suspects he may be an alien because of certain physical and biochemical abnormalities but discovers that he is a commercial human embryonic cell line, sold for research and illegally grown to maturity. Originally in Thrilling Wonder Stories (April, 1953). Also titled "Six Fingers." "Second Game" (1958). This collaboration by MacLean and Charles V. De Vet, published in Astounding Science Fiction (March, 1958), was nominated for a 1959 Hugo. Novels "The Missing Man" (1971). MacLean was awarded the Nebula Award for this novella, one of a series about a balkanised New York, where an engineer working for the city's disaster planning section has his inside knowledge exploited to cause disasters. First published in Analog (March, 1971), expanded into novel-length as Missing Man (Wildside Press, 1975). Memoir For Martin Greenberg's Fantastic Lives: Autobiographical Essays by Notable Science Fiction Writers (Southern Illinois University Press, 1981) she wrote "The Expanding Mind," a memoir of her youth and the impact of science fiction on the mind of a young girl. For Eric Leif Davin's Partners in Wonder: Women and the Birth of Science Fiction, 1926-1965, MacLean supplied him with a detailed description of her negotiations with John W. Campbell in regards to the publication of her earliest stories. Davin, Eric Leif. Partners in Wonder: Women and the Birth of Science Fiction, 1926-1965, Lexington Books, 2006. References See also List of science fiction authors Listen to X Minus One: "Pictures Don't Lie" (October 24, 1956) External links Katherine MacLean at IMDb Katherine MacLean on BookRags | Katherine_MacLean |@lemmatized ron:1 miller:2 cover:3 june:2 issue:2 astound:10 science:26 fiction:24 feature:1 maclean:22 novelette:3 incommunicado:5 katherine:10 anne:1 born:1 january:3 american:1 author:3 best:1 know:2 short:4 story:19 examine:1 impact:2 technological:1 advance:2 individual:2 society:1 brian:1 aldiss:1 note:2 could:5 hard:2 stuff:1 magnificently:1 theodore:1 sturgeon:1 observe:1 generally:1 start:1 base:1 rationalize:1 psi:1 phenomenon:1 beautifully:1 finish:1 logic:1 although:1 include:1 numerous:1 anthology:2 radio:4 television:2 adaptation:2 diploid:3 flight:1 fancy:1 collection:2 bear:3 glen:1 ridge:1 new:5 jersey:1 concentrate:1 mathematics:1 high:1 school:1 time:3 early:4 publish:9 receive:2 b:1 economics:1 barnard:1 college:1 follow:3 postgraduate:1 study:1 psychology:1 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4,861 | Insanity_defense | In criminal trials, the insanity defenses are possible defenses by excuse, an affirmative defense by which defendants argue that they should not be held criminally liable for breaking the law, as they were legally insane at the time of the commission of alleged crimes. A defendant attempting such a defense will often be required to first undergo a mental examination. The legal definition of "insane" in this context is quite different from psychiatric definitions of "mentally ill", also that the definition of insanity varies between jurisdictions. When the insanity defense is successful, the defendant is usually committed to a psychiatric hospital. In the United Kingdom and the United States, use of the defense is rare and it is more common to rely upon a state of temporary mental impairment. In the United States a state of temporary mental impairment is not a defense. It falls under the category of a mitigating factor referred to as "diminished capacity". A mitigating factor (which can include conditions not eligible for the insanity defense such as intoxication) can be used to attempt a reduction of the charges to a lesser offense or in a reduced sentence. The insanity defense is available in most jurisdictions that respect human rights and have a rule of law, though the extent to which it can be applied may differ widely between jurisdictions. The insanity defense is based on evaluations by forensic professionals that the defendant was incapable of distinguishing between right and wrong at the time the offense was committed. In addition, some jurisdictions require that the evaluation address the issue of whether the defendant was able to control his behavior at the time of the offense. A defendant making the insanity argument might be said to be pleading "not guilty by reason of insanity" (NGRI). A successful NGRI defense can result in an indeterminate commitment to a psychiatric facility. Diminished responsibility (or diminished capacity) can be employed as a mitigating factor and is applicable to more circumstances than the insanity defense in the United States. For example, some jurisdictions accept inebriation or other drug intoxication as a mitigating factor, whereas intoxication alone is not accepted as an insanity defense. If diminished responsibility (or capacity) is presented convincingly, the charges may be reduced to a lesser offense or the sentence may be more lenient. Mitigating factor The United States Supreme Court in Penry v. Lynaugh and the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit in Bigby v. Dretke have been clear in their decisions that jury instructions in death penalty cases that do not ask about mitigating factors regarding the defendant's mental health violate the defendant's Eighth Amendment rights, saying that the jury is to be instructed to consider mitigating factors when answering unrelated questions. This ruling suggests specific explanations to jury is necessary to weigh mitigating factors. Withdrawal of successful insanity defense Although several cases have ruled that persons found not guilty by reason of insanity may not withdraw their successful insanity defense in an habeas petition in order to pursue an alternative, other rulings have allowed it. In State v. Connelly, for example, the petitioner who had originally been found not guilty by reason of insanity and committed for ten years to the jurisdiction of a Psychiatric Security Review Board filed a pro se writ of habeas corpus and the court vacated his insanity acquittal. He was granted a new trial and found guilty of the original charges, receiving a prison sentence of 40 years. Refusal of insanity defense In the landmark case of Frendak v. United States, the court ruled that the insanity defense cannot be imposed upon an unwilling defendant if an intelligent defendant voluntarily wishes to forgo the defense. Psychiatric treatments Those found to have been not guilty by reason of insanity are generally then required to undergo psychiatric treatment, except in the case of temporary insanity (see below). Defendants found not guilty by reason of insanity are generally placed in a mental institution. Unlike defendants who are found guilty of a crime, they are not institutionalized for a fixed period, but rather held in the institution until they are determined not to be a threat. Authorities making this decision tend to be cautious and as a result, defendants can often be incarcerated for longer than they would have been in prison. In Foucha v. Louisiana (1992) the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that a person could not be held "indefinitely". So far, in the United States, those acquitted of a federal offense by reason of insanity have not been able to challenge their psychiatric confinement through a writ of habeas corpus or other remedies. In Archuleta v. Hedrick, 365 F.3d 644 (8th Cir. 2004), the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit the court ruled persons found not guilty by reason of insanity and later want to challenge their confinement may not attack their initial successful insanity defense: Incompetency and Mental Illness An important distinction to be made is the difference between competency and criminal responsibility. The issue of competency is whether a defendant is able to adequately assist his attorney in preparing a defense, make informed decisions about trial strategy and whether or not to plead guilty or accept a plea agreement. This issue is dealt with in law as "fitness to plead". Criminal responsibility, however, deals with whether a defendant can be held legally responsible for his criminal behavior. Competency largely deals with the defendant's present condition, while criminal responsibility addresses the condition at the time the crime was committed. In the United States, a trial in which the insanity defense is invoked typically involves the testimony of psychiatrists or psychologists who will present opinions on the defendants state of mind at the time of the offense. Mental health practitioners are restrained from making a judgment on the issue of whether the defendant is or is not insane or what is known as the "ultimate issue". Insanity is a legal concept, not a psychiatric concept of mental illness. Whether a person has a diagnosed mental disorder is not sufficient reason, from the court's point of view, to relieve them from all responsibility for illegal acts they may commit. A person may have a mental disorder and be a competent person in many other ways, able to write checks, handle his personal affairs, hold a job and carry on a variety of behaviors despite the mental disorder. Likewise, a person may commit a criminal act, independent of the fact that he has a mental disorder. Depending on the jurisdiction, other elements need to be proven, for the court to accept that the mental disorder was responsible for the criminal act, that is, it must be shown that the defendant committed the crime because of the mental disorder. For example, the mental disorder interfered with his ability to determine right from wrong at the time the offense was committed. It would unduly stigmatize a person with a diagnosed mental illness to say that because of the mental illness he is not responsible for his behavior. Therefore, persons whose mental disorder is not in dispute will be determined sane as the court will decide that despite a "mental illness" the defendant was responsible for the acts he committed and he will be treated in court as a normal defendant. If the person has a mental illness and it is determined that the mental illness interfered with the person's ability to determine right from wrong, and other associated criteria a jurisdiction may have, and if the person is willing to plead guilty or is proven guilty in a court of law, some jurisdiction have an alternative option known as either a Guilty but Mentally Ill (GBMI) or a Guilty but Insane verdict. The GBMI verdict is available as an alternative to, rather than in lieu of, a "not guilty by reason of insanity" verdict. Michigan (1975) was the first state to create a GBMI verdict. Sometimes a person without mental illness can be found to be insane; for example, a person who is acting under the influence of a drug that was involuntarily administered (though voluntary intoxication has been rejected by most jurisdictions as a defense to crime). (See: Intoxication defense) History of the insanity defense The concept of defense by insanity has existed since ancient Greece and Rome. However, in colonial America a delusional Dorothy Talbye was hanged in 1638 for murdering her daughter, as at the time Massachusetts's common law made no distinction between insanity (or mental illness) and criminal behavior. Edward II, under English Common law, declared that a person was insane if their mental capacity was no more than that of a "Wild Beast". The first complete transcript of an insanity trial dates to 1724. The fate of insane defendants was uncertain in the United Kingdom until the Criminal Lunatics Act 1800, following the acquittal of James Hadfield, provided for their indefinite detention. The insanity plea was codified in English law with the M'Naghten Rules of 1843, which were formulated as a result of the attempted assassination of British Prime Minister Robert Peel. The rules define the defense as "at the time of the commission of the acts constituting the offense, the defendant as a result of a severe mental disease or defect, was unable to appreciate the nature and quality of the wrongfulness of his acts." The key is that the defendant could not appreciate the nature of his actions during the commission of the crime. In Ford v. Wainwright 477 U.S. 399 (1986), the US Supreme Court upheld the common law rule that the insane cannot be executed. It further stated that a person under the death penalty is entitled to a competency evaluation and to an evidentiary hearing in court on the question of his competency to be executed. In Wainwright v. Greenfield, the Court ruled that it was fundamentally unfair for the prosecutor to comment during the court proceedings on the petitioner's silence invoked as a result of a Miranda warning. The prosecutor had argued that the respondent's silence after receiving Miranda warnings was evidence of his sanity. Controversy over the insanity defense There are many different interpretations of "insane" and many different notions of how to deal with insane individuals. Some opponents of the insanity defense, including Thomas Szasz, Jeffrey Schaler and Richard Vatz, claim that "insanity" is a mythical construction designed to relieve lawbreakers from criminal responsibility (mens rea). Some believe as well that psychiatry itself largely emerged as a way to justify mercy, of making persons "exceptional" and thus not deserving of the harsh punishment we would as a society wish to dole out to people who simply had self-serving rationales for their actions. Since extreme selfishness ("self-absorption") or broadly shared resentments (e.g. envy of the rich, hatred of another ethnic group) are somewhat infectious behaviors, some argue that other "mental illness" were defined into existence to protect those whose motives and behaviors were not so infectious, and whose offenses were thus unlikely to be repeated by others. The cost of this system of mercy, however, was to classify the psychiatrist and patient in an ongoing unequal power relationship (See anti-psychiatry). In ancient Rome, Latin tribes held various religious beliefs that included considering the insane to be divinely blessed, and therefore beyond the reach of human jurisdiction. It is alleged that insanity as an excuse was introduced in the ancient Roman legal system based upon this tradition. Some modern critics claim that this precedent precludes the insanity defense's validity in a modern secular state like the United States. The public tends to believe that the insanity defense is used more often than it actually is, possibly because insanity defense cases tend to be of a high-profile nature. The insanity plea is used in the U.S Criminal Justice System in less than 1% of all criminal cases. Much information is unknown about the criminal justice system and the mentally ill: Some U.S. states have begun to ban the use of the insanity defense and a 1994 Supreme Court ruling upheld the right of Montana to do so. Idaho and Utah have also banned the defense. In 2006, the Supreme Court decided Clark v. Arizona upheld Arizona's use of the insanity defense. Rules of appreciation In this section, various rules applied in United States jurisdiction with respect to insanity defenses are discussed. American Law Institute Model This is a hybrid of the M'Naghten Rules and the irresistible impulse test. It states that a person suffering form a mental disease or defect is not responsible for his actions if he lacked the substantial capacity to (i) appreciate the criminality of his conduct, or (ii) conform his conduct to the law. The combination of the rule acts as to emcompass acquittal if proof shows that as a result of a mental defect he either lacked substantial capacity to appreciate the criminality of his actions or conform his conduct to the requirements of law. This discusses both the cognitive and volitional capacity of insanity. The M'Naghten Rules The M'Naghten Rules (1843) 10 C & F 200, state, inter alia, that a person may be "insane" if "...at the time of the committing of the act, the party accused was laboring under such a defect of reason, arising from a disease of the mind, as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing, or, if he did know it, that he did not know what he was doing was wrong." During the mid- 20th century the M'Naghten Rules were gradually adapted in most jurisdictions in the United States by other tests listed below. Following the attempted assassination of another prominent political figure (president Ronald Reagan), however, the M'Naghten Rules underwent a major revival such that they apply in the majority of states. Irresistible Impulse There is also an idea of irresistible impulse, which argues that a person may have known an act was illegal but as a result of mental impairment lost control of their actions. This is a more liberal test than that set by the M'Naghten Rules because it applies to defendants who are fully aware of their actions. The defense was first approved in the U.S. in Ohio in 1834 State v. Thompson, 90 Wright Ohio Rep. 622 (1834) and emphasized the inability to control one's actions. Since then it has been adopted by other States, but is open to criticism since there is no way to identify impulses which could be resisted or controlled, and each case must therefore turn upon its own facts. In 1994, Lorena Bobbitt was found not guilty of the felony of malicious wounding when it was argued that an irresistible impulse led her to cut off her husband's penis. The principle has not been applied in the U.K. The Durham rule The Durham rule or "product test" was set forth by the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit in 1954 and states that "... an accused is not criminally responsible if his unlawful act was the product of mental disease or defect". After the 1970s, US jurisdictions have tended not to recognize this argument as it places emphasis on "mental disease or defect" and thus on testimony by psychiatrists and is argued to be somewhat ambiguous. The Brawner rule The Brawner Rule, from the case of United States v. Brawner, 471 F.2d 969 (1972) by the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, set aside the Durham ruling arguing the ruling’s requirement that a crime must be a “product of mental disease or defect” placed the question of guilt on expert witnesses and diminished the jury’s role in determining guilt. Under this proposal, juries are allowed to decide the "insanity question" as they see fit. Basing its ruling on the American Law Institute’s (ALI) Model Penal Code, the court ruled that for a defendant not to be criminally guilty for a crime the defendant, “(i) lacks substantial capacity to appreciate that his conduct is wrongful, or (ii) lacks substantial capacity to conform his conduct to the law.” It is noteworthy that this case was (1) decided by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia circuit and not the United States Supreme Court, and is thus not a national precedent, and (2) not based on constitutional arguments and was thus superseded by Congress in 1984 with the Insanity Defense Reform Act of 1984. The Insanity Defense Reform Act of 1984 (U.S.) There was widespread public outcry over John Hinckley Jr.'s successful use of the insanity defense in his trial for the attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan. The Insanity Defense Reform Act of 1984, enacted by Congress in 1984 in response to the verdict in the Hinckley trial, and codified at Title 18, U.S. Code, Section 17, states that a person accused of a crime can be judged not guilty by reason of insanity if "the defendant, as a result of a severe mental disease or defect, was unable to appreciate the nature and quality or the wrongfulness of his acts." The Insanity Defense Reform Act mirrors the M'Naughten rules except that it requires the defendant suffer from severe mental defect, and places the burden on the defendant to prove by clear and convincing evidence (higher than the preponderance of the evidence standard required of the defendant by most states following the M'Naughten Rules). The substantial capacity test The substantial capacity test was defined by the American Law Institute, in its Model Penal Code. This argues that insanity should be defined as a lack of substantial capacity to control one's behavior. Substantial capacity is defined as: "the mental capacity needed to understand the wrongfulness of [an] act, or to conform...behavior to the...law." This is related to the M'Naghten Rule and the idea of 'irresistible impulse'. Temporary insanity The notion of temporary insanity argues that a defendant was insane, but is now sane. A defendant found to have been temporarily insane will often be released without any requirements of psychiatric treatment. This defense was first used by U.S. Congressman Daniel Sickles of New York in 1859 after he had killed his wife's lover, Philip Barton Key, but was most used during the 1940s and 1950s. Another case around that time was that of Charles J. Guiteau. Scottish law The Scottish Law Commission in its Discussion Paper No 122 on Insanity and Diminished Responsibility (2003) pp.16/18 confirms that the law has not substantially changed from the position stated in Hume's Commentaries: We may next attend to the case of those unfortunate persons, who have plead the miserable defense of idiocy or insanity. Which condition, if it is not an assumed or imperfect, but a genuine and thorough insanity, and is proved by the testimony of intelligent witnesses, makes the act like that of an infant, and equally bestows the privilege of an entire exemption from any manner of pain; Cum alterum innocentia concilii tuetur, alterum fati infelicitas excusat. I say, where the insanity is absolute, and is duly proved: For if reason and humanity enforce the plea in these circumstances, it is no less necessary to observe a caution and reserve in applying the law, as shall hinder it from being understood, that there is any privilege in a case of mere weakness of intellect, or a strange and moody humor, or a crazy and capricious or irritable temper. In none of these situations does or can the law excuse the offender. Because such constitutions are not exclusive of a competent understanding of the true state of the circumstances in which the deed is done, nor of the subsistence of some steady and evil passion, grounded in those circumstances, and directed to a certain object. To serve the purpose of a defense in law, the disorder must therefore amount to an absolute alienation of reason, ut continua mentis alienatione, omni intellectu careat - such a disease as deprives the patient of the knowledge of the true aspect and position of things about him - hinders him from distinguishing friend from foe - and gives him up to the impulse of his own distempered fancy. The phrase "absolute alienation of reason" is still regarded as at the core of the defense in the modern law (see HM Advocate v Kidd 1960 JC 61 and Brennan v HM Advocate (1977) JC 38). Usage and success rate Media coverage in the United States tends to dictate how situations are perceived by the public. A case using the insanity defense usually receives a lot more media attention because it is considered unusual or dramatic. This increased coverage gives the impression that the defense is widely used but this is not the case. According to an eight-state study the insanity defense is used in less than 1% of all court cases and is only successful in 26% of cases. Of those cases that were successful, 90% of defendants had been previously diagnosed with mental illness. The early-2000s cases of Lee Boyd Malvo and Andrea Yates are examples of high-profile use of the insanity defense; both are characterised by their dramatic circumstances. See also Settled insanity Frendak v. United States Diminished responsibility Mental disorder defence Intoxication defence Sanity Footnotes References . , pp15–16. at p.30 Further reading Boland, F. (1996). "Insanity, the Irish Constitution and the European Convention on Human Rights". 47 Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly 260. Brown, M. (2007). "The John Hinckley Trial & Its Effect on the Insanity Defense". Butler Committee. (1975). The Butler Committee on Mentally Abnormal Offenders, London: HMSO, Cmnd 6244 Ellis, J. W. (1986). "The Consequences of the Insanity Defense: Proposals to reform post-acquittal commitment laws". 35 Catholic University Law Review 961. Gostin, L. (1982). "Human Rights, Judicial Review and the Mentally Disordered Offender". (1982) Crim. LR 779. The Law Reform Commission of Western Australia. The Criminal Process and Persons Suffering from Mental Disorder, Project No. 69, August 1991. 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4,862 | Alfonso_XIII_of_Spain | Alfonso XIII (Alfonso León Fernando María Jaime Isidro Pascual Antonio de Borbón y Austria-Lorena; anglicised: Alphonse Leon Ferdinand Mary James Isidor Pascal Anthony of Bourbon and Austria-Lorraine) (Madrid, 17 May 1886 – Rome, 28 February 1941), King of Spain, posthumous son of Alfonso XII of Spain, was proclaimed King at his birth. He reigned from 1886-1931. His mother, Queen Maria Christina, was appointed regent during his minority. In 1902, on attaining his 16th year, the King assumed control of the state. Reign Although Alfonso's reign would not end well, it began well. The French newspaper Figaro described the young king as "the happiest and best loved of all the rulers of the earth." [ "The Happiest Living Monarch,"] New York Times. August 14, 1889. When he came of age in 1902, the week of his attainng his majority was marked by a week of festivities, bullfights, balls and receptions throughout Spain. "Alfonso's Reign Begins on May 17; He Will Take the Oath on That Day -- Festivities to Last a Week," New York Times, March 29, 1902. During his reign Spain lost its last colonies in the Americas (Cuba and Puerto Rico) and the Philippines; fought and, after several setbacks, won a war in Morocco; witnessed the start of the Spanish Generation of 1927, and endured the dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera, which ultimately cost him the throne. Alfonso XIII, 1901 During the First World War, because of his family connections with both sides and the division of popular opinion, Spain remained neutral. The king ran an office for captives from the Palacio de Oriente, that leveraged the Spanish diplomatic and military network abroad to intercede for thousands of prisoners of war, receiving and answering letters from all Europe. He was a promoter of tourism in Spain. The problems with the lodging of his wedding guests prompted the construction of the luxury Hotel Palace in Madrid. He also supported the creation of a network of state-run lodges (Parador) in historic buildings of Spain. His fondness for the sport of football led to the patronage of several "royal" football clubs like Real Sociedad, Real Madrid, Real Betis and Real Unión. When the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed on 14 April 1931, he fled and left Spain, but did not abdicate the throne. He settled eventually in Rome where he lived in the Grand Hotel. Once the Spanish Civil War broke out, Alfonso made it clear he favoured the military uprising against the Popular Front government, but General Francisco Franco in September 1936 declared that the Nationalists would never accept Alfonso as king (the supporters of the rival Carlist pretender made up an important part of the Franco army). First he went into exile in France. Nevertheless, he sent his son Juan de Borbon, Count of Barcelona to enter Spain in 1936 and participate in the uprising. However, near the French border, General Mola had him arrested and expelled from the country. On 15 January 1941, Alfonso XIII abdicated his rights to the Spanish throne in favour of his third (of four), but second surviving, son Juan, father of the current king Juan Carlos. He died in Rome a month-and-a-half later. The Spanish government ordered three days of national mourning. "Mourning in Spain", The Times (March 3, 1941): 3. His funeral was held in Rome in the Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli. He was buried in the Church of Santa Maria in Monserrato, the Spanish national church in Rome, immediately below the tombs of Pope Calixtus III and Pope Alexander VI. "Italians to Mourn Death of Alfonso," The New York Times. March 2, 1941. In January 1980 his remains were transferred to El Escorial in Spain. "21 Guns for Dead King's Homecoming", The Times (January 21, 1980): 4. Marriage and children On 31 May 1906 at the Royal Monastery of San Geronimo in Madrid Alfonso married Scottish-born Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg (1887-1969), a niece of King Edward VII of the United Kingdom and a granddaughter of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. A Serene Highness by birth, Ena, as she was known, was raised to Royal Highness status a month before her wedding to prevent the union from being viewed as unequal. As Alfonso XIII and Ena were returning from the wedding they narrowly escaped the assassination attempted by the anarchist Mateu Morral; instead, the bomb explosion killed or injured many bystanders and members of the royal procession. Alfonso and Ena had seven children: Infante Alfonso Pio Cristino Eduardo Francisco Guillermo Carlos Enrique Fernando Antonio Venancio of Spain, Prince of Asturias (1907-1938), a hemophiliac, he renounced his rights to the throne in 1933 to marry a commoner, Edelmira Ignacia Adriana Sampedro-Robato, and became Count of Covadonga. He later remarried to Marta Esther Rocafort y Altazarra, but had no issue by either of them. Infante Jaime Luitpold Isabelino Enrique Alberto Alfonso Victor Acacio Pedro Maria of Spain (1908-1975), a deaf-mute as the result of a childhood operation, he renounced his rights to the throne in 1933 and became Duke of Segovia, and later Duke of Madrid, and who, as a legitimist pretender to the French throne from 1941 to 1975, was known as the Duke of Anjou. Infanta Beatríz Isabela Federica Alfonsa Eugenia Cristina Maria Teresa Bievenida Ladisláa of Spain (1909-2002), who married Don Alessandro Torlonia, 5th Prince di Civitella-Cesi. Infante Fernando, stillborn (1910) Infanta Maria Cristina Teresa Alejandra Guadalupe Maria de la Concepción Vittoria Eugenia of Spain (1911-1996), who married Enrico Eugenio Marone-Cinzano, 1st Conte di Marone. Infante Juan Carlos Teresa Silvestre Alfonso of Spain (1913-1993), named heir to the throne and Count of Barcelona, whose son is current king Juan Carlos I of Spain. Infante Gonzalo Manuel Maria Bernardo Narciso Alfonso Mauricio of Spain (1914-1934), a hemophiliac. Like his elder brother Alfonso, he died due to bleeding from injuries suffered in a car crash. Illegitimate issue The King also had four illegitimate children: By French aristocrat Mélanie de Gaufridy de Dortan (Dompierre-les-Ormes, 31 August 1876 - Paris, 23 October 1937), daughter of Roger de Gaufridy de Dortan (1843 - 1905) and wife Adélaïde de Verdonnet (1853 - 1918), married on 7 July 1900 to Philippe Lévêque de Vilmorin (Verrières-le-Buisson, 21 May 1872 - Verrières-le-Buisson, 29 June 1917), by whom she had two daughters and two sons (Marie Lévêque de Vilmorin, married to Guy de Toulouse-Lautrec, Comte de Toulouse-Lautrec and a relative of Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, without issue, Louise Lévêque de Vilmorin (Verrières-le-Buisson, 4 April 1902 - 26 December 1969), married firstly in Paris on 12 March 1925 to Henry Leigh-Hunt (Des Moines, Polk County, Iowa, 17 October 1886 - Neuilly, 21 March 1972), and had issue, and married secondly in Bratislava on 27 January 1938 as his fifth of eight wives to Pál Gróf Erdödi Pálffy (Vienna, 12 February 1890 - Untergiesing-Harlaching, 11 October 1968), without issue, Olivier Lévêque de Vilmorin, unmarried and without issue, and André Lévêque de Vilmorin, unmarried and without issue; despite the resemblances of Louise with Alfonso XIII and even his also illegitimate half-sister Ana María Teresa, she was never claimed to be his daughter): Roger Marie Vincent Philippe Lévêque de Vilmorin (Verrières-le-Buisson, 12 September 1905 - Paris, 20 July 1980), married in Nice on 16 January 1926 to Pauline Roissard de Bellet (Paris, 31 March 1892 - bef. 1945), daughter of Jean Baron Roissard de Bellet and wife Elizabeth Prodgers, and had issue, and married secondly in Paris on 12 February 1945 as her second husband Edith Alice Cecile Lowther (London, 2 August 1906 - ?), daughter of the 1st Baronets Lowther, and had issue: Nicolas Lévêque de Vilmorin (b. 21 August 1928), married to Irène Thenard, without issue Jean-Baptiste Lévêque de Vilmorin (b. Paris, 11 January 1930), married firstly and divorced as her second husband to Geneviève Fontenay (Oran, 21 November 1930 - Saint-Paul, 14 April 1987), already divorced from her first husband, daughter of Roger Fontenay and wife Germaine Martin, who married thirdly François Giscard d'Estaing uncle of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and later husband of ... Cazin d' Honincthun, without issue, and married secondly to Monique Latil, without issue Elisabeth Lévêque de Vilmorin (b. Paris, 11 January 1930), married to Arnaud Baron de Lassus, without issue Sophie Lévêque de Vilmorin (b. 22 January 1931), married to Robert Miles-Reincke, without issue Claire Lévêque de Vilmorin (b. 20 August 1933), unmarried and without issue Eleonore Lévêque de Vilmorin (b. Neuilly-sur-Seine, 28 February 1947), married firstly in Verrières-le-Buisson on 12 April 1972 and divorced Guy-Raoul Marie Jacques de Dampierre (b. Saint-Mandé, 5 January 1938), without issue (he later married Ismène de Saint-Anthost and had a son Matthias de Dampierre, b. 1982), and married secondly in Paris on 3 May 1980 her first husband's cousin Aymeric de Dampierre (b. Paris, 12 January 1947), without issue Philippa Victoire Lévêque de Vilmorín (b. Boulogne-Billancourt, 11 November 1948), unmarried and without issue By Spanish actress María del Carmen Ruíz y Moragas (1898 - Madrid, 11 June 1936), married in Granada on 18 November 1917 to Rodolfo Gaona y Jiménez (León de Las Aldamas, Guanajuato, 22 January 1888 - Mexico City, 20 May 1975), without issue, and daughter of Leandro Antolín Ruíz y Martínez, born in Almadén, and wife María de las Mercedes Moragas y Pareja, born in Málaga: Ana María Teresa Ruíz y Moragas (Madrid, 9 October 1925 - Florence, 6 September 1965), married in Madrid on 26 October 1957 Arnoldo Bürgisser y Hufenus (Florence, 9 January 1927 - Florence, 21 December 1993), son of Louis Bürgisser and wife Agnèse Hufenus, and had issue: Leandro Bürgisser (b. Florence, 25 September 1958), married to Teresa Sancristoforo (b. Genoa, 13 October 1961), and had issue: Cristoforo Bürgisser (b. Florence, 29 October 1999) Tea Bürgisser (b. Florence, 8 October 2001) María del Carmen Bürgisser (b. 1959), unmarried and without issue Leandro Alfonso Luis Ruíz y Moragas (b. Madrid, 26 April 1929), officially recognized by Spanish Courts on 21 May 2003 as Leandro Alfonso Luis de Borbón y Ruíz Moragas, married firstly in June 1952 to María del Rosario Vidal y de Barnola (- 1992), daughter of Eduardo Vidal y ... and wife ... de Barnola y ..., and had issue, and married secondly in 1982 to María de la Concepción de Mora y ..., daughter of Manuel de Mora y ... (- Madrid, 1971), and wife ..., and had issue: María Cristina de Borbón y Vidal (b. 1953), married to ... Tejón y ..., and had issue: Juan Tejón y de Borbón (b. 1977) Javier Tejón y de Borbón (b. 1981) Pilar Tejón y de Borbón (b. 1984) Alfonso de Borbón y Vidal (Madrid, 1955 - 2000), married in San Lorenzo de El Escorial on 6 May 2000 to ..., without issue María Blanca de Borbón y Vidal (b. Madrid, 1956), married to Jesús Mateos y Morillo, and had issue: Pablo Mateos y de Borbón (b. 2000) Eduardo de Borbón y Vidal (b. 1956), married to ... Garde y ..., and had issue: Almudena de Borbón y Garde (b. 1985) Eduardo de Borbón y Garde (b. 1992) María Luisa de Borbón y Vidal (1957-1959 - 1961) María de las Mercedes de Borbón y Vidal (b. Madrid, 1960), married to Luis de Sautú y Acha, without issue By Béatrice Noon: Juana Alfonsa Milán y Quiñones de León (Paris, 19 April 1916 - Madrid, 16 May 2005), and had issue by an unknown father, three sons and one daughter: ... Milán y Quiñones de León ... Milán y Quiñones de León Pierre Milán y Quiñones de León María de la Soledad Milán y Quiñones de León Honours 1,072nd Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain in 1886 Collier, William Miller. (1912). At the Court of His Catholic Majesty, pp.35-36; Order of the Golden Fleece. Order of Charles III Miller, pp. 37-38; Orden de Carlos III (in Spanish). Order of Santiago Miller, pp. 39-39; Order of Santiago. Order of Calatrava Miller, pp. 39-39; Order of Calatrava. Order of Alcántara Miller, pp. 39-39; Order of Alcántara. Order of Montesa Miller, pp. 39-39; Order of Montesa. 315th Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword in 1900 815th Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1902 Order of the Chrysanthemum, 1930: Emperor Showa's second brother, Prince Takamatsu, traveled to Madrid to confer the Great Collar of the Chrysanthemum on King Alfonso. This honor was intended, in part, to commemorate the diplomatic and trading history which existed long before other Western nations were officially aware of Japan's existence. Prince Takamatsu traveled with his wife, Princess Takamatsu, to Spain. Her symbolic role in this unique mission to the Spanish court was intended to emphasize the international links which were forged by her 16th century ancestor, Ieyasu Tokugawa. In the years before the Tokugawa shogunate, that innovative daimyo from Western Japan had been actively involved in negotiating trade and diplomatic treaties with Spain and with the colonies of New Spain (Mexico) and the Philippines; and it was anticipated that mere presence of the Princess could serve to underscore the range of possibilities which could be inferred from that little-known history. "Japan to Decorate King Alfonso Today; Emperor's Brother Nears Madrid With Collar of the Chrysanthemum for Spanish King," New York Times, November 3, 1930; see also Nutail, Zelia. (1906). The Earliest Historical Relations Between Mexico and Japan, p. 2. Ancestors </center> References External links Royal House of Spain Princely House of Battenberg Further reading Churchill, Winston. Great Contemporaries. London: T. Butterworth, 1937. Contains the most famous single account of Alfonso in the English language. The author, writing shortly after the Spanish Civil War began, retained considerable fondness for the ex-sovereign. Collier, William Miller. At the Court of His Catholic Majesty. Chicago: McClurg, 1912. The author was American ambassador to Spain from 1905 to 1909. Noel, Gerard. Ena: Spain's English Queen. London: Constable, 1985. Considerably more candid than Petrie about Alfonso the private man, and about the miseries the royal family experienced because of their hemophiliac children. Nutail, Zelia. (1906). The Earliest Historical Relations Between Mexico and Japan. Berkeley: University of California Press....Link to digitized version from the collection of Harvard University Petrie, Charles. King Alfonso XIII and His Age. London: Chapman & Hall, 1963. Written as it was during Queen Ena's lifetime, this book necessarily omits the King's extramarital affairs; but it remains a useful biography, not least because the author knew Alfonso quite well, interviewed him at considerable length, and relates him to the Spanish culture of his time. Pilapil, Vicente R. Alfonso XIII. Twayne's rulers and statesmen of the world series 12. New York: Twayne, 1969. Sencourt, Robert. King Alfonso: A Biography. 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4,863 | Frederick_Augustus_II_of_Saxony | Frederick Augustus II (full name: Frederick Augustus Albert Maria Clemens Joseph Vincenz Aloys Nepomuk Johann Baptista Nikolaus Raphael Peter Xavier Franz de Paula Venantius Felix) (; b. Dresden, 18 May 1797 – d. Brennbüchel, in Karrösten, Tyrol, 9 August 1854) was King of Saxony and a member of the House of Wettin. He was the eldest son of Maximilian, Prince of Saxony --younger son of the Elector Frederick Christian of Saxony-- by his first wife, Caroline of Bourbon, Princess of Parma. Life Early years From his birth, it was clear that one day Frederick Augustus would become King of Saxony. His father was the only son of the Elector Frederick Christian of Saxony who left surviving male issue. When the King Frederick Augustus I died (1827) and Anton succeeded him as King, Frederick Augustus became second in line to the throne, preceded only by his father Maximilian. He was an officer in the Wars of Liberation. However, he had hardly interest in military affairs. Co-Regent to the Kingdom The July Revolution of 1830 in France marked the beginning of disturbances in Saxony that autumn. The people claimed a change in the constitution and demanded a young regent of the kingdom to share the government with the King Anton. On 1 September the Prince Maximilian renounced his rights of succession in favor of his son Frederick Augustus, who was proclaimed Prince Co-Regent (de: Prinz-Mitregenten) of Saxony. On 2 February 1832 Frederick Augustus brought Free Autonomy to the cities. Also, by an edict of 17 March of that year, the farmers were freed from the corvée and hereditary submission. King of Saxony On 6 June 1836 the King Anton died and Frederick Augustus succeeded him as King. As an intelligent man, he was quickly popular with the people as he had been since the time of his regency. The new king solved political questions only from a pure sense of duty. Mostly he preferred to leave these things on the hands of his ministers. A standardized jurisdiction for Saxony created the Criminal Code of 1836. During the Revolutionary disturbances of 1848 (March Revolution), he appointed liberal ministers in the government, lifted censorship, and remitted a liberal electoral law. Later his attitude changed. On 28 April Frederick August II dissolved the Parliament. In 1849, Frederick Augustus was forced to flee to the Königstein Fortress. The May Uprising was crushed by Saxon and Prussian troops and Frederick was able to return after only a few days. Accidental Death During a journey in Tyrol, he had an accident in Brennbüchel in which he fell from in front of a horse that stepped on his head. On 8 August 1854, he died in the Gasthof Neuner. He was buried on the 16 August in the Katholische Hofkirche of Dresden. In his memory, the Dowager Queen Maria arranged to establish a King's chapel at the accident place, which was consecrated one year later. Marriages In Vienna on 26 September 1819 (by proxy) and again in Dresden on 7 October 1819 (in person), Frederick Augustus married firstly with the Archduchess Maria Caroline of Austria (Maria Karoline Ferdinande Theresia Josephine Demetria), daughter of Emperor Francis I of Austria. They had no children. In Dresden on 24 April 1833 Frederick Augustus married secondly with the Princess Maria of Bavaria (Maria Anna Leopoldine Elisabeth Wilhelmine), daughter of the King Maximilian I of Bavaria. Like his first marriage, this was childless. Without issue, after his death Frederick Augustus was succeeded by his younger brother, Johann. Ancestors Frederick Augustus II's ancestors in three generations | Frederick_Augustus_II_of_Saxony |@lemmatized frederick:17 augustus:13 ii:3 full:1 name:1 albert:1 maria:6 clemens:1 joseph:1 vincenz:1 aloys:1 nepomuk:1 johann:2 baptista:1 nikolaus:1 raphael:1 peter:1 xavier:1 franz:1 de:2 paula:1 venantius:1 felix:1 b:1 dresden:4 may:2 brennbüchel:2 karrösten:1 tyrol:2 august:4 king:11 saxony:9 member:1 house:1 wettin:1 eldest:1 son:4 maximilian:4 prince:3 young:3 elector:2 christian:2 first:2 wife:1 caroline:2 bourbon:1 princess:2 parma:1 life:1 early:1 year:3 birth:1 clear:1 one:2 day:2 would:1 become:2 father:2 leave:2 survive:1 male:1 issue:2 die:3 anton:3 succeed:3 second:1 line:1 throne:1 precede:1 officer:1 war:1 liberation:1 however:1 hardly:1 interest:1 military:1 affair:1 co:2 regent:3 kingdom:2 july:1 revolution:2 france:1 mark:1 beginning:1 disturbance:2 autumn:1 people:2 claim:1 change:2 constitution:1 demand:1 share:1 government:2 september:2 renounce:1 right:1 succession:1 favor:1 proclaim:1 prinz:1 mitregenten:1 february:1 bring:1 free:2 autonomy:1 city:1 also:1 edict:1 march:2 farmer:1 corvée:1 hereditary:1 submission:1 june:1 intelligent:1 man:1 quickly:1 popular:1 since:1 time:1 regency:1 new:1 solve:1 political:1 question:1 pure:1 sense:1 duty:1 mostly:1 prefer:1 thing:1 hand:1 minister:2 standardized:1 jurisdiction:1 create:1 criminal:1 code:1 revolutionary:1 appoint:1 liberal:2 lift:1 censorship:1 remit:1 electoral:1 law:1 later:2 attitude:1 april:2 dissolve:1 parliament:1 force:1 flee:1 königstein:1 fortress:1 uprising:1 crush:1 saxon:1 prussian:1 troop:1 able:1 return:1 accidental:1 death:2 journey:1 accident:2 fell:1 front:1 horse:1 step:1 head:1 gasthof:1 neuner:1 bury:1 katholische:1 hofkirche:1 memory:1 dowager:1 queen:1 arrange:1 establish:1 chapel:1 place:1 consecrate:1 marriage:2 vienna:1 proxy:1 october:1 person:1 marry:2 firstly:1 archduchess:1 austria:2 karoline:1 ferdinande:1 theresia:1 josephine:1 demetria:1 daughter:2 emperor:1 francis:1 child:1 secondly:1 bavaria:2 anna:1 leopoldine:1 elisabeth:1 wilhelmine:1 like:1 childless:1 without:1 brother:1 ancestor:2 three:1 generation:1 |@bigram house_wettin:1 eldest_son:1 marry_firstly:1 archduchess_maria:1 marry_secondly:1 |
4,864 | Shock_site | A shock site is a website that is intended to be offensive, disgusting or disturbing to its viewers, containing materials of high shock value which is also considered distasteful and crude, and is generally of a pornographic, scatological, extremely violent, extremely profane, or extremely provocative nature. Kahney, Leander. "Gruesome Movie Sparks Outrage." Wired. August 29, 2001. Some shock sites display a single picture, animation, or video clip, or a small gallery, and are often passed around via email or disguised in posts to discussion sites as a hoax in an attempt to trick readers into following the link to the website (a bait and switch). Other shock sites are merely websites that openly display shocking material. Some shock sites have also gained their own subcultures and have become internet memes on their own. Goatse.cx featured a page devoted to fan-submitted artwork and tributes to the site's hello.jpg , and a parody of the image was also shown by a BBC newscast as an alternative for the then recently unveiled logo for the 2012 Summer Olympics Herrmann, Steve. "Shock tactics." BBC. June 5, 2007. Retrieved on February 23, 2009. . A shock video known as 2 Girls 1 Cup also quickly became an internet phenomenon, with videos of reactions, homages, and parodies widely posted on video sharing sites such as YouTube. Examples of shock sites Goatse.cx Goatse.cx "The Hands of God", snopes.com. was one of the best-known shock sites, featuring an image, hello.jpg, of a man stretching his anus with his hands. The original domain goatse.cx was deactivated by the NIC .cx authority in January 2004, but several mirror sites are currently up and running hosting the original content Archive.org's archived copy of the pages accessible through the domain goatse.cx before it was pointed to http://www.blackraven.cx/ (including the only currently active Top-level domain mirror: goatse.fr). 2 Girls 1 Cup 2 Girls 1 Cup (or Cupchicks) is a famous shock site/viral video portraying coprophilia. The site has garnered a great deal of attention on internet forums and video sites, spawning various reaction videos and parodies such as songs and animated versions. Among these is a video showing comedian Joe Rogan's reaction to the clip Joe Rogan Watches 2 Girls 1 Cup Video and a parody video featuring John Mayer. 2 Guys 1 Cup with John Mayer from john mayer The video was also brought up in an episode of VH1's Best Week Ever. The Best Week Ever, VH1. Stile Project Stile Project, which won a Webby Award in 2000 for Weird site and was a People's Voice winner, Mulligan, Judie. "STARS TURN OUT TO HONOR THE BEST WEB SITES OF THE YEAR AT THE WEBBY AWARDS 2000." Webby Awards. May 11, 2000. evolved into a website with a lot of pornographic and extreme material; Wired referred to the website as a "shock site" in a 2001 article. Lemonparty.org Lemonparty.org contains an image of three elderly men in a bed kissing and having oral sex. The image has been referenced in obscure and sometimes literal contexts in the media, such as a sketch on Talkshow with Spike Feresten, "Lemon Party." Talkshow with Spike Feresten at MySpace It’s Not An Old Man Orgy If It’s Not a Lemon Party! Best Week Ever (VH1) official blog, September 2007. dialog on 30 Rock. Alt, Eric. "30 Rock: Season Two." Maxim. Accessed October 19, 2008. "Liz Lemon Party." College Humor. Posted December 14, 2007. Accessed October 19, 2008. , a Moviefone interview with Michael Cera and Jonah Hill, "Superbad 'Superbad' Unscripted - Clip No. 2." Moviefone. Accessed October 19, 2008. and a Young Hollywood interview with Pete Wentz of Fall Out Boy. "In the Dressing Room With Fall Out Boy." Young Hollywood.com. Accessed October 5, 2008. . Last Measure Last Measure is a shock site script written by the Gay Nigger Association of America (GNAA) which utilizes Flash, Javascript, and Java to spawn pop-ups containing various shock images, attempt to launch IRC and E-mail clients, and playing a looping audio file that declares that the user is "looking at gay porno." Some installations can also take a user name parameter in the URL to track how many people have been sent to the site via a particular user. See also Computer prank Internet troll List of Internet phenomena NSFW Internet privacy References | Shock_site |@lemmatized shock:14 site:18 website:4 intend:1 offensive:1 disgust:1 disturb:1 viewer:1 contain:3 material:3 high:1 value:1 also:7 consider:1 distasteful:1 crude:1 generally:1 pornographic:2 scatological:1 extremely:3 violent:1 profane:1 provocative:1 nature:1 kahney:1 leander:1 gruesome:1 movie:1 spark:1 outrage:1 wire:2 august:1 display:2 single:1 picture:1 animation:1 video:11 clip:3 small:1 gallery:1 often:1 pass:1 around:1 via:2 email:1 disguise:1 post:3 discussion:1 hoax:1 attempt:2 trick:1 reader:1 follow:1 link:1 bait:1 switch:1 merely:1 websites:1 openly:1 gain:1 subculture:1 become:2 internet:6 meme:1 goatse:6 cx:7 feature:3 page:2 devote:1 fan:1 submit:1 artwork:1 tribute:1 hello:2 jpg:2 parody:4 image:5 show:2 bbc:2 newscast:1 alternative:1 recently:1 unveil:1 logo:1 summer:1 olympics:1 herrmann:1 steve:1 tactic:1 june:1 retrieve:1 february:1 know:2 girl:4 cup:5 quickly:1 phenomenon:2 reaction:3 homage:1 widely:1 share:1 youtube:1 example:1 hand:2 god:1 snopes:1 com:2 one:1 best:5 man:2 stretch:1 anus:1 original:2 domain:3 deactivate:1 nic:1 authority:1 january:1 several:1 mirror:2 currently:2 run:1 host:1 content:1 archive:2 org:3 copy:1 accessible:1 point:1 http:1 www:1 blackraven:1 include:1 active:1 top:1 level:1 fr:1 cupchicks:1 famous:1 viral:1 portray:1 coprophilia:1 garner:1 great:1 deal:1 attention:1 forum:1 spawn:2 various:2 song:1 animated:1 version:1 among:1 comedian:1 joe:2 rogan:2 watch:1 john:3 mayer:3 guy:1 bring:1 episode:1 week:3 ever:3 stile:2 project:2 win:1 webby:3 award:3 weird:1 people:2 voice:1 winner:1 mulligan:1 judie:1 star:1 turn:1 honor:1 web:1 year:1 may:1 evolve:1 lot:1 extreme:1 refer:1 article:1 lemonparty:2 three:1 elderly:1 men:1 bed:1 kissing:1 oral:1 sex:1 reference:2 obscure:1 sometimes:1 literal:1 context:1 medium:1 sketch:1 talkshow:2 spike:2 feresten:2 lemon:3 party:3 myspace:1 old:1 orgy:1 official:1 blog:1 september:1 dialog:1 rock:2 alt:1 eric:1 season:1 two:1 maxim:1 access:4 october:4 liz:1 college:1 humor:1 december:1 moviefone:2 interview:2 michael:1 cera:1 jonah:1 hill:1 superbad:2 unscripted:1 young:2 hollywood:2 pete:1 wentz:1 fall:2 boy:2 dressing:1 room:1 last:2 measure:2 script:1 write:1 gay:2 nigger:1 association:1 america:1 gnaa:1 utilizes:1 flash:1 javascript:1 java:1 pop:1 ups:1 launch:1 irc:1 e:1 mail:1 client:1 play:1 looping:1 audio:1 file:1 declare:1 user:3 look:1 porno:1 installation:1 take:1 name:1 parameter:1 url:1 track:1 many:1 send:1 particular:1 see:1 computer:1 prank:1 troll:1 list:1 nsfw:1 privacy:1 |@bigram video_clip:1 goatse_cx:5 summer_olympics:1 snopes_com:1 http_www:1 dressing_room:1 |
4,865 | Cincinnati_Bengals | The Cincinnati Bengals are a Professional Football team based in Cincinnati, Ohio. They are currently members of the North Division of the American Football Conference (AFC) in the National Football League (NFL). Their first two seasons, 1968 and 1969, were as an American Football League franchise. They joined the NFL as part of the 1970 AFL-NFL Merger, which had actually been agreed to in 1966. They have never won a Super Bowl. The Bengals currently conduct summer training camp at Georgetown College in Georgetown, Kentucky and play home games at Paul Brown Stadium in Downtown Cincinnati. Franchise history In 1966, Paul Brown wanted to become involved in professional football again. James A. Rhodes, then the governor of Ohio, convinced Brown that Ohio needed a second team. Cincinnati was deemed the logical choice, in essence, splitting the state. Brown named the team the Bengals in order "to give it a link with past professional football in Cincinnati." History - Cincinnati Bengals Another Bengals team existed in the city and played in a three previous American Football Leagues AFL II 1937, AFL/APFA 1939, AFL III 1940-1941 from 1937 to 1942. The city's renowned zoo was also home to a rare white Bengal Tiger. However, possibly as an insult to Art Modell, Paul Brown chose the exact shade of orange used by his former team. He added black as the secondary color. Brown chose a very simple logo: the word "BENGALS" in black lettering. Ironically, one of the potential helmet designs Brown rejected was a striped motif that was similar to the helmets adopted by the team in 1981 and which is still in use to this day; however, that design featured orange stripes on a black helmet which were more uniform in width. However, Brown was not a supporter of the rival American Football League, stating that "I didn't pay ten million dollars to be in the AFL." Paul Brown . He only acquiesced to joining the AFL when he was guaranteed that the team would become an NFL franchise after the impending merger of the two leagues. There was also a complication: Major League Baseball's Cincinnati Reds were in need of a facility to replace the antiquated, obsolete Crosley Field, which they had used since 1912. Parking nightmares had plagued the city as far back as the 1950s, the little park lacked modern amenities, and New York City, which in 1957 had lost both its National League teams (the Dodgers and the Giants) to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively, was actively courting Reds owner Powel Crosley. However, Crosley was adamant that the Reds remain in Cincinnati and tolerated worsening problems with the Crosley Field location, which were exacerbated by the Millcreek Expressway (I-75) project that ran alongside the park. With assistance from Ohio governor James A. Rhodes, Hamilton County and the Cincinnati city council agreed to build a single multi-purpose facility on the dilapidated riverfront section of the city. The new facility had to be ready by the opening of the 1970 NFL season and was officially named Riverfront Stadium, which was its working title. With the completion of the merger in 1970, the Cleveland Browns were moved to the AFL-based American Football Conference and placed in the AFC Central, the same division as the Bengals. An instant rivalry was born, fueled initially by Paul Brown's rivalry with Art Modell. For their inaugural season, the Bengals played at Nippert Stadium which is the current home of the University of Cincinnati Bearcats. The team finished its first season with a 3–11 record, although one bright spot was running back Paul Robinson. Robinson rushed for 1,023 yards and was named the AFL Rookie of the Year. Founder Paul Brown coached the team for its first eight seasons. One of Brown’s college draft strategies was to draft players with above-average intelligence. Punter/wide receiver Pat McInally attended Harvard University and linebacker Reggie Williams attended Dartmouth College and served on Cincinnati city council while on the Bengals’ roster. Because of this policy, many former players were highly articulate and went on to have successful careers in commentary and broadcasting as well as the arts. In addition, Brown had a knack for locating and recognizing pro football talent in unusual places. In the '70s the Bengals moved to play at Riverfront Stadium, a home they shared with the Cincinnati Reds until the team moved to Paul Brown Stadium in 2000. The team would reach the playoffs three times during that decade, but could not win any of those postseason games. In 1975, the team posted an 11-3 record, giving them what is to this day the highest winning percentage (.786) in franchise history. But it only earned them a Wild Card spot in the playoffs, behind the 12–2 Pittsburgh Steelers, who went on to win the Super Bowl, and Bengals lost to the Oakland Raiders 31–28 in the divisional playoffs. The Bengals would reach the Super Bowl twice during the 1980s, but lost both times to the San Francisco 49ers. Then, after appearing in the playoffs in 1990, Paul Brown died. He had already transferred control to his son, Mike Brown, but was reported to still influence the daily operations of the team. The Bengals' fortunes changed for the worse as the team would post 14 consecutive non-winning seasons. The Bengals began to emerge from that dismal period into a new era of increased consistency after hiring Marvin Lewis as head coach in 2003. Carson Palmer, the future star quarterback, was drafted in 2003 but did not play a snap that whole season, as Jon Kitna had a comeback year (voted NFL Comeback Player of the Year). Despite Kitna's success, Carson was promoted to starting quarterback the following season. Under Carson, the team advanced to the playoffs for the first time since 1990 in the 2005 season, which marked the first time the team had a winning percentage above .500 since 1990. Meanwhile, Paul Brown Stadium was built for the 2000 season using private and public money. In tribute to his father, Mike Brown refused corporate offers to have the stadium renamed for their company which became a trend in the NFL and other sports teams around that time. Under the ownership of Mike Brown, the Bengals remain one of five NFL teams without a General Manager – the other four being the Dallas Cowboys (with owner Jerry Jones legally serving as his own GM), the New England Patriots, the Oakland Raiders (with owner Al Davis in a similar capacity to Jones) and the Washington Redskins (with Daniel Snyder in a similar role to Mike Brown and serving as the de facto GM without the title). Logos and uniforms Cincinnati Bengals uniform: 1973-1980 Cincinnati Bengals uniform combinationsCincinnati Bengals uniform: 1997-2003 When the team debuted in 1968, the Bengals' uniforms were modeled after the Cleveland Browns. When Paul Brown was fired by Art Modell, Brown still had ownership of the equipment used by Cleveland. So after the firing, Paul Brown packed up all his equipment, which he then used for his new team in Cincinnati. The Cleveland Browns' team colors were orange, brown and white, and their helmets were solid orange with a white dorsal stripe over the crest. The Bengals' team colors were orange, black and white, and their helmets were a similar shade of orange, with the only variations being the word "Bengals" in block letters on either side of the helmet and no stripe on the helmet. The Cincinnati Bengals were unique in the NFL as they did not have uniform numbers on the players sleeves until the 1980 season. The team did not discard their Cleveland-like uniforms until 1981. During that year, a then-unique uniform design was introduced. Although the team kept black jerseys, white jerseys, and white pants, they were now trimmed with orange and black tiger stripes. The team also introduced orange helmets with black tiger stripes. In 1997, the Bengals designed an alternate logo consisting of a leaping tiger, and it was added to the uniform sleeves. They also designed an alternate logo consisting of a Bengal's head facing to the left. However, the orange helmet with black tiger stripes continued to be the team's primary trademark. In 2004, a new tiger stripe pattern and more accents were added to the uniforms. The black jerseys now featured orange sleeves, while the white jerseys began to use black sleeves and orange shoulders. A new logo consisting of an orange "B" covered with black tiger stripes was introduced. The team also started rotating black pants and debuted an alternate orange jersey. The Bengals have primarily worn their black uniforms at home throughout their history, except during the 1970 and 1971 seasons, when the Bengals wore white at home for the entire season. In 2001 and 2002 the Bengals wore white at home for preseason games as well as September home games due to the heat. Since 2005, the Bengals only wear white during early September home games. Contributions to NFL culture No Huddle Offense A No-Huddle Offense was commonly used by all teams when time in the game was running low. However, Sam Wyche, the head coach of the Bengals in 1988, along with offensive coordinator Bruce Coslet, made the high-paced offense the standard modality for the ball club regardless of time remaining. By quickly setting up for the next play (often within 5-10 seconds after the last play despite being afforded 45 seconds) this hindered the other teams' defense from substituting situational players, regrouping for tactics, and, some suggest, increased the defenses' rate of fatigue (This is attributed to the belief that the offense dictates when a play starts so they tend to be more mentally relaxed and prepared for the start of a play where the defense must remain on a different level of alert before the play starts). In response to this tactic the NFL instituted several rules related to this tactic: Allowing the defense ample time for substitutions (if offensive substitutions are made) If a player's injury causes the play-clock to stop, the player must sit out at least one play Charging a time-out to a team when a player is injured within a certain time period of the game The tactic was used by the franchise from the late 80s while Sam Wyche was the coach. The main rivals for AFC supremacy were the Buffalo Bills, coached by Marv Levy. Most of the high-profile games (the various games for AFC Conference titles and regular season games) between the two led to these changes in NFL rules. Wyche recalled that before the '88 AFC title game the Buffalo Bills had seemingly convinced league officials to penalize the Bengals for running a no-huddle offense. In a statement made to the Bengals' press in 2005, he relayed "The NFL was nice enough to come to us an hour and 55 minutes before the game and tell us we would be given a 15-yard penalty every time we used it. Of course we had practiced it all week. We told them if they wanted to answer to the public for changing the competitive balance of the AFC championship game, that was up to them, but we were using it. They never dropped a flag." West Coast Offense/Paul Brown's Offense The West Coast Offense, which is commonly employed by many teams (most notably, it was used by San Francisco during their dynasty, and the Buffalo Bills during their domination of the AFC) is the popular name for the high-percentage passing scheme designed by former Bengals assistant Bill Walsh. This play scheme was used by Ken Anderson during the Bengals' initial Super Bowl run. Paul Brown Stadium Mike Brown, the current owner of the Bengals, named the new stadium after his Pro Football Hall of Famer father, Paul Brown, resisting offers to sell the naming rights for the stadium. Season-by-season records Players of note Current roster Pro Football Hall of Famers Anthony Muñoz, OL Paul Brown, Head coach and owner. Retired numbers 54 Bob Johnson, OL NFL Most Valuable Player Ken Anderson, 1981 Boomer Esiason, 1988 AFL/NFL Rookie of the Year Paul Robinson, 1968 Greg Cook, 1969 Eddie Brown, 1985 Coach of the Year Paul Brown, 1969, 1970 Forrest Gregg, 1981 Coaches of note Head coaches Paul Brown (1968–1975) Bill "Tiger" Johnson (1976–1978) Homer Rice (1978–1979) Forrest Gregg (1980–1983) Sam Wyche (1984–1991) Dave Shula (1992–1996) Bruce Coslet (1996–2000) Dick LeBeau (2000–2002) Marvin Lewis (2003–present) Current staff Radio and television , the Bengals flagship radio stations are WCKY, "1530 The Homer" and WEBN-FM, with WLW AM 700 joining in following the end of the Reds' season. Brad Johansen and former Bengals offensive lineman Dave Lapham, who started in 1985, form the announcing team. Most preseason and regular season games, are telecast on WKRC-TV, channel 12, the CBS affiliate. Paul Keels and Anthony Munoz are the TV announcers for the preseason games. Games that feature an NFC opponent playing at Paul Brown Stadium will be televised on WXIX, channel 19, the local FOX affiliate. Phil Samp was the Bengals original play-by-play announcer from 1968-1990. Ken Broo (1991-1995), Paul Keels (1996) and Pete Arbogast (1997-2000) have also done radio play-by-play for the Bengals. Celebrity Fans Famous Cincinnati Bengal fans include George Clooney, Nick Lachey, Carmen Electra and Bootsy Collins who also does the team songs. Notes and references External links Cincinnati Bengals official web site Sports E-Cyclopedia.com | Cincinnati_Bengals |@lemmatized cincinnati:18 bengal:41 professional:3 football:12 team:34 base:2 ohio:4 currently:2 member:1 north:1 division:2 american:5 conference:3 afc:7 national:2 league:8 nfl:15 first:5 two:3 season:18 franchise:5 join:2 part:1 afl:9 merger:3 actually:1 agree:2 never:2 win:3 super:4 bowl:4 conduct:1 summer:1 training:1 camp:1 georgetown:2 college:3 kentucky:1 play:17 home:9 game:16 paul:22 brown:36 stadium:11 downtown:1 history:4 want:2 become:3 involved:1 jam:2 rhodes:2 governor:2 convince:1 need:2 second:3 deem:1 logical:1 choice:1 essence:1 split:1 state:2 name:5 order:1 give:3 link:2 past:1 another:1 exist:1 city:7 three:2 previous:1 ii:1 apfa:1 iii:1 renowned:1 zoo:1 also:7 rare:1 white:10 tiger:8 however:6 possibly:1 insult:1 art:4 modell:3 choose:2 exact:1 shade:2 orange:13 use:13 former:4 add:3 black:13 secondary:1 color:3 simple:1 logo:5 word:2 lettering:1 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4,866 | File_manager | A file manager or file browser is a computer program that provides a user interface to work with file systems. The most common operations used are create, open, edit, view, print, play, rename, move, copy, delete, attributes, properties, search/find, and permissions. Files are typically displayed in a hierarchy. Some file managers contain features inspired by web browsers, including forward and back navigational buttons. Some file managers provide network connectivity such as FTP, NFS, SMB or WebDAV. This is achieved either by allowing the user to browse for a server, connect to it and access the server's file system like a local file system, or by providing its own full client implementations for file server protocols. Orthodox file managers Orthodox file managers or "Commander-like" file managers have three windows (two panels and one command line window). Orthodox file managers are one of the older families of file managers. They develop and further extend the interface introduced by John Socha's famous Norton Commander for DOS. The concept is more than twenty years old as Norton Commander version 1.0 was released in 1986. Despite their age they are actively developed and dozens of implementations exist for DOS, Unix and Microsoft Windows. A public standard (version 1.2 dated June 1997) is available from Nikolai Bezroukov's website. Features The following features define the class of orthodox file managers. They present the user with a two-panel directory view consisting of one active and one passive panel. The latter always serves as a target for file operations. Panels are shrinkable and if shrunk they expose the terminal window hidden behind them. Normally only the last line of the terminal window (the command line) is visible. They provide close integration with an underlying OS shell via command line and associated terminal window that permits viewing the results of executing the shell command entered on the command line (e.g., via Ctrl-O shortcut in Norton Commander). They provide the user with extensive keyboard shortcuts. The file manager can be used without or with minimal use of the mouse. Users can create their own file associations and scripts that are invoked for certain file types and organize these scripts into a hierarchical tree (e.g., as a user script library or user menu). Users can extend the functionality of the manager via so called User menu or Start menu and extensions menu. Norton Commander introduced the concept of user-defined file associations that is now used in all modern file managers. Other common features include: Information on the "active" and "passive" panels may be used for constructing commands on the command line. Examples include current file, path to left panel, path to right panel, etc. They provide a built-in viewer for (at least) the most basic file types. They have a built-in editor. In many cases, the editor can extract certain elements of the panels into the text being edited. Many support virtual file systems (VFS) such as viewing compressed archives, or via an FTP connection. They often have the word commander in the name. An orthodox file manager typically has three windows. Two of the windows are called panels and are symmetrically positioned at the top of the screen. The third is the command line which is essentially a minimized command (shell) window that can be expanded to full screen. Only one of the panels is active at a given time. The active panel contains the "file cursor". Panels are resizable. Each panel can be hidden. Files in the active panel serve as the source of file operations performed by the manager. For example, files can be copied or moved to the passive panel. This gives the user the ability to use only the keyboard with the convenience of the mouse interface. The active panel shows information about the current working directory and the files that it contains. The passive (inactive) panel shows the content of the same or other directory (the default target for file operations). Users may customize the display of columns that show relevant file information. The active panel and passive panel can be switched (often by pressing the tab key). Other user interface elements include: Path: shows the source/destination location of the directory in use Information about directory size, disk usage and disk name (usually at the bottom of the panels) Panel with information about file name, extension, date and time of creation, last modification, permissions (attributes) and other Info panel with number of files in directory, sum of size of selected files.. Tabbed interface (usually GUI file managers) Function keys: F1–F10 have all the same functions under all orthodox file managers: Example F5 always copies file(s) from active to inactive panel, while F6 moves the file. The introduction of tabbed panels in some file managers (for example Total Commander) made it possible to manipulate more than one active and passive directory at the time. Orthodox file managers are among the most portable file managers. Examples are available on almost any platform both with command-line interface and graphical user interface. This is the only type of command line managers that have a published standard of the interface (and actively supported by developers). This makes possible to do the same work on different platforms without much relearning of the interface. Sometimes they are called dual-pane managers, a term that is typically used for programs such as the Windows File Explorer (see below). It is technically incorrect since they have three windows including a command line window below (or hidden behind) two symmetric panels. Command line windows play a very prominent role in the functionality of this type of file manager. Furthermore, most of these programs allow using just one pane with the second one hidden. Focusing on 'dual panes' may be misleading; it is the combination of all of these features which is important. In summary, a chief distinguishing feature is the presence of the command line window and direct access to shell via this window - not the presence of two symmetric panes which is relatively superficial. Examples Notable examples include: Alt Commander Altap Salamander Directory Opus Dos Navigator Double Commander Explorer++ FAR Manager File Commander FreeCommander Krusader Midnight Commander muCommander Norton Commander PathMinder Nomad.NET PowerDesk Risingware Exp+ SE-Explorer Total Commander Volkov Commander WinSCP ZTreeWin File-List file manager Less well-known, but older are the so-called file-list file managers. Examples include flist which was in use since 1981 on the Conversational Monitor System. This is a variant of fulist which originated before late 1978 according to comments by its author Theo Alkema The flist program provided a list of files in the user's , allowed sorting by any of the file attributes. The file attributes could be passed to scripts or function-key definitions, making it simple to use flist as part of CMS EXEC, EXEC 2 or xedit scripts. This program ran only on IBM VM/SP CMS, but was the inspiration for other programs, for example filelist (a script run via the Xedit editor), and programs running on other operating systems. These include a program also called flist running on OpenVMS and fulist (from the name of the corresponding internal IBM program ) on Unix. Directory editors While this category is known as file managers, an older term is directory editor, which dates back at least to 1978. There was a directory editor written for EXEC 8 at the University of Maryland, available to other users at that time. The term was used by other developers, e.g., the dired program written by Jay Lepreau in 1980 , which ran on BSD, which was in turn inspired by an older program with the same name running on TOPS-20. Dired inspired other programs, e.g., dired the editor script (for emacs and similar editors) as well as ded Navigational file manager A navigational file manager, also called an Explorer type manager, is a newer type of file manager which became prominent because of its integration in Microsoft Windows. The Windows Explorer is a classic representative of the type, using a "navigational" metaphor to represent filesystem locations. Since the advent of GUIs it has become the dominant type of file manager for desktop computers, being used, for example, in all Microsoft Windows products. Typically it has two panes, one with the current directory and one with the filesystem tree. For Mac OS X, the Finder is an example of a navigational file manager. The Miller Column browser from GNUstep is a type of Navigational file manager. Concepts The window displays the location currently being viewed. The location being viewed (the current directory) can be changed by the user, by opening folders, pressing a back button, typing a location, or using additional pane with the navigation tree representing part or all the filesystem. Icons represent files, programs, and directories. The interface in a navigational file manager often resembles a web browser, complete with back, forward buttons that work with history, and maybe even reload buttons. Sometimes there is also an address bar where the file or directory path (or URI) can be typed. Moving from one location to another need not open a new window. At the same time several instances of manager can be opened and they can communicate with each other via drag and drop and clipboard so it is possible to view several directories simultaneously and perform cut-and paste operations between instances. Most navigational managers have two panes with the second pane a tree view of the filesystem. The latter serves as the most common instrument for filesystem navigation. That means that unlike orthodox managers, the two panes are asymmetrical: the first (usually left) provides the tree view of filesystem and the second (usually right) file view of the current directory. When a directory of the tree is selected it becomes current and the content of the second (right) pane changes to the files in the current directory. File operations are based on drag-and-drop and editor metaphors: users can select and copy files or directories into the clipboard and then paste them in a different place in the filesystem or even in a different instance of file manager. Examples Notable examples include: Windows Explorer Mac OS Finder XTree / ZTreeWin XYplorer Spatial file manager The Nautilus file manager has a spatial mode. Each of these windows displays an open folder. Spatial file managers use a spatial metaphor to represent files and folders as if they were real physical objects. A spatial file manager imitates the way people interact with physical objects. Some ideas behind the concept of a spatial file manager are: A single window represents each opened folder. Each window is unambiguously and irrevocably tied to a particular folder. Stability: files, folders, and windows go where the user moves them, stay where the user puts them ("preserve their spatial state"), and retain all their other "physical" characteristics (such as size, shape, color and location). The same item can only be viewed in one window at a time. As in navigational managers, when a folder is opened, the icon representing the folder changes—perhaps from an image showing a closed drawer to an opened one, perhaps the folder's icon turns into a silhouette filled with a pattern—and a new window is opened. Examples Examples of file managers that to some extent use a spatial metaphor include: Apple's Finder 5 to 9 (versions up to Mac OS X) RISC OS Filer Amiga's Workbench GNOME's Nautilus from version 2.6 onwards BeOS's Tracker OS/2's Workplace Shell Digital Research's GEM (implemented in Atari TOS and as a somewhat reduced version for PCs) ZDESKTOP and FILEMAGE Zoomable File-System Viewers (spatial view of hierarchical data) Dysfunctional spatial file managers: Windows Explorer in Windows 95 was set as a spatial file manager model by default; but because it also worked as a navigational file manager, folders could be opened in multiple windows, which made it fail all the above criteria. Later versions gradually abandoned the spatial model. Apple's Finder in Mac OS X — much like in Explorer, the integration of spatial and navigational mode means that the spatial mode does not actually work. 3D file managers File System Visualizer, one example of a 3D file manager. Some projects have attempted to implement a three-dimensional method of displaying files and directory structures. The exact implementation tends to differ between projects, as three-dimensional file browsing has not yet become popular and thus there are no common standards to follow. Examples Examples of three-dimensional file managers include: fsn, for Silicon Graphics' IRIX systems, notably featured prominently in one scene from the film Jurassic Park, as a representation of Unix systems. File System Visualizer, or fsv, an open source clone of fsn for modern Unix-like systems. BumpTop, a file manager using a three dimensional representation of a desktop with realistic physics, intended for use with a stylus and touchscreen. Real Desktop, a desktop replacement with similarities to BumpTop. Knexus, a real-time 3D virtual library interface. 'Books' in the library act as symbolic links to files. The organizational structure is free-form similar to a three-dimensional Mind Map. Web based file managers Web based file managers are typically scripts written in either PHP, Perl, Asp or any other server side languages. When installed on a local server or on a remotely hosted server they allow files and folders located there to be managed and edited without the need for FTP Access. More advanced, and usually commercially distributed, web based file management scripts allow the administrator of the file manager to configure secure, individual user accounts, each with individual account permissions. Authorized users have access to documents stored on the server or in their individual user folders anytime from anywhere via a web browser. A web based file manager can serve as an organization's digital repository. For example, documents, digital media, publishing layouts, and presentations can be stored, managed, and shared between customers, suppliers, remote workers or just internally. Popular culture A 3D file manager is featured in Jurassic Park, during a scene where Lex desperately tries to find an executable file, while a Velociraptor tries to force its way into the command center. The 3D file manager, fsn (mentioned above), was built on top of a Unix system (Silicon Graphics, Inc's IRIX). See also Computer file management Comparison of file managers List of web based file managers Desktop metaphor Spatial navigation Miller Columns Batch renaming References External links The History of Development of Norton Commander (Softpanorama) About the finder The spatial way dired - directory editor CMS Manual describing flist | File_manager |@lemmatized file:100 manager:60 browser:5 computer:3 program:13 provide:8 user:23 interface:11 work:5 system:13 common:4 operation:6 use:19 create:2 open:11 edit:3 view:12 print:1 play:2 rename:2 move:5 copy:4 delete:1 attribute:4 property:1 search:1 find:2 permission:3 typically:5 display:5 hierarchy:1 contain:3 feature:8 inspire:3 web:8 include:11 forward:2 back:4 navigational:11 button:4 network:1 connectivity:1 ftp:3 nfs:1 smb:1 webdav:1 achieve:1 either:2 allow:5 browse:1 server:7 connect:1 access:4 like:4 local:2 full:2 client:1 implementation:3 protocol:1 orthodox:8 commander:15 three:8 window:29 two:8 panel:25 one:15 command:15 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4,867 | Full_moon | Full moon is a lunar phase that occurs when the Moon is on the opposite side of the Earth from the Sun. More precisely, a full moon occurs when the geocentric apparent (ecliptic) longitudes of the Sun and Moon differ by 180 degrees; the Moon is then in opposition with the Sun. At this time, as seen by viewers on Earth, the hemisphere of the Moon that is facing the earth (the near side) is almost fully illuminated by the Sun and appears round. Only during a full moon is the opposite hemisphere of the Moon, which is not visible from Earth (the far side), completely unilluminated. The average lunar month is about 27.3 days long, so that the full moon falls on either the 14th or 15th of the lunar month in those calendars that start the month on the new moon. In any event, as lunar months are counted in discrete numbers of days, lunar months are said to be either 27 or 28 days long. Characteristics A full moon is often thought of as an event of a full night's duration. This is somewhat misleading, as the Moon seen from Earth is continuously becoming larger or smaller (though much too slowly to notice with the naked eye). Its absolute maximum size occurs at the moment expansion has stopped, and when graphed, its tangent slope is zero. For any given location, about half of these absolute maximum full moons will be potentially visible, as the other half occur during the day, when the full moon is below the horizon. Many almanacs list full moons not just by date, but by their exact time as well (usually in GMT). Typical monthly calendars which include phases of the moon may be off by one day if intended for use in a different time zone. 123123 The date and time of a specific full moon (assuming a circular orbit) can be calculated from the equation: where D is the number of days since 1 January 2000 00:00:00 UTC, and N is an integer number of full moons, starting with 0 for the first full moon of the year 2000. The true time of a full moon may differ from this approximation by up to about 14.5 hours as a result of the non-circularity of the moon's orbit (see New moon and ). The age and apparent size of the full moon vary in a cycle of just under 14 synodic months, which has been referred to as a full moon cycle. Full moons are generally a poor time to conduct astronomical observations, since the bright reflected sunlight from the moon overwhelms the dimmer light from stars. On December 12, 2008, the full moon has occurred closer to the Earth than it has done at any time for the past 15 years. http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2008/09dec_fullmoon.htm http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sci/tech/7779294.stm http://blog.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/12/fullest-moon-in.html Folklore Full Moons are traditionally associated with temporal insomnia, insanity (hence the terms lunacy and lunatic) and various "magical phenomena" such as lycanthropy. Psychologists, however, have found that there is no strong evidence for effects on human behavior around the time of a full moon. They find that studies are generally not consistent, with some showing a positive effect and others showing a negative effect. In one instance, the December 23, 2000 issue of the British Medical Journal published two studies on dog bite admission to hospitals in England and Australia. The study of the Bradford Royal Infirmary found that dog bites were twice as common during a full moon, whereas the study conducted by the public hospitals in Australia found that they were less likely. However Dr Timo Partonen of the Finnish National Public Health Institute carried out a study of 1400 suicides and found that people were more likely to make an attempt on their life when there was a new moon. Many neopagans hold a monthly ritual called an Esbat at each full moon, while some people practicing traditional Chinese religions prepare their ritual offerings to their ancestors and deities on every full and new moon. Calendars The Hindu, Thai, Hebrew, Islamic, Tibetan, Mayan, Neo-pagan, Germanic, Celtic, and the traditional Chinese calendars are all based on the phases of the Moon. None of these calendars, however, begin their months with the full moon. In the Chinese, Jewish, Thai and some Hindu calendars, the full moon always occurs in the middle of a month. In the Gregorian calendar, the date of Easter is the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon which occurs after the ecclesiastical vernal equinox. In this context, the date of the full moon (together with the date of the vernal equinox) is calculated not according to actual astronomical phenomena, but according to a calendrical approximation of these phenomena. In the Chinese calendar, the Mid-Autumn Festival falls on the full moon of the eighth month, whereas the Lantern Festival falls on the first full moon of the year. Full moon names It is traditional to assign special names to each full moon of the year, although the rule for determining which name will be assigned has changed over time (see article at blue moon). An ancient method of assigning names is based upon seasons and quarters of the year. For instance, the Egg Moon (the full moon before Easter) would be the first moon after March 21, and the Lenten Moon would be the last moon on or before March 21. Modern practice, however, is to assign the traditional names based on the Gregorian calendar month in which the full moon falls. This method frequently results in the same name as the older method would, and is far more convenient to use. The following table gives the traditional English names for each month's full moon, the names given by Native Americans in the northern and eastern United States, other common names, and Hindu names. Note that purnima or pornima is Hindi for full moon, which has also become the Malay word for full moon purnama. +Full moon names Month English names Native American names Other names used Hindu names January Old Moon Wolf Moon Moon After Yule, Ice Moon Paush Poornima February Wolf Moon Snow Moon Hunger Moon, Storm Moon, Candles Moon Magh Poornima March Lenten Moon Worm Moon Crow Moon, Crust Moon, Sugar Moon, Sap Moon, Chaste Moon Holi April Egg Moon Pink Moon Sprouting Grass Moon, Fish Moon, Seed Moon, Waking Moon Hanuman Jayanti May Milk Moon Flower Moon Corn Planting Moon, Corn Moon, Hare's Moon Buddha Poornima June Flower Moon Strawberry Moon Honey Moon, Rose Moon, Hot Moon, Planting Moon Wat Poornima July Hay Moon Buck Moon Thunder Moon, Mead Moon Guru Poornima August Grain Moon Sturgeon Moon Red Moon, Green Corn Moon, Lightning Moon, Dog Moon Narali Poornima, Raksha bandhan September Fruit Moon Harvest Moon Corn Moon, Barley Moon Bhadrapad Poornima October Harvest Moon Hunter's Moon Travel Moon, Dying Grass Moon, Blood Moon Kojagiri or Sharad Poornima November Hunter's Moon Beaver Moon Frost Moon, Snow Moon Kartik Poornima December Oak Moon Cold Moon Frost Moon, Long Night's Moon, Moon Before Yule Margashirsha Poornima The blue moon The term "blue moon" traditionally referred to an extra moon in a season: if a season had four full moons (rather than the more common three), then the third of the four moons was known as a blue moon. A season in this sense begins not with the months as in the table above, but with the solstices and equinoxes, as described on blue moon. A simpler definition, that the second full moon in a calendar month is known as a blue moon, became common in the second half of the twentieth century due to a misinterpretation of the Maine Farmer's Almanac in the March 1946 Sky & Telescope magazine; this was corrected in 1999. Since there are 12.37 full moons in a year, a "blue moon" must occur on the average every 2.7 years, by either definition. See also Lunar phase Lunar eclipse Month Near side of the Moon New moon Orbit of the Moon References External links Moon phase calculator | Full_moon |@lemmatized full:40 moon:130 lunar:7 phase:5 occur:6 opposite:2 side:4 earth:6 sun:4 precisely:1 occurs:2 geocentric:1 apparent:2 ecliptic:1 longitude:1 differ:2 degree:1 opposition:1 time:9 see:5 viewer:1 hemisphere:2 face:1 near:2 almost:1 fully:1 illuminate:1 appear:1 round:1 visible:2 far:2 completely:1 unilluminated:1 average:2 month:15 day:6 long:3 fall:4 either:3 calendar:10 start:2 new:5 event:2 count:1 discrete:1 number:3 say:1 characteristic:1 often:1 think:1 night:2 duration:1 somewhat:1 misleading:1 continuously:1 become:3 large:1 small:1 though:1 much:1 slowly:1 notice:1 naked:1 eye:1 absolute:2 maximum:2 size:2 moment:1 expansion:1 stop:1 graph:1 tangent:1 slope:1 zero:1 give:3 location:1 half:3 potentially:1 horizon:1 many:2 almanacs:1 list:1 date:5 exact:1 well:1 usually:1 gmt:1 typical:1 monthly:2 include:1 may:3 one:2 intend:1 use:3 different:1 zone:1 specific:1 assume:1 circular:1 orbit:3 calculate:2 equation:1 since:3 january:2 utc:1 n:1 integer:1 first:4 year:7 true:1 approximation:2 hour:1 result:2 non:1 circularity:1 age:1 vary:1 cycle:2 synodic:1 refer:2 generally:2 poor:1 conduct:2 astronomical:2 observation:1 bright:1 reflect:1 sunlight:1 overwhelms:1 dimmer:1 light:1 star:1 december:3 closer:1 past:1 http:3 science:1 nasa:1 gov:1 headline:1 htm:1 news:1 bbc:1 co:1 uk:1 hi:1 sci:1 tech:1 stm:1 blog:1 wire:1 com:1 wiredscience:1 html:1 folklore:1 traditionally:2 associate:1 temporal:1 insomnia:1 insanity:1 hence:1 term:2 lunacy:1 lunatic:1 various:1 magical:1 phenomenon:3 lycanthropy:1 psychologist:1 however:4 find:5 strong:1 evidence:1 effect:3 human:1 behavior:1 around:1 study:5 consistent:1 show:2 positive:1 others:1 negative:1 instance:2 issue:1 british:1 medical:1 journal:1 publish:1 two:1 dog:3 bite:2 admission:1 hospital:2 england:1 australia:2 bradford:1 royal:1 infirmary:1 twice:1 common:4 whereas:2 public:2 less:1 likely:2 dr:1 timo:1 partonen:1 finnish:1 national:1 health:1 institute:1 carry:1 suicide:1 people:2 make:1 attempt:1 life:1 neopagans:1 hold:1 ritual:2 call:1 esbat:1 practice:2 traditional:5 chinese:4 religion:1 prepare:1 offering:1 ancestor:1 deity:1 every:2 hindu:4 thai:2 hebrew:1 islamic:1 tibetan:1 mayan:1 neo:1 pagan:1 germanic:1 celtic:1 base:3 none:1 begin:2 jewish:1 always:1 middle:1 gregorian:2 easter:2 sunday:1 ecclesiastical:2 vernal:2 equinox:3 context:1 together:1 accord:2 actual:1 calendrical:1 mid:1 autumn:1 festival:2 eighth:1 lantern:1 name:14 assign:4 special:1 although:1 rule:1 determine:1 change:1 article:1 blue:7 ancient:1 method:3 upon:1 season:4 quarter:1 egg:2 would:3 march:4 lenten:2 last:1 modern:1 frequently:1 old:2 convenient:1 follow:1 table:2 english:2 native:2 american:2 northern:1 eastern:1 united:1 state:1 note:1 purnima:1 pornima:1 hindi:1 also:2 malay:1 word:1 purnama:1 names:1 wolf:2 yule:2 ice:1 paush:1 poornima:10 february:1 snow:2 hunger:1 storm:1 candle:1 magh:1 worm:1 crow:1 crust:1 sugar:1 sap:1 chaste:1 holi:1 april:1 pink:1 sprout:1 grass:2 fish:1 seed:1 wake:1 hanuman:1 jayanti:1 milk:1 flower:2 corn:4 plant:2 hare:1 buddha:1 june:1 strawberry:1 honey:1 rise:1 hot:1 wat:1 july:1 hay:1 buck:1 thunder:1 mead:1 guru:1 august:1 grain:1 sturgeon:1 red:1 green:1 lightning:1 narali:1 raksha:1 bandhan:1 september:1 fruit:1 harvest:2 barley:1 bhadrapad:1 october:1 hunter:2 travel:1 die:1 blood:1 kojagiri:1 sharad:1 november:1 beaver:1 frost:2 kartik:1 oak:1 cold:1 margashirsha:1 extra:1 four:2 rather:1 three:1 third:1 know:2 sense:1 solstice:1 describe:1 simpler:1 definition:2 second:2 twentieth:1 century:1 due:1 misinterpretation:1 maine:1 farmer:1 almanac:1 sky:1 telescope:1 magazine:1 correct:1 must:1 eclipse:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 calculator:1 |@bigram ecliptic_longitude:1 somewhat_misleading:1 naked_eye:1 synodic_month:1 nasa_gov:1 uk_hi:1 hi_sci:1 sci_tech:1 tech_stm:1 royal_infirmary:1 gregorian_calendar:2 vernal_equinox:2 solstice_equinox:1 twentieth_century:1 lunar_eclipse:1 external_link:1 |
4,868 | Mary_Pickford | Mary Pickford (April 8, 1892 – May 29, 1979) was an Academy Award-winning Canadian motion picture star, as well as a co-founder of the film studio United Artists and one of the original 36 founders of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Known as "America's Sweetheart," "Little Mary" and "The girl with the curls," she was one of the first Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood and one of film's greatest pioneers. Her influence in the development of film acting was enormous. Because her international fame was triggered by moving images, she is a watershed figure in the history of modern celebrity. And as one of silent film's most important performers and producers, her contract demands were central to shaping the Hollywood industry. In consideration of her contributions to American cinema, the American Film Institute named Pickford 24th among the greatest female stars of all time. Life and career Early life Mary Pickford was born Gladys Louise Smith in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Her father, John Charles Smith, was the son of Methodist immigrants, and worked a variety of odd jobs. Her mother, Charlotte Hennessy, was from an Irish Catholic family. She had two younger siblings, Jack and Lottie Pickford, who would also become actors. To please the relatives, Pickford's mother baptized her in both the Methodist and Catholic churches (and used the opportunity to change her middle name to "Mary"). She was raised Roman Catholic after her father, an alcoholic, left his family in 1895, and died three years later of a cerebral hemorrhage. Charlotte, who had worked as a seamstress throughout the separation, began taking in boarders. Through one of these lodgers, the seven-year-old Pickford won a bit part at Toronto's Princess Theatre in a stock company production of The Silver King. She subsequently acted in many melodramas with the Valentine Company in Toronto, capped by the starring role of Little Eva in their production of Uncle Tom's Cabin, the most popular play of the 19th century. Early career By the early 1900s, acting had become a family enterprise, as Pickford, her mother and two younger siblings toured the United States by rail in third-rate companies and plays. After six impoverished years, Pickford gave herself a single summer to land a leading role on Broadway, planning to quit acting if she failed. She landed a supporting role in a 1907 Broadway play, The Warrens of Virginia. The play was written by William C. deMille, whose brother, the then-unknown Cecil B. DeMille, also appeared in the cast. David Belasco, the producer of the play, insisted that Gladys Smith assume the stage name Mary Pickford. After completing the Broadway run and touring the play, however, Pickford was once again out of work. Pickford with camera circa 1916 On April 19, 1909, the Biograph Company director D. W. Griffith screen-tested her at the company's New York studio for a role in the nickelodeon film Pippa Passes. The role went to someone else, but Griffith was immediately taken with Pickford, who instinctively grasped that movie acting was simpler and more intimate than the stylized stage acting of the day. Most Biograph actors earned $5 a day, but after a single day in the studio, Griffith agreed to pay Pickford $10 a day against a guarantee of $40 a week. Sunshine and Shadow, page 10. Like everyone at Biograph, Pickford played both bit parts and leading roles, playing mothers, ingenues, spurned women, spitfires, slaves, native Americans, and a prostitute. As Pickford said of her whirlwind success at Biograph: "I played scrubwomen and secretaries and women of all nationalities... I decided that if I could get into as many pictures as possible, I'd become known, and there would be a demand for my work." In 1909, Pickford appeared in 51 films — almost one a week. She also introduced her friend Florence La Badie to D. W. Griffith, which launched La Badie's very successful film acting career. In January 1910 she traveled with a Biograph crew to Los Angeles. Many other companies wintered on the West Coast, escaping the weak light and short days that hampered winter shooting in the East. Pickford added to her 1909 Biographs (Sweet and Twenty, They Would Elope, and To Save Her Soul, to name a few) with films from California. Like the other players in Griffith's company, her name was not listed in the credits, but Pickford had been noticed by audiences within weeks of her first film appearance. In turn, exhibitors capitalized on her popularity by advertising on sandwich boards outside their nickelodeons that a film featuring "The Girl with the Golden Curls," "Blondilocks" or "The Biograph Girl" was inside. Pickford left Biograph in December 1910, and spent 1911 starring in films at Carl Laemmle's Independent Moving Pictures Company (IMP), which was absorbed into Universal Pictures in 1912, and Majestic. Unhappy with their creative standards, she returned to work with Griffith in 1912, and gave some of her greatest performances in films such as "Friends," "The Mender of Nets," "Just Like a Woman" and "The Female of the Species." That year, Pickford also introduced Dorothy and Lillian Gish (both friends from her days touring melodrama) to Griffith. Whitfield, Eileen: Pickford: the Woman Who Made Hollywood, pages 115, 125, 126 Both became major silent stars, in comedy and tragedy respectively. In late 1912, Pickford made her last Biograph, The New York Hat, in order to return to Broadway in the David Belasco production of A Good Little Devil. The experience was the major turning point in her career; Pickford, who had always hoped to conquer the Broadway stage, discovered how deeply she missed film acting. In 1913 she decided to turn her energies exclusively toward film. In the same year, Adolph Zukor formed Famous Players in Famous Plays (later Paramount), one of the first American feature film companies, and Pickford left the stage to join his roster of stars. Zukor based his company on the theory that feature film's potential lay in recording theatrical players in replicas of their most famous stage roles and productions. Accordingly, Zukor first filmed Pickford in a silent version of "A Good Little Devil." The film, produced in 1913, showed the play's Broadway actors reciting every line of dialogue, resulting in a stiff film that Pickford later called "one of the worst [features] I ever made...it was deadly." Whitfield, Eileen. "Pickford, The Woman Who Made Hollywood," page 376) . Zukor agreed; in fact, he held the film back from distribution for a year. By that time, Pickford's work in material written for the camera (not the stage) had attracted a fanatical following. Comedy-dramas like "In the Bishop's Carriage (1913, "Caprice, (1913) and especially "Hearts Adrift" (1914) made her irresistible to moviegoers. In fact, "Hearts Adrift" was so popular that Pickford asked for the first of her many celebrated pay raises based on the profits and reviews (Kevin Brownlow: Mary Pickford Rediscovered, p. 86). The film also marked the first time Pickford’s name was put above the title on movie marquees Kevin Brownlow: Mary Pickford Rediscovered, p. 86 . “Tess of the Storm Country” was released five weeks later. Brownlow observes that the movie “sent her career into orbit and made her the most popular actress in America, if not the world.” Kevin Brownlow: Mary Pickford Rediscovered, page 93. Her appeal was summed up two years later by the February, 1916, issue of "Photoplay" as "luminous tenderness in a steel band of gutter ferocity". Only Charlie Chaplin-who reportedly sligthly surpassed Pickford's popularity in 1916- Mary Pickford, Filmmaker had a similarly spellbinding pull with critics and the audience. In retrospect, there is no way to measure which star was more popular; box-office records were unreliable in those days, and popularity polls were often fictions created by the studios or magazines. Certainly, each enjoyed a level of fame that far outstripped that of other actors. Throughout the 1910s and '20s, Pickford was believed to be the most famous woman in the world, or, as a silent-film journalist described her, "the best known woman who has ever lived, the woman who was known to more people and loved by more people than any other woman that has been in all history." Whitfield, Eileen: Pickford, The Woman Who Made Hollywood, p.131. Stardom A lobby card of the 1921 Mary Pickford film, Little Lord Fauntleroy in which she played both the title character and his mother. Throughout her career, Pickford starred in 52 features. In 1916, Pickford would also sign a new contract with Zukor that granted her full authority over the production of the films she starred in, and also a record breaking salary of $10,000.00 a week. Occasionally, she played a child, in films like "The Poor Little Rich Girl," (1917) "Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm," (1917) and "Daddy Long-Legs."(1919) These "Little Girl" roles are superbly done, and Pickford's fans were devoted to them. But the roles aren't typical of her career, nor did Pickford (as some people believe) appear exclusively as children in silent film. Whitfield, Eileen: Pickford, the Woman Who Made Hollywood, page 300. In 1918, Pickford broke with Paramount and became an independent producer at First National; In 1919, Pickford-along with D.W. Griffith, Charlie Chaplin, and Douglas Fairbanks- formed the independent film production company United Artists. Through United Artists, Pickford continued to produce and perform in her own movies; she now could also distribute them the way she chose. In 1920, Pickford's film Pollyanna would gross around $1,100,000.00. The following year, Pickford's film Little Lord Fauntleroy would also be a success. In 1923, Pickford's film Rosita would also gross over $1,000,000.00 as well In this period, Pickford also made two of the greatest silent films ever made in Hollywood: Sparrows (1926), which blended the Dickensian with newly minted German expressionist style, and the romantic comedy "My Best Girl" (1927). These films are not just technical triumphs, but are icons of the silents' great, poetic final period. The arrival of sound was her undoing. She played a reckless socialite in Coquette (1929), a role where she no longer had her famous curls, but rather a 1920s bob; Pickford had cut her hair in the wake of her mother's death in 1928, and her fans were shocked at the transformation. Fan Culture, PBS, People & Events, Mary Pickford Pickford's hair had become a symbol of female virtue, and cutting it was front-page news in The New York Times and other papers. Unfortunately, though Coquette was a success and won her an Academy Award for Best Actress, The Long Decline, PBS People & Events, Mary Pickford the public failed to respond to these more sophisticated roles. Like most movie stars of the silent era, Pickford's career faded as talkies became more popular among audiences. Her next film after Coquette, The Taming of The Shrew--which was also her husband Douglas Fairbanks' first sound film--was a disaster at the box office. Douglas Fairbanks, PBS, People & Events, Mary Pickford By then in her late thirties, Pickford was unable to play the children, teenage spitfires and feisty young women so adored by her fans; nor could she play the soigné heroines of early sound. She retired from acting in 1933, though she continued to produce films for others, including Sleep, My Love (1948), an update of Gaslight with Claudette Colbert. Relationships Pickford was married three times. She first married Owen Moore (1886–1939), an Irish-born silent film actor, on January 7, 1911. It is believed she became pregnant by Moore in the early 1910s, but had a miscarriage or an abortion; some accounts suggest this led to her inability to have children. The couple had numerous marital problems, notably Moore's alcoholism, insecurity about living in the shadow of Pickford's fame, and bouts of domestic violence. The couple lived apart for several years, and Pickford became secretly involved in a relationship with Douglas Fairbanks. Pickford and Fairbanks' romance was well along by the time they toured the U.S. in 1918 in support of Liberty Bond sales for the World War I effort, and the phrase "by the clock" became a secret message of their love. (Once during their courtship, Fairbanks was discussing his mother's recent death as the couple was driving. When he finished the story, the car clock stopped. The pair took this as a signal that Fairbanks' late mother approved of their relationship.) Portrait circa 1921 Pickford divorced Moore on March 2, 1920, and married Fairbanks on March 28 of the same year. The tone of their European honeymoon was set by a riot in London as fans tried to touch Pickford's hair and clothes (she was dragged from her car and badly trampled). In Paris, a similar riot erupted at an outdoor market, with Pickford locked in a meat cage for her own protection, then pulled to safety through an open window. The couple's triumphant return to Hollywood was witnessed by vast crowds who turned out to hail them at railway stations across the United States. The Mark of Zorro (1920) and a series of other swashbucklers gave the popular Fairbanks a more romantic, heroic image, and Pickford continued to epitomize the virtuous but fiery girl next door. Even at private parties, people instinctively stood up when Pickford entered a room; she and her husband were often referred to as "Hollywood royalty." Their international acclaim was so vast that foreign heads of state and dignitaries who visited the White House usually asked if they could also visit Pickfair, the couple's mansion in Beverly Hills. Dinners at Pickfair were legendary. Charlie Chaplin, Fairbanks' best friend, was often present. Other guests included George Bernard Shaw, Albert Einstein, Elinor Glyn, Helen Keller, H. G. Wells, Lord Mountbatten, Fritz Kreisler, Amelia Earhart, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Noel Coward, Max Reinhardt, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Austen Chamberlain, and Sir Harry Lauder. Lauder's nephew, Matt Lauder, Jr., a professional golfer who owned a property at Eagle Rock, near Pasadena, California, taught Fairbanks to play golf. Pickford and Fairbanks were the first actors to leave their handprints in the courtyard cement at Grauman's Chinese Theatre (Pickford also left her footprints). Nonetheless, the public nature of Pickford's second marriage strained it to the breaking point. Both she and Fairbanks had little time off from producing and acting in their films. When they weren't acting or attending to United Artists, they were constantly on display as America's unofficial ambassadors to the world—leading parades, cutting ribbons, making speeches. The pressures increased when their film careers both began to founder at the end of the silent era. Fairbanks' restless nature found an outlet in almost-constant overseas travel (something which Pickford did not enjoy). The relationship was irrepairably damaged when Fairbanks' romance with Sylvia, Lady Ashley became public in the early 1930s. This led to a long separation and a final divorce on January 10, 1936. Fairbanks' son by his first wife, Douglas Fairbanks Jr., claimed that his father and Pickford regretted their inability to reconcile for the rest of their lives. On June 24, 1937, Pickford married her last husband, actor and band leader Charles 'Buddy' Rogers. They adopted two children: Roxanne (born 1944, adopted 1944) and Ronald Charles (born 1937, adopted 1943, a.k.a. Ron Pickford Rogers). As a PBS American Experience documentary noted, Pickford's relationship with her children was tense, and she eventually criticized their physical imperfections, including Ronnie's small stature and Roxanne's crooked teeth. Both children would later remark that their mother was too self-absorbed to provide real maternal love. In 2003, Ronnie recalled that "Things didn't work out that much, you know. But I'll never forget her. I think that she was a good woman." In March 1928, Pickford's mother Charlotte died of breast cancer, followed by her brother Jack in 1933 and sister Lottie in 1936. Owen Moore, an incurable alcoholic, died in 1939. Fairbanks, meanwhile, died of a heart attack in 1939. Upon hearing of his death, Pickford reportedly began to weep in front of her new husband Rogers, saying "My darling is gone." But according to Pickford, she held her tears back for fear of hurting Rogers, and only allowed herself to weep when she found herself alone on a train. Pickford, The Woman Who Made Hollywood, page 313 Still, as her marriage to Rogers wore on, Pickford often rhapsodized about Fairbanks, and from time to time mistakenly addressed Buddy Rogers as "Douglas." Pickford, The Woman Who Made Hollywood, page 350. Ronald and Roxanne each left Pickfair at a young age. Pickford and Rogers stayed together for over four decades until Pickford's death from a cerebral hemorrhage at the age of 87. The film industry Pickford used her stature in the movie industry to promote a variety of causes. During World War I, she promoted the sale of Liberty Bonds, through an exhausting series of fund-raising speeches that kicked off in Washington, D.C., where she sold bonds alongside Charles Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks, and Marie Dressler. Five days later she spoke on Wall Street to an estimated 50,000 people. Though Canadian-born, she was a powerful symbol of Americana, kissing the American flag for cameras and auctioning one of her world-famous curls for $15,000. In a single speech in Chicago she sold an estimated five million dollars' worth of bonds. She was christened the U.S. Navy's official "Little Sister"; the Army named two cannons after her and made her an honorary colonel. Pickford gives President Herbert Hoover a ticket for a film industry benefit for the unemployed, November 12, 1931. At the end of World War I, Pickford conceived of the Motion Picture Relief Fund, an organization to help financially needy actors. Leftover funds from her work selling Liberty Bonds were put toward its creation, and in 1921, the Motion Picture Relief Fund (MPRF) was officially incorporated, with Joseph Schenck voted its first president and Mary Pickford as its vice president. In 1932, Pickford spearheaded the "Payroll Pledge Program," a payroll-deduction plan for studio workers who gave one half of one percent of their earnings to the MPRF. As a result, in 1940 the Fund was able to purchase the land and build the Motion Picture Country House and Hospital. But Pickford's most profound influence (beyond her acting) was to help reshape the film industry itself. When she entered features, Hollywood believed that the movies' future lay in reproducing Broadway plays for a mass audience. Pickford, who entered feature film with two Broadway credits but a far greater following among fans of nickelodeon flickers, became the world's most popular actress in a matter of months. In response to her astonishing popularity, Hollywood rethought its vision of features as "canned theatre," and focused instead on actors and material that were uniquely suited to film, not the footlights. An astute businesswoman, Pickford became her own producer within three years of her start in features. According to her Foundation, "she oversaw every aspect of the making of her films, from hiring talent and crew to overseeing the script, the shooting, the editing, to the final release and promotion of each project." Pickford first demanded (and received) these powers in 1916, when she was under contract to Adolph Zukor's Famous Players In Famous Plays (later Paramount). He also acquiesced to her refusal to participate in block-booking, the widespread practice of forcing an exhibitor to show a bad film of the studio's choosing in order to also show a Pickford film. In 1916, Pickford's films were distributed, singly, through a special distribution unit called Artcraft. In 1919, she increased her power by co-founding United Artists (UA) with Charlie Chaplin, D. W. Griffith, and her soon-to-be husband, Douglas Fairbanks. Before UA's creation, Hollywood studios were vertically integrated, not only producing films but forming chains of theaters. Distributors (also part of the studios) then arranged for company productions to be shown in the company's movie venues. Filmmakers relied on the studios for bookings; in return they put up with what many considered creative interference. United Artists broke from this tradition. It was solely a distribution company, offering independent film producers access to its own screens as well as the rental of temporarily unbooked cinemas owned by other companies. Pickford and Fairbanks produced and shot their films after 1920 at the jointly owned Pickford-Fairbanks studio on Santa Monica Boulevard. The producers who signed with UA were true independents, producing, creating and controlling their work to an unprecedented degree. As a co-founder, as well as the producer and star of her own films, Pickford became the most powerful woman who has ever worked in Hollywood. By 1930, Pickford's career as an actress had greatly faded. When she retired from acting in 1933, Pickford continued to produce films for United Artists, and she and Chaplin remained partners in the company for decades. Chaplin left the company in 1955, and Pickford followed suit in 1956, selling her remaining shares for three million dollars. Later years Mary Pickford at a Bing Crosby performance at the Coconut Grove nightclub in 1934 After retiring from the screen, Pickford developed alcoholism, the addiction that had afflicted her father. Other alcoholics in the family included her first husband Owen Moore, her mother Charlotte, and her younger siblings Lottie and Jack. Charlotte died of breast cancer in March 1928 after several operations. Within a few years, Lottie and Jack died of alcohol-related causes. These deaths, her divorce from Fairbanks, and the end of silent films left Pickford deeply depressed. Her relationship to her adopted children, Roxanne and Ronald, was turbulent at best. Gradually, Pickford became a recluse, remaining almost entirely at Pickfair, allowing visits only from Lillian Gish, her stepson Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., and a few select others. In the mid-1960s, she often received visitors only by telephone, speaking to them from her bedroom. Buddy Rogers often gave guests tours of Pickfair, including views of a genuine western bar she had bought for Douglas Fairbanks, and a portrait of Pickford in the drawing room. Painted at the height of her fame, it emphasizes her girlish beauty and spun-gold curls. A print of this image now hangs in the Library of Congress. In addition to her Oscar as best actress for Coquette (1929), Mary Pickford received an Academy Honorary Award for a lifetime of achievements in 1976. The Academy sent a TV crew to her house to record her short statement of thanks. Death Pickford Center for Motion Picture Study in Hollywood, California She died of cerebral hemorrhage on May 29, 1979, at the age of 87, and was buried in the Garden of Memory of the Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California. Buried alongside her in the Pickford private family plot are her mother Charlotte, her siblings Lottie and Jack Pickford, and the family of Elizabeth Watson, Charlotte's sister, who had helped raise Mary in Toronto. Legacy The "Pickford Center for Motion Picture Study" at 1313 Vine Street in Hollywood, constructed by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, opened in 1948 as a radio and television studio facility. The "Mary Pickford Theater" at the Library of Congress is named in her honor. There is a first-run movie theatre in Cathedral City, California, called "The Mary Pickford Theatre". The theater is a grand one with several screens and is built in the shape of an Spanish Cathedral, complete with bell tower and three-story lobby. The lobby contains a historic display with original artifacts belonging to Ms. Pickford and Buddy Rogers, her last husband. Among them are a rare and spectacular beaded gown she wore in the film "Dorothy Vernon at Haddon Hall" (1924) designed by Mitchell Leisen, her special Oscar and jewelry box. Mary Pickford received a posthumous star on Canada's Walk of Fame in Toronto in 1999. In 2006, along with fellow deceased Canadian stars Fay Wray, Lorne Greene and John Candy, Pickford was featured on a Canadian postage stamp. Canadians in Hollywood, Canada Post, Collecting, May 26, 2006 In 2007, the Motion Picture Academy of Arts and Sciences has sued the estate of the deceased Buddy Rogers' second wife, the late Beverly Rogers, in order to stop the public sale of one of Pickford's Oscars. , Seattle Times, Local News, September 1, 2007 She was the recipient of an honorary doctorate degree from Iowa Wesleyan College, Mount Pleasant, Iowa. Mary Pickford Auditorium at Claremont McKenna College is named in her honor. Partial chronology 1909: discovered by David Wark Griffith at Biograph, worked for $5 a day, which he quickly increased to $10 a day. 1911: I.M.P., $175 a week, with the employment of her mother and siblings guaranteed. Unhappy with the quality of I.M.P. films, Pickford sued to be released from her contract and won on the grounds that being under 21, she had been too young to contract with I.M.P. 1911: Majestic Film Corp., $225 a week, with the employment of her husband, Owen Moore, as an actor and director, guaranteed. 1912: back to Biograph, $175 a week, a pay cut she justified with the belief that the key to a great career was to "get yourself with the right associates." This period featured some of Pickford's most mature and varied work. Owen Moore signed with Victor Films and an unpublicized marital separation began. 1913: appeared as the star (with Lillian Gish in a small role) in Belasco's Broadway production A Good Little Devil for $175 a week, raised to $200 a week. 1913: Pickford moved to feature film by signing with Adolph Zukor's Famous Players in Famous Plays, for $500/week (D.W. Griffith had balked at paying more than $300). 1914: Pickford became an international phenomenon through her roles as barefoot adolescents and urchins in the features Hearts Adrift and Tess of the Storm Country. Within the U.S., she was called "America's Sweetheart." In the country of her birth, she was "Canada's Sweetheart" and she became "The World's Sweetheart" overseas. Pickford asked Zukor for double her previous salary, and received it ($1,000/wk.). 1915: At her request, her salary at Famous Players was again doubled, to $2000 a week, plus half the profits of her films. The movie Rags contained one of Pickford's ground-breaking roles as a self-described "hellcat." 1916: Pickford formed her own producing unit, the Pickford Film Corporation, within Famous Players, and installed her mother as treasurer. She had a voice in the selection of her roles and the film's final cut. She chose her own directors and approved the supporting cast and the advertising. She was required to make only six films a year, a saner quota that earlier years, in which she made nine or more. She was paid annually $10,000 a week plus half the profits in her films, or half a million dollars, whichever was greater. As the contract's duration was two years, Pickford was guaranteed at least a million dollars. Famous Players also created a special unit called Artcraft to distribute Pickford's features, rather than blockbooking them, a practice Pickford vehemently opposed. 1917: Pickford toured the United States with Fairbanks and Chaplin, supporting U.S. involvement in World War I and promoting Liberty Bonds. She played three of her legendary roles as children in The Poor Little Rich Girl, Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm, and A Little Princess. On the other hand, she was thoroughly adult in an anti-German propaganda picture The Little American, and the western A Romance of the Redwoods, both directed by Cecil B. DeMille. 1918: She signed a contract with First National to make three films for $675,000 (about $10 million in 2005-terms). Pickford also received 50 percent of all profits, and complete creative control from script to the final cut. Meanwhile, Famous Players released one of her greatest films, the tragedy Stella Maris, in which she played a double role, as well as M'liss (another ragged spitfire) and the war comedy Johanna Enlists. 1919: Pickford co-founded United Artists with Charles Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks and D.W. Griffith. During U.A.'s start-up, Pickford's films for First National were released, including Daddy Long-Legs (from the book by Jean Webster) and the violent melodrama The Heart o' the Hills. 1923: Hoping to expand her image, Pickford convinced Ernst Lubitsch to direct her next film. After considering Faust, they settled on Rosita, the story of a Spanish street-singer who attracts the attention of the lecherous king. Though the role catered to Pickford's gift for playing sweet-but-fiery women in rags, it introduced a note of sexual sophistication which many of her fans loathed. Plans for future films with Lubitsch were abandoned. For the next few years she appeared in a series of superlative productions, culminating in Sparrows (1926), which blended German expressionism to Hollywood production values. 1925: Pickford purchased 132 reels of camera negatives and prints from her Biograph period, 1909–1912, nearly 70 percent of her short films for that studio. 1927: United Artists, under Pickford's direction, opened their flagship Spanish Gothic movie theatre in downtown Los Angeles. Pickford became deeply involved in the design of the theatre, and two Anthony Heinsbergen murals in the auditorium feature her. Theatre architect Howard Crane opened two other UA theatres in the same year, in Chicago and Detroit. The Los Angeles theatre has become known as the University Cathedral of Dr. Eugene Scott. The romantic comedy My Best Girl was released with her future husband, Charles Rogers, playing the male interest. 1927 Mary travels to Russia and is filmed going about her business. The shots were made into a film that Pickford knew nothing about. 1929: Pickford starred in a sound film, Coquette, a production that did well at the box office, earning $1.4 million. Pickford used the break from silent film to establish a more flirtatious and sophisticated adult character. Her performance earned her an Oscar. In the same year, Pickford appeared with her husband Douglas Fairbanks in a sound version of The Taming of the Shrew. 1933: Pickford starred with Leslie Howard in Secrets, a money-losing film which proved her last. 1937: Pickford founded Mary Pickford Cosmetics, a beauty company. 1941: Pickford, Charlie Chaplin, Walt Disney, Orson Welles, Samuel Goldwyn, David O. Selznick, Alexander Korda, and Walter Wanger founded the Society of Independent Motion Picture Producers. 1949: Pickford and her husband Buddy Rogers formed Pickford-Rogers-Boyd, a radio and television-production company. 1951: Columbia Pictures and producer Stanley Kramer announced that Pickford would star in The Library, her first picture since 1933. She withdrew a month before filming was to begin in 1952. The anti-censorship screenplay was eventually filmed as Storm Center (1956), with Bette Davis in the lead. 1956: Pickford sold her stock interest in United Artists, one-third of the company's shares, a year after Charles Chaplin had sold his quarter interest. 1976: Pickford received an Academy Honorary Award for a lifetime of achievements. Mary Pickford has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6280 Hollywood Boulevard. Her handprints and footprints can be seen in the courtyard of Grauman's Chinese Theater in Hollywood. Filmography see: Mary Pickford filmography References Further reading Whitfield, Eileen Pickford: The Woman Who Made Hollywood University Press of Kentucky (1997) ISBN 0-8131-2045-4 External links Mary Pickford at Golden Silents Mary Pickford Photo Galleries at Silent Ladies About Mary Pickford, from the website of the Mary Pickford Institute for Film Education Mary Pickford, from PBS American Experience Plaque honoring Mary Pickford's birthplace Mary Pickford at Virtual History ebook or online Preserving Pickford: The Mary Pickford Collection and the Library of Congress article in The Moving Image, Volume 3, Number 1, Spring 2003 | Mary_Pickford |@lemmatized mary:33 pickford:161 april:2 may:3 academy:8 award:4 win:4 canadian:6 motion:10 picture:16 star:18 well:8 co:4 founder:4 film:77 studio:12 united:13 artist:10 one:16 original:2 art:3 science:3 know:6 america:4 sweetheart:4 little:14 girl:9 curl:5 first:18 pioneer:2 early:8 hollywood:23 great:9 influence:2 development:1 acting:4 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4,869 | Huneric | Huneric or Honeric (died December 23, 484) was King of the Vandals (477 – 484) and the oldest son of Geiseric. He dropped the imperial politics of his father and concentrated mainly on internal affairs. He was married to Eudocia, daughter of western Roman Emperor Valentinian III (419–455) and Licinia Eudoxia. She left him probably in 472. She had one son with him, Hilderic. Huneric was a fervent adherent to Arianism. At the beginning of his reign, he allowed the election of a new Catholic bishop of Carthage, Eugenius, but then started persecuting Catholics. Furthermore, he tried to make Catholic property fall to the state, but when this caused too much protest from the Byzantine emperor, he chose to banish a number of Catholics to a faraway province instead. On February 1, 484 he organised a meeting of Catholic bishops with Arian bishops but on February 24, 484 he forcibly removed the Catholic bishops from their offices and banished some to Corsica. A few were martyred, including the former proconsul Victorian along with Frumentius and other wealthy merchants, who were killed at Hadrumetum after refusing to become Arians. Saint Patrick's Church: Saints of March 23 Huneric also murdered many members of Hasdingi dynasty and also persecuted Manichaeans. Huneric was the first Vandal king who used title of king of Vandals and Alans. He was succeeded by his nephew Gunthamund (reigned 484–496), and was little mourned by either the Vandals or their subjects due to his cruelty. In his relations with other states, Huneric did not have the prestige that his father Geiseric had enjoyed. Nevertheless, the Vandals maintained their seapower and their hold on the islands of the western Mediterranean Sea. But the Moors in the inlands of Algeria, who had been quiet in Geiseric's days, managed to conquer some Vandal outposts in their area, thus severing the connection between the Vandal heartland around Carthage and their westernmost possessions around Tangiers. Notes | Huneric |@lemmatized huneric:5 honeric:1 died:1 december:1 king:3 vandal:7 old:1 son:2 geiseric:3 drop:1 imperial:1 politics:1 father:2 concentrate:1 mainly:1 internal:1 affair:1 marry:1 eudocia:1 daughter:1 western:2 roman:1 emperor:2 valentinian:1 iii:1 licinia:1 eudoxia:1 leave:1 probably:1 one:1 hilderic:1 fervent:1 adherent:1 arianism:1 beginning:1 reign:2 allow:1 election:1 new:1 catholic:6 bishop:4 carthage:2 eugenius:1 start:1 persecute:2 furthermore:1 try:1 make:1 property:1 fall:1 state:2 cause:1 much:1 protest:1 byzantine:1 choose:1 banish:2 number:1 faraway:1 province:1 instead:1 february:2 organise:1 meeting:1 arian:1 forcibly:1 remove:1 office:1 corsica:1 martyr:1 include:1 former:1 proconsul:1 victorian:1 along:1 frumentius:1 wealthy:1 merchant:1 kill:1 hadrumetum:1 refuse:1 become:1 arians:1 saint:2 patrick:1 church:1 march:1 also:2 murder:1 many:1 member:1 hasdingi:1 dynasty:1 manichaean:1 first:1 use:1 title:1 alans:1 succeed:1 nephew:1 gunthamund:1 little:1 mourn:1 either:1 subject:1 due:1 cruelty:1 relation:1 prestige:1 enjoy:1 nevertheless:1 maintain:1 seapower:1 hold:1 island:1 mediterranean:1 sea:1 moor:1 inlands:1 algeria:1 quiet:1 day:1 manage:1 conquer:1 outpost:1 area:1 thus:1 sever:1 connection:1 heartland:1 around:2 westernmost:1 possession:1 tangier:1 note:1 |@bigram valentinian_iii:1 vandal_alans:1 |
4,870 | Foreign_relations_of_Afghanistan | The foreign relations of Afghanistan, like those of any country, have changed along with the political, sociological, and economic state of the various parts of Afghanistan. Overview Before the Soviet invasion, Afghanistan pursued a policy of neutrality and nonalignment in its foreign relations, being one of a few independent nations to stay neutral in both World War I and World War II. In international forums, Afghanistan generally followed the voting patterns of Asian and African non-aligned countries. During the 1950s and 60s, Afghanistan was able to use the Russian and American need for allies during the Cold War as a way to receive economic assistance from both countries. However, given that unlike Russia, America refused to give extensive military aid to the country, the government of Mohammed Daoud Khan developed warmer ties with the USSR while officially remaining non-aligned. Following the Marxist coup of April 1978, the government under Nur Muhammad Taraki developed significantly closer ties with the Soviet Union and its communist satellites. After the December 1979 invasion, Afghanistan's foreign policy mirrored that of the Soviet Union. Afghan foreign policymakers attempted, with little success, to increase their regime's low standing in the noncommunist world. With the signing of the Geneva Accords, President Mohammad Najibullah unsuccessfully sought to end the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan's isolation within the Islamic world and in the Non-Aligned Movement. Most Western countries, including the United States, maintained small diplomatic missions in the capital city of Kabul during the Soviet occupation. Many countries subsequently closed their missions due to instability and heavy fighting in Kabul after the Soviet withdrawal in 1989. Many countries initially welcomed the introduction of the Taliban, who they saw as a stabilizing, law-enforcing alternative to the warlords who had ruled the country since the fall of Najibullah's government in 1992. The Taliban soon became alienated of those countries' positive feelings with knowledge of the harsh Sharia law being enforced in Taliban-controlled territories spreading around the world. The brutality towards women who attempted to work, learn, or leave the house without a male escort caused outside aid to the war-torn country to be limited. Repeated Taliban efforts to occupy Afghanistan's seat at the United Nations and OIC were unsuccessful. By 2000, only Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates recognized the Taliban as the legitimate government of Afghanistan. However, all three countries withdrew their recognition in the months following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack on the United States. Following the American Invasion and the Bonn Agreement the new government under the leadership of Hamid Karzai started to re-establish diplomatic relationships with many countries who had held close diplomatic relations before the communist coup d'état and the subsequent civil war. The government of President Hamid Karzai is currently focused on securing continued assistance for rebuilding the economy, infrastructure, and military of the country. It has continued to maintain close ties with the United States, Pakistan, India, Iran, the European Union, and the Islamic world. Islamic Republic of Iran Afghanistan shares a long history with Iran, as both nations were once part of ancient Persia. There are also deep ties in language and culture, as an eastern dialect of Persian, Dari is one of the official and most widely used language of Afghanistan, especially in terms of education. The other major language is Pashto, which is also an official language of the nation and shares many similar words. Despite such close ties, Afghanistan's relations with Iran have fluctuated over the years, with periodic disputes over the water rights of the Helmand River as the main issue of contention. Western Afghanistan and Iran were both collectively part of the Persian Empire until 1709 when Afghanistan fought for independence from Esfahan, under the leadership of Mir Wais Hotak. The two are considered by some to be part of "Greater Persia." Following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, which Iran opposed, relations deteriorated. The Iranian consulate in Herat closed, as did the Afghan consulate in Mashad. The Iranians complained of periodic border violations following the Soviet invasion. In 1985, they urged feuding Afghan Shi'a resistance groups to unite to oppose the Soviets. Iran supported the cause of the Afghan resistance and provided limited financial and military assistance to rebel leaders who pledged loyalty to the Iranian vision of Islamic revolution. Although Iran has hosted large number of Afghan refugees since the early 1980s, it is seeking to send the remaining ones back to Afghanistan. Voice of America, Iran Warns Unregistered Afghan Refugees of Detention Camps BBC News, Iran urged to halt refugee return Following the emergence of the Taliban and their harsh treatment of Afghanistan's Shi'a minority, Iran stepped up assistance to the Northern Alliance. Relations with the Taliban deteriorated further in 1998 after Taliban forces seized the Iranian consulate in Mazari Sharif and executed Iranian diplomats, who were accused of being secret spies. Following this incident, Iran almost went to war with the Taliban by massing up troops and tanks on the border with Afghanistan. As a response, the Taliban immediately began gathering and recruiting large number of men along the border with Iran. Many foreign fighters from Pakistan and Arab nations were also arriving. Iranian politicians decided to call it off because Afghans are known to raid cities and loot them, a similar event that occurred in early 1700s when all major Iranian cities were sacked by the Afghan army under Mir Mahmud Hotaki and many Iranians massacred. Packard Humanities Institute - Persian Literature in Translation - Chapter IV: An Outline Of The History Of Persia During The Last Two Centuries (A.D. 1722-1922)...Link This as well as intervention by the United Nations Security Council and the United States prevented an imminent Iranian war with the Taliban. Since 2001, the new government has engaged in cordial relations with both Iran and the United States, even as relations between Iran and the United States have grown strained due to American objections to Iran's nuclear program. Relations in recent years grew further since Iran began providing aid for Afghanistan's infrastructure, and President Hamid Karzai vowed to stand by his ally, Ahmadinejad. The people of Afghanistan support the Iranian government and most Iranians wish to see Afghanistan develop. Both nations are Islamic Republics. Islamic Republic of Pakistan Afghanistan before the Durand agreement of 1893. Three areas (NWFP, FATA and Balochistan) have long complicated Afghanistan's relations with Pakistan. Controversies involving these areas date back to the establishment of the Durand Line in 1893 dividing Pashtun and Baluch tribes living in Afghanistan from those living in what later became Pakistan. Afghanistan vigorously protested the inclusion of Pashtun and Baluch areas within Pakistan without providing the inhabitants with an opportunity for self-determination. Since 1947, this problem has led to incidents along the border, with extensive disruption of normal trade patterns. The most serious crisis lasted from September 1961 to June 1963, when diplomatic, trade, transit, and consular relations between the countries were suspended. The 1978 Marxist coup further strained relations between the two countries. Pakistan took the lead diplomatically in the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference in opposing the Soviet occupation. During the war against the Soviet occupation, Pakistan served as the primary logistical conduit for the Afghan resistance. Pakistan, aided by UN agencies, private groups, and many friendly countries, continues to provide refuge to several million Afghans.Soldier of the United States Armed Forces at the Torkham border crossing, between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Pakistan developed close ties to the Taliban regime, which it believed would offer strategic depth in any future conflict with India, and extended recognition in 1997. Following the 2001 invasion and overthrow of the Taliban, Pakistan recognized the transitional administration led by Hamid Karzai and offered significant amounts of aid for reconstruction. It also continued to host approximately 1.5 million Afghan refugees living in Pakistan. As of 2006, Afghan-Pakistani relations continue to fluctuate due to continued controversy over the Durand Line and Afghanistan's close relationship with India. Much of Afghanistan has long relied on Pakistani links for trade and travel to the outside world, and Pakistan views Afghanistan as eventually becoming its primary route for trade with Central Asia, though these plans will of necessity await establishment of secure conditions. There have been frequent incursions into disputed Pakistani territory on the part of the Afghan National Army in targeting Taliban elements on the frontier. The United States has also launched air strikes from Afghanistan, further complicating relations between the two. Russia Russian Embassy in Kabul Afghanistan–Russia relations is the relationships between the two countries, Afghanistan and Russia. Relations were contentious when the latter invaded the former in 1979, causing many of Afghanistan's Muslim allies to act fast and the two nations fought a bitter ten-year war, eventually ending in the withdrawal of the Communist forces. Russo-Afghan relations improved in the years following the end of conflict. Russian President Medvedev announced in 2009 that he wishes to be more involved in Afghanistan and aiding the army and infrastructure. This came at a time when relations between Afghan President Karzai and American President Obama were at a low. Republic of India India has traditionally enjoyed good relations with the Afghan government. For much of its history, south-eastern Afghanistan was tied to the civilizations of South Asia, and the ancient Hindu kingdom of Gandhara may have covered what is now the Kabul province. President Hamid Karzai graduated from a university in India. Despite that, India supported the Soviet invasion and occupation of Afghanistan. It also supported the Afghan Northern Alliance "unofficially" against the Taliban. Relations deteriorated after the Taliban took power. During the course of the hijack of Indian Airlines Flight 814, the Taliban requested recognition by India in exchange for help in negotiations. The request was not acted upon by the Indian Government. After the fall of the Taliban, India resumed previous ties. India has donated buses, aircraft and has imparted training to its fledgling police force. During President Hamid Karzai's visit to New Delhi, Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh pledged an additional $50 million in assistance to Afghanistan, bringing the total Indian pledge to $650 million -- of which $200 million has already been spent. India is also reconstructing a road in the remote southwestern Afghan province of Nimroz. Pajhwok Afghan News The project is being carried out by state-owned Border Roads Organization (BRO), the mission statement of which states that the BRO is India's "most reputed, multifaceted, transnational, modern construction organization committed to meeting the strategic needs of the armed forces." The killing of a BRO employee by the neo-Taliban in November 2005 prompted the Indian authorities to dispatch approximately 200 Indo-Tibetan Border Police commandos to Afghanistan in March 2006 to provide security for Indians working in various construction projects in Afghanistan. United States Josiah Harlan, in his Afghan robes Relations with the United States can be traced back to over 150 years, to the early 1800s, when the first recorded person from America was visiting Afghanistan. Biography of Josia Harlan In the 1940s, the United States established its first official embassy in Kabul. The first U.S. Ambassador to Afghanistan was Cornelius Van Engert. The first official Afghanistan Ambassador to the United States was Habibullah Khan Tarzi who served from 1948 to 1953. Since the 1950s the U.S. extended an economic assistance program focused on the development of Afghanistan's physical infrastructure which included roads, dams, and power plants. Later, U.S. aid shifted from infrastructure projects to technical assistance programs to help develop the skills needed to build a modern economy. Dwight D. Eisenhower visited Kabul in December 1959, becoming the first U.S. President to travel to Afghanistan. The Peace Corps was active in Afghanistan between 1962 and 1979. During the early 1960s former King of Afghanistan, Zahir Shah, visited the United States and met with John F. Kennedy. After the April 1978 coup, relations deteriorated. In February 1979, U.S. Ambassador Adolph "Spike" Dubs was murdered in Kabul after security forces burst in on his kidnappers. The U.S. then reduced bilateral assistance and terminated a small military training program. All remaining assistance agreements were ended after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Following the Soviet invasion, the United States supported diplomatic efforts to achieve a Soviet withdrawal. In addition, generous U.S. contributions to the refugee program in Pakistan played a major part in efforts to assist Afghans in need. U.S. efforts also included helping Afghans living inside Afghanistan. This cross-border humanitarian assistance program aimed at increasing Afghan self-sufficiency and helping Afghans resist Soviet attempts to drive civilians out of the rebel-dominated countryside. During the period of Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, the U.S. provided about 3 billion US dollars in military and economic assistance to the Afghan Mujahideens.US President George W. Bush and Afghan President Hamid Karzai appear together on March 1, 2006, at the Presidential Palace in Kabul, Afghanistan. Following the September 11 attacks, the United States launched an attack on the Taliban government as part of Operation Enduring Freedom. Following the overthrow of the Taliban, the U.S. supported the new government of Afghanistan and continues to station thousands of U.S. troops in the country. Their aim is to help the new government of President Hamid Karzai establish authority all across Afghanistan and hunt down insurgents that are launching attacks. The United States is also the leading nation in the rebuilding or reconstruction of Afghanistan. It has been providing multi-billion US dollars in weapons and aid, as well as infrastructure development. Bloomberg, Bush to Seek as Much as $8 Billion for Afghanistan, Snow Says By Judy Mathewson In 2005, the United States and Afghanistan signed a strategic partnership agreement committing both nations to a long-term relationship. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Afghanistan U.S. President George W. Bush and First Lady Laura Bush made a surprise visit to Afghanistan on March 1, 2006. Hamid Karzai is hailed as an example of a great leader by most U.S. politicians, universities and media outlets every time he visits the United States. Germany The German-Afghan relationship is long and has been mostly cordial. Many Afghan academics studied in Germany, many more sought refuge in Germany during the years of civil war. There has been significant cultural exchange over the years. Several of the best secondary schools in Kabul are founded and supported by the German government. Germany remains one of the most significant donors of foreign aid and partners in the rebuilding of Afghanistan. The Bonn agreement for the post Taliban governance of Afghanistan was debated and signed in the former seat of government of Western Germany. United Nations During the Soviet occupation, the United Nations was highly critical of the U.S.S.R.'s interference in the internal affairs of Afghanistan and was instrumental in obtaining a negotiated Soviet withdrawal under the terms of the Geneva Accords. In the aftermath of the Accords and subsequent Soviet withdrawal, the United Nations has assisted in the repatriation of refugees and has provided humanitarian aid such as health care, educational programs, and food and has supported mine-clearing operations. The UNDP and associated agencies have undertaken a limited number of development projects. However, the UN reduced its role in Afghanistan in 1992 in the wake of fierce factional strife in and around Kabul. The UN Secretary General has designated a personal representative to head the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance to Afghanistan (UNOCHA) and the Special Mission to Afghanistan (UNSMA), both based in Islamabad, Pakistan. Throughout the late 1990s, 2000, and 2001, the UN unsuccessfully strived to promote a peaceful settlement between the Afghan factions as well as provide humanitarian aid, this despite increasing Taliban restrictions upon UN personnel and agencies. See also Afghan diplomatic missions List of diplomatic missions in Afghanistan Allegations of state terrorism committed by Pakistan References (2)http://www.rferl.org External links Embassy of Afghanistan to Australia and New Zealand Canada in Afghanistan Embassy of Canada in Kabul, Afghanistan Embassy of Afghanistan in Canada Embassy of Afghanistan in Washington,DC Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Afghanistan United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan United States Embassy in Kabul Embassies and consulates in Afghanistan and Afghani missions abroad Afghanistan and Its Neighbors: An Ever Dangerous Neighborhood U.S. Institute of Peace, June 2006 | Foreign_relations_of_Afghanistan |@lemmatized foreign:7 relation:22 afghanistan:73 like:1 country:18 change:1 along:3 political:1 sociological:1 economic:4 state:24 various:2 part:7 overview:1 soviet:19 invasion:9 pursue:1 policy:2 neutrality:1 nonalignment:1 one:4 independent:1 nation:15 stay:1 neutral:1 world:7 war:10 ii:1 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4,871 | Cipher | In cryptography, a cipher (or cypher) is an algorithm for performing encryption and decryption — a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. An alternative term is encipherment. In non-technical usage, a “cipher” is the same thing as a “code”; however, the concepts are distinct in cryptography. In classical cryptography, ciphers were distinguished from codes. Codes operated by substituting according to a large codebook which linked a random string of characters or numbers to a word or phrase. For example, “UQJHSE” could be the code for “Proceed to the following coordinates”. When using a cipher the original information is known as plaintext, and the encrypted form as ciphertext. The ciphertext message contains all the information of the plaintext message, but is not in a format readable by a human or computer without the proper mechanism to decrypt it; it should resemble random gibberish to those not intended to read it. The operation of a cipher usually depends on a piece of auxiliary information, called a key or, in traditional NSA parlance, a cryptovariable. The encrypting procedure is varied depending on the key, which changes the detailed operation of the algorithm. A key must be selected before using a cipher to encrypt a message. Without knowledge of the key, it should be difficult, if not nearly impossible, to decrypt the resulting ciphertext into readable plaintext. Most modern ciphers can be categorized in several ways: By whether they work on blocks of symbols usually of a fixed size (block ciphers), or on a continuous stream of symbols (stream ciphers). By whether the same key is used for both encryption and decryption (symmetric key algorithms), or if a different key is used for each (asymmetric key algorithms). If the algorithm is symmetric, the key must be known to the recipient and sender and to no one else. If the algorithm is an asymmetric one, the encyphering key is different from, but closely related to, the decyphering key. If one key cannot be deduced from the other, the asymmetric key algorithm has the public/private key property and one of the keys may be made public without loss of confidentiality. The Feistel cipher uses a combination of substitution and transposition techniques. Most block cipher algorithms are based on this structure. Etymology of “Cipher” “Cipher” is alternatively spelled “cypher” (however, this variant is now uncommon); similarly “ciphertext” and “cyphertext”, and so forth. The word “cipher” in former times meant “zero” and had the same origin: Middle French as cifre and Medieval Latin as cifra, from the Arabic صفر ṣifr = zero (see Zero — Etymology). “Cipher” was later used for any decimal digit, even any number. There are these theories about how the word “cipher” may have come to mean “encoding”: Encoding often involved numbers. The Roman number system was very cumbersome because there was no concept of zero (or empty space). The concept of zero (which was also called “cipher”), which we all now think of as natural, was very alien in medieval Europe, so confusing and ambiguous to common Europeans that in arguments people would say “talk clearly and not so far fetched as a cipher”. Cipher came to mean concealment of clear messages or encryption. The French formed the word “chiffre” and adopted the Italian word “zero”. The English used “zero” for “0”, and “cipher” from the word “ciphering” as a means of computing. The Germans used the words “Ziffer” (digit, “Zahl”) and “Chiffre”. Dr. Al-Kadi (ref-3) concluded that the Arabic word sifr, for the digit zero, developed into the European technical term for encryption. Ciphers versus codes In non-technical usage, a “(secret) code” typically means a “cipher”. Within technical discussions, however, the words “code” and “cipher” refer to two different concepts. Codes work at the level of meaning — that is, words or phrases are converted into something else and this chunking generally shortens the message. An example of this is the Telegraph Code which were used to shorten long telegraph messages which resulted from entering into commercial contracts using exchanges of Telegrams. Ciphers, on the other hand, work at a lower level: the level of individual letters, small groups of letters, or, in modern schemes, individual bits. Some systems used both codes and ciphers in one system, using superencipherment to increase the security. In some cases the terms codes and ciphers are also used synonymously to substitution and transposition. Historically, cryptography was split into a dichotomy of codes and ciphers; and coding had its own terminology, analogous to that for ciphers: “encoding, codetext, decoding” and so on. However, codes have a variety of drawbacks, including susceptibility to cryptanalysis and the difficulty of managing a cumbersome codebook. Because of this, codes have fallen into disuse in modern cryptography, and ciphers are the dominant technique. Types of cipher There are a variety of different types of encryption. Algorithms used earlier in the history of cryptography are substantially different from modern methods, and modern ciphers can be classified according to how they operate and whether they use one or two keys. Historical ciphers Historical pen and paper ciphers used in the past are sometimes known as classical ciphers. They include simple substitution ciphers and transposition ciphers. For example “GOOD DOG” can be encrypted as “PLLX XLP” where “L” substitutes for “O”, “P” for “G”, and “X” for “D” in the message. Transposition of the letters “GOOD DOG” can result in “DGOGDOO”. These simple ciphers and examples are easy to crack, even without plaintext-ciphertext pairs. Simple ciphers were replaced by polyalphabetic substitution ciphers which changed the substitution alphabet for every letter. For example “GOOD DOG” can be encrypted as “PLSX TWF” where “L”, “S”, and “W” substitute for “O”. With even a small amount of known or estimated plaintext, simple polyalphabetic substitution ciphers and letter transposition ciphers designed for pen and paper encryption are easy to crack. During the early twentieth century, electro-mechanical machines were invented to do encryption and decryption using transposition, polyalphabetic substitution, and a kind of “additive” substitution. In rotor machines, several rotor disks provided polyalphabetic substitution, while plug boards provided another substitution. Keys were easily changed by changing the rotor disks and the plugboard wires. Although these encryption methods were more complex than previous schemes and required machines to encrypt and decrypt, other machines such as the British Bombe were invented to crack these encryption methods. Modern ciphers Modern encryption methods can be divided by two criteria: by type of key used, and by type of input data. By type of key used ciphers are divided into: symmetric key algorithms (Private-key cryptography), where the same key is used for encryption and decryption, and asymmetric key algorithms (Public-key cryptography), where two different keys are used for encryption and decryption. In a symmetric key algorithm (e.g., DES and AES), the sender and receiver must have a shared key set up in advance and kept secret from all other parties; the sender uses this key for encryption, and the receiver uses the same key for decryption. In an asymmetric key algorithm (e.g., RSA), there are two separate keys: a public key is published and enables any sender to perform encryption, while a private key is kept secret by the receiver and enables only him to perform correct decryption. Type of input ciphers data can be distinguished into two types: block ciphers, which encrypt block of data of fixed size, and stream ciphers, which encrypt continuous streams of data Key Size and Vulnerability In a pure mathematical attack (i.e., lacking any other information to help break a cipher), three factors above all, count: Mathematical advances that allow new attacks or weaknesses to be discovered and exploited. Computational power available, i.e., the computing power which can be brought to bear on the problem. It is important to note that average performance/capacity of a single computer is not the only factor to consider. An adversary can use multiple computers at once, for instance, to increase the speed of exhaustive search for a key (i.e., “brute force” attack) substantially. Key size, i.e., the size of key used to encrypt a message. As the key size increases, so does the complexity of exhaustive search to the point where it becomes infeasible to crack encryption directly. Since the desired effect is computational difficulty, in theory one would choose an algorithm and desired difficulty level, thus decide the key length accordingly. An example of this process can be found at Key Length which uses multiple reports to suggest that a symmetric cipher with 128 bits, an asymmetric cipher with 3072 bit keys, and an elliptic curve cipher with 512 bits, all have similar difficulty at present. Claude Shannon proved, using information theory considerations, that any theoretically unbreakable cipher must have keys which are at least as long as the plaintext, and used only once: one-time pad. References Helen Fouché Gaines, “Cryptanalysis”, 1939, Dover. ISBN 0-486-20097-3 Ibrahim A. Al-Kadi, “The origins of cryptology: The Arab contributions”, Cryptologia, 16(2) (April 1992) pp. 97–126. Ibrahim A. Al-Kadi, “Cryptography and Data Security: Cryptographic Properties of Arabic”, proceedings of the Third Saudi Engineering Conference. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Nov 24-27, Vol 2:910-921., 1991. David Kahn, The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing (ISBN 0-684-83130-9) (1967) Abraham Sinkov, Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach, Mathematical Association of America, 1966. ISBN 0-88385-622-0 William Stallings, ''Cryptography and Network Security, principles and practices, 4th Edition See also Cover-coding Cryptography Classification Encryption software Famous ciphertexts Kish cypher Pretty Good Privacy Steganography Telegraph code External links SecurityDocs Resource for encryption whitepapers Accumulative archive of various cryptography mailing lists. Includes Cryptography list at metzdowd and SecurityFocus Crypto list. Voice and Data Ciphering | Cipher |@lemmatized cryptography:13 cipher:53 cypher:3 algorithm:14 perform:3 encryption:17 decryption:7 series:1 well:1 define:1 step:1 follow:1 procedure:2 alternative:1 term:3 encipherment:1 non:2 technical:4 usage:2 thing:1 code:15 however:4 concept:4 distinct:1 classical:2 distinguish:2 operate:2 substitute:3 accord:2 large:1 codebook:2 link:2 random:2 string:1 character:1 number:4 word:10 phrase:2 example:6 uqjhse:1 could:1 proceed:1 following:1 coordinate:1 use:28 original:1 information:5 know:4 plaintext:6 encrypted:1 form:2 ciphertext:5 message:8 contain:1 format:1 readable:2 human:1 computer:3 without:4 proper:1 mechanism:1 decrypt:3 resemble:1 gibberish:1 intend:1 read:1 operation:2 usually:2 depend:2 piece:1 auxiliary:1 call:2 key:42 traditional:1 nsa:1 parlance:1 cryptovariable:1 encrypting:1 varied:1 change:4 detailed:1 must:4 select:1 encrypt:7 knowledge:1 difficult:1 nearly:1 impossible:1 result:3 modern:7 categorize:1 several:2 way:1 whether:3 work:3 block:5 symbol:2 fixed:2 size:6 continuous:2 stream:4 symmetric:5 different:6 asymmetric:6 recipient:1 sender:4 one:8 else:2 encyphering:1 closely:1 related:1 decyphering:1 cannot:1 deduce:1 public:4 private:3 property:2 may:2 make:1 loss:1 confidentiality:1 feistel:1 combination:1 substitution:10 transposition:6 technique:2 base:1 structure:1 etymology:2 alternatively:1 spelled:1 variant:1 uncommon:1 similarly:1 cyphertext:1 forth:1 former:1 time:2 meant:1 zero:8 origin:2 middle:1 french:2 cifre:1 medieval:2 latin:1 cifra:1 arabic:3 صفر:1 ṣifr:1 see:2 later:1 decimal:1 digit:3 even:3 theory:3 come:2 mean:5 encode:2 often:1 involved:1 roman:1 system:3 cumbersome:2 empty:1 space:1 also:3 think:1 natural:1 alien:1 europe:1 confusing:1 ambiguous:1 common:1 european:2 argument:1 people:1 would:2 say:1 talk:1 clearly:1 far:1 fetch:1 concealment:1 clear:1 chiffre:2 adopt:1 italian:1 english:1 compute:2 german:1 ziffer:1 zahl:1 dr:1 al:3 kadi:3 ref:1 conclude:1 sifr:1 develop:1 versus:1 secret:4 typically:1 within:1 discussion:1 refer:1 two:6 level:4 convert:1 something:1 chunk:1 generally:1 shorten:2 telegraph:3 long:2 enter:1 commercial:1 contract:1 exchange:1 telegram:1 hand:1 low:1 individual:2 letter:5 small:2 group:1 scheme:2 bit:4 superencipherment:1 increase:3 security:3 case:1 synonymously:1 historically:1 split:1 dichotomy:1 coding:1 terminology:1 analogous:1 encoding:1 codetext:1 decode:1 variety:2 drawback:1 include:3 susceptibility:1 cryptanalysis:3 difficulty:4 manage:1 fall:1 disuse:1 dominant:1 type:7 earlier:1 history:1 substantially:2 method:4 classify:1 historical:2 pen:2 paper:2 past:1 sometimes:1 simple:4 good:4 dog:3 pllx:1 xlp:1 l:2 p:1 g:3 x:1 dgogdoo:1 easy:2 crack:4 pair:1 replace:1 polyalphabetic:4 alphabet:1 every:1 plsx:1 twf:1 w:1 amount:1 estimate:1 design:1 early:1 twentieth:1 century:1 electro:1 mechanical:1 machine:4 invent:2 kind:1 additive:1 rotor:3 disk:2 provide:2 plug:1 board:1 another:1 easily:1 plugboard:1 wire:1 although:1 complex:1 previous:1 require:1 british:1 bombe:1 divide:2 criterion:1 input:2 data:6 e:6 de:1 aes:1 receiver:3 share:1 set:1 advance:2 keep:2 party:1 rsa:1 separate:1 publish:1 enable:2 correct:1 vulnerability:1 pure:1 mathematical:4 attack:3 lacking:1 help:1 break:1 three:1 factor:2 count:1 allow:1 new:1 weakness:1 discover:1 exploit:1 computational:2 power:2 available:1 bring:1 bear:1 problem:1 important:1 note:1 average:1 performance:1 capacity:1 single:1 consider:1 adversary:1 multiple:2 instance:1 speed:1 exhaustive:2 search:2 brute:1 force:1 complexity:1 point:1 become:1 infeasible:1 directly:1 since:1 desired:1 effect:1 choose:1 desire:1 thus:1 decide:1 length:2 accordingly:1 process:1 find:1 report:1 suggest:1 elliptic:1 curve:1 similar:1 present:1 claude:1 shannon:1 prove:1 consideration:1 theoretically:1 unbreakable:1 least:1 pad:1 reference:1 helen:1 fouché:1 gaines:1 dover:1 isbn:3 ibrahim:2 cryptology:1 arab:1 contribution:1 cryptologia:1 april:1 pp:1 cryptographic:1 proceeding:1 third:1 saudi:2 engineering:1 conference:1 riyadh:1 arabia:1 nov:1 vol:1 david:1 kahn:1 codebreakers:1 story:1 writing:1 abraham:1 sinkov:1 elementary:1 approach:1 association:1 america:1 william:1 stalling:1 network:1 principle:1 practice:1 edition:1 cover:1 cod:1 classification:1 software:1 famous:1 ciphertexts:1 kish:1 pretty:1 privacy:1 steganography:1 external:1 securitydocs:1 resource:1 whitepapers:1 accumulative:1 archive:1 various:1 mailing:1 list:3 metzdowd:1 securityfocus:1 crypto:1 voice:1 |@bigram encryption_decryption:5 plaintext_message:1 encrypt_message:2 block_cipher:3 stream_cipher:2 closely_related:1 decimal_digit:1 al_kadi:3 fall_disuse:1 substitution_cipher:3 plaintext_ciphertext:1 polyalphabetic_substitution:4 twentieth_century:1 electro_mechanical:1 encrypt_decrypt:1 sender_receiver:1 symmetric_cipher:1 elliptic_curve:1 claude_shannon:1 cryptologia_april:1 riyadh_saudi:1 saudi_arabia:1 kahn_codebreakers:1 abraham_sinkov:1 external_link:1 mailing_list:1 |
4,872 | Mary_of_Bethany | In the Gospel of John, Mary of Bethany (Hebrew מרים Miryām, Miryam "Bitter"), the sister of Lazarus appears in connection with the visits of Jesus to Bethany and the death and rising from the dead of her brother Lazarus (,,). In , Mary is contrasted with her sister Martha, who was "cumbered about many things" while Jesus was their guest, while Mary had chosen "the better part," that of listening to the master's discourse. According to the author of the Gospel of Luke she sat at Jesus' feet, but in the iconic tradition she is seen to anoint his feet (as per ), the role of the unidentified "sinner" in the house of Simon the Pharisee of . The Catholic Encyclopedia (1910) states that " there is no suggestion of an identification of the three persons (the "sinner", Mary Magdalene, and Mary of Bethany), and if we had only St. Luke to guide us, and not John, we should certainly have no grounds for so identifying them." The Catholic authors go on to adduce the gloss to , "Mary was the one who had anointed the Lord with perfumed oil and dried his feet with her hair; it was her brother Lazarus who was ill." Thus, according to one interpretation, the Johannine tradition explicitly identifies Mary sister of Lazarus with the unidentified "sinner" in the house of Simon the Pharisee. Western tradition as early as the 3rd century further identified this "woman who was a sinner" not only as Mary the sister of Lazarus, but as Mary Magdalene. Easton (1897) noted that it would appear from the circumstances that the family of Lazarus possessed a family vault (11:38) and that a large number of Jews from Jerusalem came to console them on the death of Lazarus (11:19), that this family at Bethany belonged to the wealthier class of the people. On the occasion of Jesus's last visit to Bethany, an unidentified woman who brought "a pound of ointment of spikenard, very costly, and anointed the head of Jesus" as he reclined at table in the house of one Simon, who had been a leper (; . In , the woman who anoints the feet of Jesus is explicitly Mary, sister of Martha. Though there is no hint of the woman's name in Mark, or any reason given in the canonic gospels to connect her with Mary other than the circumstance of this anointing episode's happening in Bethany, in the Latin churches it has become the tradition of many Christians to identify the woman with Mary sister of Lazarus. The Greek churches distinguish Mary Magdalene, this Mary sister of Lazarus, and "the sinner" of & , and there is also no explicit support in the Bible for such a theory, even though other groups claim this. To Protestants, nothing more is known of her. In folk Catholicism, this Mary is also Saint Mary Magdalene, of whom both the Bible and legends apart from it tell more. Commemoration as a Saint St. Mary of Bethany is commemorated in the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches as a saint on June 4th and on the Sunday of the Myrrhbearers (the Third Sunday of Pascha—i.e., the second Sunday after Easter). She also figures prominently in the commemorations on Lazarus Saturday (the day before Palm Sunday). She is commemorated in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church, the Calendar of saints of the Episcopal Church and the Anglican Church on July 29 with Martha and Lazarus. See also Mary Magdalene Myrrhbearers Lazarus Martha External links Mary & Martha, the sisters of Lazarus Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 Catholic Encyclopedia 1910: under "Saint Mary Magdalene" July commemorations in the Anglican Church | Mary_of_Bethany |@lemmatized gospel:3 john:2 mary:20 bethany:7 hebrew:1 מרים:1 miryām:1 miryam:1 bitter:1 sister:8 lazarus:13 appear:2 connection:1 visit:2 jesus:6 death:2 rise:1 dead:1 brother:2 contrast:1 martha:5 cumber:1 many:2 thing:1 guest:1 choose:1 good:1 part:1 listen:1 master:1 discourse:1 accord:2 author:2 luke:2 sit:1 foot:4 iconic:1 tradition:4 see:2 anoint:5 per:1 role:1 unidentified:3 sinner:5 house:3 simon:3 pharisee:2 catholic:4 encyclopedia:2 state:1 suggestion:1 identification:1 three:1 person:1 magdalene:6 st:2 guide:1 u:1 certainly:1 ground:1 identify:4 go:1 adduce:1 gloss:1 one:3 lord:1 perfumed:1 oil:1 dry:1 hair:1 ill:1 thus:1 interpretation:1 johannine:1 explicitly:2 western:1 early:1 century:1 far:1 woman:5 easton:2 note:1 would:1 circumstance:2 family:3 possess:1 vault:1 large:1 number:1 jew:1 jerusalem:1 come:1 console:1 belong:1 wealthy:1 class:1 people:1 occasion:1 last:1 bring:1 pound:1 ointment:1 spikenard:1 costly:1 head:1 recline:1 table:1 leper:1 though:2 hint:1 name:1 mark:1 reason:1 give:1 canonic:1 connect:1 episode:1 happen:1 latin:1 church:7 become:1 christian:1 greek:1 distinguish:1 also:4 explicit:1 support:1 bible:3 theory:1 even:1 group:1 claim:1 protestant:1 nothing:1 know:1 folk:1 catholicism:1 saint:6 legends:1 apart:1 tell:1 commemoration:3 commemorate:2 eastern:2 orthodox:1 june:1 sunday:4 myrrhbearers:2 third:1 pascha:1 e:1 second:1 easter:1 figure:1 prominently:1 saturday:1 day:1 palm:1 calendar:2 lutheran:1 episcopal:1 anglican:2 july:2 external:1 link:1 dictionary:1 |@bigram mary_bethany:3 sister_lazarus:6 gospel_luke:1 mary_magdalene:6 eastern_orthodox:1 lazarus_saturday:1 external_link:1 easton_bible:1 |
4,873 | File_archiver | A file archiver is a computer program that combines a number of files together into one archive file, or a series of archive files, for easier transportation or storage. Many file archivers employ Archive formats that provide lossless data compression to reduce the size of the archive which is often useful for transferring a large number of individual files over a high latency network like the Internet. The most basic archivers just take a list of files and concatenate their contents sequentially into the archive. In addition the archive must also contain some information about at least the names and lengths of the originals, so that proper reconstruction is possible. Most archivers also store metadata about a file that the operating system provides, such as timestamps, ownership and access control. The process of making an archive file is called archiving or packing. Reconstructing the original files from the archive is termed unarchiving, unpacking or extracting. Discussion Unix Archiver Tools Unlike integrated archival and compression tools like PKZIP, Winzip, and WinRAR, the Unix tools ar, tar, cpio (for "archiver", "tape archiver" and "copy in/out" respectively) act as archivers but not compressors. Users of the Unix tools typically add compression by compressing the result of packing (and uncompressing before unpacking), most often using the gzip or bzip2 programs. In fact modern tar programs include an option to automatically call a (de)compression program, so that it looks just as if tar itself could handle compressed archives. This approach has two advantages: It follows the Unix toolbox concept that each program should accomplish a single but well-done task. Once a better compressor is developed, users may use that immediately, without having to give up their archiver. Since the whole archive is compressed, redundancy between archived files can be detected and eliminated. An archiver compressing each archived file in isolation cannot exploit these inter-file redundancies. Its main disadvantage is that extracting one file from a compressed archive requires all the files before it to be decompressed, which may take many minutes for a large archive. Altering the underlying archive is even more inconvenient, requiring the entire file to be uncompressed, altered and then recompressed. Archivers with integrated compression perform these operations much more quickly. See also Comparison of file archivers Archive format List of archive formats Comparison of archive formats External links | File_archiver |@lemmatized file:17 archiver:6 computer:1 program:5 combine:1 number:2 together:1 one:2 archive:19 series:1 easy:1 transportation:1 storage:1 many:2 archivers:6 employ:1 format:4 provide:2 lossless:1 data:1 compression:5 reduce:1 size:1 often:2 useful:1 transfer:1 large:2 individual:1 high:1 latency:1 network:1 like:2 internet:1 basic:1 take:2 list:2 concatenate:1 content:1 sequentially:1 addition:1 must:1 also:3 contain:1 information:1 least:1 name:1 length:1 original:2 proper:1 reconstruction:1 possible:1 store:1 metadata:1 operating:1 system:1 timestamps:1 ownership:1 access:1 control:1 process:1 make:1 call:2 pack:1 reconstruct:1 term:1 unarchiving:1 unpacking:1 extract:2 discussion:1 unix:4 tool:4 unlike:1 integrated:2 archival:1 pkzip:1 winzip:1 winrar:1 ar:1 tar:3 cpio:1 tape:1 copy:1 respectively:1 act:1 compressor:2 user:2 typically:1 add:1 compress:3 result:1 packing:1 uncompress:1 unpack:1 use:2 gzip:1 fact:1 modern:1 include:1 option:1 automatically:1 de:1 look:1 could:1 handle:1 compressed:2 approach:1 two:1 advantage:1 follow:1 toolbox:1 concept:1 accomplish:1 single:1 well:1 task:1 good:1 develop:1 may:2 immediately:1 without:1 give:1 since:1 whole:1 redundancy:2 detect:1 eliminate:1 isolation:1 cannot:1 exploit:1 inter:1 main:1 disadvantage:1 require:2 decompress:1 minute:1 alter:2 underlying:1 even:1 inconvenient:1 entire:1 uncompressed:1 recompressed:1 perform:1 operation:1 much:1 quickly:1 see:1 comparison:2 external:1 link:1 |@bigram file_archivers:2 external_link:1 |
4,874 | Molokan | The Molokans () are a religious sect, among Russian peasants (serfs), who broke away from the Russian Orthodox Church in the 1550s. Molokans denied the Czar's divine right to rule and rejected icons. They also reject the Trinity as outlined by the Nicene Creed, the Orthodox fasts, military service, the eating of unclean foods, and other practices, including water baptism. They claim to be the direct descendants of the ancient Armenian "Paulicians", who became known as the "Bogomils" of Thrace, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Serbia. Molokan means "milk drinkers" in Russian, as they drank milk instead of fasting from it on Orthodox Fasts. History Russian settlers - possibly Molokans - in Azerbaijan's Mugan Steppe in the early 20th century During the reign of Ivan the Terrible (1547-1584 A.D.), Matthew Simon Dalmatov, the first martyr of the Russian Molokan faith, began to evangelize his family, his master, and local village members in and around the city of Tambov. Dalmatov carried this sectarian belief into Moscow, where a group of Mordvins heard his message and embraced it. Dalmatov was later martyred by Orthodox priests in a monastery prison by wheeling. Molokans were ostracized from Russian society in the 1600s for their refusal to bear arms and for their refusal to assist in any form of military service. The name "Molokan" was used for the first time in the 1670s, in reference to the people who ignored the 200 fasting days, drinking milk (moloko = "milk" in Russian). Molokans themselves did not completely reject the name—even adding words like "drinking of the spiritual milk of God" (according to I Peter 2:2, "Like newborn babies, crave pure spiritual milk, so that by it you may grow up in your salvation"). Heretics were punished in Czarist Russia. Beatings, torture, kidnapping, imprisonment, banishment, dismembering, killing, and other forms of punishment were inflicted upon those called "Spiritual Christians", as Molokan's called themselves. In the 1800s, the government's policy was to send the heretics away from the center of the country into Caucasus, especially Armenia, Azerbaijan, Ukraine, central Asia, and Siberia. In 1833, there was a reported outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon a number of Molokans in the Transcaucasus region. This created a schism between Constants (Postoyaniye) and the newly evolved Molokan Jumpers and Leapers. With what the Molokans believed to be an additional manifestation of the Holy Spirit, this new smaller sect began a revival with intense zeal and reported miracles that purportedly rivaled that of Christ’s Apostles. Condemnation from the Constant sect led to betrayals and imprisonment for many of the Jumpers and Leapers, now called New Israelites by their anointed leader Maxim Rudometkin. Maxim Rudometkin, while he was in prison, wrote a spiritual book that was smuggled out by close friends and relatives who came to visit him that become the basis of the Molokan faith. There are others who do not accept this teaching, yet follow the letter of the law and are known as Postayani Molokani. This book, is used as a companion to the Holy Bible, it is known as the Book of Spirit and Life. Which also includes the writings of other Molokan leaders. Namely Lukian P. Sokolov (Anikei Ignatievich Borisov), David Yesseyevich (Feodor Osipovich Bulgakov)and the boy Prophet Efim G. Klubnikin, who at the age of 12 was enveloped by the Holy Spirit and drew plans, songs and prayers for the Molokans (Jumpers and Leapers). In these plans he says that God has chosen lamb like unto Jesus Christ. This man, he says is Maxim G. Rudometkin who writes "The writer of this new revelation is a man, by birth a resident of this world, whose name is Ulesar, King Ures, New Judean Messiah; or in Russian: An Angel clothed in the flesh by the Spirit. Molokans who accept this book and who follow Maxim's interpretations of the Bible are known as Maximisti, which make up most of the Jumper and Leapers sect. The Count Dmitry Tolstoy visited Russia's second most sacred religious site, Solovetsky Monastery (near the White Sea), in 1869 where he found the prison conditions to be repulsive. After having spoken to Maxim Rudometkin, Tolstoy found no basis for his life imprisonment, and so by favor of the Grand Duke, had him reassigned closer to his home at the Sudzal Monastery prison where he remained for 9 years. At the end of the 19th century, there were about 500,000 Molokans within the Russia empire. Before World War I there was a well-known colony of Molokans that had been exiled to the Caucasus (an area long within Russian hegemony), mainly to what is now Armenia, Azerbaijan, and eastern Turkey (Kars plain). As a 12-year-old boy, Efim G. Klubnikin became known as a "seer", or prophet, depending on one's viewpoint. As a young boy, it is said that he was divinely inspired to prophesy about a coming time that would be unbearable and that the time to leave Russia was now. For "Soon the doors will close and leaving Russia would be impossible." he later wrote in his memoirs in his elder years. During the early 1900's under his fellowship, about 2,000 Molokans (mostly of the Jumpers and Leapers Sect) left for the United States and settled in the Los Angeles area near the area of Boyle Heights. It is there that they influenced in practice and doctrine a later American Revival called "the Pentecostal Azusa Street Revival" at the turn of the last century. The founder of The Full Gospel Business Men's Association associates this Pentecostal Revival to the child prophet of the Molokan Jumpers. When they arrived in Los Angeles, California, they were befriended by local settlement house director Dana W. Bartlett) and some other parts of the West Coast and Canada. The Klubnikins continued to be involved in cattle and groceries, as they probably had done in the area of Tambov prior to exile. Others received a land grant from the Mexican government and settled in the Guadalupe Valley in Baja California, Mexico. An even smaller number of Constant Molokans fled Russia and settled mainly in the San Francisco, California and Sacramento, California areas. Presently there are about 20,000 people who "ethnically identify themselves as Molokans." There are also approximately 200 Molokan churches, 150 of them in Russia and Azerbaijan. Approximately 25,000 Molokans reside in the United States, of which only about 5,000 "ethnically identify themselves as Molokans;" most of which, reside in California, Arizona, Oregon, Washington, Montana and Wyoming. Recent settlement of Molokans in southern Alaska during the 1960's was well-documented. Molokans are said to be numerous in Canada, mainly over 1,000 reside in the province of British Columbia and hundreds more in Alberta with their traditional communal lifestyle remains intact today. Significant numbers of Molokans live in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Ukraine and throughout Russia. To a lesser extent, Molokans can also be found in Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mongolia, and in northwest China. In 1995, the Smithsonian Folklife Festival featured Molokans as one of their peoples. Molokans adhere to the Old Testament kosher dietary laws and do not eat pork, shellfish, or other "unclean" foods. Some refuse to serve on juries or file lawsuits against fellow church members. Church services are conducted predominantly in the Russian language, men and women sit apart, and services are usually quite active–comparable to Pentecostal activities. Molokan families encourage endogamy. See also Doukhobor Christian anarchism Peace church List of pacifist faiths Simple living External links Molokan Home Page Origin and Meaning of Molokan Surnames Mexico's Russian Colony Russians in Mexico Molokans Living in Flats Molokan Church Services | Molokan |@lemmatized molokans:23 religious:2 sect:5 among:1 russian:12 peasant:1 serfs:1 break:1 away:2 orthodox:4 church:6 deny:1 czar:1 divine:1 right:1 rule:1 reject:3 icon:1 also:5 trinity:1 outline:1 nicene:1 creed:1 fast:3 military:2 service:5 eating:1 unclean:2 food:2 practice:2 include:2 water:1 baptism:1 claim:1 direct:1 descendant:1 ancient:1 armenian:1 paulicians:1 become:3 know:6 bogomils:1 thrace:1 bulgaria:1 bosnia:1 serbia:1 molokan:13 mean:1 milk:6 drinker:1 drink:2 instead:1 history:1 settler:1 possibly:1 azerbaijan:5 mugan:1 steppe:1 early:2 century:3 reign:1 ivan:1 terrible:1 matthew:1 simon:1 dalmatov:3 first:2 martyr:2 faith:3 begin:2 evangelize:1 family:2 master:1 local:2 village:1 member:2 around:1 city:1 tambov:2 carry:1 sectarian:1 belief:1 moscow:1 group:1 mordvin:1 hear:1 message:1 embrace:1 later:2 priest:1 monastery:3 prison:4 wheel:1 ostracize:1 society:1 refusal:2 bear:1 arm:1 assist:1 form:2 name:3 use:2 time:3 reference:1 people:3 ignore:1 fasting:1 day:1 moloko:1 completely:1 even:2 add:1 word:1 like:3 drinking:1 spiritual:4 god:2 accord:1 peter:1 newborn:1 baby:1 crave:1 pure:1 may:1 grow:1 salvation:1 heretic:2 punish:1 czarist:1 russia:8 beating:1 torture:1 kidnapping:1 imprisonment:3 banishment:1 dismember:1 kill:1 punishment:1 inflict:1 upon:2 call:4 christian:2 government:2 policy:1 send:1 center:1 country:1 caucasus:2 especially:1 armenia:3 ukraine:2 central:1 asia:1 siberia:1 reported:1 outpouring:1 holy:4 spirit:5 number:3 transcaucasus:1 region:1 create:1 schism:1 constant:3 postoyaniye:1 newly:1 evolve:1 jumper:6 leaper:5 believe:1 additional:1 manifestation:1 new:4 small:2 revival:4 intense:1 zeal:1 report:1 miracle:1 purportedly:1 rival:1 christ:2 apostle:1 condemnation:1 lead:1 betrayal:1 many:1 israelite:1 anointed:1 leader:2 maxim:5 rudometkin:4 write:3 book:4 smuggle:1 close:2 friend:1 relative:1 come:1 visit:2 basis:2 others:2 accept:2 teaching:1 yet:1 follow:2 letter:1 law:2 postayani:1 molokani:1 companion:1 bible:2 life:2 writing:1 namely:1 lukian:1 p:1 sokolov:1 anikei:1 ignatievich:1 borisov:1 david:1 yesseyevich:1 feodor:1 osipovich:1 bulgakov:1 boy:3 prophet:3 efim:2 g:3 klubnikin:2 age:1 envelop:1 draw:1 plan:2 song:1 prayer:1 say:4 choose:1 lamb:1 unto:1 jesus:1 man:2 writer:1 revelation:1 birth:1 resident:1 world:2 whose:1 ulesar:1 king:1 ures:1 judean:1 messiah:1 angel:1 clothe:1 flesh:1 interpretation:1 maximisti:1 make:1 count:1 dmitry:1 tolstoy:2 second:1 sacred:1 site:1 solovetsky:1 near:2 white:1 sea:1 find:3 condition:1 repulsive:1 speak:1 favor:1 grand:1 duke:1 reassign:1 closer:1 home:2 sudzal:1 remain:2 year:3 end:1 within:2 empire:1 war:1 well:2 colony:2 exile:2 area:5 long:1 hegemony:1 mainly:3 eastern:1 turkey:1 kars:1 plain:1 old:2 seer:1 depend:1 one:2 viewpoint:1 young:1 divinely:1 inspire:1 prophesy:1 coming:1 would:2 unbearable:1 leave:3 soon:1 door:1 impossible:1 memoir:1 elder:1 fellowship:1 mostly:1 united:2 state:2 settle:3 los:2 angeles:2 boyle:1 height:1 influence:1 doctrine:1 late:1 american:1 pentecostal:3 azusa:1 street:1 turn:1 last:1 founder:1 full:1 gospel:1 business:1 men:2 association:1 associate:1 child:1 arrive:1 california:5 befriend:1 settlement:2 house:1 director:1 dana:1 w:1 bartlett:1 part:1 west:1 coast:1 canada:2 klubnikins:1 continue:1 involve:1 cattle:1 grocery:1 probably:1 prior:1 receive:1 land:1 grant:1 mexican:1 guadalupe:1 valley:1 baja:1 mexico:4 flee:1 san:1 francisco:1 sacramento:1 presently:1 ethnically:2 identify:2 approximately:2 reside:3 arizona:1 oregon:1 washington:1 montana:1 wyoming:1 recent:1 southern:1 alaska:1 document:1 numerous:1 province:1 british:1 columbia:1 hundred:1 alberta:1 traditional:1 communal:1 lifestyle:1 intact:1 today:1 significant:1 live:2 kazakhstan:1 throughout:1 less:1 extent:1 brazil:1 argentina:1 uruguay:1 australia:1 indonesia:1 malaysia:1 mongolia:1 northwest:1 china:1 smithsonian:1 folklife:1 festival:1 feature:1 adhere:1 testament:1 kosher:1 dietary:1 eat:1 pork:1 shellfish:1 refuse:1 serve:1 jury:1 file:1 lawsuit:1 fellow:1 conduct:1 predominantly:1 language:1 woman:1 sit:1 apart:1 usually:1 quite:1 active:1 comparable:1 activity:1 encourage:1 endogamy:1 see:1 doukhobor:1 anarchism:1 peace:1 list:1 pacifist:1 simple:1 living:1 external:1 link:1 page:1 origin:1 meaning:1 surname:1 flat:1 |@bigram nicene_creed:1 ivan_terrible:1 newborn_baby:1 czarist_russia:1 punishment_inflict:1 armenia_azerbaijan:3 holy_spirit:3 jumper_leaper:5 jesus_christ:1 divinely_inspire:1 los_angeles:2 azusa_street:1 baja_california:1 san_francisco:1 sacramento_california:1 montana_wyoming:1 argentina_uruguay:1 indonesia_malaysia:1 external_link:1 |
4,875 | Aramaic_language | Aramaic is a Semitic language with a 3,000-year history. Aramaic appears somewhere between 11th and 9th centuries BCE. Beyer (1986: 11) suggests that written Aramaic probably dates from the eleventh century BCE, as it is established by the tenth century, to which he dates the oldest inscriptions of northern Syria. Heinrichs (1990: x) uses the less controversial date of ninth century, for which there is clear and widespread attestation. It has been the language of administration of empires and the language of divine worship. In Judaism, it was the day-to-day language of Israel in the Second Temple period (and was therefore the mother tongue of Jesus of Nazareth), the original language of large sections of the biblical books of Daniel and Ezra, and is the main language of the Talmud. Beyer 1986: 38–43; Casey 1998: 83–6, 88, 89–93; Eerdmans 1975: 72. Aramaic belongs to the Afro-Asiatic language family. Within that diverse family, it belongs to the Semitic subfamily. Aramaic is a part of the Northwest Semitic group of languages, which also includes the Canaanite languages such as Hebrew and Phoenician. It is also related to Arabic, being part of the more diverse Central Semitic languages. Beyer 1986: 9 n. 1 Aramaic script was widely adopted for other languages, and is ancestral to the Arabic and Hebrew alphabets. Aramaic's long history and diverse and widespread use has led to the development of many divergent varieties which are sometimes treated as dialects. Thus, there is no one Aramaic language, but each time and place has had its own variety. Aramaic is retained as a liturgical language by certain Eastern Christian sects, in the form of Syriac, the Aramaic variety by which Eastern Christianity was diffused, whether or not those communities once spoke it or another form of Aramaic as their vernacular, but have since shifted to another language as their primary community language. Modern Aramaic is spoken today as a first language by many scattered, predominantly small, and largely isolated communities of differing Christian, Jewish and Muslim groups of the Middle East Heinrichs 1990: xi–xv; Beyer 1986: 53. —most numerously by the Assyrians in the form of Assyrian Neo-Aramaic—that have all retained use of the once dominant lingua franca despite subsequent language shifts experienced throughout the Middle East. The Aramaic languages are considered to be endangered. Geographic distribution During the Neo-Assyrian and the Neo-Babylonian period, Aramaeans, the native speakers of Aramaic, began to settle in greater numbers in Mesopotamia (modern-day Syria, Iraq and eastern Turkey). The influx eventually resulted in the Assyrian and Baylonian empires becoming operationally bilingual, with Aramaic used alongisde Akkadian. As these empires, and the Persian Empire that followed, extended their influence in the region, Aramaic gradually became the lingua franca of most of Western Asia and Egypt. Richard, 2003, p. 69. From the seventh century CE onwards, Aramaic was replaced as the lingua franca of the Middle East by Arabic. However, Aramaic remains a literary and liturgical language among Jews, Mandaeans and some Christians, and is still spoken by small isolated communities throughout its original area of influence. The turbulence of the last two centuries has seen speakers of first-language and literary Aramaic dispersed throughout the world. Aramaic languages and dialects Traditionally, Aramaic is considered a single language. However, it could equally well be considered a group of closely related languages, rather than a single monolithic language—something which it has never been. Its long history, extensive literature, and use by different religious communities are all factors in the diversification of the language. Some Aramaic dialects are mutually intelligible, whereas others are not. Some Aramaic languages are known under different names; for example, Syriac is particularly used to describe the Eastern Aramaic of Christian communities. Most dialects can be described as either "Eastern"' or "Western", the dividing line being roughly the Euphrates, or slightly west of it. It is also helpful to draw a distinction between those Aramaic languages that are modern living languages (often called Neo-Aramaic), those that are still in use as literary languages, and those that are extinct and are only of interest to scholars. Although there are some exceptions to this rule, this classification gives "Modern", "Middle" and "Old" periods, alongside "Eastern" and "Western" areas, to distinguish between the various languages and dialects that are Aramaic. Writing system Eleventh century book in Syriac Serto The earliest Aramaic alphabet was based on the Phoenician script. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive 'square' style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of Canaan adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the Hebrew alphabet today. This is the writing system used in Biblical Aramaic and other Jewish writing in Aramaic. The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the Syriac alphabet (one of the varieties of the Syriac alphabet, Serto, is shown to the left). A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the Mandaic alphabet, is used by the Mandaeans. In addition to these writing systems, certain derivatives of the Aramaic alphabet were used in ancient times by particular groups: Nabataean in Petra, for instance and Palmyrenean in Palmyra. In modern times, Turoyo (see below), has sometimes been written in an adapted Latin alphabet. History The history of Aramaic is broken down into three broad periods: Old Aramaic (1100 BCE–200 CE), including: The Biblical Aramaic of the Hebrew Bible. The Aramaic of Jesus. Middle Aramaic (200–1200), including: Literary Syriac. The Aramaic of the Talmuds, Targumim, and Midrashim. Mandaic. Modern Aramaic (1200–present), including: Various modern vernaculars. This classification is based on that used by Klaus Beyer*. Old Aramaic Old Aramaic covers over thirteen centuries of the language. This vast time span includes all Aramaic that is now effectively extinct. The main turning point for Old Aramaic is around 500 BCE, when the Ancient Aramaic (the language of Aramaeans) moves into Imperial Aramaic (the language of powerful empires). The various spoken dialects of Old Aramaic come to prominence when Greek replaces Aramaic as the language of power in the region. Ancient Aramaic Ancient Aramaic refers to the Aramaic of the Aramaeans from its origin until it becomes the official 'lingua franca' of the Fertile Crescent. It was the language of the city-states of Damascus, Hamath and Arpad. There are inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the tenth century BCE. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The orthography of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on Phoenician, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined orthography, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop from this in the eastern regions of Aram. Oddly, the dominance of Assyrian Empire of Tiglath-Pileser III over Aram in the middle of the eighth century led to the establishment of Aramaic as a lingua franca. Silver ingot of Bar-Rakib son of Panammu, king of Sam'al (modern Zincirli) From 700 BCE, the language began to spread in all directions, but lost much of its homogeneity. Different dialects emerged in Mesopotamia, Babylonia, the Levant and Egypt. However, the Akkadian-influenced Aramaic of Assyria, and then Babylon, started to come to the fore. As described in 2 Kings 18:26, Hezekiah, king of Judah, negotiates with Assyrian ambassadors in Aramaic so that the common people would not understand. Around 600 BCE, Adon, a Canaanite king, used Aramaic to write to the Egyptian Pharaoh. 'Chaldee' or 'Chaldean Aramaic' used to be common terms for the Aramaic of the Chaldean dynasty of Babylonia. It was used to describe Biblical Aramaic, which was, however, written in a later style. It is not to be confused with the modern language Chaldean Neo-Aramaic. Imperial Aramaic Around 500 BCE, following the Achaemenid conquest of Mesopotamia under Darius I, Aramaic (as had been used in that region) was adopted by the conquerors as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed Official Aramaic or Imperial Aramaic, can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did". p. 251 In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an 'official language', noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language. p. 457. Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the Achaemenid-era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought. Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of Persian gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire (in 331 BCE), Imperial Aramaic or near enough for it to be recognisable would remain an influence on the various native Iranian languages. Aramaic script and as ideograms Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the Pahlavi writing system. . One of the largest collections of Imperial Aramaic texts is that of the Persepolis fortification tablets, which number about five hundred. Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from Egypt, and Elephantine in particular (see Elephantine papyri). Of them, the best known is the Wisdom of Ahiqar, a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical book of Proverbs. Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language. A group of thirty Aramaic documents from Bactria have been recently discovered. An analysis was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the fourth century BCE Achaemenid administration of Bactria and Sogdiana. Post-Achaemenid Aramaic Coin of Alexander bearing an Aramaic language inscription. The conquest by Alexander the Great did not destroy the unity of Aramaic language and literature immediately. Aramaic that bears a relatively close resemblance to that of the fifth century BCE can be found right up to the early second century BCE. The Seleucids imposed Greek in the administration of Syria and Mesopotamia from the start of their rule. In the third century BCE, Greek overtook Aramaic as the common language in Egypt and Syria. However, a post-Achaemenid Aramaic continued to flourish from Judaea, through the Syrian Desert and into Arabia and Parthia. Biblical Aramaic is the Aramaic found in four discrete sections of the Hebrew Bible: Bilingual inscription (Greek and Aramaic) by the Indian king Ashoka, third century BCE Ezra 4:8–6:18 and 7:12–26 documents from the Achaemenid period (fifth century BCE) concerning the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem. Daniel 2:4b–7:28 five subversive tales and an apocalyptic vision. Jeremiah 10:11 a single sentence in the middle of a Hebrew text denouncing idolatry. Genesis 31:47 translation of a Hebrew place-name. Biblical Aramaic is a somewhat hybrid dialect. Some Biblical Aramaic material probably originated in both Babylonia and Judaea before the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty. During Seleucid rule, defiant Jewish propaganda shaped Aramaic Daniel. These stories probably existed as oral traditions at their earliest stage. This might be one factor that led to differing collections of Daniel in the Greek Septuagint and the Masoretic Text, which presents a lightly Hebrew-influenced Aramaic. Under the category of post-Achaemenid is Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official language of Hasmonaean Judaea (142–37 BCE). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the Qumran texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major Targums, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean. Hasmonaean also appears in quotations in the Mishnah and Tosefta, although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms. Babylonian Targumic is the later post-Achaemenid dialect found in the Targum Onqelos and Targum Jonathan, the 'official' targums. The original, Hasmonaean targum had reached Babylon sometime in the second or third centuries CE. They were then reworked according to the contemporary dialect of Babylon to create the language of the standard targums. This combination formed the basis of Babylonian Jewish literature for centuries to follow. Eleventh century Hebrew Bible with Targum Galilean Targumic is similar to Babylonian Targumic. It is the mixing of literary Hasmonaean with the dialect of Galilee. The Hasmonaean targum reached Galilee in the second century CE, and were reworked into this Galilean dialect for local use. The Galilean Targum was not considered an authoritative work by other communities, and documentary evidence shows that its text was amended. From the eleventh century CE onwards, once the Babylonian Targum had become normative, the Galilean version became heavily influenced by it. Babylonian Documentary Aramaic is a dialect in use from the third century CE onwards. It is the dialect of Babylonian private documents, and, from the twelfth century, all Jewish private documents in Aramaic. It is based on Hasmonaean with very few changes. This was perhaps due to the fact that many of the documents in BDA are legal documents, the language in them had to be sensible throughout the Jewish community from the start, and Hasmonaean was the old standard. Nabataean Aramaic is the language of the Arab kingdom of Petra. The kingdom (c. 200 BCE–106 CE covered the east bank of the Jordan River, the Sinai Peninsula and northern Arabia. Perhaps because of the importance of the caravan trade, the Nabataeans began to use Aramaic in preference to Old North Arabic. The dialect is based on Achaemenid with a little influence from Arabic: 'l' is often turned into 'n', and there are a few Arabic loan words. Some Nabataean Aramaic inscriptions exist from the early days of the kingdom, but most are from the first four centuries CE. The language is written in a cursive script that is the precursor to the modern Arabic alphabet. The number of Arabic loan words increases through the centuries, until, in the fourth century, Nabataean merges seamlessly with Arabic. Palmyrene Aramaic is the dialect that was in use in the city of Palmyra in the Syrian Desert from 44 BCE to 274 CE. It was written in a rounded script, which later gave way to cursive Estrangela. Like Nabataean, Palmyrene was influenced by Arabic, but to a lesser degree. Arsacid Aramaic was the official language of the Parthian Empire (247 BCE–224 CE). It, more than any other post-Achaemenid dialect, continues the tradition of Darius I. Over time, however, it came under the influence of contemporary, spoken Aramaic, Georgian and Persian. After the conquest of the Parthians by the Persian-speaking Sassanids, Arsacid exerted considerable influence on the new official language. Late Old Eastern Aramaic Mandaic magical 'demon trap' The dialects mentioned in the last section were all descended from Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic. However, the diverse regional dialects of Late Ancient Aramaic continued alongside these, often as simple, spoken languages. Early evidence for these spoken dialects is known only through their influence on words and names in a more standard dialect. However, these regional dialects became written languages in the second century BC. These dialects reflect a stream of Aramaic that is not dependent on Imperial Aramaic, and shows a clear division between the regions of Mesopotamia, Babylon and the east, and Judah, Syria, and the west. In the East, the dialects of Palmyrene and Arsacid Aramaic merged with the regional languages to create languages with a foot in Imperial and a foot in regional Aramaic. Much later, Arsacid became the liturgical language of the Mandaean religion, Mandaic. In the kingdom of Osroene, centred on Edessa and founded in 132 BCE, the regional dialect became the official language: Old Syriac. On the upper reaches of the Tigris, East Mesopotamian Aramaic flourished, with evidence from Hatra, Assur and the Tur Abdin. Tatian, the author of the gospel harmony the Diatessaron came from Assyria, and perhaps wrote his work (172 CE) in East Mesopotamian rather than Syriac or Greek. In Babylonia, the regional dialect was used by the Jewish community, Jewish Old Babylonian (from c. 70 CE). This everyday language increasingly came under the influence of Biblical Aramaic and Babylonian Targumic. Late Old Western Aramaic The western regional dialects of Aramaic followed a similar course to those of the east. They are quite distinct from the eastern dialects and Imperial Aramaic. Aramaic came to coexist with Canaanite dialects, eventually displacing Phoenician in the first century BCE and Hebrew around the turn of the fourth century CE. The form of Late Old Western Aramaic used by the Jewish community is best attested, and is usually referred to as Jewish Old Palestinian. Its oldest form is Old East Jordanian, which probably comes from the region of Caesarea Philippi. This is the dialect of the oldest manuscript of Enoch (c. 170 BCE). The next distinct phase of the language is called Old Judaean into the second century CE. Old Judaean literature can be found in various inscriptions and personal letters, preserved quotations in the Talmud and receipts from Qumran. Josephus' first, non-extant edition of his Jewish War was written in Old Judaean. The Old East Jordanian dialect continued to be used into the first century CE by pagan communities living to the east of the Jordan. Their dialect is often then called Pagan Old Palestinian, and it was written in a cursive script somewhat similar to that used for Old Syriac. A Christian Old Palestinian dialect may have arisen from the pagan one, and this dialect may be behind some of the Western Aramaic tendencies found in the otherwise eastern Old Syriac gospels (see Peshitta). Languages during Jesus' lifetime In the first century CE, Jews in Judaea are believed to have primarily spoken Aramaic with a dwindling number using Hebrew as a native language. Many learned Hebrew as a liturgical language. Additionally, Koine Greek was an international language of the Roman administration and trade, and was widely understood by those in the urban spheres of influence. Latin was spoken in the Roman army, but had almost no impact on the linguistic landscape. In addition to the formal, literary dialects of Aramaic based on Hasmonaean and Babylonian there were a number of colloquial Aramaic dialects. Seven dialects of Western Aramaic were spoken in the vicinity of Judaea in Jesus' time. They were probably distinctive yet mutually intelligible. Old Judaean was the prominent dialect of Jerusalem and Judaea. The region of Engedi had the South-east Judaean dialect. Samaria had its distinctive Samaritan Aramaic, where the consonants 'he', '' and '‘ayin' all became pronounced as 'aleph'. Galilean Aramaic, the dialect of Jesus' home region, is only known from a few place names, the influences on Galilean Targumic, some rabbinic literature and a few private letters. It seems to have a number of distinctive features: diphthongs are never simplified into monophthongs. East of the Jordan, the various dialects of East Jordanian were spoken. In the region of Damascus and the Anti-Lebanon mountains, Damascene Aramaic was spoken (deduced mostly from Modern Western Aramaic). Finally, as far north as Aleppo, the western dialect of Orontes Aramaic was spoken. The three languages mutually influenced each other, especially Hebrew and Aramaic. Hebrew words entered Jewish Aramaic (mostly technical religious words but also everyday words like 'wood'). Vice versa, Aramaic words entered Hebrew (not only Aramaic words like māmmôn 'wealth' but Aramaic ways of using words like making Hebrew rā’ûi, 'seen' mean 'worthy' in the sense of 'seemly', which is a loan translation of Aramaic meaning 'seen' and 'worthy'). The Greek of the New Testament often preserves non-Greek semiticisms, including transliterations of Semitic words: Some are Aramaic like talitha (ταλιθα) that can represent the noun (Mark 5:41). Others can be either Hebrew or Aramaic like Rabbounei (Ραββουνει), which stands for 'my master/great one/teacher' in both languages (John 20:16). The 2004 film The Passion of the Christ is notable for its use of much dialogue in Aramaic only, specially reconstructed by a scholar, but not an Aramaic specialist, William Fulco. Where the appropriate words (in first century Aramaic) were no longer known, he used the Aramaic of Daniel, fourth-century Syriac and Hebrew as the basis for his work. Modern Aramaic speakers found the language stilted and unfamiliar. Middle Aramaic The third century CE is taken as the threshold between Old and Middle Aramaic. During that century, the nature of the various Aramaic languages and dialects begins to change. The descendants of Imperial Aramaic ceased to be living languages, and the eastern and western regional languages began to form vital, new literatures. Unlike many of the dialects of Old Aramaic, much is known about the vocabulary and grammar of Middle Aramaic. Eastern Middle Aramaic Only two of the Old Eastern Aramaic languages continued into this period. In the north of the region, Old Syriac moved into Middle Syriac. In the south, Jewish Old Babylonian became Jewish Middle Babylonian. The post-Achaemenid, Arsacid dialect became the background of the new Mandaic language. Syriac Ninth century Syriac Estrangela manuscript of John Chrysostom's Homily on the Gospel of John Syriac (also "Middle Syriac") is the classical, literary and liturgical language of Syriac Christians to this day. Its golden age was the fourth to sixth centuries. This period began with the translation of the Bible into the language: the Peshitta and the masterful prose and poetry of Ephrem the Syrian. Middle Syriac, unlike its forebear, is a thoroughly Christian language, although in time it became the language of those opposed to the Byzantine leadership of the church in the east. Missionary activity led to the spread of Syriac through Persia and into India and China. Jewish Middle Babylonian Aramaic Jewish Middle Babylonian is the language employed by Jewish writers in Babylonia between the fourth century and the eleventh century CE. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian Talmud (which was completed in the seventh century) and of post-Talmudic (Geonic) literature, which are the most important cultural products of Babylonian Jewry. The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of Aramaic magic bowls written in the Jewish script. Mandaic Mandaic is a sister dialect to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, though it is both linguistically and culturally distinct. Classical Mandaic is the language in which the Mandaean's religious literature was composed. It is characterized by a highly phonetic orthography. Western Middle Aramaic The dialects of Old Western Aramaic continued with Jewish Middle Palestinian (in Hebrew 'square script'), Samaritan Aramaic (in the old Hebrew script) and Christian Palestinian (in cursive Syriac script). Of these three, only Jewish Middle Palestinian continued as a written language. Jewish Middle Palestinian Aramaic In 135, after the Bar Kokhba revolt, many Jewish leaders, expelled from Jerusalem, moved to Galilee. The Galilean dialect thus rose from obscurity to become the standard among Jews in the west. This dialect was spoken not only in Galilee, but also in the surrounding parts. It is the linguistic setting for the Jerusalem Talmud (completed in the fifth century), Palestinian targumim (Jewish Aramaic versions of scripture), and midrashim (biblical commentaries and teaching). The standard vowel pointing for the Hebrew Bible, the Tiberian system (seventh century), was developed by speakers of the Galilean dialect of Jewish Middle Palestinian. Classical Hebrew vocalisation, therefore, in representing the Hebrew of this period, probably reflects the contemporary pronunciation of this Aramaic dialect. Middle Judaean, the descendant of Old Judaean, is no longer the dominant dialect, and was used only in southern Judaea (the variant Engedi dialect continued throughout this period). Likewise, Middle East Jordanian continues as a minor dialect from Old East Jordanian. The inscriptions in the synagogue at Dura-Europos are either in Middle East Jordanian or Middle Judaean. Samaritan Aramaic The Aramaic dialect of the Samaritan community is earliest attested by a documentary tradition that can be dated back to the fourth century. Its modern pronunciation is based on the form used in the tenth century. Christian Palestinian Aramaic The language of Western-Aramaic-speaking Christians is evidenced from the sixth century, but probably existed two centuries earlier. The language itself comes from Christian Old Palestinian, but its writing conventions were based on early Middle Syriac, and it was heavily influenced by Greek. The name Jesus, although Yešû` in Aramaic, is written Yesûs in Christian Palestinian. Modern Aramaic Over 400,000 people of various communities from across the Middle East, and recent emigrants who have moved out of these communities, speak one of several varieties of Modern Aramaic (also called Neo-Aramaic) natively, including by religious adherence; Christians, Jews, Mandaeans and Muslims. Having lived in remote areas as insulated communities, the remaining modern speakers of Aramaic dialects escaped the linguistic pressures experienced by others during the large scale language shifts that saw the proliferation of other tongues among those who previously did not speak them, most recently the Arabization of the Middle East and North Africa by Muslim Arabians, during their spread of Islam. Most of the people of that region who converted to Islam, and many from the remaining unconverted population, also adopted Arabic as their first language. The Aramaic speakers have preserved their traditions with printing presses and now with electronic media. The Neo-Aramaic languages are now farther apart in their comprehension of one another than perhaps they have ever been. The last two-hundred years have not been good to Aramaic speakers. Instability throughout the Middle East has led to a worldwide diaspora of Aramaic-speakers. The year 1915 is especially prominent for Aramaic-speaking Christians who experienced the Assyrian Genocide (Sayfo or Saypā; literally meaning sword in Syriac), and all Christian groups living in eastern Turkey in general (see also Armenian Genocide, Greek genocide) who were the subjects of the genocide that marked the end of the Ottoman Empire. For Aramaic-speaking Jews 1950 is a watershed year: the founding of the state of Israel and consequent Jewish exodus from Arab lands, including Iraq, led most Iraqi Jews, both Aramaic-speaking and Arabic-speaking Iraqi Jews, to emigrate to Israel. However, immigration to Israel has led to the Jewish Neo-Aramaic (and Jewish Iraqi Arabic) being replaced by Modern Hebrew among children of the migrants. The practical extinction of many Jewish dialects seems imminent. Modern Eastern Aramaic Modern Eastern Aramaic exists in a wide variety of dialects and languages. There is significant difference between the Aramaic spoken by Jews, Christians, and Mandaeans. The Christian languages are often called Modern Syriac (or Neo-Syriac, particularly when referring to their literature), being deeply influenced by the literary and liturgical language of Middle Syriac. However, they also have roots in numerous, previously unwritten, local Aramaic dialects, and are not purely the direct descendants of the language of Ephrem the Syrian. Modern Western Syriac (also called Central Neo-Aramaic, being in between Western Neo-Aramaic and Eastern Neo-Syriac) is generally represented by Turoyo, the language of the Tur Abdin. A related language, Mlahsô, has recently become extinct. The eastern Christian languages (Modern Eastern Syriac or Eastern Neo-Aramaic) are often called Sureth or Suret, from a native name. They are also sometimes called Assyrian or Chaldean, but these names are not accepted by all speakers. The dialects are not all mutually intelligible. East Syriac communities are usually members of either the Chaldean Catholic Church or Assyrian Church of the East. The Jewish Modern Aramaic languages are now mostly spoken in Israel, and most are facing extinction (older speakers are not passing the language to younger generations). The Jewish dialects that have come from communities that once lived between Lake Urmia and Mosul are not all mutually intelligible. In some places, for example Urmia, Christians and Jews speak unintelligible dialects of Modern Eastern Aramaic in the same place. In others, the plain of Mosul for example, the dialects of the two faith communities are similar enough to allow conversation. A few Mandaeans, living in the Khūzestān Province of Iran, speak Modern Mandaic. It is quite distinct from any other Aramaic dialect. Modern Western Aramaic Very little remains of Western Aramaic. It is still spoken in the Christian village of Ma'loula in Syria and the Muslim villages of Bakh`a and Jubb`adin on Syria's side of the Anti-Lebanon mountains, as well as by some people who migrated from these villages, to Damascus and other larger towns of Syria. All these speakers of Modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic, which has now become the main language in these villages. Sounds Each dialect of Aramaic has its own distinctive pronunciation, and it would not be feasible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a phonological palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. In general, older dialects tended to have a richer phonology than more modern ones. In particular, some modern Jewish Aramaic pronunciations lack the series of 'emphatic' consonants. Other dialects have borrowed from the inventories of surrounding languages, particularly Arabic, Azerbaijani, Kurdish, Persian and Turkish. Vowels As with most Semitic languages, Aramaic can be thought of as having three basic sets of vowels: Open a-vowels Close front i-vowels Close back u-vowels These vowel groups are relatively stable, but the exact articulation of any individual is most dependent on its consonantal setting. The cardinal open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel ('short' a, somewhat like the first vowel in the English 'batter', ). It usually has a back counterpart ('long' a, like the a in 'father', , or even tending to the vowel in 'caught', ), and a front counterpart ('short' e, like the vowel in 'head', ). There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects. There is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short a and short e. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long a became the o sound. The open e and back a are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters 'alaph' (a glottal stop) or 'he' (like the English h). The cardinal close front vowel is the 'long' i (like the vowel in 'need', ). It has a slightly more open counterpart, the 'long' e, as in the final vowel of 'café' (). Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced slightly more open. Thus, the short close e corresponds with the open e in some dialects. The close front vowels usually use the consonant y as a mater lectionis. The cardinal close back vowel is the 'long' u (like the vowel in 'school', ). It has a more open counterpart, the 'long' o, like the vowel in 'low' (). There are shorter, and thus more open, counterparts to each of these, with the short close o sometimes corresponding with the long open a. The close back vowels often use the consonant w to indicate their quality. Two basic diphthongs exist: an open vowel followed by y (ay), and an open vowel followed by w (aw). These were originally full diphthongs, but many dialects have converted them to e and o respectively. The so-called 'emphatic' consonants (see the next section) cause all vowels to become mid-centralised. Consonants The various alphabets used for writing Aramaic languages have twenty-two letters (all of which are consonants). Some of these letters, though, can stand for two or three different sounds (usually a plosive and a fricative at the same point of articulation). Aramaic classically uses a series of lightly contrasted plosives and fricatives: Labial set: p/f and b/v, Dental set: t/θ and d/ð, Velar set: k/x and g/. Each member of a certain pair is written with the same letter of the alphabet in most writing systems (that is, p and f are written with the same letter), and are near allophones. A distinguishing feature of Aramaic phonology (and that of Semitic languages in general) is the presence of 'emphatic' consonants. These are consonants that are pronounced with the root of the tongue retracted, with varying degrees of pharyngealization and velarisation. Using their alphabetic names, these emphatics are: , a voiceless pharyngeal fricative, (like the sound made breathing on glass), , a pharyngealized t, , (or in some dialects), a pharyngealized glottal stop (sometimes considered to be a voiced pharyngeal fricative), / or , , a pharyngealized ts, , , an uvular k (a voiceless uvular plosive), . Ancient Aramaic may have had a larger series of emphatics. Not all dialects of Aramaic give these consonants their historic values. Overlapping with the set of emphatics are the 'guttural' consonants. They include and from the emphatic set, and add (a glottal stop) and (as the English 'h'). Aramaic classically has a set of four sibilants (Ancient Aramaic may have had six): /s/ (as in English 'sea'), /z/ (as in English 'zero'), (as in English 'ship'), (the emphatic listed above). In addition to these sets, Aramaic has the nasal consonants m and n, and the approximants r (usually an alveolar trill), l, y and w. Historical sound changes Six broad features of sound change can be seen as dialect differentials: Vowel change This occurs almost too frequently to document fully, but is a major distinctive feature of different dialects. Plosive/fricative pair reduction Originally, Aramaic, like Tiberian Hebrew, had fricatives as conditioned allophones for each plosive. In the wake of vowel changes, the distinction eventually became phonemic; still later, it was often lost in certain dialects. For example, Turoyo has mostly lost /p/, using /f/ instead; other dialects (for instance, standard Assyrian Neo-Aramaic) have lost /θ/ and /ð/ and replaced them with /t/ and /d/. In most dialects of Modern Syriac, /f/ and /v/ become /w/ after a vowel. Loss of emphatics Some dialects have replaced emphatic consonants with non-emphatic counterparts, while those spoken in the Caucasus often have glottalized rather than pharyngealized emphatics. Guttural assimilation This is the main feature of Samaritan pronunciation, also found in the Samaritan Hebrew language: all the gutturals are reduced to a simple glottal stop. Some Modern Aramaic dialects do not pronounce h in all words (the third person masculine pronoun 'hu' becomes 'ow'). Proto-Semitic */θ/ */ð/ are reflected in Aramaic as */t/, */d/, whereas they became sibilants in Hebrew (the number three in Hebrew is 'šālôš', but '' in Aramaic). Dental/sibilant shifts are still happening in the modern dialects. New phonetic inventory Modern dialects have borrowed sounds from the surrounding, dominant languages. The usual inventory is (as the first consonant in 'azure'), (as in 'jam') and (as in 'church'). The Syriac alphabet has been adapted for writing these new sounds. Grammar As with other Semitic languages, Aramaic morphology (the way words are put together) is based on the triliteral root. The root consists of three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, k-t-b has the meaning of 'writing'. This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning: , handwriting, inscription, script, book. , the Scriptures. , secretary, scribe. , I wrote. , I shall write. Aramaic has two grammatical genders, masculine and feminine. Nouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional 'dual' number exists for nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared from Aramaic over time and has little influence in Middle and Modern Aramaic. Aramaic nouns and adjectives can exist in one of three states; these states correspond in part to the role of cases in other languages. The 'absolute' state is the basic form of a noun (for example, , 'handwriting'). The 'construct' state is a truncated form of the noun used to make possessive phrases (for example, , 'the handwriting of the queen). The 'emphatic' or 'determined' state is an extended form of the noun that functions a bit like a definite article (which Aramaic lacks; for example, , 'the handwriting'). In time, the construct state began to be replaced by other possessive phrases, and the emphatic state became the norm in most dialects. Most dialects of Modern Aramaic use only the emphatic state. The various forms of possessive phrases (for 'the handwriting of the queen') are: The oldest construction: the possessed object is in the construct state. Both words are in the emphatic state and the relative particle d(î)- is used to mark the relationship. Both words are in the emphatic state, and the relative particle is used, but the possessed is given an anticipatory, pronominal ending (literally, 'her writing, that (of) the queen'). In Modern Aramaic, the last form is by far the most common. In Biblical Aramaic, the last form is virtually absent. The Aramaic verb has six 'conjugations' or stems: alterations to the verbal root that can mark the passive voice (, 'it was written'), intensive (, 'he decreed (in writing)'), the extensive (, 'he composed') or a combination of these. Aramaic also has two proper tenses: the perfect and the imperfect. In Imperial Aramaic, the participle began to be used for a historical present. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an auxiliary verb), allowing for narrative that is more vivid. The syntax of Aramaic (the way sentences are put together) usually follows the order verb-subject-object (VSO). Imperial (Persian) Aramaic, however, tended to follow a S-O-V pattern (similar to Akkadian), which was the result of Persian syntactic influence. Aramaic word processors The World's first Aramaic language word processing software was developed in 1986–1987 in Kuwait by a young information technology professional named Sunil Sivanand, who is now Managing Director and Chief Technology Architect at Acette. Sunil Sivanand did most of the character generation and programming work on a first generation, twin disk drive IBM Personal Computer. The project was sponsored by Daniel Benjamin, who was a patron of a group of individuals working worldwide to preserve and revive the Aramaic language. See also Notes References External links Aramaic Dictionary search the online Aramaic dictionary using English or Aramaic words, including many other options. Ethnologue report for Aramaic Omniglot written Aramaic/Proto-Hebrew outline Jewish Language Research Website: Jewish Aramaic Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon at the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati Aramaic Peshitta Bible Repository Many free Aramaic language research tools and the Aramaic Peshitta Bible Aramaic Designs website offering various designs based on historical Aramaic scripts. Lord's Prayer in aramaic The Aramaic Language and Its Classification - Efrem Yildiz, Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies Aramaico Brasil Semitisches Tonarchiv: Dokumentgruppe "Aramäisch" recordings of modern Aramaic cursodearameo.com.ar Free course of Aramaic in Spanish | Aramaic_language |@lemmatized aramaic:238 semitic:9 language:117 year:4 history:5 appear:2 somewhere:1 century:48 bce:22 beyer:5 suggest:2 write:34 probably:7 date:5 eleventh:5 establish:1 tenth:3 old:40 inscription:9 northern:2 syria:8 heinrichs:2 x:2 use:48 less:2 controversial:1 ninth:2 clear:2 widespread:2 attestation:1 administration:4 empire:11 divine:1 worship:1 judaism:1 day:5 israel:5 second:6 temple:2 period:10 therefore:2 mother:1 tongue:3 jesus:6 nazareth:1 original:3 large:5 section:4 biblical:13 book:5 daniel:6 ezra:2 main:6 talmud:5 casey:1 eerdmans:1 belongs:1 afro:1 asiatic:1 family:2 within:1 diverse:4 belong:1 subfamily:1 part:4 northwest:1 group:8 also:16 include:10 canaanite:3 hebrew:31 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uvular_plosive:1 nasal_consonant:1 alveolar_trill:1 tiberian_hebrew:1 masculine_pronoun:1 proto_semitic:1 grammatical_gender:1 gender_masculine:1 masculine_feminine:1 singular_plural:1 noun_adjective:1 auxiliary_verb:1 external_link:1 |
4,876 | Abydos_(Hellespont) | Abydos and the Hellespont Abydos (Greek: Άβυδος), an ancient city of Mysia, in Asia Minor, situated at Nara Burnu or Nagara Point on the best harbor on the Asiatic shore of the Hellespont. Across Abydos lies Sestus on the European side marking the shortest point in the Dardanelles, scarcely a mile broad. The strategic site has been a prohibited zone in the twentieth century. Abydos was first mentioned in the catalogue of Trojan allies (Iliad ii.836). It probably was a Thracian town, as Strabo has it, but was afterwards colonized by Milesians, with the consent of Gyges, king of Lydia, around 700 BC. It was occupied by the Persians in 514 BC, and Darius burnt it in 512. Here Xerxes built two bridges of boats and crossed the strait in 480 BC when he invaded Greece. Herodotus. Histories, 7.34. Abydos thereafter became a member of the Delian League, until it revolted from Athenian rule in 411 BC. Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War, 8.61-2. It allied itself to Sparta, until 394 BC; King Agesilaus of Sparta crossed here while returning to Greece. Abydos then passed under Achaemenid rule, until 334 BC. Alexander the Great threw a spear to Abydos while crossing the strait and claimed Asia as his own. Abydos is celebrated for the vigorous resistance it made against Philip V of Macedon in 200 BC, Polybius. The Histories, 16.29-34 and is famed in myth as the home of Leander. It minted coins from the early fifth century BC to the mid-third century AD. The town remained until late Byzantine times an important toll and customs station of the Hellespont, its importance thereafter being transferred to the Dardanelles, after the building of the "Old Castles" by Sultan Mehmet II (c. 1456). References Footnotes Additional sources Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, 1976: "Abydos, (Naara Point) Turkey" | Abydos_(Hellespont) |@lemmatized abydos:9 hellespont:3 greek:1 άβυδος:1 ancient:1 city:1 mysia:1 asia:2 minor:1 situate:1 nara:1 burnu:1 nagara:1 point:3 best:1 harbor:1 asiatic:1 shore:1 across:1 lie:1 sestus:1 european:1 side:1 mark:1 short:1 dardanelles:2 scarcely:1 mile:1 broad:1 strategic:1 site:2 prohibited:1 zone:1 twentieth:1 century:3 first:1 mention:1 catalogue:1 trojan:1 ally:2 iliad:1 ii:2 probably:1 thracian:1 town:2 strabo:1 afterwards:1 colonize:1 milesians:1 consent:1 gyges:1 king:2 lydia:1 around:1 bc:8 occupy:1 persian:1 darius:1 burn:1 xerxes:1 build:1 two:1 bridge:1 boat:1 cross:3 strait:2 invade:1 greece:2 herodotus:1 history:3 thereafter:2 become:1 member:1 delian:1 league:1 revolt:1 athenian:1 rule:2 thucydides:1 peloponnesian:1 war:1 sparta:2 agesilaus:1 return:1 pass:1 achaemenid:1 alexander:1 great:1 throw:1 spear:1 claim:1 celebrate:1 vigorous:1 resistance:1 make:1 philip:1 v:1 macedon:1 polybius:1 famed:1 myth:1 home:1 leander:1 mint:1 coin:1 early:1 fifth:1 mid:1 third:1 ad:1 remain:1 late:1 byzantine:1 time:1 important:1 toll:1 custom:1 station:1 importance:1 transfer:1 building:1 old:1 castle:1 sultan:1 mehmet:1 c:1 reference:1 footnote:1 additional:1 source:1 richard:1 stillwell:1 ed:1 princeton:1 encyclopedia:1 classical:1 naara:1 turkey:1 |@bigram twentieth_century:1 delian_league:1 peloponnesian_war:1 sultan_mehmet:1 richard_stillwell:1 stillwell_ed:1 |
4,877 | Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland | Telecommunications in the Republic of Ireland, including postal services run by An Post, are regulated to a large extent by the Commission for Communications Regulation (ComReg), the Minister for Communications, Energy & Natural Resources has overall responsibility for national policy and regulation. All of Ireland's communications infrastructure is modern and digital. Broadcasting Radio Stations: AM 1, FM 106, shortwave 0 (1998) Radios: 2.55 million (1997) See also: List of Irish radio stations Television Stations: 4 terrestrial stations, using 10 transmitters (plus more than 90 low-power repeaters) (2006) Televisions: 1.47 million (1997) See also: List of Irish television channels See also: Radio Telefís Éireann and Broadcasting Commission of Ireland. For a more detailed discussion of the broadcasting landscape in Ireland, see Media in Ireland. Internet Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 85 (2007) Irish Government Broadband Information Country code (top-level domain): IE Domain registrar: IE Domain Registry Internet users: 1.1 million (2007) Broadband users: 698000 (Q3 2007) Broadband penetration: 33% (Q4 2007) Digital Subscriber Line: 500,000 (Q3 2007) Cable: 68,900 (Q3 2007) Fixed wireless: 102,000(Q3 2007) Satellite: 8,000 (Q3 2007) Leased lines: 26,522 (Q3 2005) See also: HEAnet, IEDR, INEX, ITnet Telephone Telephone system domestic (fixed line): digital system using extensive fibre optic backbone networks and some microwave radio relays domestic (mobile): digital GSM networks operating on 900MHz and 1800MHz and 3GSM (UMTS) 3G networks international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) Telephones - fixed Lines: 2,022,640 (Q3 2005) Local loops unbundled (fully or partially): 3,600 (September 2005) See also: Digiweb, Eircom, BT Ireland, Smart Telecom, Perlico, Magnet Entertainment Telephones - mobile Subscribers: 4.7 million (Q4 2006) Pre-paid: 3.078 million (Q3 2005) Contract: 972,000 (Q3 2005) Mobile phone penetration: 100% (Q3 2005) Call minutes: 1,449,462,000 (Q3 2005) SMS messages sent: 1,048,112,000 (Q3 2005) MMS messages sent: 6.1 million (Q3 2005) Average revenue per user: €47.37 (Q3 2005) Area Codes for Irish mobile phone operators: 083 3 Ireland UMTS, HSDPA -1.6% 085 Meteor GSM, EDGE -17.4% 086 O2 Ireland (formerly Esat Digifone) GSM, UMTS -35.4% 087 Vodafone Ireland (formerly Eircell) GSM, UMTS, HSDPA -47.2% 088 Digiweb Mobile (formerly used for Eircell TACS analogue network) 089 Reserved for MVNOs, (e.g. Tesco Ireland on O2 Ireland network) Due to the introduction of full-number portability, some phones may now operate on different networks to those on which their number was originally allocated, thus an 086 number may not necessarily be an O2 number, likewise a Meteor customer may have an 087 number if they were previously a Vodafone customer. According to Comreg, 390,000 mobile phone users had taken advantage of FMNP up to September 2005. See also Broadband Internet access in Ireland List of Ireland-related topics References External links Commission for Communications Regulation Irish Communications Market: Quarterly Key Data - September 2005 — Comreg report | Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland |@lemmatized telecommunication:1 republic:1 ireland:13 include:1 postal:1 service:2 run:1 post:1 regulate:1 large:1 extent:1 commission:3 communication:5 regulation:3 comreg:3 minister:1 energy:1 natural:1 resource:1 overall:1 responsibility:1 national:1 policy:1 infrastructure:1 modern:1 digital:4 broadcast:2 radio:5 station:5 fm:1 shortwave:1 million:6 see:7 also:6 list:3 irish:5 television:3 terrestrial:1 use:3 transmitter:1 plus:1 low:1 power:1 repeater:1 channel:1 telefís:1 éireann:1 detailed:1 discussion:1 broadcasting:1 landscape:1 medium:1 internet:4 provider:1 isps:1 government:1 broadband:4 information:1 country:1 code:2 top:1 level:1 domain:3 ie:2 registrar:1 registry:1 user:4 penetration:2 subscriber:2 line:4 cable:1 fix:2 wireless:1 satellite:2 lease:1 heanet:1 iedr:1 inex:1 itnet:1 telephone:4 system:2 domestic:2 fixed:1 extensive:1 fibre:1 optic:1 backbone:1 network:5 microwave:1 relay:1 mobile:6 gsm:4 operate:2 umts:4 networks:1 international:1 earth:1 intelsat:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 local:1 loop:1 unbundled:1 fully:1 partially:1 september:3 digiweb:2 eircom:1 bt:1 smart:1 telecom:1 perlico:1 magnet:1 entertainment:1 pre:1 paid:1 contract:1 phone:4 call:1 minute:1 sms:1 message:2 send:2 mm:1 average:1 revenue:1 per:1 area:1 operator:1 hsdpa:2 meteor:2 edge:1 formerly:3 esat:1 digifone:1 vodafone:2 eircell:2 tacs:1 analogue:1 reserve:1 mvnos:1 e:1 g:1 tesco:1 due:1 introduction:1 full:1 number:5 portability:1 may:3 different:1 originally:1 allocate:1 thus:1 necessarily:1 likewise:1 customer:2 previously:1 accord:1 take:1 advantage:1 fmnp:1 access:1 related:1 topic:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 market:1 quarterly:1 key:1 data:1 report:1 |@bigram fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 repeater_television:1 provider_isps:1 fibre_optic:1 station_intelsat:1 intelsat_atlantic:1 atlantic_ocean:1 mobile_subscriber:1 mobile_phone:3 gsm_umts:2 tesco_ireland:1 broadband_internet:1 external_link:1 |
4,878 | International_Tropical_Timber_Agreement,_1994 | International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994 (ITTA, 1994) was drafted to ensure that by the year 2000 exports of tropical timber originated from sustainably managed sources and to establish a fund to assist tropical timber producers in obtaining the resources necessary to reach this objective. The agreement was opened for signature on January 26 1994 and entered into force on January 1 1997. It replaced the International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983. Parties Fifty eight parties signed up to the agreement: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Burma, Cambodia, Cameroon, Canada, Central African Republic, People's Republic of China, Colombia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, European Union, Fiji, Finland, France, Gabon, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guyana, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Liberia, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Portugal, Spain, Suriname, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago, United Kingdom, United States, Uruguay, Vanuatu, Venezuela References | International_Tropical_Timber_Agreement,_1994 |@lemmatized international:2 tropical:4 timber:4 agreement:4 itta:1 draft:1 ensure:1 year:1 export:1 originate:1 sustainably:1 manage:1 source:1 establish:1 fund:1 assist:1 producer:1 obtain:1 resource:1 necessary:1 reach:1 objective:1 open:1 signature:1 january:2 enter:1 force:1 replace:1 party:2 fifty:1 eight:1 sign:1 australia:1 austria:1 belgium:1 bolivia:1 brazil:1 burma:1 cambodia:1 cameroon:1 canada:1 central:1 african:1 republic:4 people:1 china:1 colombia:1 democratic:1 congo:2 côte:1 ivoire:1 denmark:1 ecuador:1 egypt:1 european:1 union:1 fiji:1 finland:1 france:1 gabon:1 germany:1 ghana:1 greece:1 guyana:1 honduras:1 india:1 indonesia:1 ireland:1 italy:1 japan:1 south:1 korea:1 liberia:1 luxembourg:1 malaysia:1 nepal:1 netherlands:1 new:2 zealand:1 norway:1 panama:1 papua:1 guinea:1 peru:1 philippine:1 portugal:1 spain:1 suriname:1 sweden:1 switzerland:1 thailand:1 togo:1 trinidad:1 tobago:1 united:2 kingdom:1 state:1 uruguay:1 vanuatu:1 venezuela:1 reference:1 |@bigram tropical_timber:4 republic_congo:2 côte_ivoire:1 panama_papua:1 trinidad_tobago:1 |
4,879 | Politics_of_Mauritius | Politics of Mauritius takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, in which the President is the Head of state and the prime minister is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The absolute power is split between two positions,the President and the Prime Minister Overview Mauritian politics is vibrant and characterised by coalition and alliance building. All parties are centrist and reflect a national consensus that supports democratic politics and a relatively open economy with a strong private sector. Alone or in coalition, the Mauritian Labor Party (MLP) ruled from 1947 through 1982. The Mauritian Militant Movement/Militant Socialist Movement (MMM/MSM) alliance won the 1982 election, taking all 60 seats in Mauritius. In 1983, defectors from the MMM joined with the PSM to form the Militant Socialist Movement (MSM) and formed a majority in coalition with the MLP. In July 1990, the MSM realigned with the MMM and in September 1991 national elections won 57 of the 62 directly elected seats in parliament. In December 1995, the MLP returned to power, this time in coalition with the MMM. The MLP's Navinchandra Ramgoolam, son of the country's first prime minister, became prime minister himself. Ramgoolam dismissed his MMM coalition partners in mid-1997, leaving Labour in power only with several small parties allied with it. The MMM and MSM rejoined in a coalition that won the 2000 elections and, although a handful of MPs defected from the MSM in early 2005, both parties went together to the next election in July 2005, competing against the Alliance Sociale, a MLP-led coalition. The Alliance Sociale won the elections with an overwhelming majority. Until 1992, Mauritius was a constitutional monarchy with Queen Elizabeth II as head of state, but on March 12 of that year, the country became a republic within the Commonwealth. The last Governor-General, Sir Veerasamy Ringadoo, became President under a transitional arrangement, before stepping down three months later in favour of Cassam Uteem, a former government minister. Under the amended constitution, the country's unicameral parliament, the Legislative Assembly, was renamed the National Assembly. Executive branch |President |Anerood Jugnauth | |7 October 2003 |- |Vice President |Angidi Chettiar | |2007 |- |Prime Minister |Navin Ramgoolam |MLP |5 July 2005 |} The president and vice president are elected by the National Assembly for five-year terms. The prime minister is appointed by the president and are responsible to the National Assembly. Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister. The Council of Ministers (cabinet), responsible for the direction and control of the government, consists of the prime minister (head of government), the leader of the majority party in the legislature, and about 20 ministries. Power Share In Mauritius,both the President & the Prime Minister enjoy power.The President earns higher and has more benefits and perks such as more bodyguards and police escorts and reside in a fabulous & magnificent Chateau laid on 220 hectares of land.Nevertheless, the Prime Minister is the executive.He is responsible for any bill sent to the President from the assembly .He preside over all cabinet ministers and is the first adviser of the President.He is the head of government and it is on his advice that the President shall appoint any person in the government. Legislative branch The National Assembly has 70 members, 62 elected for a five year term in single-seat constituencies and 8 additional members appointed by the election commission from the losing political parties to give representation to various ethnic minorities. Political parties and elections Every voter has three votes. The total number of votes cast divided by three (648,316) is lower than the actual number people voting (666,178), because not all of them cast three votes. Please note that constituencies 1 to 20 are physically in the island of Mauritius and each has three elected members. Constituency 21 is the island of Rodrigues which has two elected members. The voters based in the island of Agalega and other islets are registered in constituency 1. Judicial branch Mauritian law is an amalgam of French and British legal traditions. The Supreme Court--a chief justice and five other judges--is the highest local judicial authority. There is an additional higher right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. The Law Lords of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council will be going to sit in Mauritius as from end-2008, following the plan for lowering the costs of appeal. Administrative divisions Local government has nine administrative divisions, with municipal and town councils in urban areas and district and village councils in rural areas. The island of Rodrigues forms the country's 10th administrative division. Other dependencies are Agalega Islands and Cargados Carajos Shoals. The divisions are Black River, Flacq, Grand Port, Moka, Pamplemousses, Plaines Wilhems, Port Louis, Riviere du Rempart, and Savanne. International organization participation ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AOSIS, C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, InOC, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, PCA, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO | Politics_of_Mauritius |@lemmatized politics:3 mauritius:6 take:2 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:1 representative:1 democratic:2 republic:2 president:14 head:5 state:2 prime:10 minister:14 government:9 multi:1 party:8 system:1 executive:3 power:7 exercise:1 legislative:3 vest:1 national:7 assembly:7 absolute:1 split:1 two:2 position:1 overview:1 mauritian:4 vibrant:1 characterise:1 coalition:7 alliance:4 building:1 centrist:1 reflect:1 consensus:1 support:1 relatively:1 open:1 economy:1 strong:1 private:1 sector:1 alone:1 labor:1 mlp:6 rule:1 militant:3 movement:3 socialist:2 mmm:6 msm:5 win:4 election:7 seat:3 defector:1 join:1 psm:1 form:3 majority:3 july:3 realign:1 september:1 directly:1 elect:5 parliament:2 december:1 return:1 time:1 navinchandra:1 ramgoolam:3 son:1 country:4 first:2 become:3 dismiss:1 partner:1 mid:1 leave:1 labour:1 several:1 small:1 ally:1 rejoin:1 although:1 handful:1 mp:1 defect:1 early:1 go:2 together:1 next:1 compete:1 sociale:2 lead:1 overwhelming:1 constitutional:1 monarchy:1 queen:1 elizabeth:1 ii:1 march:1 year:3 within:1 commonwealth:1 last:1 governor:1 general:1 sir:1 veerasamy:1 ringadoo:1 transitional:1 arrangement:1 step:1 three:5 month:1 later:1 favour:1 cassam:1 uteem:1 former:1 amended:1 constitution:1 unicameral:1 rename:1 branch:3 anerood:1 jugnauth:1 october:1 vice:2 angidi:1 chettiar:1 navin:1 five:3 term:2 appoint:4 responsible:3 council:6 recommendation:1 cabinet:2 direction:1 control:1 consist:1 leader:1 legislature:1 ministry:1 share:1 enjoy:1 earn:1 high:3 benefit:1 perk:1 bodyguard:1 police:1 escort:1 reside:1 fabulous:1 magnificent:1 chateau:1 lay:1 hectare:1 land:1 nevertheless:1 bill:1 send:1 preside:1 adviser:1 advice:1 shall:1 person:1 member:4 single:1 constituency:3 additional:2 commission:1 lose:1 political:2 give:1 representation:1 various:1 ethnic:1 minority:1 every:1 voter:2 vote:4 total:1 number:2 cast:2 divide:1 low:1 actual:1 people:1 please:1 note:1 constituencies:1 physically:1 island:5 rodrigues:2 base:1 agalega:2 islet:1 register:1 judicial:4 law:2 amalgam:1 french:1 british:1 legal:1 tradition:1 supreme:1 court:1 chief:1 justice:1 judge:1 local:2 authority:1 right:1 appeal:2 committee:2 privy:2 lord:1 sit:1 end:1 follow:1 plan:1 lower:1 cost:1 administrative:3 division:4 nine:1 municipal:1 town:1 urban:1 area:2 district:1 village:1 rural:1 dependency:1 cargados:1 carajos:1 shoal:1 black:1 river:1 flacq:1 grand:1 port:2 moka:1 pamplemousses:1 plaines:1 wilhems:1 louis:1 riviere:1 du:1 rempart:1 savanne:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 acct:1 acp:1 afdb:1 aosis:1 c:1 ccc:1 eca:1 fao:1 g:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icct:1 icftu:1 icrm:1 ida:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 inmarsat:1 inoc:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iso:1 itu:1 nam:1 oau:1 opcw:1 pca:1 sadc:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 upu:1 wcl:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wto:1 |@bigram prime_minister:10 overwhelming_majority:1 constitutional_monarchy:1 queen_elizabeth:1 unicameral_parliament:1 legislative_assembly:1 vice_president:2 legislative_branch:1 seat_constituency:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 committee_privy:2 privy_council:2 participation_acct:1 acct_acp:1 acp_afdb:1 ccc_eca:1 eca_fao:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icct:1 icct_icftu:1 icftu_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_inmarsat:1 intelsat_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iso:1 iso_itu:1 itu_nam:1 nam_oau:1 oau_opcw:1 opcw_pca:1 sadc_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unido_upu:1 upu_wcl:1 wcl_wftu:1 wftu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wto:1 |
4,880 | Analysis | Analysis is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle, though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development. The word is a transcription of the ancient Greek ἀνάλυσις (analusis), "a breaking up" (from ana- "up, throughout" + lysis "a loosening"). Online Etymology Dictioanry As a formal concept, the method has variously been ascribed to Ibn al-Haytham, René Descartes (Discourse on the Method) and Galileo Galilei. It has also been ascribed to Isaac Newton, in the form of a practical method of physical discovery (which he did not name or formally describe). Use in specific fields Chemistry The field of chemistry uses analysis to break down chemical processes and examine chemical reactions between elements of matter. For example, analysis of the concentration of elements is important in managing a nuclear reactor, so nuclear scientists will analyze neutron activation to develop discrete measurements within vast samples. A matrix can have a considerable effect on the way a chemical analysis is conducted and the quality of its results. Analysis can be done manually or with a device. Chemical analysis is an important element of national security among the major world powers with Materials Measurement and Signature Intelligence (MASINT) capabilities. Isotopes Chemists can use isotopes to assist analysts with issues in anthropology, archeology, food chemistry, forensics, geology, and a host of other questions of physical science. Analysts can discern the origins of natural and man-made isotopes in the study of environmental radioactivity. Business Business analysis, involves identifying the needs and determining the solutions to business problems Price Analysis, involves the breakdown of a price to a unit figure Market analysis, consists of suppliers and customers, and price is determined by the interaction of supply and demand Computer science Analysis of algorithms Competitive analysis (online algorithm), shows how online algorithms perform and demonstrates the power of randomization in algorithms Lexical analysis, the process of processing an input sequence of characters and producing as output a sequence of symbols Object-oriented analysis and design, à la Booch Program analysis (computer science), the process of automatically analysing the behavior of computer programs Semantic analysis (computer science), a pass by a compiler that adds semantical information to the parse tree and performs certain checks Static code analysis, the analysis of computer software that is performed without actually executing programs built from that software Structured Systems Analysis and Design Methodology, à la Yourdon Syntax analysis, a process in compilers that recognizes the structure of programming languages, also known as parsing Worst-case execution time, determines the longest time that a piece of software can take to run Economics Agroecosystem analysis Input-output model if applied to a region, is called Regional Impact Multiplier System Principal components analysis, a technique that can be used to simplify a dataset Engineering Analysts in the field of engineering look at structures, mechanisms, systems and dimensions. Electrical engineers analysis of systems in electronics. Life cycles and system failures are broken down and studied by engineers. Finance Financial analysis, the analysis of the accounts and the economic prospects of a firm Fundamental analysis, a stock valuation method that uses financial analysis Technical analysis, the study of price action in securities markets in order to forecast future prices Government and law Policy analysis was defined by Stuart Nagel as "determining which of various alternative policies will most achieve a given set of goals in light of the relations between the policies and the goals". This form of study is conducted most commonly by governments, but can be applied to the private sector as well. In law, the IRAC format is the most commonly used method of legal analysis in briefs and other documents. Intelligence The field of intelligence employs analysts to break down and understand a wide array of questions. intelligence agencies may use heuristics, inductive and deductive reasoning, social network analysis, dynamic network analysis, link analysis, and brainstorming to sort through problems they face. Military intelligence may explore issues through the use of game theory, Red Teaming, and wargaming. Signals intelligence applies cryptanalysis and frequency analysis to break codes and ciphers. Business intelligence applies theories of competitive intelligence analysis and competitor analysis to resolve questions in the marketplace. Law enforcement intelligence applies a number of theories in crime analysis. Linguistics Linguistics began with the analysis of Sanskrit and Tamil; today it looks at individual languages and language in general. It breaks language down and analyses its component parts: theory, sounds and their meaning, utterance usage, word origins, the history of words, the meaning of words and word combinations, sentence construction, basic construction beyond the sentence level, stylistics, and conversation. It examines the above using statistics and modeling, and semantics. It analyses language in context of anthropology, biology, evolution, geography, history, neurology, psychology, and sociology. It also takes the applied approach, looking at individual language development and clinical issues. Literature Literary theory is the analysis of literature. Some say that literary criticism is a subset of literary theory. The focus can be as diverse as the analysis of Homer or Freud. This is mainly to do with the breaking up of a topic to make it easier to understand. Mathematics Mathematical analysis can be applied in the study of classical concepts of real numbers, such as the complex variables, trigonometric functions, and algorithms, or of non-classical concepts like constructivism, harmonics, infinity, and vectors. Music Musical analysis, a process attempting to answer the question "How does this music work?" Schenkerian analysis Philosophy Philosophical analysis, a general term for the techniques used by philosophers Analysis is the name of a prominent journal in philosophy. Psychotherapy Psychoanalysis, seeks to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients' mental processes Transactional analysis Signal processing Finite element analysis, a computer simulation technique used in engineering analysis Independent component analysis Link quality analysis, the analysis of signal quality Path quality analysis Statistics Analysis of variance (ANOVA), a collection of statistical models and their associated procedures which compare means by splitting the overall observed variance into different parts Meta-analysis, combines the results of several studies that address a set of related research hypotheses Time-series analysis, methods that attempt to understand a sequence of data points spaced apart at uniform time intervals Other Aura analysis, a technique in which supporters of the method claim that the body's aura, or energy field is analysed Bowling analysis, a notation summarizing a cricket bowler's performance Lithic analysis, the analysis of stone tools using basic scientific techniques Protocol analysis, a means for extracting persons' thoughts while they are performing a task See also List of thinking-related topics Scientific method References | Analysis |@lemmatized analysis:60 process:8 break:8 complex:2 topic:3 substance:1 small:1 part:3 gain:1 good:1 understanding:1 technique:6 apply:5 study:7 mathematics:2 logic:1 since:1 aristotle:1 though:1 formal:2 concept:4 relatively:1 recent:1 development:2 word:5 transcription:1 ancient:1 greek:1 ἀνάλυσις:1 analusis:1 ana:1 throughout:1 lysis:1 loosening:1 online:3 etymology:1 dictioanry:1 method:8 variously:1 ascribe:2 ibn:1 al:1 haytham:1 rené:1 descartes:1 discourse:1 galileo:1 galilei:1 also:4 isaac:1 newton:1 form:2 practical:1 physical:2 discovery:1 name:2 formally:1 describe:1 use:12 specific:1 field:5 chemistry:3 chemical:4 examine:2 reaction:1 element:4 matter:1 example:1 concentration:1 important:2 manage:1 nuclear:2 reactor:1 scientist:1 analyze:1 neutron:1 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patient:1 mental:1 transactional:1 processing:1 finite:1 simulation:1 independent:1 path:1 variance:2 anova:1 collection:1 statistical:1 associate:1 procedure:1 compare:1 mean:2 split:1 overall:1 observed:1 different:1 meta:1 combine:1 several:1 address:1 related:2 research:1 hypothesis:1 series:1 data:1 point:1 space:1 apart:1 uniform:1 interval:1 aura:2 supporter:1 claim:1 body:1 energy:1 analysed:1 bowling:1 notation:1 summarize:1 cricket:1 bowler:1 performance:1 lithic:1 stone:1 tool:1 scientific:2 protocol:1 extract:1 person:1 thought:1 task:1 see:1 list:1 think:1 reference:1 |@bigram al_haytham:1 rené_descartes:1 galileo_galilei:1 isaac_newton:1 nuclear_reactor:1 neutron_activation:1 input_output:1 inductive_deductive:1 deductive_reasoning:1 sanskrit_tamil:1 trigonometric_function:1 signal_processing:1 meta_analysis:1 |
4,881 | Chick_tract | Cited by Chick Publications as their worldwide favorite, "This Was Your Life" is available in over a hundred languages. Chick tracts are short Evangelical-themed tracts created by American publisher Jack Chick. Chick tracts are styled as comics and are often controversial for their enthusiastic endorsement of fundamentalist Christianity and condemnation of other religions and other denominations, especially Catholicism. Style and recurring themes The tracts typically follow the themes of punishment or redemption in the afterlife, or set up a confrontation between an evangelical Christian and a non-Christian or non-evangelical Christian in order to spread a religious message. Most Chick tracts end with either a non-Christian being converted to Christianity or a contrast between those who accept the religion and those who reject it; a convert receives entry into heaven, while a non-believer is condemned to hell, in a recycled scene in which God (portrayed as a giant, glowing, faceless figure sitting on a throne) condemns or welcomes a character. Several tracts follow a spiritual warfare theme similar to that of the novel This Present Darkness; during scenes of human interaction, the presence of angels and demons manipulating the situation is sometimes revealed to the reader. The actions and conversations of the spiritual beings go unnoticed by the human characters. Additionally, Satan himself has appeared occasionally, portrayed as a devil bearing horns and a beard, and the Grim Reaper, in a black robe and wielding a scythe, is sometimes seen during (or before) a character's death. Chick tracts end with a suggested prayer for the reader to pray to accept Christ Jesus. In most of these tracts it is a standard sinner's prayer for salvation. In the tracts dealing with Catholicism or Islam, the prayer includes a clause to reject these religions. Included with the prayer are directions for converting to Christianity. Occasionally, there is a scene in which Satan tells the reader that there is nothing to worry about, followed by a Christian character warning the reader not to listen to him, further driving the spiritual warfare angle home. The comics are often drawn simplistically yet effectively, with dialogue and thought bubbles present during conversation. Profanity is often used in the words of demons and non-Christians, obscured completely by random punctuation marks. Sound effects are sometimes written near action scenes, and characters' dialogue is often bolded and italicized if it is intended to be emphasized. Strips, Toons, and Bluesies, written by Douglas Bevan Dowd and Todd Hignite, stated that "it's safe to assume Chick saw at least some" Tijuana bibles since the books and, according to Dowd and Hignite, Chick tracts were "strikingly similar" to Tijuana bibles; like Tijuana bibles the tracts mostly targeted youth of lower socioeconomic classes and "were loaded with stereotypes." The book stated that Chick tracts contained "way-out, wild" portrayals of recreational drug usage and portrayed "the sexual revolution," male and female homosexuality and pedophilia. In addition the comics included supernatural elements, occult rituals, torture, and cannabalism. Dowd, Douglas Bevan and Todd Hignite. Strips, Toons, and Bluesies. Princeton Architectural Press. 2006. 40. Recurring characters While most tracts feature unrelated events, semi-recurring characters occasionally appear in multiple episodes. Susan "Li'l Susy" Barnes is an elementary school student whose parents are deceased and is being raised by her grandfather. Susy stands for Christian values in her public school. Her disruptions in class often get her into trouble, as she will now only speak against corrupt authority with her friends off of school grounds, as per her grandfather's suggestion. Ms. Henn, Susy's teacher, was originally a substitute but seems to have now taken a permanent role. She stands for secular values and has promoted Halloween, evolution, and the gay "lifestyle" in her classroom. She has referred to Susy as a "stone in [her] shoe" and often snaps at students, particularly Susy, who disagree with what is being taught. Bob Williams is an evangelist and pastor who is often used to bring characters to Christ in The Bible Series. He often punctuates his call to repentance with an example from the Bible. Deacon Carter is an African-American police officer who stands for Christian values and has recently been added to the tracts. Holly, who has appeared only twice, was a demon-possessed witch who was first lured into the occult by Harry Potter books. She was a spell-caster who rejected Bob's conversion attempt in "The Nervous Witch" and later appeared in "Gladys", where she intervened in Bob's (already slipping) attempt to bring a popular astrologer named Gladys to Christ. Later, she and Gladys were both killed in a car accident and sent to Hell. Fang is a dog that is vicious looking, appears in several Chick tracts, often fighting with other animals. Tracts This Was Your Life (It's Your Life!) Person sent to hell in This Was Your Life. This scene would be recycled in nearly every tract dealing with God since then. This Was Your Life is one of Chick's earliest tracts (originally issued in 1972), and is Chick's least controversial, most well-known, and best-selling tract. The tract features a man who dies and is judged by God. The man claims to have lived a good life but when brought before God the man watches a film of his life. He sees himself lying, swearing, drinking, lusting, spreading slander, thieving, being a hypocrite, being cruel, disobeying his family, watching pornography and more. The man feels some hope when he sees himself in church but despairs when he sees his preacher tell him that Christ wants to forgive him and he leaves church in disgust refusing salvation, thus damning himself. For all this God then condemns the man to Hell in dramatic style. At this point, the tract stops and reveals that it can also progress differently. Here the man listens to his preacher and begs God to forgive him his sins. The man goes to church, leads his family in prayer before meals, volunteers at a hospital, teaches children to read, and we see him lauded by his co-workers as one of the most honest employees and a fine Christian. Thus when the man dies and is brought before God, God is pleased and congratulates the man on a job well done. The men is then taken up to Heaven. The foreign adaptations of This Was Your Life feature variants of the original art, in addition to translated text. One commentary makes light of differences between these versions, pointing out that the differences in the art and settings are based on cultural stereotypes. In 2006 Chick released It's Your Life!, an updated version of This Was Your Life in English but with art based on the African language versions of the tract. This is a part of Chick's "Black Tracts" series, created to appeal to African-Americans. A Flash animation of the tract, based on Chick's 1964 artwork (with his permission), was created by Kirk Demarais. http://www.secretfunspot.com/thislife.htm That Crazy Guy! There are two versions of the tract that differ slightly in plot: a 1980 version and a 1992 version. The 1980 version is out of print. This tract features a mustachioed, sunglasses-wearing lothario named Craig. (The title of the tract, as well as Craig's image with a gag fake arrow through his head, are reminiscent of Steve Martin's comedic persona at the time, "The Wild and Crazy Guy".) Craig seduces a young lady (Susan, or "Suzi") into premarital sex in his convertible. An accessory to this seduction is an older, unmarried woman ("Ms. Damien") who advises Suzi to take the Pill. Afterward, Suzi is repelled when Craig calls her by the name of another girl. Suzi is relieved to find she is not pregnant, but she has contracted a sexually transmitted disease, and Ms. Damien has nothing more to do with her, throwing her out and using Lysol to sterilize her chair. A physician appears and notifies Suzi that she has contracted an STD. The particular STD depends on the version – in the 1980 version, it is herpes, while in the 1992 version, it is gonorrhoea. In the 1992 version, he then informs the victim that she also has AIDS and that condoms are porous and do not provide adequate protection against the virus that causes AIDS. In both versions, the doctor witnesses to Suzi, and she is saved from eternal damnation. Somebody Loves Me (Hard Times) and Trust Me A pair of tracts, Somebody Loves Me and Trust Me, tell very similar stories with few, if any, words. In Somebody Loves Me, a child is sent begging by his (implied alcoholic) father in the pouring rain (an older version features a young girl). When he returns with only a penny, his father beats him and kicks him into the street. His only shelter is a cardboard box that he manages to find. A tract with the words, "Some Body Loves You" blows into the box. Because he reads it before he dies (and, by implication, trusts in Christ as Savior), he is brought to Heaven by an angel. A modified version of Somebody Loves Me, dubbed Hard Times, replaces the Caucasian boy with an African-American girl. In Trust Me, a young boy comes across a group that seems to be a mixture of Satanists, hippies, and bikers. He takes a pill offered by one, and gets high. A day later, he is selling drugs in a park. Three days later, he's stealing televisions to support his habit. Soon, an undercover policeman catches him in a sting, he is sentenced to prison, and he is raped. Three months later, he is dying of AIDS. But, because he reads a tract with the words, "Jesus Loves You," and accepts Jesus Christ as his lord and savior, after he dies he is brought to Heaven by an angel. Dark Dungeons "Dark Dungeons" depicts Dungeons and Dragons playing as leading to occult activities. Dark Dungeons is one of Chick's most satirized tracts. It depicts a group of teenagers playing Dungeons & Dragons. When one player's character dies, the other player tells her: "Marcie, get out of here! YOU'RE DEAD! You don't exist anymore." The game master then tells the surviving player that she will teach her how to cast real spells, claiming that the magic system of D&D was already preparing her for real spell casting. The reader then sees a hidden underworld of dark sorcerers; Debbie starts casting real spells and with these magical powers is able to exert mind control over her father. This is followed by Marcie committing suicide because her character died. The game master tells Debbie that the game and her character are more important than real life. An evangelist comforts Debbie, telling her that in fact, it is Jesus who is most important. After going to a church meeting, Debbie eagerly converts and attends a book burning of D&D-related materials, at which the preacher calls the game "filth of Satan" and possessed of "demonic forces." Chick later claimed he had been told by John Todd that C. S. Lewis and J. R. R. Tolkien, both noted Christians, were satanic, so the original tract warned readers about these authors. These admonitions were removed from subsequent printings of the tract as well as the electronic version published on Chick's website. However, he never made clear exactly who John Todd was. There are many parodies of the Dark Dungeons tract, using popular culture references such as Mystery Science Theater 3000. While Jack Chick has never translated Dark Dungeons into another language, Language Availability the comic has been translated to create a Spanish-language parody. The Bible Series The Bible Series is a series of 25 tracts, each depicting or featuring a passage from the Bible: In The Beginning — Creation and the Fall of Man It's Coming! — Noah's Flood Sin City — Sodom and Gomorrah The Promise — Abraham and Isaac The Big Deal — Jacob and Esau Framed! — Joseph It's The Law — Moses and the Ten Commandments The Outcast — Rahab and the fall of Jericho The Scam — Joshua and the Gibeonites The Loser — Gideon The Last Judge — Samuel The Nervous Witch — King Saul and the witch at Endor Caught! — David and Bathsheba Payback — Ahab and Jezebel and the vineyard of Naboth Real Heat — Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego and the fiery furnace The Monster — King Nebuchadnezzar Gladys — Isaiah's prophecies of Jesus Christ (this tract features a holdover character, Holly Parker, from The Nervous Witch mentioned above) God With Us — The birth of Jesus Christ Fallen — The Parable of the Prodigal Son Who Cares — The Parable of the Good Samaritan. The cover shows an airplane about to crash into the World Trade Center on 9/11, and features a Christian helping a Muslim store owner who was beaten up after 9/11. Scream — The story of Lazarus and the Rich Man Good Ol' Boys — Peter's denial of Christ Man In Black — Revelation 17 & 18, told from Chick's viewpoint that the "Whore of Babylon" is the Roman Catholic Church Who's Missing? — The Rapture Here He Comes! — The Beast, the Return of Christ, and the Judgement Anti-Halloween Tracts Chick opposes Christians celebrating Halloween, and several of his tracts purport to tell a link between Halloween and Satanism. Among them are Boo! and Happy Halloween. Notwithstanding his opposition of Halloween, Chick believes that Christians can take the opportunity to witness during Halloween to candy-seeking children by providing gospel tracts along with the treats, an event he portrays in his tract The Little Princess. The Little Princess tells the story of Heidi Spencer, a young girl who learns she is terminally ill. Heidi asks two questions of her parents – to go trick or treating on Halloween, a wish the family grants if she is well enough to do so (and which she is able to fulfill), and what happens after death – her parents reply that they do not know, and most likely no one does. Heidi passes out during her adventure, but convinces her brother Josh to visit one more house, that of the Smiths, a Christian couple new to the neighborhood. The Smiths supply candy (and, in a bit of cross-promotion, a copy of Chick's Happy Halloween tract), immediately recognize something is wrong, and begin to pray for her. Heidi reads the tract and accepts Christ as her Savior, then asks her dad to call the Smiths over, telling him that they know what happens after death. The Smiths share the Gospel message with the Spencers, who also trust in Christ as Savior. Later that evening, Heidi succumbs to her illness. Tracts opposing Roman Catholicism The Last Generation and The Beast are apocalyptic tracts which warn that Christians will soon face persecution at the hands of a brutal planetary regime installed by the Roman Catholic Church. The original versions of both tracts had a dispensationalist, pre-tribulation rapture view of the end times and did not include any overt anti-Catholic content. The content of both tracts was later changed to reflect Chick's increasing hostility toward the Catholic Church, and in The Beast, to portray the Pope as the antichrist. In The Last Generation, the government actively encourages people to turn in "sickos" (born-again Christians) in exchange for free drugs; the Christians are then tortured. The Death Cookie is another of Chick's anti-Catholic Church tracts. It portrays the Roman Catholic Mass as a religious system invented by Satan to trick people into worshipping a "cookie" (the communion wafer) as God. Other anti-Catholic tracts or tracts which say that the Pope is the Antichrist include Are Roman Catholics Christians?, Is There Another Christ?, Last Rites, The Only Hope (mentioned in passing), and Why is Mary Crying?, as well as Man in Black from The Bible Series mentioned above. The Big Betrayal is the biography of an ex-Catholic priest named Charles Chiniquy who claimed that the Vatican was behind the American Civil War and Lincoln's assassination. It is based on Chiniquy's autobiography 50 Years In The Church of Rome. Tracts opposing other religions Islam is another major topic for Chick tracts (Allah Had No Son, also drawn as Who Is Allah? for the Black Tracts series, The Little Bride, The Deceived, The Story Teller, Men of Peace?, and The Pilgrimage. ) In addition, Chick has written against other religious groups such as the Jehovah's Witnesses (The Crisis ), Jews (Where's Rabbi Waxman?), Buddhists (The Tycoon), Hinduism (The Traitor), Mormonism (The Visitors), and Santeria (Evil Eyes). Two tracts, The Curse of Baphomet and The Unwelcome Guest, oppose Freemasonry. Though he opposes Judaism as a religion, he does support the right of the nation of Israel to exist. In one of his newest tracts, Somebody Angry? he attempts to draw a link between numerous tragic events in modern United States history with its attempts to coerce Israel into various "land for peace" schemes. Chick also takes aim at ecumenical ministers (Reverend Wonderful and The Chaplain), social gospel missionaries (Flight 144), and Christians who oppose tract witnessing (The Letter). Why No Revival? is a montage of various scenes, showing Chick's view of the current state of the Christian church. According to the Chick biography posted on the company website, Why No Revival? was Chick's first ever printed tract. Tracts on Current Topics Several of Chick's publications feature the standard evangelical/fundamentalist viewpoint on modern day topics, such as: Abortion (Who Murdered Clarice? and Baby Talk) Evolution (Apes, Lies, and Ms. Henn and Big Daddy?) Drug use (The Hunter) Homosexuality (The Gay Blade, Birds and the Bees, and Sin City ) Modern-day persecution of Christians (The Trial) In addition, several of the Bible Series tracts (listed above) cover controversial topics. Chick is also an opponent of rock music, both secular and Christian rock. Spellbound? is, like The Big Betrayal, a full-sized comic, one of an 11-volume series titled Crusaders. It is based almost entirely on the statements of John Todd and features him speaking in a church under one of his pseudonyms, Lance Collins. Spellbound? claims that the rock music industry is controlled by organized Satanism and that witches are brought in to cast spells on rock music recordings before they are marketed to the public. The spells are said to bring listeners under demonic influence. Christians are warned to burn their rock music albums and that Christian rock is also Satanic. A tract making the same statements about Christian rock is Angels?, in which a Christian rock band is required by their producer Lew Siffer (i.e. Lucifer) to sign away the rights to their souls in exchange for a record contract and commercial success. The band members find themselves drifting far from their faith and getting involved in drugs and vampirism while their lyrics start running to the likes of "embrace me, love of death". After one of the members contracts AIDS and another dies after collapsing onstage, one of the members realizes that he has been had and repents of involvement in rock music. Other Tracts The Assignment tells of the battle between Heaven and Hell for a lost soul. Charles Bishop is to die at 3:10 AM on November 22 of a massive coronary (2 1/2 weeks after the announcement of his impending death is made). Two people have the potential to reach Bishop: Tim Dobbs (Bishop's assistant who is portrayed as a milquetoast Christian, and who is quickly removed from the picture) and Cathy Hillman (a strong Christian teenager who is friends with Bishop's daughter, and around whom the majority of the plot is centered). The Contract! is heavily influenced by the American classic short story The Devil and Daniel Webster and follows a similar plotline, that of a nearly bankrupt individual, John Freeman, who (after losing his crops to hail) exclaims he would "sell his soul to the Devil" to get out of his financial straits, only to receive such an offer from Satan (taking the name John B. Fox, the middle initial later revealed as Beelzebub) and gain revenge on the banker who refused to help him. Though Freeman lay dying 10 years later (the same time frame as in Webster), instead of requiring a passioned legal defense to convinced a stacked judge and jury to void the contract, Freeman simply broke the contract by praying for salvation, while a relative (who had no such contract) dies and goes to Hell, and finds out that Satan didn't need a contract to claim his soul – he already had possession from the beginning. Chick later features the same parable in an African-American oriented tract, It's A Deal which features Denzel Franklin, the son of a minister who sells his soul in exchange for basketball prowess. As with The Contract!, at the end Denzel prays for salvation after purporting to have visited Hell, but escaped due to the prayer of his religious parents. The Fool is a narrative of a king and his "fool" (court jester). The king asks the jester to give a golden wand to any "bigger fool" if one can be found. he jester is unable to find such a person, but is quickly summoned back to the palace, as the king has fallen terminally ill. When the jester learns that the king has not prepared for "a long, long journey" from which he shall not return (his death, implying that the king has not accepted Jesus as Savior), the jester has found the "bigger fool" and hands the king his own golden wand back to him. Two Chick tracts, The Slugger and The Superstar, are nearly identical except for the main characters. Both feature a rich athletic superstar, who (after winning a championship and signing new multi-million dollar contract and endorsement) discovers he has terminal cancer. He comes to Christ through his gardener, then leaves his entire estate to the gardener upon his death. The difference is that The Slugger features a baseball player named Frank Stone, while The Superstar features a soccer player named Roberto Cordoba. Another pair of tracts with similar (though not identical) plot lines are Bewitched? and Party Girl. Both feature a "conference" in Hell between Satan and his demons, with one demon reporting a problem involving a soon to be dead and Hell-bound teenage girl (Ashley Wilson in Bewitched?; Jill in Party Girl) and a "praying grandmother" determined to rescue the girl's soul from Hell. In both instances, the young girl is saved (in Ashley's case, only hours before her death). The Mad Machine features spoofs of economic advisors, group therapy, drug and alcohol treatment (including a humorous skit where a father and son visit a rehab center, only to learn the son, not the father, is the patient), and modern psychiatry. It suggests that the only solution to stress and mental illness is to accept Jesus as personal savior. (This tract has also been revised from the initial version to include a scene where a married man abandons his wife – for another man.) The Sissy features a tough truck driver and his younger sidekick being led to accept Christ by a Christian truck driver while eating at a truck stop cafe. The tough truck driver calls Jesus a sissy. The Christian truck driver, who is affable, but intimidatingly taller and more muscular than either of the drivers, responds with a novel explanation why Jesus said to turn the other cheek: Jesus being God, with "all that power still inside him", would have to turn the other cheek in a fight or else it wouldn't be a fair fight. The conversation ends with both drivers praying to receive Christ. A waitress overhears the conversation and asks if she can accept Christ too. The Chick Publications website advertises this tract as "great for truckers and bikers!" Lisa, a Chick tract no longer on the Chick Publication website, features Henry, an unemployed father who, after renting video pornography, sexually abuses his daughter. After she is diagnosed with herpes, the doctor scolds and subsequently saves Henry, who goes home to share the Good News with his wife and daughter. Fairy Tales tells the story about a man named Harry Garner, who is on death row for multiple murders. In a flashback scene, we are told that Harry's murders were caused by finding that his parents had lied about the Tooth Fairy and Santa Claus, etc. As a child, he hears that there is no Easter Bunny. Harry kills his school-mates in a fit of rage. He then spends the rest of his life committing violent crimes before being executed by the State and sent to Hell. Oops! opens in the midst of the commotion surrounding a man named Bobby who has overdosed on drugs. After he is pronounced dead, an elderly minister begins warning Bobby's friends that he is now in Hell and that they will meet their own judgments someday. A teenager asks to hear more, but the minister is interrupted when a man mocks and violently assaults him. He convinces the boy that there is no concern. Later, both characters are killed in a car accident, and appear in Hell. The boy angrily tells his "friend", "Remember all those things you told me? You were wrong, you goofed!" The man, removing a mask, reveals himself to be a demon, and tells the boy that he was the one who "goofed" by rejecting the gospel. Soul Story , written in the late '70s, leveraged the trend of blaxploitation to proselytize to the African-American demographic as he perceived it. Among his grittiest comics, and rife with self-censored vulgarity, the narrative and tone of this comic is very telling in terms of how Chick perceives African-Americans, and the amount of difficulty he assumes to be involved in converting them as a people to Christianity. Parodies and popular culture Some cartoonists have published parodies of Chick tracts that mimic their familiar layout and narrative conventions. Examples include "Devil Doll?" by Daniel Clowes, Antlers Of The Damned' by Adam Thrasher, Jesus Delivers! by Jim Woodring and David Lasky, Demonic Deviltry by "Dr. Robert Ramos" (actually Justin Achilli of White Wolf Game Studios), and A Patriarchy's Nightmare by Keith Mayerson. Issue #2 of Daniel K. Raeburn's zine The Imp, which consists of a lengthy essay on Jack T. Chick's work and a concordance of terms and concepts used in his comics, has dimensions and covers that imitate a Chick tract. Hot Chicks is a collection of nine short films, each based on a Chick Tract. The film played at the 2006 Los Angeles International Film Festival, the New Fest in New York, and others. The films are word for word (and often shot for shot) adaptations of Chick Tracts. The Tracts adapted are Bewitched?, "La Princesita", "Somebody Goofed", Titanic, "Cleo", "Doom Town", "Wounded Children", "Angels?", and "Party Girl." Why We're Here by Fred Van Lente and Steve Ellis is a Cthulhu Mythos-themed comic that parodies Chick's visual and proselytistic style as though it were promoting the theology of a cult from one of H. P. Lovecraft's stories. Where a Chick Tract, for example, would typically insert an intertitle box containing a pertinent Biblical verse, "Why We're Here" instead references verses from the Necronomicon and other fictional Mythos-linked books. Another Cthulhu-based parody is Who Will Be Eaten First which teaches that the most we can hope for when the Elder Gods return is to be eaten first. Notes External links The official website of Chick Publications The Jack Chick Museum of Fine Art (the biggest website devoted to the comic tracts of Jack Chick) Documentary film on Jack Chick and Chick Publications "To Hell With You" Independent on Sunday article about Chick and his tracts by Robert Ito | Chick_tract |@lemmatized cite:1 chick:53 publication:6 worldwide:1 favorite:1 life:12 available:1 hundred:1 language:5 tract:73 short:3 evangelical:4 theme:5 create:4 american:9 publisher:1 jack:6 style:4 comic:10 often:10 controversial:3 enthusiastic:1 endorsement:2 fundamentalist:2 christianity:4 condemnation:1 religion:5 denomination:1 especially:1 catholicism:3 recur:3 typically:2 follow:5 punishment:1 redemption:1 afterlife:1 set:1 confrontation:1 christian:30 non:5 order:1 spread:2 religious:4 message:2 end:5 either:2 convert:5 contrast:1 accept:7 reject:4 receive:3 entry:1 heaven:5 believer:1 condemn:2 hell:14 recycled:1 scene:8 god:12 portray:7 giant:1 glowing:1 faceless:1 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4,882 | List_of_national_anthems | Most nations have anthems, defined as "a song, as of praise, devotion, or patriotism"; most anthems are either marches or hymns in style. A hymn can become a national anthem by a provision in the state's constitution, by a law enacted by its legislature, or simply by tradition. A royal anthem is a patriotic song similar to a national anthem, but it specifically praises or prays for a monarch or royal dynasty. Such anthems are usually performed at public appearances by the monarch or during other events of royal importance. Some states also use the royal anthem as its national anthem, such as the anthem of Jordan. The oldest national anthem is the Dutch national anthem "Het Wilhelmus", which was written between 1568 and 1572. Anthems became increasingly popular among European states in the 18th century. For example, the British national anthem "God Save the Queen" was first performed under the title "God Save the King" in 1745. However, the first anthem to be officially adopted as such was the Spanish anthem Marcha Real, in 1770; its origins remain unclear, being suggested to have sixteenth century venetian origins, or even to have been composed by king Frederick the Great himself; it is also one of the few national anthems that has never had official lyrics. . The French anthem "La Marseillaise" was written half a century later in 1792, and adopted in 1795. National anthems are usually written in the most common language of the state, whether de facto or official. For example, India's anthem "Jana Gana Mana" is written in a Sanskritized version of Bengali, which are both official languages of India. States with multiple national languages may offer several versions of their anthem. For instance, Switzerland's national anthem has different lyrics for each of the country's four official languages: French, German, Italian, and Romansh. South Africa's national anthem is unique in that five of the eleven official languages are used in the same anthem, in which each language comprises a stanza. __TOC__ Anthems Only United Nations member states are included in this list; they are arranged alphabetically. Nation National anthem Date adopted Lyrics writer Music writer "Milli Tharana" ("National Anthem") Abdul Bari JahaniBabrak Wassa "Himni i Flamurit" ("Hymn to the Flag") Aleksander Stavre DrenovaCiprian Porumbescu "Kassaman" ("We Pledge") Mufdi ZakariahMohamed Fawzi "El Gran Carlemany" ("The Great Charlemagne") Enric Marfany BonsJuan Benlloch y Vivó "Angola Avante" ("Forward Angola") Manuel Rui Alves MonteiroRui Alberto Vieira Dias Mingas "Fair Antigua, We Salute Thee" The United Kingdom's national anthem, "God Save the Queen", is also a national anthem of New Zealand and the royal anthem of Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, the Bahamas, Canada, Jamaica, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, the Solomon Islands, and Tuvalu. Novelle Hamilton RichardsWalter Garnet Picart Chambers "Himno Nacional Argentino" ("Argentine National Anthem") Vicente López y PlanesBlas Parera "Mer Hayrenik"' ("Our Fatherland") Mikael NalbandianBarsegh Kanachyan "Advance Australia Fair" Peter Dodds McCormickPeter Dodds McCormick "Land der Berge, Land am Strome" ("Land of Mountains, Land on the River") Paula von PreradovicJohann Holzer "Azərbaycan marşı" ("Azerbaijan's Anthem") Ahmed JavadUzeyir Hajibeyov "March On, Bahamaland" Timothy GibsonTimothy Gibson "Bahrainona" ("Our Bahrain") Mohamed Sudqi Ayyashunknown "Amar Shonar Bangla" ("My Golden Bengal") Rabindranath TagoreRabindranath Tagore "In Plenty and In Time of Need" Irving BurgieC. Van Roland Edwards "My Belarusy" ("We, the Belarusians") "My Belarusy" was originally adopted by the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. Michael KlimovichNestar Sakalowski "The Brabançonne" ("The Song of Brabant") Jenneval (Louis-Alexandre Dechet)François Van Campenhout "Land of the Free" Samuel Alfred HaynesSelwyn Walford Young "L'Aube Nouvelle" ("The Dawn of a New Day") Gilbert Jean DagnonGilbert Jean Dagnon "Druk tsendhen" (The Thunder Dragon Kingdom) Dasho Gyaldun ThinleyAku Tongmi "Himno Nacional de la República de Bolivia" ("National Anthem of the Republic of Bolivia") José Ignacio de SanjinésLeopoldo Benedetto Vincenti "Državna himna Bosne i Hercegovine" ("The National Anthem of Bosnia and Herzegovina") noneDušan Šestić "Fatshe leno la rona" ("Blessed Be This Noble Land") Kgalemang Tumedisco MotseteKgalemang Tumedisco Motsete "Hino Nacional Brasileiro" ("Brazilian National Anthem") Joaquim Osório Duque EstradaFrancisco Manuel da Silva "Allah Peliharakan Sultan" ("God Bless the Sultan") Pengiran Haji Mohamed Yusuf bin Abdul RahimAwang Haji Besar bin Sagap "Mila Rodino" ("Dear Motherland") Tsvetan RadoslavovTsvetan Radoslavov "Une Seule Nuit" ("One Single Night") Thomas SankaraThomas Sankara "Kaba Ma Kyei" ("Till the End of the World, Burma") Saya TinSaya Tin "Burundi bwacu" ("Our Burundi") Jean-Baptiste Ntahokaja and othersMarc Barengayabo "Nokoreach" ("Royal Kingdom") Chuon NatF. Perruchot and J. Jekyll "O Cameroun, Berceau de nos Ancêtres" ("O Cameroon, Cradle of Our Forefathers") René Djam Afame, Samuel Minkio Bamba, and Moïse Nyatte Nko'oRené Djam Afame "O Canada" Adolphe-Basile Routhier (French); Robert Stanley Weir (English)Calixa Lavallée "Cântico da Liberdade" ("Song of Freedom") Amílcar Spencer LopesAdalberto Higino Tavares Silva La Renaissance ("The Rebirth") Barthélémy BogandaHerbert Pepper "La Tchadienne" ("People of Chad") Louis Gidrol and othersPaul Villard "Himno Nacional de Chile" ("National Anthem of Chile") Eusebio LilloRamón Carnicer "Yìyǒngjūn Jìnxíngqǔ" ("The March of the Volunteers") (provisional)1982 (official)2004 (constitutional)Tian HanNie Er "Himno Nacional de la República de Colombia" ("National Anthem of the Republic of Colombia") Rafael NúñezOreste Sindici "Udzima wa ya Masiwa" ("The Union of the Great Islands") Said Hachim Sidi AbderemaneSaid Hachim Sidi Abderemane and Kamildine Abdallah "Debout Congolais" ("Arise Congolese") Joseph LutumbaSimon-Pierre Boka di Mpasi Londi "La Congolaise" ("The Congolese") Levent KimbanguiFrançais Jacques Tondra "Himno Nacional de Costa Rica" ("National Anthem of Costa Rica") José María Zeledón BrenesManuel María Gutiérrez "L'Abidjanaise" ("Song of Abidjan") Mathieu Ekra, Joachim Bony, and Pierre Marie CotyPierre Marie Coty and Pierre Michel Pango "Lijepa naša domovino" ("Our Beautiful Homeland") Antun MihanovićJosif Runjanin "El Himno de Bayamo" ("The Anthem of Bayamo") Perucho FigueredoPerucho Figueredo "Ýmnos eis tīn Eleutherían" ("Hymn to Liberty") "Hymn to Liberty" is the national anthem of both Cyprus and Greece. Dionýsios SolomósNikolaos Mantzaros "Kde domov můj" ("Where is My Home?") (Czechoslovakia)1993 (Czech Republic)Josef Kajetán TylFrantišek Škroup "Der er et yndigt land" ("There is a Lovely Country") Denmark's royal anthem is "Kong Kristian" ("King Christian"). Adam OehlenschlägerHans Ernst Krøyer "Djibouti" ("Djibouti") Aden ElmiAbdi Robleh "Isle of Beauty, Isle of Splendour" Wilfred Oscar Morgan PondLemuel McPherson Christian "Himno Nacional" ("National Anthem") Emilio Prud'hommeJose Rufino Reyes Siancas "Pátria" ("Fatherland") Francisco Borja da CostaAfonso de Araujo "Salve, Oh Patria" ("We Salute You, Our Homeland") Juan León MeraAntonio Neumane "Bilady, Bilady, Bilady" ("My Country, My Country, My Country") Sayed Darwish (adapted from a speech by Mustafa Kamil)Sayed Darwish "Himno Nacional de El Salvador" ("National Anthem of El Salvador") Juan José CañasJuan Aberle "Caminemos pisando la senda" ("Let Us Tread the Path") Atanasio Ndongo MiyoneAtanasio Ndongo Miyone "Ertra, Ertra, Ertra" ("Eritrea, Eritrea, Eritrea") Solomon Tsehaye BerakiIsaac Abraham Meharezghi and Aron Tekle Tesfatsion "Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm" ("My Fatherland, My Happiness and Joy") Johann Voldemar JannsenFredrik Pacius "Wodefit Gesgeshi, Widd Innat Ityopp'ya" ("March Forward, Dear Mother Ethiopia") Dereje Melaku MengeshaSolomon Lulu Mitiku "Meda Dau Doka" ("God Bless Fiji") Michael Francis Alexander PrescottCharles Austin Miles "Maamme" ("Our Land") Johan Ludvig RunebergFredrik Pacius "La Marseillaise" ("The Song of Marseille") Claude Joseph Rouget de LisleClaude Joseph Rouget de Lisle "La Concorde" ("The Concord") Georges Aleka DamasGeorges Aleka Damas "For The Gambia Our Homeland" Virginia Julie HoweJeremy Frederick Howe "Tavisupleba" ("Freedom") David MagradzeZakaria Paliashvili Third stanza of "Das Deutschlandlied" ("The Germany Song") August Heinrich Hoffmann von FallerslebenJoseph Haydn "God Bless Our Homeland Ghana" Philip GbehoPhilip Gbeho "Ýmnos eis tīn Eleutherían" ("Hymn to Liberty") Dionýsios SolomósNikolaos Mantzaros "Hail Grenada" Irva Merle BaptisteLouis Arnold Masanto "Himno Nacional de Guatemala" ("National Anthem of Guatemala") José Joaquín PalmaRafael Álvarez Ovalle "Liberté" ("Liberty") UnknownKodofo Moussa "Esta é a Nossa Pátria Bem Amada" ("This Is Our Beloved Country") Amílcar CabralAmílcar Cabral "Dear Land of Guyana, of Rivers and Plains" Archibald Leonard LukerRobert Cyril Gladstone Potter "La Dessalinienne" ("Song of Dessalines") Justin LhérissonNicolas Geffrard "Himno Nacional de Honduras" ("National Anthem of Honduras") Augusto Constancio CoelloCarlos Hartling "Himnusz" ("Hymn") Ferenc KölcseyFerenc Erkel "Lofsöngur" ("Hymn") unknownMatthías JochumssonSveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson "Jana Gana Mana" ("Thou Art the Ruler of the Minds of All People") Rabindranath TagoreRabindranath Tagore "Indonesia Raya" ("Great Indonesia") Wage Rudolf SupratmanWage Rudolf Supratman "Soroud-e Melli-e Jomhouri-e Eslami-e Iran" ("National Anthem of Iran") multipleHassan Riyahi "Mawtini" ("My Homeland") Ibrahim TouqanMuhammad Fuliefil "Amhrán na bhFiann" ("The Soldier's Song") Liam Ó RinnPeadar Kearney and Patrick Heeney "HaTikvah" ("The Hope") (de facto)2004 (de jure)Naftali Herz ImberSamuel Cohen "Il Canto degli Italiani" ("The Song of the Italians") (de facto)2005 (de jure)Goffredo MameliMichele Novaro "Jamaica, Land We Love" unknownHugh SherlockRobert Lightbourne "Kimi ga Yo" ("May Your Reign Last Forever") traditional Waka poem from the Heian periodtraditional melody of the Meiji period "Al-salam Al-malaki Al-urdoni" ("The Royal Anthem of Jordan") Abdul Monem Al-RefaiAbdul Qader al-Taneer "Meniñ Qazaqstanım" ("My Kazakhstan") Zhumeken Nazhimedenov (with modifications by Nursultan Nazarbayev)Shamshi Kaldayakov "Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu" ("Oh God of All Creation") Graham Hyslop, G. W. Senoga-Zake, Thomas Kalume, Peter Kibukosya, and Washington Omonditraditional African tune "Teirake Kaini Kiribati" ("Stand up, Kiribati") Urium Tamuera IotebaUrium Tamuera Ioteba "Aegukka" ("The Patriotic Song") Pak SeyŏngKim Wŏn'gyun "Aegukga" ("The Patriotic Song") uncertainAhn Eak-tae "Al-Nasheed Al-Watani" ("National Anthem") Ahmad Meshari Al-AdwaniIbrahim Al-Soula "Kyrgyz Respublikasynyn Mamlekettik Gimni" ("National Anthem of the Kyrgyz Republic") Djamil Sadykov and Eshmambet KuluevNasyr Davlesov and Kalyi Moldobasanov Pheng Xat Lao ("National Anthem of Laos") Sisana SisaneThongdy Sounthonevichit "Dievs, svētī Latviju!" ("God Bless Latvia") Kārlis BaumanisKārlis Baumanis "Lebanese National Anthem" Rashid NakhleWadih Sabra "Lesotho Fatse La Bontata Rona" ("Lesotho, Land of Our Fathers") François CoillardFerdinand-Samuel Laur "All Hail, Liberia, Hail!" Daniel Bashiel WarnerOlmstead Luca "Allahu Akbar" ("God Is Great") Egyptian marching songEgyptian marching song "Oben am jungen Rhein" ("Up Above the Young Rhine") Jakob Josef Jauchunknown "Tautiška giesmė" ("National Song") Vincas KudirkaVincas Kudirka "Ons Hémécht" ("Our Homeland") Michel LentzJean Antoine Zinnen "Denes nad Makedonija" ("Today Over Macedonia") "Denes nad Makedonija" was originally adopted by the Socialist Republic of Macedonia. Vlado MaleskiTodor Skalovski "Ry Tanindraza nay malala ô" ("Oh, Our Beloved Fatherland") Norbert RaharisoaRahajason "Mlungu dalitsani Malawi" ("God Bless Malawi") Michael-Fredrick Paul SaukaMichael-Fredrick Paul Sauka "Negaraku" ("My Country") multiplefolk song ("Terang Bulan") "Gaumii salaam" ("National Salute") Muhammad Jameel DidiPandit Wannakuwattawaduge Don Amaradeva "Pour l'Afrique et pour toi, Mali" ("For Africa and for You, Mali") Seydou Badian KouyateBanzoumana Sissoko "L-Innu Malti" ("The Maltese Hymn") Dun Karm PsailaRobert Samut "Forever Marshall Islands" unknownAmata KabuaAmata Kabua "National Anthem of Mauritania" Baba Ould CheikhTolia Nikiprowetzky "Motherland" unknownJean Georges ProsperPhilippe Gentil "Himno Nacional Mexicano" ("Mexican National Anthem") Francisco González BocanegraJaime Nunó "Patriots of Micronesia" unknowntraditional German song (Ich hab' mich ergeben) "Limba Noastră" ("Our Language") Alexei MateeviciAlexandru Cristea "Hymne Monégasque" ("Monégasque Anthem") Louis NotariThéophile Bellando de Castro "Mongol ulsiin töriin duulal" ("National Anthem of Mongolia") Tsendiin DamdinsürenBilegiin Damdinsüren and Luvsanjyamts Murdorj "Oj, svijetla majska zoro" ("O, Bright Dawn of May") unknownSekula Drljevićunknown "Hymne Cherifien" ("Anthem of Morocco") Ali Squalli HoussainiLéo Morgan "Pátria Amada" ("Lovely Homeland") unknownunknown "Namibia, Land of the Brave" Axali DoësebAxali Doëseb "Nauru Bwiema" ("Song of Nauru") Margaret HendrieLaurence Henry Hicks "Sayaun Thunga Phool Ka" ("Hundreds of Flowers") Byakul MailaAmbar Gurung "Het Wilhelmus" ("The William") unknownAdrianus Valerius "God Defend New Zealand", "God Save the Queen" Both "God Defend New Zealand" and "God Save the Queen" are official national anthems of New Zealand. (national hymn)1977 (national anthem)Thomas Bracken (English version)Thomas H. Smith (Māori version)John Joseph Woods "Salve a ti, Nicaragua" ("Hail to Thee, Nicaragua") Salomón Ibarra MayorgaLuis A. Delgadillo "La Nigérienne" ("The Nigeriens") Maurice Albert ThirietRobert Jacquet and Nicolas Abel François Frionnet "Arise O Compatriots, Nigeria's Call Obey" John A. Ilechukwu, Eme Etim Akpan, B. A. Ogunnaike, Sotu Omoigui, and P. O. AderibigheNigerian Police Band, under the directorship of B. E. Odiase "Ja, vi elsker dette landet" ("Yes, We Love This Country") Norway's royal anthem is "Kongesangen". Bjørnstjerne BjørnsonRikard Nordraak "Nashid as-Salaam as-Sultani" ("National Anthem of Oman") unknownunknown "Qaumī Tarāna" ("National Anthem") Hafeez JullundhriAhmed Ghulamali Chagla "Belau rekid" ("Our Palau") multipleYmesei O. Ezekiel "Himno Istmeño "("Hymn of the Isthmus") unknownJeronimo de la OssaSantos Jorge "O Arise, All You Sons" Tom ShackladyTom Shacklady "Paraguayos, República o Muerte" ("Paraguayans, the Republic or Death") Francisco Acuña de FigueroaFrançoice Dupuis, and Remberto Giménez "Himno Nacional del Perú" ("National Anthem of Peru") José de la Torre Ugarte y AlarcónJose Bernardo Alcedo "Lupang Hinirang" ("Chosen Land") Jose PalmaJulian Felipe "Mazurek Dąbrowskiego" ("Dąbrowski's Mazurka") Also known by its incipit: "Jeszcze Polska nie zginęła" ("Poland Is Not Yet Lost"). Józef Wybickiunknown "A Portuguesa" ("The Portuguese Song") Henrique Lopes de MendonçaAlfredo Keil "As Salam al Amiri" ("National Anthem of Qatar") Sheikh Mubarak bin Saïf al-Thaniunknown "Deşteaptă-te, române!" ("Awaken Thee, Romanian") Andrei MureşanuAnton Pann and Gheorghe Ucenescu "Gosudarstvenny Gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii" ("State Hymn of the Russian Federation") Sergey MikhalkovAlexander Vasilyevich Alexandrov "Rwanda nziza" ("Beautiful Rwanda") unknownunknown "O Land of Beauty!" Kenrick GeorgesKenrick Georges "Sons and Daughters of Saint Lucia" Charles JesseLeton Felix Thomas "St Vincent Land So Beautiful" Phyllis Punnettunknown "The Banner of Freedom" Sauni Iiga KuresaSauni Iiga Kuresa "Inno Nazionale della Repubblica" ("The National Anthem of the Republic") Federico ConsoloFederico Consolo "Independência total" ("Total Independence") Alda Neves da Graça do Espírito SantoManuel dos Santos Barreto de Sousa e Almeida "As-Salam Al Malaki" ("The Royal Salute") Ibrahim KhafajiAbdul Rahman Al-Khateeb "Pincez Tous vos Koras, Frappez les Balafons" ("Strum your Koras, Strike the Balafons") Léopold Sédar SenghorHerbert Pepper "Bože pravde" ("God of Justice") Jovan ĐorđevićDavorin Jenko "Koste Seselwa" ("Join together all Seychellois") unknownunknownunknown "High We Exalt Thee, Realm of the Free" Clifford Nelson FyleJohn Akar "Majulah Singapura" ("Onward Singapore") Zubir SaidZubir Said "Nad Tatrou sa blýska" ("Storm Over the Tatras") (Czechoslovakia) (Slovakia)Janko Matúškafolk tune "Zdravljica" ("A Toast") (7th stanza only) France PrešerenStanko Premrl "God Save Our Solomon Islands" Panapasa Balekana and Matila BalekanaPanapasa Balekana "Somaliyaay toosoo" ("Somalia, Wake Up") Ali Mire AwaleAli Mire Awale "National Anthem of South Africa" The "National Anthem of South Africa" is a hybrid of "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" ("God Bless Africa") and "Die Stem van Suid-Afrika" ("The Call of South Africa"). Enoch Sontonga and C. J. LangenhovenEnoch Sontonga and C. J. Langenhoven "La Marcha Real" ("The Royal March") noneunknown "Sri Lanka Matha" ("Mother Sri Lanka") Ananda SamarakoonAnanda Samarakoon "Nahnu Jund Allah Jund Al-Watan" ("We Are the Army of God and of Our Land") unknownunknownunknown "God zij met ons Suriname" ("God Be With Our Suriname") unknownunknownunknown "Nkulunkulu Mnikati wetibusiso temaSwati" ("O Lord our God of the Swazi") unknownunknownunknown "Du gamla, Du fria" ("Thou Ancient, Thou Free") Sweden's royal anthem is "Kungssången". Richard Dybeckunknown "Schweizerpsalm" ("Swiss Psalm") (de facto)1981 (de jure)Leonhard WidmerAlberich Zwyssig "Humāt ad-Diyār" ("Guardians of the Homeland") Khalil Mardam BeyMohammed Flayfel "Surudi Milli" ("National Anthem") Gulnazar KeldiSuleiman Yudakov "Mungu ibariki Afrika" ("God Bless Africa") unknownEnoch SontongaEnoch Sontonga "Phleng Chat" ("National Song") Thailand's royal anthem is "Phleng Sansoen Phra Barami". Luang SaranupraphanPeter Feit "Salut à toi, pays de nos aïeux" ("Hail to Thee, Land of our Forefathers") Alex Casimir-DossehAlex Casimir-Dosseh "Ko e fasi o e tui o e Otu Tonga" ("Song of the King of the Tonga Islands") Uelingatoni Ngū TupoumalohiKarl Gustavus Schmitt "Forged from the Love of Liberty" Patrick CastagnePatrick Castagne "Humat Al-Hima" ("Defenders of the Homeland") Mustafa Sadiq Al-Rafi'i and Aboul-Qacem EchebbiMohammed Abdelwahab "İstiklâl Marşı" ("The March of Independence") Mehmet Akif ErsoyOsman Zeki Üngör "Türkmenbaşyň guran beýik binasy" ("Independent, Neutral, Turkmenistan State Anthem") Saparmurat NiyazovSaparmurat Niyazov "Tuvalu mo te Atua" ("Tuvalu for the Almighty") Afaese ManoaAfaese Manoa "Oh Uganda, Land of Beauty" George Wilberforce KakomaGeorge Wilberforce Kakoma "Shche ne vmerla Ukrainy" ("Ukraine's Glory Has Not Perished") Pavlo ChubynskyMykhaylo Verbytsky "Ishy Biladi" ("Long Live my Homeland") Arif Al Sheikh Abdullah Al HassanSaad Abdel Wahab "God Save the Queen" unknownunknownunknown "The Star-Spangled Banner" Francis Scott KeyJohn Stafford Smith "Himno Nacional" ("National Anthem") Francisco Acuña de FigueroaFrancisco José Debali "O`zbekiston Respublikasining Davlat Madhiyasi" ("National Anthem of the Republic of Uzbekistan") Abdulla AripovMutal Burhanov "Yumi, Yumi, Yumi" ("We, We, We") François Vincent AyssavFrançois Vincent Ayssav "Gloria al Bravo Pueblo" ("Glory to the Brave People") Vicente SaliasJuan José Landaeta Tiến Quân Ca ("Army March") Văn CaoVăn Cao "United Republic" Abdallah Abdulwahab NomanAyoob Tarish "Stand and Sing of Zambia, Proud and Free" unknownEnoch SontongaEnoch Sontonga "Simudzai Mureza WeZimbabwe" ("Blessed Be The Land of Zimbabwe") Solomon MutswairoFred Changundega See also List of anthems List of national anthems Royal anthem Notes References General Specific | List_of_national_anthems |@lemmatized nation:3 anthem:71 define:1 song:20 praise:2 devotion:1 patriotism:1 either:1 march:8 hymn:12 style:1 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4,883 | Piano_Trio,_Op._97_(Beethoven) | The Piano Trio No. 7 Op. 97 in B-flat major by Ludwig van Beethoven is a piano trio for piano, violin, and violoncello published in 1811. It is commonly referred to as the Archduke Trio, because it was dedicated to the amateur pianist and composition student of Beethoven, Archduke Rudolph of Austria. It was written during the "middle" period of Beethoven's compositional career, which spans approximately 1803 until 1814. Composition began in the summer of 1810 and it was completed in March of 1811. The first public performance was given by Beethoven himself, Ignaz Schuppanzigh (violinist) and Josef Linke (cellist) at the Viennese hotel ‘Zum römischen Kaiser’ on 11 April 1814, as his deafness continued to encroach upon his ability as a performer. Of this performance the violinist and composer Ludwig Spohr wrote: "In forte passages the poor deaf man pounded on the keys until the strings jangled and in piano he played so softly that whole groups of notes were omitted." The performance of the piano part in the "Archduke Trio" in 1814 was Beethoven's last performance in the role of pianist Sleevenote of the Supraphon CD (SU 3959-2) . Structure The work is in four movements: Allegro moderato Scherzo (Allegro) Andante cantabile ma però con moto. Poco piu adagio. Allegro moderato. Presto Allegretto moderato - Presto References in popular culture The Archduke plays a significant role both in Elizabeth George's mystery A Traitor to Memory (2001); and in Haruki Murakami's novel Kafka on the Shore (2002). Footnotes Selected recordings Beethoven, Schubert: Piano Trios. Supraphon CD (SU 3959-2) (Suk Trio) External links BBC Discovering Music (browse for .ram file for this work) Concert Podcast from Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Information and digitized early editions at the Beethoven-Haus Digital Archives | Piano_Trio,_Op._97_(Beethoven) |@lemmatized piano:6 trio:6 op:1 b:1 flat:1 major:1 ludwig:2 van:1 beethoven:7 violin:1 violoncello:1 publish:1 commonly:1 refer:1 archduke:4 dedicate:1 amateur:1 pianist:2 composition:2 student:1 rudolph:1 austria:1 write:2 middle:1 period:1 compositional:1 career:1 span:1 approximately:1 begin:1 summer:1 complete:1 march:1 first:1 public:1 performance:4 give:1 ignaz:1 schuppanzigh:1 violinist:2 josef:1 linke:1 cellist:1 viennese:1 hotel:1 zum:1 römischen:1 kaiser:1 april:1 deafness:1 continue:1 encroach:1 upon:1 ability:1 performer:1 composer:1 spohr:1 forte:1 passages:1 poor:1 deaf:1 man:1 pound:1 key:1 string:1 jangle:1 play:2 softly:1 whole:1 group:1 note:1 omit:1 part:1 last:1 role:2 sleevenote:1 supraphon:2 cd:2 su:2 structure:1 work:2 four:1 movement:1 allegro:3 moderato:3 scherzo:1 andante:1 cantabile:1 però:1 con:1 moto:1 poco:1 piu:1 adagio:1 presto:2 allegretto:1 reference:1 popular:1 culture:1 significant:1 elizabeth:1 george:1 mystery:1 traitor:1 memory:1 haruki:1 murakami:1 novel:1 kafka:1 shore:1 footnote:1 select:1 recording:1 schubert:1 suk:1 external:1 link:1 bbc:1 discover:1 music:1 browse:1 ram:1 file:1 concert:1 podcast:1 isabella:1 stewart:1 gardner:1 museum:1 information:1 digitize:1 early:1 edition:1 haus:1 digital:1 archive:1 |@bigram piano_trio:3 trio_op:1 ludwig_van:1 van_beethoven:1 external_link:1 beethoven_haus:1 |
4,884 | Loki | In Norse mythology, Loki is a god or jötunn (giant), or both. Loki's relation with the gods varies by source. Loki assists the gods, and sometimes causes problems for them. Loki is a shape shifter and in separate incidents he appears in the form of a salmon and a mare. Loki's positive relations with the gods ends with his role in engineering the death of the god Balder. Loki is eventually bound by the gods with the entrails of one of his sons. A serpent drips venom from above him that his wife Sigyn collects into a bowl. However, Sigyn must empty the bowl when it is full, and the venom that drops in the mean time causes Loki to writhe in pain. During the events of Ragnarök, Loki is foretold to fight against the gods among the forces of the jötnar. There, he will encounter the god Heimdallr and the two will slay each other. Loki is the son of Fárbauti and Laufey, and the brother of Helblindi and Býleistr. By the jötunn Angrboða, Loki is the father of Hel, the wolf Fenrir, and the world serpent Jörmungandr. By Sigyn, Loki is the father of Nari and/or Narfi. By the stallion Svaðilfari, Loki is the mother of the eight-legged horse Sleipnir. In addition, Loki is referred to as the father of Váli in the Prose Edda. Loki is attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources; the Prose Edda and Heimskringla, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson; the Norwegian Rune Poem, in the poetry of skalds, and in Scandinavian folklore. Loki may be depicted on the Snaptun Stone, the Kirkby Stephen Stone, and the Gosforth Cross. Scholars have proposed theories about the origins and development of Loki, the implications of the lore surrounding him, a possible connection between Loki and air or fire, and that he may be the same figure as the god Lóðurr. Etymology The etymology of the name Loki has yet to be solved. It may be related to Old Norse lúka, meaning "close" (potentially pointing to Loki's role at Ragnarök). Simek (2007:195). In various poems from the Poetic Edda (stanza 2 of Lokasenna, stanza 41 of Hyndluljóð, and stanza 26 of Fjölsvinnsmál), and sections of the Prose Edda (chapter 32 of Gylfaginning, stanza 8 of Haustlöng, and stanza 1 of Þórsdrápa) Loki is alternately referred to as Loptr, which is generally considered derived from Old Norse lopt meaning "air", and therefore points to an association with the air. Simek (2007:197). Attestations "Loke and Sigyn" (1863) by Mårten Eskil Winge. Poetic Edda In the Poetic Edda, Loki appears (or is referenced) in the poems Völuspá, Lokasenna, Þrymskviða, Reginsmál, Baldrs draumar, and Hyndluljóð. Völuspá In stanza 35 of the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá, a völva tells Odin that, among many other things, she sees Sigyn sitting very unhappily with her bound husband, Loki, under a "grove of hot springs". Larrington (1998:8). In stanza 51, during the events of Ragnarök, Loki appears free from his binds and is referred to as the "brother of Býleistr" (here transcribed as Byleist): A ship journeys from the east, Muspell's people are coming, over the waves, and Loki steers There are the monstrous brood with all the raveners, The brother of Byleist is in company with them. Larrington (1998:10). In stanza 54, Fenrir, after consuming Odin, and being killed by Odin's son Víðarr, is described as "Loki's kinsman". Larrington (1998:11). Lokasenna "Loki taunts Bragi" (1908) by W. G. Collingwood. A depiction of Lokasenna (1895) by Lorenz Frølich. The poem Lokasenna (Old Norse "Loki's Quarrel") centers around Loki flyting with other gods; Loki puts forth two stanzas of insults while the receiving figure responds with a single stanza, and then another figure chimes in. The poem begins with a prose introduction detailing that Ægir, a figure associated with the sea, is hosting a feast in his hall for a number of the gods and elves. At the feast, the gods praise Ægir's servers Fimafeng and Eldir. Loki "could not bear to hear that", and kills the servant Fimafeng. In response, the gods grab their shields, shrieking at Loki, and chased him out of the hall and to the woods. The gods then return to the hall, and continue drinking. Larrington (1998:84–85). Entrance and rejection Loki comes out of the woods, and meets Eldir outside of the hall. Loki greets Eldir (and the poem itself begins) with a demand that Eldir tell him what the gods are discussing over their ale inside the hall. Eldir responds that they discuss their "weapons and their prowess in war" and yet no one there has anything friendly to say about Loki. Loki says that he will go into the feast, and that, before the end of the feast, he will induce quarrelling among the gods, and "mix their mead with malice". Eldir responds that "if shouting and fighting you pour out on" to the gods, "they'll wipe it off on you". Loki then enters the hall, and everyone there falls silent upon noticing him. Larrington (1998:85). Re-entrance and insults Breaking the silence, Loki says that, thirsty, he had come to these halls from a long way away to ask the gods for a drink of "the famous mead". Calling the gods arrogant, Loki asks why they are unable to speak, and demands that they assign him a seat and a place for him at the feast, or tell him to leave. The skaldic god Bragi is the first to respond to Loki by telling him that Loki will not have a seat and place assigned to him by the gods at the feast, for the gods know what men they should invite. Larrington (1998:86). Loki does not respond to Bragi directly, but instead directs his attention to Odin, and states: Do you remember, Odin, when in bygone days we mixed our blood together? You said you would never drink ale unless it were brought to both of us. Odin then asks his silent son Víðarr to sit up, so that the Loki (here referred to as the "wolf's father") may sit at the feast, and so that he may not speak words of blame to the gods in Ægir's hall. Víðarr stands, pours a drink for Loki. Prior to drinking, Loki exclaims a toasts to the gods, while a specific exception for Bragi. Bragi responds that he will give a horse, sword, and ring from his possessions so that he does not repay the gods "with hatred". Loki responds that Bragi will always be short of all of these things, accusing him of being "wary of war" and "shy of shooting". Bragi responds that, were they outside of Ægir's hall, Bragi would be holding Loki's head as a reward for his lies. Loki replies that Bragi is brave when seated, calling him a "bench-ornament", and that Bragi would run away when troubled by an angry, spirited man. Larrington (1998:87). The goddess Iðunn interrupts, asking Bragi to, as a service to his relatives and adopted relatives, not say words of blame to Loki in Ægir's hall. Loki tells Iðunn to be silent, calling stating that she is the most "man-crazed" of all women, and that she placed her washed, bright arms around her brother's slayer. Iðunn says that she won't say words of blame in Ægir's hall, and states that she quietened Bragi, who was made talkative by beer, and that she doesn't want the two of them to fight. The goddess Gefjun interjects, asking why the two gods must fight, and states that Loki knows that he is joking, and that "all living things love him." Loki responds to Gefjun by stating that Gefjun's heart was once seduced by a "white boy" who gave her a jewel, and who Gefjun laid her thigh over. Larrington (1998:87–88). Odin says that Loki must be insane to make Gefjun his enemy, as her wisdom about the fates of men may equal Odin's own. Loki says that Odin does a poor job in handing out honor in war to men, and that he's often given victory to the faint-hearted. In response, Odin states that even if this is true, in a story otherwise unattested, that Loki once spent eight winters beneath the earth as a woman milking cows, and during this time bore children, which Odin declares perverse. Loki counters that Odin once practiced seiðr on the island of Samsey (now Samsø, Denmark), and, appearing as a wizard, traveled among mankind, which Loki condemns as perverse. Larrington (1998:88–89). Frigg, a major goddess and Odin's wife, says that what Loki and Odin did in the ancient past should not be spoken of in front of others, and that ancient matters should always remain hidden. Loki brings up that Frigg is the daughter of Fjörgyn, a personification of the earth, and that she had once taken Odin's brothers Vili and Vé into her embrace. Frigg responds that if there was a boy like her now-deceased son Baldr in the hall, that Loki would not be able to escape from their wrath of the gods. Loki reminds Frigg that he is responsible for the death of her son Baldr. Larrington (1998:89). The goddess Freyja declares that Loki must be mad, stating that Frigg knows all fate, yet she does not speak it. Loki claims each of the gods and elves that are present have been Freyja's lover. Freyja states that Loki is lying, that he just wants to "yelp about wicked things", that gods and goddess are furious with him, and that he will go home thwarted. In response, Loki calls Freyja a malicious witch, and claims an otherwise unattested scenario where Freyja was once astride her brother Freyr, when all of the other laughing gods surprised her, and Freyja farts. Njörðr (Freyja and Freyr's father) says that it is harmless for a woman to have a lover or "someone else" beside her husband, and that what is surprising is a "pervert god coming here who has borne children." Larrington (1998:89–90). Loki tells Njörðr to be silent, references Njörðr's status as once having been a hostage from the Vanir to the Æsir during the Æsir-Vanir War, and relates an otherwise unattested comment about the "daughters of Hymir"having once used Njörðr "as a pisspot"; urinating in his mouth. Njörðr responds that this was his reward when he was sent as a hostage to the Æsir, and that he fathered his son (Freyr), who no one hates, and is considered a price of the Æsir. Loki tells Njörðr to maintain his moderation, and that he won't keep it secret any longer that Njörðr fathered this son with his unnamed sister, although one would expect him to be worse than he turned out. Larrington (1998:90–91). The god Tyr, who is (according to the prose introduction to the poem) now one-handed from having his arm bitten off by Loki's son Fenrir while Fenrir was bound, defends Freyr, to which Loki replies that Tyr should be silent, for Tyr cannot "deal straight with people", and points out that that the Loki's son, the wolf Fenrir, tore Tyr's hand off. Tyr responds that while he may have lost a hand, Loki has lost the wolf, and trouble has come to them both. Further, that Fenrir must now wait in shackles until the onset of Ragnarök. Loki tells Tyr to be silent a second time, and states that Tyr's otherwise unattested wife had a son by Loki, and that Tyr never received any compensation for this "injury", further calling him a "wretch". Larrington (1998:91). Freyr himself interjects at this point, and says that he sees a wolf lying before a river mouth, and that, unless Loki is immediately silent, like the wolf, Loki shall also be bound until Ragnarök. Loki retorts that Freyr purchased his consort Gerðr with gold, having given away his sword, which he will lack at Ragnarök. Byggvir (referred to in the prose introduction to the poem as a servant of Freyr) says that if he had as noble a lineage and as an honorable a seat as Freyr, he would grind down Loki, and make all of his limbs lame. Loki refers to Byggvir in terms of a dog, and says that Byggvir is always found at Freyr's ears, or twittering beneath a grindstone. Byggvir says that he's proud to be here by all the gods and men, and that he's said to be speedy. Loki tells him to be silent, that Byggvir does not know how to apportion food among men, and that he hides among the straw and dais when men go to battle. Larrington (1998:91–92). The god Heimdallr says that Loki is drunk and witless, and asks Loki why he won't stop speaking. Loki tells Heimdallr to be silent, that he was fated a "hateful life", that Heimdallr must always have a muddy back, and serve as watchman of the gods. The goddess Skaði says that while Loki now appears light-hearted, and with "playing" with his "tail-wagging", he will soon be bound with his ice-cold son's guts on a sharp rock by the gods. Loki says that, even if this is his fate, that he was "first and foremost" at the killing of the Skaði's father, jötnar Þjazi, with the other gods. Skaði says that, with these events in mind, "baneful advice" will always come from her "sanctuaries and plains" to Loki. Loki says that Skaði was once gentler in speech to he (referring to himself as the "son of Laufey") when Skaði once invited him to her bed (an event that is unattested elsewhere), and that such events must be mentioned if they are to recall "shameful deeds". Larrington (1998:91–93). Sif, wife of Thor, goes forth and pours Loki a glass of mead into a crystal cup in a prose narrative. Continuing the poem, Sif welcomes Loki and invites him to take a crystal cup filled with ancient mead, and says that among the children of the Æsir, she is singularly blameless. Loki "takes the horn", drinks it, and says that she would be, if it were so, and states that Sif had a lover beside Thor; Loki himself (an event that is otherwise unattested). Beyla (referred to in the prose introduction to the poem as a servant of Freyr) says that all of the mountains are shaking, that she thinks Thor must be on his way home, and when Thor arrives he will bring peace to those that quarrel there. Loki tells Beyla to be silent, that she is "much imbued with malice", that no worse female has ever been among the "Æsir's children", and calling her a "shitty serving-wench". Larrington (1998:94). The arrival of Thor and the bondage of Loki "The Punishment of Loki" by Louis Huard (1813-1874) Thor arrives, and tells Loki to be silent, referring to him as an "evil creature", stating that with his hammer Mjöllnir he will silence Loki by hammering his head from his shoulders. Loki notes that Thor has arrived, asks Thor why he is raging, and says that Thor won't be so bold to fight against the wolf when he swallows Odin at Ragnarök. Thor again tells Loki to be silent, and threatens him with Mjöllnir, adding that he will throw Loki "up on the roads to the east", and thereafter no one will be able to see Loki. Loki states that Thor should never brag of Thor's journeys to the east, detailing that there Thor crouched cowering in the thumb of a glove, mockingly referring to Thor as a "hero", and adding that such behaviour was unlike Thor. Thor responds by telling Loki to be silent, threatening him with Mjöllnir, and adding that every one of Loki's bones will be broken with it. Loki says he intends to live for a long while yet despite Thor's threats, and taunts Thor about an encounter Thor once had with the jötnar Skrýmir (Útgarða-Loki in disguise). Thor again commands Loki to be silent, threatens Loki with Mjöllnir, and says he will send Loki to Hel, below the gates Nágrind. Larrington (1998:94–95). In response to Thor, Loki says that he "spoke before the Æsir", and "before the sons of the Æsir" what his "spirit urged" him to say, yet before Thor alone he will leave, as he knows that Thor does strike. Loki ends the poetic verses of Lokasenna with a final stanza: Ale you brewed, Ægir, and you will never again hold a feast; all your possessions which are here inside— may flame play over them, and may your back be burnt! Larrington (1998:95). Following this final stanza a prose section details that after Loki left the hall, he disguised himself as a salmon and hid in the waterfall of Franangrsfors, where the Æsir caught him. The narrative continues that Loki was bound with the innards of his son Nari, yet his son Narfi changed into a wolf. Skaði fastens a venomous snake over Loki's face, and from it poison dripped. Sigyn, wife of Loki, sat with him holding a basin beneath the dripping venom, yet when the basin became full, she carried the poison away; and during this time the poison dripped on to Loki, causing him to writhe with such violence that all of the earth shook from the force, resulting in what are now known as earthquakes. Larrington (1998:95–96). Þrymskviða "Loki's flight to Jötunheim" (1908) by W. G. Collingwood. "Ah, what a lovely maid it is!" (1902) by Elmer Boyd Smith. In the poem Þrymskviða, Thor wakes and finds that his powerful hammer, Mjöllnir, is missing. Thor turns to Loki first, and tells him that nobody knows that the hammer has been stolen. The two then go to the court of the goddess Freyja, and Thor asks her if he may borrow her feather cloak so that he may attempt to find Mjöllnir. Freyja agrees, saying she'd lend it even if it were made of silver and gold, and Loki flies off, the feather cloak whistling. Larrington (1998:97). In Jötunheimr, the jötunn Þrymr sits on a burial mound, plaiting golden collars for his female dogs, and trimming the manes of his horses. Þrymr sees Loki, and asks what could be amiss among the Æsir and the Elves; why is Loki alone in the Jötunheimr? Loki responds that that he has bad news for both the elves and the Æsir - that Thor's hammer, Mjöllnir, is gone. Þrymr says that he has hidden Mjöllnir eight leagues beneath the earth, from which it will be retrieved, unless Freyja is brought to him as his wife. Loki flies off, the feather cloak whistling, away from Jötunheimr and back to the court of the gods. Larrington (1998:97–98). Thor asks Loki if his efforts were successful, and that Loki should tell him while he's still in the air as "tales often escape a sitting man, and the man lying down often barks out lies." Loki states that it was indeed an effort, and also a success, for he has discovered that Þrymr has the hammer, but that it cannot be retrieved unless Freyja is brought to Þrymr as his wife. The two return to Freyja, and tell her to dress herself in a bridal head dress, as they will drive her to Jötunheimr. Freyja, indignant and angry, goes into a rage, causing all of the halls of the Æsir to tremble in her anger, and her necklace, the famed Brísingamen, falls from her. Freyja pointedly refuses. Larrington (1998:98). As a result, the gods and goddesses meet and hold a thing to discuss and debate the matter. At the thing, the god Heimdallr puts forth the suggestion that, in place of Freyja, Thor should be dressed as the bride, complete with jewels, women's clothing down to his knees, a bridal head-dress, and the necklace Brísingamen. Thor rejects the idea, and Loki (here described as "son of Laufey") interjects that this will be the only way to get back Mjöllnir, and points out that without Mjöllnir, the jötnar be able to invade and settle in Asgard. The gods dress Thor as a bride, and Loki states that he will go with Thor as his maid, and that the two shall drive to Jötunheimr together. Larrington (1998:99). After riding together in Thor's goat-driven chariot, the two, disguised, arrive in Jötunheimr. Þrymr commands the jötnar in his hall to spread straw on the benches, for Freyja has arrived to be his wife. Þrymr recounts his treasured animals and objects, stating that Freyja was all that he was missing in his wealth. Larrington (1998:100). Early in the evening, the disguised Loki and Thor meet in the with the Þrymr and the assembled jötnar. Thor eats and drinks ferociously, consuming entire animals and three casks of mead. Þrymr finds the behaviour at odds with his impression of Freyja, and Loki, sitting before Þrymr and appearing as a "very shrewd maid", makes the excuse that "Freyja's" behaviour is due to her having not consumed anything for eight entire days before arriving due to her eagerness to arrive. Þrymr then lifts "Freyja's" veil and wants to kiss "her" until catching the terrifying eyes staring back at him, seemingly burning with fire. Loki states that this is because "Freyja" had not slept for eight nights in her eagerness. The "wretched sister" of the jötnar appears, asks for a bridal gift from "Freyja", and the jötnar bring out Mjöllnir to "sanctify the bride", to lay it on her lap, and marry the two by "the hand" of the goddess Vár. Thor laughs internally when he sees the hammer, takes hold of it, strikes Þrymr, beats all of the jötnar, and kills the "older sister" of the jötnar. Larrington (1998:101). Reginsmál Loki appears in both prose and the first six stanzas of the poem Reginsmál. The prose introduction to Reginsmál details that, while the hero Sigurd was being fostered by Regin, son of Hreidmar, Regin tells him that once the gods Odin, Hœnir, and Loki went to Andvara-falls, which contained many fish. Regin, a dwarf, had two brothers; Andvari, who gained food by spending time in the Andvara-falls in the form of a pike, and Ótr, who would often go to the Andvara-falls in the form of an otter. Larrington (1999:151). While the three gods are at the falls, Ótr (in the form of an otter) catches a salmon and eats it on a river bank, his eyes shut, when Loki hits and kills him with a stone. The gods think that this is great, and flay the skin from the otter to make a bag. That night, the three gods stay with Hreidmar (the father of Regin, Andvari, and the now-dead Ótr) and show him their catches, including the skin of the otter. Upon seeing the skin, Regin and Hreidmar "seized them and made them ransom their lives" in exchange for filling the otterskin bag the gods had made with gold and covering the exterior of the bag with red gold. Loki is sent to retrieve the gold, and Loki goes to the goddess Rán, borrows her net, and then goes back to the Andvara-falls. At the falls, Loki spreads his net before Andvari (who is in the form of a pike), which Andvari jumps into. The stanzas of the poem then begin: Loki mocks Andvari, and tells him that he can save his head by telling Loki where his gold is. Andvari gives some background information about himself, including that he was cursed by a "norn of misfortune" in his "early days". Loki responds by asking Andvari "what requitel" does mankind get if "they wound each other with words". Andvari responds that lying men receive a "terrible requital": having to wade in the river Vadgelmir, and that their suffering will be long. Larrington (1999:151–152). Loki looks over the gold that Andvari possesses, and after Andvari hands over all of his gold, Andvari holds on to but a single ring; the ring Andvarinaut, which Loki also takes. Andvari, now in the form of a dwarf, goes into a rock, and tells Loki that the gold will result in the death of two brothers, will cause strife between eight princes, and will be useless to everyone. Larrington (1999:152). Loki returns, and the three gods give Hreidmar the money from the gold hoard and flatten out the otter skin, stretch out its legs, and heap gold atop it, covering it. Hreidmar looks it over, and notices a single hair that has not been covered. Hreidmar demands that it be covered as well. Odin puts forth the ring Andvarinaut, covering the single hair. Loki states that they have now handed over the gold, and that gold is cursed as Andvari is, and that it will be the death of Hreidmar and Regin both. Hreidmar responds that if he had known this before, he would have taken their lives, yet that he believes those are not yet born whom the curse is intended for, and that he doesn't believe him. Further, with the hoard, he will have red gold for the rest of his life. Hreidmar tells them to leave, and the poem continues without further mention of Loki. Larrington (1999:152–153). Baldrs draumar In Baldr draumar, Odin has awoken a deceased völva in Hel, and questions her repeatedly about his son Baldr's bad dreams. Loki is mentioned in stanza 14, the final stanza of the poem, where the völva tells Odin to ride home, to be proud of himself, and that no one else will come visit until "Loki is loose, escaped from his bonds" and the onset of Ragnarök. Larrington (1998:245). Hyndluljóð Loki is referenced in two stanzas in Völuspá hin skamma, found within the poem Hyndluljóð. The first stanza notes that Loki produced "the wolf" with the jötunn Angrboða, that Loki himself gave birth to the horse Sleipnir by the stallion Svaðilfari, and that Loki (referred to as the "brother of Býleistr") thirdly gave birth to "the worst of all marvels". This stanza is followed by: Loki at some of the heart, the though-stone of a woman, roasted on a linden-wood fire, he found it half-cooked; Lopt was impregnated by a wicked woman, from whom every ogress on earth is descended. Larrington (1998:258). In the second of the two stanzas, Loki is referred to as Lopt. Loki's consumption of a woman's heart is otherwise unattested. Larrington (1998:296). Fjölsvinnsmál In the poem Fjölsvinnsmál, a stanza mentions Loki (as Lopt) in association with runes. In the poem, Fjölsviðr describes to the hero Svipdagr that Sinmara keeps the weapon Lævateinn within a chest, locked with nine strong locks (due to significant translation differences, two translations of the stanza are provided here): Fjolsvith spake: "Lævatein is there, that Lopt with runes Once made by the doors of death; In Lægjarn's chest by Sinmora lies it, And nine locks fasten it firm." Bellows (2004:245). Fiolsvith. Hævatein the twig is named, and Lopt plucked it, down by the gate of Death. In an iron chest it lies with Sinmœra, and is with nine strong locks secured. Thorpe (1907:96–97). Prose Edda Gylfaginning High's introduction Loki first appears in the Prose Edda in chapter 20 of the book Gylfaginning, where he is referred to as the "ás called Loki" while the enthroned figure of Third explains to "Gangleri" (King Gylfi in disguise) the goddess Frigg's prophetic abilities while citing a stanza of Lokasenna. Faulkes (1995:21). "The children of Loki" (1920) by Willy Pogany Loki is more formally introduced by High in chapter 34, where he is "reckoned among the Æsir", and High states that Loki is called by some "the Æsir's calumniator", "originator of deceits", and "the disgrace of all gods and men". High says that Loki's alternative name is Lopt, that he is the son of the male jötunn Farbauti, his mother is "Laufey or Nál", and his brothers are Helblindi and Býleistr. High describes Loki as "pleasing and handsome" in appearance, malicious in character, "very capricious in behaviour", and as possessing "to a greater degree than others" learned cunning, and "tricks for every purpose", often getting the Æsir into trouble, and then getting them out of it with his trickery. Loki's wife is named Sigyn, and they have a son named "Nari or Narfi". Otherwise, Loki had three children with the female jötunn Angrboða from Jötunheimr; the wolf Fenrir, the serpent Jörmungandr, and the female being Hel. The gods realized that these three children were being raised in Jötunheimr, and expected trouble from them partially due to the nature of Angrboða, but worse yet Loki. Faulkes (1995:26–27). In chapter 35, Gangleri comments that Loki produced a "pretty terrible"—yet important—family. Faulkes (1995:29). Loki, Svaðilfari, and Sleipnir In chapter 42, High tells a story set "right at the beginning of the gods' settlement, when the gods at established Midgard and built Val-Hall." The story is about an unnamed builder who has offered to build a fortification for the gods that will keep out invaders in exchange for the goddess Freyja, the sun, and the moon. After some debate, the gods agree to these conditions, but place a number of restrictions on the builder, including that he must complete the work within three seasons without the help of any man. The builder makes a single request; that he may have help from his stallion Svaðilfari, and due to Loki's influence, this is allowed. The stallion Svaðilfari performs twice the deeds of strength as the builder, and hauls enormous rocks—to the surprise of the gods. The builder, with Svaðilfari, makes fast progress on the wall, and three days before the deadline of summer, the builder is nearly at the entrance to the fortification. The gods convene, and figure out who is responsible, resulting in a unanimous agreement that, along with most trouble, Loki is to blame (here referred to as Loki Laufeyjarson—his surname derived from his mother's name, Laufey). Faulkes (1995:35). "Loki and Svadilfari" (1909) by Dorothy Hardy The gods declare that Loki deserves a horrible death if he cannot find a scheme that will cause the builder to forfeit his payment, and threaten to attack him. Loki, afraid, swears oaths that he will devise a scheme to cause the builder to forfeit the payment, whatever it may cost himself. That night, the builder drives out to fetch stone with his stallion Svaðilfari, and out from a wood runs a mare. The mare neighs at Svaðilfari, and "realizing what kind of horse it was," Svaðilfari becomes frantic, neighs, tears apart his tackle, and runs towards the mare. The mare runs to the wood, Svaðilfari follows, and the builder chases after. The two horses run around all night, causing the building work to be stop for the night. The previous momentum of building work that the builder had been able to maintain is not continued. Faulkes (1995:36). The builder goes into a rage, and when the Æsir realize that the builder is a hrimthurs, they disregard their previous oaths with the builder, and call for Thor. Thor arrives, and subsequently kills the builder by smashing the builder's skull into shards with the hammer Mjöllnir. However, Loki "had such dealings" with Svaðilfari that "somewhat later" Loki gives birth to a gray foal with eight legs; the horse Sleipnir—"the best horse among gods and men." Loki, Útgarða-Loki, and Logi In chapter 44, Third reluctantly relates a tale where Thor and Loki are riding in Thor's chariot, which is pulled by his two goats. Loki and Thor stop at the house of a peasant farmer, and there they are given lodging for a night. Thor slaughters his goats, prepares them, puts them in a pot, and Loki and Thor sit down for their evening meal. Thor invites the peasant family who own the farm to share with him the meal he has prepared. Afterward, the peasant child Þjálfi sucks the bone marrow from one of the goat bones, and when Thor goes to resurrect the goats, he finds one of the goats to be lame. In their terror, the family atones to Thor by giving Thor their son Þjálfi and their daughter Röskva. Faulkes (1995:37-38). Minus the goats, Thor, Loki, and the two children continue east until they arrive at a vast forest in Jötunheimr. They continue through the woods until dark. The four seek shelter for the night. They encounter an immense building. Finding shelter in a side room, they experience earthquakes through the night. The earthquakes cause all four but Thor, who grips his hammer in preparation of defense, to be fearful. The building turns out to be the huge glove of Skrymir, who has been snoring throughout the night, causing what seemed to be earthquakes. All four sleep beneath an oak tree near Skrymir in fear. Faulkes (1995:38-40). Thor wakes up in the middle of the night, and a series of events occur where Thor twice attempts to destroy the sleeping Skrymir with his hammer. Skrymir awakes after each attempt, only to say that he detected an acorn falling on his head or that he wonders if bits of tree from the banches above have fallen on top of him. The second attempt awakes Skrymir. Skrymir gives them advice; if they are going to be cocky at the castle of Útgarðr it would be better for them to turn back now, for Útgarða-Loki's men there won't put up with it. Skrymir throws his knapsack onto his back and abruptly goes into the forest and "there is no report that the Æsir expressed hope for a happy reunion". Faulkes (1995:40). The four travelers continue their journey until midday. They find themselves facing a massive castle in an open area. The castle is so tall that they must bend their heads back to their spines to see above it. At the entrance to the castle is a shut gate, and Thor finds that he cannot open it. Struggling, all four squeeze through the bars of the gate, and continue to a large hall. Inside the great hall are two benches, where many mostly large people sitting on two benches. The four see Útgarða-Loki, the king of the castle, sitting. Útgarða-Loki slowly turns to greet them, mocking Thor. Útgarða-Loki says that no visitors are allowed to stay unless they can perform a feat. Loki, standing in the rear of the party, is the first to speak. Loki says "I know a feat that I am quite prepared to go at, that there is no one inside here who can eat his food quicker than I." Faulkes (1995:40—41). Skáldskaparmál Norwegian rune poem Loki is mentioned in stanza 13 of the Norwegian rune poem in connection with the Younger Futhark Bjarkan rune: Old Norse: Bjarkan er laufgrønster líma; Loki bar flærða tíma. Dickins (1915:26). Modern English: Birch has the greenest leaves of any shrub; Loki was fortunate in his deceit. Dickins (1915:27). According to Bruce Dickins, the reference to 'Loki's deceit' in the poem "is doubtless to Loki's responsibility for Balder's death." Archaeological record Snaptun Stone The Snaptun Stone may feature a depiction of Loki. On a spring day in 1950, a semi-circular flat stone bearing featuring a depiction of a mustacheod face was discovered on a beach near Snaptun, Denmark. Made of soap stone that originated in Norway or Sweden, the depiction was carved around the year 1000 CE and features a face with a curled mustache and scarred lips. The figure is identified as Loki due to the lips, considered a reference to a tale recorded in Skáldskaparmál where the Sons of Ivaldi stitch up Loki's lips. Madsen (1990:180). The stone is identified as a hearth stone; the nozzle of the bellows would be inserted into the hole in the front of the stone, and the air produced by the bellows pushed flame through the top hole. All the while the bellows were protected from the heat and flame. The stone may point to a connection between Loki and smithing and flames. According to Hans Jørgen Madsen, the Snaptun Stone is "the most beautifully made hearth-stone that is known." The stone is housed and on display at the Moesgård Museum near Aarhus, Denmark. Kirkby Stephen Stone and Gosforth Cross "Loki Bound (motive from the Gosforth Cross)" (1908) by W. G. Collingwood. A fragmentary late 10th century cross located in Kirkby Stephen, Cumbria, England features a bound figure with horns and a beard. This figure is sometimes theorized as depicting the bound Loki.Orchard (1997:105). Discovered in 1870, the stone consists of yellowish-white sandstone, and now sits at the front of the Kirkby Stephen church. A depiction of a similarly horned and round-shouldered figure was discovered in Gainford, County Durham and is now housed in the Durham Cathedral Library. Calverley (1899:218). The mid-11th century Gosforth Cross has been interpreted as featuring various figures from Norse mythology and, like the Kirkby Stephen Stone, is also located in Cumbria. The bottom portion of the west side of the cross features a depiction of a long-haired female, kneeling figure holding an object above another prostrate, bound figure. Above and to their left is a knotted serpent. This has been interpreted as Sigyn soothing the bound Loki. Orchard (1997:13). Notes References Bellows, Henry Adams (1936). The Poetic Edda: Translated from the Icelandic with an Introduction and Notes. Princeton University Press. American Scandinavian Foundation. Calverley, William Slater (1899). Notes on the Early Sculptured Cross: Shrines in Monuments in the Prtesent Diocese of Carlisle. T. Wilson. Dickins, Bruce (1915). Runic and Heroic Poems of the Old Teutonic Peoples. Cambridge University Press. Faulkes, Anthony (Trans.) (1995). Edda. Everyman. ISBN 0-4608-7616-3 Larrington, Carolyne (Trans.) (1999). The Poetic Edda. Oxford World's Classics. ISBN 0192839462 Lindow, John (2001). Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515382-0 Madsen, Hans Jørgen (1990). "The God Loki from Snaptun" as collected in Oldtidens Ansigt: Faces of the Past. Det kongelige Nordiske Oldskriftselskab. ISBN 87-7468-274-1 Orchard, Andy (1997). Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. Cassell. ISBN 0 304 34520 2 Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D.S. Brewer. ISBN 0859915131 Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans.) (1907). The Elder Edda of Saemund Sigfusson. 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4,885 | Demographics_of_Liberia | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Liberia, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The demographics of Liberia Liberia's history as a place set up in 1821 as a colony for free slaves from the United States. The noun for a person from Liberia is Liberian(s). The adjective is Liberian. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population As of 2008, Liberia has the 3rd highest population growth rate in the world (3.66%). The current population is 3,042,004 July 2006 estimate from 2006 CIA World Factbook . There are an average of 6.43 children born per woman. The increase in population in Liberia from 1961-2003 Data of FAO, year 2005 The birth rate is 43.75 births/1,000 population. The death rate is 22.24 deaths/1,000 population. The infant mortality rate is 149.73 deaths/1,000 live births. The net migration rate is 26.86 migrant(s)/1,000 population July 2007 estimate from 2006 CIA World Factbook . Age structure 0-14 years: 43% (male 681,136; female 680,501) 15-64 years: 54% (male 826,751; female 867,402) 65 years and over: 3% (male 54,334; female 54,032) Sex ratio at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.01 male(s)/female total population: 0.98 male(s)/female Life expectancy at birth total population: 51.02 years male: 49.6 years female: 52.49 years (2000 est.) Ethnic groups There are 16 ethnic groups that make up Liberia's indigenous population: indigenous African tribes 95% (including Kpelle, Bassa, Gio, Kru, Grebo, Mandingo, Mano, Krahn, Gola, Gbandi, Loma, Kissi, Vai, and Bella), Americo-Liberians 2.5% (descendants of immigrants from the U.S. who had not been slaves), Congo People 2.5% (descendants of immigrants from the Caribbean who had not been slaves); About 5,000 persons of European descent. The Kpelle in central and western Liberia is the largest ethnic group. Americo-Liberians, who are descendants of free-born and formerly enslaved African Americans that arrived in Liberia from 1822 onward, make up an estimated 5% of the population. There also is a sizable number of Lebanese, Indians, and other West African nationals who make up a significant part of Liberia's business community. Because of the civil war and its accompanying problem of insecurity, the number of Westerners in Liberia is low and confined largely to Monrovia and its immediate surroundings. The Liberian constitution restricts citizenship only to people of African descent. Liberia was traditionally noted for its hospitality and academic institutions, iron mining and rubber industry booms, cultural skills and arts and craft works. But political upheavals beginning in the 1980s and the two civil wars (1989-96 and 1999-2003) brought about a steep decline in the living standards of the country, including its education and infrastructure. Religions Christian 40% (5.8% Roman Catholic ), indigenous beliefs 40%, Muslim 20%, Jewish .06% Languages English 20% (official), some 20 ethnic group languages, of which a few can be written and are used in correspondence Literacy Literacy in Liberia, as defined as age 15 and over and can read and write, is: total population: 38.3% male: 53.9% female: 22.4% 1995 estimate note: these figures are increasing because of the improving school system See also Liberia List of countries by population growth rate References | Demographics_of_Liberia |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:4 feature:1 population:16 liberia:14 include:3 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:2 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 history:1 place:1 set:1 colony:1 free:2 slave:3 united:1 state:1 noun:1 person:2 liberian:4 adjective:1 cia:4 world:5 factbook:4 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 high:1 growth:2 rate:6 current:1 july:2 estimate:4 average:1 child:1 bear:1 per:1 woman:1 increase:2 data:1 fao:1 year:10 birth:5 death:3 infant:1 mortality:1 live:1 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 age:2 structure:1 male:10 female:10 sex:1 ratio:1 total:3 life:1 expectancy:1 est:1 ethnic:4 group:4 make:3 indigenous:3 african:4 tribe:1 kpelle:2 bassa:1 gio:1 kru:1 grebo:1 mandingo:1 mano:1 krahn:1 gola:1 gbandi:1 loma:1 kissi:1 vai:1 bella:1 americo:2 liberians:1 descendant:3 immigrant:2 u:1 congo:1 people:2 caribbean:1 european:1 descent:2 central:1 western:1 large:1 born:1 formerly:1 enslaved:1 american:1 arrive:1 onward:1 also:2 sizable:1 number:2 lebanese:1 indian:1 west:1 national:1 significant:1 part:1 business:1 community:1 civil:2 war:2 accompany:1 problem:1 insecurity:1 westerner:1 low:1 confine:1 largely:1 monrovia:1 immediate:1 surroundings:1 constitution:1 restrict:1 citizenship:1 traditionally:1 note:2 hospitality:1 academic:1 institution:1 iron:1 mining:1 rubber:1 industry:1 boom:1 cultural:1 skill:1 art:1 craft:1 work:1 political:1 upheaval:1 begin:1 two:1 bring:1 steep:1 decline:1 living:1 standard:1 country:2 infrastructure:1 religion:1 christian:1 roman:1 catholic:1 belief:1 muslim:1 jewish:1 language:1 english:1 official:1 languages:1 write:2 use:1 correspondence:1 literacy:2 define:1 read:1 figure:1 improve:1 school:1 system:1 see:1 list:1 reference:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 male_female:9 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 americo_liberian:1 enslaved_african:1 |
4,886 | Chelsea_F.C. | Chelsea Football Club (, also known as The Blues or previously The Pensioners) are a professional English football club based in West London. The team, founded in 1905, plays in the Premier League and have spent most of their history in the top tier of English football. Chelsea have been English champions three times, and have won the FA Cup five times, the League Cup four times and the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup twice. The club had their first major success in 1955, winning the league championship. Chelsea won several cup competitions during the 1960s and 1970s, but after that did not win another major title until 1997. The past decade has been the most successful period in Chelsea’s history, capped by winning consecutive Premier League titles in 2005 and 2006, and reaching their first UEFA Champions League final in 2008, losing to fellow English side Manchester United after extra time and penalties. Chelsea's home is the 42,500 capacity Stamford Bridge football stadium in Fulham, West London, where they have played since their establishment. Despite their name, the club are based just outside the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham. In 2003, they were bought by Russian oil magnate Roman Abramovich. Chelsea's traditional kit colours are royal blue shirts and shorts with white socks. The club crest has been changed several times in attempts to modernise or re-brand; the current crest, featuring a ceremonial lion holding a staff, is a modified version of the one first adopted in the 1950s. The club has sustained the fifth highest average all-time attendance in English football. Their average home gate for the 2007–08 season was 41,673, the fifth highest in the Premier League. History The first Chelsea team in September 1905. Chelsea were founded on 14 March 1905 at The Rising Sun pub (now The Butcher's Hook), opposite the present-day main entrance to the ground on Fulham Road, and were elected to the Football League shortly afterwards. The club's early years saw little success; the closest they came to winning a major trophy was reaching the FA Cup final in 1915, where they lost to Sheffield United. Chelsea gained a reputation for signing big-name players and for being entertainers, but made little impact on the English game in the inter-war years. Former England centre-forward Ted Drake became manager in 1952 and proceeded to modernise the club. He removed the club's Chelsea pensioner crest, improved the youth set-up and training regime, rebuilt the side, and led Chelsea to their first major trophy success – the League championship – in 1954–55. The following season saw UEFA create the European Champions' Cup, but after objections from The Football League and the FA Chelsea were persuaded to withdraw from the competition before it started. Chart showing the progress of Chelsea F.C. through the English Football League system since joining in 1905–1906 to 2007–08 The 1960s saw the emergence of a talented young Chelsea side under manager Tommy Docherty. They challenged for honours throughout the decade, and endured several near-misses. They were on course for a treble of League, FA Cup and League Cup going into the final stages of the 1964–65 season, winning the League Cup but faltering late on in the other two. In three seasons the side were beaten in three major semi-finals and were FA Cup runners-up. In 1970 Chelsea were FA Cup winners, beating Leeds United 2–1 in a final replay. Chelsea took their first European honour, a UEFA Cup Winners' Cup triumph, the following year, with another replayed win, this time over Real Madrid in Athens. The late 1970s and the 1980s were a turbulent period for Chelsea. An ambitious redevelopment of Stamford Bridge threatened the financial stability of the club, star players were sold and the team were relegated. Further problems were caused by a notorious hooligan element among the support, which was to plague the club throughout the decade. In 1982 Chelsea were, at the nadir of their fortunes, acquired by Ken Bates for the nominal sum of £1, although by now the Stamford Bridge freehold had been sold to property developers, meaning the club faced losing their home. On the pitch, the team had fared little better, coming close to relegation to the Third Division for the first time, but in 1983 manager John Neal put together an impressive new team for minimal outlay. Chelsea won the Second Division title in 1983–84 and established themselves in the top division, before being relegated again in 1988. The club bounced back immediately by winning the Second Division championship in 1988–89. UEFA Champions League 2007–08|Chelsea reached their first UEFA Champions League final in 2008. After a long-running legal battle, Bates reunited the stadium freehold with the club in 1992 by doing a deal with the banks of the property developers, who had been bankrupted by a market crash. Chelsea's form in the new Premier League was unconvincing, although they did reach the FA Cup final in 1994. It was not until the appointment of former European Footballer of the Year Ruud Gullit as player-manager in 1996 that their fortunes changed. He added several top-class international players to the side, as the club won the FA Cup in 1997 and established themselves as one of England's top sides again. Gullit was replaced by Gianluca Vialli, who led the team to victory in the League Cup and the Cup Winners' Cup in 1998, the FA Cup in 2000 and the UEFA Champions League quarter-finals in 2000. Vialli was sacked in favour of another Italian, Claudio Ranieri, who guided Chelsea to the 2002 FA Cup final and Champions League qualification in 2002–03. In June 2003, Bates sold Chelsea to Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich for £140 million, completing what was then the biggest-ever sale of an English football club. Over £100 million was spent on new players, but Ranieri was unable to deliver any trophies, so he was replaced by Portuguese coach José Mourinho. Under Mourinho, Chelsea became the fifth English team to win back-to-back league championships since the Second World War (2004–05 and 2005–06), in addition to winning an FA Cup (2007) and two League Cups (2005 and 2007). In September 2007 Mourinho was replaced by Avram Grant, who led the club to their first UEFA Champions League final, in which they were defeated in a penalty shootout by Manchester United. Grant was sacked days later Avram Grant sacked by Chelsea - Telegraph and succeeded by Luiz Felipe Scolari in July 2008. Scolari spent only seven months in the job before being dismissed after a string of poor results. BBC SPORT Football | My Club | Chelsea | Scolari sacked as Chelsea manager Russia coach Guus Hiddink was appointed caretaker manager until the end of the 2008-09 season. Chelsea's season ended with a 2-1 win over Everton in the FA Cup Final. Stamford Bridge Chelsea vs. West Bromwich Albion at Stamford Bridge on 23 September 1905; Chelsea won 1–0. Chelsea have only ever had one home ground, Stamford Bridge, where they have played since foundation. It was officially opened on 28 April 1877. For the first 28 years of its existence it was used almost exclusively by the London Athletics Club as an arena for athletics meetings and not at all for football. In 1904 the ground was acquired by businessman Gus Mears and his brother Joseph, who had previously acquired additional land (formerly a large market garden) with the aim of staging football matches on the now 12.5 acre (51,000 m²) site. Stamford Bridge was designed for the Mears family by the noted football architect Archibald Leitch. They offered the stadium to Fulham Football Club, but the offer was turned down. As a consequence, the owners decided to form their own football club to occupy their new ground. Most football clubs were founded first, and then sought grounds in which to play, but Chelsea were founded for Stamford Bridge. Since there was already a football club named Fulham in the borough, the founders decided to adopt the name of the adjacent borough of Chelsea for the new club, having rejected names such as Kensington FC, Stamford Bridge FC and London FC. Starting with an open bowl-like design and one covered terrace, Stamford Bridge had an original capacity of around 100,000. The early 1930s saw the construction of a terrace on the southern part of the ground with a roof that covered around one fifth of the stand. It eventually became known as the "Shed End", the home of Chelsea's most loyal and vocal supporters, particularly during the 1960s, 70s and 80s. The exact origins of the name are unclear, but the fact that the roof looked like a corrugated iron shed roof played a part. During the late 1960s and early 70s, the club's owners embarked on a modernisation of Stamford Bridge with plans for a 50,000 all-seater stadium. Work began on the East Stand in the early 1970s but the cost almost brought the club to its knees, and the freehold was sold to property developers. Following a long legal battle, it was not until the mid-1990s that Chelsea's future at the stadium was secured and renovation work resumed. The north, west and southern parts of the ground were converted into all-seater stands and moved closer to the pitch, a process completed by 2001. The Stamford Bridge pitch, the freehold, the turnstiles and Chelsea's naming rights are now owned by Chelsea Pitch Owners, a non-profit organisation in which fans are the shareholders. The CPO was created to ensure the stadium could never again be sold to developers. It also means that if the club moves to a new location, they could not use the Chelsea FC name. The club plans to increase its capacity to over 50,000. Owing to its location in a built-up part of London on a main road and next to two railway lines, fans can only enter the stadium through the Fulham Road entrance, which places severe constraints on expansion due to health and safety regulations. As a result, Chelsea have been linked with a move away from Stamford Bridge to sites including the Earls Court Exhibition Centre, Battersea Power Station and the Chelsea Barracks. However, the club have reiterated their desire to keep Chelsea at their current home. Crest Since the club's foundation, Chelsea have had four main crests, though all underwent minor variations. In 1905, Chelsea adopted as their first crest the image of a Chelsea pensioner, which obviously contributed to the "pensioner" nickname, and remained for the next half-century, though it never appeared on the shirts. As part of Ted Drake's modernisation of the club from 1952 onwards, he insisted that the pensioner badge be removed from the match day programme in order to change the club's image and that a new crest be adopted. As a stop-gap, a temporary emblem comprising simply the initials C.F.C. was adopted for one year. In 1953, Chelsea's crest was changed to an upright blue lion looking backwards and holding a staff, which was to endure for the next three decades. This crest was based on elements in the coat of arms of the Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea with the "lion rampant regardant" taken from the arms of then club president Viscount Chelsea and the staff from the Abbots of Westminster, former Lords of the Manor of Chelsea. It also featured three red roses, to represent England, and two footballs. This was the first club badge to appear on shirts, since the policy of putting the crest on the shirts was only adopted in the early 1960s. In 1986, with new owners now at the club, Chelsea's crest was changed again as part of another attempt to modernise and to capitalise on new marketing opportunities. The new badge featured a more naturalistic non-heraldic lion, yellow and not blue, standing over the C.F.C. initials. It lasted for the next 19 years, with some modifications such as the use of different colours. With new ownership, and the club's centenary approaching, combined with demands from fans for the club's traditional badge to be restored, it was decided that the crest should be changed again in 2004. The new crest was officially adopted for the start of the 2005–06 season and marks a return to the older design of the blue heraldic lion holding a staff. As with previous crests, this one has appeared in various colours, including white and gold. Colours Chelsea have always worn blue shirts, although they initially adopted a lighter shade than the current version, and unlike today wore white shorts and dark blue socks. The lighter blue was taken from the racing colours of then club president, Earl Cadogan. The light blue shirts were short-lived, however, and replaced by a royal blue version in around 1912. p. 212 When Tommy Docherty became manager in the early 1960s he changed the kit again, adding blue shorts (which have remained ever since) and white socks, believing it made the club's colours more distinctive, since no other major side used that combination; this kit was first worn during the 1964–65 season. Chelsea's traditional away colours are all yellow or all white with blue trim, but, as with most teams, they have had some more unusual ones. The first away strip consisted of black and white stripes and for one game in the 1960s the team wore Inter Milan-style blue and black stripes, again at Docherty's behest. The "Inter Milan" kit was worn for an FA Cup semi-final against Sheffield Wednesday, on 23 April 1966. Reference: Mears (2002), p. 58 Other memorable away kits include a mint green strip in the 1980s, a red and white checked one in the early 90s and a graphite and tangerine addition in the mid-1990s. All kits are discussed on the club's official website Chelsea's kit is currently manufactured by Adidas, which is contracted to supply the club's kit from 2006 to 2011. Their previous kit manufacturer was Umbro. Chelsea's first shirt sponsor was Gulf Air, agreed midway through the 1983–84 season. Following that, the club were sponsored by Grange Farms, Bai Lin tea and Italian company Simod before a long-term deal was signed with computer manufacturer Commodore International in 1989; Amiga, an off-shoot of Commodore, also appeared on the shirts. Chelsea were subsequently sponsored by Coors beer (1995–97), Autoglass (1997–2001) and Emirates Airline (2001–05). Chelsea's current shirt sponsor is Samsung. Supporters Chelsea fans at a match with Tottenham Hotspur, on 11 March 2006. Chelsea have the fifth highest average all-time attendance in English football and regularly attract over 40,000 fans to Stamford Bridge; they were the fifth best-supported Premier League team in the 2007–08 season, with an average gate of 41,673. Chelsea's traditional fanbase comes from working-class parts of West London, such as Hammersmith and Battersea, from wealthier areas like Chelsea and Kensington, and from the Home Counties. In addition to the standard football chants, Chelsea fans sing songs like "Carefree", "Blue is the Colour", "We all follow the Chelsea" (to the tune of Land of Hope and Glory), "Ten Men Went to Mow", "Zigga Zagga", "Hello! Hello!" and the celebratory "Celery", with the latter often resulting in fans ritually throwing celery. Chelsea do not have a traditional rivalry on the scale of the Merseyside derby or the North London derby; their West London derby with Fulham has not been as prominent over the years, with the two clubs often spending time in separate divisions. A 2004 survey by Planetfootball.com found that Chelsea fans consider their main rivalries to be with (in order): Arsenal, Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester United. Their rivalry with Tottenham Hotspur is said to have developed following the 1967 FA Cup Final, the first cup final held between two London clubs. Additionally, a strong rivalry with Leeds United dates back to several heated and controversial matches in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly the FA Cup final in 1970. A more recent rivalry has grown with Liverpool following several clashes in cup competitions – particularly after what José Mourinho dubbed a "ghost goal" by Luis García in the UEFA Champions League 2004–05 semi-final, knocking them out of the competition. During the 1970s and 1980s in particular, Chelsea supporters were long associated with football hooliganism. The club's "football firm", originally the Chelsea Shed Boys, now known as the Chelsea Headhunters, were nationally notorious for violent acts against hooligans from other teams, such as West Ham United's Inter City Firm and Millwall's Bushwackers, both during and after matches. The increase in hooliganism in the 1980s led chairman Ken Bates to propose erecting an electric fence to deter them from invading the pitch; the proposal was rejected by the GLC. Since the 1990s there has been a marked decline in crowd trouble at matches, as a result of stricter policing, CCTV in grounds and the advent of all-seater stadia. Records Of Chelsea's current players, Frank Lampard has made the most appearances and scored the most goals. Chelsea's highest appearance-maker is ex-captain Ron Harris, who played in 795 first-class games for the club between 1961 and 1980. For the appearance and goalscoring records of all Chelsea players, see This record is unlikely to be broken in the near future; Chelsea's current highest appearance-maker is Frank Lampard with 380. The record for a Chelsea goalkeeper is held by Harris's contemporary, Peter Bonetti, who made 729 appearances (1959–79). With 116 caps (74 while at the club), Marcel Desailly of France is Chelsea's most capped international player. Bobby Tambling is Chelsea's all-time top goalscorer, with 202 goals in 370 games (1959–70). Seven other players have also scored over 100 goals for Chelsea: George Hilsdon (1906–12), George Mills (1929–39), Roy Bentley (1948–56), Jimmy Greaves (1957–61), Peter Osgood (1964–74 & 1978–79), Kerry Dixon (1983–92), and Frank Lampard (2001–). With 193 goals, Dixon is the only player in the club's recent history to have come close to matching Tambling's record. Greaves holds the record for the most goals scored in one season (43 in 1960–61). Lampard is the top scorer currently at the club. Officially, Chelsea's highest home attendance is 82,905 for a First Division match against Arsenal on 12 October 1935. However, an estimated crowd of over 100,000 attended a friendly match against Soviet team Dynamo Moscow on 13 November 1945. The modernisation of Stamford Bridge during the 1990s and the introduction of all-seater stands mean that neither record will be broken for the foreseeable future. The current legal capacity of Stamford Bridge is 42,055. Chelsea hold numerous records in English and European football. They hold the record for the highest ever points total for a league season (95), the fewest goals conceded during a league season (15), the highest number of Premier League victories in a season (29), the highest number of clean sheets overall in a Premier League season (25) (all set during the 2004–05 season), and the most consecutive clean sheets from the start of a league season (6). The club's 21–0 aggregate victory over Jeunesse Hautcharage in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1971 remains a record in European competition. Chelsea hold the record for the longest streak of unbeaten matches at home in the English top-flight, which lasted 86 matches from 20 March 2004 to 26 October 2008. They secured the record on 12 August 2007, beating the previous record of 63 matches unbeaten set by Liverpool between 1978 and 1980. Chelsea's streak of eleven consecutive away league wins, set between 5 April 2008 and 6 December 2008, is also a record for the English top flight. Chelsea have recorded several "firsts" in English football. Along with Arsenal, they were the first club to play with shirt numbers on 25 August 1928 in their match against Swansea Town. Chelsea were the first English side to travel by aeroplane to a domestic away match, when they visited Newcastle United on 19 April 1957, and the first First Division side to play a match on a Sunday, when they faced Stoke City on 27 January 1974. On 26 December 1999, Chelsea became the first British side to field an entirely foreign starting line-up (no British or Irish players) in a Premier League match against Southampton. On 19 May 2007, they became the first team to win the FA Cup at the new Wembley Stadium, having also been the last to win it at the old Wembley. After the conclusion of the 2007/08 season, Chelsea became the highest ranked club under UEFA's five-year coefficient system used in the seeding of European club competitions in the following season, the first English club to do so in the 21st century. In popular culture In 1930, Chelsea featured in one of the earliest football films, The Great Game. One-time Chelsea centre forward, Jack Cock, who by then was playing for Millwall, was the star of the film and several scenes were shot at Stamford Bridge, including the pitch, the boardroom and the dressing rooms. It included guest appearances by then-Chelsea players Andrew Wilson, George Mills and Sam Millington. Owing to the notoriety of the Chelsea Headhunters, a football firm associated with the club, Chelsea have also featured in films about football hooliganism, most recently The Football Factory. Chelsea also appear in the Hindi film, Jhoom Barabar Jhoom. Up until the 1950s, the club had a long-running association with the music halls, with their underachievement often providing material for comedians such as George Robey. It culminated in comedian Norman Long's release of a comic song in 1933, ironically titled "On The Day That Chelsea Went and Won The Cup", the lyrics of which described a series of bizarre and improbable occurrences on the hypothetical day when Chelsea finally won a trophy. The song "Blue Is the Colour" was released as a single in the build-up to the 1972 League Cup Final, with all members of Chelsea's first team squad singing; it reached number five in the UK Singles Chart. The song was later adapted to "White Is the Colour" and adopted as an anthem by the Vancouver Whitecaps. In the build-up to the 1997 FA Cup final, the song "Blue Day", performed by Suggs and members of Chelsea's squad, reached number 22 in the UK charts. Bryan Adams, a fan of Chelsea, dedicated the song "We're Gonna Win" from the album 18 Til I Die to the club. Players As of 10 May 2009. Current squad Out on loan Reserves and youth team For the reserve and youth team squads, see Chelsea F.C. Reserves and Youth Team. Player of the year (1967–2009) YearWinner1967 Peter Bonetti1968 Charlie Cooke1969 David Webb1970 John Hollins1971 John Hollins1972 David Webb1973 Peter Osgood1974 Gary Locke1975 Charlie Cooke1976 Ray Wilkins1977 Ray Wilkins1978 Micky Droy1979 Tommy Langley1980 Clive Walker1981 Petar Borota1982 Mike Fillery1983 Joey Jones1984 Pat Nevin1985 David Speedie1986 Eddie Niedzwiecki1987 Pat Nevin1988 Tony Dorigo YearWinner1989 Graham Roberts1990 Ken Monkou1991 Andy Townsend1992 Paul Elliott1993 Frank Sinclair1994 Steve Clarke1995 Erland Johnsen1996 Ruud Gullit1997 Mark Hughes1998 Dennis Wise1999 Gianfranco Zola2000 Dennis Wise2001 John Terry2002 Carlo Cudicini2003 Gianfranco Zola2004 Frank Lampard2005 Frank Lampard2006 John Terry2007 Michael Essien2008 Joe Cole2009 Frank Lampard Notable managers The following managers have all won at least one trophy when in charge of Chelsea: NamePeriodTrophies Ted Drake1952–1961First Division Championship, Charity Shield Tommy Docherty1962–1967League Cup Dave Sexton1967–1974FA Cup, UEFA Cup Winners' Cup John Neal1981–1985Second Division Championship John Hollins1985–1988Full Members Cup Bobby Campbell1988–1991Second Division Championship, Full Members Cup Ruud Gullit1996–1998FA Cup Gianluca Vialli1998–2000FA Cup, League Cup, UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, Charity Shield, European Super Cup José Mourinho2004–20072 Premier Leagues, 2 League Cups, FA Cup, Community Shield Guus Hiddink 2009FA Cup Coaching staff PositionStaffFirst Team Coach Guus HiddinkAssistant First Team Coach Ray WilkinsGoalkeeping coach Christophe LollichonReserve team manager Paul ClementYouth team manager Dermot DrummyClub doctor Dr. Bryan EnglishChief scout Frank ArnesenHead scout Michael Emenalo Club hierarchy Chelsea Ltd. Owner: Roman Abramovich Chelsea F.C. plc Chairman: Bruce Buck Life President: Lord Richard Attenborough Directors: Peter Kenyon and Eugene Tenenbaum Executive Board Chief Executive: Peter Kenyon Club Secretary : David Barnard Honours Domestic First Division/Premier League Until 1992, when the Premier League was formed, the top tier of English football was known as the First Division Champions: 1954–55, 2004–05, 2005–06 Runner-up: 2003–04, 2006–07, 2007–08 Second Division Champions: 1983–84, 1988–89 Runner-up: 1906–07, 1911–12, 1929–30, 1962–63, 1976–77 FA Cup Winners: 1970, 1997, 2000, 2007, 2009 Runner-up: 1915, 1967, 1994, 2002 League Cup Winners: 1965, 1998, 2005, 2007 Runner-up: 1972, 2008 FA Charity Shield/FA Community Shield The trophy was known as the Charity Shield until 2002, and as the Community Shield ever since. Winners: 1955, 2000, 2005 Runner-up: 1970, 1997, 2006, 2007 Full Members Cup Winners: 1986, 1990 European UEFA Champions League Runner-up: 2008 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Winners: 1971, 1998 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup Semi-finalists: 1966 UEFA Super Cup Winners: 1998 Footnotes References External links Official Club site Chelsea FC – Premier League site Chelsea Formations Chelsea News – Skysports.com Chelsea FC Team News from Carling History of Chelsea badges All Chelsea's competitive results and League tables Experience Football behind the scenes of Chelsea FC be-x-old:ФК Чэлсі | Chelsea_F.C. |@lemmatized chelsea:105 football:30 club:60 also:9 know:5 blue:16 previously:2 pensioner:5 professional:1 english:17 base:3 west:7 london:10 team:22 found:4 play:9 premier:12 league:41 spend:4 history:5 top:9 tier:2 champion:12 three:5 time:12 win:22 fa:21 cup:57 five:3 four:2 uefa:16 winner:14 twice:1 first:31 major:6 success:3 championship:7 several:8 competition:6 another:4 title:4 past:1 decade:4 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4,887 | Obsidian | Obsidian is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed as an extrusive igneous rock. It is produced when felsic lava extruded from a volcano cools without crystal growth. Obsidian is commonly found within the margins of rhyolitic lava flows known as obsidian flows, where the chemical composition (high silica content) induces a high viscosity and polymerization degree of the lava. The inhibition of atomic diffusion through this highly viscous and polymerized lava explains the lack of crystal growth. Because of the lack of crystal structure, obsidian blade edges can reach almost molecular thinness, leading to its ancient use as projectile points, and its modern use as surgical scalpel blades. Primitive Technology: A Book of Earth Skills David Wescott Origin and properties Pliny's Natural History features volcanic glass called "Obsidianus", so named from its resemblance to a stone found in Ethiopia by one Obsius. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O27-obsidian.html Obsidian is mineral-like, but not a true mineral because as a glass it is not crystalline; in addition, its composition is too complex to comprise a single mineral. It is sometimes classified as a mineraloid. Though obsidian is dark in color similar to mafic rocks such as basalt, obsidian's composition is extremely felsic. Obsidian consists mainly of SiO2 (silicon dioxide), usually 70% or more. Crystalline rocks with obsidian's composition include granite and rhyolite. Because obsidian is metastable at the earth's surface (over time the glass becomes fine-grained mineral crystals), no obsidian has been found that is older than Cretaceous age. This breakdown of obsidian is accelerated by the presence of water. Obsidian has low water content when fresh, typically less than 1% water by weight , but becomes progressively hydrated when exposed to groundwater, forming perlite. Tektites were once thought by many to be obsidian produced by lunar volcanic eruptions, though few scientists now adhere to this hypothesis. Pure obsidian is usually dark in appearance, though the color varies depending on the presence of impurities. Iron and magnesium typically give the obsidian a dark green to brown to black color. A very few samples are nearly colorless. In some stones, the inclusion of small, white, radially clustered crystals of cristobalite in the black glass produce a blotchy or snowflake pattern (snowflake obsidian). It may contain patterns of gas bubbles remaining from the lava flow, aligned along layers created as the molten rock was flowing before being cooled. These bubbles can produce interesting effects such as a golden sheen (sheen obsidian) or a rainbow sheen (rainbow obsidian). Occurrence Obsidian can be found in locations which have experienced rhyolitic eruptions. It can be found in Armenia, Canada, Chile, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Kenya, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Scotland, Turkey and United States. Obsidian flows which may be hiked on are found within the calderas of Newberry Volcano and Medicine Lake Volcano in the Cascade Range of western North America, and at Inyo Craters east of the Sierra Nevada in California. Yellowstone National Park has a mountainside containing obsidian located between Mammoth Hot Springs and the Norris Geyser Basin, and deposits can be found in many other western U.S. states including Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, Oregon Oregon Obsidian Sources and Idaho. Historical use Obsidian talus at Obsidian Dome, California. Obsidian arrowhead. Obsidian was valued in Stone Age cultures because, like flint, it could be fractured to produce sharp blades or arrowheads. Like all glass and some other types of naturally occurring rocks, obsidian breaks with a characteristic conchoidal fracture. It was also polished to create early mirrors. Pre-Columbian Mesoamericans' use of obsidian was extensive and sophisticated; including carved and worked obsidian for tools and decorative objects. Mesoamericans also made a type of sword with obsidian blades mounted in a wooden body. Called a macuahuitl, the weapon was capable of inflicting terrible injuries, combining the sharp cutting edge of an obsidian blade with the ragged cut of a serrated weapon. Lithic analysis can be instrumental in understanding prehispanic groups in Mesoamerica. A careful analysis of obsidian in a culture or place can be of considerable use to reconstruct commerce, production, distribution and thereby understand economic, social and political aspects of a civilization. This is the case in Yaxchilán, a Maya city where even warfare implications have been studied linked with obsidian use and its debris. Brokmann, Carlos, Tipología y análisis de la obsidiana de Yaxchilán, Chiapas, Colcción Científica, no.422, INAH, 2000, 284p. Another example is the archeological recovery at coastal Chumash sites in California indicating considerable trade with the distant site of Casa Diablo in the Sierra Mountains. C.Michael Hogan (2008) Morro Creek, ed. by A. Burnham Native American people traded obsidian throughout North America. Each volcano and in some cases each volcanic eruption produces a distinguishable type of obsidian, making it possible for archaeologists to trace the origins of a particular artifact. Similar tracing techniques have allowed obsidian to be identified in Greece also as coming from Melos, Nisyros or Yiali, islands in the Aegean Sea. Obsidian cores and blades were traded great distances inland from the coast. Obsidian was also used on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) for edged tools such as Mataia and the pupils of the eyes of their Moai (statues). Modern archaeologists have developed a relative dating system, Obsidian hydration dating, to calculate the age of Obsidian artifacts. Current use Pig carved in snowflake obsidian, 10 centimeters (4 in) long. The markings are spherulites. Obsidian has been used in cardiac surgery, as well-crafted obsidian blades have a cutting edge many times sharper than high-quality steel surgical scalpels, with the edge of the blade being only about 3 nanometres wide . Even the sharpest metal knife has a jagged, irregular blade when viewed under a strong enough microscope. When examined under an electron microscope an obsidian blade is still smooth and even. One study found that obsidian produced narrower scars, fewer inflammatory cells, and less granulation tissue in a group of rats. Obsidian is also used for ornamental purposes and as a gemstone. It possesses the property of presenting a different appearance according to the manner in which it is cut. When cut in one direction it is a beautiful jet black; when cut across another direction it is glistening gray. "Apache tears" are small rounded obsidian nuggets embedded within a grayish-white perlite matrix. See also Amorphism Flint knapping Hyaloclastite and tachylite - volcanic glasses with basaltic composition Obsidian hydration dating Obsidian use in Mesoamerica Volcanic glass Yaxchilan Lintel 24 - Ancient carving showing a Maya bloodletting ritual involving a rope with obsidian shards. References External links Mindat with location data Obsidian: Mineral galleries USGS Obsidian photo glossary | Obsidian |@lemmatized obsidian:54 naturally:2 occur:2 volcanic:6 glass:8 form:2 extrusive:1 igneous:1 rock:5 produce:7 felsic:2 lava:5 extrude:1 volcano:4 cool:2 without:1 crystal:5 growth:2 commonly:1 find:8 within:3 margin:1 rhyolitic:2 flow:5 know:1 chemical:1 composition:5 high:3 silica:1 content:2 induce:1 viscosity:1 polymerization:1 degree:1 inhibition:1 atomic:1 diffusion:1 highly:1 viscous:1 polymerized:1 explain:1 lack:2 structure:1 blade:10 edge:4 reach:1 almost:1 molecular:1 thinness:1 lead:1 ancient:2 use:11 projectile:1 point:1 modern:2 surgical:2 scalpel:2 primitive:1 technology:1 book:1 earth:2 skill:1 david:1 wescott:1 origin:2 property:2 pliny:1 natural:1 history:1 feature:1 call:2 obsidianus:1 name:1 resemblance:1 stone:3 ethiopia:1 one:3 obsius:1 http:1 www:1 encyclopedia:1 com:1 doc:1 html:1 mineral:5 like:3 true:1 crystalline:2 addition:1 complex:1 comprise:1 single:1 sometimes:1 classify:1 mineraloid:1 though:3 dark:3 color:3 similar:2 mafic:1 basalt:1 extremely:1 consist:1 mainly:1 silicon:1 dioxide:1 usually:2 include:3 granite:1 rhyolite:1 metastable:1 surface:1 time:2 become:2 fine:1 grained:1 old:1 cretaceous:1 age:3 breakdown:1 accelerate:1 presence:2 water:3 low:1 fresh:1 typically:2 less:2 weight:1 progressively:1 hydrate:1 expose:1 groundwater:1 perlite:2 tektite:1 think:1 many:3 lunar:1 eruption:3 scientist:1 adhere:1 hypothesis:1 pure:1 appearance:2 vary:1 depend:1 impurity:1 iron:1 magnesium:1 give:1 green:1 brown:1 black:3 sample:1 nearly:1 colorless:1 inclusion:1 small:2 white:2 radially:1 clustered:1 cristobalite:1 blotchy:1 snowflake:3 pattern:2 may:2 contain:2 gas:1 bubble:2 remain:1 align:1 along:1 layer:1 create:2 molten:1 interesting:1 effect:1 golden:1 sheen:3 rainbow:2 occurrence:1 location:2 experience:1 armenia:1 canada:1 chile:1 greece:2 iceland:1 italy:1 kenya:1 mexico:2 new:2 zealand:1 peru:1 scotland:1 turkey:1 united:1 state:2 hike:1 caldera:1 newberry:1 medicine:1 lake:1 cascade:1 range:1 western:2 north:2 america:2 inyo:1 crater:1 east:1 sierra:2 nevada:1 california:3 yellowstone:1 national:1 park:1 mountainside:1 locate:1 mammoth:1 hot:1 spring:1 norris:1 geyser:1 basin:1 deposit:1 u:1 arizona:1 colorado:1 texas:1 utah:1 oregon:2 source:1 idaho:1 historical:1 talus:1 dome:1 arrowhead:2 value:1 culture:2 flint:2 could:1 fracture:2 sharp:4 type:3 break:1 characteristic:1 conchoidal:1 also:6 polish:1 early:1 mirror:1 pre:1 columbian:1 mesoamerican:2 extensive:1 sophisticated:1 carve:3 work:1 tool:2 decorative:1 object:1 make:2 sword:1 mount:1 wooden:1 body:1 macuahuitl:1 weapon:2 capable:1 inflict:1 terrible:1 injury:1 combine:1 cutting:1 ragged:1 cut:5 serrated:1 lithic:1 analysis:2 instrumental:1 understand:2 prehispanic:1 group:2 mesoamerica:2 careful:1 place:1 considerable:2 reconstruct:1 commerce:1 production:1 distribution:1 thereby:1 economic:1 social:1 political:1 aspect:1 civilization:1 case:2 yaxchilán:2 maya:2 city:1 even:3 warfare:1 implication:1 study:2 link:2 debris:1 brokmann:1 carlos:1 tipología:1 análisis:1 de:2 la:1 obsidiana:1 chiapas:1 colcción:1 científica:1 inah:1 another:2 example:1 archeological:1 recovery:1 coastal:1 chumash:1 site:2 indicate:1 trade:3 distant:1 casa:1 diablo:1 mountain:1 c:1 michael:1 hogan:1 morro:1 creek:1 ed:1 burnham:1 native:1 american:1 people:1 throughout:1 distinguishable:1 possible:1 archaeologist:2 trace:2 particular:1 artifact:2 technique:1 allow:1 identify:1 come:1 melos:1 nisyros:1 yiali:1 island:2 aegean:1 sea:1 core:1 great:1 distance:1 inland:1 coast:1 rapa:1 nui:1 easter:1 edged:1 mataia:1 pupil:1 eye:1 moai:1 statue:1 develop:1 relative:1 dating:2 system:1 hydration:2 calculate:1 current:1 pig:1 centimeter:1 long:1 marking:1 spherulites:1 cardiac:1 surgery:1 well:1 craft:1 quality:1 steel:1 nanometre:1 wide:1 metal:1 knife:1 jag:1 irregular:1 view:1 strong:1 enough:1 microscope:2 examine:1 electron:1 still:1 smooth:1 narrow:1 scar:1 inflammatory:1 cell:1 granulation:1 tissue:1 rat:1 ornamental:1 purpose:1 gemstone:1 possess:1 present:1 different:1 accord:1 manner:1 direction:2 beautiful:1 jet:1 across:1 glisten:1 gray:1 apache:1 tear:1 rounded:1 nugget:1 embed:1 grayish:1 matrix:1 see:1 amorphism:1 knap:1 hyaloclastite:1 tachylite:1 basaltic:1 date:1 yaxchilan:1 lintel:1 show:1 bloodletting:1 ritual:1 involve:1 rope:1 shard:1 reference:1 external:1 mindat:1 data:1 gallery:1 usgs:1 photo:1 glossary:1 |@bigram extrusive_igneous:1 igneous_rock:1 lava_flow:2 obsidian_blade:5 http_www:1 mafic_rock:1 silicon_dioxide:1 fine_grained:1 volcanic_eruption:2 sierra_nevada:1 pre_columbian:1 cutting_edge:1 michael_hogan:1 aegean_sea:1 rapa_nui:1 electron_microscope:1 grayish_white:1 external_link:1 |
4,888 | Colin_Dexter | Norman Colin Dexter, OBE, (born 29 September 1930 in Stamford, Lincolnshire) is an English crime writer, known for his Inspector Morse novels. Early life and career Dexter was educated at Stamford School, where his brother, John Dexter, had been before him and went on to teach at Kings School, Peterborough. After completing his National Service with the Royal Corps of Signals he read classics at Christ's College, Cambridge, graduating in 1953 and receiving an honorary Masters Degree in 1958. In 1954, he started his teaching career in the East Midlands, becoming assistant classics master at Wyggeston School, Leicester. A post at Loughborough Grammar School followed, before he took up the position of senior classics teacher at Corby Grammar School, Northamptonshire, in 1959. In 1966, he was forced by the onset of deafness to retire from teaching, and took up the post of Senior Assistant Secretary at the University of Oxford Delegacy of Local Examinations (UODLE) in Oxford - a job he held until his retirement in 1988. Dexter featured prominently in the BBC programme "How to Solve a Cryptic Crossword" as part of the Time Shift series broadcast in November 2008 in which he recounted some of the crossword clues solved by Morse. Writing career He started writing mysteries in 1972 during a family holiday: "We were in a little guest house halfway between Caernarfon and Pwllheli. It was a Saturday and it was raining - it's not unknown for it to rain in North Wales. The children were moaning ... I was sitting at the kitchen table with nothing else to do, and I wrote the first few paragraphs of a potential detective novel." Last Bus to Woodstock was published in 1975 and introduced the world to the character of Inspector Morse, the irascible detective whose penchants for cryptic crosswords, English literature, cask ale and Wagner reflect Dexter's own enthusiasms. Dexter's plots are notable for his use of false leads and other red herrings. The success of the 33 episodes of the TV series Inspector Morse, produced between 1987 and 2001, brought further acclaim for Dexter. In the manner of Alfred Hitchcock, he also makes a cameo appearance in almost all episodes. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0223294/bio. Retrieved 5 January 2006. Dexter suggested the English poet A E Housman as his "great life" on the BBC Radio 4 programme of that name in May 2008. Dexter and Housman were both classicists who found a popular audience for another genre of writing. Awards and honours Dexter has been the recipient of several Crime Writers' Association awards: two Silver Dagger's for Service of All the Dead in 1979 and The Dead of Jericho in 1981; two Gold Dagger's for The Wench is Dead in 1989 and The Way Through the Woods in 1992; and a Cartier Diamond Dagger for lifetime achievement in 1997. In 1996 Dexter received a Macavity Award for his short story Evans Tries an O-Level. Im 1980, he was elected a member of the by-invitation-only Detection Club. In 2000 Dexter was awarded the Order of the British Empire for services to literature. Bibliography Novels Last Bus to Woodstock (1975) Last Seen Wearing (1976) The Silent World of Nicholas Quinn (1977) Service of All the Dead (1979) The Dead of Jericho (1981) The Riddle of the Third Mile (1983) The Secret of Annexe 3 (1986) The Wench is Dead (1989) The Jewel That Was Ours (1991) The Way Through the Woods (1992) The Daughters of Cain (1994) Death is Now My Neighbour (1996) The Remorseful Day (1999) Novellas and short story collections The Inside Story (1993); Special edition, commissioned by American Express London: Pan, Pub date 1993, Paperback, 56p.; includes crossword puzzle Neighbourhood Watch (1993); Limited edition of 229 copies Richmond: Hartley Moorhouse and Geir Moe Sorenson ISBN 1898154007, Pub date May 1993, Paperback in slip case Morse's Greatest Mystery (1993); also published as As Good as Gold "As Good as Gold" [Insp. Morse] "Morse's Greatest Mystery" [Insp. Morse] "Evans Tries an O-Level" "Dead as a Dodo" [Insp. Morse] "At The Lulu-Bar Motel" "Neighbourhood Watch" [Insp. Morse] "A Case of Mis-Identity" "The Inside Story" [Insp. Morse] "Monty's Revolver" "The Carpet-Bagger" "Last Call" [Insp. Morse] Uncollected short stories "The Burglar" in You, The Mail on Sunday, 1994 "The Double Crossing" in Mysterious Pleasures, ed. Martin Edwards, London: Little, Brown, 2003 "Between the Lines" in The Detection Collection [a Detection Club volume], ed. Simon Brett, Orion, 2005. "The Case of the Curious Quorum" in The Verdict of Us All [a Detection Club volume], ed. Peter Lovesey, Crippen & Landru, 2006, featuring Inspector Lewis. "The Other Half" in The Strand Magazine, February-May, 2007. "Morse and the Mystery of the Drunken Driver" in Daily Mail, December 2008 See also Diogenes Small References External links | Colin_Dexter |@lemmatized norman:1 colin:1 dexter:12 obe:1 born:1 september:1 stamford:2 lincolnshire:1 english:3 crime:2 writer:2 know:1 inspector:4 morse:13 novel:3 early:1 life:2 career:3 educate:1 school:5 brother:1 john:1 go:1 teach:3 king:1 peterborough:1 complete:1 national:1 service:4 royal:1 corp:1 signal:1 read:1 classic:3 christ:1 college:1 cambridge:1 graduate:1 receive:2 honorary:1 master:2 degree:1 start:2 east:1 midland:1 become:1 assistant:2 wyggeston:1 leicester:1 post:2 loughborough:1 grammar:2 follow:1 take:2 position:1 senior:2 teacher:1 corby:1 northamptonshire:1 force:1 onset:1 deafness:1 retire:1 secretary:1 university:1 oxford:2 delegacy:1 local:1 examination:1 uodle:1 job:1 hold:1 retirement:1 feature:2 prominently:1 bbc:2 programme:2 solve:2 cryptic:2 crossword:4 part:1 time:1 shift:1 series:2 broadcast:1 november:1 recount:1 clue:1 write:4 mystery:4 family:1 holiday:1 little:2 guest:1 house:1 halfway:1 caernarfon:1 pwllheli:1 saturday:1 rain:2 unknown:1 north:1 wale:1 child:1 moan:1 sit:1 kitchen:1 table:1 nothing:1 else:1 first:1 paragraph:1 potential:1 detective:2 last:4 bus:2 woodstock:2 publish:2 introduce:1 world:2 character:1 irascible:1 whose:1 penchant:1 literature:2 cask:1 ale:1 wagner:1 reflect:1 enthusiasm:1 plot:1 notable:1 use:1 false:1 lead:1 red:1 herring:1 success:1 episode:2 tv:1 produce:1 bring:1 far:1 acclaim:1 manner:1 alfred:1 hitchcock:1 also:3 make:1 cameo:1 appearance:1 almost:1 http:1 www:1 imdb:1 com:1 name:2 bio:1 retrieve:1 january:1 suggest:1 poet:1 e:1 housman:2 great:3 radio:1 may:3 classicist:1 find:1 popular:1 audience:1 another:1 genre:1 award:4 honour:1 recipient:1 several:1 association:1 two:2 silver:1 dagger:3 dead:7 jericho:2 gold:3 wench:2 way:2 wood:2 cartier:1 diamond:1 lifetime:1 achievement:1 macavity:1 short:3 story:5 evans:2 try:2 level:2 im:1 elect:1 member:1 invitation:1 detection:4 club:3 order:1 british:1 empire:1 bibliography:1 see:2 wear:1 silent:1 nicholas:1 quinn:1 riddle:1 third:1 mile:1 secret:1 annexe:1 jewel:1 daughter:1 cain:1 death:1 neighbour:1 remorseful:1 day:1 novella:1 collection:2 inside:2 special:1 edition:2 commission:1 american:1 express:1 london:2 pan:1 pub:2 date:2 paperback:2 include:1 puzzle:1 neighbourhood:2 watch:2 limited:1 copy:1 richmond:1 hartley:1 moorhouse:1 geir:1 moe:1 sorenson:1 isbn:1 slip:1 case:3 good:2 insp:6 dodo:1 lulu:1 bar:1 motel:1 mi:1 identity:1 monty:1 revolver:1 carpet:1 bagger:1 call:1 uncollected:1 burglar:1 mail:2 sunday:1 double:1 crossing:1 mysterious:1 pleasure:1 ed:3 martin:1 edward:1 brown:1 line:1 volume:2 simon:1 brett:1 orion:1 curious:1 quorum:1 verdict:1 u:1 peter:1 lovesey:1 crippen:1 landru:1 lewis:1 half:1 strand:1 magazine:1 february:1 drunken:1 driver:1 daily:1 december:1 diogenes:1 small:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram colin_dexter:1 inspector_morse:3 cryptic_crossword:2 bus_woodstock:2 cask_ale:1 red_herring:1 alfred_hitchcock:1 cameo_appearance:1 http_www:1 www_imdb:1 imdb_com:1 lifetime_achievement:1 remorseful_day:1 crossword_puzzle:1 insp_morse:6 external_link:1 |
4,889 | Geography_of_Honduras | Map of Honduras Shaded relief map of Honduras, 1985 Economic activity map of Honduras, 1983 Land use map of Honduras, 1983 Honduras is a country situated in Central America. Honduras borders the Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean. Guatemala lies to the west, Nicaragua to the south east and El Salvador to the south west. It is the second largest Central American republic. The triangular-shaped country has a total area of just over 43,000 square miles. The 735-kilometers northern boundary is the Caribbean coast extending from the mouth of the Río Motagua on the west to the mouth of the Río Coco on the east, at Cape Gracias a Dios. The 922-kilometer southeastern side of the triangle is the land border with Nicaragua; it follows the Río Coco near the Caribbean Sea and then extends southwestward through mountainous terrain to the Gulf of Fonseca on the Pacific Ocean. The southern apex of the triangle is a 153- kilometer coastline at the Gulf of Fonseca, which opens onto the Pacific Ocean. The western land boundary consists of the 342-kilometer border with El Salvador and the 256-kilometer border with Guatemala. Honduras controls a number of islands as part of its offshore territories. In the Caribbean Sea, the islands of Roatán (Isla de Roatán), Utila, and Guanaja together form Islas de la Bahía (Bay Islands), one of the eighteen departments into which Honduras is divided. Roatán, the largest of the three islands, is fifty kilometers long by five kilometers wide. The Islas de la Bahía archipelago also has a number of smaller islands, among them the islets of Barbareta (Isla Barbareta), Santa Elena (Isla Santa Elena), and Morat (Isla Morat). Farther out in the Caribbean are the Islas Santanillas, formerly known as Swan Islands. A number of small islands and keys can be found nearby, among them Cayos Zapotillos and Cayos Cochinos. In the Gulf of Fonseca, the main islands under Honduran control are El Tigre, Zacate Grande (Isla Zacate Grande), and Exposición (Isla Exposición). Geographic coordinates: Boundary disputes A two-centuries-old border dispute between El Salvador and Honduras appears to have been resolved in 1993. At issue in this territorial dispute was ownership of six contested bolsones (pockets) of land encompassing a total area of 436.9 square kilometers as well as two islands (Meanguera and El Tigre) in the Gulf of Fonseca, and right of passage for Honduras to the Pacific Ocean from its southern coast. The origins of the boundary dispute date back to the eighteenth century when colonial boundaries were ill defined. In the late nineteenth century, numerous attempts at mediation failed to settle the dispute. The issue continued to fester in the twentieth century and was a contributing factor in the outbreak of war between the two countries in 1969 (see War with El Salvador , ch. 1). The General Peace Treaty, signed by El Salvador and Honduras on October 30, 1980, in Lima, Peru, represented the first real breakthrough on this border dispute. The peace treaty stated that the two parties agreed to submit the boundary dispute to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague if they failed to reach a border agreement after five years of negotiations. By 1985 the two countries had not reached an agreement. In 1986 the case reached the ICJ, which handed down a ruling on September 11, 1992. Both countries accepted the ICJ decision, and a commission was established to decide the citizenship of residents of the bolsones. Of the 436.9 square kilometers in dispute, 300.6 square kilometers were granted to Honduras, and 136.3 were granted to El Salvador. Of the six bolsones, Honduras was awarded complete control of one and approximately 80 percent of another. The remaining four were split with El Salvador. El Salvador was awarded possession of the island of Meanguera, and Honduras was awarded control of the island of El Tigre. More importantly for Honduras, the ICJ ruling assured Honduras's free passage to the Pacific Ocean. The ICJ also decided that the Gulf of Fonseca does not represent international waters because of the two countries' shared history as provinces of the same colonial power and subsequent membership in the United Provinces of Central America. The court ruled, rather, that the Gulf of Fonseca is a condominium, with control being shared by El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua. The latter country also has a coastline on the gulf. The decision allowed for the possibility that the three nations could divide the waters at a later date if they wished to do so. Topography Topography of Honduras Honduras has three distinct topographical regions: an extensive interior highland area and two narrow coastal lowlands. The interior, which constitutes approximately 80 percent of the country's terrain, is mountainous. The larger Caribbean lowlands in the north and the Pacific lowlands bordering the Gulf of Fonseca are characterized by alluvial plains. Interior highlands The interior highlands are the most prominent feature of Honduran topography. Composing approximately 80 percent of the country's total area, these mountain areas are home to the majority of the population. Because the rugged terrain has made the land difficult to traverse and equally difficult to cultivate, this area has not been highly developed. The soil here is poor; Honduras lacks the rich volcanic ash found in other Central American countries. Until the early part of the twentieth century, the highlands economy consisted primarily of mining and livestock. In the west, Honduras's mountains blend into the mountain ranges of Guatemala. The western mountains have the highest peaks, with the Pico Congolón at an elevation of 2,500 meters and the Cerro de Las Minas at 2,850 meters. These mountains are woodland covered with mainly pine forests. In the east, the mountains merge with those in Nicaragua. Although generally not as high as the mountains near the Guatemalan border, the eastern ranges possess some high peaks, such as the Montaña de la Flor at 2,300 meters, El Boquerón (Monte El Boquerón) at 2,485 meters, and Pico Bonito at 2,435 meters. One of the most prominent features of the interior highlands is a depression that runs from the Caribbean Sea to the Gulf of Fonseca. This depression splits the country's cordilleras into eastern and western parts and provides a relatively easy transportation route across the isthmus. Widest at its northern end near San Pedro Sula, the depression narrows as it follows the upper course of the Río Humuya. Passing first through Comayagua and then through narrow passes south of the city, the depression widens again as it runs along the border of El Salvador into the Gulf of Fonseca. Scattered throughout the interior highlands are numerous flatfloored valleys, 300 to 900 meters in elevation, which vary in size. The floors of the large valleys provide sufficient grass, shrubs, and dry woodland to support livestock and, in some cases, commercial agriculture. Subsistence agriculture has been relegated to the slopes of the valleys, with the limitations of small-sized holdings, primitive technology, and low productivity that traditionally accompany hillside cultivation. Villages and towns, including the capital, Tegucigalpa, are tucked in the larger valleys. Vegetation in the interior highlands is varied. Much of the western, southern, and central mountains are open woodland;supporting pine forest interspersed with some oak, scrub, and grassy clearings. The ranges toward the east are primarily continuous areas of dense, broad-leaf evergreen forest. Around the highest peaks, remnants of dense rain forest that formerly covered much of the area are still found. Caribbean lowlands This area of river valleys and coastal plains, which most Honduras call "the north coast," or simply "the coast," has traditionally been Honduras's most exploited region. The central part of the Caribbean lowlands, east of La Ceiba, is a narrow coastal plain only a few kilometers wide. To the east and west of this section, however, the Caribbean lowlands widen and in places extend inland a considerable distance along broad river valleys. The broadest river valley, along the Río Ulúa near the Guatemalan border, is Honduras's most developed area. Both Puerto Cortés, the country's largest port, and San Pedro Sula, Honduras's industrial capital, are located here, as is La Ceiba, the third largest city in the country. To the east, near the Nicaraguan border, the Caribbean lowlands broaden to an extensive area known as the Mosquitia. Unlike the western part of the Caribbean lowlands, the Mosquitia is Honduras's least-developed area. Underpopulated and culturally distinct from the rest of the country, the area consists of inland savannah with swamps and mangrove near the coast. During times of heavy rainfall, much of the savannah area is covered by shallow water, making transportation by means other than a shallow-draft boat almost impossible. Pacific lowlands The smallest physiographic region of Honduras, the Pacific lowlands, is a strip of land averaging twenty-five kilometers wide on the north shore of the Gulf of Fonseca. The land is flat, becoming swampy near the shores of the gulf, and is composed mostly of alluvial soils washed down from the mountains. The gulf is shallow and the water rich in fish and mollusks. Mangroves along the shore make shrimp and shellfish particularly abundant by providing safe and abundant breeding areas amid their extensive networks of underwater roots. Several islands in the gulf fall under Honduras's jurisdiction. The two largest, Zacate Grande and El Tigre, are eroded volcanoes, part of the chain of volcanoes that extends along the Pacific coast of Central America. Both islands have volcanic cones more than 700 meters in elevation that serve as markers for vessels entering Honduras's Pacific ports. Climate of Honduras Climate The climatic types of each of the three physiographic regions differ. The Caribbean lowlands have a tropical wet climate with consistently high temperatures and humidity, and rainfall fairly evenly distributed throughout the year. The Pacific lowlands have a tropical wet and dry climate with high temperatures but a distinct dry season from November through April. The interior highlands also have a distinct dry season, but, as is characteristic of a tropical highland climate, temperatures in this region decrease as elevation increases. Unlike in more northerly latitudes, temperatures in the tropics vary primarily with elevation instead of with the season. Land below 1,000 meters is commonly known as tierra caliente (hot land), between 1,000 and 2,000 meters tierra templada (temperate land), and above 2,000 meters tierra fría (cold land). Both the Caribbean and Pacific lowlands are tierra caliente, with daytime highs averaging between 28 °C and 32 °C throughout the year. In the Pacific lowlands, April, the last month of the dry season, brings the warmest temperatures; the rainy season is slightly cooler, although higher humidity during the rainy season makes these months feel more uncomfortable. In the Caribbean lowlands, the only relief from the year-round heat and humidity comes during December or January when an occasional strong cold front from the north (a norte) brings several days of strong northwest winds and slightly cooler temperatures. The interior highlands range from tierra templada to tierra fría. Tegucigalpa, in a sheltered valley and at an elevation of 1,000 meters, has a pleasant climate, with an average high temperature ranging from 30 °C in April, the warmest month, to 25 °C in January, the coolest. Above 2,000 meters, temperatures can fall to near freezing at night, and frost sometimes occurs. Rain falls year round in the Caribbean lowlands but is seasonal throughout the rest of the country. Amounts are copious along the north coast, especially in the Mosquitia, where the average rainfall is 2,400 millimeters. Nearer San Pedro Sula, amounts are slightly less from November to April, but each month still has considerable precipitation. The interior highlands and Pacific lowlands have a dry season, known locally as "summer," from November to April. Almost all the rain in these regions falls during the "winter," from May to September. Total yearly amounts depend on surrounding topography; Tegucigalpa, in a sheltered valley, averages only 1,000 millimeters of precipitation. Honduras lies within the hurricane belt, and the Caribbean coast is particularly vulnerable to hurricanes or tropical storms that travel inland from the Caribbean. Hurricane Francelia in 1969 and Tropical Storm Alleta in 1982 affected thousands of people and caused extensive damage to crops. Hurricane Fifi in 1974 killed more than 8,000 and destroyed nearly the entire banana crop. In 1998 Hurricane Mitch became the most deadly hurricane to strike the Western Hemisphere in the last two centuries. This massive hurricane not only battered the Honduran coastline, but engulfed nearly the entire country with its powerful winds and torrential downpours. Throughout Central America Mitch claimed in excess of 11,000 lives, with thousands of others missing. More than three million people were either homeless or severely affected. Most Hurricanes occasionally form over the Pacific and move north to affect southern Honduras, but Pacific storms are generally less severe and their landfall rarer. Hydrography See main article Rivers of Honduras Honduras is a water-rich country. The most important river in Honduras is the Ulúa, which flows 400 kilometers to the Caribbean through the economically important Valle de Sula. Numerous other rivers drain the interior highlands and empty north into the Caribbean. These other rivers are important, not as transportation routes, but because of the broad fertile valleys they have produced. The Choluteca River runs south from Tegucigalpa though Choluteca and out at the Gulf of Fonseca. Rivers also define about half of Honduras's international borders. The Río Goascorán, flowing to the Gulf of Fonseca, and the Río Lempa define part of the border between El Salvador and Honduras. The Coco River marks about half of the border between Nicaragua and Honduras. Despite an abundance of rivers, large bodies of water are rare. Lago de Yojoa, located in the west-central part of the country, is the sole natural lake in Honduras. This lake is twenty-two kilometers long and at its widest point measures fourteen kilometers. Several large, brackish lagoons open onto the Caribbean in northeast Honduras. These shallow bodies of water allow limited transportation to points along the coast. Other facts Area total: 112,492 km² land: 111,890 km² water: 200 km² Land boundaries total: 1,520 km border countries: Guatemala 256 km, El Salvador 342 km, Nicaragua 922 km Coastline 820 km Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm (44 km) continental shelf: natural extension of territory or to 200 nm (370 km) exclusive economic zone: 200 nm (370 km) territorial sea: 12 nm (22 km) Climate Honduras is tropical in the lowlands and temperate in the mountains. The Pacific coast region is slightly hotter than the Atlantic coast region. Terrain Honduras has a mountainous interior, a narrow Pacific coastal plain, the Sula Valley in the north west running down to San Pedro Sula, a further coastal strip heading east until the large La Mosquita jungle plain in the North East. Elevation extremes Lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m Highest point: Cerro Las Minas 2,870 m Natural resources timber, gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron ore, antimony, coal, fish, hydropower Land use arable land: 15% permanent crops: 3% permanent pastures: 14% forests and woodland: 54% other: 14% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 740 km² (1993 est.) Natural hazards Frequent mild, earthquakes, and damaging hurricanes and floods along the Caribbean coast Environment There is a move out of the poor campesinos out of the countryside and into the urban centers. Deforestation resulting from logging is especially rampant in Olancho Department. The clearing of land for agricultural purposes occurs throughout Honduras but especially in the largely undeveloped La Mosquitia region, and causes further land degradation and soil erosion hastened. Mining activities pollute the Lake Yojoa, which is the country's largest source of fresh water, as well as some rivers and streams with heavy metals. Hurricane Mitch caused severe damage. International agreements Honduras has signed and ratified agreements on Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, and Wetlands. Honduras has signed, but not ratified the Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol. See also Honduras List of places in Honduras References | Geography_of_Honduras |@lemmatized map:4 honduras:47 shade:1 relief:2 economic:2 activity:2 land:18 use:2 country:20 situate:1 central:9 america:4 border:16 caribbean:23 sea:7 north:10 pacific:18 ocean:5 guatemala:4 lie:2 west:7 nicaragua:6 south:4 east:9 el:18 salvador:12 second:1 large:12 american:2 republic:1 triangular:1 shaped:1 total:6 area:16 square:4 mile:1 kilometer:15 northern:2 boundary:7 coast:12 extend:4 mouth:2 río:7 motagua:1 coco:3 cape:1 gracias:1 dios:1 southeastern:1 side:1 triangle:2 follow:2 near:9 southwestward:1 mountainous:3 terrain:4 gulf:16 fonseca:12 southern:4 apex:1 coastline:4 open:3 onto:2 western:6 consists:1 control:5 number:3 island:13 part:8 offshore:1 territory:2 roatán:3 isla:6 de:7 utila:1 guanaja:1 together:1 form:2 islas:3 la:9 bahía:2 bay:1 one:3 eighteen:1 department:2 divide:2 three:5 fifty:1 long:2 five:3 wide:5 archipelago:1 also:6 small:4 among:2 islet:1 barbareta:2 santa:2 elena:2 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4,890 | LeRoy_Homer,_Jr. | LeRoy Wilton Homer Jr. as an Air Force Academy cadet LeRoy Wilton Homer Jr. (August 27, 1965 - September 11, 2001) was the First Officer of United Airlines Flight 93, which crashed into a reclaimed coal-mining area near Stonycreek and Shanksville on September 11 2001. He grew up on Long Island in New York where he always dreamed of flying. As a child, he assembled model airplanes, collected aviation memorabilia and read books on aviation. He was 15 years old when he started flight instruction in Cessna 152. Working part-time jobs after school to pay for flying lessons, he completed his first solo at 16 years old and obtained his private pilot's certificate in 1983. LeRoy graduated Ss. Cyril and Methodius School in 1979 and St. John the Baptist Diocesan High School in 1983. On 6 July 1983, he entered the United States Air Force Academy as a member of the class of 1987. As an upperclassman, he was a member of Cadet Squadron 31. He graduated on 27 May 1987 and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the US Air Force. After completing USAF pilot training in 1988, he was assigned to McGuire AFB in New Jersey, flying the Lockheed C-141B Starlifter. While on active duty, Homer served in the Operations Desert Storm and Desert Shield and later supported operations in Somalia. He received many commendations, awards and medals during his military career. In 1993, he was named the Twenty-First Air Force "Aircrew Instructor of the Year". Homer achieved the rank of captain before his honorable discharge from active duty in 1995. Homer continued his military career as a member of the US Air Force Reserve, initially as an instructor pilot with the 356th Airlift Squadron at Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio, then subsequently as an Academy Liaison Officer, recruiting potential candidates for both the United States Air Force Academy and the Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps. During his time with the Reserves, he achieved the rank of major. LeRoy continued his flying career by joining United Airlines in May 1995. His first assignment was Second Officer on the Boeing 727. He then upgraded to First Officer on the Boeing 757/Boeing 767 in 1996, where he remained until September 11, 2001. Melodie and Laurel Homer He married Melodie on May 24, 1998 and his first child, Laurel was born in late 2000. On September 11 2001, Homer was flying with Captain Jason M. Dahl on United Airlines Flight 93, which was hijacked by four terrorists while in flight from Newark to San Francisco. The aircraft was crashed by the terrorists after the crew and passengers tried to regain control. For his actions on board Flight 93, Homer received many awards and citations posthumously, including honorary membership in the historic Tuskegee Airmen, the Congress Of Racial Equality's Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Award, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference Drum Major for Justice Award, and the Westchester County Trailblazer Award. He is survived by his wife, Melodie, his daughter, Laurel, along with his mother, seven sisters, brother, and many other family. Homer was a resident of Marlton, New Jersey. Via Associated Press. "Leroy Homer AF Academy graduate called eternal optimist", Denver Post, September 16, 2001. Accessed November 19, 2008. See also September 11, 2001 Attacks References External links "United Pilot Was a Proud Papa, Helped Others", Newsday. "Huge crowd remembers LeRoy Homer Jr.", phillyBurbs.com. 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4,891 | January | January is the first month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, and one of seven Gregorian months with the length of 31 days. The first day of the month is known as New Year's Day. It is, on average, the coldest month of the year within most of the Northern Hemisphere and the warmest month of the year within most of the Southern Hemisphere. History January, from the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry January is named after Janus (Ianuarius), the god of the doorway; the name has its beginnings in Roman mythology, coming from the Latin word for door (ianua) - January is the door to the year. Traditionally, the original Roman calendar consisted of 10 months, totalling 304 days, winter being considered a monthless period. Around 713 BC, the semi-mythical successor of Romulus, King Numa Pompilius, is supposed to have added the months of January and February, allowing the calendar to equal a standard lunar year (355 days). Although March was originally the first month in the old Roman Calendar, January became the first month of the calendar year either under Numa or under the Decemvirs about 450 BC (Roman writers differ). In contrast, years in dates were identified by naming two consuls, who entered office on May 1 and March 15 before 153 BC when they began to enter office on January 1. Various Christian feast dates were used for the New Year in Europe during the Middle Ages, including March 25 and December 25. However, medieval calendars were still displayed in the Roman fashion of twelve columns from January to December. Beginning in the sixteenth century, European countries began officially making January 1 the start of the New Year once again — sometimes called Circumcision Style because this was the date of the Feast of the Circumcision, being the eighth day from December 25. Historical names for January include its original Roman designation, Ianuarius, the Saxon term Wulf-monath (meaning wolf month) and Charlemagne's designation Wintarmanoth (winter / cold month). In Finnish, the month is called tammikuu, meaning month of the oak, but the original meaning was the month of the heart of winter, as tammi has initially meant axis or core. This month in Czech is called leden, meaning ice month. Holidays in January January, painting by Leandro Bassano New Year's Day – January 1 Handsel Monday in Scotland and northern England – First Monday Three Wise Men Day in Latin America - January 6 Coptic Christmas – January 7 Plough Sunday in Scotland and northern England – Sunday after January 6 in Japan – Second Monday Martin Luther King, Jr. Day in the United States – Third Monday Australia Day in Australia – January 26 Republic Day in India – January 26 Makara Sankranthi (Festival of Harvest) in India – January 15 Auckland Anniversary in Auckland, New Zealand – Monday closest to January 29 Burns night in Scotland - January 25 January symbols The camellia, Japan's floral emblem of January January's birthstone is the garnet which represents constancy. Its birth flower is the carnation or snowdrop. January Birth Flower The Chinese floral emblem of January is the plum blossom. The Japanese floral emblem of January is the camellia. 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4,892 | Arthur_Phillip | Admiral Arthur Phillip RN (11 October 1738 – 31 August 1814) was a British naval Admiral and colonial administrator. Phillip was appointed Governor of New South Wales, the first European colony on the Australian continent, Phillip of Australia, Barnard Eldershaw, M. Angus and Robertson 1938 and was the founder of the site which is now the city of Sydney. Early life and naval career Arthur Phillip was born in Fulham, England in 1738, the son of Jacob Phillip, a German, Frankfort-born language teacher, and his English wife, Elizabeth Breach, who had remarried after the death of her previous husband, a Royal Navy Captain Herbert, R.N. a collateral descendant of the noble family of Herbert, Earl of Pembroke. Phillip was educated at the school of the Greenwich Hospital and at the age of 13 was apprenticed to the merchant navy. Phillip joined the Royal Navy at fifteen, and saw action at the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in the Mediterranean at the Battle of Minorca in 1756. In 1762 he was promoted to Lieutenant, but was placed on half pay when the Seven Years War ended in 1763. During this period he married, and farmed in Lyndhurst, Hampshire. In 1774 Phillip joined the Portuguese Navy as a captain, serving in the War against Spain. While with the Portuguese Phillip commanded a frigate, the Nuestra Senhora do Pilar. On this ship he took a detachment of troops from Rio de Janeiro to Colonia do Sacramento on the Rio de la Plata (opposite Buenos Aires) to relieve the garrison there; this voyage also conveyed a consignment of convicts assigned to carry out work at Colonia. During a storm encountered in the course of the voyage, the convicts assisted in working the ship and on arrival at Colonia Phillip recommended that they be rewarded for saving the ship by remission of their sentences. A garbled version of this eventually found its way into the English press when Phillip was appointed in 1786 to lead the expedition to Sydney. See for example, The World, 16 April 1789. In 1778 England was again at war, and Phillip was recalled to active service, and in 1779 obtained his first command, the Basilisk. He was promoted to captain in 1781, and was given command of the Europe, but in 1784 he was back on half pay. Robert J. King, "Arthur Phillip Defensor de Colónia, Governador de Nova Gales do Sul" ("Arthur Phillip: Defender of Colônia, Governor of New South Wales"), Anais de História de Além-Mar [Portugal], 2005 (6), pp.339-349. Also at: http://web.viu.ca/black/amrc/index.htm (in English and Spanish) and (in Portuguese) at: http://derroteros.perucultural.org.pe/textos/derroteros9/king.doc Governor of New South Wales Then, in October 1786, Phillip was appointed captain of HMS Sirius and named Governor-designate of New South Wales, the proposed British penal colony on the east coast of Australia, by Lord Sydney, the Home Secretary. His choice may have been strongly influenced by George Rose, Under-Secretary of the Treasury and a neighbour of Phillip in Hampshire who would have known of Phillip's farming experience. Phillip had a very difficult time assembling the fleet which was to make the eight-month sea voyage to Australia. Everything a new colony might need had to be taken, since Phillip had no real idea of what he might find when he got there. There were few funds available for equipping the expedition. His suggestion that people with experience in farming, building and crafts be included was rejected. Most of the 772 convicts (of whom 732 survived the voyage) were petty thieves from the London slums. Phillip was accompanied by a contingent of marines and a handful of other officers who were to administer the colony. The First Fleet, of 11 ships, set sail on 13 May 1787. Captain Arthur Phillip collected a number of Cochineal-infested plants from Brazil on his way to establish the first white settlement at Botany Bay. http://www.northwestweeds.nsw.gov.au/prickly_pear_history.htm Prickly Pear in Australia The leading ship, HMS Supply reached Botany Bay setting up camp on the Kurnell Peninsula The Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay With an Account of the Establishment of the Colonies of Port Jackson and Norfolk Island (1789) - from Project Gutenberg , on 18 January 1788. Phillip soon decided that this site, chosen on the recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks, who had accompanied James Cook in 1770, was not suitable, since it had poor soil, no secure anchorage and no reliable water source. After some exploration Phillip decided to go on to Port Jackson, and on 26 January the marines and convicts were landed at Sydney Cove, which Phillip named after Lord Sydney. Shortly after establishing the settlement at Port Jackson, on 15 February 1788, Phillip sent Lieutenant Philip Gidley King with 8 free men and a number of convicts to establish the second British colony in the Pacific at Norfolk Island. This was partly in response to a perceived threat of losing Norfolk Island to the French and partly to establish an alternative food source for the new colony. The early days of the settlement were chaotic and difficult. With limited supplies, the cultivation of food was imperative, but the soils around Sydney were poor, the climate was unfamiliar, and moreover very few of the convicts had any knowledge of agriculture. Farming tools were scarce and the convicts were unwilling farm labourers. The colony was on the verge of outright starvation for an extended period. The marines, poorly disciplined themselves in many cases, were not interested in convict discipline. Almost at once, therefore, Phillip had to appoint overseers from among the ranks of the convicts to get the others working. This was the beginning of the process of convict emancipation which was to culminate in the reforms of Lachlan Macquarie after 1811. Phillip showed in other ways that he recognised that New South Wales could not be run simply as a prison camp. Lord Sydney, often criticised as an ineffectual incompetent, had made one fundamental decision about the settlement that was to influence it from the start. Instead of just establishing it as a military prison, he provided for a civil administration, with courts of law. Two convicts, Henry and Susannah Kable, sought to sue Duncan Sinclair, the captain of Alexander, for stealing their possessions during the voyage. Convicts in Britain had no right to sue, and Sinclair had boasted that he could not be sued by them. Someone in Government obviously had a quiet word in Kable's ear, as when the court met and Sinclair challenged the prosecution on the ground that the Kables were felons, the court required him to prove it. As all the convict records had been left behind in England, he could not do so, and the court ordered the captain to make restitution. Phillip had said before leaving England: "In a new country there will be no slavery and hence no slaves," and he meant what he said. Nevertheless, Phillip believed in discipline, and floggings and hangings were commonplace, although Philip commuted many death sentences. Arthur Phillip Phillip also had to adopt a policy towards the Eora Aboriginal people, who lived around the waters of Sydney Harbour. Phillip ordered that they must be well-treated, and that anyone killing Aboriginal people would be hanged. Phillip befriended an Eora man called Bennelong, and later took him to England. On the beach at Manly, a misunderstanding arose and Phillip was speared in the shoulder: but he ordered his men not to retaliate. Phillip went some way towards winning the trust of the Eora, although the settlers were at all times treated extremely warily. Soon, smallpox and other European-introduced epidemics ravaged the Eora population. The Governor's main problem was with his own military officers, who wanted large grants of land, which Phillip had not been authorised to grant. The officers were expected to grow food, but they considered this beneath them. As a result scurvy broke out, and in October 1788 Phillip had to send Sirius to Cape Town for supplies, and strict rationing was introduced, with thefts of food punished by hanging. Stabilising the colony By 1790 the situation had stabilised. The population of about 2,000 was adequately housed and fresh food was being grown. Phillip assigned a convict, James Ruse, land at Rose Hill (now Parramatta) to establish proper farming, and when Ruse succeeded he received the first land grant in the colony. Other convicts followed his example. Sirius was wrecked in March 1790 at the satellite settlement of Norfolk Island, depriving Phillip of vital supplies. In June 1790 the Second Fleet arrived with hundreds more convicts, most of them too sick to work. Statue of Arthur Phillip in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney. By December 1790 Phillip was ready to return to England, but the colony had largely been forgotten in London and no instructions reached him, so he carried on. In 1791 he was advised that the government would send out two convoys of convicts annually, plus adequate supplies. But July, when the vessels of the Third Fleet began to arrive, with 2,000 more convicts, food again ran short, and he had to send a ship to Calcutta for supplies. By 1792 the colony was well-established, though Sydney remained an unplanned huddle of wooden huts and tents. The whaling industry was established, ships were visiting Sydney to trade, and convicts whose sentences had expired were taking up farming. John Macarthur and other officers were importing sheep and beginning to grow wool. The colony was still very short of skilled farmers, craftsmen and tradesmen, and the convicts continued to work as little as possible, even though they were working mainly to grow their own food. In late 1792 Phillip, whose health was suffering from the poor diet, at last received permission to leave, and on 11 December 1792 he sailed in the ship Atlantic, taking with him many specimens of plants and animals. He also took Bennelong and his friend Yemmerrawanyea, another young Indigenous Australian who, unlike Bennelong, would succumb to English weather and disease and not live to make the journey home. The European population of New South Wales at his departure was 4,221, of whom 3,099 were convicts. The early years of the colony had been years of struggle and hardship, but the worst was over, and there were no further famines in New South Wales. Phillip arrived in London in May 1793. He tendered his formal resignation and was granted a pension of £500 a year. Later life Phillip's wife, Margaret, had died in 1792. In 1794 he married Isabella Whitehead, and lived for a time at Bath. His health gradually recovered and in 1796 he went back to sea, holding a series of commands and responsible posts in the wars against the French. In January 1799 he became a Rear-Admiral. In 1805, aged 67, he retired from the Navy with the rank of Admiral of the Blue, and spent most of the rest of his life at Bath. He continued to correspond with friends in New South Wales and to promote the colony's interests with government officials. He died in Bath in 1814. The Australia Chapel in St Nicholas Church, Bathampton, near Bath, England. The memorial to the first governor of New South Wales (Arthur Phillip) is on the right hand wall Phillip was buried in St Nicholas's Church, Bathampton. Forgotten for many years, the grave was discovered in 1897 St Nicholas Church, Bathampton, Burial place of Arthur Phillip and the Premier of New South Wales, Sir Henry Parkes, had it restored. An annual service of remembrance is held here around Phillip's birthdate to commemorate his life. A monument to Phillip in Bath Abbey Church was unveiled in 1937. Another was unveiled at St Mildred's Church, Bread St, London, in 1932; that church was destroyed in the London Blitz in 1940, but the principal elements of the monument were re-erected in St Mary-le-Bow at the west end of Watling Street, near Saint Paul's Cathedral, in 1968. Details of move There is a statue of him in the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. There is a portrait in the National Portrait Gallery, London. His name is commemorated in Australia by Port Phillip, Phillip Island (Victoria), Phillip Island (Norfolk Island), the federal electorate of Phillip (1949-1993), the suburb of Phillip in Canberra, and many streets, parks and schools. Note: Port Arthur, Tasmania is not named after Arthur Phillip. Percival Alan Serle wrote of Phillip in the Dictionary of Australian Biography: "Steadfast in mind, modest, without self seeking, Phillip had imagination enough to conceive what the settlement might become, and the common sense to realize what at the moment was possible and expedient. When almost everyone was complaining he never himself complained, when all feared disaster he could still hopefully go on with his work. He was sent out to found a convict settlement, he laid the foundations of a great dominion." Loss of remains In 2007, Geoffrey Robertson QC alleged that Phillip's remains are no longer in St Nicholas Church, Bathampton and have been lost: "...Captain Arthur Phillip is not where the ledger stone says he is: it may be that he is buried somewhere outside, it may simply be that he is simply lost. But he is not where Australians have been led to believe that he now lies." Lost the plot Robertson also believes it was a "disgraceful slur" on Phillip's legacy that he wasn't buried in one of England's great cathedrals and was relegated to a small village church. Robertson is campaigning for a rigorous search for the remains, which he believes should be re-interred in Australia. Popular Culture Phillip is a prominent character in Timberlake Wertenbaker's play Our Country's Good, in which he commissions Lieutenant Ralph Clark to stage a production of The Recruiting Officer. He is shown as compassionate and just, but receives little support from his fellow officers. Phillip is referred to in the John Williamson (singer) song "Chains around my ankle". Gallery References External links Arthur Phillip High School, Parramatta - state high (years 7-12) school named for Phillip B. H. Fletcher, 'Phillip, Arthur (1738 - 1814)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 2, Melbourne University Press, 1967, pp 326–333. 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4,893 | Episcopal_polity | Episcopal polity is a form of church governance which is hierarchical in structure with the chief authority over a local Christian church resting in a bishop (Greek: episcopos). This episcopal structure is found most often in the various churches of Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and other Eastern Church, and Anglican lineage. Some churches founded independently of these lineages also employ this form of church governance. The cathedra of bishops, such as the chair of the Pope in the Basilica of St. John Lateran, represent their magisterium (teaching authority) It is usually considered that the bishops of an episcopal polity derive their authority from an unbroken, personal Apostolic Succession from the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. Bishops with such authority are known as the historical episcopate. Churches with this type of government usually believe that the Church requires episcopal government as described in the New Testament The first descriptions of the bishop (episcopus) and of ordination by apostolic sucession in the New Testament . For much of the written history of Christianity, episcopal government was the only form known to Christianity (although a minority of Baptists claim to descend from a lineage of small churches which they say existed in parallel with the main stream of Catholic Christianity). This changed at the Reformation. Many Protestant churches are now organized by either congregational or presbyterian church polities, both descended from the writings of John Calvin, a Protestant reformer working and writing independently following the break with the Roman Catholic Church precipitated by The Ninety-Five Theses of Martin Luther. However, the majority of Christians are still members of the historic churches of episcopal governance. There are subtle differences in governmental principles among episcopal churches at the present time. To some extent the separation of episcopal churches can be traced to these differences in ecclesiology, that is, their theological understanding of church and church governance. The churches of Rome and Constantinople (the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches in modern terms) have an episcopal government, as do the Oriental Orthodox, Assyrian, Anglican, some Lutheran and many Methodist churches. Encyclopedia of Religion and Society, William H. Swatos, Jr. Editor Lutheranism Hartford Institute for Religion Research, Hartford Seminary. Retrieved on September 4, 2006. Description Churches having episcopal polity are governed by bishops, who have authority over dioceses, conferences, or synods (in general referred to as a judicatory). Their presidency is both sacramental and political; as well as performing ordinations, confirmations, and consecrations, the bishop supervises the clergy within the judicatory and is the representative to both secular structures and in the hierarchy of the church. In some systems, Bishops may be subject to higher ranking bishops (variously called archbishops, metropolitans, and/or patriarchs, depending upon the tradition; see also Bishop for further explanation of the varieties of bishops.) They also meet in councils or synods. These gatherings, subject to presidency by higher ranking bishops, may govern the judicatory which are represented in the council, though the synod or council may also be purely advisory. Note that the presence of the office of "bishop" within a church is not proof of episcopal polity. For example, in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints an LDS bishop occupies the office that in an Anglican church would be occupied by a priest. Also, episcopal polity is not usually a simple chain of command. Instead, some authority may be held, not only by synods and colleges of bishops, but by lay and clerical councils. Further, patterns of authority are subject to a wide variety of historical rights and honors which may cut across simple lines of authority. Overview of episcopal churches The definition of the word "Episcopal" has variation among Christian traditions. For some, Episcopal churches are churches that use a hierarchy of bishops that regard themselves as being in an unbroken, personal Apostolic succession. Episcopal is also commonly used to distinguish between the various organizational structures of denominations. For instance, the word “presbyterian” (from the Greek πρεσβύτης, transliterated presbyteros) is used to describe a church governed by a hierarchy of assemblies of elected elders (see Presbyterian polity.) Similarly, “episcopal” is used to describe a church governed by bishops (Greek επίσκοπος, transliterated episcopos). Self-governed local churches (congregations), governed neither by elders nor bishops, are usually referred to as "congregational" (see Congregational polity.) More specifically, the title Episcopal (capitalized) is applied to several churches historically based within Anglicanism (Episcopalianism) including those still in communion with the Church of England. See Episcopal Church (disambiguation). Using these definitions, examples of specific episcopal churches include: The Roman Catholic Church The Eastern Orthodox Churches The Oriental Orthodox Churches The Assyrian Church of the East The Churches of the Anglican Communion The Old Catholic Church The Mar Thoma Church Numerous smaller Catholic churches Certain national churches of the Lutheran confession Some of the churches listed in the article titled Episcopal Church (disambiguation) The African Methodist Episcopal Church The Charismatic Episcopal Church Some Lutheran churches practice congregational polity or a form of presbyterian polity. Others, including the Church of Sweden, practice episcopal polity; the Church of Sweden also counts its bishops among the historic episcopate as do some American Lutheran churches like the Anglo-Lutheran Catholic Church and the Lutheran Orthodox Church. Many Methodist churches (see The United Methodist Church, among others) retain the form and function of episcopal polity. Since all trace their ordinations to an Anglican priest, John Wesley, it is generally considered that their bishops do not share in apostolic succession, though United Methodists still affirm that their bishops share in the historic episcopate. Etymology The word episcopal is derived from the Greek επίσκοπος, transliterated epískopos, which literally means "overseer"; the word, however, is used in religious contexts to refer to a bishop. The government of a bishop is typically symbolised by a cathedral church, such as the Orthodox Patriarch of Bulgaria's seat in Sofia Before the Great Schism All orthodox Christians were in a single Church with an episcopal government, that is, one Church under local bishops and regional Patriarchs. Writing between ca. 85 and 110, St. Ignatius of Antioch, Patriarch of Antioch, was the earliest of the Church fathers to define the importance of episcopal government. Assuming Ignatius' view was the Apostolic teaching and practice, the line of succession was unbroken and passed through the four ancient Patriarchal sees (those local churches known to be founded by apostles), Rome, Jerusalem, Antioch and Alexandria. Rome was the leading Patriarchate of the ancient four by virtue of its founding by Saints Peter and Paul and their martyrdom there. Shortly after the Roman Emperor Constantine I legalized Christianity in 321, he also constructed an elaborate second capital of the Roman Empire located at Byzantium and renamed it Constantinople, in 324. The single Roman Empire was divided between these two autonomous administrative centers, Roman and Constantinopolitan, West and East, Latin speaking and Greek speaking. This remained the status quo through the fourth century. In the fifth century, the Western Roman Empire declined and was overrun by German and Frankish peoples. Although the city of Rome was in ruins, distant from the seat of secular power, and constantly harassed by invaders, the Roman Patriarchate remained the center of the Western or Latin Church. Claiming the ancient primacy of Peter and the title of "Apostolic See," it remained the last court of episcopal appeal in serious matters for the whole Church, East and West. However, the center of the civilized Roman world had shifted definitively to Constantinople, or New Rome, the capital of the Greek speaking Empire. Along with this shift, the effective administration of the Church in the Eastern Roman Empire also shifted. This practical eminence of Constantinople in the East is evident, first at the First Council of Constantinople 381, and then ecumenically at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Beginning with John the Faster, the Bishop of Constantinople (John IV, 582-595) adopted as a formal title for himself the by-then-customary honorific, Ecumenical Patriarch ("pre-eminent father for the civilized world") over the strong objections of Rome: a title based on the political prestige of Constantinople and its economic and cultural centrality in the Empire. In the following years, Rome's appeals to the East were based on the unique authority of the Apostolic See and the primacy of Peter, over against the powers of councils as defended by the East (councils, for example, had endorsed that lofty title which Rome contested). The sometimes subtle differences between Eastern and Western conceptions of authority and its exercise produced a gradually widening rift between the Churches which continued with some occasional relief throughout the following centuries until the final rupture of the Great Schism (marked by two dates: 16 July, 1054, and the Council of Florence in 1439). Pope Pius IX convened the First Vatican Council that approved the dogma of Pope as the visible head of the church, prime bishop over a hierarchy of clergy and believers Vatican I, Session 4, 1870. Decrees of the First Vatican Council, SESSION 4 : 18 July 1870 - First Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Christ. Daily Catholic Online edition retrieved on September 1, 2006. Roman Catholic Church The Catholic Church has an episcopate, with the Pope, who is the Bishop of Rome, at the top. The Catholic Church teaches that juridical oversight over the Church is not a power that derives from human ambition, but strictly from the authority of Christ which was given to his twelve apostles. The See of Rome, as the sole unbroken line of apostolic authority, descending from St. Peter (the "prince and head of the apostles"), is a visible sign and instrument of communion among the college of bishops and therefore also of the local churches around the world. In communion with the world-wide college of bishops the Pope has all legitimate juridical and teaching authority over the whole Church. This authority given by Christ to Peter and the apostles is transmitted from one generation to the next by the power of the Holy Spirit, through the laying on of hands, from the Apostles to the bishops, and from bishops to priests and deacons, in unbroken succession. Eastern Orthodox Churches The conciliar idea of episcopal government continues in the Eastern Orthodox Church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the sixteen or so autocephalous primates are seen as collectively gathering around Christ, with other archbishops and bishops gathering around them, and so forth, in a model called "conciliar hierarchy". This is based in part on the vision in the book of Revelation of the 24 elders gathered around the throne of Christ, who are believed to represent the 12 patriarchs of Israel and the 12 apostles of Jesus Christ. There is no single patriarch with exclusive authority comparable to the Pope in Rome. Oriental Orthodox churches In the fifth century, several of the Oriental Churches separated from Rome and Constantinople. These were the (Nestorian) and Egyptian Coptic Orthodox (Miaphysite). Differences concerning the theological language for describing the person of Christ at the Council of Chalcedon caused these Churches to break full communion with the rest of the ancient Church. These Churches also trace their epicopal lineages to the ancient apostolic succession. Both the Greek and Coptic Orthodox churches have a bishop in Alexandria, both of whom trace their apostolic succession back to the Apostle Mark. There are official ongoing efforts in recent times to heal this ancient breach. Already, the two recognize each other's baptisms, chrismations, and marriages, making intermarriage much easier. Anglican Communion Anglicanism is the most prominent of the Reformation traditions to lay claim to the historic episcopate through apostolic succession in terms comparable to the various Catholic and Orthodox Communions. Anglicans assert unbroken episcopal succession in and through the Church of England back to St. Augustine of Canterbury and to the first century Roman province of Britannia. Although it is impossible to pinpoint an exact moment for the arrival of Catholic Christianity in the British Isles, we know from the Venerable Bede and other early sources that the faith clearly was planted in Great Britain and Ireland independent of Rome and prior to Augustine (see Celtic Christianity). The legislation of Henry VIII effectively establishing the independence from Rome of the Church of England, did not alter its constitutional or pastoral structures. Royal supremacy was exercised through the extant legal structures of the church, whose leaders were bishops. Episcopacy was thus seen as a given of the Reformed Ecclesia Anglicana, and a foundation in the institution's appeal to ancient and apostolic legitimacy. What did change was that bishops were now seen to be ministers of the Crown for the spiritual government of its subjects. The influence of Richard Hooker was crucial to an evolution in this understanding in which bishops came to be seen in their more traditional role as ones who delegate to the presbyterate inherited powers, act as pastors to presbyters, and holding a particular teaching office with respect to the wider church. Anglican opinion has differed as to the way in which episcopal government is de jure divino. On the one hand, the seventeenth century divine, John Cosin, held that episcopal authority is jure divino, but that it stemmed from "apostolic practice and the customs of the Church...[not] absolute precept that either Christ or His Apostles gave about it" (a view maintained also by Hooker) Cosin, Works, Vol. IV (Oxford, 1855), p. 402 . In contrast, Lancelot Andrewes and others held that episcopal government is derived from Christ via the apostles. Regardless, both parties viewed the episcopacy as bearing the apostolic function of oversight, which both includes, and derives from the power of ordination, and is normative for the governance of the church. The practice of apostolic succession both ensures the legitimacy of the church's mission and establishes the unity, communion, and continuity of the local church with the universal church. This formulation, in turn, laid the groundwork for an independent view of the church as a "sacred society" distinct from civil society, which was so crucial for the development of local churches as non-established entities outside England, and gave direct rise to the Catholic Revival and disestablishmentarianism within England. Functionally, Anglican episcopal authority is expressed synodically, although individual provinces may accord their primate with more or less authority to act independently. Called variously "synods," "councils," or "conventions," they meet under episcopal chairmanship. In many jurisdictions, conciliar resolutions that have been passed require episcopal assent and/or consent to take force. Seen in this way, Anglicans often speak of "the bishop-in-synod" as the force and authority of episcopal governance. Such conciliar authority extends to the standard areas of doctrine, discipline, and worship, but in these regards is limited by Anglicanism's tradition of the limits of authority. Those limits are expressed in Article XXI of the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion, ratified in 1571 (significantly, just as the Council of Trent was drawing to a close), which held that "General Councils...may err, and sometimes have erred...wherefore things ordained by them as necessary to salvation have neither strength nor authority, unless it may be declared that they be taken out of holy Scripture." Hence, Anglican jurisdictions have traditionally been conservative in their approach to either innovative doctrinal development or in encompassing actions of the church as doctrinal (see lex orandi, lex credendi). Paul Kwong, Anglican Archbishop and Primate of Hong Kong Anglican synodical government, though varied in expression, is characteristically representative. Provinces of the Anglican Communion, their ecclesiastical provinces and dioceses are governed by councils consisting not only of bishops, but also representatives of the presbyterate and laity. The spread of increasingly democratic forms of representative governance has its origin in the formation of the first General Conventions of the American Episcopal Church in the 1780s, which established a "House of Bishops" and a "House of Deputies." In many jurisdictions, there is also a third, clerical House. Resolutions may be voted on jointly or by each House, in the latter case requiring passage in all Houses to be adopted by the particular council. There is no international juridical authority in Anglicanism, although the tradition's common experience of episcopacy, symbolised by the historical link with the See of Canterbury, along with a common and complex liturgical tradition, has provided a measure of unity. This has been reinforced by the Lambeth Conferences of Anglican Communion bishops, which first met in 1867. These conferences, though they propose and pass resolutions, are strictly consultative, and the intent of the resolutions are to provide guideposts for Anglican jurisdictions - not direction. The Conferences also express the function of the episcopate to demonstrate the ecumenical and Catholic nature of the church. Churches that are members of the Anglican Communion are episcopal churches in polity, and some are named "Episcopal." However, some churches that self-identify as Anglican do not belong to the Anglican Communion, and not all episcopally-governed churches are Anglican. The Roman Catholic Church, the Old Catholic Churches (in full communion with, but not members of, the Anglican Communion), and the Eastern Orthodox churches are recognized, and also their bishops, by Anglicans. Church authority is often represented by ceremonial headgear, such as a mitre Episcopal government in other denominations Some Protestant churches have adopted an episcopal form of government for practical, rather than historical, reasons. These include some Methodist churches and some of their offshoots. Methodists often use the term connectionalism or connectional polity in addition to "episcopal". Nevertheless, the powers of the Methodist episcopacy can be relatively strong and wide-reaching compared to traditional conceptions of episcopal polity. For example, in the United Methodist Church, bishops are elected for life, can serve up to two terms in a specific conference (three if special permission is given), are responsible for ordaining and appointing clergy to pastor churches, perform many administrative duties, preside at the annual sessions of the regional Conferences and at the quadrennial meeting of the world-wide General Conference, have authority for teaching and leading the church on matters of social and doctrinal import, and serve to represent the denomination in ecumenical gatherings. United Methodist bishops in the United States serve in their appointed conferences, being moved to a new "Episcopal Area" after 8 (or 12) years, until their mandated retirement at the end of the quadrenium following their sixty-sixth birthday. http://www.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=21&mid=5860 The Reformed Church of Hungary, and the Lutheran churches in mainland Europe may sometimes be called "episcopal". In these latter cases, the form of government is not radically different from the presbyterian form, except that their councils of bishops have hierarchical jurisdiction over the local ruling bodies to a greater extent than in most Presbyterian and other Reformed churches. As mentioned, the Lutheran Church in Sweden and Finland are exceptions, claiming apostolic succession in a pattern somewhat like the Anglican churches. Otherwise, forms of polity are not mandated in the Lutheran churches, as it is not regarded as having doctrinal significance. Old World Lutheranism, for historical reasons, has tended to adopt Erastian theories of episcopal authority (by which church authority is to a limited extent sanctioned by secular government). In the United States, the Lutheran churches tend to adopt a form of government more comparable to congregationalism. Although it never uses the term, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (aka Mormons) is episcopal (rather than presbyterian or congregational) in the sense that it has a strict hierarchy of leadership from the local bishop up to a single prophet/president, believed to be personally authorized and guided by Jesus Christ. Local congregations (branches, wards, and stakes) have de jure boundaries by which members are allocated, and membership records are centralized. This system developed gradually from a more presbyterian polity (Joseph Smith's original title in 1830 was "First Elder") for pragmatic and doctrinal reasons, reaching a full episcopacy during the Nauvoo period (1839-1846). See also Ecclesiology Components of episcopal polity People Abbot Apostolic Administrator Archpriest Bishop College of Bishops Cardinal (Catholicism) Clergy Exarch Laity Major Archbishop Metropolitan bishop Ordinary Patriarch Pope Bishop of Rome Vicar of Christ Prelate Presbyter Presiding Bishop Priest Primate (religion) Primus of the Scottish Episcopal Church Provincial episcopal visitor Titular bishop Concepts Autocephaly Canon law Cathedra Collegiality Conciliarity (the authority of councils) Conciliarism Connectionalism Diocese Ecclesiastical court Eparchy Episcopal see Magisterium Primus inter pares Sui iuris Organisations Chapter (religion) College of Cardinals Consistory Council Ecumenical council Endemusa Synod Holy Synod Synod Curia (religion) and Roman Curia Congregation (Roman Curia) Congregation for Bishops Episcopal Conference Convocation of the English Clergy Papal conclave Presbyterium Roman Catholic Church hierarchy Structure and polity of the Seventh-day Adventist Church Useful encyclopedia categories There are no polity categories for other denominations, so see: :Category:Assyrian Church of the East :Category:Eastern Orthodoxy :Category:Lutheranism :Category:Methodism :Category:Oriental Orthodoxy General :Category:Christian group structuring :Category:Ecclesiastical titles :Category:Ecclesiology :Category:Religious leadership roles Categories by denomination :Category:Anglican ecclesiastical offices :Category:Episcopacy in Anglicanism :Category:Episcopacy in Roman Catholicism :Category:Roman Catholic Church organisation References External links Vatican: The Holy See Official Website of the Papacy Catholic Encyclopedia: Bishop The Website of the Archbishop of Canterbury Official Website of the Church of England Episcopacy An Argument for Lutheran Episcopacy from Reformation Today Online United Methodist Council of Bishops Official Website of the United Methodist Church Methodist Episcopacy: In Search of Holy Orders By Gregory S. Neal An Agreed Statement on Conciliarity and Primacy in the Church by the Orthodox/Roman Catholic Consultation in the United States of America, 1989. 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4,894 | Transport_in_North_Korea | The standard route to and from North Korea is by plane through Beijing, People's Republic of China. Transport directly to and from South Korea has been possible on a limited scale from 2003 until 2008, when a road was opened (bus tours, no private cars). Roads Fuel constraints and the near absence of private automobiles have relegated road transportation to a secondary role. The road network was estimated to be around 31,200 km in 1999 up from between 23,000 and 30,000 km in 1990, of which only 1,717 kilometers--7.5 percent--are paved; the rest are of dirt, crushed stone, or gravel, and are poorly maintained. There are three major multilane highways: a 200-kilometer expressway connecting P'yongyang and Wonsan on the east coast, a forty-three-kilometer expressway connecting P'yongyang and its port, Namp'o, and a four-lane 100- kilometer motorway linking P'yongyang and Kaesong. The overwhelming majority of the estimated 264,000 vehicles in use in 1990 were for the military. Rural bus service connects all villages, and cities have bus and tram services. Since 1945/1946, there is Right-hand traffic on roads. Public Transport There is a mix of local built and imported trolleybuses and trams in urban centres in North Korea. Earlier fleets were obtained in Europe and China, but a trade embargo has forced North Korea to build their own vehicles. For more see Trams and Trolleybuses in North Korea Railways Railways of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Choson Cul Minzuzui Inmingonghoagug is the only rail operator in North Korea. It has a network of 5,200 km or track with 4,500 km in Standard gauge A Glimpse of North Korea's Railways . There is a small narrow gauge railway in operation in Haeju peninsula.. The railway fleet consists of a mix of electric and steam locomotives. Cars are mostly made in North Korea using Soviet designs. There are some locomotives from Imperial Japan, the United States and Europe remaining in use. Within Pyongyang, the Pyongyang Metro operates. Water transport Water transport on the major rivers and along the coasts plays growing role in freight and passenger traffic. Except for the Yalu and Taedong rivers, most of the inland waterways, totaling 2,253 kilometers, are navigable only by small boats. Coastal traffic is heaviest on the eastern seaboard, whose deeper waters can accommodate larger vessels. The major ports are Nampho on the west coast and Rajin, Chongjin, Wonsan, and Hamhung on the east coast. The country's harbor loading capacity in the 1990s was estimated at almost 35 million tons a year. In the early 1990s, North Korea possessed an oceangoing merchant fleet, largely domestically produced, of sixty-eight ships (of at least 1,000 gross-registered tons), totaling 465,801 gross-registered tons (), which includes fifty-eight cargo ships and two tankers. There is a continuing investment in upgrading and expanding port facilities, developing transportation--particularly on the Taedong River--and increasing the share of international cargo by domestic vessels. Merchant marine 203 ships ( or over) totaling / ships by type: bulk carrier 6, cargo ship 166, combination bulk carrier 2, container ship 3, liquefied gas 1, livestock carrier 3, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger/cargo ship 1, petroleum tanker 11, refrigerated cargo ship 6, roll-on/roll-off 2, short-sea/passenger 1 Air transport Sunan International Airport North Korea's international air connections are extremely limited. As of 2009, scheduled flights operate only from Pyongyang's Sunan International Airport to Beijing, Shenzhen, Bangkok, Singapore and Vladivostok among others, with occasional charters to other destinations. Scheduled services to Moscow, Khabarovsk, Macau, Shenyang etc have been terminated. Air Koryo offers no service to the EU. They are banned from operating there. Air Koryo is the country's national airlines and the only known airline to be operating. Internal flights operate irregularly between Pyongyang, Hamhung, Wonsan, and Chongjin. All civil aircraft are operated by Air Koryo, which has a fleet of 34 aircraft, all Soviet/Russian models. In 2003, the CIA estimated that North Korea has 78 usable airports, 35 of which had permanent-surface runways and 43 unpaved runways. Airports - with paved runways total: 35 over 3,047 m: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 23 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 3 (2003 est.) Airports - with unpaved runways total: 43 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 20 914 to 1,523 m: 14 under 914 m: 8 (2003 est.) Pipelines There were 154 kilometers of oil pipelines in North Korea in 2006 References Download a map of the entire North Korean Railway system to Google Earth here. Ducruet, Cesar et Jo, Jin-Cheol (2008) Coastal Cities, Port Activities and Logistic Constraints in a Socialist Developing Country: The Case of North Korea, Transport Reviews, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 1-25: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/462288788-26821155/content~content=a782923580~db=all~tab=content~order=page Jo, Jin-Cheol et Ducruet, Cesar (2007) Rajin-Seonbong, new gateway of Northeast Asia, Annals of Regional Science, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 927-950: http://www.springerlink.com/content/625g177v07722201 Jo, Jin-Cheol et Ducruet, Cesar (2006) Maritime trade and port evolution in a socialist developing country : Nampo, gateway of North Korea, The Korea Spatial Planning Review, Vol. 51, pp. 3-24: http://library.krihs.re.kr/file/publication/att_file/publication2/PR51_01.pdf DUCRUET, Cesar, JO, Jin-Cheol, LEE, Sung-Woo, ROUSSIN, Stanislas, 2008, Geopolitics of shipping networks: the case of North Korea's maritime connections, Sustainability in International Shipping, Port and Logistics Industries and the China Factor, International Association of Maritime Economists (IAME), Dalian, China, April 2-4. DUCRUET, Cesar, ROUSSIN, Stanislas, 2007, The changing relations between hinterland and foreland at North Korean ports (1985-2006), 6th Inha & Le Havre International Conference, Inha University, Incheon, Republic of Korea, October 10-11. DUCRUET, Cesar, ROUSSIN, Stanislas, 2007, Inter-Korean maritime linkages: economic integration vs. hub dependence, 15th European Conference on Theoretical and Quantitative Geography, Montreux, Switzerland, September 7-11, pp. 133-139 [ISBN 978-2-940368-05-1]. ROUSSIN, Stanislas, DUCRUET, Cesar, 2007, The Nampo-Pyongyang corridor: a strategic area for European investment in DPRK, Recent Changes in North Korea and the Role of the European Union, Institute of Unification Studies & Hans Seidel Foundation, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea, June 1. ROUSSIN, Stanislas, DUCRUET, Cesar, 2007, Doing business in DPRK for the European companies: the logistic issue, Seogang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea, May 26. ROUSSIN, Stanislas, DUCRUET, Cesar, 2006, Logistic perspectives in DPRK, Annual Fall Meeting of the Korean Society of Coastal and Ocean Engineers, Seoul, Republic of Korea, September 15-16. Ducruet, Cesar et Roussin, Stanislas (2007) Coree du Nord : vers l'ouverture des ports maritimes, Journal de la Marine Marchande, No. 4566, Juin 22, pp. 6-9. Ducruet, Cesar et Roussin, Stanislas (2007) L'archipel nord-coreen : transition economique et blocages territoriaux, Mappemonde, Vol. 87, http://mappemonde.mgm.fr/num15/articles/art07302.html See also North Korea List of Korea-related topics External links Air Koryo Korean Airways(JS) Official Web Site Pyongyang Metro System Unofficial Web Site | Transport_in_North_Korea |@lemmatized standard:2 route:1 north:18 korea:24 plane:1 beijing:2 people:2 republic:6 china:4 transport:6 directly:1 south:1 possible:1 limited:2 scale:1 road:5 open:1 bus:3 tour:1 private:2 car:2 fuel:1 constraint:2 near:1 absence:1 automobile:1 relegate:1 transportation:2 secondary:1 role:3 network:3 estimate:3 around:1 km:4 kilometer:6 percent:1 pave:2 rest:1 dirt:1 crush:1 stone:1 gravel:1 poorly:1 maintain:1 three:2 major:3 multilane:1 highway:1 expressway:2 connect:3 p:3 yongyang:3 wonsan:3 east:2 coast:4 forty:1 port:8 namp:1 four:1 lane:1 motorway:1 link:2 kaesong:1 overwhelming:1 majority:1 estimated:1 vehicle:2 use:3 military:1 rural:1 service:4 village:1 city:2 tram:3 since:1 right:1 hand:1 traffic:3 public:1 mix:2 local:1 built:1 import:1 trolleybus:2 urban:1 centre:1 early:2 fleet:4 obtain:1 europe:2 trade:2 embargo:1 force:1 build:1 see:2 railway:6 democratic:1 choson:1 cul:1 minzuzui:1 inmingonghoagug:1 rail:1 operator:1 track:1 gauge:2 glimpse:1 small:2 narrow:1 operation:1 haeju:1 peninsula:1 consist:1 electric:1 steam:1 locomotive:2 mostly:1 make:1 soviet:2 design:1 imperial:1 japan:1 united:1 state:1 remain:1 within:1 pyongyang:6 metro:2 operate:5 water:3 river:3 along:1 play:1 grow:1 freight:1 passenger:3 except:1 yalu:1 taedong:2 inland:1 waterway:1 total:5 navigable:1 boat:1 coastal:3 heaviest:1 eastern:1 seaboard:1 whose:1 deeper:1 accommodate:1 large:2 vessel:2 nampho:1 west:1 rajin:2 chongjin:2 hamhung:2 country:4 harbor:1 load:2 capacity:1 almost:1 million:1 ton:3 year:1 possess:1 oceangoing:1 merchant:2 largely:1 domestically:1 produce:1 sixty:1 eight:2 ship:9 least:1 gross:2 registered:2 include:1 fifty:1 cargo:5 two:1 tanker:2 continue:1 investment:2 upgrading:1 expand:1 facility:1 develop:3 particularly:1 increase:1 share:1 international:7 domestic:1 marine:2 type:1 bulk:2 carrier:4 combination:1 container:1 liquefy:1 gas:1 livestock:1 multi:1 functional:1 petroleum:1 refrigerate:1 roll:2 short:1 sea:1 air:6 sunan:2 airport:5 connection:2 extremely:1 schedule:2 flight:2 shenzhen:1 bangkok:1 singapore:1 vladivostok:1 among:1 others:1 occasional:1 charter:1 destination:1 moscow:1 khabarovsk:1 macau:1 shenyang:1 etc:1 terminate:1 koryo:4 offer:1 eu:1 ban:1 operating:1 national:2 airline:2 known:1 internal:1 irregularly:1 civil:1 aircraft:2 russian:1 model:1 cia:1 usable:1 permanent:1 surface:1 runway:4 unpaved:2 est:2 pipeline:2 oil:1 reference:1 download:1 map:1 entire:1 korean:5 system:2 google:1 earth:1 ducruet:11 cesar:11 et:6 jo:4 jin:4 cheol:4 activity:1 logistic:3 socialist:2 case:2 review:2 vol:4 pp:5 http:4 www:2 informaworld:1 com:2 smpp:1 content:4 db:1 tab:1 order:1 page:1 seonbong:1 new:1 gateway:2 northeast:1 asia:1 annals:1 regional:1 science:1 springerlink:1 maritime:4 evolution:1 nampo:2 spatial:1 planning:1 library:1 krihs:1 kr:1 file:1 publication:1 pdf:1 lee:1 sung:1 woo:1 roussin:8 stanislas:8 geopolitics:1 sustainability:1 shipping:1 logistics:1 industry:1 factor:1 association:1 economist:1 iame:1 dalian:1 april:1 change:2 relation:1 hinterland:1 foreland:1 inha:2 le:1 havre:1 conference:2 university:3 incheon:1 october:1 inter:1 linkage:1 economic:1 integration:1 v:1 hub:1 dependence:1 european:4 theoretical:1 quantitative:1 geography:1 montreux:1 switzerland:1 september:2 isbn:1 corridor:1 strategic:1 area:1 dprk:3 recent:1 union:1 institute:1 unification:1 study:1 han:1 seidel:1 foundation:1 seoul:4 june:1 business:1 company:1 issue:1 seogang:1 may:1 perspective:1 annual:1 fall:1 meeting:1 society:1 ocean:1 engineer:1 coree:1 du:1 nord:2 vers:1 l:2 ouverture:1 de:2 maritimes:1 journal:1 la:1 marchande:1 juin:1 archipel:1 coreen:1 transition:1 economique:1 blocages:1 territoriaux:1 mappemonde:2 mgm:1 fr:1 article:1 html:1 also:1 list:1 related:1 topic:1 external:1 airway:1 j:1 official:1 web:2 site:2 unofficial:1 |@bigram p_yongyang:3 overwhelming_majority:1 narrow_gauge:1 gauge_railway:1 steam_locomotive:1 taedong_river:2 inland_waterway:1 kilometer_navigable:1 eastern_seaboard:1 merchant_marine:1 liquefy_gas:1 petroleum_tanker:1 tanker_refrigerate:1 refrigerate_cargo:1 air_koryo:4 unpaved_runway:2 pave_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 ducruet_cesar:11 jo_jin:4 jin_cheol:4 http_www:2 www_springerlink:1 springerlink_com:1 roussin_stanislas:8 le_havre:1 du_nord:1 l_ouverture:1 external_link:1 |
4,895 | Francisco_Goya | Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes (30 March 1746 – 16 April 1828) was a Spanish painter and printmaker. Goya was a court painter to the Spanish Crown and a chronicler of history. He has been regarded both as the last of the Old Masters and as the first of the moderns. The subversive and subjective element in his art, as well as his bold handling of paint, provided a model for the work of later generations of artists, notably Manet and Picasso. Goya and Modernism, Bienal Internacional de São Paulo Retrieved 27 July 2007. Biography Youth Goya was born in Fuendetodos, Aragón, Spain, in 1746 to José Benito de Goya y Franque and Gracia de Lucientes y Salvador. He spent his childhood in Fuendetodos, where his family lived in a house bearing the family crest of his mother. His father earned his living as a gilder. About 1749, the family bought a house in the city of Zaragoza and some years later moved into it. Goya attended school at Escuelas Pias, where he formed a close friendship with Martin Zapater, and their correspondence over the years became valuable material for biographies of Goya. At age 14, he entered apprenticeship with the painter José Luzán. He later moved to Madrid where he studied with Anton Raphael Mengs, a painter who was popular with Spanish royalty. He clashed with his master, and his examinations were unsatisfactory. Goya submitted entries for the Royal Academy of Fine Art in 1763 and 1766, but was denied entrance. He then journeyed to Rome, where in 1771 he won second prize in a painting competition organized by the City of Parma. Later that year, he returned to Zaragoza and painted a part of the cupola of the Basilica of the Pillar, frescoes of the oratory of the cloisters of Aula Dei, and the frescoes of the Sobradiel Palace. He studied with Francisco Bayeu y Subías and his painting began to show signs of the delicate tonalities for which he became famous. The Third of May 1808, 1814. Oil on canvas, 266 х 345 cm. Museo del Prado, Madrid. Maturity and success Goya married Bayeu's sister Josefa on July 25, 1773. His marriage to Josefa (he nicknamed her "Pepa"), and Francisco Bayeu's membership of the Royal Academy of Fine Art (from the year 1765) helped him to procure work with the Royal Tapestry Workshop. There, over the course of five years, he designed some 42 patterns, many of which were used to decorate (and insulate) the bare stone walls of El Escorial and the Palacio Real de El Pardo, the newly built residences of the Spanish monarchs. This brought his artistic talents to the attention of the Spanish monarchs who later would give him access to the royal court. He also painted a canvas for the altar of the Church of San Francisco El Grande, which led to his appointment as a member of the Royal Academy of Fine Art. In 1783, the Count of Floridablanca, a favorite of King Carlos III, commissioned him to paint his portrait. He also became friends with Crown Prince Don Luis, and lived in his house. His circle of patrons grew to include the Duke and Duchess of Osuna, whom he painted, the King and other notable people of the kingdom. After the death of Charles III in 1788 and revolution in France in 1789, during the reign of Charles IV, Goya reached his peak of popularity with royalty. Galeria de Arte transparencias Ancora A Todo Color 1961 Goya biography from the Museo del Prado. As quoted on eeweems.com The Family of Charles IV, 1800. Théophile Gautier described the figures as looking like "the corner baker and his wife after they won the lottery". Chocano, Carina. "Goya's Ghosts". Los Angeles Times, 20 July 2007. Retrieved on 18 January 2008. Painter of royalty In 1786, Goya was appointed painter to Charles III, and in 1789 was made court painter to Charles IV. In 1799 he was appointed First Court Painter with a salary of 50,000 reales and 500 ducats for a coach. He worked on the cupola of the Hermitage of San Antonio de la Florida; he painted the King and the Queen, royal family pictures, portraits of the Prince of the Peace and many other nobles. His portraits are notable for their disinclination to flatter, and in the case of The Family of Charles IV, the lack of visual diplomacy is remarkable. Licht, Fred: Goya: The Origins of the Modern Temper in Art, page 68. Universe Books, 1979. "Even if one takes into consideration the fact that Spanish portraiture is often realistic to the point of eccentricity, Goya's portrait still remains unique in its drastic description of human bankruptcy". Goya received orders from many friends within the Spanish nobility. Among those from whom he procured portrait commissions were Pedro de Álcantara Téllez-Girón, 9th Duke of Osuna and his wife María Josefa de la Soledad, 9th Duchess of Osuna, María del Pilar Teresa Cayetana de Silva Alvarez de Toledo, 13th Duchess of Alba (universally known simply as the "Duchess of Alba"), and her husband José Alvarez de Toledo y Gonzaga, 13th Duke of Alba, and María Ana de Pontejos y Sandoval, Marchioness of Pontejos. Caprichos After contracting cholera and a high fever in 1792, Goya was left deaf, and he became withdrawn and introspective. During the five years he spent recuperating, he read a great deal about the French Revolution and its philosophy. The bitter series of aquatinted etchings that resulted were published in 1799 under the title Caprichos. The dark visions depicted in these prints are partly explained by his caption, "The sleep of reason produces monsters". Yet these are not solely bleak in nature and demonstrate the artist's sharp satirical wit, particularly evident in etchings such as Hunting for Teeth. Additionally, one can discern a thread of the macabre running through Goya's work, even in his earlier tapestry cartoons. Later years Saturn Devouring His Son, 1819. The title, like all those given to the Black Paintings, was assigned by others after Goya's death. As French forces invaded Spain during the Peninsular War (1808–1814), the new Spanish court received him as had its predecessors. When Josefa died in 1812, Goya was painting The Charge of the Mamelukes and The Third of May 1808, and preparing the series of prints known as The Disasters of War (Los desastres de la guerra). King Ferdinand VII came back to Spain but relations with Goya were not cordial. In 1814, Goya was living with his housekeeper Doña Leocadia and her illegitimate daughter, Rosario Weiss; the young woman studied painting with Goya, who may have been her father. (His wife had died in 1812). He continued to work incessantly on portraits, pictures of Santa Justa and Santa Rufina, lithographs, pictures of tauromachy, and more. With the idea of isolating himself, he bought a house near Manzanares, which was known as the Quinta del Sordo (roughly, "House of the Deaf Man", titled after its previous owner and not Goya himself). There he made the Black Paintings. Goya left Spain in May 1824 for Bordeaux, where he settled, and Paris. He returned to Spain in 1826, but, despite a warm welcome, he returned in ill health to Bordeaux, where he died in 1828 at the age of 82. Works Goya painted the Spanish royal family, which included Charles IV of Spain and Ferdinand VII. His themes range from merry festivals for tapestry, draft cartoons, to scenes of war and corpses. This evolution reflects the darkening of his temper. Modern physicians suspect that the lead in his pigments poisoned him and caused his deafness since 1792. Near the end of his life, he became reclusive and produced frightening and obscure paintings of insanity, madness, and fantasy. The style of these Black Paintings prefigure the expressionist movement. He often painted himself into the foreground. The Maja Two of Goya's best known paintings are The Nude Maja (La maja desnuda) and [[La Maja Vestida|The Clothed Maja (La maja vestida]]). They depict the same woman in the same pose, naked and clothed, respectively. He painted La maja vestida after outrage in Spanish society over the previous Desnuda. Without a pretense to allegorical or mythological meaning, the painting was "the first totally profane life-size female nude in Western art". Licht, Fred, page 83, 1979. He refused to paint clothes on her, and instead created a new painting. The identity of the Majas is uncertain. The most popularly cited subjects are the Duchess of Alba, with whom Goya is thought to have had an affair, and the mistress of Manuel de Godoy, who subsequently owned the paintings. Neither theory has been verified, and it remains as likely that the paintings represent an idealized composite. The Clothed Maja and the Nude Maja, the Prado Retrieved 27 July 2007. In 1808 all Godoy's property was seized by Ferdinand VII after his fall from power and exile, and in 1813 the Inquisition confiscated both works as 'obscene', returning them in 1836. Museo del Prado, Catálogo de las pinturas, 1996, p. 138, Ministerio de Educación y Cultura, Madrid, ISBN 8487317537 Darker realms In a period of convalescence during 1793–1794, Goya completed a set of eleven small pictures painted on tin; the pictures known as Fantasy and Invention mark a significant change in his art. These paintings no longer represent the world of popular carnival, but rather a dark, dramatic realm of fantasy and nightmare. Courtyard with Lunatics is a horrifying and imaginary vision of loneliness, fear and social alienation, a departure from the rather more superficial treatment of mental illness in the works of earlier artists such as Hogarth. In this painting, the ground, sealed by masonry blocks and iron gate, is occupied by patients and a single warden. The patients are variously staring, sitting, posturing, wrestling, grimacing or disciplining themselves. The top of the picture vanishes with sunlight, emphasizing the nightmarish scene below. This picture can be read as an indictment of the widespread punitive treatment of the insane, who were confined with criminals, put in iron manacles, and subjected to physical punishment. And this intention is to be taken into consideration since one of the essential goals of the enlightenment was to reform the prisons and asylums, a subject common in the writings of Voltaire and others. The condemnation of brutality towards prisoners (whether they were criminals or insane) was the subject of many of Goya’s later paintings. As he completed this painting, Goya was himself undergoing a physical and mental breakdown. It was a few weeks after the French declaration of war on Spain, and Goya’s illness was developing. A contemporary reported, “the noises in his head and deafness aren’t improving, yet his vision is much better and he is back in control of his balance.” His symptoms may indicate a prolonged viral encephalitis or possibly a series of miniature strokes resulting from high blood pressure and affecting hearing and balance centers in the brain. The triad of tinnitus, episodes of imbalance and progressive deafness is also typical of Ménière's disease. Other postmortem diagnostic assessment points toward paranoid dementia due to unknown brain trauma (perhaps due to the unknown illness which he reported). If this is the case, from here on - we see an insidious assault of his faculties, manifesting as paranoid features in his paintings, culminating in his black paintings and especially Saturn Devouring His Sons. In 1799 Goya published a series of 80 prints titled Caprichos depicting what he called In The Third of May, 1808: The Execution of the Defenders of Madrid, Goya attempted to "perpetuate by the means of his brush the most notable and heroic actions of our glorious insurrection against the Tyrant of Europe" Francisco Goya, quoted at Artchive. The painting does not show an incident that Goya witnessed; rather it was meant as more abstract commentary. Black Paintings and The Disasters In later life Goya bought a house, called Quinta del Sordo ("Deaf Man's House"), and painted many unusual paintings on canvas and on the walls, including references to witchcraft and war. One of these is the famous work Saturn Devouring His Sons (known informally in some circles as Devoration or Saturn Eats His Child), which displays a Greco-Roman mythological scene of the god Saturn consuming a child, possibly a reference to Spain's ongoing civil conflicts. Moreover, the painting has been seen as "the most essential to our understanding of the human condition in modern times, just as Michelangelo's Sistine ceiling is essential to understanding the tenor of the 16th century". Licht, Fred, page 167, 1979. What more can one do?, from The Disasters of War, 1812-15. This painting is one of 14 in a series known as the Black Paintings. After his death the wall paintings were transferred to canvas and remain some of the best examples of the later period of Goya's life when, deafened and driven half-mad by what was probably an encephalitis of some kind, he decided to free himself from painterly strictures of the time and paint whatever nightmarish visions came to him. Many of these works are in the Prado museum in Madrid. In the 1810s, Goya created a set of aquatint prints titled The Disasters of War (Los desastres de la guerra) which depict scenes from the Peninsular War. The scenes are singularly disturbing, sometimes macabre in their depiction of battlefield horror, and represent an outraged conscience in the face of death and destruction. The prints were not published until 1863, 35 years after Goya's death. Questions of authenticity Remembrance plaque for Goya in Bordeaux The findings of research published since 2003 have raised questions regarding the authenticity of some of Goya's late works. One study claims that the Black Paintings were applied to walls that did not exist in Goya's home before he left for France. NY Times Magazine article dated 27 July 2003 by Arthur Lubow Black Paintings of Goya by Juan Jose Junquera ISBN 1857592735 In 2008 the Prado Museum reverted the traditional attribution of The Colossus, and expressed doubts over the authenticity of three other paintings attributed to Goya as well. On January 27, 2009, the Prado announced they had come to the conclusion that The Colossus was painted by one of Goya's apprentices and even bore the signature of the painter. Doubts over its authenticity began in 1992 when the painting was cleaned and the curators of the museum noticed that the technique was much poorer than Goya's other masterpieces. Cinema, drama and opera A statue of Francisco Goya outside the side entrance of The Prado Museum in Madrid Enrique Granados composed a piano suite (1911) and later an opera (1916), both called Goyescas, inspired by the artist's paintings. Gian Carlo Menotti wrote a biographical opera about him titled Goya (1986), commissioned by Plácido Domingo, who created the role; this production has been presented on television. Goya also inspired Michael Nyman's opera Facing Goya (2000). Goya is the central character in Clive Barker's play Colossus (1995). Several films portray Goya's life. These include a short film, Goya (1948), The Naked Maja (1958), Goya, Historia de una Soledad (1971), Goya in Bordeaux (1999), Volavérunt (1999), Goya : Awakened in a Dream (1999), and Goya's Ghosts (2006). In 1988 American musical theatre composer Maury Yeston released a studio cast album of his own musical, Goya: A Life In Song, in which Plácido Domingo again starred as Goya. See also List of works by Francisco Goya History of painting Western painting Notes Sources John J. Ciofalo, The Self-Portraits of Francisco Goya. Cambridge University Press, 2001 Goya (a biographical novel) by Lion Feuchtwanger ISBN 84-7640-883-8 Goya by Robert Hughes, 2003, ISBN 1-84343-054-1 eeweems.com Goya images, biography and resources External links General Goya images, biography and resources Goyas Ghosts 2006 film www.franciscodegoya.net 164 works by Francisco de Goya Deafness Goya's Deafness in Art History Biographies Francisco de Goya at all-art.org Biography and Paintings of Francisco Goya Works Paintings by Francisco Goya) (PDF in the Arno Schmidt Reference Library) (PDF in the Arno Schmidt Reference Library) Etching series by Goya Caprichos at all-art.org Disasters of War at all-art.org Disparates at all-art.org Tauromaquia at all-art.org Smithsonian Institution exhibit “Legacy: Spain and the United States in the Age of Independence, 1763-1848”, Sept. 27, 2007–Feb. 10, 2008 Paintings in Wikimedia Commons Francisco Goya Prints, a Claremont Colleges Digital Library collection from the Pomona College Museum of Art Articles and essays The Sleep of Reason The Sleep of Reason - article in World&I Magazine Goya's ghouls on the Goya's "Don't forget the happiness of Goya!" exhibition in Berlin Francisco de Goya's Black paintings Goya and his work in Aragon be-x-old:Франсыска Гоя | Francisco_Goya |@lemmatized francisco:14 josé:4 de:22 goya:78 lucientes:2 march:1 april:1 spanish:10 painter:9 printmaker:1 court:5 crown:2 chronicler:1 history:3 regard:2 last:1 old:2 master:2 first:3 modern:4 subversive:1 subjective:1 element:1 art:14 well:3 bold:1 handling:1 paint:19 provide:1 model:1 work:15 late:4 generation:1 artist:4 notably:1 manet:1 picasso:1 modernism:1 bienal:1 internacional:1 são:1 paulo:1 retrieve:3 july:5 biography:7 youth:1 bear:2 fuendetodos:2 aragón:1 spain:9 benito:1 franque:1 gracia:1 salvador:1 spend:2 childhood:1 family:7 live:3 house:7 crest:1 mother:1 father:2 earn:1 living:1 gilder:1 buy:3 city:2 zaragoza:2 year:8 later:7 move:2 attend:1 school:1 escuelas:1 pia:1 form:1 close:1 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4,896 | Colonna_family | Arms of the Colonna family. The Colonna family was a powerful noble family in medieval and Renaissance Rome, supplying one Pope and many other leaders. Their family is notable for their bitter feud with the Orsini family over influence in Rome until it was stopped by Papal Bull in 1511; in 1571 the Chiefs of both families married the nieces of Pope Sixtus V. Oddone Colonna ended the Western Schism as Pope Martin V. According to tradition, the Colonna are a branch of the Counts of Tusculum — by Peter (1099-1151) son of Gregory III, called Peter "de Columpna" from his property, the Columna Castle, in Colonna, Alban Hills. The first cardinal from the family was appointed in 1206 when Giovanni Colonna di Carbognano was made Cardinal Deacon of SS. Cosma e Damiano Werner Maleczek, Papst und Kardinalskolleg von 1191 bis 1216, Vienna 1984, p. 154-155. For a long time cardinal Giovanni di San Paolo, created in 1193, was identified as member of the Colonna family and its first representative in the College of Cardinals, but modern scholars have established that this is based on the falsehood from the beginning of 16th century (Helene Tillmann, "Ricerche sull'origine dei membri del collegio cardenalizio nel XII secolo. II/2. Identificazione dei cardinali del secolo XII di provenienza Romana", Rivista di Storia della Chiesa in Italia, 1975, p. 401-402) . In 1297, Cardinal Jacopo disinherited his brothers Ottone, Matteo, and Landolfo of their lands. The latter three appealed to Pope Boniface VIII, who ordered Jacopo to return the land, and furthermore hand over the family's strongholds of Colonna, Palestrina, and other towns to the Papacy. Jacopo refused; in May, Boniface removed him from the College of Cardinals and excommunicated him and his followers for four generations. The Colonna family (aside from the three brothers allied with the Pope) declared that Boniface had been elected illegally after the unprecedented abdication of Pope Celestine V three years previously. The dispute lead to open warfare, and in September Boniface appointed Landolfo to the command of his army, to put down the revolt of Landolfo's own relatives. This he did, and by the end of 1298 Colonna, Palestrina, and other towns had been captured and razed to the ground. The family's lands were distributed among Landolfo and his loyal brothers; the rest of the family fled Italy. In the 1300s, the family sponsored the decoration of the Church of San Giovanni, most notably the floor mosaics. In 1728, the family added the name Barberini to its family name when Giulio Cesare Colonna di Sciarra married Cornelia Barberini, daughter of the last male Barberini to hold the name, Taddeo Barberini. The Colonna family have been Prince Assistants to the Papal Throne since 1710, though their papal princely title only dates from 1854. The family residence in Rome, the Palazzo Colonna, is open to the public. Notable members Guido Colonna di Paliano Vittoria Colonna, friend of Michelangelo. Sciarra Colonna, who participated in the Outrage of Anagni against Pope Boniface VIII. Stefano Colonna, an influential noble in Medieval Rome an Imperial vicar in the early 14th century. Pope Martin V Fabrizio Colonna, who was the father of Vittoria Colonna, and a general in the Holy League. Prospero Colonna, who fought alongside his cousin Fabrizio. Pompeo Colonna, cardinal. Marcantonio I Colonna (1478 - Milan 1522) condottiero of the XV-XVI century. Marcantonio Colonna, also successful condottiero of the late 16th century. Pirro Colonna, 16th century captain under Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor Francesco Colonna, who was credited with the authorship of the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili by an acrostic in the text. Also believed to have written the story. See also Medieval Rome Orsini Palestrina Prösels Castle Notes References External links Palazzo Colonna official site | Colonna_family |@lemmatized arm:1 colonna:26 family:17 powerful:1 noble:2 medieval:3 renaissance:1 rome:5 supply:1 one:1 pope:8 many:1 leader:1 notable:2 bitter:1 feud:1 orsini:2 influence:1 stop:1 papal:3 bull:1 chief:1 marry:1 niece:1 sixtus:1 v:5 oddone:1 end:2 western:1 schism:1 martin:2 accord:1 tradition:1 branch:1 count:1 tusculum:1 peter:2 son:1 gregory:1 iii:1 call:1 de:1 columpna:1 property:1 columna:1 castle:2 alban:1 hill:1 first:2 cardinal:7 appoint:2 giovanni:3 di:6 carbognano:1 make:1 deacon:1 cosma:1 e:1 damiano:1 werner:1 maleczek:1 papst:1 und:1 kardinalskolleg:1 von:1 bi:1 vienna:1 p:2 long:1 time:1 san:2 paolo:1 create:1 identify:1 member:2 representative:1 college:2 modern:1 scholar:1 establish:1 base:1 falsehood:1 beginning:1 century:5 helene:1 tillmann:1 ricerche:1 sull:1 origine:1 dei:2 membri:1 del:2 collegio:1 cardenalizio:1 nel:1 xii:2 secolo:2 ii:1 identificazione:1 cardinali:1 provenienza:1 romana:1 rivista:1 storia:1 della:1 chiesa:1 italia:1 jacopo:3 disinherit:1 brother:3 ottone:1 matteo:1 landolfo:4 land:3 latter:1 three:3 appeal:1 boniface:5 viii:2 order:1 return:1 furthermore:1 hand:1 stronghold:1 palestrina:3 town:2 papacy:1 refuse:1 may:1 remove:1 excommunicate:1 follower:1 four:1 generation:1 aside:1 ally:1 declare:1 elect:1 illegally:1 unprecedented:1 abdication:1 celestine:1 year:1 previously:1 dispute:1 lead:1 open:2 warfare:1 september:1 command:1 army:1 put:1 revolt:1 relative:1 capture:1 raze:1 ground:1 distribute:1 among:1 loyal:1 rest:1 flee:1 italy:1 sponsor:1 decoration:1 church:1 notably:1 floor:1 mosaic:1 add:1 name:3 barberini:4 giulio:1 cesare:1 sciarra:2 married:1 cornelia:1 daughter:1 last:1 male:1 hold:1 taddeo:1 prince:1 assistant:1 throne:1 since:1 though:1 princely:1 title:1 date:1 residence:1 palazzo:2 public:1 guido:1 paliano:1 vittoria:2 friend:1 michelangelo:1 participate:1 outrage:1 anagni:1 stefano:1 influential:1 imperial:1 vicar:1 early:1 fabrizio:2 father:1 general:1 holy:2 league:1 prospero:1 fight:1 alongside:1 cousin:1 pompeo:1 marcantonio:2 milan:1 condottiero:2 xv:1 xvi:1 also:3 successful:1 late:1 pirro:1 captain:1 charles:1 roman:1 emperor:1 francesco:1 credit:1 authorship:1 hypnerotomachia:1 poliphili:1 acrostic:1 text:1 believe:1 write:1 story:1 see:1 prösels:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 |@bigram bitter_feud:1 papal_bull:1 pope_sixtus:1 sixtus_v:1 cardinal_deacon:1 di_storia:1 storia_della:1 pope_boniface:2 boniface_viii:2 celestine_v:1 giulio_cesare:1 xv_xvi:1 external_link:1 |
4,897 | Numeral_(linguistics) | In linguistics, a term for specific words in a natural language that represents a number. In the writing, numerals are symbols representing numeral systems. Numeral Types In linguistics, the terms representing numbers can be classified according to their use: LinguaLinks Library Cardinal numerals: describe quantity - one, two, three. Ordinal numerals: describe an order - first, second, third. Multiplicative numerals: describe repetition - once, twice, thrice. Distributive numerals: expresses a group of the number specified: In pairs, by the dozen. English language does not have distributive numerals but other languages such as Georgian do. Walsinfo.com Partitive numerals: expresses a fraction - half, third, quarter. Basis of Counting System 4: quaternary Some Austronesian and Melanesian ethnic groups, including the Maori, some Sulawesi and some Papua New Guineans count instead of by five, using the base number four, using the term asu and aso (derived from Javanese asu: dog)- as the ubiquitous village dog has four legs Ryan, Peter. Encyclopaedia of Papua and New Guinea. Melbourne University Press & University of Papua and New Guinea,:1972 ISBN 0522840256.: 3 pages pp219. . This is argued by anthropologists to be also based on early humans noting the human and animal shared body feature of two arms and two legs as well as its ease in simple arithmetic and counting. As an example of the system's ease a realistic scenario could include a farmer returning form the market with fifty asu heads of pig (200), less 30 asu (120) of pig bartered for 10 asu (40) of goats noting his new pig count total as twentyasu: 80 pigs remaining. The system has a correlation to the dozen counting system and is still in common use in these areas as a natural and easy method of simple arithmetic. Ryan, Peter. Encyclopaedia of Papua and New Guinea. Melbourne University Press & University of Papua and New Guinea,:1972 ISBN 0522840256.: 3 pages pp219. Aleksandr Romanovich Luriicac, Lev Semenovich Vygotskiĭ, Evelyn Rossiter. Ape, primitive man, and child: essays in the history of behavior . CRC Press: 1992: ISBN 1878205439: 171 pages 5: quinary Quinary systems are based on the number 5. Anthropologists argue it is almost certain quinary system developed from counting by fingers (five fingers per hand) Heath, Thomas, A Manual of Greek Mathematics, Courier Dover: 2003. ISBN 0486432319 576 page, p:11 . It is common since the days of the ancient Babylonians and found in almost every culture worldwide. It is present in the Celtic and Banish systems and notably also the modern French system of counting (quatre-vingts, quatre-vingts-treize) and the Inuit languages Heath, Thomas, A Manual of Greek Mathematics, Courier Dover: 2003. ISBN 0486432319 576 page, p:11 .The ancient Greek Bëotius records that the term digit is exactly that as used to describe fingers- still present today Heath, Thomas, A Manual of Greek Mathematics, Courier Dover: 2003. ISBN 0486432319 576 page, p:11 . 8: octonery Octal is a counting system based around the number 8. It is used in the Yuki language of California and in the Pamean languages of Mexico, because the Yuki and Pamean keep count by using the four spaces between their fingers rather than the fingers (five) themselves. 10: Decimal A majority of traditional number systems are based on the decimal numeral system. Anthropologists hypothesize this may be due to humans having "five" fingers per hand, ten in total, a human comfort level with rounded figures and the ease it can express and calculate very large numbers. Heath, Thomas, A Manual of Greek Mathematics, Courier Dover: 2003. ISBN 0486432319 576 page, p:11 Georges Ifrah, The Universal History of Numbers: The Modern Number System, Random House, 2000: ISBN 1860467911: 1262 pages Scientific American Munn& Co: 1968, vol 219: 219 There are many regional variations including: Western system: based on thousands, with variants (see English-language numerals) Indian system: crore, lakh (see Indian numbering system. Indian numerals) East Asian system: based on ten-thousands (see below) Historically, its use was first employed by the ancient Egyptians, who invented a wholly decimal system, and later extended by the Babylonians Heath, Thomas, A Manual of Greek Mathematics, Courier Dover: 2003. ISBN 0486432319 576 page, p:11 and also a system of pictorial representation, substituting letters and other reminders with symbols. English farmer coined the term notch: defined as ten. from the tally sticks of the livestock- a full deep score for every twenty, a half score or notch pret half score- or ten. Karl Menninger, Paul Broneer, Number Words and Number Symbols Courier Dover Publications: 1992: ISBN 0486270963: 480 pages 12: "Duodecimal" Duodecimal numbers or systems based around the base unit of 12, are a frequent occurrence. These include: Chepang language of Nepal, Mahl language of Minicoy Island in India Nigerian Middle Belt areas such as Janji, Kahugu and the Nimbia dialect of Gwandara. modern English (from the German Saxon langauge) modern German Indonesian ('Javanese losin/dhosin: Indonesian 'lusin and dosin) Austronesia (lusin) Melanesia Polynesia Duodecimal numeric system have some practical advantages over decimal. It is much easier to divide the base digit twelve (which is a highly composite number) by many important divisors in market and trade settings, such as the numbers 2, 3, 4 and 6. It is still very common in common speech and idiom, one example "a dime a dozen": (ten US cents for twelve [sic: items])- meaning so common or numerous as to of little worth or noteworthiness. The system of basing counting on the number 12, is widespread, across many cultures. Examples include: time divisions (twelve months in a year, the twelve-hour clock) measurement imperial system of units (twelve inches to the foot, twelve Troy ounces to the Troy pound) traditional British monetary system (twelve pence to the shilling) Consequently, languages evolved or loaned terms such dozen, gross and great gross, which allow for rudimentary and arguably immediately comprehensible duodecimal nomenclature (e.g., stating: "two gross and six dozen" instead of "three hundred and sixty"). Ancient Romans used decimal for integers, but switched to [[[duodecimal]] for fractions, and correspondingly Latin developed a rich vocabulary for duodecimal-based fractions (see Roman numerals). A notably novel and invented system of duodecimal was J. R. R. Tolkien's Elvish languages who used duodecimal as well as decimal. 20: "vigesimal" Vigesimal numbers use the number 20 as the base number for counting. Anthropologists are convinced the system originated from digit counting, as did bases five and ten - twenty being the number of human fingers and toes combined Heath, Thomas, A Manual of Greek Mathematics, Courier Dover: 2003. ISBN 0486432319 576 page, p:11 Georges Ifrah, The Universal History of Numbers: The Modern Number System, Random House, 2000: ISBN 1860467911: 1262 pages The system is in widespread use across the world. Some include the classical Mesoamerican cultures, still in use today in the modern indigenous languages of their descendants, namely the Nahuatl and Mayan languages (see also Maya numerals). Vigesimal terminology is also found in some European languages: Basque, Celtic languages, French (from Celtic languages), Danish and Georgian. The term score originates from tally sticks, where taxmen and farmers would groove a notch for every ten, and a full score for every twenty. The English term score, now rarely used, is a remnant of vigesimal numeration in the word score. It was widely used to learn the pre-decimal British currency in this idiom: "a dozen pence and a score of bob" , referring to the 20 shillings in a pound_sterling. For Americans the term is most known as per the Gettysburg Address: "Four score and seven years ago, our Forefathers...". For very large (and very small) numbers, traditional systems have been superseded by the use of scientific notation and the system of SI prefixes. Traditional systems continue to be used in everyday life. Numeral symbols +The numbers one through ten in different numeral systems Arabic ١ ٢ ٣ ٤ ٥ ٦ ٧ ٨ ٩ ١٠ Bangla (Bengali) ১ ২ ৩ ৪ ৫ ৬ ৭ ৮ ৯ ১০ Chinese 一 二 三 四 五 六 七 八 九 十 Devanagari १ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९ १० Classical Greek (note: all written - above letters) α β γ δ ε ζ η θ ι κ Hebrew א ב ג ד ה ו ז ח ט י Latin-Arabic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Malayalam ൧ ൨ ൩ ൪ ൫ ൬ ൭ ൮ ൯ ൧൦ Phoenician A B ┌ Δ E ζ Z H θ I Roman I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X Suzhou 〡 〢 〣 〤 〥 〦 〧 〨 〩 〡〇 Thai ๑ ๒ ๓ ๔ ๕ ๖ ๗ ๘ ๙ ๑๐ Counting Aids Counting aids, especially the use of body parts (counting on fingers), were certainly used in prehistoric times as today. There are many variations. Besides counting 10 fingers, some cultures have counted knuckles, the space between fingers, and toes as well as fingers. The Oksapmin culture of New Guinea uses a system of 27 upper body locations to represent numbers. To preserve numerical information, tallies carved in wood, bone, and stone have been used since prehistoric times. Stone age cultures, including ancient American Indian groups, used tallies for gambling, personal services, and trade-goods. A method of preserving numeric information in clay was invented by the Sumerians between 8000 and 3500 BCE. This was done with small clay tokens of various shapes that were strung like beads on a string. Beginning about 3500 BCE clay tokens were gradually replaced by number signs impressed with a round stylus at different angles in clay tablets (originally containers for tokens) which were then baked. About 3100 BCE written numbers were dissociated from the things being counted and became abstract numerals. Between 2700 BCE and 2000 BCE in Sumer, the round stylus was gradually replaced by a reed stylus that was used to press wedge-shaped cuneiform signs in clay. These cuneiform number signs resembled the round number signs they replaced and retained the additive sign-value notation of the round number signs. These systems gradually converged on a common sexagesimal number system; this was a place-value system consisting of only two impressed marks, the vertical wedge and the chevron, which could also represent fractions. This sexagesimal number system was fully developed at the beginning of the Old Babylonia period (about 1950 BC) and became standard in Babylonia. Sexagesimal numerals were a mixed radix system that retained the alternating base 10 and base 6 in a sequence of cuneiform vertical wedges and chevrons. By 1950 BCE this was a positional notation system. Sexagesimal numerals came to be widely used in commerce, but were also used in astronomical and other calculations. This system was exported from Babylonia and used throughout Mesopotamia, and by every Mediterranean nation that used standard Babylonian units of measure and counting, including the Greeks, Romans and Egyptians. Babylonian-style sexagesimal numeration is still used in modern societies to measure time (minutes per hour) and angles (degrees). In China, armies and provisions were counted using modular tallies of prime numbers. Unique numbers of troops and measures of rice appear as unique combinations of these tallies. A great convenience of modular arithmetic is that it is easy to multiply, though quite difficult to add. This makes use of modular arithmetic for provisions especially attractive. Conventional tallies are quite difficult to multiply and divide. In modern times modular arithmetic is sometimes used in Digital signal processing. The oldest Greek system was the that of the Attic numerals, but in the 4th century BC they began to use a quasidecimal alphabetic system (see Greek numerals). Jews began using a similar system (Hebrew numerals), with the oldest examples known being coins from around 100 BC. The Roman empire used tallies written on wax, papyrus and stone, and roughly followed the Greek custom of assigning letters to various numbers. The Roman numerals system remained in common use in Europe until positional notation came into common use in the 1500s. The Maya of Central America used a mixed base 18 and base 20 system, possibly inherited from the Olmec, including advanced features such as positional notation and a zero. They used this system to make advanced astronomical calculations, including highly accurate calculations of the length of the solar year and the orbit of Venus. The Incan Empire ran a large command economy using quipu, tallies made by knotting colored fibers. Knowledge of the encodings of the knots and colors was suppressed by the Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century, and has not survived although simple quipu-like recording devices are still used in the Andean region. Some authorities believe that positional arithmetic began with the wide use of counting rods in China. The earliest written positional records seem to be rod calculus results in China around 400. In particular, zero was correctly described by Chinese mathematicians around 932. The modern positional Arabic numeral system was developed by mathematicians in India, and passed on to Muslim mathematicians, along with astronomical tables brought to Baghdad by an Indian ambassador around 773. From India, the thriving trade between Islamic sultans and Africa carried the concept to Cairo. Arabic mathematicians extended the system to include decimal fractions, and wrote an important work about it in the 9th century. The modern Arabic numerals were introduced to Europe with the translation of this work in the 12th century in Spain and Leonardo of Pisa's Liber Abaci of 1201. In Europe, the complete Indian system with the zero was derived from the Arabs in the 12th century. The binary system (base 2), was propagated in the 17th century by Gottfried Leibniz. Leibniz had developed the concept early in his career, and had revisited it when he reviewed a copy of the I ching from China. Binary numbers came into common use in the 20th century because of computer applications. Numerals in most popular systems English 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Arabic ٠ ١ ٢ ٣ ٤ ٥ ٦ ٧ ٨ ٩ Bengali ০ ১ ২ ৩ ৪ ৫ ৬ ৭ ৮ ৯ Chinese (simple) 〇 一 二 三 四 五 六 七 八 九 Chinese (complex) 零 壹 貳 叁 肆 伍 陸 柒 捌 玖 Chinese 花碼 (huā mă) 〇 〡 〢 〣 〤 〥 〦 〧 〨 〩 Devanagari ० १ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९ Ge'ez (Ethiopic) ፩ ፪ ፫ ፬ ፭ ፮ ፯ ፰ ፱ Gujarati ૦ ૧ ૨ ૩ ૪ ૫ ૬ ૭ ૮ ૯ Gurmukhi ੦ ੧ ੨ ੩ ੪ ੫ ੬ ੭ ੮ ੯ Kannada ೦ ೧ ೨ ೩ ೪ ೫ ೬ ೭ ೮ ೯ Khmer ០ ១ ២ ៣ ៤ ៥ ៦ ៧ ៨ ៩ Lao ໐ ໑ ໒ ໓ ໔ ໕ ໖ ໗ ໘ ໙ Limbu ᥆ ᥇ ᥈ ᥉ ᥊ ᥋ ᥌ ᥍ ᥎ ᥏ Malayalam ൦ ൧ ൨ ൩ ൪ ൫ ൬ ൭ ൮ ൯ Mongolian ᠐ ᠑ ᠒ ᠓ ᠔ ᠕ ᠖ ᠗ ᠘ ᠙ Myanmar ၀ ၁ ၂ ၃ ၄ ၅ ၆ ၇ ၈ ၉ Oriya ୦ ୧ ୨ ୩ ୪ ୫ ୬ ୭ ୮ ୯ Roman I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX Tamil ௦ ௧ ௨ ௩ ௪ ௫ ௬ ௭ ௮ ௯ Telugu ౦ ౧ ౨ ౩ ౪ ౫ ౬ ౭ ౮ ౯ Thai ๐ ๑ ๒ ๓ ๔ ๕ ๖ ๗ ๘ ๙ Tibetan ༠ ༡ ༢ ༣ ༤ ༥ ༦ ༧ ༨ ༩ Urdu ۰ ۱ ۲ ۳ ۴ ۵ ۶ ۷ ۸ ۹ Additional numerals 10 20 30 40 100 1000 10000 108 1012 Chinese (simple) 十 廿 卅 卌 百 千 万 亿 兆 Chinese (complex) 拾 佰 仟 萬 億 兆 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10000 Ge'ez (Ethiopic) ፲ ፳ ፴ ፵ ፶ ፷ ፸ ፹ ፺ ፻ ፼ 10 50 100 500 1000 Roman X L C D M See also Numerals in various languages Proto-Indo-European numerals English-language numerals Indian numbering system Proto-Semitic numerals Hebrew numerals Japanese numerals Korean numerals Numeral notation in various scripts Arabic numeral system Armenian numerals Babylonian numerals Chinese numerals Greek numerals Hebrew numerals Indian numerals Japanese numerals Korean numerals Mayan numerals Quipu Rod numerals Roman numerals Related topics Large numbers Abacus History of large numbers List of numeral system topics Long and short scales Myriad Names of large numbers Natural number Numeral system Notes | Numeral_(linguistics) |@lemmatized linguistics:2 term:9 specific:1 word:3 natural:3 language:16 represent:5 number:42 writing:1 numeral:49 symbols:1 system:55 type:1 classify:1 accord:1 use:42 lingualinks:1 library:1 cardinal:1 describe:5 quantity:1 one:3 two:5 three:2 ordinal:1 order:1 first:2 second:1 third:2 multiplicative:1 repetition:1 twice:1 thrice:1 distributive:2 express:3 group:3 specify:1 pair:1 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4,898 | Cue_sports | Cue sports (sometimes spelled cuesports) are a wide variety of games of skill generally played with a cue stick which is used to strike billiard balls, moving them around a cloth-covered billiards table bounded by rubber . Historically, the umbrella term was billiards. While that familiar name is still employed by some as a generic label for all such games, the word's usage has splintered into more exclusive competing meanings among certain groups and geographic regions. In the United Kingdom, "billiards" refers exclusively to English billiards, while in the United States it is sometimes used to refer to a particular game or class of games, or to all cue games in general, depending upon dialect and context. There are three major subdivisions of games within cue sports: Carom billiards, referring to games played on tables without , including among others balkline and straight rail, cushion caroms, three-cushion billiards and artistic billiards Pocket billiards (or "pool") generally played on a table with six pockets, including among others eight-ball (the world's most widely played cue sport), nine-ball, straight pool, one-pocket and bank pool. Snooker, which while technically a pocket billiards game, is generally classified separately based on its historic divergence from other games, as well as a separate culture and terminology that characterize its play. More obscurely, there are games that make use of obstacles and targets, and table-top games played with disks instead of balls. Billiards has a long and rich history stretching from its inception in the 15th century; to the wrapping of the body of Mary, Queen of Scots in her billiard table cover in 1586; through its many mentions in the works of Shakespeare, including the famous line "let us to billiards" in Antony and Cleopatra (1606–07); to the dome on Thomas Jefferson's home Monticello, which conceals a billiard room he hid, as billiards was illegal in Virginia at that time; and through the many famous enthusiasts of the sport including, Mozart, Louis XIV of France, Marie Antoinette, Immanuel Kant, Napoleon, Abraham Lincoln, Mark Twain, George Washington, French president Jules Grévy, Charles Dickens, George Armstrong Custer, Theodore Roosevelt, Lewis Carroll, W.C. Fields, Babe Ruth, Bob Hope, Jackie Gleason, and many others. Cues. History Inset from School of Recreation, 1710. "We perceive from the engraving of the Billiards of the seventtenth [sic] century, that the game was altogether different from what it is now." Charles Knight's "Old England: A Pictorial Museum" (1845), in From Old Books. Retrieved December 27, 2006. All cue sports are generally regarded to have evolved into indoor games from outdoor stick-and-ball lawn games (retroactively termed ground billiards) , specific page reference needed , and as such to be related to troco, croquet and golf, and more distantly to the stickless bocce and bowls. The word "billiard" may have evolved from the French word billart or billette, meaning "stick", in reference to the , an implement similar to a golf club, which was the forerunner to the modern cue; the term's origin may have also been from French bille, meaning "ball". The modern term "cue sports" can be used to encompass the ancestral mace games, and even the modern cueless variants, such as finger billiards, for historical reasons. "Cue" itself came from queue, the French word for a tail. This refers to the early practice of using the tail of the mace to strike the ball when it lay against a . A recognizable form of billiards was played outdoors in the 1340s, and was reminiscent of croquet. King Louis XI of France (1461–1483) had the first known indoor billiard table. Louis XIV further refined and popularized the game, and it swiftly spread amongst the French nobility. While the game had long been played on the ground, this version appears to have died out in the 1600s, in favor of croquet, golf and bowling games, while table billiards had grown in popularity as an indoor activity. Mary, Queen of Scots, claimed that her "table de billiard" had been taken away by what would eventually become her executioners (who covered her body with the table's cloth). In 1588, the Duke of Norfolk, owned a "billyard bord coered with a greene cloth... three billyard sticks and 11 balls of yvery". Billiards grew to the extent that by 1727, it was being played in almost every Paris cafe. In England, the game was developing into a very popular activity for members of the gentry. By 1670, the thin butt end of the mace began to be used not only for shots under the cushion (which itself was originally only there as a preventative method to stop balls from rolling off), but players increasingly preferred it for other shots as well. The cue as it is known today was finally developed by about 1800. Initially, the mace was used to push the balls, rather than strike them. The newly developed striking cue provided a new challenge. Cushions began to be stuffed with substances to allow the balls to rebound, in order to enhance the appeal of the game. After a transitional period where only the better players would use cues, the cue came to be the first choice of equipment. The demand for tables and other equipment was initially met in Europe by John Thurston and other furniture makers of the era. The early balls were made from wood and clay, but the rich preferred to use ivory. Early billiard games involved various pieces of additional equipment, including the "arch" (related to the croquet hoop), "port" (a different hoop) and "king" (a pin or skittle near the arch) in the 1770s, but other game variants, relying on the cushions (and eventually on pockets cut into them), were being formed that would go on to play fundamental roles in the development of modern billiards. Illustration of a three ball pocket billiards game in early 19th century Tübingen, Germany, using a table much longer than the modern type. The early croquet-like games eventually led to the development of the carom or carambole billiards category – what most non-US and non-UK speakers mean by the word "billiards". These games, which once completely dominated the cue sports world but have declined markedly in many areas over the last few generations, are games played with three or sometimes four balls, on a table without holes (and without obstructions or targets in most cases), in which the goal is generally to strike one with a , then have the cue ball rebound off of one or more of the cushions and strike a second object ball. Variations include three-cushion, straight rail and the balkline variants, cushion caroms, five-pins, and four-ball, among others. Over time, a type of obstacle returned, originally as a hazard and later as a target, in the form of pockets, or holes partly cut into the table bed and partly into the cushions, leading to the rise of pocket billiards, especially "pool" games, popular around the world in forms such as eight-ball, nine-ball, straight pool and one-pocket amongst numerous others. The terms "pool" and "pocket billiards" are now virtually interchangeable, especially in the US. English billiards (what UK speakers almost invariably mean by the word "billiards") is a hybrid carom/pocket game, and as such is likely fairly close to the ancestral original pocket billiards outgrowth from 18th to early 19th century carom games.} As a sport At least the games with regulated international professional competition have been referred to as "sports" or "sporting" events, not simply "games", since 1893 at the latest. "Meeting of the Champions; The Big Billiard Tournament to Begin To-morrow – What Ives, Schaefer, and Slosson Have Been Doing in Practice – The Older Players Not Afraid of the Big Runs Made by Ives – Something About the Rise and Progress of the Young 'Napoleon' of the Billiard World", no byline, The New York Times, 1893-12-10, p. 10; The New York Times Company, New York, NY, USA. Quite a variety of particular games (i.e. sets of rules and equipment) are the subject of present-day competition, including many of those already mentioned, with competition being especially broad in nine-ball, snooker, three-cushion and eight-ball. Snooker, though technically a pocket billiards variant and closely related in its equipment and origin to the game of English billiards, is a professional sport organized at the international level, and its rules bear little resemblance to those of pool games. A "Billiards" category encompassing pool, snooker and carom was featured in the 2005 World Games, held in Duisburg, Germany, and the 2006 Asian Games also saw the introduction of a "Cue sports" category. Equipment Billiard balls Pool balls Billiard balls vary from game to game, in size, design and number. Carom billiards balls are larger than pool balls, and come as a set of two cue balls (one colored or marked) and an object ball (or two object balls in the case of the game four-ball). American-style pool balls, used in any pool game and found throughout the world, come in sets of two of object balls, seven and seven , an and a ; the balls are racked differently for different games (some of which do not use the entire ball set). Blackball (English-style eight-ball) sets are similar, but have unmarked of (or ) and balls instead of solids and stripes, and are smaller than the American-style; they are used principally in Britain, Ireland, and some Commonwealth countries, though not exclusively, since they are unsuited for playing nine-ball. Snooker balls are also smaller than American-style pool balls, and come in sets of 22 (15 reds, 6 "", and a cue ball). Other games also have custom ball sets, such as Russian pyramid and bumper pool. Billiard balls have been made from many different materials since the start of the game, including clay, bakelite, celluloid, crystalite, ivory, plastic, steel and wood. The dominant material from 1627 until the early 20th century was ivory. The search for a substitute for ivory use was not for environmental concerns but based on economic motivation and fear of danger for elephant hunters. It was in part spurred on by a New York billiard table manufacturer who announced a prize of $10,000 for a substitute material. The first viable substitute was celluloid, invented by John Wesley Hyatt in 1868, but the material was volatile, sometimes exploding during manufacture and was highly flammable. The New York Times Company (September 16, 1875). Explosive Teeth. Retrieved January 2, 2007. Tables Pool table with equipment. There are many sizes and styles of pool and billiard tables. Generally, tables are rectangles twice as long as they are wide. Most pool tables are known as 7-, 8-, or 9-footers, referring to the length of the table's long side. Full-size snooker and English billiard tables are long on the longest side. Pool halls tend to have tables and cater to the serious pool player. Pubs will typically use tables which are often coin-operated. Formerly, tables were common, but such tables are now considered antique collectors items; a few, usually from the late 1800s, can be found in pool halls from time to time. Ten-foot tables remain the standard size for carom billiard games. The slates on modern carom tables are usually heated to stave off moisture and provide a consistent playing surface. The length of the pool table will typically be a function of space, with many homeowners purchasing an table as a compromise. High quality tables are mostly 4.5 by . (interior dimensions), with a bed made of three pieces of thick slate to prevent warping and changes due to humidity. Smaller bar tables are most commonly made with a single piece of slate. Pocket billiards tables normally have six pockets, three on each side (four corner pockets, and two side pockets). Cloth Women playing on an elaborately decorated green-covered table in an early 1880s advertising poster. All types of tables are covered with billiard cloth (often called "felt", but actually a woven wool or wool/nylon blend called baize). Cloth has been used to cover billiards tables since the 15th century. In fact, the predecessor company of the most famous maker of billiard cloth, Iwan Simonis, was formed in 1453. Bar or tavern tables, which get a lot of play, use "slower", more durable cloth. The cloth used in upscale pool (and snooker) halls and home billiard rooms is "faster" (i.e. provides less friction, allowing the balls to roll farther across the table ), and competition-quality pool cloth is made from 100 % worsted wool. Snooker cloth traditionally has a nap (consistent fiber directionality) and balls behave differently when rolling against versus along with the nap. The cloth of the billiard table has traditionally been green, reflecting its origin (originally the grass of ancestral lawn games), and has been so colored since the 16th century, but it is also produced in other colors such as red and blue. The cloth was earlier said to be the most important part of the game, most likely because of the reflection of the game's origin. The players were stubborn in the fact that the cloth should not be ripped. They even made women continue to use maces after cues were invented, for fear that they would rip the cloth with the sharper cues. Rack A rack is the name given to a frame (usually wood or plastic) used to organize billiard balls at the beginning of a game. This is traditionally triangular in shape, but varies with the type of billiards played. There are two main types of racks; the more common triangular shape which is used for eight-ball and straight pool and the diamond shaped rack used for nine-ball. Cues Billiards games are mostly played with a stick known as a cue. A cue is usually either a one piece tapered stick or a two piece stick divided in the middle by a joint of metal or phenolic resin. High quality cues are generally two pieces and are made of a hardwood, generally maple for billiards and ash for snooker. The end of the cue is of larger circumference and is intended to be gripped by a player's hand. The of the cue is of smaller circumference, usually tapering to an 0.4 to 0.55 inch (11–14 mm) terminus called a (usually made of fiberglass or brass in better cues), where a rounded leather is affixed, flush with the ferrule, to make final contact with balls. The tip, in conjunction with chalk, can be used to impart spin to the cue ball when it is not hit in its center. Cheap cues are generally made of pine, low-grade maple (and formerly often of ramin, which is now endangered), or other low-quality wood, with inferior plastic ferrules. A quality cue can be expensive and may be made of exotic woods and other expensive materials which are artfully inlaid in decorative patterns. Many modern cues are also made, like golf clubs, with high-tech materials such as woven graphite. Skilled players may use more than one cue during a game, including a separate generally lighter cue for the opening break shot (because of cue speed gained from a lighter stick) and another, shorter cue with a special tip for . Mechanical bridge The mechanical bridge, sometimes called a "rake", "bridge stick" or simply "bridge", and "rest" in the UK, is used to extend a player's reach on a shot where the cue ball is too far away for normal hand bridging. It consists of a stick with a grooved metal or plastic head which the cue slides on. Many amateurs refuse to use the mechanical bridge based on the perception that to do so is unmanly. However, many aficionados and most professionals employ the bridge whenever the intended shot so requires. Some players, especially current or former snooker players, use a screw-on cue butt extension instead of or in addition to the mechanical bridge. Bridge head design is varied, and not all designs (especially those with cue shaft-enclosing rings, or wheels on the bottom of the head), are broadly tournament-approved. In Italy a longer, thicker cue is typically available for this kind of tricky shot. Commonly in snooker they are available in three forms depending on how the player is hampered; the standard rest has a simple cross, the 'spider' has a raised arch around 12 cm with three grooves to rest the cue in and for the most awkward of shots, the 'giraffe' which has a raised arch much like the 'spider' but with a slender arm reaching out around 15 cm with the groove. Chalk Billiard chalk is applied to the tip of the cue.Chalk is applied to the tip of the cue stick, ideally before every shot, to increase the tip's friction coefficient so that when it impacts the cue ball on a non-center hit, no (unintentional slippage between the cue tip and the struck ball) occurs. Cue tip chalk is not actually the substance typically referred to as "chalk" (generally calcium carbonate, also known as calcite or carbonate of lime), but any of several proprietary compounds, with a silicate base. "Chalk" may also refer to a cone of fine, white ; like talc (talcum powder) it can be used to reduce friction between the cue and bridge hand during shooting, for a smoother stroke. Some brands of hand chalk actually are made of compressed talc. (Tip chalk is not used for this purpose because it is abrasive, hand-staining and difficult to apply.) Many players prefer a slick pool glove over hand chalk or talc because of the messiness of these powders; buildup of particles on the cloth will affect ball behavior and necessitate more-frequent cloth cleaning. Cue tip chalk (invented in its modern form by straight rail billiard pro William A. Spinks and chemist William Hoskins in 1897) "The World's Most Tragic Man Is the One Who Never Starts", Clark, Neil M.; originally published in The American magazine, May 1927; republished in hotwire: The Newsletter of the Toaster Museum Foundation, vol. 3, no. 3, online edition accessed February 24 2007. The piece is largely an interview of Hoskins. , 9 March 1897 is made by crushing silica and the abrasive substance corundum or aloxite (aluminum oxide), "Aloxite", ChemIndustry.com database, retrieved February 24, 2007. "Substance Summary: Aluminum Oxide", PubChem Database, National Library of Medicine, US National Institutes of Health, retrieved February 24, 2007. into a powder. It is combined with dye (originally and most commonly green or blue-green, like traditional billiard cloth, but available today, like the cloth, in many colors) and a binder (glue). Each manufacturer's brand has different qualities, which can significantly affect play. High humidity can also impair the effectiveness of chalk. Harder, drier compounds are generally considered superior by most players. Major games (carom and pocket) Carom billiards table in a Parisian café. There are two main varieties of billiard games: carom and pocket. The main carom billiards games are straight billiards, balkline and three cushion billiards. All are played on a pocketless table with three balls; two cue balls and one object ball. In all, players shoot a cue ball so that it makes contact with the opponent's cue ball as well as the object ball. The most popular of the large variety of pocket games are eight-ball, nine-ball, one-pocket, bank pool, snooker and, among the old guard, straight pool. In eight-ball and nine-ball the object is to sink object balls until one can legally pocket the winning eponymous "". Well-known but waning in popularity is straight pool, in which players seek to continue sinking balls, rack after rack if they can, to reach a pre-determined winning score (typically 150). Related to nine-ball, another well-known game is rotation, where the lowest-numbered object ball on the table must be struck first, although any object ball may be pocketed (i.e., combination shot). Each pocketed ball is worth its number, and the player with the highest score at the end of the rack is the winner. Since there are only 120 points available (1 + 2 + 3 ⋯ + 15 = 120), scoring 61 points leaves no opportunity for the opponent to catch up. In both one-pocket and bank pool, the players must sink a set number of balls; respectively, all in a particular , or all by . In snooker, players score points by alternately potting and various special "". Man playing billiards with a cue and a woman with mace, from an illustration appearing in Michael Phelan's 1859 book, The Game of Billiards. Straight rail or straight billiards In straight rail, a player scores a point and may continue shooting each time his cue ball makes contact with both other balls. Although a difficult and subtle game, some of the best players of straight billiards developed the skill to the balls in a corner or along the same rail for the purpose of playing a series of to score a seemingly limitless number of points. The first straight rail professional tournament was held in 1879 where Jacob Schaefer, Sr. scored 690 points in a single turn (that is, 690 separate strokes without a miss). With the balls repetitively hit and barely moving in endless "nursing", there was little for the fans to watch. Balkline In light of these phenomenal skill developments in straight rail, the game of balkline soon developed to make it impossible for a player to keep the balls gathered in one part of the table for long, greatly limiting the effectiveness of nurse shots. A (not to be confused with , which pertains to the game of English billiards) is a line parallel to one end of a billiards table. In the games of balkline – 18.1 and 18.2 (pronounced "eighteen-point-two") balkline, among other more obscure variations – the players have to drive at least one object ball past a balkline set at from each rail, after one or two points have been scored, respectively. Three-cushion billiards A more elegant solution was three-cushion billiards, which requires a player to make contact with the other two balls on the table and contact three rail cushions in the process. This is difficult enough that even the best players can only manage to average one to two points per turn. English billiards Dating to approximately 1800, English billiards is a hybrid of carom and pocket billiards played on a by table. Like most carom games, it requires two and a red . The object of the game is to score either a fixed number of points, or score the most points within a set time frame, determined at the start of the game. Points are awarded for: Two-ball : striking both the object ball and the other (opponent's) cue ball on the same shot (2 points) Winning hazards: the red ball (3 points); potting the other cue ball (2 points) (or "in-offs"): potting one's cue ball by cannoning off another ball (3 points if the red ball was hit first; 2 points if the other cue ball was hit first, or if the red and other cue ball were "", i.e. hit simultaneously). Snooker Snooker is a pocket billiards game originated by British officers stationed in India during the 19th century. The name of the game became generalized to also describe one of its prime strategies: to "" the opposing player by causing that player to foul or leave an opening to be exploited. In the United Kingdom, snooker is by far the most popular cue sport at the competitive level. It is played in many other countries as well. Snooker is far rarer in the U.S., where pool games such as eight-ball and nine-ball dominate. The first International Snooker Championship was held in 1927, and it has been held annually since then with few exceptions. The World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA) was established in 1968 to regulate the professional game, while the International Billiards and Snooker Federation (IBSF) regulates the amateur games. Eight-ball Eight-ball rackIn the United States, the most commonly-played game is eight-ball. The goal of eight-ball, which is played with a full rack of fifteen balls and the cue ball, is to claim a suit (commonly stripes or solids in the US, and reds or yellows in the UK), pocket all of them, then legally pocket the 8 ball, while denying one's opponent opportunities to do the same with their suit, and without sinking the 8 ball early by accident. On the professional scene, eight-ball players on the International Pool Tour (IPT) were the highest paid players in the world as of 2006 (the IPT nearly folded in 2007, and as of 2008 is attempting a comeback). In the United Kingdom the game is commonly played in pubs, and it is competitively played in leagues on both sides of the Atlantic. The most prestigious tournaments including the World Open are sponsored and sanctioned by the International Pool Tour. Rules vary widely from place to place (and between continents to such an extent that British-style eight-ball pool/blackball is properly regarded as a separate game in its own right). Pool halls in North America are increasingly settling upon the World Pool-Billiard Association International Standardised Rules. But tavern eight-ball (also known as ""), typically played on smaller, coin-operated tables and in a "winner keeps the table" manner, can differ significantly even between two venues in the same city. The growth of local, regional and national amateur leagues may alleviate this confusion eventually. Nine-ball Nine-ball uses only the 1 through 9 balls and cue ball. It is a rotation game: The player at the table must make legal contact with the lowest numbered ball on the table or a foul is called. The game is won by legally pocketing the nine ball. Nine-ball is the predominant professional game, though as of 2006–2008 there have been some suggestions that this may change, in favor of ten-ball. There are many local and regional tours and tournaments that are contested with nine-ball. The World Pool-Billiard Association (WPA), and it American affiliate the Billiard Congress of America (BCA), publish the World Standardized Rules. The European professional circuit has instituted rules changes, especially to make it more difficult to achieve a legal break shot. The largest nine-ball tournaments are the independent US Open Nine-ball Championship and the WPA World Nine-ball Championship for men and women. Male professionals have a rather fragmented schedule of professional nine-ball tournaments. The United States Professional Pool Players Association (UPA) has been the most dominant association of the 1990s and 2000s. A hotly contested event is the annual Mosconi Cup, which pits invitational European and US teams against each other in one-on-one and nine-ball matches over a period of several days. The Mosconi Cup games are played under the more stringent European rules, as of 2007. Three-ball A variant using only three balls, generally played such that the player at turn continues shooting until all the balls are pocketed, and the player to do so in the fewest shots wins. The game can be played by two or more players. Dispenses with some fouls common to both nine- and eight-ball. One-pocket One-pocket is a strategic game for two players. Each player is assigned one of the corner pockets on the table. This is the only pocket into which he can legally pocket balls. The first player to pocket the majority of the balls (8) in his pocket wins the game. The game requires far more defensive strategy than offensive strategy, much unlike eight-ball, nine-ball, or straight pool. It has been said that if eight-ball is checkers, one-pocket is chess. This statement can be verified by watching a game of one pocket. Most times, accomplished players choose to position balls near their pocket instead of trying to actually pocket them. This allows them to control the game by forcing their opponent to be on defense instead of taking a low percentage shot that could result in a loss of game. These low percentage shots are known as "flyers" by one pocket aficionados. Bank pool Bank pool has been gaining popularity in recent years. Bank pool can be played with a full rack (can be a long game), but is more typically played with nine balls (frequently called "nine-ball bank"). The balls are racked in nine-ball formation, but in no particular order. The object of the game is simple: to be the first player to bank five balls in any order (eight balls when played with a full rack). Penalties and fouls are similar to one pocket in that the player committing the foul must spot a ball for each foul. This must be done before the incoming player shoots. List of cue sports Carom billiards games Artistic billiards Balkline games (18.1, 18.2, etc.) Cowboy pool (a hybrid carom/pocket game) English billiards (another hybrid) Five-pins Four-ball (yotsudama, sagu) Straight-rail Three-cushion billiards Pocket billiards games Artistic pool Bank pool (banks, nine-ball banks) Baseball pocket billiards Blackball and British eight-ball pool Bottle pool Bowlliards Chicago Chinese eight-ball Cowboy pool (hybrid) Cribbage pool Cutthroat Eight-ball (stripes-and-solids, highs-and-lows) English billiards (hybrid) Equal offense Irish standard pool Kelly pool (pill/pea pool) Killer Nine-ball One-pocket Poker pool (hybrid) Rotation Russian pyramid Seven-ball Seven-Card Ball Skittle pool variants (pin pool) Snooker (see below; popularly regarded as its own sport, not a pool variant) Speed pool Straight pool (also called "14.1 continuous") Line-up Straight pool Ten-ball Three-ball Trick shot competition Snooker Snooker Snooker plus Golf billiards (and its variant, around-the-world) Obstacle billiards games Bagatelle Bar billiards Bumper pool Bottle pool, skittle pool (pin pool), and five-pins are vestigially classifiable here as well Cueless and/or ball-less developments Hand billiards and finger pool (no cues) Crud Carrom (uses small disks instead of balls; some versions use miniature cues, others no cues at all) Novuss (a variant that uses full-size cues) Crokinole (some variants of this combination of carrom and shuffleboard use miniature cues) See also Glossary of cue sports terms BCA Hall of Fame Hustling Cue sports techniques References External links Organizations World Pool-Billiard Association (WPA) – the International Olympic Committee-recognized promulgator of international rules for a variety of cue sports. European Pocket Billiard Federation (EPBF) – the European national WPA affiliate and self-described "governing body of pool" in Europe. Billiard Congress of America (BCA) – the US national WPA affiliate and self-described "governing body of pool" in the United States and Canada (also covers carom games and snooker) American Poolplayers Association – the self-described world's largest pool league (site also provides pool-related news and articles); see also the affiliated Canadian Poolplayers Association United States Professional Pool Players Association (UPA) History "The Billiards Family [Games] at the Online Guide to Traditional Games; includes sourced information on the early history of the sport "A Brief History of the Noble Game of Billiards", by Michael Ian Shamos (a BCA-published summary of Shamos's more in-depth research on the topic) Technical information "The Illustrated Principles of Pool and Billiards", by Prof. David G. Alciatore – technical billiards physics materials (and online instruction and demonstrations) "Physics of Billiards" resource list by Regis Petit. 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4,899 | Bauhaus | Typography by Herbert Bayer above the entrance to the workshop block of the Bauhaus, Dessau, 2005. ("House of Building" or "Building School") is the common term for the , a school in Germany that combined crafts and the fine arts, and was famous for the approach to design that it publicized and taught. It operated from 1919 to 1933. The Bauhaus school was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar. In spite of its name, and the fact that its founder was an architect, the Bauhaus did not have an architecture department during the first years of its existence. The Bauhaus style became one of the most influential currents in Modernist architecture and modern design. The Bauhaus had a profound influence upon subsequent developments in art, architecture, graphic design, interior design, industrial design, and typography. The school existed in three German cities (Weimar from 1919 to 1925, Dessau from 1925 to 1932 and Berlin from 1932 to 1933), under three different architect-directors: Walter Gropius from 1919 to 1927, Hannes Meyer from 1927 to 1930 and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe from 1930 to 1933, when the school was closed by the Nazi regime. The changes of venue and leadership resulted in a constant shifting of focus, technique, instructors, and politics. When the school moved from Weimar to Dessau, for instance, although it had been an important revenue source, the pottery shop was discontinued. When Mies van der Rohe took over the school in 1930, he transformed it into a private school, and would not allow any supporters of Hannes Meyer to attend it. Bauhaus and German modernism The Bauhaus Defeat in World War I, the fall of the German monarchy and the abolition of censorship under the new, liberal Weimar Republic allowed an upsurge of radical experimentation in all the arts, previously suppressed by the old regime. Many Germans of left-wing views were influenced by the cultural experimentation that followed the Russian Revolution, such as constructivism. Such influences can be overstated: Gropius himself did not share these radical views, and said that Bauhaus was entirely apolitical. Richard J Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich, 416 Just as important was the influence of the 19th century English designer William Morris, who had argued that art should meet the needs of society and that there should be no distinction between form and function. Funk and Wagnall's New Encyclopaedia, Vol 5, 348 Thus the Bauhaus style, also known as the International Style, was marked by the absence of ornamentation and by harmony between the function of an object or a building and its design. However, the most important influence on Bauhaus was modernism, a cultural movement whose origins lay as far back as the 1880s, and which had already made its presence felt in Germany before the World War, despite the prevailing conservatism. The design innovations commonly associated with Gropius and the Bauhaus - the radically simplified forms, the rationality and functionality, and the idea that mass-production was reconcilable with the individual artistic spirit - were already partly developed in Germany before the Bauhaus was founded. The German national designers' organization Deutscher Werkbund was formed in 1907 by Hermann Muthesius to harness the new potentials of mass production, with a mind towards preserving Germany's economic competitiveness with England. In its first seven years, the Werkbund came to be regarded as the authoritative body on questions of design in Germany, and was copied in other countries. Many fundamental questions of craftsmanship vs. mass production, the relationship of usefulness and beauty, the practical purpose of formal beauty in a commonplace object, and whether or not a single proper form could exist, were argued out among its 1870 members (by 1914). The entire movement of German architectural modernism was known as Neues Bauen. Beginning in June 1907, Peter Behrens' pioneering industrial design work for the German electrical company AEG successfully integrated art and mass production on a large scale. He designed consumer products, standardized parts, created clean-lined designs for the company's graphics, developed a consistent corporate identity, built the modernist landmark AEG Turbine Factory, and made full use of newly developed materials such as poured concrete and exposed steel. Behrens was a founding member of the Werkbund, and both Walter Gropius and Adolf Meier worked for him in this period. The Bauhaus was founded at a time when the German zeitgeist ("spirit of the times") had turned from emotional Expressionism to the matter-of-fact New Objectivity. An entire group of working architects, including Erich Mendelsohn, Bruno Taut and Hans Poelzig, turned away from fanciful experimentation, and turned toward rational, functional, sometimes standardized building. Beyond the Bauhaus, many other significant German-speaking architects in the 1920s responded to the same aesthetic issues and material possibilities as the school. They also responded to the promise of a "minimal dwelling" written into the new Weimar Constitution. Ernst May, Bruno Taut, and Martin Wagner, among others, built large housing blocks in Frankfurt and Berlin. The acceptance of modernist design into everyday life was the subject of publicity campaigns, well-attended public exhibitions like the Weissenhof Estate, films, and sometimes fierce public debate. Bauhaus and Vkhutemas Vkhutemas, the Russian state art and technical school founded in 1920 in Moscow, has been compared to Bauhaus. Founded a year after the Bauhaus school Vkhutemas has close parallels to the German Bauhaus in its intent, organization and scope. The two schools were the first to train artist-designers in a modern manner. Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Вхутемас Both schools were state-sponsored initiatives to merge the craft tradition with modern technology, with a Basic Course in aesthetic principles, courses in color theory, industrial design, and architecture. Vkhutemas was a larger school than the Bauhaus, Paul Wood, The Challenge of the Avant-Garde, Yale University Press, 1999, Page 244, ISBN 0300077629 but it was less publicised and consequently, is less familiar to the West. Tony Fry, Inc NetLibrary, A New Design Philosophy an Introduction to Defuturing, UNSW Press, 1999, Page 161, ISBN 0868407534 With the internationalism of modern architecture and design, there were many exchanges between the Vkhutemas and the Bauhaus. Timothy J. Colton, Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis, Harvard University Press, 1995, Page 215, ISBN 0674587499 The second Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer attempted to organise an exchange between the two schools, while Hinnerk Scheper of the Bauhaus collaborated with various Vkhutein members on the use of colour in architecture. In addition, El Lissitzky's book Russia - an Architecture for World Revolution published in German in 1930 featured several illustrations of Vkhutemas/Vkhutein projects. History of the Bauhaus Weimar The school was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar in 1919 as a merger of the Grand Ducal School of Arts and Crafts and the Weimar Academy of Fine Art. Its roots lay in the arts and crafts school founded by the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach in 1906 and directed by Belgian Art Nouveau architect Henry van de Velde. When van de Velde was forced to resign in 1915 because he was Belgian, he suggested Gropius, Hermann Obrist and August Endell as possible successors. In 1919, after delays caused by the destruction of World War I and a lengthy debate over who should and socio-economic reconciliation of the fine arts and the applied arts (an issue which remained a defining one throughout the school's existence), Gropius was made the director of a new institution integrating the two called the Bauhaus. In the pamphlet for an April 1919 exhibition entitled "Exhibition of Unknown Architects", Gropius proclaimed his goal as being "to create a new guild of craftsmen, without the class distinctions which raise an arrogant barrier between craftsman and artist." Gropius' neologism Bauhaus references both building and the Bauhütte, a premodern guild of stonemasons. The early intention was for the Bauhaus to be a combined architecture school, crafts school, and academy of the arts. In 1919 Swiss painter Johannes Itten, German-American painter Lyonel Feininger, and German sculptor Gerhard Marcks, along with Gropius, comprised the faculty of the Bauhaus. By the following year their ranks had grown to include German painter, sculptor and designer Oskar Schlemmer and Swiss painter Paul Klee, joined in 1922 by Russian painter Wassily Kandinsky. A tumultuous year at the Bauhaus, 1922 also saw the move of Dutch painter Theo van Doesburg to Weimar to promote De Stijl ("The Style"), and a visit to the Bauhaus by Russian Constructivist artist and architect El Lissitzky From 1919 to 1922 the school was shaped by the pedagogical and aesthetic ideas of Johannes Itten, who taught the Vorkurs or 'preliminary course' that was the introduction to the ideas of the Bauhaus. Itten was heavily influenced in his teaching by the ideas of Franz Cižek and Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel an in respect to aesthetics by the work of the Blaue Reiter group in Munich as well as the work of Austrian Expressionist Oskar Kokoschka. The influence of German Expressionism favoured by Itten was analogous in some ways to the fine arts side of the ongoing debate. This influence culminated with the addition of Der Blaue Reiter founding member Wassily Kandinsky to the faculty and ended when Itten resigned in late 1922. Itten was replaced by the Hungarian designer László Moholy-Nagy, who rewrote the Vorkurs with a leaning towards the New Objectivity favored by Gropius, which was analogous in some ways to the applied arts side of the debate. Although this shift was an important one, it did not represent a radical break from the past so much as a small step in a broader, more gradual socio-econimic movement that had been going on at least since 1907 when van de Velde had argued for a craft basis for design while Hermann Muthesius had begun implementing industrial prototypes. Gropius was not necessarily against Expressionism, and in fact himself in the same 1919 pamphlet proclaiming this "new guild of craftsmen, with out the class snobbery," described "painting and sculpture rising to heaven out of the hands of a million craftsmen, the crystal symbol of the new faith of the future." By 1923 however, Gropius was no longer evoking images of soaring Romanesque cathedrals and the craft-driven aesthetic of the "Völkisch movement," instead declaring "we want an architecture adapted to our world of machines, radios and fast cars." Gropius argued that a new period of history had begun with the end of the war. He wanted to create a new architectural style to reflect this new era. His style in architecture and consumer goods was to be functional, cheap and consistent with mass production. To these ends, Gropius wanted to reunite art and craft to arrive at high-end functional products with artistic pretensions. The Bauhaus issued a magazine called Bauhaus and a series of books called "Bauhausbücher". Since the country lacked the quantity of raw materials that the United States and Great Britain had, they had to rely on the proficiency of its skilled labor force and ability to export innovative and high quality goods. Therefore designers were needed and so was a new type of art education. The school’s philosophy stated that the artist should be trained to work with the industry. Weimar was in the German state of Thuringia, and the Bauhaus school received state support from the Social Democrat-controlled Thuringian state government. In February 1924, the Social Democrats lost control of the state parliament to the Nationalists. The Ministry of Education placed the staff on six-month contracts and cut the school's funding in half. They had already been looking for alternative sources of funding. Together with the Council of Masters Gropius announced the closure of the Bauhaus from the end of March 1925. After the Bauhaus moved to Dessau, a school of industrial design with teachers and staff less antagonistic to the conservative political regime remained in Weimar. This school was eventually known as the Technical University of Architecture and Civil Engineering, and in 1926 changed its name to Bauhaus University Weimar. Dessau Gropius's design for the Dessau facilities was a return to the futuristic Gropius of 1914 that had more in common with the International style lines of the Fagus Factory than the stripped down Neo-classical of the Werkbund pavilion or the Völkisch Sommerfeld House. The Dessau years saw a remarkable change in direction for the school. According to Elaine Hoffman, Gropius had approached the Dutch architect Mart Stam to run the newly-founded architecture program, and when Stam declined the position, Gropius turned to Stam's friend and colleague in the ABC group, Hannes Meyer. Meyer became director when Gropius resigned in February 1928, and brought the Bauhaus its two most significant building commissions, both of which still exist: five apartment buildings in the city of Dessau, and the headquarters of the Federal School of the German Trade Unions (ADGB) in Bernau. Meyer favored measurements and calculations in his presentations to clients, along with the use of off-the-shelf architectural components to reduce costs, and this approach proved attractive to potential clients. The school turned its first profit under his leadership in 1929. But Meyer also generated a great deal of conflict. As a radical functionalist, he had no patience with the aesthetic program, and forced the resignations of Herbert Bayer, Marcel Breuer, and other long-time instructors. As a vocal Communist, he encouraged the formation of a communist student organization. In the increasingly dangerous political atmosphere, this became a threat to the existence of the Dessau school. Meyer was also compromised by a sexual scandal involving one of his students, and Gropius fired him in 1930. Berlin Although neither the Nazi Party nor Hitler himself had a cohesive architectural policy before they came to power in 1933, Nazi writers like Wilhelm Frick and Alfred Rosenberg had already labeled the Bauhaus "un-German" and criticized its modernist styles, deliberately generating public controversy over issues like flat roofs. Increasingly through the early 1930s, they characterized the Bauhaus as a front for communists and social liberals. Indeed, a number of communist students loyal to Meyer moved to the Soviet Union when he was fired in 1930. Even before the Nazis came to power, political pressure on Bauhaus had increased. But the Nazi regime was determined to crack down on what it saw as the foreign, probably Jewish influences of "cosmopolitan modernism." Despite Gropius's protestations that as a war veteran and a patriot his work had no subversive political intent, the Berlin Bauhaus was closed in April 1933. Mies van der Rohe was expelled from Germany. (The closure, and the response of Mies van der Rohe, is fully documented in Elaine Hochman's Architects of Fortune.) Curiously, however, some Bauhaus influences lived on in Nazi Germany. When Hitler's chief engineer, Fritz Todt, began opening the new autobahn (highways) in 1935, many of the bridges and service stations were "bold examples of modernism" - among those submitting designs was Mies van der Rohe. Richard J Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 325 Architectural output Bauhaus building in Chemnitz The paradox of the early Bauhaus was that, although its manifesto proclaimed that the ultimate aim of all creative activity was building, the school did not offer classes in architecture until 1927. The single most profitable tangible product of the Bauhaus was its wallpaper. During the years under Gropius (1919–1927), he and his partner Adolf Meyer observed no real distinction between the output of his architectural office and the school. So the built output of Bauhaus architecture in these years is the output of Gropius: the Sommerfeld house in Berlin, the Otte house in Berlin, the Auerbach house in Jena, and the competition design for the Chicago Tribune Tower, which brought the school much attention. The definitive 1926 Bauhaus building in Dessau is also attributed to Gropius. Apart from contributions to the 1923 Haus am Horn, student architectural work amounted to un-built projects, interior finishes, and craft work like cabinets, chairs and pottery. In the next two years under Meyer, the architectural focus shifted away from aesthetics and towards functionality. There were major commissions: one by the city of Dessau for five tightly designed "Laubenganghäuser" (apartment buildings with balcony access), which are still in use today, and another for the headquarters of the Federal School of the German Trade Unions (ADGB) in Bernau bei Berlin. Meyer's approach was to research users' needs and scientifically develop the design solution. Mies van der Rohe repudiated Meyer's politics, his supporters, and his architectural approach. As opposed to Gropius's "study of essentials", and Meyer's research into user requirements, Mies advocated a "spatial implementation of intellectual decisions", which effectively meant an adoption of his own aesthetics. Neither van der Rohe nor his Bauhaus students saw any projects built during the 1930s. The popular conception of the Bauhaus as the source of extensive Weimar-era working housing is not accurate. Two projects, the apartment building project in Dessau and the Törten row housing also in Dessau, fall in that category, but developing worker housing was not the first priority of Gropius nor Mies. It was the Bauhaus contemporaries Bruno Taut, Hans Poelzig and particularly Ernst May, as the city architects of Berlin, Dresden and Frankfurt respectively, who are rightfully credited with the thousands of socially progressive housing units built in Weimar Germany. In Taut's case, the housing may still be seen in south-west Berlin, is still occupied, and can be reached by going easily from the U-Bahn stop Onkel Toms Hütte. Impact The Engel House in the White City of Tel Aviv. Architect: Zeev Rechter, 1933. A residential building that has become one of the symbols of Modernist architecture. The first building in Tel Aviv to be built on pilotis. The Bauhaus had a major impact on art and architecture trends in Western Europe, the United States, Canada and Israel (particularly in White City, Tel Aviv) in the decades following its demise, as many of the artists involved fled, or were exiled, by the Nazi regime. Tel Aviv, in fact, has been named to the list of world heritage sites by the UN due to its abundance of Bauhaus architecture in 2004 BBC NEWS | Middle East | Unesco celebrates Tel Aviv White City of Tel-Aviv - the Modern Movement - UNESCO World Heritage Centre ; it had some 4000 Bauhaus buildings erected from 1933 on. Walter Gropius, Marcel Breuer, and László Moholy-Nagy re-assembled in Britain during the mid 1930s to live and work in the Isokon project before the war caught up with them. Both Gropius and Breuer went to teach at the Harvard Graduate School of Design and worked together before their professional split. The Harvard School was enormously influential in America in the late 1920s and early 1930s, producing such students as Philip Johnson, I.M. Pei, Lawrence Halprin and Paul Rudolph, among many others. In the late 1930s, Mies van der Rohe re-settled in Chicago, enjoyed the sponsorship of the influential Philip Johnson, and became one of the pre-eminent architects in the world. Moholy-Nagy also went to Chicago and founded the New Bauhaus school under the sponsorship of industrialist and philanthropist Walter Paepcke. This school became the Institute of Design, part of the Illinois Institute of Technology. Printmaker and painter Werner Drewes was also largely responsible for bringing the Bauhaus aesthetic to America and taught at both Columbia University and Washington University in St. Louis. Herbert Bayer, sponsored by Paepcke, moved to Aspen, Colorado in support of Paepcke's Aspen projects at the Aspen Institute. In 1953, Max Bill, together with Inge Aicher-Scholl and Otl Aicher, founded the Ulm School of Design (German: Hochschule für Gestaltung - HfG Ulm) in Ulm, Germany, a design school in the tradition of the Bauhaus. The school is notable for its inclusion of semiotics as a field of study. The school closed in 1968, but the ′Ulm Model′ concept continues to influence international design education. Ulm School of Design | HfG Ulm Archive One of the main objectives of the Bauhaus was to unify art, craft, and technology. The machine was considered a positive element, and therefore industrial and product design were important components. Vorkurs ("initial" or "preliminary course") was taught; this is the modern day "Basic Design" course that has become one of the key foundational courses offered in architectural and design schools across the globe. There was no teaching of history in the school because everything was supposed to be designed and created according to first principles rather than by following precedent. One of the most important contributions of the Bauhaus is in the field of modern furniture design. The ubiquitous Cantilever chair by Dutch designer Mart Stam, using the tensile properties of steel, and the Wassily Chair designed by Marcel Breuer are two examples. The physical plant at Dessau survived World War II and was operated as a design school with some architectural facilities by the German Democratic Republic. This included live stage productions in the Bauhaus theater under the name of Bauhausbühne ("Bauhaus Stage"). After German reunification, a reorganized school continued in the same building, with no essential continuity with the Bauhaus under Gropius in the early 1920s Current information : english : Stiftung Bauhaus Dessau / Bauhaus Dessau Foundation . In 1979 Bauhaus-Dessau College started to organize postgraduate programs with participants from all over the world. This effort has been supported by the Bauhaus-Dessau Foundation which was founded in 1974 as a public institution. American art schools have also rediscovered the Bauhaus school. The Master Craftsman Program at Florida State University bases its artistic philosophy on Bauhaus theory and practice. Gallery Bauhaus artists Bauhaus was not a formal group, but rather a school. Bauhause's three architect-directors Walter Gropius, Hannes Meyer and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, are most closely associated with Bauhaus. Furthermore a large number of outstanding artists of their time were lecturers at Bauhaus: Anni Albers Josef Albers Herbert Bayer Max Bill Marianne Brandt Marcel Breuer Avgust Černigoj Christian Dell Werner Drewes Lyonel Feininger Naum Gabo Gertrud Grunow Ludwig Hilberseimer Ludwig Hirschfeld Mack Johannes Itten Wassily Kandinsky Paul Klee Gerhard Marcks László Moholy-Nagy Piet Mondrian Georg Muche Hinnerk Scheper Oskar Schlemmer Josef Hartwig Joost Schmidt Lothar Schreyer Naum Slutzky Wolfgang Tumpel Gunta Stölzl Otto Lindig See also Bauhaus Archive New Objectivity (architecture) International style (architecture) Bauhaus in Budapest New Bauhaus Form follows function References Bibliography Oskar Schlemmer. Tut Schlemmer, Editor. The Letters and Diaries of Oskar Schlemmer. Translated by Krishna Winston. Wesleyan University Press, 1972. ISBN 0819540471 Magdalena Droste, Peter Gossel, Editors. Bauhaus, Taschen America LLC, 2005. ISBN 3822836494 Marty Bax. Bauhaus Lecture Notes 1930–1933. Theory and practice of architectural training at the Bauhaus, based on the lecture notes made by the Dutch ex-Bauhaus student and architect J.J. van der Linden of the Mies van der Rohe curriculum. Amsterdam, Architectura & Natura 1991. ISBN 9071570045 Anja Baumhoff, The Gendered World of the Bauhaus. The Politics of Power at the Weimar Republic's Premier Art Institute, 1919-1931. Peter Lang, Frankfurt, New York 2001. ISBN 3-631-37945-5 Boris Friedewald,Bauhaus, Prestel, Munich, London, New York 2009. ISBN 13: 9783791342009 Catherine Weill-Rochant, "Bauhaus" - Architektur in Tel Aviv, Rita H. Gans. Ed., Kiriat Yearim, Zurich, 2008 (German and French) 'The Tel-Aviv School : a constrained rationalism' (Catherine Weill-Rochant)DOCOMOMO journal (Documentation and conservation of buildings, sites and neighbourhoods of the modern movement), April 2009. Anker, Peder. From Bauhaus to Eco-House: A History of Ecological Design. Baton Rouge LA. :Louisiana State University Press, 2009 ISBN 978-0-8071-3551-8 External links Bauhaus-Archiv in Berlin Foundation bauhaus dessau master of Architecture -MArch- master DIA/dessau Review of Hotel Brandenburger Hof Berlin with Bauhaus design furniture Marguerite Wildenhain and the Bauhaus A detailed account of ceramics at the Weimar Bauhaus. Bauhaus School Bauhaus in America. A documentary describing the impact on Bauhaus on American architecture. Bauhaus in Budapest Bauhaus in Tel Aviv Student Short Film on late Bauhaus (2006) Memories of one of the few English-speaking Bauhaus students UNESCO names Tel Aviv a World Heritage Site (2004) "A Change in Looking" by Sonali Pahwa. Al-Ahram Weekly, 22 - 28 April 2004, Issue No. 687. 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